JOHN A. SEAVERNS 
 
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 TUFTS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 
 
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 Tufts University 
 
 Softool of Veterinary Medtefne 
 
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A MANUAL 
 
 OF 
 
 COACHING 
 
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 ITS ORIGINAL NUMBER. 
 NOVEMBER F I FT E E NTH, 
 N I N E T E E X H D X D R E D 
 
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A MANUAL 
 
 OF 
 
 COACHING 
 
 FAIRMAN ROGERS 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 J.B.LLPPL¥COTT COMPANY 
 
 XOINDOlsr: 36 SOUTHAMI^rON STKEET, COVE3STT GARHEX 
 
Copyright. i8i>« 
 By J. K. Lippincott Company 
 
 PRINTED BY J. B. MPPIXCOTT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA. U.S.A. 
 
 
TO 
 MY FRIEND 
 
 WILLIAM G. TIFFANY 
 
 RECALLING 
 
 MANY PLEASANT HOURS 
 
 PASSED WITH HIM 
 
 BOTH ON AND OFF A COACH 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 THE COACH 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Development of the Coach. — Simple Farm Wagon 
 Carriage-Part. Addition of the Seats and 
 Body. Early American ' Stage Waggon.' Use 
 of Springs. English Coach at the End of the 
 Eighteenth Century. Word ' Tally-Ho' erro- 
 neously applied . . . . . . . i -i 5 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 General Character of a Coach. — Distinction be- 
 tween Coach and Drag ..... 16-18 
 
 CHAPTER II I 
 
 Carriage-Part. — Axles, Wheels, Springs, Pole, 
 
 Lead-Bars ........ 19-60 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 Body. — Boots, Driving-Seat, Roof-Seats, Painting 61-79 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 Accessories. — Brake, Skid, Lamps, Basket, Awning, 
 
 Tables, Lunch-Boxes, Tool-Box, Aprons . . 80-101 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 Drag, Mail-Coach, Malle Poste, Diligence, Break, 
 Barouche Landau, Phaeton, Jaunting Car, Pri- 
 vate Omnibus, Cape Cart ..... 102-115 
 
 ix 
 
X TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 PAGES 
 
 American Coach. — Constructive Peculiarities, Di- 
 mensions ......... i 16-122 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 Comparison of Coaches. — Care of a Coach, Cost 
 
 of Coaches 123-128 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 Weight of a Coach. — Distribution of Weight, Cen- 
 tre of Gravity, Effect of Centrifugal Force 129-146 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 Draught.. — Rolling Friction, Axle Friction, Total 
 Resistance to Motion, Traction, Roads, Systems 
 of Road Making, Action of Horse in Draught 147-193 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 Harness. — Details of Harness. Bridle, Bit, Bear- 
 ing-Rein, Collar, Hames, Traces, Pad, Reins, 
 Cock Horse Harness, Leather, Mountings, Spare 
 Parts to carry, Care of Harness . . . 194-246 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 Harnessing. — PUtting-to, Bearing-Reins, Coupling- 
 Reins, Buckling Reins ...... 247-273 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 Different Arrangements of Harness. — Tandem, 
 Three Abreast, Pickaxe, Unicorn, Six Horses, 
 Posting, Daumont 274-284 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS XI 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 PAGBS 
 
 Driving. — Getting Up, Starting, Places of Reins 
 in Hand, Seat, Fingering, Turning, Stopping, 
 Getting Down, Various Methods of Finger- 
 ing, American Method, Turning and Backing, 
 Driving Apparatus ...... 285-348 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 General Observations on Driving. — Bitting, and 
 
 Handling Horses ....... 349-379 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 Horses for Coach or Drag. Cost of Private 
 
 Coaching ........ 380-389 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 The Whip and its Use. Salute ..... 390-414 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 The Men. Duties and Dress. Coaching Dress . 415-426 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 
 Public Coaching. — Putting a Coach on the Road, 
 Length of Stages, Time-Tables, Time-Charts, 
 Coachman's and Guard's Duties and Dress, 
 Changes ......... 427-464 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 
 Public Coaching generally. — Speed, Distances 
 
 Driven, American Coaching, English Coaching . 465-483 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 Coaching Trips, Coaching Club Trips . . . 484-489 
 
Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 
 PAGES 
 
 The Rule of the Road ...... 490-501 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII 
 Accidents ......... 502-509 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 Coaching Clubs. — Rules and Customs of Meets, 
 
 Judging at Shows, Driving Competitions . . 510-530 
 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 Music for the Horn . 53 !— 53 2 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI 
 Coaching Medals or Tokens ..... 533-534 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII 
 List of Books. French Names for Parts of Harness 535-565 
 
 Index ........... 567-579 
 
LIST OF PLATES 
 
 PLATE PAGE 
 
 Coach and Horses. {From a photograph. Re-drawn by 
 Harry Finney) .... Frontispiece 
 
 A May Morning in the Park. {From a painting by 
 
 Thomas Eakins) i 
 
 I. The London and Oxford Coach. Phototype of a Painting 
 by Cordery, 1792, showing the Basket, the Front 
 Boot attached to the Carriage-Part, and the Suspension 
 of the Body. {Reproduced by the kind permission 
 of Messrs DICKINSON &* Foster, New Bond Street, 
 London) . . . . . . . • .10 
 
 II. Drawing of same Coach. {Half-inch scale, with trans- 
 parent sheet) . . . . ■ ■ ■ .11 
 
 III. The Carriage-Part of a Coach in Isometrical Perspective. 
 
 {Scale one-half inch to the foot) . . . .20 
 
 IV. Phototype of Two Etchings from a Political Pamphlet of 
 
 1766, showing Coaches of the period . . 71 
 
 V. Phototype of a Print of Hogarth's, 'The Inn Yard,' 
 1747, showing a Coach with Passengers on Top, and 
 an Old Woman in the Basket. {One-half the size 
 of the original print) . . . . . ■ 7 2 
 
 VI. Phototype of an Etching by Rowlandson, 1793. A 
 Coach with Two Extra Horses, ridden by a Postilion ; 
 the Traces of the Leaders attached to the Traces of 
 the Wheelers and not to Lead-Bars . . . -73 
 
 VII. Mail-Coachby Guiet, 1892. Built for Mr W. G. Tiffany, 
 on the lines of the Old English Mail-Coach. Used on 
 the Trouville trip in July 1892. {Drawn to a half-inch 
 scale, with transparent sheet) . . . . .102 
 
 xiii 
 
XIV LIST OF PLATES 
 
 PLATE PAGE 
 
 VIII. French Malle Poste of the period of 1830. {From a 
 
 drawing by Victor Adam) . . . .104 
 
 IX. Swiss Diligence on the Julier Pass, 1891 . . . 105 
 
 X. French Posting with a Private Travelling-Carriage, 
 early part of the 19th century. {Reproduction of 
 
 a drawing by Alfred de Drevx) . . .107 
 
 XI. Char a bancs, for five persons and two servants. 
 {Drawn to a half-inch scale, with transparent 
 
 sheet) . . . . . . . . .110 
 
 XII. American Stage-Coach, as made by The Abbot Down- 
 ing Company, Concord, N. H., and generally 
 known as a Concord Coach. [Drawn to a half- 
 inch scale, with transparent sheet ) . . .116 
 
 XIII. Concord Coach, rear view. {Half-inch scale) . .116 
 
 XIV. Concord Coach, Plan of Carriage-Part. {Half-inch 
 
 scale) . . . . . . . . .116 
 
 XV. Heavy Concord Coach, as sent to the West, to Africa, 
 and to Australia. {Phototype from an original 
 photograph) . . . . . . .116 
 
 XVI. Light Concord Coach, as used in the White Mountains. 
 
 {Phototype from an original photograph) . . 117 
 
 XVII. Public-Coach, by Brewster & Co., of Broome Street, 
 New York, The ' Vivid, ' used on the road between 
 Philadelphia and New York. {Drawn to a half- 
 inch scale, with transparent sheet) . . .124 
 
 XVIII. Standard Park-Drag, by Brewster & Co., of Broome 
 Street, New York. {Drawn to a half-inch sea/e, 
 with transparent sheet) . . . . .124 
 
 XIX. Public-Coach, by Guiet & Co., Paris. {Drawn to a 
 
 half-inch scale, with transparent sheet) . .124 
 
 XX. Drag, by Barker & Co., London. Built for the 
 Author in 1873. {Drawn to a half-inch scale, 
 with transparent sheet) . . . . -124 
 
LIST OF PLATES XV 
 
 PLATE PAGE 
 
 XXI. Front and Rear Views of same Drag. {Half-inch 
 
 scale) . . . . . . . .124 
 
 XXII. Public-Coach, by F. & R. Shanks, London. {Drawn 
 
 to a half-inch scale, with transparent sheet} . 125 
 
 XXIII. Tipping Angles of a Coach . . . . .134 
 
 XXIV. Cock Horse Harness ...... 236 
 
 XXV. Lead-Rein passed through Terrets .... 249 
 
 XXVI. Bitting and Coupling Diagram ..... 270 
 
 XXVII. Position on the Box ....... 302 
 
 XXVIII. Turning Diagrams ....... 340 
 
 XXIX. Team for Drag 380 
 
 XXX. Half-bred Mare 'Josephine' 381 
 
 XXXI. The Salute 414 
 
 XXXII. Time-Chart 444 
 
 XXXIII. Lead-Rein passed through Terrets .... 460 
 
 XXXIV. Pole and Bars on front of Coach . . . . 517 
 XXXV. Medals 534 
 
 The Title-Page Vignette is from a painting by Harry Finney. 
 
 The Wood Engravings of Harness and of Hands are by James D. 
 Cooper, of London. 
 
 The Five-Horse Vetturino (Fig. 131) is from an original drawing 
 by G. La Rocque, of Paris. 
 
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A MANUAL OF COACHING 
 
 THE COACH 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH 
 
 The History and Evolution of the Coach * will 
 be here treated of only so far as it is necessary to 
 assist the reader to understand the general con- 
 struction of a coach before we proceed to details. 
 
 Those who wish to study the subject at length 
 are referred to Thrupp's History of Coaches, to 
 Stratton's The World on Wheels, and to Adams's 
 English Pleasure Carriages, which give much that 
 is interesting on the subject, including copious ex- 
 tracts from earlier writers ; and also to the other 
 authorities named in the ' List of books' given in 
 Chapter XXVII., where will be found the full titles 
 of the books referred to in the text. 
 
 The earliest vehicle which bears any resemblance 
 to a coach (its predecessors being merely cars on 
 
 * The word ' coach,' always with nearly the same sound, is found 
 in almost all European languages during the last four centuries. It 
 is variously spelled cache, earache, kutscJie, kaets, katsi. In France 
 the name was also applied to a passenger boat. 
 
 I 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH 
 
 CH. I 
 
 Fig. i, 
 
 two wheels) is the farm wagon of the ancient Ro- 
 mans which still exists, with but little change, in 
 almost all agricultural countries. It consists of a 
 hind axle with its two wheels, to which the perch 
 is attached, and a front axle, with usually somewhat 
 smaller wheels, so connected by a bolt to the front 
 end of the perch as to turn about it (Fig. i). 
 In order to make a rig-id connection between the 
 
 ij. hind axle and the 
 J perch, two pieces, 
 called hounds, or 
 wings, are fast- 
 ened to the perch 
 and to the axle, 
 or, in ruder con- 
 structions, a forked branch of a tree, all in one 
 piece, which rests upon the top of the perch, sup- 
 plies their place. If it is desirable to be able to 
 change the length of the wagon, the perch is made 
 to slide through the hind axle, and has in it a 
 number of holes, through any one of which a bolt 
 will fasten it and the hounds together. The front 
 end of the perch is firmly attached at right angles 
 to a bed or transom, somewhat shorter than the 
 front axle, upon which it rests, being connected with 
 the axle by a bolt (perch-bolt or king-bolt), which 
 permits the axle to turn underneath the bed. The 
 pole or tongue, fastened to the axle, completes the 
 simplest form of wagon. If it is intended for one 
 horse, a pair of shafts takes the place of the pole. 
 
CH. I DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH 3 
 
 A simple attachment of the pole to the axle being 
 deficient in strength, two hounds or futchells are 
 added, fastened to the axle near its ends and run- 
 ning out on the pole a short distance, and, in order 
 to support the pole more efficiently, their hinder 
 ends, prolonged, are connected by a cross bar, the 
 sway-bar, which bears against the under side of the 
 perch, and balances the weight of the pole. Some- 
 times the futchells are fastened directly to each 
 other in front, and the end of the pole, being forked, 
 is attached to them by a bolt. In this case, the 
 point of the pole must be supported by the harness, 
 as it is in a trotting wagon. For the purpose of 
 attaching the horses to the wagon, a double-tree 
 rests on the pole in front of the futchells, and is 
 secured to it by a pin which permits it to turn ; to 
 this double-tree are attached two swingle-trees.* 
 Near the ends of the hind axle, two vertical stand- 
 ards are firmly fixed, and at the ends of the bed 
 in front are similar ones. Boards laid between 
 
 * There is some uncertainty as to the proper spelling of this word. 
 Bartlett, in his Dictionary of Americanisms, says that swingle-tree 
 is vulgar for single-tree, but Skeat in his Etymological Dictionary 
 says, under Swingle-tree, ' Corruptly called single-tree, whence the 
 'term double-tree has arisen to keep it company. "A single-tree is 
 ' fixed upon the end of another cross-piece called the double-tret, 
 • when two horses draw abreast," Haldeman (in Webster). Middle 
 ' English, sivingle-tre, spelled swyngletre in Fitzherbert On Hus- 
 ' bandry. The word tree here means a piece of timber as in axle- 
 ' tree. The word swingle means a " swing-er, " a thing that swings ; 
 ' so named from the swinging motion, etc' 
 
4 DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH CH. I 
 
 these, on the axle and on the bed, form, the floor, 
 and other boards fastened vertically against them, 
 form the sides of a body. A wagon of this kind, 
 sometimes covered by a canopy, was undoubtedly 
 the first four-wheeled vehicle in which people were 
 carried. 
 
 The next advance was to suspend seats by means 
 of straps attached to the sides, whereby more com- 
 fort could be had than by sitting on the rigid car- 
 riage-part ; wagons thus arranged can be seen at 
 the present time in Switzerland. 
 
 Finally, a ' body,' distinct from the carriage-part, 
 was suspended from the points of the four stand- 
 ards, the fixed body having been removed, and this 
 form of carriage remained in use for a lonof time, 
 as is shown in prints as late as the end of the i 7th 
 century. 
 
 About 1660 (Thrupp, p. 43), the 'Berlin' was in- 
 vented in Germany. In this, the floor of the body 
 was rounded and rested on long leather straps, 
 called thorough-braces, which ran from one stand- 
 ard to the other, and the under-carriage was fre- 
 quently made with two parallel perches for strength 
 and stiffness. The coachman's seat was on the 
 carriage-part, and not attached to the body. 
 
 We have now reached the form of carriage which 
 lasted until late in the 1 8th century, and which still 
 exists in the modern American 'Concord coach,' 
 with the modification of having the coachman's seat 
 placed on the body instead of on the carriage-part. 
 
CH. I DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH 5 
 
 It is sometimes supposed that the American coach 
 was invented especially for use on the early, rough 
 American roads ; but it is evidently the European 
 vehicle of the latter part of the 18th century, arrested 
 in its development, because the condition of the 
 roads in those parts of the United States where 
 coaches were used, resembled the conditions exist- 
 ing at that time in Europe. 
 
 In America, the vehicle called the 'stage-waggon,' 
 which preceded the coach, was evidently evolved 
 from the carrier's wagon, keeping its essential form 
 but being much lighter. 
 
 There is shown in Fig. 2, copied from an Amer- 
 ican newspaper of 1759, a 'stage-waggon' run- 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 ning between Philadelphia and New York. Fig. 
 3 is from a paper of 1 8 1 2 representing a ' stage' 
 on the same road, and shows the same general 
 form, improved after an interval of fifty-three 
 years. 
 
 The ' Concord coach,' which succeeded this, was 
 an adaptation of the private coach, or chariot, to the 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH 
 
 CH. I 
 
 purposes of the road. In England, public-coaches 
 were, from the first, direct copies of the private 
 carriage, as will be seen by comparing Fig. 4 with 
 Plates I. and II. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 
 Engravings and pictures, and also the descrip- 
 tions, show that the driving-seat remained on the 
 
 carriage-part, and with- 
 out any springs, until 
 very near the end of 
 the 1 8th century. No 
 drawing, such as often 
 headed the advertise- 
 ment of a regular 
 stao-e - coach in the 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 early American days, has come under my observa- 
 tion, in which the driving-seat is not on the body 
 of the coach ; and it is probable that this change 
 was made in America, since there are no draw- 
 ings of English carriages with thorough-braces, and 
 with the box on the body ; so long as thorough- 
 braces were used, the box was on the carriage- 
 part. 
 
CH. I DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH 7 
 
 Mr Warde, of Squerries, is credited by 'Nimrod,' 
 in his Essays, reprinted in Malet (p. 249*), with 
 having induced the proprietors of the Manchester 
 ' Telegraph' to put the box on springs, which, ' Nim- 
 rod' says, ' was not the case when I first mounted 
 them.' As ' Nimrod' was born in 1778, it was prob- 
 ably about 1798 that he -first mounted them,' and 
 that would fix the date of the use of springs under 
 the driving-seat as being early in the 19th century. 
 It can hardly be supposed that the driving-seat was 
 separately placed on springs ; it was probably at- 
 tached, therefore, to the body, which was already on 
 springs, and thus led to the substitution of steel for 
 leather suspension. 
 
 The reproduction in Malet's Annals of the Road 
 (p. 15), of an advertisement of the Edinburgh Stage- 
 Coach of 1754, is headed by a cut which shows the 
 driving-seat as being on the body ; but this cut is 
 not an accurate copy of the original and does not 
 show the construction of the coach of that period. 
 The photographic reproduction of an advertisement 
 in The Edinburgh Courant of May 13, 1754 (given 
 on p. 8), shows a vehicle resembling a private car- 
 riaee much more than a coach, but not unlike the 
 coach shown in Plate IV. The driving-seat is evi- 
 dently on the under-carriage. 
 
 * These Essays were originally published in the Sporting Maga- 
 zine in 1822-1827. 'Nimrod' (J. C. Apperley) left The Sporting 
 Magazine in 1829. 
 
8 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH 
 
 CH. I 
 
 MfiCagMM* J ~ — — ■<•— -y— --- 
 
 THE EDINBURGH STAGE-COACH, 
 for the better Accommodation of Paffen- 
 gers, will be altered to a new g e nteel Two-end 
 Glafs Machine, hung on Steel Springs, exceeding 
 light and eafy, to go in ten Days in Summer and 
 twelve in Winter, to fet out the firft Tuefday in 
 March, and continue it from Hofea Eaft gate's, the 
 Coach and Horfes in Dean-ftreet, Soho/ LON- 
 DON, and from John Somervell's in the Canon 
 gate, Edinburgh, every other Tuefday, and meet 
 at Burrow-bridge on Saturday Night, and fet out 
 from thence on Monday Morning, and get to 
 London and Edinburgh on Friday. In the Win- 
 terao fet out from London and Edinburgh every 
 other Monday Morning, and to get to Burrow- 
 bridge on Saturday Night; and to fet out from 
 thence on Monday Morning, and get to London 
 and Edinburgh on Saturday Night. PaiTengers to 
 pay as ufual. Perform'd, if God permits, by your 
 dutiful Servant, HOSEA. EASTG AT E. 
 
 Care is taken of fmall Parcels, paying according 
 to their Value. 
 
 Cross (vol. ii., p. 70) speaks of the change from 
 the old, heavy, six-inside coaches, 'with the boot 
 ' fixed on the fore-axle, and a large basket on the 
 
CH. I 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH 
 
 'hind,' to the 'new and elegant Telegraph coaches,' 
 as occurring just before 1816, as well as the date 
 can be made out from the context. 
 
 The suspension of the bodies of carriages, other 
 than stage-coaches, by four leather braces, is con- 
 tinued to the present day, but always in connection 
 with springs. As early as 1669 springs were tried, 
 but they do not seem to have 
 come into general use for many 
 years later, probably not until 
 after 1 700, when the standards, 
 which held the straps on which 
 the body was hung, were made 
 of steel and were called whip- 
 springs (Fig. 5, A). Small 
 springs were also used to attach 
 the ends of the straps to the 
 body, as at B. About 1790, the whip-spring was 
 replaced by the C-spring (Fig. 5, C), which is still 
 used in expensive carriages. 
 
 Down to 1805, all carriages had perches, but in 
 that year the elliptic spring was invented in Eng- 
 land by Elliot, and since that time the majority 
 of carriages are made without perches, although 
 coaches still have them. 
 
 Plate I., which is a reproduction of a picture by 
 Cordery, 1792, shows the coach as hung on whip- 
 springs by short straps attached to pump-handles 
 projecting from the bottom of the body, as in the 
 present C-spring carriage. The front boot is built 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
IO DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH CH. I 
 
 up solidly from the front end of the perch, and 
 the top of it forms the driving-seat. The whip 
 springs are fastened to what might be called the 
 platform of the carriage-part. To prevent too much 
 play, and consequent breakage of the springs, their 
 tops are attached in front, to the boot, by straps, and 
 behind, to the upper ends of standards which are 
 built up on the platform. Straps from the body to 
 the same points also prevent too much motion of 
 the body. The space on the platform between the 
 springs and between the standards is occupied by 
 a basket, in which was carried either merchandise 
 or passengers. From the ends of the splinter-bar, 
 iron stays ran, outside of the wheels to the ends of 
 the axles, — an arrangement not uncommon even 
 now, in heavy vehicles in Europe. This particular 
 coach has a narrow body, accommodating only four 
 inside, and the roof-seats do not overhang the 
 body. 
 
 Plate II. is a drawing- of this same coach to a half- 
 inch scale ; it may be compared with the other half- 
 inch scale drawings on Plates XVII. to XXII. The 
 transparent sheet, printed in red, can be torn out so 
 as to be superposed on the black plates. 
 
 Shortly after 1 800, the bodies of coaches, and of 
 some travelling carriages, were lengthened by the 
 addition, as a part of the construction of the body, 
 of a front and hind boot, the whole being hung on 
 the springs ; the coachman's seat and the rumble 
 for servants were on the boots, as is shown in the 
 
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CH. I 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE COACH 
 
 I I 
 
 drawing of a ' Britszka' of 1825 (Fig. 6). This 
 brings us to what is, practically, the present form of 
 the coach, in which the C-springs and leather braces 
 are replaced by the stiffer platform springs. 
 
 • * 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 In a general treatise on carriages, the name 
 ' coach' is applied to any vehicle on four wheels 
 with a body more or less closed, but in the present 
 Manual it will be used in the narrower signification 
 of a four-in-hand coach of the type used in England 
 and America. We find the road-coach called in 
 the last century, ' stage- waggon,' 'stage-coach,' and 
 sometimes, in the early part of the present cen- 
 tury, ' drag.' Drag now means a coach for private 
 driving, and the word will be employed in that sense 
 in the following pages, public-coach being used to 
 mean a coach which runs over a regular route at 
 fixed hours, and carries passengers for pay. The 
 term stage-coach was originally applied to a coach 
 which went over a number of stages on the road, 
 and not to a coach which ran only a short distance. 
 As an example of the curious changes of language, 
 
12 TALLY-HO CH. I 
 
 it may be worth noting that, in New York, it became 
 the custom to call an omnibus, which ran only over 
 a short route, a ' stage ;' first applying an improper 
 name, 'stage-coach,' and then dropping the char- 
 acteristic term and retaining the other designation 
 only. 
 
 The popular word in America for a four-in-hand 
 coach: 'Tally-ho,' is entirely incorrect, and should 
 not be used. It originated thus: When, in 1876, 
 Colonel Delancey Kane first put on his road-coach 
 from the Brunswick Hotel, New York, to Pelham, 
 he named it the 'Tally-ho.' This was in accord- 
 ance with the old English custom of giving names 
 to coaches, just as, for many years, engines were 
 named on railroads. 'Tally-ho,' 'Tantivy,' 'Light- 
 ning,' 'Meteor,' 'Defiance,' 'Quicksilver,' 'Inde- 
 pendent,' were favourite names, and were used in 
 advertising the coaches, and in speaking of them on 
 the road. Some newspapers, in writing about the 
 Pelham coach, called it the 'Tally-ho,' and others, 
 less well informed, called all four-horse coaches 
 'Tally-ho's.' Many mild protests were made, with- 
 out avail, by coaching men, against such an incor- 
 rect expression, and finally an American Dictionary, 
 the Century, published in 1891, embalmed and per- 
 petuated the error as follows : 
 
 'Tally-ho (tal'i-ho) [< tally-ho, inter]".]. 1. A cry 
 'of "Tally-ho." See the interjection. 2. A four-in- 
 ' hand pleasure-coach ; probably so called from the 
 ' horn blown on it. 
 
CH. I LE MAIL COACH I 
 
 J 
 
 ' "The mail still announced itself by the merry notes of the 
 * horn ; the hedge-cutter or the rick-thatcher might still know the 
 ' exact hour by the unfailing yet otherwise meteoric apparition of 
 'the pea-green Tally-ho or the yellow Independent. — George 
 'Eliot, Felix Holt." ' 
 
 Webster's Dictionary (1892) gives the same er- 
 roneous definition. Worcester's last edition is cor- 
 rect, and gives only the proper meaning of the word. 
 
 After having been for so long a time thus popu- 
 larly used, the expression will probably survive, but 
 coaching men, at least, should avoid it. 
 
 In somewhat the same way, the coach has in 
 France come to have the name : ' Le Mail.' A mail- 
 coach, as will be described later, is different from a 
 staee-coach, and it is the sta«-e-coach which has been 
 copied for pleasure purposes ; not the mail-coach. 
 
 Mortimer d'Ocagne {Le Mail Coach e?i France, 
 p. 3) says : ' At the outset we must make a com- 
 ' ment upon the title of this little sketch. One 
 ' should not say, a mail coach. In reality, the mail is 
 ' the carriage which carries the mails, but the use 
 ' of this name has become general in France, and 
 ' every one says, a mail ; the sporting journals them- 
 4 selves often speak of the meet of the mails. We 
 ' will not assume an authority to change this way of 
 'speaking, but we must note its inaccuracy.'* 
 
 * ' Des la premiere ligne il nous faut faire une reserve contre le titre 
 ' meme de cette notice. On ne devrait pas dire un mail coach. En 
 ' effet, le mail, c'est la malle, la malle poste ; mais 1' usage est pris en 
 * France et tout le monde dit un mail ; les journaux de sport eux- 
 
14 . TALLY-HO CH. I 
 
 Since ' Tally-ho' and ' Tantivy' are names fre- 
 quently given to coaches, their origin is interesting 
 to the coaching man. 
 
 Hunter's Encyclopedic Dictionary gives, ' Tally- 
 ' ho [Norman French — Taillis - an = to the cop- 
 'pice], The huntsman's cry to urge on his hounds.' 
 
 Lc haiit taillis is a wood of twenty-five to thirty 
 years' growth and presumably 'cut high,' or with no 
 underwood, so that the hunted animal, on running 
 into it, can be plainly seen. In fox-hunting, it is 
 when the fox is viewed, that the cry is used. 
 
 The Dictionary of the French Academy gives 
 ' Taiaut as being the cry of the hunter when he 
 views the deer. 
 
 'Taiaut' is given in old French books on Hunting 
 in the same sense, and is also used as a verb ; just as 
 in English, one is said to ' tally-ho' the fox. ' Taillis- 
 au' or ' taillis-haut' are not given as hunting cries. 
 
 Since tally-ho is a true fox-hunting expression, it 
 is considered proper, when a coach bears that name, 
 to have a fox or a fox's head on the harness, unless 
 there is a monogram G r crest. If the coach is 
 named 'Tantivy,' something belonging to a deer is 
 used, since that term is associated with stag-hunt- 
 ine ; but the connection is not so clear as is that of 
 tally-ho with the fox. 
 
 ' memes parlent souvent de la reunion des mails. Nous n'avons pas 
 'la pretention de modifier cette faqon de dire; nous en signalons 
 ' toutefois 1' inexactitude.' 
 
CH. I TANTIVY 1 5 
 
 No word resembling tantivy, either in sound or in 
 spelling, occurs in the nine hundred pages of the 
 great work on Hunting by the Comte de Bey, writ- 
 ten in 1635.* 
 
 There are two possible derivations of this word ; 
 it is not in the French dictionaries except in that 
 of Chambaud, 1805, and seems to be of English ori- 
 gin ; its usual meaning is ' at full speed.' Chambaud 
 gives it as, 'Tantivy, au grand galop.' 
 
 The following quotations give both derivations : 
 
 Hunter's Encyclopedic Dictionary gives ' Tantivy 
 ' [from the note of a hunting horn], swiftly, a rapid, 
 ' violent gallop. As a verb, to hurry off.' 
 
 Todd's Johnson's Dictionary gives ' Tantivy, from 
 ' the note of a hunting horn, so expressed in articu- 
 Tate sounds. From tanta vi, says Skinner, Dr. 
 'Johnson. The old French language has tentiveux 
 'to denote an eager person "homme qui est tente 
 'par tout ce qu'il voit : avide etc." To ride tantivy 
 ' is to ride at great speed.' 
 
 Godefroy, Dictionnaire de V ancienne langue fran- 
 caise, gives ' Tentir : faire entendre un son " Les 
 ' cors as bouces commencent a tentir." Retentir 
 is from tentir, and this again from the Latin, tinnire, 
 to sound. 
 
 * Les Meuttes et Veneries de Jean de Ligniville, Chevalier, 
 Comte de Bey. Introduction et notes par Ernest Jullien et 
 Henri Gallice. Paris, 1892. 2 vols, quarto. 
 
I 6 CH. II 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 GENERAL CHARACTER OF A COACH 
 
 As at present built, either for public or for private 
 use, the coach is essentially the same as that which 
 existed at the time when coaches in England were 
 superseded by railroads. 
 
 A distinction is made, however, between a drag, 
 built for private use, and a road-coach, * or public- 
 coach, intended to carry always a full load, and to be 
 driven at a high speed over long routes. The drag 
 is made lighter than the coach, but between the two 
 extremes of weight and of finish there are many 
 grades, depending upon the taste of the owner. 
 
 Some men, living in the country and liking to 
 drive long distances, use their coaches like road- 
 coaches, at high speeds and with changes of horses ; 
 certainly the most ' sporting' way of doing the thing. 
 A coach for this purpose should be built almost 
 exactly like a public-coach. Other men use their 
 coaches only about home or, if they live in a city, 
 principally in park driving, with small loads, at a 
 moderate pace, on good roads, and such a coach 
 should be two or three hundred pounds lighter than 
 a public-coach, and may be slightly ornamented with 
 
 * Road-coach has come to be an accepted name for a public-coach 
 or a stage-coach, but public-coach is more strictly correct. 
 
CH. II GENERAL CHARACTER OF A COACH 1 7 
 
 plain mouldings worked on the edges of the under- 
 carriage timbers, and with a little carving on the 
 ends of the splinter-bar and the futchells, which in 
 a public-coach are always perfectly plain. 
 
 There are, however, between the two kinds of 
 coaches, some essential differences which should be 
 observed. In a public-coach, the rumble is supported 
 on the hind boot by a solid wooden bench, and seats 
 three or four persons, including the guard ; in a 
 drag, the rumble holds only two persons, usually 
 the grooms, and is supported by open irons. It is 
 quite easy to have both kinds of rumble fitted to a 
 coach, so that it can be used either as a drag or as 
 a public-coach. On a road-coach there is an iron 
 rod running; between the side-irons of the roof-seats 
 along both sides of the coach, and this usually has 
 a net of leather straps (see Plates XVIII. and 
 XIX.), connecting it with the roof, so that wraps 
 thrown on the roof cannot fall off. This net should 
 be omitted in a drag, although for long trips one 
 may be made with buckles in such a way that it can 
 be taken off. The door of the hind boot of a public- 
 coach is hinged on the off side ; that of a drag is 
 hinged at the bottom (see Fig. 36). The public- 
 coach is not trimmed inside, but is usually finished 
 in hard wood. This hard-wood finish is, however, a 
 modern fashion, as in old coaching days the inside 
 passengers paid higher fares than those outside and 
 were made as comfortable as possible. The interior 
 of a drag is trimmed plainly in morocco, cloth, or 
 
1 8 GENERAL CHARACTER OF A COACH CH. II 
 
 cord. The general finish of a drag may be higher 
 than that of a public-coach without being elaborate ; 
 it should be about the finish of a plain, first-class 
 brougham. 
 
 The reader should be reminded that a drag- is a 
 sporting vehicle ; it is not at all a voiture de luxe, 
 and in all its appointments it should retain the sport- 
 ing character. Elaborate harness or unnecessary 
 ornament of any kind about a drag is in bad taste ; 
 a drag is nothing more than a well ' turned out,' 
 neat, public-coach, and the showy features of a lady's 
 carriage should be avoided. 
 
 Down to about 1870, drags were made to take 
 only three persons on each roof-seat, and these seats, 
 like those of a mail-coach, did not extend beyond the 
 edge of the roof; now they are always made long 
 enough to accommodate four persons. 
 
 After these general indications of the difference 
 between the two classes of coach, we will consider 
 the parts of a coach. 
 
CH. Ill 
 
 19 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 CARRIAGE-PART 
 
 The carriage-part of a coach (see Plate III.) con- 
 sists of the axles, the perch (sometimes called the 
 reach), the futchells, the bed or transom, and certain 
 minor parts, constituting, with the wheels, a com- 
 plete vehicle, upon which the body is supported by 
 springs. 
 
 The perch is of wood, mortised at its rear end 
 into the hind axle ; its connection with the axle is 
 strengthened by the hounds, also of wood, which are 
 mortised into the axle, and bound to the perch by 
 bands. 
 
 To insure steadiness in the running- of a coach, 
 the length of the perch (that is, the distance be- 
 tween the axles) should be not less than six feet, 
 which was the minimum formerly allowed by the 
 English Post-Office authorities for the mail-coaches. 
 Six feet four inches is not any too long ; a short- 
 coupled coach will rock unpleasantly and little is 
 gained by diminishing the length. 
 
 To the front end of the perch is attached, at right 
 angles, a bed or transom. This transom rests upon 
 the top of the front axle and is connected with it by 
 the king-bolt or perch-bolt, about which the front 
 axle turns. The under side of the transom and the 
 
Ill 
 b- 
 < 
 
 20 
 
 s: 
 -*» 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 <D 
 a. 
 10 
 b 
 o 
 a 
 
 ra 
 o 
 
CH. Ill CARRIAGE-PART 21 
 
 upper side of the axle are covered with steel plates 
 (transom plates) which slide on each other. When 
 the axle and the transom are parallel, these plates 
 touch each other throughout their whole length ; but 
 when the axle is turned round the perch-bolt, the 
 plates touch only near their centres and their bear- 
 ing is consequently much diminished. To obviate 
 this defect certain American builders add ' horns' to 
 the transom plates, which practically widen these 
 plates and permit them to bear upon each other 
 through the whole angle of turning. In 
 ordinary carriages the transom does not 
 bear directly upon the axle, but carries 
 upon its under side (Fig. 7) a circular 
 plate, which turns upon a similar plate at- 
 tached to the top of the axle. This is 
 
 Fig 7 
 called the fifth-wheel, and it is generally a 
 
 full circle, although sometimes, as in light wagons, 
 it is a half circle only. A fifth-wheel is not used in 
 a coach, but is sometimes used in a break. 
 
 Inasmuch as the bearing just described, of the bed 
 on the axle, would be insufficient to give the requi- 
 site strength and stiffness, two additional pieces of 
 wood, the inside futchells, are mortised through the 
 axle and run backward, spreading to a width of 
 about sixteen inches at their hinder ends, where 
 they are connected by the sway-bar. In the rough 
 farm wagon, before described, this bar is straight, 
 but in a coach it is curved to a radius equal to its 
 distance from the perch-bolt, so that it is really a 
 
2 2 CARRIAGE-PART CH. Ill 
 
 short section of a large fifth-wheel. This sway-bar 
 is plated with steel on its upper surface, and bears 
 against the under surface of the perch, which is also 
 plated at that point. The plate on the under sur- 
 face of the perch has an arm or lug projecting 
 downward and embracing the sway-bar plate so as 
 to prevent the sway-bar from springing away from 
 the perch under any jumping motion of the pole. 
 The sway-bar plate has projections near its ends, 
 which bring up against this lug when the axle has 
 turned through a certain angle, usually about twenty 
 degrees, to prevent the wheel from touching the body 
 when the coach is on the lock. A coach is said to 
 be 'on the lock,' when the front wheels are turned 
 as far as they can go without touching the body. 
 
 The inside futchells project forward of the axle, 
 approaching each other near enough to form a chan- 
 nel into which the pole is fitted. Near their ends 
 they carry the draw-bar, or splinter-bar, which is 
 bolted on top of them. For the purpose of sup- 
 porting the ends of this bar, two straight pieces, 
 the outside futchells, run through the axle, and are 
 attached to the sway-bar (the plate of which runs' 
 over on top of them), and projecting in front, take 
 the ends of the splinter-bar, to the under side of 
 which they are firmly clipped. The splinter-bar is 
 straight, six feet long, and carries the four roller- 
 bolts to which the traces are attached. The roller- 
 bolts have flanges on top to prevent the traces from 
 slipping off, and the flanges of those on the outside 
 
CH. Ill SPLINTER-BAR 23 
 
 are wide enough to serve as steps in mounting to 
 the box. 
 
 On a drag, these flanges should be lined under- 
 neath with thick leather, to prevent the metal 
 slides of the traces from rattling against them. 
 The inside roller-bolts should be larger in diameter 
 than those on the outside, in order to take up a 
 portion of the length of the inside trace, for the 
 reason given in the article on 'Putting to,' in 
 Chapter XII. 
 
 With the traces attached directly to the stiff splin- 
 ter-bar, the horse, in the movement of his shoulders, 
 pulls alternately on one trace and the other, and if 
 he has on a breast-collar, or as it is sometimes 
 called a ' Dutch collar,' this movement inside of the 
 leather will frequently rub the shoulder, and make 
 it sore. For this reason, when Eno-lish travelline 
 carriages were taken to the Continent in old post- 
 ing times they had loose swingle-trees attached to 
 the splinter-bar because the Continental posting 
 harness had breast collars. (Beaufort, p. 353.) 
 See Plate X. 
 
 Even with ordinary collars, horses work more 
 easily with moveable swingle-trees, and it will be 
 noticed that those who work horses as a matter of 
 business, such as livery-stable keepers, invariably 
 use them. My own experience long ago led me to 
 modify the arrangement of the splinter-bar of my 
 coach in such a way that, while the roller-bolts are 
 retained and the general outward appearance of the 
 
24 
 
 SPLINTER-BAR 
 
 CH. Ill 
 
 bar but little altered, the advantage of a moveable 
 swingle-tree is obtained. 
 
 The general arrangement is seen in Fig. 8. The 
 details, with dimensions which should be somewhat 
 
 X 
 
 B 
 
 M 
 
 A 
 
 D 
 
 Q 
 
 M 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 closely adhered to, are shown in Fig. 9, drawn to 
 one-quarter of the full size. The bolt which passes 
 through the splinter-bar should be not less than 
 three-quarters of an inch in diameter, the swelled 
 portion being welded upon it. It should be carefully 
 
 turned in the lathe to the proper 
 fit, and the corners between the 
 swelled portion and the pin must be 
 left full, and not cut in sharply, since 
 it is here that the pin is most liable 
 to break. After the nut on the bot- 
 tom of the pin is screwed up, the 
 end of the pin should be hammered 
 over so that the nut cannot come 
 off; the top end of the bolt should 
 have a split pin passing through it over the nut. 
 The shackle, which is bolted to the back of the 
 splinter-bar, must be strong and of tough iron, be- 
 cause, should the pin break, all the strain will come 
 upon the shackle. Of course the objection may be 
 made to this arrangement that every additional 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
CH. Ill SPLINTER-BAR 25 
 
 moveable part about a coach increases the chances 
 of breakage, but the increase of comfort to the 
 horses is undoubted. This arrangement is similar 
 to that usually seen on light wagons, with the dif- 
 ference, however, that the swingle-tree is deep 
 enough, and the pin stiff enough, to permit the use 
 of the outside roller-bolt as a step. The motion 
 of the swingle-tree is restricted by a strap, which 
 should be put on quite tight, since a movement of 
 the roller-bolt of an inch and a half in front of, and 
 behind, the bar is sufficient. 
 
 Some coachmen think that a coach can be guided 
 more accurately with an entirely stiff bar than with 
 moveable swingle-trees, because either horse, if 
 urged forward, will turn the fore-carriage very 
 quickly by the application of his force to the outer 
 end of the bar. Since, however, the motion of the 
 swingle-tree is limited by the strap and by the neat- 
 ness of fit of the pin, it will be found, in practice, 
 that the difference is not noticeable. 
 
 The amount of the motion of the ends of the 
 swingle-trees corresponding to the action of the 
 horses' shoulders can be well observed in a trotting 
 wagon, which always has swingle-trees, and it is 
 very noticeable to the occupant of any one-horse 
 vehicle, a coupe for instance, in which the traces are 
 attached directly to the root of the shafts and not to 
 a swing-bar, the alternate sideways motion given to 
 the carriage being extremely disagreeable. 
 
 1 Nimrod' says (Malet, p. 386) : ' The swing bar 
 
2 6 SPLINTER-BAR CH. Ill 
 
 ' we use in coaches is an excellent invention, as a 
 ' horse works in it from either shoulder, and of 
 ' course quite at his ease.' This, of course, refers 
 to the lead-bars, and shows that ' Nimrod' recog- 
 nises the importance of the principle. 
 
 Le Noble du Teil (p. 349) thinks that with a 
 collar, the freedom of movement of the swindle-tree 
 is not important, although it is important with the 
 breast-collar, or bricolc, because the collar is pressed 
 forward alternately by the shoulders, and there is 
 pressure but not friction. This alternating pressure 
 must, however, tire the shoulders, even if it does not 
 rub the skin. 
 
 After the preceding pages were written, I found 
 the following passage in Philipson On Harness, 
 p. 57, ed. 1882, written by ' Glencairn' (Colonel J. 
 P. Pedler) to The Field, in June 1878 : 
 
 ' A word about sore shoulders. I never drive 
 ' with anything but a swingle bar, and that not 
 1 fixed by a band of leather eight inches broad, 
 ' which defeats the object of a swingle bar, but by 
 ' a bolt running through it vertically, or by an eye 
 ' playing on a hook. I think a proper swingle bar 
 ' is a help to preventing sore shoulders, besides 
 ' having other and most important advantages. 
 ' Even in a four-wheeled carriage and with a pair 
 ' I always put swingle bars, and the following is 
 ' the best way to fix them, viz. : Put them on top 
 4 of the splinter bar, bring an iron support from 
 v the futchells to the top of the swingle bar, and 
 
CH. Ill SPLINTER-BAR 2J 
 
 1 make an eye in the end of it ; drive a bolt through 
 ' this eye, the swingle bar, and the splinter bar, 
 ' with a nut underneath. On this bolt the swingle 
 ' bar revolves beautifully. You can have the ordi- 
 ' nary roller bolts on the swingle bars. I have 
 'written to " Nimshivich," who is evidently one of 
 ' those who knows what he is talking about. I 
 ' consider that with swingle bars a horse is always 
 ' pulling with both shoulders instead of with one 
 ' at a time alternately ; also that the evil of uneven 
 ' traces is nullified.' 
 
 A full-sized model of the bars, as shown in 
 Fig. 8, was exhibited by me in the Coaching Ex- 
 hibitions in London of 1894 and 1896, and had 
 Colonel Pedler's letter been seen earlier, the model 
 would have been accompanied by a note of explana- 
 tion. The arrangement was applied to my coach in 
 1877, and the invention seems therefore to have 
 been made by us both at about the same time. 
 
 In many vehichles the bar itself is made to move 
 about a central pin, and is then called an evener, 
 because it ensures, within certain limits, each horse 
 doine an even share of the work, but it is not used 
 on a coach, nor is it necessary, as the coachman 
 should be able to make his horses work evenly 
 without the aid of any mechanical appliance. 
 
 An evener is sometimes made with two holes on 
 either side of the middle one, so that by shifting it 
 on the pin, a weak horse can be favoured. This 
 is not likely to be used on a coach, but a good 
 
28 
 
 FORE-CARRIAGE 
 
 CH. Ill 
 
 r\ 
 
 c *-•; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i_ 
 
 j 
 
 /** V 
 
 l_ 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 »*» 
 
 ',** 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,'--5 
 
 : , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V^' 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 </' 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 coachman ought to know all the dodges that at some 
 time migrht be of use to him. 
 
 The front axle of a vehicle with a perch, or with 
 a body which is wide and low, can turn through a 
 small angle only, before the front wheel touches the 
 perch or the body, and many attempts have been 
 
 made to reme- 
 dy this defect. 
 One method is 
 to put the 
 perch-bolt back 
 of the line of 
 the axle-arms, 
 p IG IO in which case 
 
 (as is shown in 
 Fig. 10, where the wheel is represented as touching 
 the body), a larger angle of the pole with the centre 
 line can be obtained. This is dangerous, however, 
 if carried to excess, because when on the lock, the 
 front wheels are to one side of the centre line and 
 the stabilitv of the coach is much diminished. 
 
 In broughams the perch-bolt is frequently put 
 somewhat forward of the line of the axle-arms, 
 which brings the inside wheel forward in making a 
 turn and permits it to go under the boot without touch- 
 ing the body, still keeping the carriage-part short. 
 
 A variety of plans for jointed axle-arms have 
 been proposed: by Ackermax in 1 8 1 8 ; by Rock in 
 1850; by Herdic in 1880; and later by Jeantaud, 
 of Paris. Nearly all modern horseless carriages 
 
CH. Ill FORE-CARRIAGE 29 
 
 have this arrangement, which permits part of the 
 
 machinery to be sunk between the front wheels. 
 
 These plans all depend upon an arrangement of 
 
 parallel bars, with arms that turn the axle-arms and 
 
 wheels, about the end of a fixed M 
 
 axle. If the boots are not too ®=fl 
 
 deep, a coach fitted in this way > c d s * 
 
 will turn, on an almost square <^==i 
 
 . . . 1 Q 1 
 
 lock, round a point inside of the 
 
 spot where one hind wheel ffNs^ 
 
 touches the ground, and the KnT^ 
 
 lowest points of the front wheels * <J<mK\ 
 
 will not deviate greatly from the ^\T ^x\ ... 
 
 lines running through the hind 
 
 wheels, as is shown by the dotted 
 
 lines in Fig. 11, which is only a diagram, and is not 
 
 intended to show details of construction. 
 
 To obtain the greatest freedom in turning, the 
 parallel bar A B (Fig. 12), which is behind the axle 
 and connects the arms, must be as much shorter than 
 the distance on the axle between the joints of the 
 axle-arms as will make the lines of the arms, pro- 
 duced, join at the centre of the hind axle (Fig. 1 2, C). 
 
 The front wheels, when turning, will then assume 
 positions which are not parallel to each other, as 
 they are in Fig. 11, but at right angles to two radii 
 meeting on a line which is the prolongation of the 
 hind axle, and all four wheels will turn round that 
 point, as a common centre, without any grinding 
 upon the road. 
 
3Q 
 
 AXLE 
 
 CH. Ill 
 
 A practical objection to this arrangement, is the 
 largely increased number of parts and joints, with 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 the consequent risk of breakage, and difficulty of 
 preventing rattling. 
 
 Axle. — The axle of the simplest cart or wagon 
 is entirely of wood, the ends being tapered and 
 rounded, and covered by a thin conical iron tube 
 called a skein, on which the wheel, which has an 
 iron boxing or lining of some more or less complete 
 form, runs. The axle of a coach is made in several 
 parts. The axle-bed is of wood, sometimes in two 
 pieces, between which the futchells are held, and 
 under it is fastened the axle proper, which is of 
 strong, tough iron or mild steel, about two inches 
 square, in one continuous length, terminating in 
 arms upon which the wheels run. Originally these 
 
CH. Ill 
 
 MAIL AXLE 
 
 31 
 
 arms were tapered, and projected beyond the face of 
 the hub of the wheel, and through a hole near the 
 end a linchpin of iron or hard wood passed, to keep 
 the wheel on. Until the end of the last century, 
 the linchpin was universally used, but it was then 
 superseded by a nut screwed on the end of the 
 axle. On private carriages the linchpin was used 
 to a much later date than on coaches ; until 1830 
 or 1840. (Beaufort, p. 307.) 
 
 A simple axle-arm is used in light carriages and 
 in business wagons ; it is tapered, and the nut, which 
 screws against a shoulder so that it cannot be set 
 up too tight, is cut with a right hand thread on the 
 off side axle and a left hand thread on the near 
 side axle, so that the turning of the wheel tends to 
 keep the nut on and not to screw it off. 
 
 All coaches have either mail axles or Collinore 
 axles. The mail axle (Fig. 13), so called because it 
 was originally 
 
 used on the 
 mail - coaches, 
 is not tapered, 
 but the arm 
 is cylindrical. 
 It is not lono- 
 
 Fig. 
 
 !3- 
 
 enough to extend through the hub of the wheel, 
 and it has at the back end a wide collar against 
 which the back of the hub bears. The box in the 
 hub is turned to fit the cylindrical axle-arm, and 
 the two are ground together, or ground by gauges, 
 
32 
 
 COLLINGE AXLE 
 
 CH. Ill 
 
 so as to fit with accuracy.* This box is closed at 
 its outer end, and there are neither nuts nor linch- 
 pin. Behind the collar of the axle there is a loose 
 circular plate, called the moon plate, which has been 
 put on before the axle is welded together in the 
 middle. Around the edge of this plate there are 
 three holes ; three bolts run entirely through the 
 hub from the front and pass through the holes in the 
 moon plate, terminating in threaded ends, on which 
 there are nuts. As will be seen in Fig. 13, these 
 bolts hold the wheel, by drawing the moon plate 
 toward the back of the hub, the collar of the axle 
 being between them, so that the wheel cannot come 
 off unless all three bolts break, and even if the axle 
 breaks, the wheel will not be released unless the 
 fracture takes place behind the collar. For this 
 reason the mail axle is the safest axle in use. 
 
 The Collinge axle (Fig. 14), so named from its in- 
 ventor, was intro- 
 duced in 1792.-J- 
 Its arm is also 
 cylindrical and 
 fits accurately to 
 its box. The arm 
 extends through the box and has on its end two 
 nuts having threads running different ways, so that 
 
 * A journal which is an absolute fit will not run so easily as one 
 that has a little play both in its diameter and endwise. — Thurston, 
 Frictio)i and Lost Work in Machinery, p. 44. 
 
 I It is interesting to note that this axle, first made at a date when 
 
CH. Ill TAPER AXLE 33 
 
 any movement tending to unscrew one will screw 
 up the other. Outside of the nuts there is a small 
 pin passing through the reduced end of the axle, 
 which pin is prevented from coming out by the cap 
 covering it. This cap screws into the box, and con- 
 sequently into the hub, and not on the axle ; it 
 turns, therefore, with the wheel. The cap holds 
 about half a pint of oil which slowly finds its way 
 along the arm through shallow grooves made for 
 the purpose. The outward pressure of the wheel is 
 not taken directly by the back of the nut, but by a 
 loose collar, called the collet, which is behind the 
 nut, and prevented from turning by being fitted to 
 a fiat place worked on that part of the axle. 
 
 The thrust in the other direction is against an 
 enlargement of the arm, a leather washer being 
 put there to regulate the play of the wheel. This 
 washer also prevents the oil from oozing out at the 
 back of the wheel, and the dirty oil accumulates in 
 a recess in the box, made for the purpose. 
 
 It will be noticed that both these arms are cylin- 
 drical and not tapered ; the fit is therefore made by 
 the maker and is not adjustable. 
 
 The point at which an axle-arm is most liable to 
 break, is at its back end, owing to the leverage of 
 the wheel being the greatest there, and the diam- 
 eter at that point must be made proportionate to the 
 
 mechanical processes were not so far advanced as at present, should 
 have been so perfect that little improvement has been made upon it 
 in a hundred years. 
 
34 CYLINDRICAL AXLE-ARM CH. Ill 
 
 strain. A taper arm can be considerably reduced 
 at its outer end without weakening it and a smaller 
 
 box and hub can be used ; 
 —7 for this reason, in light car- 
 
 riages the taper arm (Fig. 
 
 15) is generally adopted. 
 One disadvantage of it is, 
 that the tightness of the wheel depends upon the 
 thickness of the leather washer behind it ; if this is 
 too thin, the wheel ma)' be so shoved up on the 
 taper as to run too tight ; if it is too thick, the 
 wheel will be too loose and will not run true. 
 
 With a cylindrical arm, a certain amount of end- 
 play can be given by using a thin washer while the 
 wheel will still run perfectly true. Some coachmen 
 think it well to have this end-play (to have the 
 wheel talk, as it is called), thereby avoiding some 
 sidewise shocks from small stones and ruts. A 
 slight end-motion undoubtedly helps to distribute 
 the oil, prevents the arm from wearing in grooves, 
 and is in accordance with the best modern practice 
 in railway and mill work. 
 
 There is a parallel or cylindrical arm made, which, 
 
 to a certain extent, fulfils 
 both conditions, by being ta- 
 pered in a curve at its back 
 
 ******* ~*\ 
 
 \J 
 
 > 
 
 l6- end and parallel throughout 
 
 most of its length (Fig. 16). The effects of taper 
 and of parallel arms will be further considered when 
 treating of Wheels. 
 
CH. Ill AXLE-ARM 35 
 
 There is some difference of opinion among coach- 
 ing men and builders as to the relative merits of the 
 mail and Collinge axles for coaches. The usual 
 practice is to put Collinge axles on private coaches 
 and mail axles on public coaches. Owing to the 
 absence of the bolt-heads and the presence of the 
 plated cap, the Collinge axle looks the neater and 
 more finished, and with the use that it gets in pri- 
 vate driving, it will run for two or three months 
 without re-oiling. The mail axle is no doubt some- 
 what safer, but the breaking of the axle close to the 
 back of the wheel, even though the wheel could not 
 come off entirely, would, at any speed, probably 
 cause an accident due to the wheel's beino- twisted 
 to pieces. 
 
 The mail axle requires oiling every one or two 
 weeks, which is not only troublesome, but neces- 
 sitates the constant unscrewing and screwing up of 
 the bolts, which wears the threads and ruins them 
 if it is not done with much care. An oil chamber 
 can be made in the end of the axle, as shown in the 
 cut of an improved mail axle in Stratton, p. 454, 
 and in Fig. 1 3 ; but it is difficult to fill this chamber, 
 the only way being to pour the oil into the wheel be- 
 fore putting it on, while the cap of a Collinge axle 
 is readily filled and quickly put on, before the oil 
 can run out. Collinge axle-boxes are usually merely 
 forced into the hub and not otherwise fastened ; 
 consequently they sometimes work out ; this is im- 
 possible with a mail axle and is one of its chief 
 
2,6 AXLE-ARM CH. Ill 
 
 advantages. The fancy of some builders or owners 
 for having a Collinge axle with a sham plate and 
 three bolt-heads, put on over the cap, cannot be 
 commended, since one of the objections to the mail 
 axle is the ugliness of the plate, especially on a 
 private coach. 
 
 The present fashion certainly is to have Collinge 
 axles on private coaches and mail axles on public- 
 coaches, and there seems to be no objection to it 
 as a proper distinction ; but the more the coach is 
 used for long drives and fast work, the more reason 
 is there for adopting the mail axle. The fact that 
 a public-coach, running at a high speed, a number 
 of miles every day, with heavy loads, requires a 
 much more frequent inspection in all its parts than 
 does a private drag, makes the trouble of frequent 
 oiling of relatively less importance. 
 
 It is a mistake to have the axle-arm too small ; a 
 somewhat large hub is not out of place on a heavy 
 vehicle, and the best practice in modern machinery 
 tends toward large rubbing surfaces on all journals, 
 although the resistance to the turning of the wheel 
 due to friction is directly as the diameter of the axle. 
 The value of the oil as a lubricant depends upon its 
 particles remaining in good condition between the 
 rubbing surfaces, and on small surfaces, with heavy 
 pressures, this condition is rapidly destroyed. Jn 
 any question as to the dimensions of an axle-arm, 
 therefore, the designer should lean toward a large 
 size, both on account of its superior strength and 
 
CH. Ill GAUGE 2)7 
 
 its lighter running. Two inches is the minimum 
 diameter for a coach axle-arm ; two and a quarter 
 inches is better. 
 
 India-rubber bands, or rings, are sometimes in- 
 serted between the inside of the hub and the out- 
 side of the axle-box, and they undoubtedly lessen 
 the vibrations, but they require a large hub since 
 they weaken a small one, and if a brake is used, 
 they are twisted out of condition, so that they are 
 not adapted to coaches, — at least not to the hind 
 wheels. Since rubber tires have come into use, the 
 rubber-cushioned hubs have been abandoned. 
 
 The length of the axle obviously depends upon 
 the distance apart of the wheels ; this distance is 
 called the guage or track, and is usually measured 
 from centre to centre of the tires, on the ground. 
 It varies from 5 ft. 4 in., in an American Concord 
 coach, to 4 ft. 8^ in., which is given by Harris 
 [Coaching Age, p. 102), as having been that of the 
 old mail-coaches. 
 
 That was probably the distance from out to otit, 
 since it was adopted as the railway gauge, and an 
 Act, of George III., fixes 4 ft. 6 in. as the minimum 
 gauge for a coach from centre to centre. In the 
 coaches and drags of the present day, the gauge is 
 usually about 5 ft. 1 in. On good roads a uniform- 
 ity of gauge of the different vehicles used is unim- 
 portant, but on the earth roads of America, a car- 
 riage which does not fit in the ruts already made, 
 runs very hard. In any one locality, therefore, all 
 
38 WHEEL CH. Ill 
 
 carriages are made to track the same, but in different 
 localities this track varies ; for instance, in New York 
 it is 4 ft. 8 in., while in Pennsylvania it is 5 ft. 2 in. 
 
 Wheel. — The wheel is a simple mechanical con- 
 trivance for transferring the friction between the 
 moving body and the ground, to a surface which 
 reduces that friction, and also for diminishing the 
 resistance opposed by an obstacle on the ground. 
 
 If a weight is drawn along on the ground on a 
 sled, the friction between the runner of the sled and 
 the ground is great, and is due to the roughness 
 of both surfaces, as is shown by the fact that when 
 both are very smooth, as in a steel runner on ice, 
 the friction becomes very small. When a wheel is 
 introduced, as it does not slide on the ground, the 
 friction is changed to a rolling friction, and the rub- 
 bing friction is transferred to the axle, which can 
 have its surface so polished and supplied with a 
 
 lubricant that this 
 rubbing friction is 
 greatly diminished. 
 As to the ob- 
 
 stacle : it is obvious 
 that the wheel has 
 to be lifted over it, 
 and the draught, 
 acting in the line 
 A B (Fig. 17), pulls on a bent lever, BCD, raising 
 the weight, which may be considered as concentrated 
 
CH. Ill WHEEL 39 
 
 at D. The longer the arm B C, and the shorter the 
 arm C D, the more easily will the draught raise the 
 weight of the wheel, and for the same sized obstacle 
 the larger wheel will evidently have the advantage. 
 
 In the figure, the lines of draught make the same 
 angle with the radius-arm of the lever ; if the lines 
 of draught are parallel, the advantage of the larger 
 wheel is still greater. 
 
 There is a limit in practice to the size of wheels, 
 because, if very large, their weight may more than 
 balance their other advantages ; but this will be true 
 only of extravagant designs ; within the usual limits, 
 the larger the wheel the better. The very small 
 wheels sometimes used on pony phaetons are cruel 
 to the horses. 
 
 On a road which is level crosswise, the wheel 
 which will run the easiest must be straight, vertical, 
 with a tire at right angles to the face of the wheel, 
 and the axle must be cylindrical, — that is, not ta- 
 pered, — and horizontal. In other words, the wheel 
 must be a short section of a true cylinder, revolving 
 on a horizontal cylindrical axis. All rolling frames or 
 carriages in ordinary machinery are thus mounted. 
 
 In wagon and carriage building, departures from 
 this system have been made for various reasons. 
 
 In the first place, it is much more easy to make a 
 wheel fit on a taper axle-arm than on one with par- 
 allel sides, since the application of washers behind 
 the wheel will determine how far it may be pushed 
 on the arm and how tight it may be ; while with a 
 
4o 
 
 WHEEL 
 
 CH. Ill 
 
 S> 
 
 _, 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 parallel arm the box must be fitted to it with accu- 
 racy, requiring very good workmanship and perfect 
 tools, and no adjustment of the fit is afterward pos- 
 sible. The greatest strain on the arm being at the 
 back end, a tapered arm can be made lighter for a 
 given strength. 
 
 With a straight, vertical wheel on a 
 taper arm, the centre line of which is 
 horizontal, the tendency of the wheel will 
 be to run off, or against the nut, or linch- 
 pin, while to be safe it should tend to run 
 on, or against the collar (Fig. 18). 
 
 To obviate this defect, the taper axle- 
 arms are so set that their under sides 
 are horizontal (Fig. 19). 
 
 This arrangement places the wheels 
 farther apart at the top than at the 
 bottom, and evidently brings a strain 
 upon the lower part of the wheel, 
 tending to push it inward. To provide 
 against this, the wheel is dished, so that 
 the lower spoke is always vertical or 
 plumb (Fig. 20). 
 
 This turning down of the point of the 
 
 axle is called variously : hang, dip, swing, 
 
 and pitch. 
 
 The amount of dish, is the distance of the front 
 
 side of the root of the spoke from the face of the 
 
 rim, measured in the direction of the axle. 
 
 This construction of the wheel also strengthens 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
CH. Ill 
 
 CONED WHEEL 
 
 41 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 it, since, owing to the clasp of the tire, the wheel 
 cannot be flattened out by a force acting on the in- 
 side end of the hub ; but it is correspondingly weak 
 in the opposite direction. Equal strength in both 
 directions can be secured by placing the 
 spokes alternately on both sides of a line 
 around the hub, as is done to an exagger- 
 ated extent in a bicycle wheel and to a 
 smaller extent in carriage wheels (Fig. 
 21). This ' stao-o-erinor ' or 'dodging,' of 
 the spokes also less weakens the hub. 
 
 The best results would seem to be ob- 
 tained in heavy work, by using a parallel 
 axle, fitted by the best processes, set very nearly 
 level, with an almost vertical wheel having- but little 
 dish. 
 
 II a wheel is dished and the axle so set as to 
 give a plumb bottom spoke, the tire, in order to fit 
 a flat road, must be horizontal cross- 
 wise at its bottom point, and must 
 therefore be a section of a cone, the 
 position of the apex of which will be 
 determined by the dip of the axle 
 (Fig. 22). If the tire is not so made 
 in the beginning it will finally wear 
 into that form. 
 
 Now a cone, or a section of a cone, 
 will tend to roll in a circle, the centre 
 of which is the point at which the apex of the cone 
 would touch the ground, so that if the wheels of a 
 
 777777777777/ 
 
 777777777777? 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
42 COXED WHEEL CH. Ill 
 
 carriage are sections of cones they will not tend 
 to roll straight on in the direction in which the car- 
 riage is going, but to turn off to the outside, as 
 
 shown by the dotted 
 curves of Fig. 23 ; 
 consequently, they 
 ',:> will run against the 
 nuts, or linchpins, and 
 thereby set up a re- 
 sistance which will in- 
 crease the draught. 
 '///////////)?, i n addition to this, 
 the face of the wheel 
 having different diameters, its parts will revolve with 
 different velocities ; and as all parts must move 
 over the surface of the road at the same forward 
 velocity, there will be but one line of the tire that 
 will roll, all other lines of the tire being dragged 
 on the surface, with a grinding action that destroys 
 the road and the tire, and increases the draught. 
 Some old English wagons are said to have had tires 
 10 inches wide, and with coned wheels these would 
 grind on the road excessively. It was because, in 
 the last century, all wheels in heavy vehicles were 
 considerably coned, that the road authorities ob- 
 jected to wide tires as injuring the road ; wide 
 tires on cylindrical wheels are an advantage to a 
 road. 
 
 In the figures an exaggerated amount of coning 
 is shown, for clearness, but exactly the same kind 
 
CH. Ill CONED WHEEL 43 
 
 of action takes place in a less degree with a less 
 amount. 
 
 We have so far assumed that the road is flat 
 crosswise ; the conditions will be changed if the 
 cross section is different. 
 
 To take an exaggerated case, such as might occur 
 in a special piece of machinery : the treads of the 
 wheels, and the axles, must be parallel to the sur- 
 faces on which they run in order to 
 determine a straight direction, as in 
 Fig. 24 ; and in the case of a road, 
 the cross section of which is curved, 
 a straight, not a coned, wheel, with 
 the axle bent down so as to bring 
 the tire to bear flat on the road, 
 would be correct. This probably 
 gave rise to the early practice of building vehicles 
 in this manner, but it is obvious that to be correct, 
 the cross section of the road must be the same in 
 all places, which is not likely to be the case. 
 
 All roads are somewhat lower at the sides than 
 at the middle, and when a carriage leaves the cen- 
 tre, it inclines toward the gutter, so as to throw the 
 weight more on the down side wheel and to take it 
 off the higher wheel. The danger always is, there- 
 fore, of bending the wheel from its inside outward, 
 but not in the other direction ; this is resisted by 
 the shape of a dished wheel, as the hub cannot 
 possibly be pushed through from the back with- 
 out compressing and shortening the spokes ; an 
 
44 WHEEL CH. Ill 
 
 important reason for at least a small amount of 
 dish. 
 
 In turning a corner, the centrifugal force acts in 
 the same way upon the outside wheel. 
 
 In some heavy vehicles we find wheels made with 
 a slight dish, but fitted on horizontal axle-arms, so 
 that the face of the wheel is vertical, but the bottom 
 spoke not plumb ; this dish gives strength to the 
 wheel and is not a disadvantage, since the bottom 
 spoke approaches the vertical when the vehicle in- 
 clines sidewise on the down side of the road. On 
 the continent of Europe, this construction is very 
 common in carts, which frequently have wheels 6 
 feet high. 
 
 It must be noted that in a small, heavy wheel 
 the width of the spokes compared with the 
 y-r diameter of the wheel is so great that any 
 line representing a moderate dish falls en- 
 tirely within the substance of the spokes, as 
 shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 25 ; such 
 a wheel is therefore strong-, although not 
 really dished. 
 
 ' Nimrod,' in The Road (1832), prefers 
 straight, vertical wheels, and speaks of the 
 mail-coach wheels as being the best ; made with a 
 large nave, every other spoke framed perpendicular 
 to the nave ; the others behind the line. 
 
 Since these old wheels were made with 'strokes,' 
 and not with hooped tires, a part of the advantage 
 of dishing the wheel was lost. Strokes were tires 
 
 Fig. 25 
 
CH. Ill WHEEL 45 
 
 put on in pieces and secured by bolts ; they over- 
 lapped the joints of the fellies and added to the 
 strength of the wheel, but not nearly so much as 
 does the modern hoop-tire, which is continuous and 
 binds the wheel tightly together. The hoop-tire is 
 made somewhat too small to oo on the wheel ; it is 
 expanded by heating, and being then put on the 
 wheel, is rapidly cooled and shrunk by the applica- 
 tion of water. A great deal of judgement must be 
 exercised by the smith in this operation with light 
 wheels, as they may have their dish increased be- 
 yond the intention of the designer, by drawing the 
 tire too tight. Machines are now made which com- 
 press the tire after it is on the wheel without its 
 having been previously heated. 
 
 According to Corbett, p. 28, continuous tires 
 were adopted for the coaches before they were used 
 on the mails. On some of the wide wheels of the 
 old 'stage-waggons,' two widths of strokes were put 
 on with their joints overlapping. 
 
 There are many details of the construction of 
 wheels too technical to be entered upon here, but 
 it may be said that there is no good reason for 
 making the tire very narrow on upright wheels, es- 
 pecially as a somewhat wide tire protects the rim 
 of the wheel, which is otherwise liable to be rubbed 
 and scratched. If it projects too much beyond the 
 rim it will cast up the mud. There is no advan- 
 tage in a narrow or round faced tire on a vertical 
 wheel, but on a coned wheel there is an advantage, 
 
4 6 
 
 WHEEL 
 
 CH. Ill 
 
 especially on a hard road, inasmuch as the grinding 
 action is less (see page 42). On a soft road, the 
 narrow tire will cut in and cause friction, or adhe- 
 sion between the faces of the rim and the mud. 
 The coach w r heel shown in Fig. 26, may be taken 
 
 as a good example, not being 
 exaggerated in any way, having 
 a dish of ^ of an inch. 
 
 There are reasons outside of 
 the purely mechanical questions 
 of draught and strength, which 
 induce builders to dish their 
 wheels and to give them the 
 resulting outward Hare. In a 
 brougham, made to a narrow 
 track, the flare of the wheels 
 gives more room for the bod)', 
 and in all carriages the flare of 
 the wheels throws the mud away 
 from the body. A carriage with 
 nearly vertical wheels will have 
 its panels covered with mud in 
 wet weather. These are good 
 reasons for the practice in certain cases, but as a 
 question of draught, the horizontal, parallel axles, 
 with straight and vertical wheels, are the best ; and on 
 four-horse coaches, the track of which is always wide, 
 a close approach to these conditions is desirable. 
 
 In light vehicles the points of the axles are not 
 only turned down, but they are also turned a little 
 
 Fig. 
 
CH. Ill SIZE OF WHEEL 47 
 
 to the front ; this is called the ' o-ather' of the axles. 
 A light axle will spring backward when the draught 
 upon it is opposed by the resistance of the wheel 
 on the ground ; the axle-arms will be no longer in a 
 straight line, and the wheels will not be parallel to 
 each other or to the centre line of the carriage, 
 hence they will run against the nuts instead of 
 against the collars ; and if the axle-arm be tapered, 
 the motion of the carriage causes a pressure against 
 the front side of the taper, and increases this ten- 
 dency, so that, to counteract it, the gather must be 
 still more increased. 
 
 Wheels, when not parallel, will rub sideways upon 
 the road and increase the resistance. When an 
 old carriage has axles badly bent, the wheels may 
 be observed to plough up the mud on the inside of 
 their rims as they move along. Cabs in a crowded 
 city, which frequently have collisions, sometimes 
 have their axles bent back in this way, and it will 
 be seen that their tires are polished from being par- 
 tially dragged on the surface of the road instead 
 of running with a true rollino- motion. In coaches 
 which have very strong axles and parallel arms, the 
 necessity for gather does not exist, and it is not 
 given ; but in overhauling a coach, or in buying one 
 second-hand, it is important to notice whether or 
 not the axles are in the least decree bent backward. 
 
 The height of coach wheels varies, in the best 
 examples, from 4 ft. 2 in. to 4 ft. 4 in. for the hind 
 wheels, and from 3 ft. 2 in. to 3 ft. 4 in. for the front 
 
48 
 
 SPRINGS 
 
 CH. Ill 
 
 ones. ' Nimrod' gives 4 ft. 8 in. as a usual height of 
 the hind wheels in old coaches. The wheels of an 
 American Concord coach are 5 ft. 1 in. and 3 ft. 10 
 in. There are usually twelve spokes in the hind 
 wheels and ten in the front wheels, but in the old 
 English coaches there were frequently fourteen and 
 twelve, respectively, and these are the numbers in 
 the Concord wheels.* 
 
 What is now usually called the 'patent wheel/ 
 the characteristic of which is a hub formed by two 
 iron plates applied to the back and front of the 
 spokes, is not particularly new ; it is described in 
 Adams's book, published in 1837. It is used exten- 
 sively on business wagons but not on fine work. 
 
 Springs. — Coaches are hung upon what coach- 
 ing men usually call 
 telegraph springs 
 (because they were 
 first used in Eng- 
 land on the Man- 
 chester 'Telegraph'),. 
 
 but known by coach- 
 
 riG. 27. J 
 
 makers as platform 
 springs, which permit the body of the coach to be 
 hung low (Fig. 27). 
 
 * The following dimensions of the wheel of a very light, one-man 
 trotting buggy, are given for the purpose of comparison with coach 
 wheels : height, 48 in. ; diameter of hub, 2i in. ; diameter of axle. 
 I in., taper; dish, -f\ in. from outer spoke; swing or overhang of 
 
CH. Ill SPRINGS 49 
 
 They are fastened by clips to the transom bed in 
 front and directly to the axle behind, and the body 
 rests upon the centres of the cross springs and is 
 attached to them in the same way. 
 
 It will be noticed that the body is attached to 
 the springs at four points only, and that these 
 points are all in the centre line of the coach. This 
 arrangement permits an amount of rolling motion, 
 which would be serious were the springs not stiff, 
 and is an obvious disadvantage, which is, however, 
 more than compensated by the lowness of the 
 body, a greater height of which would increase the 
 liability to roll. 
 
 The four springs forming this combination are 
 connected at the corners by shackles, or ' D's,' 
 and in a public-coach, carrying heavy loads, these 
 shackles should be as short as possible, otherwise 
 the body will sway sidewise too much, and in going 
 down-hill will swing forward, taking the brake away 
 from the face of the wheel, and in going up-hill may 
 move back enough to put the brake-block against 
 the wheel. If they are long, the coach will ride 
 somewhat easier and the body will be lower. These 
 are points to be considered, but, on the whole, it 
 
 wheel, 3I in. ; gather \ in. ; tire, I in. face and \ in. thick ; spoke, 
 i by 2 in. ; rim, ? in. The swing given to the wheel is much greater 
 than that called for by the dish, because the axle being light the 
 weight of a man on the centre of it, where the spring is attached, 
 will spread the wheels enough to ensure a plumb spoke with this 
 amount of swing. There are fourteen spokes. 
 
 4 
 
50 SPRINGS CH. Ill 
 
 is better to make the shackles short and close, 
 giving them as little play as possible. They should 
 be covered with leather, to prevent rattling. 
 
 According to Corbett (p. 28), the telegraph 
 springs were used on coaches before they were 
 used on the mails, and after the expiration of Vid- 
 ler's contract in 1836, they were put on the mails, 
 which appear to have been hung originally with a 
 cross spring behind. 
 
 Springs are always made of several plates, or 
 leaves, which give more elasticity than would be ob- 
 tained with one plate of steel of the same strength, 
 and are also less liable to break from a sudden 
 shock or rebound, which is communicated succes- 
 sively to the plates. 
 
 The springs are fastened to the bed, and to the 
 body, by clips, which embrace them, so as not to 
 have holes through their centres. 
 
 In many business wagons, three-quarter springs, 
 shown in Fig. 28, called in England ' dennet springs,' 
 
 are used. The front 
 ends of the side 
 springs are fastened 
 directly to the body, 
 or to the carriage- 
 part, as the case may 
 be, and there are 
 ' therefore six points 
 
 of attachment, four of them so far apart side- 
 ways as to resist a rolling motion much better 
 
CH. Ill POLE 51 
 
 than when all the supports of the body are in one 
 centre line. Since a backward and forward motion 
 of the body is prevented by the attachment of the 
 front ends of the springs, the brake-blocks will not 
 be carried away from the hind wheels in the way 
 that the movement of the shackles of the ordinary 
 springs permits. This arrangement would be prob- 
 ably an improvement in a public-coach and it is 
 necessary for the hind axle of a break which has no 
 perch, since, when there is no perch, the action of the 
 brake brings a great strain on the elliptic springs. 
 
 Pole. — The pole, which fits into the space be- 
 tween the inside futchells, completes the carriage- 
 part. 
 
 There is some difference of opinion among 
 coaching men as to the proportions of the pole. 
 It should obviously be heavier for a public-coach 
 than for a drag, and in all cases should be strong 
 enough to bear safely any strain that can come 
 upon it in going down a hill ; the best of coachmen 
 can hardly avoid an accident if, on a steep hill, a 
 pole breaks. 
 
 In turning round and getting the coach on the 
 lock, the leaders may pull nearly at right angles to 
 the end of the pole, and if anything breaks at such 
 a time, it is better that it should be the pole than 
 some more complicated part of the carriage, as it 
 is the most easily repaired, or than that the coach 
 should be overturned, as might happen upon side- 
 
52 POLE CH. Ill 
 
 long ground. In turning, the bend of a flexible 
 pole will indicate the danger before a break occurs. 
 
 Some drag poles are not plated at all on the 
 underside, and some public-coach poles are plated 
 throughout their whole length, which makes them 
 stiff and inelastic. The best way is to plate them 
 for two-thirds of the length, since a fracture will 
 naturally occur near the hinder end, and to use a 
 tough, soft iron, not too heavy, which will bend and 
 keep the pole together, even if the wood is broken. 
 
 The places at which a pole is most likely to break, 
 are where it leaves the futchells, or throuoh the hole 
 for the pin, which is just behind that point ; and a 
 light plate on each side, extending from the hinder 
 end of the pole to a point ten or twelve inches in 
 front of the ends of the futchells, is of service and 
 prevents the wear of the pole in the jaws of the 
 futchells. 
 
 The proper size of a pole at a point two feet from 
 the splinter-bar, is 3^ inches wide and \ Y / 2 inches 
 deep for a public-coach, and somewhat less for a drag. 
 
 The pole goes between the plates which connect 
 the futchells on their under and upper surfaces, and 
 is thus stiffly attached to the fore-carriage. A pin 
 passes horizontally through the futchells and the 
 pole and makes it fast, and, since by it the leaders 
 do their part of drawing the coach, it must be 
 strong. Sometimes a second pin is put in near the 
 hinder end of the pole ; a proper precaution against 
 accident. 
 
CH. Ill POLE 53 
 
 In the majority of European four-horse vehicles, 
 except in England, the leaders do not draw from 
 the point of the pole, but by means of a chain, or a 
 rope, passing" along the under side of the pole, from 
 a hook which is under the futchells. This hook is 
 sometimes put in this place in a coach, to be used 
 in case six horses are driven ; but it is not well 
 to have it there, since, should a wheel horse fall and 
 get under the coach, he may be badly torn by the 
 hook. 
 
 The length of the pole should be 9 feet from the 
 front of the splinter-bar to the cross-head of the 
 pole-head or crab. If it is longer than this it takes 
 the leaders too far away and impairs the ' smart' 
 appearance of the turn-out. French carriage poles 
 are usually much too long. 
 
 The length given above, for the pole, is proper 
 for sixteen hand, or fifteen-three hand, horses ; if 
 smaller horses, or short, cobby horses are to be 
 driven to a drag, an extra pole, two or three inches 
 shorter, should be provided. 
 
 When the coach is standing on a level pavement, 
 the end of the pole should be three feet from the 
 ground. 
 
 It must be remembered that a short pole re- 
 quires a longer cross-head, or else the pole-chains 
 will pull too much sideways from the horses' necks. 
 The most exag-o-erated form of a long cross-head is 
 the yoke of a trotting wagon, which is so long as to 
 make the pole-straps parallel to the pole. There is 
 
54 
 
 POLE-HEADS 
 
 CH. Ill 
 
 a regular pattern of crab, or metal mounting of the 
 pole, which is well adapted to its purpose and 
 should be adhered to. It is shown in Fig. 29, and 
 
 consists of a kind 
 of sheath which fits 
 on the end of the 
 pole and is fast- 
 ened to it by two 
 bolts, which must 
 be strong, since 
 by them the leaders pull. This sheath terminates 
 in a hook to take the lead-bars. At the root of the 
 hook is the cross-head, which is free to turn upon 
 the stem, and has a ring at each end into which the 
 pole-chains are fastened. The arms of the cross- 
 head should be about six inches long from the cen- 
 tre of the pole to the rings. A strap, attached to 
 the pole, passes through the eye on the point of the 
 hook ; it should be strong and always kept in good 
 order, as it may serve to prevent the lead-bars from 
 being jerked off the hook in case of an accident 
 with the leaders. 
 
 In many French four-horse vehicles, the hook is 
 under the pole ; but this is not a good arrangement ; 
 the bars are liable to come off unless the point of 
 the hook is fastened by a screw to the pole, which 
 is troublesome. 
 
 The whole pole-head should be of the best steel, 
 highly polished. On a public-coach it is usually 
 painted black, but lately, on some public-coaches, 
 
CH. Ill LEAD-BARS 55 
 
 especially in France, it is bright, as on a drag. 
 This looks much better, and it is really but little 
 more trouble to polish it than to keep revarnishing 
 it. On a long route, however, and in bad weather, 
 the bright steel becomes tarnished toward the end 
 of the day. Of course, the chains must correspond 
 to the pole-head, and it is more trouble to varnish 
 them than to brighten them by shaking in a bag. 
 In old public-coaches the chains were usually made 
 fast to the pole-head, as they now are on farm- 
 wagons, and they had to be blackened. 
 
 Pole-heads, chains, or lead-bar fittings, should al- 
 ways be of bright steel, never plated with silver or 
 with brass. The plating soon wears off at the 
 rubbing surfaces. 
 
 Public-coaches, or private coaches on long trips, 
 sometimes carry a spare pole made in three pieces 
 to screw together, the joints being strengthened by 
 collars which slide over them. This pole is strapped 
 to the perch. Its head is of a simple form and 
 painted black. 
 
 Lead-Bars. — The lead-bars are made after one 
 regular pattern. Fig. 30 gives a better idea of 
 them than any description can give. They should 
 be rather heavy than light. The main-bar is 3 ft. 4 
 in. lone ; the single-bars are 2 ft. 11 in. 
 
 The D fixture on the main-bar is better than the 
 eye fixture shown alongside of it. It is somewhat 
 the fashion to use the eye for drags and the D for 
 
56 
 
 LEAD-BARS 
 
 CH. Ill 
 
 public-coaches, but the objection to the eye is that, 
 on account of its small size, it may get caught 
 
 ^ 
 
 /Qv 
 
 =33 W^ 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 O) 
 
 sideways on the hook and twist or break it. This 
 cannot happen with the D. 
 
 On the other hand, the D, having much more 
 play, is more noisy. This is a slight objection, and 
 at night it is an advantage, since the coachman can 
 tell by the ' chatter of the bars' whether or not his 
 leaders are working-, since there will be no rattle if 
 they are pulling. The D is, therefore, recommended 
 for both drags and coaches. 
 
 The fixtures of the single-bars 
 have eves set at right angles to the 
 bars ; these eyes hook on the ends 
 of the main-bar, and there are 
 springs which prevent them from 
 becoming- unhooked. These springs 
 are usually made as shown at A in 
 Fig. 31, but a better method, de- 
 
 vised by Brewster & Co., is to have 
 the end lengthened into a loop, 
 which surrounds the stem of the hook as at B, so 
 as to keep the fitting from coming off should it be- 
 
CH. Ill LEAD-BARS 5/ 
 
 come loose. These springs were comparatively 
 new in ' Nimrod's' time. (Malet, p. 348.) 
 
 The fittings of the bars are usually secured by 
 screws, and the bars should be always put on with 
 the screw-heads up, so that the loss of a screw will 
 be noticed. It is, however, much better to have the 
 fittings secured by bolts which go entirely through 
 them, as at C, and are riveted, so that they cannot 
 possibly come oft. 
 
 A dangerous accident, which not infrequently 
 happens, is to have the fitting on the end of the 
 main-bar come off, which lets the single-bar drop 
 on the leader's hocks and may cause even the 
 quietest horse to kick ; therefore the method of 
 fastening the fittings with bolts should be insisted 
 on. It is not so important for the centre fittings, 
 since their coming loose cannot do much harm. 
 
 A single link, or three or four short links, of steel 
 are sometimes used to connect the inside hooks of 
 the bars.* This should never be done, as in the 
 event of a horse kicking and getting his leg between 
 the main-bar and the single-bars, it is almost im- 
 possible to release him, and great damage may 
 result. 
 
 Such an arrangement is useless, at any rate, but 
 if, for any temporary reason, it should be desired, 
 merely a strap, which can be quickly cut, should be 
 used. 
 
 * This is as old as ' Nimrod's' time. See £ssajs, Malet, p. 191. 
 
Fig. 32. 
 
 58 LEAD-BARS CH. Ill 
 
 An extra main-bar and one extra single-bar are 
 carried on the back of the rumble. They are usu- 
 ally strapped on as shown in Fig. 32, but they 
 
 are sometimes held 
 in steel spring-racks. 
 Straps are better ; the 
 steel springs are diffi- 
 cult to clean and the 
 bars sometimes shift 
 sideways in them. The extra bars should be always 
 taken of! when the coach comes in ; else they will 
 harbour dust and soon get rusty. 
 
 The lead-bar has sometimes been made in one 
 
 piece (Fig. $$), which is objectionable, not only be- 
 
 ^ cause it does not permit 
 
 i 1 '1 I j t i the free action of the 
 
 j. I( . ,_ horse's shoulder, but be- 
 
 cause, if one horse is 
 more free than the other and works in front, the 
 bar is oblique, and each horse has his collar pulled 
 sideways on his neck, which is certain to cause sore 
 shoulders. 
 
 The mails in old times carried this single-bar with 
 four hooks on it, as a spare bar in case of breaking 
 the lead-bars. (' Nim rod's' Essays, Malet, p. 190.) 
 A method of rigging the lead-bars, frequently 
 used by Italian and Swiss vetturini, is well adapted 
 to the temporary conversion of a two-horse car- 
 riage into one for four horses. A rope is attached 
 to the centre of the front axle and carried alone 
 
CH. Ill 
 
 LEAD-BARS 
 
 59 
 
 the under side of the pole, from which it is sus- 
 pended at intervals by straps (hame-straps, for 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 instance). About two feet behind the point of the 
 pole, this rope is attached to the centre of a some- 
 what lighter line, the two ends of which are made 
 fast to a bar, 3 ft. 9 in. long, corresponding to the 
 main-bar. To the end of this bar are attached the 
 single-bars. The main-bar is held up by straps, 
 like light pole-pieces, from the pole-head. They 
 may go to the end of the bar or can be made fast 
 nearer its centre. The short bridle of the main- 
 bar can be replaced to advantage by a chain. 
 
 For three horses the lead-bars are made as 
 shown in Fig. 35. The long arm of the main- 
 
 A 
 
 c=r 
 
 w- 
 
 -§ w 
 
 n 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 a 
 
 EZJ 
 
 =g w- 
 
 EZE 
 
 ~~w 
 
 bar is twice the length of the short arm, so that 
 all three horses do an equal share of the work. 
 
60 LEAD-BARS CH. Ill 
 
 The steel hook of the bar of the single horse 
 is long enough to bring his bar out to the line 
 of the other bars. This is a common arrangement 
 in three-horse ploughs. 
 
CH. IV 6 I 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 BODY 
 
 The bodies of coaches are essentially the same, 
 but builders vary them sufficiently to make notice- 
 able differences in their proportions, as can be 
 seen by comparing the plates of coaches in the 
 present volume, by detaching and superposing the 
 sheets of transparent paper upon each other, or 
 upon the plates, which are all drawn to the same 
 scale. 
 
 The average length of the body is 4 ft. 10 in., 
 the width 4 ft. o in., and the height 4 ft. 2 in. The 
 extreme lengths, as shown in the drawings, are 
 4 ft. 1 1 in. for the longest, and 4 ft. 8 in. for the 
 shortest ; these are outside dimensions. The di- 
 mensions within these limits are, to a certain extent, 
 a matter of taste, but extreme shortness should be 
 avoided, since it leads to a short coupling in the 
 under-carriage, which is objectionable. The body 
 should be made as light as is consistent with 
 strength, so as to keep the centre of gravity of the 
 whole coach low. Its weight is usually rather more 
 than half that of the whole coach, the irons and 
 cushions of the roof-seats being included. The 
 roof is very nearly flat, so that the seats can be 
 adapted to it, and for convenience in carrying bao-- 
 
62 BODY CH. IV 
 
 gage. The sides are moderately curved in both 
 directions, or have, what coach-makers call the ' cant' 
 in the horizontal direction, and the ' turn-under" in 
 the vertical direction. 
 
 The ' Wonder,' a coach much admired on the 
 Shrewsbury road in 1825, built by Waude, is said 
 to have had perfectly flat sides.* A body looks 
 ' smarter' if it has not too much curve. The 
 bottom line of the coach should be between the 
 extreme boat curve and the nearly straight, side 
 and bottom lines, connected by short curves. 
 
 The doors of the body are hinged on the front 
 edge, unlike the doors of broughams or landaus, so 
 that if they are left open by accident they will swing 
 shut on starting. They have solid, or stable, shut- 
 ters in addition to the usual glasses, and there should 
 be some way, on the inside, of fastening them up 
 by buttons, or by pulling up the inside glasses tight 
 against them, so that they cannot be pushed down 
 from the outside in case it is desirable to lock up 
 the coach. For the same reason, the doors have 
 locks, which work with a key ; in addition to the 
 usual latches. 
 
 The inside of a modern public-coach body is usu- 
 ally not lined, but finished in hard wood, and it has 
 cushions only. Old public-coaches were comfortably 
 stuffed and lined inside and had arm-straps, as the 
 inside places were the highest priced. 
 
 * Old Coaching Days, p. 37. 
 
CH. IV BODY 6^ 
 
 
 
 A drag is plainly lined, and there is nothing more 
 stylish for the purpose than a very light drab cloth. 
 There should be straps of some kind on the under 
 side of the roof to hold hats or any similar light 
 thing's. It is a serious mistake to make the inside 
 of a coach so low that a man cannot sit in it with 
 his hat on. When a full load is on a drag, the ser- 
 vants have to go inside, and, apart from the ques- 
 tion of their comfort, it does not look well to have the 
 men sitting bare-headed ; and if they are required 
 to get out, they should be ready to do so quickly, 
 and not have to wait to put on their hats. For this 
 reason the height from the top of the wooden seat 
 should be not less than 3 ft. 8 in. This will admit 
 of a cushion 3 inches thick, and will give a height of 
 3 ft. 5 in. from the top of the cushion to the under 
 side of the roof, which is enough for a tall man with 
 his hat on. If the top of the wooden seat is 1 2 inches 
 above the centre of the floor, the whole inside height 
 will be 4 ft. 8 in. This is apparently greater than 
 the outside height of the body given in the begin- 
 ning of this chapter, but that is because the floor 
 drops inside as low as the bottom of the rocker. 
 
 Many of the coaches in England in the early 
 part of the 19th century were uncomfortably low, and 
 there has been a disposition to copy them in modern 
 drags.* 
 
 * ' The inside of the coach was very small. E. had to sit without 
 his hat, and he is not particularly tall.' — Extract from a private 
 Journal of Travel in England in 1835. 
 
64 BOOTS CH. IV 
 
 Boots. — The boots are constructively a part of 
 the body ; they vary considerably, being made 
 more or less deep according to the taste of the de- 
 signer ; shallow boots give a poor air to a coach, 
 and it is better to err on the side of depth. Their 
 distance below the top of the body should be such 
 as to give comfortable leg-room to persons sitting 
 on the roof-seats, and for that 1 6 inches is rig-ht. 
 This is from wood to wood, and does not count 
 the cushion. The hind boot is about 2 feet long, 
 the front one 3 feet, and both are about 2 feet deep. 
 The front boot should be from 1 to 2 inches higher 
 on the body than the hind boot, as that always gives 
 a ' smarter' appearance, and prevents the appear- 
 ance of the coach's hanging down in front, when 
 the back seats are not occupied. The front boot 
 slopes backward from the root of the foot-board, 
 usually about 7 inches. This may be varied, but it 
 must not be so straight that, in the motion of the 
 coach, the boot will touch the inside roller-bolts, 
 which may happen if the spring-shackles are long. 
 The boots are 4 inches narrower than the body. 
 There is an opening into the front boot from above, 
 and the front part is usually hinged at the top so as 
 to turn up. This door must riever be hinged at the 
 bottom, else it may fall open and, striking the horses, 
 occasion an accident. 
 
 In a public-coach the front of the boot is generally 
 entirely closed, and it is sometimes covered with 
 iron to prevent a kicking wheeler from knocking it 
 
CH. IV BOOTS 65 
 
 in ; in this case the boot is accessible only from 
 the top by lifting- a flap which is under the feet of 
 the persons sitting- on the box-seat. While, on the 
 score of safety, it may be well to make a public- 
 coach boot in this way, it is so exceedingly incon- 
 venient for a drag, that it is better to have a door, 
 but always hinged at the top and with a lock, or 
 still better two locks, that can be trusted to hold. 
 On a race-course, for instance, the hind boot is full 
 of the lunch-boxes, or should, at any rate, never 
 have anything dirty put into it, the horse clothing 
 and halters must be in the front boot. It is diffi- 
 cult for the grooms to get out these articles through 
 the small opening in the top, under the feet of the 
 person sitting on the box-seat ; but after the horses 
 are taken out, the front of the boot is quite acces- 
 sible if it has a door. 
 
 The boot may be made accessible from the inside 
 of the body, the opening being closed by tlie back 
 of the front seat, which is hinged or made to come 
 out altogether. In old travelling-carriages this ar- 
 rangement was frequently used, to permit a bed to 
 be made inside of the carriage, the feet of the per- 
 son lying on it extending into the boot. 
 
 A coach was designed by Mr W. G. Tiffany, 
 and built for him by Peters of London, in 1868, in 
 which the sides of the front boot turned down, being 
 hinged near the bottom edge, one of the steps serv- 
 ing as a handle to the lock, and so arranged that 
 the door could not be opened unless the step were 
 
 5 
 
66 
 
 BOOTS 
 
 CH. IV 
 
 turned edgewise, which would prevent any one from 
 stepping upon it unless the door were fastened. 
 A second coach, with the same kind of boot, was 
 built by Laurie & Marker in 1873, and both were 
 used on the London and Brighton road by Mr 
 Tiffany in 1873.* This arrangement is perhaps 
 somewhat complicated, but it is one way out of the 
 difficulty and gives convenient access to the boot. 
 
 It may be said that while in a public-coach (where 
 horse cloths, or anything else, may be put in the 
 hind boot) the front boot should be solid, the front 
 boot of a drag may have a door well secured. 
 
 The hind boot of a drae has 
 its door hinged at the bottom 
 in such a way that, when it is 
 open and horizontal, its inner 
 surface is level with the bottom 
 of the inside of the boot. If it 
 is higher, the boxes which be- 
 long in the boot will not slide 
 out over it unless it is put down 
 altogether. This door should 
 have iron quadrants, or chains, 
 which hold it when open, in a 
 horizontal position, so that it serves as a table for 
 serving lunch (see Fig. 36). 
 
 V7?>^//////// //?>///k 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 * The ' Peters' coach was built for Mr Tiffany to take to 
 Tunis, and the seats were covered with pigskin, the first time that 
 this material was used for that purpose. 
 
CH. IV BOX AND DRIVING-SEAT 67 
 
 If the door is not hinged so as to be fair with the 
 bottom of the boot when horizontal, it may have a 
 chain and hook, as in a dog-cart, so that it can be 
 let down entirely in order to get out the boxes, and 
 afterward hooked up. 
 
 The door of the hind boot of a public-coach is hung, 
 not at the bottom, but at the off side, so as to be 
 easily opened by the guard to take out parcels ; un- 
 less, however, a coach is built especially for a public- 
 coach, it is better to hang the door drag-fashion, 
 and the coach can then serve both purposes. 
 
 In some of the old public-coaches, a rack on which 
 additional packages could be carried, was fitted 
 behind the rumble, and it was placed even as low 
 as the bottom of the boot, in which case the boot 
 was opened at the top, as was also the case for 
 security in the mail-coach. 
 
 Box and Driving-Seat. — On the front part of 
 the front boot is placed the driving-seat. In all 
 coaches it is supported 
 by solid ends or risers, 
 and has a board running 
 crosswise under it, so as 
 to close the space en- 
 tirely. The top of the 
 bench is flat, and the FlG _ 
 
 proper shape of seat for 
 
 the coachman is made by the cushion. The best 
 form for this cushion is shown in Fig. 37. It may 
 
68 BOX AND DRIVING-SEAT CH. IV 
 
 be entirely stuffed, in which case it is fastened on 
 by two straps which cross on top of it, or it may be 
 made with box sides and back, like the driving 
 cushions of a landau or of a brougham, and fast- 
 ened to the seat by a strap underneath. The 
 former is the old-fashioned coaching style. The 
 seat should not be too tlat, nor should it be as 
 steep as it is sometimes made, so that the coach- 
 man rather leans against it than sits on it, a point 
 that will be referred to when treating of the Position 
 on the Box. On a public-coach there is usually a 
 pocket on the near side of the cushion. The iron 
 rail on the off side should rise above the cushion, 
 to prevent the coachman from being thrown off 
 by a violent jolt. The box-seat has a back which 
 does not extend behind the coachman's cushion. 
 It is sometimes curved, as shown in Plates VII. and 
 XIX., but this is no improvement. It is frequently 
 so made that it can be taken off, in which case, 
 it should be, when in place, strapped tightly, other- 
 wise it may yield to the pull of a passenger who 
 takes hold of it in getting up or down with the 
 risk of giving him a fall. It is better to have it a 
 fixture. 
 
 Attached to the upper front edge of the boot 
 (Fig. 38) is the foot-board, the angle of which is of 
 great importance. An angle of 33 degrees with the 
 horizontal is the best. 
 
 Too large a foot-board is uncouth ; in the old 
 mails it was both short and narrow, so' that the 
 
CH. IV 
 
 FOOT-BOARD 
 
 6 9 
 
 traces could be readily seen by the coachman. It 
 
 should be large enough ' fore and aft' to keep the 
 
 toe from projecting 
 
 beyond it, but no 
 
 larger ; 24 inches 
 
 from a vertical line 
 
 touching the front 
 
 edge of the cushion 
 
 is correct. 
 
 A foot - board 
 which is narrow, 
 from right to left, 
 permits the coach- 
 man to see his 
 
 Fig 38. 
 
 horses better than if it is too wide ; and as the 
 passengers do not want to walk about on the foot- 
 board, there is no reason for making it more than 
 46 inches wide, on any coach. 
 On the hind boot is placed 
 the rumble (Fig. 39), which, 
 in a drag, is a seat for two 
 servants. It is supported by 
 irons at its ends, and is en- 
 tirely open underneath. It 
 should be 44 inches long, 
 which length does not make 
 it look out of proportion and 
 will orive room enough for IG ' 39 * 
 
 three slender persons, which is sometimes very con- 
 venient with a full load on top, as for a picnic or 
 
?o 
 
 RUMBLE 
 
 CH. IV 
 
 races. It should have a lazy-back, which can be 
 put on when it is used in this way, and there should 
 be also a valance of patent leather, which can be 
 buttoned on the front edge of the seat. These are 
 shown by the dotted lines of Fig. 39. When the 
 grooms occupy the rumble, neither the back nor the 
 valance should be used. 
 
 On a public-coach the rumble is supported by a 
 solid bench like that of the driving-seat ; the board 
 
 at the back joins the boot 
 at its upper angle, and the 
 seat is 60 inches long, so as 
 to hold three persons com- 
 fortably. On the near side 
 is a cushion (a couple of 
 inches higher than the cush- 
 ion of the other two seats) 
 for the guard, which ensures 
 n f him his proper place and 
 
 enables him to see over the 
 heads of the passengers. 
 Sometimes a public-coach has a rumble long enough 
 for four persons, but it gives a clumsy air to the 
 coach. This seat has a permanent back. 
 
 A strap with a loop should be fastened to the 
 under side of the back roof-seat, on the near side, 
 half-way between the centre and the end, so as to 
 come between the end passenger and his neighbour, 
 by which strap the guard can steady himself when 
 standing up to sound the horn. 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
PLATE IV. 
 
 * J ^tV*>, 
 
 
 *si35l 
 
 
 2)liototi||ic.> Uc-ni etcluiup hi a luiiiilitilct [•ailed ' -J lie 4ooaeH. HdJ'ui>c/c.> 
 iv ^JulitioaX (l oiiue-V.|icAa 'he. HooM/cW; xKiiitcU ot -*IaJ. U'lcxiicii 
 olilioi-itc QXtaa'a -if »vu H^-citc, yfeollltAa, 1766. 
 
 eJ lieu btvoiu licit>oni> in tli c luiMfct CMi/O iit.x> a mail- hi Hie Uotvt iKiofc. 
 
 1 QivuU lo-int at uuvoibeu in nic boot ofuveeaA 
 
 ' -Hvlio- [hv Iua int.it't< tclird a/un l/» quite 'tceeat o. 
 
 ii 25 ; f. l£. 19. 
 
CH. IV BOOTS 71 
 
 In carriages of the seventeenth century, in addi- 
 tion to the four people who sat inside, two more 
 persons, usually pages, or persons of lower rank, 
 sat sideways in the door-ways, facing the side of the 
 road, with their legs in a kind of box built out from 
 the side of the carriage and not unnaturally called 
 a 'boot,' and when what we now call the 'boots' 
 were added to a carriage, the name went with 
 them. The front boot, which was the support of 
 the driving-seat, must have had a closed top, but in 
 a public-coach, the addition behind was originally a 
 basket, open at the top, fastened upon the hind axle, 
 in which packages and passengers were carried. If 
 the passengers could do so, they sat down, but if 
 there were too many of them for this, they stood 
 up, and in cold weather the basket was half full of 
 straw to keep their legs warm. 
 
 This basket is shown in Plates I., IV., V., and 
 VI. ; * it was later replaced by a wooden box, open 
 at the top ; this was afterward closed at the top, 
 the passengers sat on it, and it assumed its pres- 
 ent form. In the early coaching books we read of 
 persons in the hind boot. 
 
 In Cross, vol. ii. p. 6, we read : ' Now the guard 
 
 * In a plate published by Edw. Orme, Bond Street, London, in 
 18 16, of ' The Ghent and Brussels Diligence,' there is shown a basket 
 behind, another on the top, and another for the box-seat. The 
 coachman is on the roof, his reins passing over the heads of the 
 persons on, or in, the box. The flat, shallow basket is still seen on 
 the roof of broughams fitted up for station work. 
 
J 2 ROOF-SEATS CH. IV 
 
 ' had taken up two soldiers on the road, and from 
 ' good feeling, as I thought, had, not long before we 
 ' stopped, put them into the hind boot and covered 
 ' them up — the boots in those days being very capa- 
 ' cious and opening at the top.' This happened in 
 January 1814. The guard's object was, of course, 
 to prevent the proprietor from knowing that he 
 had carried the soldiers free, or else had pocketed 
 their fares. 
 
 Again in Cross (vol. ii.'p. 81), we find as follows, 
 where an old coachman is speaking of sailors just 
 paid off, travelling by the Portsmouth coach : ' We 
 
 * used to set 'em a-nVhting in the rumble-tumble, 
 
 * when they'd be sure to drop something worth 
 ' picking up.' 
 
 The whole hind boot seems to have been called the 
 rumble. The name is now applied only to the seat. 
 
 Some of the older coachmen called it the ' dickey' 
 (Cross, vol. iii. p. 128), but that name is now applied 
 to the driving-seat of a carriage. 
 
 Roof-Seats. — In the very old coaches (Plates V. 
 and VI., Hogarth and Rowlandson) there were 
 no seats on the roof, but passengers frequently 
 sat there, clinging on as they best could. Seats 
 were afterward added in the form that we have 
 them now, and finally, so many accidents were 
 there from top-heavy coaches, that a certain Mr 
 Gammon procured the passage of an Act of Parlia- 
 ment, in 1 788, prohibiting coaches from carrying 
 
> 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 o 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 -< 
 > 
 
 D 
 > 
 
 m 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 V 
 
 z 
 H 
 
 I 
 O 
 
 > 
 
 3 
 
 > 
 
 H 
 m 
 
> 
 
 — 
 
 _l 
 El 
 
 S "'i. 
 
CH. IV ROOF-SEATS 73 
 
 more than six persons on the roof and two on the 
 box beside the driver. * 
 
 The roof-seats, therefore, did not extend much 
 beyond the edge of the roof, but later they were 
 lengthened so as to hold four. These roof-seats 
 are sometimes called the ' gammon-boards,' f obvi- 
 ously from the name of the author of the Act. 
 
 In the present coach, the roof-seats are fastened 
 to the roof, with their edges fair with the front and 
 back parts of the body. To carry four persons 
 with comfort they should be 6 feet long, and their 
 length may be practically increased without adding 
 to their apparent size, by bending the side irons 
 outward, six inches being thus easily added. 
 
 The mail-coaches had no hind roof-seat and car- 
 ried only three on the front roof-seat, and down 
 to 1870 drags usually had seats long enough for 
 only three, and extending slightly beyond the edge 
 of the roof. These seats are now uniformly made 
 to hold four ; and while the width of the load on 
 top does undoubtedly detract somewhat from the 
 ' smart' appearance of the coach, the additional ac- 
 commodation more than makes up for it, and 
 when only three people are up, they have a com- 
 fortable abundance of room and do not make the 
 load look really much wider than if they were 
 crowded together. 
 
 * Brighton and its Coaches, p. 25. 
 
 f 'Nimrod,' Road, p. 17, calls the hind roof-seat the 'gammon- 
 board.' 
 
74 FOOT-STOOLS CH. IV 
 
 The roof-seats have backs, which, on a drag, are 
 covered on both sides with patent leather ; on a 
 public-coach, with the same covering as that on the 
 seats. On a drag - , the standards should be hinged 
 just above the cushion, so that they can be turned 
 down when the seats are not occupied, — which 
 should always be done. On a public-coach, the 
 standards are usually fixed. 
 
 On a roof-seat for four, the outside persons have 
 their feet partially unsupported, and on public-coaches 
 it is usual to extend a board on both sides so as to 
 provide a footing. It is somewhat clumsy and very 
 much in the way in getting up, and is commonly 
 omitted in drags or made very small. 
 
 As the roof-seat is usually somewhat high for a 
 lady, it is well to have two boxes to fit on the top 
 of the boot, as shown in Fig. 41, so made that 
 
 they cannot readily slip off, and 
 
 C^str-^ —^ yet can be pushed sideways to 
 
 ^ accommodate the persons sit- 
 
 Fig. 41. r 
 
 ting there. If two ladies are in 
 the middle, the boxes can be put close together, 
 so as not to occupy the whole foot room. A similar 
 arrangement is convenient for the box-seat. Car- 
 pet foot-stools serve the same purpose, but they are 
 always slipping about, falling off, and getting lost. 
 
 The tops of the boots and the foot-board should 
 be covered with perfectly plain, single-coloured oil- 
 cloth, kamptulicon, or india-rubber. The foot-board 
 sometimes has, in addition, a perforated india-rubber 
 
CH. IV PAINTING AND LETTERING 75 
 
 mat, which must be firmly fastened on, since acci- 
 dents have happened from its being pushed off by 
 the feet and frightening the wheelers by falling on 
 their backs. 
 
 On some public-coaches running out of London, 
 there is a seat for three persons on the middle 
 of the roof, — 'the knife-board,' — but it makes the 
 coach top-heavy, and is a dangerous arrangement 
 not to be commended. 
 
 PAINTING AND LETTERING 
 
 Coaches are usually painted in two colours ; the 
 colour chosen for the body is on the quarter panels, 
 the whole of the door, and the panel of the hind 
 boot. 
 
 The colour of the carriage-part is on the risers of 
 the box-seat (also on the risers and panel of the 
 rumble, in a public-coach), the under side and edge 
 of the foot-board, and on any portion of its upper 
 surface not covered with kamptulicon, on all the 
 carriage-part including the springs, and on the long 
 rocker-bed which runs under the body and really 
 forms a part of it. 
 
 The upper panels, the sides of the boots, the 
 front of the front boot, and the roof, are always 
 black. 
 
 All iron-work not on the wood, such as the stand- 
 ards of the rumble, steps, seat-rails, roller-bolts, 
 hub-bands and plates, shoe, chain, and ladder, is 
 black. To this rule, the springs are an exception, 
 
j6 PAINTING AND LETTERING CH. IV 
 
 but their shackles are usually black, or are covered 
 with black leather. 
 
 The rule of painting the panel of the hind boot 
 the same colour as the body is not invariable ; it 
 is frequently the same as the colour of the carriage- 
 part, as in the mail-coaches. The choice of the 
 colour is somewhat a matter of taste, depending on 
 which colour will look the best when the coach is 
 seen from behind. If the body-colour is light, it is 
 put upon the panel ; not if it is dark. 
 
 A public-coach usually has no striping. A drag 
 may have striping, preferably black, at the root of 
 the spokes, on the rims of the wheels, round the 
 doors, and on the box-seat risers, and a lined panel 
 on the under side of the foot-board. The corners 
 ot the wood-work of the carriage-part are some- 
 times moulded and striped : in this case some of 
 the bolt-heads and clips are black. 
 
 The only other ornamentation on a drag is the 
 monogram, or the crest, of the owner, painted on 
 the crest-panel (which is the narrow panel under 
 the window), and the devices of any coaching clubs 
 to which the owner may belong, which are painted 
 on the door under the crest-panel, and in the centre 
 of the panel of the hind boot ; or the crest, or 
 monooram alone, may be there. 
 
 A public-coach has painted on it the names of the 
 places between, and through which, it runs. 
 
 The names of the two ends of the route are 
 on the panel of the hind boot, the more important 
 
CH. IV PAINTING AND LETTERING J J 
 
 one first ; * for instance, ' London and Brighton' in 
 three lines, the ' and' being in letters ; not the sign 
 &. On the boots, near the lower edges, are the 
 names of places on the road. On the crest-panel of 
 the door are the same names as on the hind panel, 
 but without the 'and.' Sometimes the name and 
 address of the proprietor are on the crest-panel ; 
 during a certain period in the old coaching days 
 this was required. On the risers of the driving- 
 seat and of the rumble, are the names of the offices 
 or inns at the ends of the route. For instance, 
 the Paris and Poissy coach has ' herald office' on 
 one riser and ' hotel de l'esturgeon' on the other. 
 
 The name of the coach is in large letters on the 
 back of the rumble. 
 
 Colonel Kane's New York and Pelham coach 
 had on the crest panels union— port on the near side, 
 and pelSSu^br^idge on the °^ s ide ; and on the riser 
 of the box-seat, the name of the coach ' tally-ho' 
 with a Maltese cross above it. There was ' NEW 
 YORK and PELHAM' on the hind boot panel 
 and no names on the boots. The lettering was 
 in gold and black, — the coach being yellow, — and 
 was very quiet and in good taste. 
 
 Some coaches, both in England and in France, 
 have names of places on the lower panels also of 
 the body, near to and following the curved lines 
 
 * This rule was not universal in the old coaches ; in many of the 
 old prints the name of the less important place comes first. 
 
78 PAINTING AND LETTERING CH. IV 
 
 of the panels ; but this is, perhaps, putting too much 
 on the coach. Sometimes a device, such as a comet 
 or a meteor, suggestive of the name of the coach, 
 is painted on the upper panels, but there is never 
 any lettering there. 
 
 In the old coaching days, the name of the princi- 
 pal place to which the coach ran, was often painted 
 on the under side of the foot-board, so that the 
 coaches, when standing- under a shed at a large 
 coaching inn, could be readily distinguished ; or 
 else the name of the coach was there painted, a 
 fashion which has been copied in the mail-coaches 
 recently built in Paris. 
 
 The mail-coaches in England were all painted 
 alike ; the under-carriage red, the body a maroon 
 or claret colour. On the side of the front boot 
 was the cipher G.R. or V.R., of the sovereign, in 
 large interlaced gold, script letters ; on the side of 
 the hind boot the number of the coach {(^/p. jg), 
 in similar letters. On the crest-panel, which was 
 deep, were the names of the towns between which 
 the mail ran, and the words 'Royal Mail,' in gold. 
 On the four black panels were the stars, of the 
 Thistle on the near side, and of the Bath on the 
 off side, of the front boot ; of the Garter on the 
 near side, and of St. Patrick on the off side, of 
 the hind boot ; on the doors the royal arms ; on 
 the hind boot panel the names of the places be- 
 tween which the mail ran. On the iron legs sup- 
 porting the guard's seat on a mail-coach, there was 
 
 
CH. IV PAINTING AND LETTERING 79 
 
 no place on which the name could be painted, and 
 while some of the mails had names, many of them 
 had none. 
 
 In Malet's Annals of the Road there is an ad- 
 mirable drawing, in colour, of a mail-coach, which 
 distinctly shows all these details, and in the same 
 book there is a drawing of a stage-coach with body 
 and carriage-part painted the same colour. 
 
 The colours of the mail-coaches have been 
 adopted by the Reunion Road Club of Paris, and 
 all its coaches are painted maroon and red, with the 
 red on the panel of the hind boot. 
 
8o CH. V 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 ACCESSORIES 
 
 Brake. — Coaches are now always fitted with a 
 brake, consisting of blocks which can be pressed 
 against the tires of both hind wheels. The blocks 
 are fixed to arms projecting from a horizontal shaft 
 which runs across under the body of the coach, 
 turning in suitable supports or brackets fastened 
 to the under side of the body. An arm projecting 
 upward from this shaft, passes into the body and 
 is pulled forward by a rod leading from the front 
 boot and connected with the handle of the brake, 
 the upper end of which is on the off side of the 
 boot. 
 
 Every maker has his own way of carrying out 
 these details, but that arrangement in which only 
 the upper part of the brake-handle is visible from 
 the outside is the neatest. 
 
 The block which rubs against the wheel may be 
 made of iron, or of wood covered with some ma- 
 terial, or of wood alone. Iron is the least satis- 
 factory, because it does not take a good hold of the 
 wheel, and because it frequently makes a noise ; it 
 lasts, however, a long time. Wood covered with 
 leather holds well, but the leather requires frequent 
 renewal and is almost always ragged and torn. 
 
CH. V BRAKE 8 I 
 
 The best leather for this purpose is old belting, 
 which is flat and somewhat oily. Pieces of old 
 india-rubber tires, fastened on a wooden block, are 
 much used by French builders and make a good 
 brake ; this is shown in Fig. 42. The best material, 
 however, is a tough wood, like chestnut, used alone ; 
 oak is too hard and squeaks almost as loudly as 
 iron. The soft wood wears, but it can be easily 
 replaced. The arm should terminate in an iron 
 socket, of the form shown in Fig. 42, the hollow 
 beinor somewhat smaller at the 
 bottom than at the top, and the 
 block being- made to fit it. A 
 dozen blocks can be made at a 
 time by any carpenter, and kept 
 ready for use. When a block is 
 worn, it can be knocked out by a blow from below, 
 and the new block dropped into its place ; no other 
 fastening being necessary. Of course, both blocks 
 should be renewed at the same time, so that they 
 shall bear equally on both wheels. 
 
 Blocks of this shape in solid rubber can be bought 
 ready made, from the manufacturers. 
 
 The handle of the brake moves past a toothed 
 rack, and when the block is pressed against the 
 wheel, a sharp projection on the side of the handle 
 engages with one of the teeth and holds the brake 
 against the wheel. To release the brake, the 
 handle is pushed outward, its length giving it 
 enough spring for that purpose, and the projection 
 
82 
 
 BRAKE 
 
 CH. V 
 
 A K 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 is disengaged from the tooth. The shape of the 
 teeth of the rack is important. If they are too 
 square, as in A, Fig. 43, the handle will jump out 
 with the shaking of the coach ; if they 
 are cut back too much, as in B, it will 
 be difficult to disentraore the handle. 
 This should be carefully looked to in a 
 new coach, since either fault is serious. 
 
 There is a difference of opinion among 
 coaching men as to whether the brake- 
 handle should move forward or backward 
 to put on the brake. Fig. 44 shows the 
 two arrangements. In A, the handle, 
 when the break is off, is far forward and 
 down ; to reach it, the coachman must lean for- 
 ward somewhat, but he can exert a crreat d ea l of 
 
 force upon it as he pulls 
 it back. In its off posi- 
 tion it is much in the way 
 in getting up and down. 
 If it is placed further back 
 to avoid this difficulty, 
 the arm of the coachman, 
 when he has the handle 
 nearly back, and needs to 
 exert the most power, is in the worst position for 
 so doing. If the handle works by pushing instead 
 of pulling, as shown in B, it is always out of the 
 way, and in putting on the brake, the coachman 
 has to exert the least force when the handle is first 
 
 Fig. 44 
 
CH. V BRAKE 83 
 
 moved ; as he requires to exert more force, his arm 
 is constantly getting into a better position to do so, 
 and during the whole operation, the body is much 
 less disturbed, — an advantage when it is remem- 
 bered that all movements in driving should be as 
 little noticeable as possible. I prefer decidedly the 
 brake which works forward, and many brakes are 
 now made in that way, but the advantages seem to 
 be somewhat evenly divided. 
 
 The handle should be flexible sideways, enough 
 to enable it to be pushed off by pressing the outside 
 of the riofht arm against it. 
 
 The brake-blocks should be applied to the front 
 of the wheel, because the rod running to them is 
 thereby shorter and consequently lighter, and be- 
 cause if applied to the back they will work up out 
 of the sockets by the action of the wheel, unless the 
 sockets have their lar^e ends down, in which case 
 the blocks will drop out if not fastened. The 
 brake should be applied at a point of the tire level 
 with the axle. If it is not exactly at that point, it is 
 better to have it a little below it, so that when the 
 brake is put on, the springs of the coach will help 
 to keep up the pressure ; whereas, if it is above the 
 line of the axle, every time that the body of the 
 coach jumps up, on a rough hill, the pressure of the 
 brake will be for the moment diminished. 
 
 It was a long time before the brake, which was 
 first used on the Continent, was adopted in Eng- 
 land, the older coaches having the shoe only, but in 
 
84 BRAKE CH. V 
 
 America it was used early in this century on heavy 
 wagons, and was worked by a handle at the back 
 by the wagoner, who was on foot. 
 
 The majority of Continental carriages and coaches 
 have a wheel by which the brake is applied, but it is 
 too slow in its operation, requiring several turns, 
 and therefore is not nearly so good as the direct 
 acting handle, and, moreover, it is frequently so 
 placed that the coachman has to stoop, or to lean 
 sideways to take hold of it, which is objectionable, 
 since he should not change his position on the box. 
 
 The brake is also sometimes so arranged that it 
 can be worked from the back of the coach by a 
 groom, as well as from the front ; but this is entirely 
 unnecessary, since the coachman should be com- 
 petent to work the brake himself. 
 
 Paris omnibuses use the ' Lemoine brake,' which 
 is worked by the hind wheel itself. On the inner 
 end of the hub of this wheel there is a flanged pulley, 
 round which a hemp cord is passed three or four 
 times. That part of the cord which is on the lower 
 side of the hub is attached directly to the ordinary 
 brake ; the other end passes to a foot lever at the 
 coachman's seat. As long- as the cord is slack, the 
 pulley runs round inside of it freely, but as soon as 
 the forward end of it is tightened by the coachman, 
 the pulley winds up the cord and puts on the brake 
 with great force. The cord, on the side against the 
 pulley, is lined with blocks of wood or leather. It 
 is useful in crowded streets, and it has been applied 
 
CH. V 
 
 SKID 
 
 85 
 
 to some coaches, but is so rarely needed, that it is 
 an unnecessary addition. 
 
 In the American (Concord) coach, the brake is 
 worked by the foot, and there being no rack to hold 
 it, the continued pressure of the foot is necessary 
 to keep the brake on. With this arrangement the 
 driver is able to increase or diminish the pressure 
 in crossing the many catch-water banks which are 
 met with on American hilly roads. In some late 
 English coaches there is an arrangement by which 
 the brake can be put on by the foot, the handle at 
 the same time moving back and eno-a^ino- in the 
 rack. It is disengaged by the hand in the ordinary 
 way. This does very well for an omnibus, which 
 has to stop frequently in crowded streets, but it is 
 certainly not necessary on a coach ; as has been 
 pertinently said by an eminent coaching authority, 
 1 let the coachman drive with his 
 'hands and not with all fours.' 
 
 A left-handed coachman may have 
 his brake-handle at his left side, be- 
 tween his cushion and the box-seat. 
 
 Even with a brake, the coach 
 should have a skid or shoe, to carry 
 one wheel, on a hill that is too 
 steep for the brake alone to be de- 
 pended on. The skid should have 
 continuous sides, as in Fig. 45, and not merely four 
 lugs standing up, as in Fig. 46, since a skid of the 
 latter form is much more apt to come off of the 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
86 SKID CH. V 
 
 wheel. The bottom of the skid is usually made not 
 much wider than the tire, but it is better to have a 
 light plate, at least 6 inches wide, welded * to it, as 
 this tears up the road much less ; the under side of 
 the plate should be rounded up along all its edges. 
 
 A strong chain attaches the skid to the centre of 
 the front axle, and is of the proper length to keep 
 the skid vertically under the centre of the wheel 
 when in use. It is better to have the chain an inch 
 too long than an inch too short, in order to prevent 
 the skid from coming off of the wheel. A hook, 
 large enough to hook round the rim of the wheel 
 (Fig. 47, A), and covered with leather, is sometimes 
 attached by another chain to the 
 same part of the axle. This is 
 hooked on the rim of the wheel be- 
 low where the brake touches it, and 
 holds the wheel in case the skid 
 
 comes off. Instead of having - a large 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 hook, the chain itself is sometimes 
 
 made sufficiently long to go round the rim, that 
 part of it which touches the rim being covered with 
 leather, as shown in Fig. 47, B. At the end of the 
 leather-covered portion, there is a small hook which 
 goes into one of the links of the chain. 
 
 The hook is perhaps an almost unnecessary addi- 
 tion, yet on a public-coach running over steep hills, 
 it is safer to have it. 
 
 * The objection to bolting it on is, that the bolt-heads wear off. 
 
CH. V 
 
 SKID 
 
 87 
 
 The skid, when not in use, should hook on the 
 body of the coach, just behind the bracket of the 
 brake-arm. Sometimes the hook for the skid is 
 worked on this bracket. It must be far enough 
 back to keep the bight of the chain entirely off the 
 ground. A leather loop is fastened to the body to 
 take the hook shown in Fig. 47. 
 
 In English coaches the hook and loop are on the 
 near side of the coach, because the skid is put 
 under the near wheel. In America, where we drive 
 on the right-hand side of the road, the skid should be 
 put under the off wheel, for the reason that the skid, 
 holding very tightly to the ground, acts almost as if 
 it were a fixed point, and the tendency of the force 
 exerted by the horses will 
 be to pull on the chain 
 in a straight line from 
 that point ; the coach 
 will therefore slide over 
 to the side away from the 
 skid, which should be, 
 therefore, always on the 
 lower side of the road ; 
 
 if it is on the upper side, the coach will be constantly 
 sliding toward the gutter (see Fig. 48). 
 
 The reader can satisfy himself that this is so, by 
 putting a skid on any four-wheeled carriage and 
 then pulling the carriage over a smooth, level pave- 
 ment, such as asphalt. 
 
 Attention is especially called to this, because 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
88 ICE-SKID CH. V 
 
 builders in this country have blindly followed the 
 English fashion of putting- the skid on the near side, 
 ignoring the fact that we drive on the off side of 
 the road. 
 
 It being the duty of the guard on a public-coach, 
 and of the second man on a drag, to put on the 
 skid, it is more convenient to have it on the near 
 side, but it is used so rarely that this is of little im- 
 portance. 
 
 A skid attached to a rod has been devised, that 
 can be worked by a cord or light chain and dropped 
 under the wheel, which would then run up on it and 
 thus save a man's getting down to put it on, but 
 the arrangement has not found favour in practice. 
 
 It has been also proposed to have the chain which 
 holds the skid, so long: that the skid can drae 
 behind the wheel. By a hook and ring it may be 
 shortened to the proper length to go under the 
 wheel, and, at the bottom of the hill, the rine beino- 
 knocked off the hook, the wheel will run off the 
 skid without its being necessary to back the coach. 
 
 The ordinary skid does 
 
 not hold on ice, and in 
 
 Switzerland an ice-skid, 
 
 shown in Fig. 49, is used. 
 
 It is a link about 28 inches 
 
 long, with chisel-shaped 
 
 49 teeth. The wheel rests in 
 
 the opening, and the ring can be shifted to either 
 
 end, so as to use one or the other set of teeth. 
 
CH. V DRAG-STAFF 89 
 
 A chain wrapped round the rim of the wheel and 
 round the ordinary skid when the skid is on the 
 wheel, may be used in an emergency. Icy roads 
 are always dangerous to a coach and alarming to 
 the coachman. 
 
 Some Swiss travellino-carriaoes are fitted with 
 an additional brake on the front wheels, which is 
 worked from the near side of the coachman's seat. 
 Obviously the rod working this brake must pass 
 through the centre bolt of the fore-carriage, which 
 bolt is made hollow for the purpose. This second 
 brake obviates, in many cases, the employment of 
 the skid, but it should not be used unless the hind 
 brake is also on, as the retardation of the front 
 wheels while the hind wheels are running free, may 
 cause an accident. 
 
 A drag-staff was formerly attached to travelling- 
 carriages. It is a short pole, hinged to the hind 
 axle and trailing on the ground, so that, should the 
 carriage be stopped in going up a hill, the staff 
 prevents it from running back. It was rarely used 
 on coaches. 
 
 Lamps. — The lamps of a coach are large, with 
 good reflectors, and should be made to burn the or- 
 dinary, large, carriage-candles ; oil-lamps are dirty 
 and troublesome. They are made to fit easily into 
 the lamp-irons, which are fixed on the front edge 
 of the body of the coach, and should have stops on 
 them to prevent turning in their sockets. There 
 
90 
 
 LAMPS 
 
 CH. V 
 
 should be brackets, or straps of some kind, in the 
 front corners of the interior of the coach, to hold 
 them when they are not in the lamp-irons. 
 
 Public-coaches usually have another pair of lamps 
 (see Fig. 50), which are put on the lower step-irons 
 of the front boot. These additional lamps should 
 throw their liofht to the side as well as to the front. 
 
 There is also a foot-board lamp, which is hung on 
 the front edge of the foot-board ; no part of it should 
 project above the foot-board, lest it catch the reins, 
 and if it extends much below, a horse may touch it 
 with his croup, in making a short turn ; it should 
 therefore be small, and it is not necessary to have 
 
 more than one candle in it ; 
 its only use is to light the 
 pole-head, which is always 
 in the shadow cast by the 
 horses' shoulders. Foot- 
 board lamps with three can- 
 dles are too lars/e. It is not 
 easy to find the proper place 
 for this foot-board lamp ; it is more out of the way 
 at the root of the foot-board, but the heat from it is 
 likely to blister the paint above it, and it can be 
 put there only when the front of the boot is fixed. 
 
 A completely equipped public-coach which runs 
 after dark should have a lamp on the near side 
 of the hind boot, shining backward, to enable the 
 guard to see the address on packages and to read 
 his way-bill. This lamp is so made that it can be 
 
 Fig. 
 
 ;o. 
 
CH. V LAMPS 91 
 
 readily taken off to be used to look along the road in 
 the case of a doubtful bridge, or the like. The main 
 coach-lamps are often used for the same purpose. 
 
 Lamps are sometimes made with slides which 
 cover the glass when they are not lighted, but 
 they are ugly, and when lamps are not in use they 
 should be inside the coach. 
 
 It is not considered the ' proper thing' to carry 
 the lamps in the daytime. This is, to a certain 
 extent, an arbitrary dictate of coaching fashion, 
 based, however, on a real custom of road-coaching. 
 When coaching was a business, the lamps were 
 kept at the station where the coach changed just 
 before dark, and were put on the coach at the 
 change, having been trimmed and filled — for they 
 were oil-lamps — during the day. When morning 
 came, they were left at the first change-place, so 
 that a coach was never seen carrying them in the 
 daytime, and this has been adopted as a fashion. 
 .Moreover, the lamps, being large, are a good deal 
 in the way of persons, especially ladies, getting up 
 and down, — a practical reason for leaving them off. 
 At coaching meets, where uniformity is desirable, 
 they must be either on all the coaches or off all of 
 them, and they are always off. 
 
 It has become, therefore, one of the conditions of a 
 perfectly turned-out coach that it should not have its 
 lamps on, though it is hard to give any good reasons, 
 apart from those just mentioned, why the lamps 
 should not be on a coach as they are on a brougham 
 
9 2 
 
 LADDER 
 
 CH. V 
 
 or a landau, which would look naked without them. 
 A break is always driven with its lamps on. 
 
 The modern coach-lamp is so large, — almost like 
 a locomotive head-light, — that it is very conspicuous 
 when it is in place. Smaller and plainer lamps are 
 comine into fashion of late, more like the old mail- 
 coach lamps. It is a good plan to have two plugs, 
 of mahogany, or other polished, dark wood, with 
 smoothly rounded tops, to keep in the lamp-sockets 
 of a drag when the lamps are not in use. They 
 o-ive a finished look and are more agreeable to the 
 touch than the sharp edge of the socket if the lamp- 
 iron is taken hold of in getting on the coach. 
 
 A light ladder is necessary to enable ladies to 
 mount to the top of the coach. It folds in the 
 
 middle, so as to be con- 
 venient to hang up, and 
 is usually made of iron. 
 Two designs are shown 
 in Fig. 5 i ; the one with 
 a platform is the more 
 complete, and better for 
 a public - coach. The 
 other is lighter and con- 
 venient for a drag. The 
 steps should be covered 
 with woollen plush or 
 india-rubber, to prevent the foot from slipping. 
 The ladder must have hooks or pins which catch 
 in the step, made open for that purpose, or on 
 
 Fig. 51, 
 
CH. V BASKET 93 
 
 top of the wheel when it is used for the hind 
 roof-seats. The length of the ladder should be 
 carefully considered. If it is too long it will be 
 difficult to use it from a kerb, and for this reason 
 it is better to have it as short as will do on a flat 
 road. On a drag it is best carried on two hooks 
 under the rumble-seat; on a public-coach it is hung 
 under the hind boot, since it would hide the lettering 
 on the back panel were it under the seat. 
 
 A basket, for umbrellas and sticks 
 (Fig. 52), is fastened on the near side, to 
 the iron of the back roof-seat. It is 27 
 inches long, 10 inches in diameter, and 
 has a flat side which lies against the 
 panel. For a public-coach, it has usually 
 a division, making a small place in which 
 the horn, with its bell up, is carried. The 
 lower end of the basket is strapped to the handle 
 which is on the edge of the body. 
 
 While a basket is essential to a public-coach, it is 
 doubtful whether it is worth while to carry one on a 
 drag, when not on a journey. It does not improve 
 the appearance of the coach as seen from behind ; 
 it widens it out and detracts from its ' smart' look ; 
 and since a stop can be made at any time, the um- 
 brellas can readily be taken from the inside ; in the 
 basket they get chafed and dusty. 
 
 When a basket is carried, it is not necessary to 
 have a horn-case ; but if the horn is carried when 
 there is no basket, it should be put in a russet 
 
94 
 
 HORN-CASE 
 
 CH. V 
 
 leather case (Fig. 53) strapped to the off side roof- 
 seat iron. It is on the off side, because the head 
 groom sits on that side, and it is he who usually 
 sounds the horn. The case should be slightly 
 
 longer than the horn and open at 
 the bottom, so that dirt will not 
 lodge in it. A wire pin across the 
 end will prevent a loose mouth- 
 piece from dropping through. 
 
 On a public-coach, the rails of the 
 roof-seats are connected by a rod, 
 which serves for the guard to take 
 hold of in climbing round from his 
 seat to the front of the coach, and 
 also serves to hold a net, made of 
 straps, which prevents coats and 
 wraps, laid on the top of the coach, 
 from falling off (see Plates XVII., 
 XIX., and XXII.). Similar rails may be temporarily 
 attached to a drag for a journey, but they should 
 not be on when the drag is used for park driving. 
 
 Lunch-boxes are fitted to go in the hind boot. 
 The best arrangement is shown in Fig. 54. These 
 boxes should be made of mahogany or oak, pan- 
 elled. The large ones should be lined with tinned 
 (planished) copper, which is much cleaner and nicer 
 than zinc, and each one should be divided into three 
 watertight compartments. In these compartments 
 bottles, ice, salad, &c., can be carried, separated 
 from each other. 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
CH. V 
 
 LUNCH-BOXES 
 
 95 
 
 The shallow case, which rests on a slide, over the 
 large boxes, should be 7 inches deep outside, and 
 divided as shown. Plates, with napkins between 
 them, are in one side, dishes 
 in the other, tumblers in the 
 places made for them in the 
 centre. A large division holds 
 glass pitchers and one or two 
 table-cloths, and a tray, fitting 
 on top of the tumbler compart- 
 ment, takes knives, forks, and 
 spoons. A number of small 
 pantry towels should be added, 
 in which the soiled plates can 
 be wrapped to bring them 
 home in the lower boxes. It 
 is needless to say that no soiled 
 articles should be put in the 
 divided box, which should be 
 lined with buckskin, not with 
 the baize frequently used. 
 
 In addition to the boxes for 
 the hind boot, an ' imperial' is 
 frequently added to the roof of 
 the coach. It fits in between the seats, as shown in 
 Plate XVIII., and the front, back, and sides turn 
 down, so that it Battens out into a table. It holds 
 a quantity of provisions, and generally has a tray 
 hanging near the top which is convenient as an 
 additional table top. The imperial is an ugly 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
9 6 
 
 TABLES 
 
 CH. V 
 
 adjunct to the coach, and with reasonable ingenuity 
 
 in stowing what is needed, the boxes should carry 
 
 enough for any ordinary lunch. 
 
 For lunching on the coach, tables fitting: on the 
 
 hind boot and on the foot-board are convenient. A 
 
 simple arrangement for 
 this purpose is shown in 
 
 Fi g- 55- 
 
 The tops of the tables 
 
 are of a size to be carried 
 
 under the cushions of the 
 
 inside seats of the coach ; 
 
 the iron legs go in the 
 
 front boot. The method 
 
 Fig. 
 
 DO- 
 
 of screwing the parts together is shown in Fig. 55. 
 
 For attendance at race-courses, &c, where the 
 people on a drag sit in the sun for a long time, an 
 
 awning is useful. A satisfactory way of arranging 
 it is shown in Fig 56. 
 
 The standards are of iron % of an inch diameter, 
 
CH. V 
 
 AWNING 
 
 97 
 
 jointed in the middle like a fishing-rod, so that they 
 can be put in the boot, or inside the coach. They 
 slip into sockets under the seats. There are four 
 on each side ; those in the middle rise straight up 
 from the ends of the roof-seats. Those in the front 
 and back are of somewhat different shape, so that, 
 while rising from narrower seats, they have their 
 upper ends in a line with those in the middle ; those 
 for the box-seat also turn somewhat forward. The 
 standards have collars and knobs, at the top, and 
 four strips of hard wood, i y 2 inch by x / 2 inch, 
 with brass plates on the ends, drop over these 
 knobs, making a complete frame, over which the 
 awning is laid. The awning is best made of striped 
 material, not too heavy, and should have a valance 8 
 inches deep all round it. Braid or ribbons should 
 be provided by which the valance can be brailed up 
 if desired ; these braids can be passed through the 
 holes which have to be made in the awning where 
 it goes over the knobs. 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 A simple awning is shown in Fig. 57, but it can 
 be used only when the long and rather heavy poles 
 which it requires, can be sent by another convey- 
 
 7 
 
98 TOOLS CH. V 
 
 ance than the coach. The poles are long- enough to 
 reach from the ground to about 4 feet above the 
 roof of the coach ; they are driven slightly into the 
 ground and strapped to the rumble and to the mid- 
 dle of the foot-board. For a week's race-meeting' 
 or cricket-match, this awning may be kept on the 
 spot. One great advantage of it is, that it can be 
 canted to suit the direction of the sun. 
 
 Tools. — The following articles should be carried 
 in a coach : — 
 
 The wrenches belonging to the wheels. 
 
 Monkey-wrench. Foot-pick. 
 
 Blacksmith's hammer. Horseshoe nails. 
 
 One fore shoe. One hind shoe. 
 
 Large cutting pliers. Copper wire. Oil-can. 
 
 Cord and piece of manila rope 3/ 8 inch diameter. 
 
 Punch for making holes in straps. Strong knife. 
 
 Piece of canvas. Extra candles and matches. 
 
 Screw-driver. Brush. Cloth. Bucket. 
 
 If possible, a small hydraulic jack for raising the 
 wheel. 
 
 The uses of these articles will be referred to in 
 the Chapter on Accidents. 
 
 A list of spare parts of harness is given in the 
 Chapter on Harness. 
 
 Aprons. — Sometimes a small apron, usually of 
 some light stuff, such as is used for linen horse- 
 covers, or of thin cloth, is worn by the coachman, 
 
CH. V APRONS 99 
 
 over the lap, reaching from a little below the waist 
 to the ankles, and long enough the other way to 
 tuck under the legs on both sides, so as to be sat 
 upon. This is for the purpose of keeping dust, and 
 any dirt from the reins, off the trousers. When it 
 is worn for warmth it must be of thicker material, 
 and fastened around the waist by a strap, so that 
 when the wearer stands up it is much like a skirt. 
 An apron of this kind does not, however, protect 
 the feet from cold ; it is better to have one long 
 enough to go under the feet. 
 
 In cold weather it is well for the box passenger 
 to have a small, soft rug, to be wrapped round his 
 legs in the same way, under the box-apron, since 
 from the position of the coachman's legs, an open- 
 ing letting in cold air, is left necessarily at the side, 
 under any apron covering both persons. 
 
 The fashions of coaching having originated in a 
 country where fur robes are but little used, there 
 seems to be a certain lack of appropriateness in 
 using a fur robe on the box, although there is, of 
 course, no good reason against it ; but a thick drab 
 cloth looks rather more 'coaching,' and if neces- 
 sary, it can be lined with fur. 
 
 For ordinary weather there is no better material 
 for aprons than plain, drab, Bedford cord, either 
 hemmed on the edcre, or bound with cloth of the 
 same colour. The corners should be rounded, with 
 a radius of 4 or 5 inches. The apron for the box- 
 seat should be 4 ft. 6 in. wide and 6 ft. 6 in. long, 
 
IOO APRONS CH. V 
 
 and should have a strap 30 inches long, fastened 
 to the under side, 7 inches below the upper edge, 
 which can be passed round the rail of the box-seat 
 to keep the apron from slipping down. This strap 
 is passed through a ring fastened to a metal boss, 
 which shows on the outside of the apron. 
 
 Box-aprons sometimes have, sewed in the middle 
 of the upper part, a gusset which is supposed to 
 go down between the two persons who are on the 
 box, but it is of doubtful utility, since, if the apron 
 is wide enough, its centre part will be well kept 
 down by the strap without displacing the ends. 
 
 The box-apron sometimes has two pockets near 
 its upper edge, and then there is a long flap over 
 them ; unless there are pockets, the flap is hardly 
 necessary. 
 
 The aprons for the roof-seats should be 4 feet 
 wide and 9 feet long, so as to cover all four pas- 
 sengers, and there should be one for the rumble, 4 
 feet wide and 6 feet long. These sizes may seem 
 excessive, but it is a mistake to have aprons too 
 small ; they cannot be tucked under at the ends and 
 are always slipping about. 
 
 There should be an apron, of a cloth the colour 
 of the liveries, for the men to use in the rumble. 
 
 For cold weather, aprons made of heavy, drab 
 cloth, waterproofed, and lined with some check 
 material, are the proper thing. They should not be 
 bound, but stitched on the edo-e with several rows 
 of stitches. The box-seat apron is sometimes lined 
 
CH. V APRONS IOI 
 
 alone its lower edg^e, inside, with a band, about 8 
 inches wide, of pig skin, so that the feet may be 
 placed upon it without wearing it out. This band 
 should be only as long as the foot-board, say 40 
 inches, and should not extend to the ends of the 
 apron, or else it will be difficult, on account of their 
 stiffness, to tuck them in. 
 
 The most comfortable apron for cold weather is 
 a bag, 4 feet .long, up and down, and 27 inches wide 
 double, that is, made of stuff 54 inches wide. The 
 seam is not at the side, but at the back, in the 
 middle, and extends for a distance of about a foot 
 from the bottom, the rest being open. The bag is 
 pulled over the feet after sitting down and the sides 
 tucked in, so as to sit upon them. The bottom of 
 the bag is, of course, closed. 
 
 Against rain, india-rubber aprons should be pro- 
 vided, and, since it is not necessary that they should 
 be thick, the best, and by far the cheapest, material 
 is ordinary rubber-cloth, which can be bought by 
 the yard and merely cut to the proper length, with- 
 out any binding. It comes about 48 inches wide. 
 Whether it is white or black is a matter of taste ; 
 the white looks better, but has a whitish powder 
 on it, which marks dark clothes. The advantage of 
 these thin aprons is that they are thin and can be 
 folded and kept under the inside cushions, while 
 the regularly made rubber aprons are usually thick 
 and stiff. 
 
102 CH. VI 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 DIFFERENT FORMS OF FOUR-IN-HAND CARRIAGES 
 
 DRAG 
 
 As regards the different vehicles for four-horse 
 driving, the public coach and the private drag have 
 been already sufficiently described. The name drag 
 is now restricted to the private coach, but in the 
 early part of this century a public-coach was fre- 
 quently called a ' drag' and the coachman a ' drags- 
 man.' * 
 
 Adams writes, in 1837: 'A Driving Coach is a 
 ' vehicle formerly much used by gentlemen fond of 
 ' driving and attending races.' 
 
 MAIL-COACH 
 
 When, in 1784, at the suggestion of Mr Palmer, 
 of Bath, mail-coaches were established in England, 
 to replace the boys on horseback and the mail- 
 carts, the stage-coach, so modified as to make it 
 more suited to higher speeds and lighter loads, 
 became essentially the mail-coach shown in Plate 
 VII. It had a heavy carriage-part, but the body 
 was comparatively light and somewhat narrower 
 
 * Cross, vol. ii. p. 136. 'Nimrod's' Northern Tour, p. 32. 
 
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CH. VI MAIL-COACH IO 
 
 
 
 than that of the stage-coach. It carried four pas- 
 sengers inside, one on the box, and three on the 
 front roof-seat. There was no hind roof-seat, and 
 the rumble, supported by irons, carried only the 
 guard. 
 
 The hind boot had no door behind, the mail-bags 
 being put in through an opening in the top closed 
 by a lid, on which the feet of the guard rested. 
 In the place of the hind roof-seat there was a box 
 containing a blunderbuss and tools. The earlier 
 mails had telegraph springs in front and a cross 
 spring behind, which was later replaced by tele- 
 graph springs. The axles were heavy, with mail 
 axle-arms, the wheels had but little dish and were 
 set nearly vertical ; the hind wheels were larger 
 than those of the coaches, and measured 4 ft. 8 in. 
 The foot-board was small, the boots were large 
 and deep, and sometimes the full width of the 
 body. 
 
 These coaches were made on contract by Vidler, 
 whose firm built them from 1784 to 1836. There 
 were other builders, however ; Ward and Wright 
 are mentioned. 
 
 There is a model of a mail-coach, on a scale of 
 one inch to the foot, in the General Post-Ofhce in 
 London, and an exact copy of it is in the posses- 
 sion of the Coaching Club, New York. It has a 
 hammer-cloth. On occasions of ceremony (such as 
 the Procession of the Mails, which took place from 
 the General Post-Ofhce, on the King's birthday), a 
 
104 MALLE POSTE CH. VI 
 
 hammer-cloth, like that used on a dress carriage, 
 was put on the box-seat. It was red, like the royal 
 livery of the guard. 
 
 During Vidler's contract, probably few changes 
 or improvements were made in the mail-coaches, 
 but at the outset, the subject seems to have been 
 studied with much care by the Post-Office authori- 
 ties, with the result of turning out a very complete 
 vehicle. 
 
 An exact reproduction of the mail-coach was 
 built by Messrs Guiet & Co., of Paris, in 1892, for 
 Mr W. G. Tiffany, and was used in the drive 
 against time, from Paris to Trouville in July of that 
 year. It has been copied since then for other 
 private persons, and is shown in Plate VII. 
 
 MALLE POSTE 
 
 The French Mail, or ' Malle poste,' was en- 
 tirely different from the English ; it was a britzska 
 with a dickey for the guard. It carried only two 
 passengers, had four horses, and travelled very fast. 
 (Beaufort, p. 327.) 
 
 General Morix, in his Report on the London 
 Exhibition of 1862, says that the malle poste ran 
 on certain stone-paved roads at a speed of from 
 15 to 16 kilometres (9.32 to 9.94 miles) an hour. 
 The stages were short, only five miles. Beaufort 
 states that the changes of horses were made in 
 forty-five seconds. Plate VIII., from an old drawing 
 by Victor Adam, shows this vehicle. 
 
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CH. VI DILIGENCE 105 
 
 Morin's description of the English coach and 
 his comments upon it, in the Report just men- 
 tioned, are too good to be lost : — 
 
 ' At the same period the English mails and 
 'coaches had an entirely different form from ours, 
 ' and are reproduced in the vehicle now used in 
 ' England to take a party of people to the races ; 
 ' the body of a berline, with places inside for four 
 ' persons only, and with twelve or fourteen seats 
 'outside, entirely uncovered and surrounded by a 
 ' simple iron rail which barely afforded a point of 
 ' support to the passengers ; a space on the roof for 
 ' the baggage against which the passengers leaned : 
 ' such is the vehicle to which the English gave, 
 'and still give, their preference in a climate which 
 ' is wet and rainy the greater part of the year. 
 ' We cannot dispute their taste in such things, or 
 ' in colours.' * 
 
 DILIGENCE 
 
 On the Continent of Europe, in old coaching 
 days, the vehicle which corresponded to the stage- 
 coach of England was the Diligence. Plate IX., 
 from a photograph of a Swiss diligence of 1891, 
 shows it well, since few changes have been made in 
 it during the past seventy years. The main body 
 is like that of a coach, carries four or six persons, 
 and is called the 'interieur.' In front, and con- 
 structively forming part of the body, is the 'coupe,' 
 
 * Morin, Rapport sur Classe VI., p. 411. 
 
106 DILIGENCE Cil. VI 
 
 holding three persons. Behind the body is a boot, 
 on top of which is a seat for two, or for three pas- 
 sengers ; this seat is furnished with a hood. The 
 driver sits on the top of the coupe, with his feet on 
 a foot-board, which is in front of the windows of the 
 coupe. This seat is usually long enough to take 
 the ' conducteur' (guard) alongside of the driver, 
 but he sometimes sits in the rumble. 
 
 The brake is applied both to the front and to the 
 back of the hind wheels, and is so arranged that it 
 can be worked from both sides of the driving-seat, 
 by either man. There is no perch, and therefore, 
 necessarily, three-quarter springs. The front wheels 
 turn under the body. The lead-bars are not at- 
 tached to the end of the pole, but to a rod which 
 runs under the pole from the futchells. When three 
 horses are in the lead, as is quite common, the 
 main-bar is long enough to spread the outside 
 horses sufficiently to admit the centre horse be- 
 tween them, and his bar is hooked to the centre of 
 the main-bar, no attempt being made to equalise 
 the draft. 
 
 The baggage is piled on the roof and covered 
 with a tarpaulin ; the. mail-bags and small packages 
 are put in the hind boot. Various modifications of 
 this vehicle are in use, but that just described may 
 be considered the standard dilkrence. 
 
 The harness is simple, and breechings are invari- 
 ably used on the wheel horses. The lead reins are 
 passed sometimes over the wheelers' heads, some- 
 
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CH. VI TRAVELLING-CARRIAGE IO7 
 
 times on the inner side of the bridle, never throuo-h 
 terrets on the pad. The leather portion of the trace 
 is short and terminates in a ^ inch rope, which is 
 looped round the score cut in the end of the swingle- 
 tree. There is no attempt at any finish in harness, 
 or appointments, or in methods of driving-, but these 
 diligences go with safety, night and day, over good, 
 though sometimes dangerous roads, at a fair rate of 
 speed. 
 
 TRAVELLING-CARRIAGE 
 
 A European Travelling-carriage of the early part 
 of this centurv, is shown in Plate X. It had a larg-e 
 body made in the form of a coupe, but with length 
 enough to admit of a comfortable, additional seat 
 inside, and had large imperials and boxes, which 
 could be taken off and used as trunks. The horses 
 were always ridden by postilions, therefore there 
 was no driving-seat, but there was a rumble, usu- 
 ally provided with a hood. 
 
 BREAK 
 
 A Break, according to English usage, is strictly 
 the four-wheeled vehicle shown in Fig. 58, used for 
 breaking horses ; but, either from the obvious utility 
 of putting a body behind the driving-seat, or else as 
 a development of the well-known wagonette, it has 
 assumed the form shown in Fig. 59. 
 
 This in turn has been simplified by omitting the 
 perch and mounting the body on four elliptic 
 springs. 
 
io8 
 
 BREAK 
 
 CH. VI 
 
 By this simplification, while the form of the vehicle 
 is but little changed, the mechanical principle is 
 much modified. 
 
 In a carriage made with a perch, the horses are 
 attached directly to the whole of the carriage- part, 
 which follows them as one piece, while the body 
 alone is above the springs ; in a carriage without a 
 perch, the horses pull upon the body, and second- 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 arily upon the axles and wheels through the 
 springs, the body, in a measure, taking the place 
 of a perch. 
 
 It will be noticed that when any wheel of a perched 
 carriage strikes an obstacle, the shock is felt directly 
 by the horses ; while in one without a perch, the 
 shocks, both vertical and horizontal, are taken largely 
 by the springs, and reach the horses with their 
 violence much diminished. 
 
CH. VI 
 
 BREAK 
 
 IO9 
 
 For this reason carriages without a perch are 
 undoubtedly easier on the horses, and nearly all 
 vehicles, nowadays, are so made. 
 
 They are also much lighter, and as the front 
 wheels can be made to go far, or, in fact, all the 
 way, under the body, such vehicles turn in a small 
 space. It is, however, supposed that, from the 
 greater flexibility of the vehicle, the hind wheels do 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 not follow the front wheels with accuracy, and that 
 thereby the draught may be increased. 
 
 It must be also noted that the pole of a carriage 
 without a perch is liable to fly up in crossing a de- 
 pression, such as a gutter, and strike a horse in the 
 mouth. 
 
 Experience, up to this time, and, perhaps, a cer- 
 
I IO BREAK CH. VI 
 
 tain amount of prejudice, have led to the retaining 
 of the perch construction in heavy vehicles, like 
 coaches. 
 
 A light buggy has only two elliptic springs, and 
 therefore, of necessity, a perch, because the springs, 
 set crosswise, would not be in the proper position to 
 resist the strain of the draught ; carriages interme- 
 diate in weight between coaches and bug-cnes usu _ 
 ally have no perch, and have four elliptic springs, or 
 some modification of them.* 
 
 Mail-phaetons are almost the only carriages- to 
 which the two systems are applied, some having 
 perches and regular telegraph springs, and others 
 (demi-mail phaetons) four elliptic springs only. In 
 this particular style of carriage, the body is not 
 heavy enough to make the telegraph springs work 
 easily, and a phaeton with a perch, although stylish, 
 is apt to be stiff and uncomfortab e. 
 
 Since a break is principally to ' knock about' with 
 and to use in rough places, it is better to have it 
 without a perch ; its greater lightness and the ease 
 with which it can be turned in narrow places much 
 more than counterbalances any advantages that the 
 perch construction may possess. 
 
 The wagonette break is the kind most frequently 
 used, but while it is convenient to carry baggage or 
 the like, it is not as good a four-in-hand vehicle as 
 
 * Beaufort, p. 238, speaks of Clark's coach, on the Brighton 
 Road, in 1862, as having no perch and being good to carry a load. 
 
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CH. VI BREAK I I I 
 
 some form of the French char a bancs (so called from 
 its being a car with benches placed across it), shown 
 in Plate XI. The driving-seat is exactly like that 
 of a coach, and can be made the same height from 
 the ground ; the splinter-bar, and consequently the 
 horses, will be then in the same relative place as in 
 a coach. The second seat, which can be made for 
 three, or for four persons, is a little higher than the 
 box-seat, and the leg-room is much better than on a 
 coach ; the rumble, as usual, seats the grooms. The 
 body has doors in the sides and a door behind, and 
 takes the place of the boots ; with open gratings 
 in the sides, or in the doors, dogs can be carried 
 comfortably. For country and sporting purposes 
 nothing can be better. A char a bancs like that 
 shown in the plate will weigh about 1600 pounds; 
 twice as much as a light mail-phaeton without a 
 perch. The connection of the hind springs with 
 the axles and with the body should be carefully 
 considered in designing this vehicle, since the brake 
 tends to push the hind axle backward in a manner 
 in which it will not be pushed in a carriage without 
 a brake. There is a way of connecting the front 
 end of the spring to the body which will counteract 
 this strain, but somewhat to the detriment of the 
 easy action of the springs (see Fig. 28). 
 
 The pole, pole-hook, lead-bars, &c, of a break 
 should be exactly like those of a coach, but some- 
 what lighter, not, however, in proportion to the 
 difference of weight of the vehicles. 
 
I 12 
 
 HIGH PHAETON 
 
 CH. VI 
 
 Barouche Landau. — In the early part of this cen- 
 tury, the favourite carriage for the four-in-hand 
 amateur seems to have been a ' Barouche Landau,' * 
 which was a barouche with a high driving-seat, and 
 a rumble for two servants. A carriage of this kind 
 was used by the Prince Regent at Brighton. 
 
 A very high phaeton (Fig. 60) was also used at 
 the same period ; it was sometimes called a ' high 
 flyer.' 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 The Jaunting Car (Fig. 61), introduced into Ire- 
 land in 1 81 5 by Bianconi, is another four-horse 
 vehicle ; although it is generally used with two 
 horses only. 
 
 * Sporting Magazine, 1826. Mentioned by Malet, p. 127; also 
 by Lennox, p. 201. 
 
CH. VI 
 
 CURRICLE OR CAPE CART 
 
 113 
 
 Private Omnibus. — A vehicle much used in the 
 country for station purposes, and the like, is the 
 Private Omnibus (Fig. 62). It is admirably adapted 
 for four-in-hand driving - , since the driving-seat i s 
 high and a seat for three or for four people can be 
 readily arranged on the roof. The interior is en- 
 tered from the back, and, therefore, the hind wheels 
 can be large, and the axle well under the body, 
 hence the vehicle runs easily. 
 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
 Small seats are added at the rear, on each side 
 of the door, for the grooms. 
 
 The omnibus may be also used with three horses 
 
 abreast. 
 
 • 
 
 Curricle or Cape Cart. — Any two-wheeled cart 
 made with a pole instead of shafts, to be drawn by 
 two horses, can of course be used with four. 
 
ii4 
 
 CAPE CART 
 
 CH. VI 
 
 Such a cart is the Curricle, the pole of which is 
 suspended from the centre of a bar which rests 
 upon the pads of the harness. A simpler arrange- 
 ment, much used in the English Settlements at the 
 Cape of Good Hope, and therefore called a Cape 
 Cart, has the pole supported by a yoke attached to 
 the lower part of the collars just as the pole of a 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 trotting wagon is supported, except that the pole- 
 straps are much longer. With a hook on the point 
 of the pole, or a rope running back to the axle 
 (as described on page 58), four horses can be 
 driven to such a cart, and it is admirably adapted 
 to wild regions where the roads are little more than 
 tracks. 
 
CH. VI SLEIGH I 1 5 
 
 A curricle-bar may be made to go under the 
 horses' bellies instead of over their backs, and 
 such a 'rig' is described by ' Nimrod,' Northern 
 Tour, p. 68, as being part of the 'curricle mail.' It 
 has been revived in America as part of a plough 
 harness, and has been used for the leaders of a 
 coach, with a single trace, or rope, going from the 
 middle of it to the point of the pole. 
 
 In Philipson On Harness, pp. 49-63, will be found 
 an excellent article on the Cape Cart, with full de- 
 tails of its construction and mode of harnessing. 
 
 Sleigh. — A sleigh is not well adapted to four-in- 
 hand driving, since it is usually too low, and if the 
 height of the driving-seat is increased the sleigh is 
 likely to tip over. 
 
 Probably the best arrangement for driving four- 
 in-hand on snow or ice, would be to fit four ' bob- 
 runners' to the axles of a break. A bob-runner is 
 a quarter of a wheel, with the lower part of the 
 rim lengthened horizontally, and having a hub and 
 box fitting on the axle-arm. 
 
I 16 CH. VII 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 AMERICAN COACH 
 
 As has been said in a previous Chapter, the 
 American coach seems to be nearly the English 
 coach of the middle of the eighteenth century, 
 arrested in its development, because the conditions 
 under which, in this country, it has been, and is still, 
 used, are nearly similar to those of that period in 
 England. 
 
 The lonyr distances in America, and the newness 
 and comparative poverty of the country, prevented 
 the construction, at an early period, of roads as 
 good as those of Europe, and later, the rapid de- 
 velopment of railroads checked the building of 
 main driving roads, so that coaches had to be 
 adapted to rough roads and bad usage. 
 
 The typical American coach, usually called the 
 ' Concord coach,' from Concord, New Hampshire, 
 where the majority of them are built, is shown 
 in Plate XII., which is an accurate drawing to a 
 half-inch scale, kindly furnished by ' The Abbot- 
 Downing Company of Concord.' 
 
 The photogravure, Plate XV., of a heavy coach 
 made for our Western States and Territories and 
 still sent to Africa ; and Plate XVI., of a light coach 
 such as is still used in some places in the White 
 

PLATE XIII. 
 
 Scale of Feet. 
 REAR VIEW OF CONCORD CO^CH 
 
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CH. VII CONCORD COACH I I 7 
 
 Mountains not as yet reached by the railroad, show 
 the two extremes of design. 
 
 The peculiarities in construction of this coach 
 are, that it has three parallel, straight perches con- 
 necting the hind axle and the front transom-bed 
 and forming a very stiff rectangular frame. See 
 Plate XIV. The three perches extend 9 or 10 
 inches back of the hind axle and are connected 
 by a cross piece. At the four corners of this frame 
 rise four stiff, iron standards, firmly braced so that 
 they cannot bend, which carry, at their upper ends, 
 square iron shackles ; connecting these shackles 
 on each side are thick leather straps, and upon 
 these straps, or thorough-braces, rests the body of 
 the coach. 
 
 This is exactly the mode of suspension of Eu- 
 ropean carriages before the introduction of springs, 
 which, it will be noticed, are wholly absent in the 
 Concord coach. 
 
 The fore-carriage differs from that of the Enelish 
 coach principally in not having any outer futchells. 
 The inner futchells are spread out behind to take 
 the sway-bar, and brought together in front to take 
 the pole ; corresponding to the splinter-bar is an 
 evener, attached to the top of the futchells by a bolt, 
 about which it turns, its motion being limited by 
 chains which 00 from its ends to the axle. To this 
 evener are hooked the swingle-trees. 
 
 The pole measures 9 ft. 7 in. from the front of the 
 evener, but inasmuch as the swingle-trees are 4^ 
 
I I 8 CONCORD COACH CH. VII 
 
 inches in front of the evener, the pole is only iy 2 
 inches longer than the English pole, measured be- 
 tween the same points. 
 
 The brake is attached to the under-carriage and 
 not to the body, of which it is entirely independent, 
 and the brake-blocks are shoved against the wheels, 
 being on the ends of a bar which slides under the 
 perches ; it is worked by a lever, shown distinctly in 
 Plate XVI., rising- alongside of the off side of the 
 coachman's seat. This lever has, near its upper 
 end, an iron cross-bar on which the coachman's foot 
 can be placed for the purpose of forcing the lever 
 forward ; there being no rack to hold the lever when 
 it is pressed forward, the brake can be kept, against 
 the wheel only by constant pressure of the foot. 
 
 The form of the body is shown in the drawings. 
 It has a great deal of 'cant' and 'turn-under,' and 
 its extreme width is 4 ft. 6 in. It is made to carry 
 nine persons, three on each of the three seats.* 
 The middle seat is a bench in three parts, the 
 centre part fixed to the floor, the ends turning up 
 on hinges, to facilitate access from either door to 
 the seats. The passengers sitting on the middle 
 seat lean against a broad leather strap, which is 
 hung from the roof by two straps, and has, at each 
 end, strong hooks going into sockets on the pillars 
 of the door (Fig. 63). 
 
 * Many English coaches in the early part of the century carried 
 six persons inside, three on each seat. 
 
 
CH. VII 
 
 CONCORD COACH 
 
 119 
 
 That which corresponds to the front boot of an 
 English coach is a lare;e foot-board with leather 
 sides, and the hind boot is a baggage-rack with 
 leather sides and cover. 
 
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 E=S 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 In the light coach, the front boot is small and 
 of wood ; in both light and heavy coaches, the front 
 seat and the boot are held to the roof by diagonal 
 iron rods. 
 
 The passengers occupying the roof-seat rest their 
 feet upon the back part of the cushion of the box- 
 seat. 
 
 The upper panels of the sides are not solid, but 
 closed by curtains ; a narrow panel with a small 
 glass in it, on each side of the door, admits light 
 when the curtains are down. The door has the 
 usual sash, with glass in one or more panes. 
 
 When the coach is running, the body sways about 
 freely upon the thorough-braces, the motion being 
 principally fore and att, sometimes quite enough to 
 make a sensitive person sea-sick. An excessive 
 movement is checked by straps from the sides of 
 the body to the perches. This rocking to and fro 
 adds to the difficulty of driving, because the arm 
 
120 CONCORD COACH CH. VII 
 
 has to go backward and forward to counteract ihe 
 movement of the body, interfering seriously with 
 fine work. When the foot is on the brake, the 
 leg is kept constantly in motion from the same 
 cause. 
 
 The hind wheels are high, being 5 ft. 1 in., while 
 those of the old mails were 4 ft. 8 in., and of a 
 modern coach 4 ft. 4 in. 
 
 The front wheels are 3 ft. 10 in., the same in 
 height as those of the mails, those of a coach being 
 3 ft. 4 in. 
 
 The body is high, being mounted upon the thor- 
 ough-braces, and it is somewhat singular that the 
 height of the roof from the ground is almost ex- 
 actly that of the old English coaches. 
 
 An Act of Parliament passed in 1806 provided 
 that no passengers should be carried on top of a 
 coach the top of which was more than 8 ft. 9 in. 
 from the ground, an( j xha.t 2 feet of luggage could 
 be carried on top, if the whole load were not higher 
 than 10 ft. 9 in. from the ground, thus giving again 
 8 ft. 9 in. as the height, or at least the maximum 
 height, of the roof. The height of the roof of a 
 Concord coach is 8 ft. 6 in., that of a modern Eng- 
 lish coach 6 ft. 10 in. 
 
 It will be observed that the body is as far back 
 as the opening of the door past the wheels will 
 permit, and as the heaviest baggage is put on the 
 hind rack, the load is thrown well back on the large 
 
 w 
 
 heels. 
 
CH. VII CONCORD COACH I 2 I 
 
 A comparison of the Concord coach with an 
 English coach can be best made by placing the 
 transparent print of either on top of the other. 
 
 There are obvious reasons why the Concord coach 
 is not well adapted to amateur pleasure coaching. 
 In the first place, it is too large, and while it could 
 be much reduced in size, it would of necessity be 
 high on account of its suspension, unless the wheels 
 should be reduced below a proper size. It is cer- 
 tainly neither a compact nor a ' smart' looking ve- 
 hicle : it lacks the boots, which are convenient for 
 many purposes ; the arrangement of its front roof- 
 seat is not good ; there is no place at the back for 
 the servants ; a brake, with a rack, cannot be readily 
 adapted to it ; and last, but not least, the rocking of 
 the body interferes seriously with fine driving, since 
 the coachman's hand is always in motion back and 
 forth, to the discomfort of his horses' mouths, unless 
 he is continually giving his hand, which is an un- 
 graceful movement. 
 
 The changes from the old type of English coach 
 to the present type are precisely those which were 
 suggested by better roads and by the demand for 
 increased comfort ; the improved form of coach is 
 therefore that best adapted to pleasure coaching. 
 
 For rough business purposes on bad roads, the 
 Concord coaches are well adapted, and there can 
 be no better proof thereof than the fact that they 
 are largely used in Africa and Australia (notwith- 
 standing English influence naturally predominates 
 
122 CONCORD COACH CH. VII 
 
 in those countries), to say nothing of Mexico and 
 South America. 
 
 These coaches are made almost wholly of wood ; 
 there is little about them that ordinary country 
 mechanics cannot repair ; they have no expensive 
 steel springs, but leather thorough-braces which 
 can be replaced by the roughest workman ; they 
 are loose and flexible in their movements ; bear 
 an immense amount of hard usao;e without being: 
 disabled, and run safely over roads which would 
 dislocate an English coach in the first half-mile. 
 Other points in connection with these coaches will 
 be noted in the remarks on the American system of 
 driving in Chapter XIV. 
 
CH. VIII 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 COMPARISON OF COACHES 
 
 Plates II., VII., XL, XII., XVII., XVIII., XIX., 
 XX., and XXII. give drawings of coaches of vari- 
 ous types, all drawn to the same scale, one-half 
 inch to the foot, and printed dry,* so that the 
 dimensions are accurately shown. The duplicate 
 plates, on transparent paper, can be torn out and 
 superposed on the different plates for the purpose 
 of comparison. 
 
 The coaches in Plates VII., XVII., XVIII., XIX., 
 XX., and XXII., being of the same period (1873 
 to 1896), differ mainly in details. It will be noticed 
 that XX. is lonoer than the others between the 
 axles, — a good point ; XXII. is much lower than the 
 others. The relative sizes of the boots, places of 
 driving-seats, and foot-board angles, are of interest. 
 
 Since the bodies in all the coaches are nearly of 
 the same size, the differences of form and detail 
 may be most clearly observed by so placing the 
 transparent sheet that the ground lines and the 
 front or the back lines of the bodies coincide in the 
 
 * That is, printed on paper which has not been wetted for print- 
 ing. The scale of the drawing has not been affected, therefore, by 
 
 shrinkage. 
 
124 COMPARISON OF COACHES CH. VIII 
 
 drawings. The outlines of the bottoms of the 
 bodies will be seen to vary, some being- rounder 
 than others. The heights of the foot-boards from 
 the ground also vary, that of XX. being somewhat 
 too low ; otherwise the proportions of the driving- 
 seat and foot-board of XX. are exceptionally good. 
 In XVIII. and XIX. the foot-board and driving-seat 
 are somewhat too high, the persons on the box-seat 
 cutting off the view from those on the roof-seat. It 
 is desirable to have the box-seat at least three inches 
 lower than the roof-seat ; in XX. it is five. The 
 foot-board angles in VII., XVII., XVIII., XIX.. XX., 
 and XXII. are practically identical, ranging from 30 
 to 33 X A degrees, and are very good ; a greater angle 
 tires the ankles of the coachman, and a lesser one 
 places his feet too flat. The foot-board of XL, with 
 an angle of 40 degrees, is somewhat too steep. 
 
 The coach shown in Plate XXII. differs from the 
 other coaches in having its top much lower. This 
 is brought about by making the body itself slightly 
 smaller, and by hanging it closer to the perch, a 
 somewhat smaller hind wheel being adopted, thus 
 lowering the axle. Lowering the centre of gravity 
 is of course an advantage ; here it is obtained at 
 the cost of smaller hind wheels, of a low foot-board, 
 and of a low roof-seat. 
 
 The foot-boards of XX. and XXII. are somewhat 
 too low ; a laro-e horse might touch them with his 
 rump, unless the traces are longer than is desirable. 
 
 A high foot-board and a steep front to the boot 
 
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PLATE XXi. 
 
 Ml IT I I 1 I I I I 
 
 Scale of Feet. 
 Front View. Re»r View. 
 
 DRAG BY BARKER & Co., LONDON. 
 
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CH. VIII COMPARISON OF COACHES 1 25 
 
 permit the wheel horses to be put close to the 
 splinter-bar ; but instead of making the foot-board 
 too hiofh. it is better to bring the whole fore-car- 
 riage forward, and thus get a short trace, with the 
 additional advantage of a longer coupled coach 
 (see p. 167). The majority of coach-makers have a 
 fancy for a short coupling, and sacrifice important 
 features for what is really a disadvantage. 
 
 On comparing XIX. and XX., putting the ground 
 lines together and the roller-bolts together, two ex- 
 treme forms will be noticed. In XX. a sixteen-hand 
 horse, with a trace of the proper length, is too close 
 to the foot-board ; in XIX. there is more space 
 than is necessary ; XXII. is nearly the same as 
 XX. ; XVII. is a good mean between the two. 
 
 The comparison of the Oxford coach (Cordery), 
 Plate II., with the others is very interesting. The 
 body is about the same size as that of the Barker 
 drag, Plate XX., but is hung 13 inches higher, a 
 position partly made necessary by the length of 
 the whip-spring, but also, no doubt, by following 
 the fashion of the private carriages of the day, 
 inasmuch as there is no mechanical reason why the 
 whip-springs should not have been set lower or the 
 braces made longer. Notwithstanding the height 
 of the body, the driving-seat is somewhat low. The 
 roof of II. is exactly the same height as that of 
 XII. (American Concord), but as XII. is constructed 
 to carry nine inside passengers, the bodies differ 
 extremely. 
 
126 CARE OF THE COACH CH. VIII 
 
 The distance between the axles of XII. is made 
 necessary by the length of the body and of the 
 thorough-braces. 
 
 The hind wheels of II. and of XII. are of the 
 same size, and much larger than in any of the other 
 plates. 
 
 Plate XI. shows a break designed by me many 
 years ago for my own use, and a comparison of it 
 with the coaches, shows that it preserves their main 
 proportions, while being much lighter ; weighing 
 only 1600 pounds. As in almost all breaks, the 
 horses are from six to ten inches further away from 
 the coachman than they are in a coach. This dis- 
 tance can be diminished by putting the front wheel 
 further under the body, but somewhat to the detri- 
 ment of the steady running of the vehicle and of its 
 appearance. 
 
 CARE OF THE COACH 
 
 As soon as the coach returns to the stable after 
 use, it should be washed, and under no circum- 
 stances should mud be allowed to dry on it, since 
 that will inevitably spot the varnish. There is no 
 way of washing so good as with a stream from a 
 hose, where water under pressure is available ; fail- 
 ing this, water must be dashed on the carriage 
 from a bucket. As the under part of a coach is 
 much more complex than that of an elliptic-spring 
 carriage, it is more difficult to wash, and the man 
 must get under the coach to do it thoroughly. 
 Where plenty of water can be had there is little 
 
CH. VIII CARE OF THE COACH \2J 
 
 necessity for using- a sponge, and the water should 
 be dried off with a damp chamois leather. Sponges 
 should be carefully selected and examined ; they 
 almost always contain gritty lumps, which are sure 
 to scratch the varnish. 
 
 There is no great art in washing a carriage, ex- 
 cept to exercise care and not to be in a hurry. 
 India-rubber boots should be provided for the 
 washer ; in French stables he wears sabots. 
 
 Water must not be allowed to go through the 
 joints of the doors so as to wet the linings and 
 carpet. 
 
 The blueness of the varnish on the dark parts 
 of a coach, resulting from a long wetting by rain, 
 will disappear after complete drying. 
 
 Little need be done to the steel-work at first, 
 except to dry it thoroughly. At the first convenient 
 time, generally the morning after the coach has 
 been used, it must be polished. If it is much 
 rusted by exposure to the damp very fine emery 
 cloth may be used to brighten it, and it should be 
 afterward burnished by rubbing with the chain 
 rubber (see Fig. 121) until a high polish is ob- 
 tained. 
 
 A piece of hard, steel chain, made exactly like a 
 curb-chain, but about two feet long, is the best thing 
 for burnishing a pole-head ; it can be pulled back 
 and forth over it with a great pressure. 
 
 A long piece of chamois leather dusted with flour 
 of emery may be used to advantage on the pole- 
 
128 COST OF A COACH CH. VIII 
 
 head, but coarse grit will scratch the surface and 
 make it impossible to get a proper polish. Care 
 must be taken not to rub off the paint where it joins 
 the steel. Nothing- shows g-ood stable-care more 
 emphatically than really well-kept steel, and only 
 hard work will bring about the desired result. 
 
 In taking- off the wheels for oiling - , a small table 
 or chair, or at least a paper spread upon the floor, 
 should be used to receive the nuts, washers, and 
 pins ; if laid upon the floor they are sure to get grit 
 upon them, which will damage the finely finished 
 axle. The old oil must be carefully removed and 
 all the parts scrupulously cleaned before re-oiling 
 and putting together. On a private coach, Collinge 
 axles run from one to two months without attention, 
 but mail axles require oiling once a week, and on 
 public-coaches it is usual to clean and oil the axles 
 every day, and at the same time to make a thorough 
 examination of all nuts and bolts. When washing 
 a coach, public or private, the washer should always 
 bear in mind the necessity of examining every part 
 of it, to see whether all is in g;ood order. 
 
 COST OF A COACH 
 
 The cost of a coach depends upon its finish and 
 the locality where it is built. For what may be 
 called a standard drag, built in the very best way, 
 the price is usually in America 2400 dollars, in 
 England 300 guineas, and in France 8000 francs. 
 
CH. IX I29 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 WEIGHT OF A COACH 
 
 The weight of a drag varies from 2100 to 2400 
 pounds, and of a public-coach from 2200 to 2600 
 pounds. It is not worth while to go beyond these 
 limits in either direction. A drag lighter than 2100 
 will not stand the hard usage that an enterprising 
 coachman will give it, and will go to pieces before its 
 time, besides giving constant trouble, and nothing 
 is gained in strength or stability by exceeding 2400. 
 A public-coach is loaded more heavily than a drag, 
 and driven faster ; consequently it should be both 
 stronger and heavier, but need not exceed 2400 
 pounds. 
 
 'Nimrod,' in The Road (1832), and Macneill 
 (1830),* give the weight of the stage-coach of that 
 day as 18 cwt. (2016 pounds), and there is no doubt 
 that stage-coaches were then generally lighter than 
 they were made afterward. ' Nimrod' {Northern 
 Tour, 1834, p. 13) speaks of coaches as being 
 always under one ton (2240 pounds). 
 
 The more of the whole weight there is in the 
 carriage-part and the less in the body the better, 
 since the great object is to keep the centre of 
 
 * Parnell, Roads, p. 333. 
 9 
 
13° 
 
 WEIGHT OF A COACH 
 
 CH. IX 
 
 gravity low, and the carriage-part has to bear the 
 major part of the strains. 
 
 The following Table shows the distribution in 
 several examples : — 
 
 Public-Coach 
 Mail . . . 
 Drag 
 Public-Coach 
 
 Carriage. 
 
 Body. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1367 
 
 1499 
 
 2866 
 
 477 
 
 523 
 
 IOOO 
 
 1323 
 
 1389 
 
 2712 
 
 488 
 
 512 
 
 IOOO 
 
 992 
 
 1257 
 
 2249 
 
 441 
 
 559 
 
 IOOO 
 
 1582 
 
 890 
 
 2472 
 
 640 
 
 360 
 
 IOOO 
 
 The larger figures give the weight in pounds, the 
 smaller ones the parts in 1000. The Table shows 
 somewhat wide differences of design, the last ex- 
 ample being one in which pains were taken to get 
 a very light body for a heavy carriage-part. 
 
 Figures of this kind are only approximately cor- 
 rect, unless all the coaches compared are weighed 
 by the same person, since the weights given by dif- 
 ferent makers may not always include the same 
 parts. For the purpose of this comparison the 
 coaches should be in the condition in which they 
 are to g-o on the road, with cushions, seat-backs, 
 &c., the separation between the body and the car- 
 riage-part being made at the blocks which are on top 
 of the springs. Neither the pole nor the chain and 
 shoe should be included. 
 
 The distribution of the weight between the front 
 and hind wheels is important ; usually there is more 
 
CH. IX DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT I 3 I 
 
 than half on the front wheels, and this seems un- 
 avoidable, but as the hind wheels are the larger 
 they should have more to carry. 
 
 In omnibuses this is usually well arranged, since, 
 there being no door in the side of the body, the axle 
 can be placed well forward. They consequently 
 run light. 
 
 In coaches the distribution of weight between the 
 
 £> 
 
 front and hind axles is as follows : — 
 
 Front. Hind. Total. 
 
 Public-Coach .... 1532 1334 2866 
 
 535 465 1000 
 
 Mail 1455 1257 2712 
 
 537 463 1000 
 
 Drag 1 2 19 1030 2249 
 
 542 458 1000 
 
 As in the preceding Table, the smaller figures 
 show the parts in 1000. 
 
 If it is borne in mind that there are frequently 
 five or six persons on the front of a drag and only 
 two servants on the back, the overloading of the 
 front wheels becomes more apparent, and suggests 
 an additional reason for not putting the front wheels 
 too far under the body. 
 
 The weights here given are taken without the 
 pole. It must be noticed that the pole, projecting so 
 far in front, will add by its leverage more than its 
 own weight to the front wheels, the difference being 
 taken off the weight on the hind wheels. This can 
 be more readily appreciated by reflecting that a pole 
 might be made so long that with a comparatively 
 
132 DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT CH. IX 
 
 small weight on its end, it could balance the weight 
 on the hind wheels so as to lift them off the 
 ground, and thus concentrate the whole weight 
 on the front wheels without adding very much to 
 the total weight. The influence of a pole weighing, 
 with its bars, 60 pounds, is shown in the following 
 Table. The weights, as shown on the scale, were 
 as follows : — 
 
 On front wheels, without the pole 
 with 
 
 Increased weight on front wheels 
 
 On hind wheels, without the pole 
 with 
 
 Decreased weight on hind wheels 
 
 The increased weight on the front wheels is due, 
 one-half to the weight of the pole and one-half to 
 the 67 pounds taken off the hind wheels, but the 
 total weight, 2531, is only 65 pounds more than the 
 weight of the coach without the pole. 
 
 The weights are given as they came out in the 
 experiment ; theoretically, they should balance ex- 
 actly, but inaccuracies in the scales cause the small 
 discrepancy. 
 
 The distribution of the weight on the front wheels 
 and hind wheels depends also upon the inclination 
 of the road. 
 
 The following Table gives the results of an ex- 
 periment with a coach weighing 2200 pounds : — 
 
 pds. 
 
 1213 
 
 1213 
 
 
 » » 
 
 1345 
 
 
 1345 
 
 » » 
 
 132, 
 
 
 
 > > 
 
 1253 
 
 1253 
 
 
 » 1 
 
 1186 
 
 
 1186 
 
 1 1 
 
 67, 
 
 2466 
 
 2531 
 
CH. IX 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT 
 
 *33 
 
 
 Weight on 
 
 
 
 Front 
 
 Hind 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Wheels. 
 
 Wheels. 
 
 Weight 
 
 On a level . . . pds. 
 
 • I 194 
 
 IO06 
 
 2 200 
 
 Hind wheels raised 3 inches ,, 
 
 I204 
 
 994 
 
 2198 
 
 Front 
 
 I I90 
 
 IOI4 
 
 2204 
 
 Therefore in going up-hill, a portion of the weight 
 is transferred to the hind wheels, which is an ad- 
 vantage, since they are larger than the front wheels. 
 
 For comparison, the following average weights of 
 different vehicles are given : A Char a bancs Break, 
 1600 pounds ; Demi-mail Phaeton without perch, 
 800; City Brougham, 1000 to 1100; Landau, 1500. 
 
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY 
 
 We now come to one of the divisions of our sub- 
 ject, important from a practical point of view : — the 
 position of the centre of gravity of a coach. 
 
 The centre of gravity of a body is that point in 
 which its whole weight may be considered as con- 
 centrated ; in a symmetrical body of equal thick- 
 ness and equal density in all its parts, it is at the 
 centre of figure of the body. For 
 example, a square piece of board of 
 even thickness will have its centre 
 of gravity at the point at which its 
 two diagonals cross (Fig. 64). 
 
 If at that point we bore a hole, FlG - 6 4- 
 
 and hang the board on a smooth pin, the board will 
 remain in any position into which we turn it, be- 
 
134 
 
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY 
 
 CH. IX 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 cause the centre of suspension and the centre of 
 gravity coincide. 
 
 If we suspend it from some other point, A, we 
 find that the board will hang- steadily in one posi- 
 tion only, namely : when the centre of gravity is 
 vertically under the point of suspension. 
 
 If we flatten one corner slightly, as shown in Fig. 
 65, we can make the board stand upon it, when G 
 is vertically above A, but it will be in 
 unstable equilibrium and will fall to 
 the rieht or left at the slightest touch. 
 We therefore say that the board is 
 in equilibrium when the centre of 
 gravity is vertically above the point 
 of support. Conversely, the centre 
 of gravity is vertically above the point of support 
 when the body is in equilibrium. 
 
 Now, a coach, looked at from behind, is sym- 
 metrical as to the distribution of its parts about its 
 vertical centre line, and its centre of gravity must 
 be, therefore, somewhere in that cen- 
 tre line. If we tip the coach on the 
 two wheels of one side until it ex- 
 actly balances and would fall to either 
 side, the centre of gravity must be in 
 the vertical line passing through the 
 point of support. Since it is also in 
 the centre line of the coach, it must be at the inter- 
 section of these two lines, as shown in Fig. 66. 
 We can determine by this experiment the angle 
 
 y/////////////////// 
 Fig. 66. 
 
PLATE XXIII 
 
 Ql'00 
 
 -' < 
 
 
 v. \ ^ 
 
 \V\ \ \ 
 
 V . Q4<)00\ \ 
 
 
 
 \ \A-r 
 
 '. '-I. \ 
 
 '. \ 
 
 *. 
 
 sP 
 
 .-•<£* 
 
 
 
 
 i. . i. . i . . I . .1 
 
 DIAGRAM SHOWING POSITION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY. 
 
 Since a coach is symmetrical, the centre of gravity is at some point in a plane 
 passing vertically through the centre of the body. When the coach is tipped on 
 the wheels of one side until it balances and would fall either way. the centre of 
 gravity is over the point of support, and must therefore be in a plane which passes 
 vertically through the points where the wheels rest on the ground. 
 
 In the case of an empty coach experimented with, the balance was found when 
 the wheels on the higher side were raised to the position shown by the dotted 
 lines 
 
 With a load of 1700 pounds added on the top, the position of balance is shown 
 by the lines . . . . . 
 
CH. IX 
 
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY 
 
 135 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 at which the coach will tip over, or, what is the same 
 thing, the elevation of the wheel on the higher side 
 which will cause it to balance. 
 
 It will be evident by comparing diagrams A and 
 B in Fig. 67, that the lower the centre of gravity 
 for the same wheel- 
 base, the higher the 
 wheel must be raised 
 to cause a tip-over ; 
 whence the importance 
 of keeping the centre 
 of gravity low. 
 
 To be strictly accurate, we must say that we have 
 thus far only found a horizontal line passing 
 through the body of the coach, in which line the 
 centre of gravity is somewhere situated. If we 
 wish to know the position of the point, we must go 
 through the same operation for the side of the 
 coach, but since a coach never turns over forward 
 or backward, where the centre of gravity is situated 
 lengthwise is of small moment, and the relative 
 weights on the front and hind wheels will show it 
 with sufficient accuracy. 
 
 Plate XXIII. shows the method of tipping a coach 
 for the purpose of finding the position of its centre 
 of gravity. A drag weighing, without any load, 2300 
 pounds, was tipped until it exactly balanced on the 
 wheels of one side. The vertical line passing 
 through the point of support, intersected the centre 
 line of the coach at the point marked 2300 (which 
 
I36 CENTRE OF GRAVITY CH. IX 
 
 is therefore the position of the centre of gravity), 
 at a point 4 feet above the line joining the bottoms 
 of the wheels (that is, 4 feet from the ground when 
 the coach is standing level). The elevation of the 
 higher wheel is 2 ft. 10 in., and the inclination is 34 
 degrees. 
 
 If the coach is loaded on top with twelve per- 
 sons, weighing together 1 700 pounds, the centre of 
 gravity of this additional load will be at the point 
 marked 1700; and the resultant centre of gravity 
 of that additional weight and of the empty coach, 
 will be at the point marked 4000, which is 5 ft. 6 
 in. from the bottom of the wheels, the whole weight 
 being 4000 pounds. 
 
 If the coach is now tipped, the centre of gravity, 
 having been made higher, will come sooner into the 
 vertical line over the point of support, and the coach 
 will balance when the higher wheel is 2 ft. 4 in. from 
 the horizontal line or the inclination 27 degrees. 
 
 It is evident that a very considerable elevation of 
 the road sideways is required to upset a coach at 
 rest, but it must be noticed that for some time be- 
 fore reaching the actual balancing point the coach 
 becomes very tender, to use a yachting expression. 
 For instance, in the case of the unloaded coach, 
 when the upper wheel was 2 ft. 6 in. from the floor, 
 the coach seemed on the point of balancing, al- 
 though 4 inches more elevation was actually re- 
 quired to make it do so. When, therefore, even a 
 slight horizontal force is acting on the coach, an 
 
CH. IX CENTRE OF GRAVITY 1 37 
 
 elevation of the wheel very much less than that 
 required to make the coach balance, will result in 
 an overturn.* 
 
 Since the whole weight of the coach may be con- 
 sidered as concentrated at the centre of gravity, 
 any sideways force, resulting from the momentum 
 of the coach, will act through that centre. 
 
 If, from going fast over a bad road or from the 
 horses galloping unevenly, a coach gets to swinging 
 laterally, the higher the centre of 
 gravity, the more readily will the A *~ 
 coach turn over, since it is obvious B * \\_ 
 that a horizontal force applied to 
 
 the coach near the top (as at A, ////////V//////^//////, 
 
 Fig. 68) will pull it over more FlG - 68 - 
 
 readily than the same force applied nearer to the 
 ground (as at B). 
 
 Centrifugal Force. — The danger in turning a 
 corner is increased by a high centre of gravity. 
 A body in motion has, by reason of its inertia, a 
 tendency to continue its motion in the original di- 
 rection until it is acted upon by some exterior force. 
 A coach going along a straight road is deflected, 
 when it comes to a corner, by the horses pulling 
 
 * Corbett, p. 26, quotes some experiments made by Vidler in 
 1820, in which it is stated that in the case of a mail, the wheel was 
 raised 26 inches without an upset, and in the case of a ' double 
 bodied coach,' 31 inches, but he does not say whether this was 
 exactly the point of balance, or not. 
 
i.vs 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 
 
 CH, IX 
 
 it round the turn ; it has, however, a tendency to 
 keep on in the straight line, and this tendency is 
 shown as a force acting- at right angles to the 
 direction of the coach, pulling it outward from the 
 circle in which it is moving. This is called the 
 centrifugal force, and acting as it does upon each 
 particle of the vehicle, the sum of these numberless 
 forces acts as if it were concentrated at the centre 
 of gravity ; and it evidently acts in a direction to 
 overturn the coach ; moreover, the higher it is ap- 
 plied, the more effect it will have (see Fig. 68). 
 This force is opposed by the weight of the coach 
 which, acting downward through G, keeps the 
 coach to the ground. 
 
 The centrifugal force varies exactly with the 
 weight ; increasing the actual weight does not in- 
 crease the stability, but diminishing the height of 
 the point, at which the centrifugal force is applied, 
 does increase it. 
 
 In the diagram, Fig. 69, the black spot indicates 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 the weight of the coach concentrated at the centre of 
 gravity, C is the centrifugal force acting horizontally 
 outward, at G ; the weight is acting vertically down- 
 
CH. IX CENTRIFUGAL FORCE I 39 
 
 ward ; A is the point at which the outside wheel 
 rests on the around. The centrifugal force tends 
 to turn the weight about the point A, and in so 
 doing it is resisted by the weight at G, which acts 
 with a leverage AB. 
 
 As the coach tips more, and AG becomes more 
 nearly vertical, the leverage AB decreases, and the 
 action of the weight to resist the centrifugal force 
 becomes less, until when G is over A, the weight has 
 no leverage and the coach is acted upon by C only. 
 
 It is evident that, the centrifugal force and the 
 weight being constant, the effect of the centrifugal 
 force will depend entirely upon the height of G 
 above the ground. It is also evident that, from the 
 moment the wheel which is on the inside of the 
 curve, leaves the ground from the action of the 
 centrifugal force, the resistance of the weight to 
 overturning, diminishes. 
 
 With a known weight of coach, the centrifugal 
 force, corresponding to any speed round a turn of 
 any radius, may be computed. The formula for 
 this computation is as follows : — 
 
 centrifugal force = — ; where 
 
 O 1.1.1 } 
 
 w = weight in pounds. 
 
 v = velocity in feet per second. 
 
 r = radius of curve, in feet. 
 
 The quantity 32.2, usually expressed by g, is the 
 velocity in feet per second that a falling body has 
 at the end of the first second of its fall. 
 
I40 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE CH. IX 
 
 It is evident that the centrifugal force increases 
 directly with the weight and with the square of the 
 speed, and also as the radius of the curve diminishes, 
 or as the turn becomes sharper. 
 
 Since the weight keeps the coach down at the 
 same time that it increases the centrifugal force, the 
 weight does not affect the safety, but the sharpness 
 of the turn has a great deal to do with the safety, 
 and the velocity, or speed, very much more. If the 
 radius of the curve is halved, the centrifugal force is 
 doubled, but if the speed is doubled, the centrifugal 
 force is quadrupled. Therefore, a corner should 
 be always turned slowly. 
 
 Inasmuch as, in going around a turn, the centrifu- 
 gal force tends to turn the coach over toward the 
 outside, an elevation of the outside 
 of the road will counteract this action, 
 and roads being usually more or less 
 crowned, a corner to the right can be 
 turned more safely than one to the 
 
 Qleft, because being on the right hand 
 side of the road the off wheels are 
 down and the inclination of the coach 
 ;z J 7 ^ I counteracts the centrifugal force which 
 
 is acting in the direction of the arrow 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 (Fig. 70). 
 
 In turning to the left, the coach is still on the 
 
 right hand side of the road, and the centrifugal 
 
 force actino- to the right, the effect of the inclina- 
 
 tion of the coach is added, and not opposed, to it. 
 
CH. IX CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 141 
 
 The formula for the centrifugal force being 
 : CF ; with a weight of 2300 pounds and a 
 
 2,2.21- 
 
 radius of 50 feet, we find, corresponding to different 
 
 velocities, the following centrifugal forces : — 
 
 At 7 miles an hour, v = 10.30 ft. per sec, CF = 15 1.5 pds. 
 10 ,, ,, 7'= 14.66 ,, ,, CF == 307.0 ,, 
 
 15 ,, ,, 7/ = 22.00 ,, ,, CF==69i.4 ,, 
 
 With a weight of 4000 pounds, 
 
 At 7 miles an hour, v = 10.30 ft. per sec, CF = 263.6 pds. 
 10 ,, ,, t= 14.66 ,, ,, CF= 534.0 ,, 
 
 15 ,, ,, 7'= 22.00 ,, ,, CF = 1202.0 ,, 
 
 In an empty coach weighing 2300 pounds, the 
 centre of gravity is 4 feet from the ground. 
 
 The weight, 2300, will act at the end of an arm 
 AB, Fig. 71, 2.5 feet long, with an effect of 5750 
 pounds (2300 X 2.5 = 5750) holding the coach 
 down ; the centrifugal force corresponding to a 
 speed of seven miles an hour, 151.5 pounds, will act 
 at the end of the arm BG, 4 feet long, with an effect 
 of 606 pounds (15 1.5 : 4 = 606) tending to over- 
 turn the coach. 
 
 At different speeds, the forces will be as follows : — 
 
 FOR THE UNLOADED COACH. 
 
 At 7 miles an hour, 1 5 1 . 5 X 4 = 606 pounds. I 
 10 ,, ,, 307.0x4=1228 ,, £ 
 
 15 .- .- 691.4X4 = 2765 ,, J 
 
I42 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE CH. IX 
 
 The fractions |, \, \, show the proportions of the 
 
 overturning- force to the holding down force. 
 
 In a coach weighing 2300 pounds, 
 
 loaded with 1 700 pounds on top, the 
 
 total weight will be 4000 pounds, 
 
 which acting at the end of the arm 
 
 AB will give a holding down force 
 
 r of 10,000 pounds. The centrifugal 
 
 Fig. 71. r & 
 
 force will act at the centre of gravity, 
 5.5 feet above the ground, and at different speeds 
 the forces will be as follows : — 
 
 FOR THE LOADED COACH. 
 
 At 7 miles an hour, 263.6 X 5-5 — '45° pounds. * 
 10 ,, „ 534.0 X 5-5 = 2 937 „ ^ 
 
 15 ,, ,, 1202.0 X 5.5 = 661 1 
 
 In the case of an empty coach, the centrifugal 
 force, acting at a height of four feet, required to 
 balance the weight of the coach, 2300 pounds, with 
 a leverage of 2.5 feet, will be 1437 (2300 x 2.5 = 
 5750, and 1437 x 4 = 575°)- This is the force 
 due to a speed of 21.6 miles an hour, on a 
 curve of 50 feet radius, at which speed the wheels 
 on the inside of the curve would be lifted from the 
 ground and the coach overturned. 
 
 _.. -.2 
 
 = 1437 or v l — 1006.6 
 
 32.2 X 5° 
 v— 31.73 feet per second or 21.6 miles an hour. 
 
CH. IX CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 1 43 
 
 In the case of the loaded coach, the centrifugal 
 force, acting at a height of 5.5 feet, required to 
 balance the weight of the coach, 4000 pounds, with 
 a leverage of 2.5 feet, will be 1818 (4000X2.5 
 = 10,000, and 1 81 8 X 5-5= 10,000). This is the 
 force due to a speed of 16.5 miles an hour on a 
 curve of 50 feet radius, at which speed the coach 
 would be turned over. 
 
 not t;2 
 
 = 1818 or v l = 732 
 
 32.2 x 5° 
 v — 27 feet per second or 16.5 miles per hour. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that these are the 
 figures for a perfectly smooth road, level cross- 
 wise ; trifling depressions in the road causing lat- 
 eral swinging will overturn the coach at lower 
 speeds. 
 
 In the familiar example of a horse galloping 
 round a circus ring, it will be noticed that the 
 horse's body is inclined toward the centre of the 
 circle at an angle which depends upon the velocity 
 with which he is moving ; the faster he goes the 
 more he leans. 
 
 Another example is that of a bicycle moving 
 round the curve at the end of a cycling track. 
 
 Since a man and his bicycle may be said 
 to form a single straight line from his head to 
 the point where the wheel touches the ground, 
 the angle of this line with the horizontal must 
 be such that the action of the centrifugal force 
 
144 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 
 
 CH. IX 
 
 will be exactly balanced by that of the weight, 
 or else the bicycle will fall to one side or the 
 other. 
 
 In Fig. 72, where the man is turning to the left, 
 the centrifugal force will be developed in the direc- 
 tion indicated by the arrowhead, and may be repre- 
 sented by the line CF ; the weight acting vertically 
 downward is represented by C\V. The resultant 
 of these two forces will be represented in amount 
 
 by CB in the direction of the 
 line CD, and the point of sup- 
 port must be in this line, as at 
 D, to prevent the man from fall- 
 ing. II the speed, and conse- 
 quently the inclination, is not 
 great, the bicycle may go safely 
 round a level curve, but if the 
 speed be greatly increased the 
 wheel may slip on the ground. 
 To avoid this, the surface must be sloped, as shown 
 by the dotted line, until it is at right angles to the 
 inclination of the rider. 
 
 This is done in a circus ring by heaping the earth 
 at the outer edge, and in a cycling track by sloping 
 the asphalt path on the curve, at angles propor- 
 tional to the squares of the speeds, one part of the 
 curve, usually the lower, having steeper slopes than 
 the upper, to suit all speeds. 
 
 The inclinations of the line CD, and consequently 
 that of the lines at right angles to it, will be propor- 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
CH. IX CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 1 45 
 
 tional to the squares of the velocities, the radius of 
 the curve being constant. 
 
 For a curve of 50 feet radius these inclinations 
 will be as follows : — * 
 
 At 7 miles an hour, 3 degrees, 45 minutes. 
 10 ,, ,, 7 •> 35 " 
 
 15 .. .. l6 -- 42 
 
 20 ,, ,, 28 ,, 06 ,, 
 
 25 ,, „ 41 .- 2I 
 
 It is obvious, that if the angle of the road cross- 
 wise is, for any given curve and speed, that which 
 is indicated by the above computation, the coach 
 will have exactly the same stability as if it were 
 going straight on a level, and for a curve of 50 feet 
 radius the elevations of the outer wheel are given 
 in the following table : — 
 
 At 7 miles an hour, 3.8 inches. 
 10 ,, ,, 7.9 
 
 15 -- .- 17-2 
 
 20 ,, ,, 28.4 
 
 25 ,, ,, 39.6 
 
 These quantities are the natural sines of the 
 angles given above, the length of the axle, 5 feet, 
 being unity. 
 
 Since the base of the coach is wide, unlike that of 
 a bicycle, the resultant line of the centrifugal force 
 and of the weight will fall within the base with very 
 
 * In these computations, the centrifugal force is to the weight as 
 the tangent of the angle is to unity. 
 
 10 
 
I46 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE CH. IX 
 
 much smaller inclinations ; and the lower the centre 
 of gravity compared with the width of the base 
 the greater will be the stability at any speed, or 
 on any curve. 
 
 It must be also noticed that the load of the coach 
 has been supposed to be in the centre ; if it should 
 be moved over to the inside of the turn, its re- 
 sistance to the action of the centrifugal force (by 
 increasing the length of AB, Fig. 69) will be in- 
 creased ; if it is moved to the outside, its resistance 
 will be correspondingly diminished. 
 
 If the surface of the road is slippery, a coach, 
 under the influence of a centrifugal force much less 
 than is required to turn it over, will slide bodily 
 sideways, and if it brings up suddenly against an 
 obstacle or in the gutter, it may be upset. 
 
CH. X 147 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 DRAUGHT 
 
 The amount of power, usually called the draught, 
 which is required to overcome the resistance to 
 motion of a vehicle, may be examined from two 
 points of view : first, as to the actual mechanical 
 force expended ; and, secondly, as to the way in 
 which that force should be applied by an animal. 
 
 The resistance to movement of a sled, is simply 
 that due to the friction between the surface of the 
 ground and the under side of the runner, but when 
 wheels are used, this resistance is composed of the 
 rolling friction between the tire and the ground, and 
 the friction of the axle in its box. 
 
 The rolling friction results from the necessity of 
 surmounting obstacles in the way of the wheel, as 
 shown in Fig. 7 3, where the 
 power to move the load is act- 
 ing in the direction CP parallel 
 to the road, and the weight of 
 the vehicle is acting vertically 
 downward through the centre 
 
 « > 
 
 of the wheel and the point A, 
 
 at which the wheel touches 
 
 the ground. In order to surmount the obstacle B, 
 
 he power acting on the bent lever CBA must lift 
 
148 DRAUGHT CH. X 
 
 the weight, and its ability to do so depends ob- 
 viously upon the relative lengths of the two arms 
 CB and AB. CB is the radius of the wheel, and 
 AB will depend upon the size of the obstacle as 
 indicated at B. For the same size of wheel, there- 
 fore, the smaller the obstacles, or, in other words, 
 the smoother the road, the less will be the resist- 
 ance to rolling, and for the same roughness of road 
 the larger the wheel, the less will be the resistance. 
 
 The length of the arm AB, in the case of the small 
 obstacles, which make up the roughness, will be 
 practically the same as the arc AB, and will be 
 measured by the angle BCA. For any given sur- 
 face of road, this arc may be represented by a con- 
 stant, which, multiplied by the radii of various wheels, 
 will measure the rolling resistance. Theoretically, 
 therefore, this resistance should be inversely propor- 
 tional to the diameter of the wheel. In 1838- 1840, a 
 series of elaborate experiments made by Morin * for 
 the French Government, on the Traction of Vehicles, 
 confirmed this as a practical fact ; it may be there- 
 fore laid down as a law, that on any given road, 
 the rolling friction will diminish directly in propor- 
 tion as the size of the wheel is increased. f If 
 
 * Notwithstanding the comparatively early date of these experi- 
 ments they are still the most satisfactory that we have, and the most 
 complete, having been made on a very large scale, with heavy vehi- 
 cles, on all kinds of roads ; later experiments have only confirmed 
 them. 
 
 f Dupuit and other writers maintained that resistance diminished 
 
CH. X ROLLING 'FRICTION 1 49 
 
 the surface of the road is at all loose or soft, as in 
 newly stoned roads, or in roads wet, and partly 
 disintegrated by hauling over them, the resistance 
 to rolling will be measured not only by the effort 
 required to surmount the obstacle, but also by the 
 force expended in pushing, in front of the wheel, the 
 loose stones or particles which oppose its motion. 
 
 If a wheel rolling on ice meets a stone, it is more 
 likely to push the stone before it, sliding it on the 
 ice, than to mount over it ; and in a loose road 
 some of this sliding, with the consequent friction 
 between the particles of the road, takes place. Into 
 such a road a narrow wheel will sink deeper than a 
 wide one, or will, in other words, form a rut, and 
 will have to push a portion of the material forward 
 before surmounting it. On soft ground, therefore, 
 increased width of tire is an advantage, and Morin's 
 experiments indicate, that up to six inches of width 
 the draught diminished, but that no advantage was 
 gained by a further increase. On good roads 
 
 in proportion to the square root of the diameter, while Morin's ex- 
 periments seem to show that it changes directly as the diameter. 
 
 Accurately, the relation between the resistance and the diameter 
 depends on the relation of the sine and the cosine of the angle at the 
 centre of the wheel, included between the vertical radius CA, and 
 the radius CB which ends at the point of contact of the rim with 
 the obstacle (Fig. 73). On ordinary roads the relation is measured 
 closely enough by the diameter, but on rough, stony roads it is 
 measured more nearly by the square root of the diameter, and the 
 advantage of the larger diameter, compared with that of the smaller 
 one, diminishes. 
 
I50 WIDTH OF TIRE CH. X 
 
 nothing was gained by having a greater width than 
 four inches, and on pavement less was sufficient. 
 These figures refer to heavy loads, 2000 to 2500 
 pounds on each wheel, and are applicable only to 
 wheels that are very nearly cylindrical, vertical, and 
 with horizontal axles (see notes on Wheels in Chap- 
 ter III.), in which case there is no grinding action on 
 the road. On a very hard, smooth road, such as 
 good macadam or the best pavement, the draught 
 appears to be independent of the width of the tire. 
 There always has been a belief that a narrow tire 
 affords an easier draught, and it is probable that this 
 opinion was formed when wheels had more dish 
 and axles more drop than is now given in the best 
 practice, in which case, the wheel being a section 
 of a cone, the tire ground on the road. 
 
 Even on a hard, unyielding road like a stone pave- 
 ment, if it is roughs a wide tire is advantageous, 
 inasmuch as it prevents the wheel from dropping into 
 the inequalities between the stones. 
 
 If the wheel is nearly or quite cylindrical, an in- 
 creased width of tire is an advantage to the road 
 itself, but with coned wheels the increased width is 
 a disadvantage ; it increases the grinding action. 
 
 It is obvious, that in stiff mud, sand, or ordinary 
 earth, such as is crossed in hauling' over a field, the 
 wheel, sinking in under the pressure of the load, is 
 constantly surmounting a little hill in front of it, and 
 leaving an open rut behind it, which, owing to the 
 nonelasticity of the material, is not filled up. If, 
 
CH. X PNEUMATIC TIRE I 5 I 
 
 however, the wheel is drawn over an elastic mate- 
 rial, india-rubber, for instance, as in some of Morin's 
 experiments, the material recovers its form behind 
 the wheel, and in so doing restores most of the 
 force expended in compressing it. Notwithstanding, 
 therefore, that the wheel sinks into such an elastic 
 track, hauling over it requires but little more effort 
 than over a hard surface. With carriages this con- 
 dition occurs very nearly, when india-rubber tires 
 are used, which, notwithstanding their constant com- 
 pression in front of the wheel, again give out the 
 force behind the point of contact with the ground.* 
 Such tires seem to increase the draught somewhat, 
 but less than might be expected, which is due to the 
 fact that they diminish the shocks. Experiment 
 shows that, while at a walk, the resistance on hard 
 roads is the same for vehicles with or without springs, 
 it increases with the speed more rapidly for rigid 
 vehicles than for those on springs. This is no doubt 
 due to the fact that the shocks which occur at higher 
 speeds are largely taken up by the springs, and the 
 force thus absorbed is again given out by them, and 
 not all wasted in raising the load and hammering the 
 road, and the same effect is produced by the interpo- 
 sition of the elastic rubber. 
 
 The pneumatic tire, by which the whole load is 
 literally floated on air, has given results at first some- 
 
 * This springing back of the road, or of the tire, has been termed 
 resilience by some of the later experimenters on Draught. 
 
I52 PNEUMATIC TIRE CH. X 
 
 what unexpected to the mechanic. Instead of in- 
 creasing the draught even slightly, it has diminished 
 it, owing to the perfect elasticity of the air contained 
 in the tubular tire preventing any appreciable rising 
 of the weight of the carriage in passing over an 
 obstacle, the resistance merely forcing the air from 
 one part of the tube to another, and experiment 
 has shown (Michelin, p. 21) that the saving in 
 draught is greater as the speed is higher : for in- 
 stance, with the same spring vehicle : — 
 With iron tires : 
 
 At a walk, 3 ms. pr hour, the traction was 48 pds pr ton. 
 ,, trot, 6. 5 ,, ,, ,, ,, , , 59 ,, 
 
 ,, fast trot, 9.4 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, 77 ,, 
 
 With pneumatic tires : 
 
 At a walk, the traction was 48 pds pr ton. 
 
 ,, the other speeds, ,, ,, ,, 50 ,, 
 
 The pneumatic tire, almost in exactly its present 
 form, was invented and patented in 1845, by R. W. 
 Thomson, of London. (English Patent Specifica- 
 tion, a.d. 1845, No. 10990.) Experiments made with 
 it, reported in The Mechanics Magazine, of March 
 27th 1847, gave the following results : — 
 
 A carriage weighing 1050 pounds, running at 9 
 miles an hour, on a good macadam road, required 
 28 pounds of tractive force (53.3 pds per ton) with 
 pneumatic tires, and 45 pounds (85.6 pds per ton) 
 with iron tires. On broken stone, rough, the force 
 required was 38 pounds (72.3 pds per ton) with 
 
CH. X ROLLING FRICTION 1 53 
 
 pneumatic tires and 120 pounds (228 pds per ton) 
 with iron tires, — about the same results which are 
 obtained now. 
 
 Notwithstanding these successes, the device 
 seems to have been entirely lost sight of until it 
 was re-invented a few years ago. 
 
 The ton here used, as in all the computations 
 which follow, is that of 2000 pounds. 
 
 Morin's experiments, which are especially valu- 
 able, because they were made with large vehicles on 
 the road and not with small models, further showed 
 that the rolling friction increased directly with the 
 weight of the carriage and load, and that for a mven 
 kind of road it could be computed by the simple 
 
 P 
 formula, R = A-, where P is the weight (pressure), 
 
 r the radius of the wheel, and A a constant or coeffi- 
 cient," 1 determined by experiment. 
 
 * A coefficient is a proportion and can be thus exemplified : If A 
 and B are associated in a business of which A owns % and B ?/ , the 
 coefficient of A will be % or 0.25, so that any profits or losses must 
 be multiplied by 0.25 to determine A's share. In the friction of a 
 body sliding on a surface, if the coefficient of friction is 0.05, the 
 weight of the body multiplied by 0.05 expresses the friction, which in 
 this case will be 5 per cent, of the weight or pressure. 
 
 In using the French coefficients from Morin's book, it must be 
 borne in mind that in the formula for the rolling friction, the wheel 
 radius in metres enters as a divisor, and the French coefficient must 
 be multiplied by 3.281, the value of a metre in feet, to obtain a 
 coefficient for use with English measures. For instance, A (French) 
 0.015 ' s th e same as A (English) 0.05. 
 
 In the formula for resistance from axle friction, the multiplier ^ 1S 
 
154 
 
 ROLLING FRICTION 
 
 CH. X 
 
 For example : if P = 10,000 pounds, r= 2.5 feet, 
 and A = 0.05, which is the constant derived from a 
 number of experiments made on a road of the same 
 character as that for which this resistance is now to 
 be computed, R will equal 0.05^^, or 200 pounds, 
 g-V of the load. If P = 10,000 and the radius of 
 the wheel is increased to three feet, the rolling fric- 
 tion will be reduced to 166.6 pounds, eV of the load. 
 If the quality of the road changes for the worse, 
 the value of A will increase. On a road covered 
 with loose gravel two inches deep, Morin, p .144, 
 found the value of A to be 0.165, and with this co- 
 efficient the resistance will become o.iG^X 1 -^^ 
 = 660 pounds, or T V of the load. 
 
 As to the influence of the width of the tire in 
 diminishing the draught, Morin's experiments give 
 the following results (p. 132) : — 
 
 In thick mud, on a road, a 7 in. tire 
 
 a 4)4 in. 
 On a dry earth road 
 
 On a hard road 
 On a pavement 
 
 a 7 in. 
 a 4)4 in. 
 a zy% in. 
 a 7 in. 
 a 4 y 2 in. 
 a 7 in. 
 a 4% in. 
 a 2V% in. 
 
 In English units. 
 
 gave A = 0.097 
 A = 0.084 
 A = 0.073 
 A = 0.068 
 A = 0.084 
 A = 0.052 
 A = 0.045 
 A = 0.035 
 A = 0.030 
 A = 0.030 
 
 On roads, therefore, while there does not seem to 
 be much difference in the resistance of wide and 
 
 a ratio which is the same whether feet or metres are used, and there- 
 fore the French/ and the English /have the same value. 
 
CH. X DRAUGHT I 55 
 
 narrow tires, a narrow tire gave somewhat the best 
 results. It may be observed, however, that the wide 
 tire is very wide, seven inches, and unfortunately 
 Morin does not give the dish of the wheel or the 
 drop of the axle, but he does say, p. 133, that, 'the 
 ' inclination of the axle-arm, obliging the wheel to 
 ' move about the axis of a cone, the rubbing of the 
 ' surface of the tire on the ground, which is the con- 
 ' sequence, tends to increase the resistance of the 
 ' wider wheel.' This is no doubt the whole reason 
 for the increase of friction, and since all axle-arms 
 are somewhat inclined, for the reasons already given 
 when treating of Wheels, it would seem that the 
 disadvantage of the grinding counterbalances an 
 advantage from increased width. * In farm wagons 
 used on soft ground and grass, there is no doubt 
 that a width of tire up to at least four inches, is an 
 advantage, and experience has indicated the same 
 thing at many sandy sea-shore places ; but to get 
 the best result, the wheel must be nearly straight 
 and vertical. As far as damage to the road itself 
 goes, it would seem from experiments, that on hard, 
 good surfaces, well united, and with a hard bottom, 
 
 * In the experiments made at the Bedford Agricultural Show, 
 England, July 1874, with two loaded wagons practically alike, ex- 
 cept that in one case the inclination of the face of the wheel was 4 
 degrees, corresponding to an overhang of 3 inches or 1 ^ inch dish, 
 and in the other case \% degrees, \]/ z inch overhang or }{ inch 
 dish, the proportions of draught were -^ of the load for the more in- 
 clined wheel and -^ for the straighter wheel. 
 
156 WIDTH OF TIRE CH. X 
 
 the width is not important, but when only a thin 
 layer on top is hard, and the under part soft, 
 the wide tire injures the road much less than the 
 narrow one. The somewhat obsolete cobble-stone 
 pavement of eastern American cities is generally 
 laid upon an insufficient layer of gravel, on un- 
 drained soil, which, in wet weather or when the 
 frost is coming out of the ground, is soft, and the 
 stones, being round, and touching each other only 
 at points, become unstable, and the narrow tires 
 of heavily loaded carts soon displace them and ruin 
 the pavement. 
 
 Under these circumstances, city ordinances which 
 encourage the use of wide tires are eminently 
 proper, and since it seems to be clearly shown that 
 if the width does not diminish the traction, it does 
 not increase it (provided the wheel is nearly ver- 
 tical and therefore cylindrical), wide tires cause no 
 injury to the interests of the carter. The shocks 
 and jerks felt by the horse in pulling a cart through 
 ruts and over little holes must be vastly more 
 fatiouino- to the animal than the simple traction, 
 and these shocks are much reduced by a wide tire 
 which spans many inequalities into which a narrow 
 one will drop. 
 
 Among late experiments on ' Draught' are those 
 made by Mr H. J. Waters, of The College of 
 Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, of Missouri, 
 reported in The Engineering Record of March 12, 
 1898. Tires of 1)4 and 6 inches in width were 
 
CH. X AXLE FRICTION I 57 
 
 compared, with the results here noted : On almost 
 all roads, the wide tire diminished the traction by 
 an amount varying from 16 to 30 per cent., but 
 where the surface was sticky and there was a 
 smooth hard road below, the narrow tire cut clown 
 to the hard road, whereas the wide tire adhered to 
 the mud, showing an advantage for the narrow tire 
 of 20 or 30 per cent. In 14 experiments out of a 
 total of 21, with greatly varying conditions, there 
 was shown a decided advantage in the use of a 
 wide tire, and in all cases the road was improved 
 by the passage over it of the wide tire. 
 
 We have so far considered only the rolling friction 
 of the wheel, but to obtain the whole resistance to 
 the forward motion of the vehicle we must add the 
 friction between the axle and its box. This is a 
 sliding friction, the laws of which, as determined by 
 large number of experiments of different investi- 
 gators, are, within the limits met with in well-de- 
 signed machinery, as follows : — 
 
 This friction is directly proportional to the pressure 
 per unit of surface ; that is, between any two given 
 surfaces, if the pressure is one hundred pounds per 
 square inch, the friction will be twice as great as if 
 it were fifty pounds per square inch. It is therefore 
 independent of the absolute amount of surface, be- 
 cause with the same weight, if the rubbing surface 
 is increased, the pressure per square inch is dimin- 
 ished. A brick, for example, will move with just 
 the same amount of friction over the surface of a 
 
158 
 
 AXLE FRICTION 
 
 CH. X 
 
 table, whether it is on its Mat face, its edee, or its 
 end. The friction, therefore, between an axle and its 
 box is directly proportional to the weight of the car- 
 riage without its wheels, and is not dependent upon 
 the length of the axle-arm. The absolute friction 
 of the axle depends very slightly upon the diameter, 
 but the resistance to the turning of the wheel due 
 to friction, acts at the surface of the axle with a 
 leverage which is represented by the radius (or 
 semi-diameter) of the axle-arm. If the axle is raised 
 off of the ground so that the wheel can revolve 
 freely, the force applied to the outside of the wheel 
 
 to make it turn will be re- 
 sisted by the friction at r, Fig. 
 74, and the force will act with 
 a leverage RO. The longer 
 RO is, the less force will be re- 
 quired, applied at R, to turn 
 the wheel, and the loneer rO 
 is, the greater will be the re- 
 sistance of the friction. The 
 ease, therefore, with which the wheel can be turned 
 will depend upon the relation, or ratio between RO 
 and rO ; the larger the axle the greater the effect 
 of the friction, and its amount will be measured by 
 the ratio * R multiplied by a constant to be deter- 
 mined by experiment. 
 
 This constant, or coefficient, usually designated f 
 by writers upon this subject, is found, for polished, 
 well-oiled metal surfaces, to have a value, according 
 
 77777777777777777777777?. 
 Fig. 74 
 
CH. X AXLE FRICTION 1 59 
 
 to Morin, of from 0.05 to 0.065. Later experi- 
 ments with machine shafting bring this to a lower 
 figure, but for coach axles 0.065 * s a ^ air value. 
 This friction is much diminished by thorough oil- 
 ing, and with a constant supply, or bath, of oil it is 
 sometimes not over 0.005, or one-tenth of the value 
 given above. When the bearing is thus flooded 
 with oil, the surfaces do not touch each other at all, 
 and the friction is that of a fluid. 
 
 This condition cannot be fully maintained in a 
 wheel, but the distribution of the oil by means of 
 shallow grooves in the axle-arm, or in the box, and 
 a large supply of oil in the wheel-cap, approach 
 it and form an important feature of the Collinge 
 axle. Heating the oil, even to a moderate de- 
 gree, increases the friction, and great heating, as 
 we all know, by the expansion of the arm, soon 
 brings the wheel to a stop. 
 
 As is now well exemplified in the bicycle, the 
 ball-bearing, by converting the sliding axle friction 
 into rolling friction between very hard and smooth 
 surfaces, diminishes greatly the resistance to the 
 turning of the wheel. The rolline friction between 
 perfectly spherical, highly polished, hard, steel balls 
 and a hard, steel surface is so small that it may be 
 said to be nothing. In the bicycle, this has been 
 successfully turned to account, and there is no 
 reason why the ball-bearing should not be adopted 
 in a coach wheel, except for the comparative com- 
 plication of such arrangements, and from the fact 
 
l6o BALL-BEARINGS CH. X 
 
 that the horse, to whom the draught is of prime 
 consequence, is not able to express his opinion as 
 readily as the human cyclist. Some forms of car- 
 riage axles with ball-bearings have been already 
 brought out but are not yet in general use. 
 
 The results of some late experiments, made at 
 the Engineering Department of Yorkshire College, 
 Leeds {Engineering, Sept. 11, 1896), are interesting 
 as showing" the resistance to crushing of hard steel 
 balls. Balls of a quarter-inch diameter stood a 
 pressure of five tons each, before crushing ; those 
 of a half-inch, more than ten tons. These were 
 statical pressures ; the balls would not probably 
 stand so much if they were in rolling motion. 
 
 Taking 0.063 as the coefficient of friction, r the 
 radius of the axle, and R that of the wheel, or of 
 the average of the front and hind wheels, the ex- 
 pression 0.065 p w ^ represent the proportion of 
 
 the weight of the coach without its wheels, which 
 measures the axle friction. It is of course the 
 weight of the coach resting on the axles, that 
 causes the friction on the axles. If, therefore, a 
 coach with its load, and without its wheels, weighs 
 3100 pounds, has axles two inches in diameter, and 
 wheels averaging 46 inches in diameter, the expres- 
 sion will be/" R (W — w) t * or 0.065 -£$ 3100 = 8.77 
 pounds, as the amount of the axle friction, and 
 since experiment gives an average of 70 pounds 
 
 * W being the weight of the whole coach and w that of the wheels. 
 
CH. X 
 
 DRAUGHT I 6 I 
 
 per ton (of 2000 pounds), as the total resistance 
 to motion in a coach on a good hard road (see p. 
 163), that resistance for a weight of 3400 pounds, 
 will amount to 119 pounds, of which 9 pounds, or 
 7.5 per cent., will be axle friction, and 110 pounds, 
 or 92.5 per cent., rolling friction. 
 
 The total resistance to forward motion on a level 
 surface is therefore represented by the rolling 
 friction and the axle friction added together, or 
 
 by the formula P = A ^ +/- — ^7^ in which: — 
 
 P is the power required to draw the vehicle. 
 
 A is the constant for rolling friction for a given 
 road surface (see p. 153) ; for a hard road 0.0615. 
 
 W, the total weight of the coach and load. 
 
 w, the weight of the wheels. 
 
 R, the radius of the wheel (or the mean of the 
 radii of the front wheels and hind wheels). 
 
 r, the radius of the axle-arm. 
 
 f, the coefficient of friction, 0.065. 
 
 Example of computation for a coach : — 
 
 
 W = 3400 pounds. 
 
 
 iu = 300 pounds. 
 
 
 R = 23 inches, or 1.9 foot. 
 
 
 r = 1 inch, or .083 foot. 
 
 
 A =0.0615. 
 
 
 / =0.065. 
 
 
 W 34°° 
 A — =oo6k - — == 1 10 Rolling friction 
 R D 1.9 
 
 (W — w)r 
 J R 
 
 (3400 — 300)0.083 , , .. . 
 - 06; ^^^ = 9 Axle friction 
 
 I.Q 
 
 9 II 9 = P 
 
 I [ 
 
62 
 
 DRAUGHT 
 
 CH. X 
 
 The proportion of the total resistance due to 
 friction of the axle being small, it is evident that 
 the improvement of the road surface is more im- 
 portant than the improvement of the axle, and 
 this is shown in the orain arising from the use of 
 pneumatic tires, which is equivalent to having a 
 smoother road. 
 
 The following tables gfive an abstract of some 
 experiments on the force required to draw vehicles 
 under different conditions : — 
 
 Kind of Vehicle. 
 
 Description of Road. 
 
 Proportion 
 of Draught 
 to Weight. 
 
 Draught in 
 
 Pounds 
 
 per Ton of 
 
 2000 Pounds. 
 
 Experiments of Morin (pp. 182, 184). 
 
 Diligence. 
 
 Diameter of wheels, 
 
 1 . 1 5 metre. 
 
 3 ft. 9 in. 
 
 Pavement 
 
 Dry macadam 
 
 Muddv macadam .... 
 
 Dry earth with gravel 4 in. 
 deep 
 
 ft 
 
 33-3 
 40.0 
 74.0 
 74.0 
 
 250.0 
 
 Cart. 
 
 Diameter of wheels, 
 
 I.60 metre. 
 
 5 ft- 3 in - 
 
 Dry macadam . . 
 
 Muddv macadam . . . . 
 
 Dry earth with gravel 4 in. 
 deep 
 
 ft 
 ft 
 
 ft 
 ft 
 
 23-3 
 3°-3 
 55-5 
 
 55-5 
 
 181. 
 
 Cart. 
 
 Diameter of wheels, 
 
 2.0 metres. 
 
 6 ft. 6 in. 
 
 Pavement 
 
 Dry macadam 
 
 Muddv macadam 
 
 Drv earth 
 
 Diy earth with gravel 4 in. 
 
 T07 
 ft 
 ft 
 ft 
 
 A 
 
 1S.7 
 24.4 
 44-4 
 44.4 
 
 142.8 
 
CH. X 
 
 DRAUGHT 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 Kind of Vehicle. 
 
 Description of Road. 
 
 Proportion 
 of Draught 
 to Weight. 
 
 Draught in 
 
 Pounds 
 
 per Ton of 
 
 2000 Pounds. 
 
 Experiments of Macniell. Report of Committee. 
 
 Stage Coach. 
 
 Weight, with load, 
 
 3400 pounds. 
 
 Good Telford road. 
 6 miles per hour 
 
 10 miles per hour .... 
 
 
 68.0 
 72.4 
 83-3 
 
 Wagon, 
 at 2.y 2 miles per hour, 
 
 2300 pounds. 
 
 Diameter of wheels 
 
 not given. 
 
 Telford ~> 
 Macadam J 
 Gravel on earth 
 
 
 31.0 
 
 56.0 
 122.0 
 
 Bedford Experiments. Engineering, July io, 1874. 
 
 Wagons. 
 Mean diameter of 
 
 wheels, 4 ft., 
 without springs. 
 
 
 IT 
 
 43- 6 
 182.2 
 
 The same with 
 springs. 
 
 
 
 35-4 
 189.7 
 
 Carts. 
 
 Diameter of wheels, 
 
 4 ft. 6 in. 
 
 
 
 29.4 
 126.3 
 
 Experiments of Michelin, 1896. 
 
 Brake, 
 
 1270 pounds. 
 
 Mean diameter of 
 
 wheels, 3 ft. 4 in. , 
 
 iron tires. 
 
 Good road. 
 
 
 46.0 
 59.0 
 77.0 
 
 The same with 
 pneumatic tires. 
 
 3 miles per hour 
 
 A 
 A 
 A 
 
 48.0 
 50.0 
 50.0 
 
164 DRAUGHT CH. X 
 
 From the Bedford Experiments on Traction. 
 
 
 B 
 
 M 
 
 
 Road. 
 
 Field. 
 
 Z f- 
 
 
 
 Mean Diametb 
 of Wheels. 
 
 Inclination of 
 Wheels to th 
 Vertical. 
 
 M 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 X 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 Proportion 
 of Draught 
 Field to tha 
 on Road. 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 Draught per 
 2000 Pound 
 Ton. 
 
 1 (raught per 
 2000 Pound 
 Ton. 
 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Times. 
 
 
 r 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 2^ 
 
 44.I 
 
 205.O 
 
 4.6 
 
 ■\ 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 45- 1 
 
 168.8 
 
 3-7 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 *x 
 
 2i A 
 
 39-i 
 
 183.O 
 
 4-7 
 
 X ^ 
 
 
 
 s% 
 
 3 
 
 44.8 
 
 200.0 
 
 4-5 
 
 £ tun 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 47-3 
 
 183.9 
 
 3-8 
 
 *i 2 
 
 4 
 
 VA 
 
 4 
 
 39-4 
 
 167.8 
 
 4.2 
 
 
 
 
 fa 
 
 
 3X 
 
 4^ 
 
 
 167.8 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 45-7 
 
 l8l. 2 
 
 4.0 
 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 2^ 
 
 2% 
 
 29.6 
 
 188.4 
 
 6-3 
 
 vm 
 
 •0 V 
 
 4 O 
 
 5 
 
 2^ 
 
 41.2 
 
 191. 
 
 4-7 
 
 )?s- 
 
 wo-whee 
 Carts. 
 
 4 6 
 
 4 7 
 
 2^ 
 
 3^ 
 
 4 
 
 26.7 
 32.1 
 
 I25.O 
 127.6 
 
 4.6 
 4.0 
 
 Withou 
 springs 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 An examination of the Bedford Experiments 
 shows : 1 st, That the draught on the soft field is 
 about 41^ times that on the hard road ; 2nd, that 
 with a wide tire this difference is less ; 3rd, that 
 an increased angle of the wheel to the vertical 
 increases the draught ; 4th, that carts have a 
 lighter draught than wagons, and that the differ- 
 ence is greater than is merely in proportion to the 
 greater size of their wheels ; and 5th, that springs 
 diminish the draught on the road, but not on the 
 field. 
 
 These results agree, substantially, with those 
 obtained from other experiments, but it must be 
 
CH. X DRAUGHT I 65 
 
 noted that it is difficult to compare such experi- 
 ments with accuracy, on account of varying condi- 
 tions. In this abstract of the Bedford Experiments, 
 for instance, the mean size of the front and hind 
 wheels is given ; in the full Report, their respective 
 sizes are given with the proportions of the full load 
 on each. The fief u res would be somewhat different 
 if the load of the four-wheeled wagon were placed 
 principally on the front wheels or on the hind wheels. 
 The inclination of the wheels, the character of the 
 axles, the equality or otherwise, in length of the two 
 axles, all affect the result. 
 
 The subject may be summed up as follows : — 
 To obtain the least draught we must have the 
 largest wheel and the smallest axle ; the axle must 
 be highly polished, well fitted, but not too tight, and 
 profusely oiled ; the axle must be cylindrical and 
 horizontal ; and the wheel straight and vertical. On 
 a hard road with a vertical wheel, the width of the 
 tire, within reasonable limits, is unimportant ; on 
 soft ground, a wide tire diminishes the drauQfht. If 
 the wheel is dished and inclined, the increased width 
 increases the drauefht on a hard road. On a hard 
 road, it is not important that the two axles should 
 have the same length, but on a bad, or soft, road 
 the draught is increased, if the front wheels are 
 closer together than the hind wheels, because there 
 are four new tracks to break instead of two. 
 
 On good, hard roads, the draught increases with 
 the speed, as is shown in the preceding tables, 
 
l66 DRAUGHT CH. X 
 
 and at much higher speeds than coaches attain, as 
 on railroads, it varies as follows : — * 
 
 At 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 miles per hour. 
 9. 15 ; 9.6 ; 10. 5 ; 1 1.4 ; 14.6 ; 19.0 ; 24.0 ; 31.5 pds per long ton. 
 
 On hard roads that are rough, the draught in- 
 creases rapidly with the speed, owing to the shocks 
 which absorb part of the power, and on such roads 
 suspension on springs diminishes the draught, at 
 high speeds, by diminishing the shocks. 
 
 Well-laid, firm, stone pavements give from one- 
 half to two-thirds the resistance to rolling that is 
 given by good, broken-stone roads. This difference 
 seems, at first sight, to be too great ; but all the 
 experiments give substantially the same result, and 
 show that a solid, unyielding road is better than an 
 elastic one with ever so smooth a surface ; this is 
 confirmed by the experience of old coaching men, 
 who consider what they call the soundness of a road 
 its most important quality. 
 
 On a smooth surface, with a well-made vehicle, 
 there is no indication that the distance between the 
 axles in any way affects the draught. 
 
 It is a general opinion, however, that placing 
 the axles close together, or making a coach ' short- 
 coupled,' as it is called, makes it run easier. 
 
 No doubt a very long-coupled carriage, like a 
 
 * When it is said that the draught increases with the speed in a 
 certain degree, only the statical draught as indicated by a dyna- 
 mometer, is meant. The amount of actual work expended is repre- 
 sented by this quantity combined with the distance passed over. 
 
CH. X SWINGING OF A COACH 1 67 
 
 landau, runs hard, especially on a soft road, because 
 the hind wheels do not follow promptly, and some- 
 times run partly sideways in lines different from the 
 front wheels ; but within the limits of variation of 
 distance, possible in a coach, this can occur in only 
 such a small decree that the disadvantage is more 
 than balanced by the other advantages of a longer 
 coupling. 
 
 A very short-coupled coach can never be entirely 
 safe at high speeds, especially if the horses are 
 galloping ; a short wheel base, overhung in front 
 by the body, will cause the coach to rock to and fro, 
 and especially to swing sideways. A short base is 
 generally obtained by putting the front wheels far 
 under the front boot, 
 and the effect of this 
 projection of the front 
 of the coach beyond the 
 perch-bolt can be ap- 
 preciated by imagining ' i-i ] ' u — J 
 the front axle pushed IG " 75 ' 
 back nearly as far as the centre of the body, and the 
 coach pulled from that point. It will be seen that a 
 slight side motion of the front wheels will be greatly 
 magnified at the front end of the coach, and will 
 cause a dangerous swing (Fig. 75). 
 
 The distance between the axles of a coach should 
 not be less than 6 ft. 6 in. 
 
 A third element of resistance to the motion of a 
 vehicle, is the action of gravity when ascending a 
 
1 68 
 
 EFFECT OF GRADES 
 
 CH. X 
 
 slope, where a portion of the weight has to be raised 
 vertically. The proportion of the weight thus lifted 
 is directly as the height of the inclined plane is to its 
 horizontal length, and is, therefore, easily computed. 
 
 If a road rises one foot in every ten of its length, 
 or, in other words, has a grade of one in ten, the 
 power of the horses must be exerted to raise one- 
 tenth of the weiofht of the coach all the time that 
 the coach is ascending the slope, and this resistance 
 must be added to that of the rolling- friction and the 
 axle friction. 
 
 On all except very slight grades, this resistance 
 becomes important, as the accompanying table 
 shows. 
 
 
 Grade. 
 
 Percental 
 
 es of Resistance from 
 
 
 
 Rollini; 
 Friction. 
 
 Axle 
 Friction. 
 
 Effect 
 of Grade. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Level 
 
 88 
 
 12 
 
 m , 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 200 or 0.5 per cent. 
 
 69 
 
 IO 
 
 21 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 100 or 1.0 per cent. 
 
 57 
 
 9 
 
 34 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 90 or 1.1 per cent. 
 
 55 
 
 8 
 
 37 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 80 or 1.3 per cent. 
 
 53 
 
 8 
 
 39 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 70 or 1.4 per cent. 
 
 49 
 
 8 
 
 43 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 60 or 1.7 per cent. 
 
 46 
 
 7 
 
 47 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 50 or 2.0 per cent. 
 
 42 
 
 7 
 
 52 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 40 or .2. 5 per cent. 
 
 3§ 
 
 6 
 
 56 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 35 or 2.8 per cent. 
 
 35 
 
 5 
 
 60 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 30 or ^.^ per cent. 
 
 3 2 
 
 5 
 
 63 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 25 or 4.0 per cent. 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 68 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 20 or 5.0 per cent. 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 73 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 15 or 6.6 per cent. 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 77 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 10 or 1 0.0 per cent. 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 84 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 8 or 12.5 per cent. 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 87 
 
 IOO 
 
 I in 
 
 6 or 16.6 per cent. 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 90 
 
 IOO 
 
CH. X EFFECT OF GRADES I 69 
 
 These figures are for a heavy four-wheeled vehi- 
 cle, on hard macadam (Morin, pp. 45 and 127). 
 As the grade increases, its importance in using up 
 the power is manifest, until at a grade of 1 in 55 the 
 percentages of rolling resistance and grade resist- 
 ance are equal, and at 1 in 45 the grade resistance 
 is one-half of the whole. At 1 in 20, which may 
 be considered a permissible grade on a mountain 
 road, the grade resistance is nearly three-quarters 
 of the whole, and at 1 in 10, which should be the 
 utmost limit of mountain roads, it is 84 per cent. 
 
 Grades of 1 in 8, to 1 in 6, now and then met with, 
 can be ascended with an ordinary load only by the 
 use of extra horses. 
 
 Macneill, in 1838, recommended 1 in 40 as the 
 maximum grade on a main road of the best class, 
 but on a large proportion of the great European 
 roads, in mountainous countries, 1 in 25 is constantly 
 used, and there are grades of that steepness on the 
 great Holyhead coach road in England and Wales. 
 In all these cases, the surface is nearly perfect. 
 
 A grade of 1 in 20 is the steepest up which a 
 fresh team, with a moderately loaded coach, should 
 trot, and then only when the distance is short, not 
 more than 300 yards. 
 
 All experiments agree in putting the resistance 
 to rolling, on a well-paved stone street, at about two- 
 thirds of that on a good, macadam-surfaced road, 
 and every attentive coachman will feel the difference 
 in the action of the horses and the movement of the 
 
I70 TELFORD AND MACADAM CH. X 
 
 coach when he runs off of any other kind of a road 
 on to the stones. 
 
 Of course, a paved road to be good must be made 
 of flat-topped stones, and the joints must be so 
 small, that the wheels cannot drop into them in cross- 
 ing them. In many old pavements the stones are 
 so rounded and worn, that they are excessively dis- 
 agreeable to drive over, even while their resistance to 
 traction may be less than that of smooth macadam. 
 
 The goodness of a road depends not only upon 
 its smooth upper surface, but also upon its solidity, or 
 what coachmen often call its soundness. In England, 
 about 1830, which was the height of the coaching 
 era, just before railroads came into use, there was a 
 great controversy between the advocates of the two 
 systems known as Telford's and MacAdam's.* 
 
 Mac Adam held that a sufficient layer, that is 
 from 8 to 12 inches, of stone broken to a size to 
 pass through a two-inch ring, laid on even a yield- 
 ing foundation, made the best road ; Telford in- 
 sisted that it was necessary to have a strong stone 
 foundation under the broken stone. 
 
 Telford's view is now generally adopted in 
 Europe, especially for wet climates, but in America 
 it is an open question which system is the better. 
 
 * As the name MacAdam lends itself readily to being made into 
 a verb, macadamised has become a well-known expression and has 
 taken its place in English as the designation of a road surface formed 
 of broken stone without reference to what is underneath it. The 
 French use en empierrement and also macadamisee. 
 
CH. X TELFORD AND MACADAM I 7 I 
 
 European road makers, particularly in England, 
 insist that everything must be done to keep roads 
 dry, and object even to trees which may shade 
 them ; but in America the summer dryness is an 
 enemy to the stability of a road, since it permits 
 movement of the pieces of stone, and thereby facili- 
 tates the disintegration of the road under the traffic, 
 and the working up of the large stones from below. 
 In winter, on the other hand, the freezing and thaw- 
 ino- of the water in a road disturb the connection 
 between the stones and break up the road, allowing 
 ruts to be formed ; and the Telford system undoubt- 
 edly provides the best drainage. 
 
 If cost is disregarded, a good, deep Telford road 
 is the best, although, perhaps, the top covering 
 of stone wears out more rapidly than that of a 
 macadam road, from its being hammered between 
 the wheels and the unyielding pavement beneath. 
 As soon as the top is so worn down as to be not 
 more than four inches thick, the stones of the foun- 
 dation are likely to work loose and to come to the 
 surface, with the result of making the worst kind of 
 a road. If the lower pavement is made of stones 
 merely gathered from the fields and thrown in with- 
 out being packed, these stones will inevitably work 
 up through the small stone and make a road worse 
 than poor macadam. 
 
 One of the most experienced road makers of 
 eastern Pennsylvania is decidedly in favour of mac- 
 adam, as giving the better practical results in all 
 
172 TELFORD CH. X 
 
 regards, and especially as being the more easily 
 repaired, acknowledging, however, that it is more 
 likely than the Telford road to become rutted when 
 the frost is coming out of the ground. 
 
 For a Telford road of the best quality, the bed, 
 formed 12 to 16 inches below the intended surface 
 of the finished road, should be carefully graded with 
 a slope from the centre toward the sides, and 
 thoroughly drained by tile, shallow broken stone, 
 or gravel drains. No road of any system can be 
 good or lasting unless it is thoroughly drained ; 
 this is absolutely essential. Upon the bed thus pre- 
 pared, a paving of one layer of stones, from 7 to 
 10 inches deep, is laid by hand. Each stone must 
 be laid with its widest face on the bed, the object 
 being to prevent the stones from being pressed into 
 the ground, and to distribute the pressure from 
 passing wheels over as large a surface as possible. 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 Since the stones should touch each other where 
 they rest on the ground, the upper surface will be 
 broken by irregular openings which must be packed 
 tightly with stone chips. Upon this rough pave- 
 ment, which may be made of any inferior stone, not 
 too soft, is spread the hardest stone procurable, 
 broken to sizes of from 1 x / 2 to 2 inches, to a depth 
 of from 4 to 8 inches and well rolled with a steam 
 
CH. X TELFORD I.73 
 
 or horse roller. The depth of both the under pave- 
 ment and the upper layer of stones will vary be- 
 tween the limits noted, accordingly as the road may 
 be intended for light or heavy traffic, and according 
 to the amount of money at the disposal of the en- 
 gineer. The more substantial the road, the easier 
 will be the draught upon it, and the less will be the 
 expense for repairs. No earth should be put upon 
 the surface of the road ; it is by the interlocking of 
 the clean angular stones under the rolling and the 
 traffic that the road is made, and earth prevents 
 such interlocking. If a surface finish is required, 
 very sharp stone screenings should be used, put on 
 after the road has been partially rolled. 
 
 Much rolling with a light roller, or prolonged 
 ramming with a light rammer, is preferable to 
 heavy rolling or ramming, because the object is 
 not to break the angles of the stones, but to shake 
 them into interlocking with each other, an opera- 
 tion not altogether unlike the felting of hair. Con- 
 tinuous light shaking- will turn the small stones 
 about among each other until they fit closely to- 
 gether and form a solid mass. 
 
 If a road is equally good all over, it ought to 
 wear down evenly under the traffic, and when worn 
 should be repaired by putting on a new layer of 
 stone, not less than 3 inches thick, after the old sur- 
 face has been picked up, so that the new stone will 
 bind into it. On a road that is not well made, and 
 sometimes even on a good road, uneven wear will 
 
174 TELFORD CH. X 
 
 take place, and depressions be formed, which must 
 be patched with new stone. These repairs require 
 great judgment on the part of the road foreman, 
 and the old surface of the portion repaired should 
 always be picked up before adding new stone. 
 When new stone is put on in patches, it should 
 be well wetted and rammed. 
 
 The dust or mud which is formed on the surface 
 by the wearing action of the wheels should be 
 frequently removed ; it does no good to the road 
 and is obviously objectionable. The effect of mud 
 in increasing the draught is shown in the Table on 
 p. 162, the resistance of thick mud being to that 
 of a hard clean road as 84 to 45. It seems almost 
 needless to add that a soft, ' woolly' road, even if it 
 is dry, gives a heavy draught. 
 
 It is difficult to give an estimate of the cost of a 
 Telford road, on account of the varying price of stone 
 and of labour, and the difference of natural ground, 
 but the following fio-ures are from late American 
 sources. Paving 8 inches deep, $4 per square rod ; 
 broken stone 4 inches deep, $2 per square rod. An 
 18-foot road has 340 square rods to the mile, which 
 at $6 per rod is $2040, and with $200 per mile for 
 grading and shaping the road bed, is $2240 per 
 mile. This must be considered a low cost ; cul- 
 verts and ditches may add largely to it. For the 
 same thickness of road bed, there does not seem 
 to be much difference between the cost of Telford 
 and of macadam, since the cost of hand laying the 
 
CH. X STONE PAVEMENT 1 75 
 
 pavement is balanced by that of breaking all the 
 stone small. 
 
 Although country roads, paved with stone, or, as 
 in Holland, with brick, are common on the Conti- 
 nent of Europe, they are not used in America ; but 
 for cities where the traffic is heavy, stone pave- 
 ments, apart from their noisiness, have many good 
 qualities. The following extract, from a paper pre- 
 pared by the present writer, as a member of a com- 
 mittee of The Coaching Club, to be submitted to 
 the authorities of the city of New York, in 1884, 
 describes a good method of their construction : — 
 
 ' The proper conditions of a paved city street, as 
 ' indicated by the experience of the engineer and of 
 ' the driving expert, may be stated as follows : 
 
 ' The subsoil on which the paving is to be laid, if 
 ' not naturally porous, must be thoroughly drained 
 ' to a depth of at least four feet. A sewer, the 
 ' crown of which is pervious to moisture, will usu- 
 ' ally effect this purpose, but there are grave ob- 
 jections to any leaks from or into a sewer, owing 
 ' to the danger of the escape of noxious gases ; and 
 ' some simple system of special drainage similar to 
 ' that used in farming land is preferable. 
 
 1 The surface of the subsoil should be carefully 
 'graded and consolidated, so as to insure that no 
 ' water reaching it can stand in puddles upon it, 
 ' or that any portion can settle below the grade 
 ' originally given to it. The best method of consoli- 
 ' dation is by the use of a rather narrow steam roller. 
 
176 STONE PAVEMENT CH. X 
 
 ' Upon the subsoil, thus carefully prepared, there 
 ' should be laid a base of concrete from eight to 
 ' fifteen inches thick, depending upon the amount 
 ' and character of the traffic, and somewhat upon 
 ' the quality of the subsoil — a dry gravel or sand 
 ' requiring less depth of concrete than a clay 
 ' soil. 
 
 ' The upper surface of this concrete must cor- 
 ' respond in form to the finished grade of the pave- 
 ' ment to be placed upon it. 
 
 ' The pavement itself should be of stone blocks 
 ' about three inches wide, nine inches deep, and 
 ' from thirteen to fifteen inches Ion or. The width 
 ' and depth must be as uniform as possible ; the 
 ' lengths may vary. 
 
 ' The blocks should be laid upon the concrete, 
 ' over which a light coat of sand, not gravel, should 
 ' be spread merely sufficient to enable the workmen 
 ' to bed the stones evenly. Less than an inch of 
 ' sand should suffice if the stones are reasonably 
 ' even and smooth. The blocks are set with their 
 1 longest dimension across the street, their smallest 
 ' parallel to the axis of the street. 
 
 'After they are set, a small quantity of fine sand 
 ' must be swept over their surface with brooms, so 
 ' as to fill the joints about half full. 
 
 'The joints should then be filled to the top with 
 ' melted asphalt. This must be done, if possible, in 
 ' dry, warm weather, and cannot be done when the 
 ' stones are wet. 
 
CH. X STONE PAVEMENT IJJ 
 
 ' The stone selected must be one which wears 
 ' rough and gritty, and does not polish and become 
 ' slippery. The softer stone will not wear so long 
 ' as the hard one, but that must be submitted to. 
 
 ' The asphalt serves three purposes : it closes the 
 'joints, and prevents any water passing through 
 ' the pavement to the concrete or the subsoil, which 
 1 is necessary to the maintenance of a good pave- 
 ' ment ; it prevents dust rising from the joints ; and 
 ' it fills the top of the joint so as to prevent, to 
 ' some extent, the rounding of the upper surfaces 
 ' of the stones by the continued impact of the 
 ' wheels, which is the way that the best laid pave- 
 ' ment finally becomes rough and noisy. There is 
 ' no remedy for this other than turning the stones 
 ' upside down, or re-cutting their upper surfaces, 
 ' and using them on streets admitting of a thinner 
 ' pavement. 
 
 ' The asphalt diminishes the noise by preventing 
 ' the wheels from striking- the edges of the stones 
 ' with as much force as if the joints were open, and 
 ' it can be renewed during any hot, dry weather at 
 ' a small cost. It must be poured into the joints 
 ' neatly from a ladle, or equivalent device. 
 
 ' At street intersections, it is best to carry each 
 ' line of paving to a point in the intersection, to 
 ' avoid, as far as possible, the longitudinal joints 
 ' being in the direction of the traffic. 
 
 ' Continuous lines of joints in the direction of the 
 ' traffic are fatal to the maintenance of a ge>od 
 
 12 
 
178 STONE PAVEMENT CH. X 
 
 pavement ; and for that reason flat gutter stones 
 should be positively interdicted, and the paving- 
 should be carried directly to the curb. 
 
 ' There is no occasion, in a well laid pavement, 
 for any crown to the street beyond what is neces- 
 sary to insure the centre not being lower than the 
 sides ; for that reason no crown of more than two 
 inches should be permitted in any street of sixty 
 feet in width, and less in a narrower street. 
 
 ' The excessive crown that most American city 
 streets have makes them uncomfortable to drive 
 upon, owing to the sliding of the hind wheels of 
 vehicles toward the ©utter. 
 
 ' In streets newly laid out and paved, the curb- 
 stones should have more slope than is usually 
 given them. In a five to seven-inch curb, the 
 slope of the face backward should be at least 
 two inches, so that wheels rubbing- against them 
 may strike the tire only, and not wear the wood 
 of the rims of the wheels. 
 
 ' The method of construction advocated is prac- 
 tically that of the streets of Liverpool, England, 
 which are now the best in the world. The con- 
 crete base possesses the advantage, among others, 
 that in laying gas or water pipes it can be cut 
 up in blocks, and relaid so as to insure a more 
 perfect patching than can be made on a soft 
 substratum. 
 
 ' Any pavement, however, is very much injured 
 ' by taking up a portion over a long trench, as the 
 
CH. X ASPHALT AND WOOD I 79 
 
 ' most skilful and careful workman cannot possibly 
 ' replace the stones, even if they are marked, so as 
 'to form the orio-inal continuous surface.' 
 
 The asphalt and wooden pavements now rapidly 
 being introduced in cities, while not better for 
 draught than stone, have the great advantage of 
 diminishing the noise. Both are worthless unless 
 they are underlaid by a thoroughly well-made con- 
 crete foundation. Indeed, it cannot be too posi- 
 tively asserted that the surface, whether it is stone, 
 wood, asphalt, or macadam, is only a surface, and 
 that the true road is below, which if once well made 
 and not injured by excavations, should last indefi- 
 nitely. The surface can be renewed as it wears 
 out. The wooden pavement, known in America 
 as the Nicholson, and others of its kind, were laid 
 on a lining of thin elastic boards upon poorly pre- 
 pared foundations of earth or gravel. These pave- 
 ments soon went to pieces, and gave a bad name to 
 wooden pavement of all kinds ; but creosoted wood, 
 laid as it should be, on a perfectly firm concrete 
 foundation, makes the best covering that has yet 
 been found, being nearly as smooth as asphalt, and 
 less slippery. The application to the wood, from 
 time to time, of very sharp, finely broken stone, 
 almost like coarse sand, which is forced into the end 
 grain of the wood by the traffic, gives the horses' 
 feet a better hold. A pavement must always be a 
 compromise : if it is very smooth it is slippery. 
 Certain stone pavements in the streets of Rome, 
 
l8o SLIPPERINESS CH. X 
 
 made with a very hard lava, closely jointed, are per- 
 fect for wheels, but extremely slippery for horses.* 
 
 Elaborate experiments were made in London in 
 1873, by William Haywood, Engineer and Sur- 
 veyor to the Commissioners of Sewers, on the 
 slipperiness of pavements ; they are described in a 
 Report entitled : Accidents to Horses 011 Carriage- 
 way Pavements. Many thousand passing vehicles 
 were observed and the falls of horses recorded, in 
 certain streets paved with different materials. The 
 observations showed that on stone a horse falls 
 once in travelling 132 miles, on asphalt, once in 191 
 miles, and on wood, once in 330 miles, proving the 
 great advantage of wood as affording a good foot- 
 hold to the horse. 
 
 The following results are quoted from pp. 72, y^ : — 
 
 ' On the average of the whole fifty days' observa- 
 1 tions, the Granite was found to be the most slippery, 
 ' the Asphalt the next so, and the Wood the least. 
 
 ' Separating the accidents under three conditions 
 ' of surface as regards moisture, it appears : 
 
 ' That Asphalt was most slippery when merely 
 ' damp, and safest when dry ; 
 
 * Within the last few years, the introduction of india-rubber pads 
 in the horses' shoes have overcome this difficulty and it is now (1900) 
 a rare thing to see a horse fall in the streets of Rome. The pad is, 
 in effect, a shoe inside of the iron shoe, so much thicker that it 
 touches the ground below the iron. It is sometimes open at the 
 back, sometimes closed and covering the frog. The outer portion 
 is expanded into a thin web which lies between the hoof and the 
 shoe ; the nails, passing through this web, keep the pad in place. 
 
CH. X ACTION OF A HORSE IN DRAUGHT l8l 
 
 1 That Granite was most slippery when dry, and 
 ' safest when wet ; 
 
 ' That Wood was most slippery when damp, and 
 ' safest when dry ; 
 
 1 That when the surface of the pavements was 
 ' generally dry, Granite was the most slippery, and 
 ' Wood the least slippery ; 
 
 ' That when the surface of the pavements was 
 ' damp in different degrees, Asphalt was the most 
 ' slippery, and Wood the least slippery ; 
 
 ' That when the surface of the pavements was 
 ' wet, Asphalt was the most slippery, and Granite 
 ' the least slippery ; 
 
 ' That on the whole, Wood was less slippery than 
 'either Asphalt or Granite.' 
 
 There is nothing so nearly perfect, from a driving 
 point of view, as a macadam surface, giving sufficient 
 smoothness without being in the least slippery ; but 
 its drawbacks of dust, mud, and rapid wear have 
 nearly banished it from large cities. 
 
 Action of a Horse in Draught. — If a man, 
 attached to a vehicle, throws his body into the posi- 
 tion shown in Fig. yy, he would fall forward were 
 he not supported by the strain on the line by which 
 he pulls. If his inclination is slight, he will merely 
 put a portion of his weight upon the line, and the 
 remainder will be supported by the ground through 
 his legs, but if he increases his inclination suffi- 
 
182 
 
 ACTION OF A HORSE IN DRAUGHT 
 
 CH. X 
 
 «**. 
 
 ciently, the vehicle will move forward as soon as 
 the horizontal force acting on the line is equal to 
 
 the resistance to motion of the 
 vehicle. When the vehicle 
 moves in obedience to this 
 strain, the man is forced, in 
 order to avoid falling, to put 
 one foot in front of the other 
 and so successively to walk tor- 
 ward. As this strain upon the 
 line is produced entirely by the 
 weight of the man, it is evident 
 that the heavier he is the more 
 he can pull. The action of the horse is exactly 
 the same (Fig. 78), though at first sight it seems 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 complicated by the fact of his having four legs in- 
 stead of two. As the vehicle moves in obedience 
 
CH. X ACTION OF A HORSE IN DRAUGHT 1 83 
 
 to the impulse of his weight, he is forced to support 
 himself by advancing a leg, and he continues to 
 move, throwing his weight forward. 
 
 As in the case of the man, the heavier the horse, 
 the more he can pull, a fact well recognised by those 
 who use horses for slow, heavy draught. A horse 
 with a man on his back will pull a heavier load than 
 without the man, and the weight which is sometimes 
 hung on the yoke of a pair of oxen produces the 
 same result ; the advantage in both cases, however, 
 is obtained at the cost of additional strain upon the 
 legs and on the general powers of the animal. A 
 heavy animal has more weight of his own to move 
 than a light one, and he must therefore be propor- 
 tionately stronger ; and this becomes more impor- 
 tant as the pace is increased, since a speed may be 
 reached when all the power of the animal is em- 
 ployed in moving himself and nothing is left for 
 purposes of draught. In selection of horses for 
 service this should be duly taken into considera- 
 tion ; for slow stages on soft roads, or for starting 
 a coach on grass and earth, heavy wheelers are de- 
 sirable, but for fast work on good, hard roads, light, 
 quick, active horses are the best. These are im- 
 portant points in distributing horses along a road for 
 service on different stages, and show the judgement, 
 good or bad, of the person undertaking this duty. 
 
 If a horse weighing iooo pounds throws himself 
 forward into such a position (Fig. 79) that his 
 weight overhangs the points of support 4 inches, 
 
184 
 
 ACTION OF A HORSE IN DRAUGHT 
 
 CH. X 
 
 the horizontal force will be equal to about 1 1 1 
 pounds, since the joints about which the body moves 
 may be considered as being about 36 inches from 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 the ground, and 36 is to 4 as 1000 is to 1 1 1, so that 
 a moderate inclination is sufficient to produce a con- 
 siderable effect of draught. * 
 
 * This proportion is determined by what is known in mechanics as 
 
 the parallelogram of forces. The weight 
 at I), supported by a rigid strut, DB, will 
 tend to move in a circle of which B is the 
 centre, unless prevented by a resistance 
 acting in the line DC, and its effect will 
 be represented in direction and amount by 
 the lines DB and DC, DA representing the 
 weight. 
 
 The pressure on the ground acting in 
 the direction DB is greater than the weight 
 itself, and it would appear, therefore, that 
 some force is in this way made out of nothing, but it must be remem- 
 bered that mechanical work is the result of pressure multiplied by the 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
CH. X RIGID OR ELASTIC CONNECTIONS 1 85 
 
 The relation of the power of a horse to the draught 
 of a vehicle is modified by the condition of the 
 road, since the exertion of moving his own body is 
 much the same to the horse, whether the surface of 
 the road is good or bad, provided it is not slippery 
 or so loose and deep as to yield excessively to 
 his feet ; but as the surface of the road deterio- 
 rates, more power is required to pull the same 
 vehicle. 
 
 There is some difference of opinion as to the 
 relative merits of a rigid, and an elastic connec- 
 tion between the horse and the vehicle ; since the 
 animal's motion forward is not uniform, but, as 
 shown by the experiments of Marey and others, 
 consists of a series of motions of varying velocity, 
 a number of shocks must occur with a rigid con- 
 nection which are avoided by a certain amount of 
 elasticity. 
 
 As has been remarked, when speaking of carriages 
 with and without perches, the springs to some extent 
 take up such shocks, and a number of devices are in 
 use, such as the spring swingle-tree of a brougham, 
 or a dog-cart and the spiral springs connected with 
 the traces sometimes used with heavy business- 
 vehicles. With a spring interposed, a forward 
 
 distance through which it acts and not by the amount of the pressure 
 alone. 
 
 As the load becomes greater and the inclination of the legs of the 
 horse must be increased to move it, the strain on them will be in- 
 creased to their injury. 
 
1 86 RIGID OR ELASTIC CONNECTIONS CH. X 
 
 movement of the horse, more or less sudden, in- 
 stead of being" resisted by the entire weight of the 
 carriage, is partially taken up by the spring and 
 then gradually communicated to the vehicle ; none 
 of the force is lost. 
 
 The difference between an elastic and a long- 
 connection must be carefully noted. If the traces 
 are so long that the horse, when commencing to pull 
 gets into motion before acting upon the vehicle, he 
 is brought up with a jerk when the trace tightens, 
 and much of his power is wasted to no purpose. A 
 slack connection by an unyielding trace is therefore 
 objectionable. This does not apply to the case of 
 a horse pulling a canal-boat by a long rope, as the 
 sinking and rising of the rope takes the place of 
 elasticity, and the force expended in raising the rope 
 before the boat begins to move, is restored by its 
 sinking ao-ain. 
 
 From a purely physiological point of view, a long 
 continued action by a horse, the same in character 
 and in amount, is undoubtedly more fatiguing than 
 when it is varied, and the majority of horsemen have 
 observed that in a given distance, on a road with 
 some undulations, a horse is less tired than on an 
 even grade, no matter if that grade is the minimum 
 one mathematically. 
 
 The European roads, laid out by engineers with 
 the view of having- the easiest grades attainable, 
 nearly all have the grave defect of long steady 
 slopes for surmounting elevations with scarcely any 
 
CH. X 
 
 ATTACHMENT OF THE HORSE 
 
 I8 7 
 
 resting-places. American roads, otherwise much 
 inferior, usually have, on the hills, places which are 
 level or of slight grade, anc { there can be no doubt 
 that it is much better for the horses, to have steeper 
 grades alternating with flatter ones than to have a 
 minimum average grade for the whole of a long dis- 
 tance. An objection sometimes made to such a plan 
 is, that if horses are stopped on a hill they are some- 
 times disinclined to start again, but often they have 
 to be rested on the regular grade, and are then much 
 more likely to refuse than if they have a short level 
 on which to start. 
 
 As a matter of fact, the increase of grade, which 
 is the result of a location with short flats, is not 
 great. With a steady grade of 1 in 25, the rise is 
 2 1 1 feet in a mile ; if at every half-mile, a level of 
 200 feet long is made, the grade of the remaining 
 portion will be 1 in 23 instead of 1 in 25. With a 
 regular grade of 1 in 40, the rise 
 in a mile is 132 feet; a level place 
 of 400 feet in each mile will in- 
 crease the remaining grade to 1 
 
 in 
 
 7- 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 
 Attachment of the Horse. — 
 There are two ways in general use 
 of attaching a horse to the traces 
 by which he draws the vehicle. One is by the 
 breast collar (Fig. 81), or Dutch collar, as it is fre- 
 quently called, which was in almost universal use 
 
i88 
 
 ATTACHMENT OF THE HORSE 
 
 CH. X 
 
 on the Continent until of late years ; it is still fre- 
 quently seen there, and in America is used in some 
 light trotting harness. It has the advantages of 
 being simple, light, and cool in hot weather, and, 
 with slight adjustment, of fitting any horse. 
 
 Its disadvantages are that with a stiff splinter-bar 
 it rubs the shoulders as they move backward and 
 forward within it, and, bearing upon the point at 
 which the shoulder-blade joins the upper bone of the 
 leg (Fig. 82) cripples the action of the joint. It 
 
 does not enable the horse to 
 hold back effectively without the 
 addition of a somewhat compli- 
 cated strapping, or a metal yoke. 
 It may be necessary in travelling 
 to use one for a time to relieve 
 a horse with a sore neck, but 
 moveable swingle-trees of some 
 kind must be used with it, or else 
 a galled shoulder is sure to result. 
 The other way, is to use the ordinary collar (Fig. 
 83), a part of the harness which requires the great- 
 est care and consideration, sometimes taxing the 
 ingenuity of the most experienced horsemen and 
 harness-makers. It must fit ; if it is too long or too 
 wide it will slip about and rub the skin ; if it is too 
 short it will choke the horse ; if it is too narrow it 
 will pinch and gall him. These questions will be 
 treated more in detail in the Chapter on Harness. 
 But in this place it is proper to call attention to what 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 
CH. X 
 
 ANGLE OF TRACE 
 
 189 
 
 Major Dwyer * has so pertinently pointed out, that 
 the attachment of the trace must be at that part of 
 the collar which has the least motion when the 
 horse, in action, works his shoulder. 
 
 If the tue to which the trace is attached is too 
 low down, the collar will act somewhat like a breast- 
 strap, the bearing will be against the moving joint, 
 and the collar will stand forward at the top, away 
 from contact with the horse's neck. 
 
 If the tug is too high, the bearing will be on the 
 thin part of the neck, where it will act obliquely 
 against the skin instead of resting on the part which 
 is of such a form as to oive a sort of seat for the 
 collar. Being too high is a 
 less serious fault than being 
 too low, but it should be as 
 nearly as possible at the point 
 (Fig. S3), where the scat for 
 the collar exists, and where 
 the rocking- motion of the 
 shoulder-blade is the least. 
 
 A great deal has been Fig. 83. 
 
 written about the angle of the 
 
 trace, and the experiments of Morin, and others, 
 indicate 12 degrees to the horizontal as being the 
 most effective. As a matter of fact, with the usual 
 point of attachment to the collar, with an average 
 
 * Major Franxis Dwyer, Scats and Saddles. Chapter on 
 Draught, Am. Ed. n.d., part iii. 
 
I90 ANGLE OF TRACE CH. X 
 
 horse, and with the usual height of splinter-bar, 2 
 ft. 7 in., the angle of the trace of a coach is about 
 16 degrees, and therefore somewhat exceeds the 
 theoretical angle. The direction of the trace con- 
 tinued falls above the front axle and below the hind 
 axle in the way which is shown by Philipson 
 [Draught, p. 18) to give the best results. It is 
 obvious from an inspection of Fig. j$ (showing the 
 manner in which a wheel is drawn over an ob- 
 stacle), that a downward direction of the trace from 
 the vehicle to the collar would be wasteful of power, 
 and that a moderate upward inclination, tending to 
 lilt the load somewhat, is better. 
 
 Dwyer has pointed out that the direction of the 
 trace should be, as nearly as possible, perpendicular 
 to the collar, but no shoulder is straight enough to 
 bring a trace, with an angle of 1 2 degrees, at right 
 angles with the collar. On a well-made horse, the 
 collar will have an inclination of about 36 degrees to 
 the vertical, and a trace with an inclination of 1 2 
 degrees to the horizontal will not come within 24 
 degrees of beino- at rioht anodes to the collar, or 
 within an anode of 16 within 20 degrees. On a horse 
 with a very sloping shoulder, the collar will be even 
 less upright, and the strain on the trace will pull 
 the collar up, on the neck, choking the animal and 
 chafino- the skin. The correction for this is, ob- 
 viously to have the splinter-bar low, and to put the 
 draught-eye of the harness high. 
 
 Close observation of passing horses will fre- 
 
CH. X LENGTH OF TRACE 1 9 1 
 
 quently disclose exaggerated cases of this mistake ; 
 a small horse with a sloping shoulder, attached to a 
 carriage with a hio-h bar or swindle-tree, and with the 
 tug low, will have his collar pulled into an absurd 
 position. 
 
 In Fig. 83, the angle of the collar is 36 degrees 
 to the vertical, and that of the trace 12 degrees 
 to the horizontal ; in Plate XXXI. these angles 
 are 36 and 16 respectively. 
 
 In a trotting-wagon the swingle-trees are usually 
 very high, in order to give the horses ample room 
 for the action of their hind legs ; this brings the 
 traces nearly horizontal, but the draught is so light 
 that the inaccuracy is not important. 
 
 It is a common opinion among coaching men that 
 there is a great advantage in having- the horse close 
 to Ids work, that is, in having a very short trace. 
 But this must be taken with some allowance. There 
 is no absolute mechanical advantage in a short trace. 
 A vehicle drawn along a surface by a horizontal 
 cord and a weight, passing over a pulley, will re- 
 quire exactly the same weight to move it, be the 
 cord long or short ; variations in the effect can come 
 only from the action of the animal. 
 
 It is, of course, important that the motion of the 
 vehicle should be as uniform as possible, and that, 
 once set going, it should continue to move at the 
 same speed, so that small obstacles can be sur- 
 mounted or crushed by the instant action of the 
 horse, before the carriage has time to stop and to 
 
I92 LENGTH OF TRACE CH. X 
 
 require to be set in motion again. With very long 
 traces this objectionable stoppage may take place, 
 which is no doubt the foundation for the wide-spread 
 belief in the advantage of putting a horse close 
 to his work. Undoubtedly, on smooth roads the 
 horses may be harnessed as close to the coach as 
 will permit them to trot fast without the danger of 
 being touched by the splinter-bar or of striking 
 the wheels with their feet ; this means tight pole- 
 chains to prevent the horses from getting back too 
 far. But on uneven roads, with holes and ruts, such 
 close harnessing will strain the horses by subjecting 
 them to violent shocks from the irregular motion of 
 the coach. The custom, therefore, in rough coun- 
 tries, such as Western America, Africa, and Aus- 
 tralia, is to have a long pole and to harness the 
 horses loosely by long traces and long pole-chains, 
 so that while the coach cannot touch them, they are 
 less affected by the movements of the coach and of 
 each other. In park driving on smooth roads, with 
 light loads, low speeds, and well-trained horses, both 
 traces and pole-chains may be short ; but it is a 
 common fault with coachmen to have them too short 
 even under these circumstances and to distress their 
 horses unnecessarily. For higher speeds, especially 
 galloping, and on less good roads, more flexibility is 
 required and more length should be given. A short- 
 harnessed team looks 'smarter,' takes up less room, 
 and is more easily handled than a long one, and, 
 where circumstances permit, it is proper ; but judge- 
 
CH. X LENGTH OF TRACE 1 93 
 
 ment must be used as to the conditions. The leaders 
 should have their traces long enough only to keep 
 them well but of the way of the bars, and a short 
 pole with a crab the branches of which are of suffi- 
 cient length to bring the pole-chains into the proper 
 direction, will, by bringing the leaders well back, add 
 much to the appearance of a team. 
 
 The proper length for a wheel-trace is 84 inches 
 from the tue-buckle to the centre of the roller-bolt ; 
 for a lead-trace, 76 inches from the tug-buckle to 
 the end of the cock-eye (pp. 216, 217). From the 
 tug-buckle to the front end of the trace, the length 
 is 1 5 inches, making the whole length of the wheel- 
 trace 99 inches, and of the lead-trace 91 inches. 
 
i 9 4 
 
 CH. XI 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 HARNESS 
 
 Harness. — The essential parts of the harness are 
 the bridle, bit, reins, collar, hames, and traces. All 
 other parts are accessory, and may be somewhat 
 varied, and, in some cases, omitted. 
 
 Bridle. — The bridle shown in Fig. 84 is the usual 
 pattern of a coaching bridle. 
 
 For a drag, the front should be a simple pat- 
 tern of chain ; for a public- 
 coach, patent leather, or 
 worsted, of the colours 
 of the 'coach, plaited 
 round the leather front. 
 Where the front joins 
 the bridle there should 
 be a plain metal boss, 
 preferably flat, with initial 
 or crest. On a drag har- 
 ness, these bosses should 
 be on the inner side as 
 well as on the outer side ; 
 on a public-coach they are 
 on the outer side only, 
 and serve to indicate the off side or near side bridle. 
 Ribbons or rosettes are out of place ; they belong to 
 
CH. XI BRIDLE 1 95 
 
 a lady's harness ; but flowers are correct at all times, 
 and should customarily be worn. On a public- 
 coach, only flowers in season should be used ; they 
 are supposed to be given by the fair friends of the 
 coachman, along the road. In winter, holly berries 
 and leaves are suitable. On a drag, any kind of 
 flowers may be worn, and frequently the owner 
 adopts an especial flower from which he never varies. 
 It is well to have it correspond to one of the colours 
 of the coach. Of course, artificial flowers must be 
 used ; natural ones are too fragile. The wire stems 
 should be pulled through the loop below the buckle 
 which is at the top of the winker. They are worn 
 only on the outer side of the bridle. In Fig. 84, 
 the flower is shown as being put in the throat-latch 
 buckle because the rein-ring is high and close to the 
 boss ; if the ring is on the throat-latch, the flower 
 should be in the cheek-piece buckle so as not to be 
 rubbed by the rein. 
 
 On occasions of ceremony, such as Meets, it is 
 usual for the owner and the grooms to wear bou- 
 tonnieres of the same flowers as those on the horses' 
 heads, and on the road, the person driving may 
 do the same. There is one occasion when ribbons 
 may be used : on the last day of the season of a 
 public-coach, on the last stage into town, it is cus- 
 tomary to put on the horses' heads knots of ribbon 
 of the coach colours, and on the pads, similar knots, 
 with long ends. 
 
 Winkers should be square, with rounded corners ; 
 
I96 WINKERS 
 
 CH. XI 
 
 round winkers, with or without metal edges, belong 
 to dress harness. They should be much hollowed or 
 cupped, so as to stand away from the eye. Winkers 
 are unquestionably necessary in driving-harness ; a 
 saddle-horse is ridden without winkers, but the rider 
 is on the back of the animal, where he has good 
 control over him ; driving-horses have the coachman 
 and the whip behind them, and without winkers 
 they will be nervously watchful of whatever hap- 
 pens there. 
 
 Were all horses driven from the first, without 
 winkers, they would probably work well enough ; 
 but, in using horses which have been broken to 
 harness with winkers, it is dangerous to omit them. 
 They should not be close enough to the eyes to 
 heat them, but they should be high enough to 
 prevent the horse from seeing backward over them. 
 The split strap connecting the winkers with the 
 crown-piece, should be exactly of the right length 
 to make the winkers set properly, neither too close 
 to the eyes, nor spread apart. Care must be taken 
 that in the harness-room, the bridle is not hung on 
 a sino-le hook, since this hook must come on one 
 side or the other of the buckle of the crown-piece, 
 and the bridle will get a crooked set, and not fit 
 squarely on the head. Attention to details like 
 these makes the difference between a well turned- 
 out team and a slovenly one. The centre of the 
 winker is a proper place for any crest, monogram, or 
 device that may be used. In drag-harness, there is 
 
CH. XI BRIDLE 1 97 
 
 a face-drop which goes under the front, and usually 
 has the monogram on it. This is entirely ornamental 
 and is omitted in public-coach harness. On one 
 side, the nose-band has a loop which goes on the 
 billet of the side of the bridle to keep the nose- 
 band from slipping round, and on the other side, it 
 passes between the side of the bridle and the billet, 
 so that it can be tightened by the buckle which is 
 under the chin. Ordinarily, the nose-band is more 
 an ornament than anything else, but, with a high-port 
 bit on a pulling horse, it may be buckled somewhat 
 tight to prevent the horse from opening his mouth 
 too wide, and thereby escaping the action of the 
 bit ; then, it is useful. When a side-rein is used to 
 hold back a pulling horse, it may be buckled to the 
 nose-band, which then acts as a cavesson. 
 
 In the wheel-horse's bridle, the ring through 
 which the leader's rein runs, is fastened on in 
 several ways. In Fig. 84 it is shown as brazed 
 to a flat loop or band, which slips on to the crown- 
 piece, and is kept in its place by the buckles below 
 it. This brings the ring close under the boss and 
 above the flower. It can be readily taken off when 
 the bridle is used in a pair-harness. 
 
 Another way is to have the ring sewed on the 
 throat-latch under its buckle, as is done in public- 
 coach harness, as in Fig. 85 ; it is then further below 
 the boss, and the flower may be put through the 
 buckle over it. Thus arranged, the rein comes 
 straighter to the pad-terret, but it rubs the sur- 
 
198 
 
 THROAT-LATCH RING 
 
 CH. XI 
 
 face of the winker. The throat-latch in this case 
 should not be a part of the crown-piece, as is usual 
 in pair-horse harness, but should be separate, with 
 a buckle at each end, so that it can be removed 
 and a plain throat-latch without a ring, substituted 
 
 when desired. When using 
 four-in-hand harness for pair- 
 horse work, it is in better 
 taste to remove the parts 
 which are only necessary for 
 four horses. It is a good plan 
 to have the harness so made 
 that it can be used for either 
 purpose, and it keeps in 
 much better order when in constant use, and is fre- 
 quently cleaned and oiled, than when hung up and 
 allowed to become dry. Two sets of four-in-hand 
 harness, thus arranged, will serve the requirements 
 of a large private stable for pair-horse work, and will 
 make it possible to turn out two teams for a change 
 of horses. 
 
 Carrying the lead-reins over the heads of the 
 wheelers has now gone out of fashion ; twenty-five 
 years ago it was almost universal for drags, but be- 
 fore that time it was being gradually abandoned on 
 public-coaches. * 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 * In a print, after W. J. Shaver, published in 1841, of the Duke 
 of Beaufort's public-coach, the lead-reins are through the throat- 
 latch rings. This is the earliest print in which that arrangement is 
 shown, that has come under my notice. 
 
CH. XI HEAD-TERRET 1 99 
 
 'Nimrod,' in 1834, comments upon the fashion as 
 follows (Northern Tour, p. 31) : — 
 
 1 It was now I found that I had taken leave of 
 1 coaching in anything like its proper form, at least, 
 ' for some time to come ; for the horses were slow, 
 ' the coachman slower, and the stupid, unworkman- 
 ' like, unsafe practice of running the leader's reins 
 ' throuoh the throat-latches instead of the head-ter- 
 ' rets of the wheel horses was the order of the day ;' 
 and again (p. 340), ' Such a thing as a leader's rein 
 1 running through a wheeler's throat-latch, instead 
 ' of throueh his head-terret, is not to be seen on the 
 ' Defiance.' The objections to using the head-terret 
 are, that when a wheeler tosses his head, he disturbs 
 the lead-rein more than when it passes through the 
 side ring, which is more flexible, and which moves 
 without jerking the rein ; that the rein, when over- 
 head, sometimes gets behind the horse's ear, and 
 often in wet weather gets the foretop hair tangled 
 round it ; and that it is difficult to reach up so high 
 to pass the rein when changing horses. When 
 a head-terret is used, it is 
 screwed into a plate sewed 
 into the crown piece, or, 
 more frequently, there is 
 a double ring (shown at 
 A, Fig. 86), which to some p IG< g6. 
 
 extent prevents the rein 
 
 from getting behind the ear. With a single head- 
 terret the same result may be obtained by putting 
 
200 THROAT-LATCH RING CH. XI 
 
 a loose ring between the buckle and the loop, or 
 keeper, in front of the terret, as shown at B. 
 
 The terrets may be kept on the top of the head 
 in a public-coach harness, as well as the rings on the 
 throat-latch, since leaders that throw their tails over 
 the reins, or that are inclined to kick, will be less 
 likely to do either, if the rein is kept that much 
 hiorier ; but when the terret is near the boss, as in 
 Fig. 84, pretty much the same end is attained. 
 
 In public-coach harness the ring is often sewed on 
 lower down than is shown in Fig. 85. In American * 
 public-coach harness these rings are invariably on 
 the inner side of the bridle, since the lead-reins are 
 not passed through a terret on the wheelers' pad, and 
 from the inner side go more directly to the driver's 
 hand ; but it is much more difficult to pass 
 the rein through, at a change. Sometimes 
 the lead-rein is simply passed tlwougli the 
 throat-latch. 
 
 The strap with a ring at the end (shown 
 in Fig. 84), which is sewed on the crown- 
 Fig. 87. piece, is to take the short strap holding the 
 ring (Fig. 87) through which the bearing- 
 rein passes, and, when the bearing-rein is not used, 
 the strap and ring show very little. 
 
 The buckle which is sewed on the cheek-strap at 
 the top of the winker should be a little above the 
 
 * When reference is made to the 'American' way, the original 
 fashion, as practised in the West, is meant. 
 
CH. XI 
 
 BIT 
 
 20I 
 
 edge of the winker, so as to permit some flexibility 
 to the side of the bridle. 
 
 Bit. — A great many different bits are fancied by 
 horsemen, but, for coaching, the patterns shown in 
 Fig. 88 are those most in use. The Liverpool bit, 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 A, has a straight mouth-piece, smooth on one side 
 and slightly fluted on the other, which plays up and 
 down on the branches of the bit for the distance 
 of about an inch. The portion of the branch on 
 which it moves should be square, as well as the hole 
 in the end of the mouth-piece, so that the branch 
 cannot turn, or else the coupling-rein will pull the 
 ring of the bit into a position to press against the 
 side of the horse's mouth and hurt him. An objec- 
 tion to having the branches moveable in the mouth- 
 piece is that they wear rapidly ; consequently many 
 coaching men prefer to have them fixed. When 
 the rein is buckled to the rinor or, as it is called, ' in 
 the cheek,' the bit acts like a plain snaffle. When 
 
202 BIT CH. XI 
 
 it is in one of the holes in the branch, it is said to 
 
 be 'in the upper, middle, or lower bar,' and the 
 
 lower it is, the more effect it has. 
 
 The rein is sometimes buckled round the branch 
 
 inside of the ring, and below the mouth-piece (Fig. 
 89), when it acts, perhaps, like a mild 
 curb bit ; but this arrangement pre- 
 vents the play of the mouth-piece up 
 and down, and does not have any 
 compensating advantage. The bil- 
 let being constantly wetted by the 
 
 horse's mouth is soon rotted. The 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 branches of the bit may be joined 
 at the lower ends by a bar, as shown in B. This 
 bar prevents a horse from catching the end of the 
 branch in the bridle of his partner when he tosses 
 his head, and such bits may be used on the lead 
 horses. On the wheel horses, this bar might be 
 caught in the hook of the pole-chain, and it is there- 
 fore better not to use bar bits on the wheel horses. 
 
 Either style of bit may be used on all four horses, 
 but bits with bars on the wheelers, and bits without 
 bars on the leaders, in the same team, are decidedly 
 wrong. 
 
 To prevent a horse from taking the branch of his 
 bit in his lips, the elbow bit, C, is used ; the bend in 
 the branch serves the same purpose as a lip strap on 
 a riding bridle. In this bit the shank, if it passes 
 loosely through the mouth-piece, must be square, or 
 else the coupling-rein will pull it out of position. 
 
CH. XI 
 
 BIT 
 
 203 
 
 The Liverpool bit, having straight branches, can be 
 used either with the fluted side or with the smooth 
 side of the mouth-piece against the horse's jaw, but 
 the elbow bit obviously cannot be so used unless the 
 shank is round, so that the branches can be turned. 
 For this reason, the Liverpool bit with the straight 
 branch is the most useful ' all-round' bit. 
 
 The Buxton bit, D, is considered a ' dressy' bit and 
 is used on pair-horse harness : it is proper enough 
 on a drag team, but not quite so simple and work- 
 manlike as the Liverpool. The branch is curved to 
 prevent the horse from catching 
 it with his lip. 
 
 A straight mouth-piece is not 
 always suited to a pulling horse, 
 since it rests upon the compara- 
 tively insensitive tongue, and 
 does not press much upon the 
 bars of the mouth. Such a horse 
 requires a mouth-piece with a port, or, as the French 
 call it, liberty of the tongue, which is an arch, as at 
 P, Fig. 90, of greater or less height, permitting the 
 toneue to eo up into it, and the canons, C C, of the 
 mouth-piece to rest upon the bars. When consider- 
 ably exaggerated, the port serves another purpose : 
 it presses upon the roof of the mouth when the rein 
 is drawn, and, if the nose-band is buckled tight, it 
 presses very hard. This arrangement is one of great 
 severity, and should be used only by a person of 
 judgement, and with a very light hand. The action 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 
204 CURB-CHAIN CH. XI 
 
 of all these bits, when the rein is buckled in one of 
 the holes in the branch, depends upon the curb-chain 
 which is attached to the upper eye of the bit and 
 passes under the chin. The tightness of the chain 
 can be regulated by engaging one or other of its 
 links in the hooks. Usually, before hooking, the 
 chain should be turned until all the links lie flat ; if 
 it is turned so that the links are open, or 'roughed,' 
 as it is called, it is more severe. There should be 
 a hook on each side of the bit, so that the chain can 
 be entirely removed for cleaning, and these hooks 
 should have spring points, or the chain will be con- 
 stantly coming unhooked. The chain should be so 
 hooked that when the bit is hanging loose, with the 
 horse's head nearly vertical, three fingers can be 
 passed between the horse's jaw and the chain, which 
 will then lie in what is sometimes called the ' chain- 
 eroove,' above the cushion-like thickening of the 
 lower lip. \\ nen the rein is pulled tight, the head 
 of the horse being vertical, the branch of the bit 
 should come to an angle of about 40 degrees with 
 the vertical ; if it approaches nearer to the horizon- 
 tal, the chain is too loose to have any effect. A 
 curb-strap, with a billet at each end to buckle in the 
 eye of the bit, is in many respects more convenient 
 than a chain, and no hooks are needed on the bit, 
 but it is not as severe as is a chain. 
 
 Since the function of the curb-chain is to provide 
 a fulcrum on which the branch of the bit acts 
 in pressing the mouth-piece against the bars, a 
 
CH. XI 
 
 SNAFFLE-BIT 
 
 205 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
 wide strap fulfils this purpose without hurting the 
 chin ; for which reason I have always preferred the 
 strap. 
 
 The action of the chain, on a pulling horse, may 
 be much increased by tying the centre of it by a 
 piece of cord to the throat-latch, so as to make it 
 bear higher up on the jaw, or the chain may be 
 passed once round the part of the nose-band which 
 lies above it, with the same 
 effect. 
 
 Plain snaffle-bits (Fig. 91) are 
 rarely used on coach horses. 
 If one horse in a team will not 
 go pleasantly with any other bit, he must have 
 one ; but it is dangerous to bit a team all round 
 with snaffles, for if they start suddenly, it may be 
 difficult to hold them, and an unnecessary risk is 
 being run ; a curb bit with a light hand is the proper 
 thing. 
 
 The double-ring, jointed snaffle (Fig. 92) is the 
 favourite hansom-harness bit, and in severity comes 
 between the plain snaffle and 
 the curb. The loose rings are 
 fastened to the head-stall of the 
 bridle, and the reins buckled to 
 the ordinary rings ; the pull 
 bends the bit at its joint, and squeezes the loose 
 rings together, making- the bit quite severe. The 
 action of the various Bits will be discussed in Chap- 
 ter XV. 
 
 Fig. 9: 
 
206 
 
 BEARING-REIN 
 
 CH. XI 
 
 The Bearing-Rein is made in the two forms 
 shown in Fig. 93. The pulley bearing-rein, A, 
 
 Fig. 93. 
 
 requires a special snaffle, having a roller or pulley 
 attached to it. The bearing-rein is buckled to a 
 point or chape on the crown-piece, passes through 
 the pulley (being made round for the purpose), and 
 then through the ring of the gag runner, termi- 
 nating in a ring to receive the flat portion of the 
 rein. This flat portion is looped over the centre- 
 hook of the pad (p. 220) ; its length is adjusted by 
 the buckle shown at the right-hand side of Fig. 93. 
 
CH. XI COLLAR 207 
 
 The plain bearing-rein, B, is buckled to a light 
 snaffle-bit, which is not attached to the bridle, and, 
 passing through the ring which is attached to the 
 crown-piece by the strap already described, it loops 
 the centre-hook of the pad. For the purpose of 
 adjusting its length, it has the arrangement of rings 
 and buckles shown in the figure. Form A is much 
 more heavy and clumsy than form B, and it is 
 difficult to see any advantage in it. The double 
 purchase of the pulley enables a stableman to pull 
 the rein up very tight, and to make it cruel. (See 
 Article on Bearing-Reins, Chapter XII.) 
 
 The bearing-rein is sometimes, in America, called 
 the ' check-rein.' 
 
 Collar. — Inasmuch as the collar is that part of 
 the harness by which the horse does his work, it 
 is of the utmost importance that it should be of 
 the proper shape and should fit well, and to get a 
 collar which will not rub the horse, usually ex- 
 ercises all the care and ingenuity of the harness- 
 maker and the coachman. If possible, every horse 
 should have his own collar ; with the horses of a 
 public-coach it is indispensable, for which reason 
 every horse should have a number, which is usually 
 branded on the hoof, and his collar should have a 
 corresponding number, in brass figures, on the little 
 cape which is usually on the top of a public-coach 
 collar, where they can be seen by the coachman 
 from the box. 
 
208 
 
 COLLAR 
 
 CH. XI 
 
 Collars are either straight, that is, so made that 
 when laid upon a table, face down, they will touch 
 the table at all points (Fig. 94), or bent back (Fig. 
 95). The latter shows off the horse's neck much 
 
 better, giving it more apparent 
 lenorth, and collars for drae-har- 
 ness are usually thus made. Since 
 the metal hames must fit the col- 
 lar closely, they must be also bent 
 back, and if there is any difference 
 in the degree of bending, they will 
 not tit. For this reason public- 
 coach collars are usually made 
 straight, since any straight hames 
 will fit any straight collar, pro- 
 vided there is not too much dif- 
 Some coachmen think that straight 
 collars are less apt to rub the neck. 
 
 The hames rest in the groove formed by the roll 
 which makes the front of the collar, and when this 
 groove shows also on the inside, or neck side, of the 
 collar, the collar is called a 'rim collar.' Sometimes 
 the groove does not show on the neck side, the 
 lining- being carried round smoothly from back to 
 front. Such collars are called ' Kay collars,' from 
 the name of the inventor, and, being neater looking 
 than rim collars, are well adapted to drag-harness. 
 In drag-harness, the outside of the collar is always 
 made of patent leather ; in public-coach harness, it is 
 frequently of plain, black leather, and sometimes of 
 
 Fig. 94. Fig. 95 
 ference in size. 
 
CH. XI COLLAR 20Q 
 
 russet leather, which last is rather ' smart' looking 
 when it is dark brown. What are called ' straw col- 
 lars' are really made either of split rattan, or of a 
 kind of rush ; they have no particular advantages. 
 
 The lining against the horse's neck is of soft 
 leather, black or russet, or sometimes of thin and 
 very smoothly worked patent leather. The latter 
 has the advantage of being easily kept perfectly 
 clean by sponging, and, in warm weather especially, 
 is, perhaps, preferable to any other lining. 
 
 Cloth, or woollen of any kind, is not good, al- 
 though many heavy collars for carts, and the like, 
 are so lined ; it absorbs the sweat, and is difficult 
 to dry. A collar must be so stuffed as to be soft 
 and elastic. 
 
 The shape of the collar is, of course, of the first 
 importance ; if it is too wide, it will slip about side- 
 ways, and rub the shoulders ; as a rule, the width 
 that permits it to go easily over the horse's head 
 will be right for the shoulders. A horse with a very 
 wide head and thin neck requires a collar which can 
 be opened at the top, in order to put it on, or the 
 collar must have a lining which can be fitted into 
 it to reduce its width. This lining- should have a 
 roll at each edge, to prevent it from slipping out of 
 place. 
 
 A collar should be of such a length that the 
 four fingers of the hand, held vertically, can be 
 readily inserted between it and the neck when the 
 horse holds his head in a natural position, or else 
 
 14 
 
210 
 
 COLLAR 
 
 CH. XI 
 
 when he lowers his head, the collar will choke him. 
 If it is much longer than this, it will slip up and 
 backward. It is impossible to give precise direc- 
 tions as to the length ; careful observation must de- 
 termine it for each horse. The proper form of col- 
 lar, looking at it in front, is shown in Fig. 96. The 
 
 top should be sharp, and not 
 rounded, or it will press on the 
 withers, and make a sore spot ; a 
 serious and common fault. To 
 guard against this same fault, the 
 sides, at the points marked AA, 
 should be somewhat filled out, 
 but not enough to prevent a solid 
 bearing on the neck at BB, where 
 the draught comes. It is usually 
 very difficult to make a harness- 
 maker appreciate the necessity 
 of attending to the filling at AA, or to the pointed 
 top. 
 
 A pipe collar is made with a hollow about three 
 inches long and half an inch deep, at the bottom 
 of the inside curve, so that there shall be no press- 
 ure at that point on the windpipe. 
 
 The upper ends of the rim are covered by a 
 leather point, or cap, and there is sometimes a 
 little cape which extends backward and covers the 
 place where the collar is sewed together. On this 
 cape, is the proper place for the number of the 
 horse. In dress-harness the crest is put there, but 
 
CH. XI HAMES 2 1 I 
 
 not in drag-harness. Sometimes a buckle is sewed 
 on the collar on each side, back of the hames, and 
 eight or ten inches below the top of the collar, into 
 which a strap an inch wide, with holes in each 
 end, called a housing-strap, can be buckled ; this 
 passes over the top of the collar, from side to side, 
 and over the bearing-rein to keep it from shaking 
 about ; it is now rarely used. 
 
 The collar is really only a pad which goes next 
 to the horse's neck, and is surrounded by the 
 hames, which are two pieces of iron, flat on the 
 inside and round on the outside, to which the 
 traces are attached. The hames are sometimes 
 covered with black patent leather, but are usually 
 plated with silver or with brass, to match the rest 
 of the harness mountings ; black hames are rarely 
 used in coach-harness. In drag-harness they have 
 eyes at the lower ends, through which passes the 
 kidney-link (Fig. 97), to hold them together. The 
 kidney-link, so called from its shape, 
 is made open at the top, so that it 
 can be taken off the hames ; it is 
 better to have this opening closed by 
 a hinged piece, also shown in Fig. 97, 
 
 FlP Q 7 
 
 to prevent the points of the links from 
 chafing the collar, and from catching- on the edges 
 of the martingale. On the kidney-link is slipped 
 the ring through which the pole-chain is passed. 
 This ring should not be left on the link of the 
 lead-horse harness, where there is no pole-chain, 
 
2 I 2 
 
 HAMES 
 
 CH. XI 
 
 £ 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 
 although it is frequently left there by thoughtless 
 coachmen. 
 
 In public-coach harness the lower ends of the 
 names have hooks (Fig. 98) and 
 a chain which joins them. If the 
 chain is entirely loose it is easily 
 lost, and it is better, therefore, to 
 have it fast to one side of the 
 names, as is also shown in Fio\ 
 98. It is usually made as shown 
 in the Figure, but it is better to 
 have two links between the kid- 
 ney-link and the eye of the names ; 
 the kidney-link then comes more nearly in the 
 centre. Both chain and link should be very strong. 
 The purpose of a hook and chain is that the dis- 
 tance between the ends of the names, and conse- 
 quently their spread, can be varied to suit the collar ; 
 with the drag pattern this can be done only by 
 changing the link, and, for that reason, links of two 
 or three different lengths should be kept on hand in 
 the harness-room. 
 
 It is obvious that, with the long link and chain, 
 the names must be made in pairs, near side and 
 off side, since the link and rincr are on the inner 
 side. 
 
 In heavy diligence-harness, the names are of 
 wood, and to the rings to which the traces are 
 attached, or to others below them, a leather strap 
 is buckled, hanging quite slack, on the middle of 
 
CH. XI DRAUGHT-EYE 213 
 
 which the pole-chain runs instead of being- fastened 
 into a kidney-link. 
 
 The names are fastened together at the top by 
 the hame-strap, and this must be strong and fre- 
 quently renewed, since the strain from the pole- 
 chain comes upon it. The hame-strap must be put 
 on with its point turned toward the inner side — that 
 is, to the off side on the near horse, and the near 
 side on the off horse ; because, should a horse fall, 
 the quickest way to loosen his traces and pole-chain, 
 and to free him, is to unbuckle his hame-strap, which 
 is much more readily done when the strap can be 
 pulled toward the operator. This is such a simple 
 way of getting the harness off, that it is strange 
 that many experienced horsemen forget it and try 
 to pull the traces out of the tug-buckles without 
 success. The hame-strap can be cut in an emer- 
 gency, with the loss of only an insignificant part of 
 the harness, whereas cutting a trace means serious 
 damage. 
 
 Draught-eve. — At a point about two-fifths of the 
 whole length of the hame from the bottom, the 
 draught-eye is welded on, and to it is attached the 
 trace. 
 
 There are several patterns of draught-eye, but 
 those most in use are shown in Fig. 99 ; A is the 
 most common ; B is practically the same as A, and 
 is really a better design, since it is fastened at two 
 points, and hence is stronger ; C has the same form 
 
214 
 
 MARTINGALE 
 
 CH. XI 
 
 as A, but has in addition a ring-, to which the tug is 
 sewed, and is generally used on public-coaches, 
 while A and B are used in drag-harness ; D, called 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
 from its shape the olive, is almost universal in French 
 cab-harness, but is rarely used in other harness, 
 although it has the advantage that the tug can be 
 readily detached by turning it a quarter round. It 
 is not so strong as any of the other forms, C being 
 the strongest of all, and, therefore, very properly 
 adopted for public-coach harness. 
 
 It is usual in public-coach harness to leave the 
 steel end of the draught-eye unplated ; the brass 
 plating is apt to wear at that place and look ragged ; 
 the ring: is also steel. 
 
 The draught-eyes should be long and should stand 
 out well, to prevent the trace from chafing the collar. 
 
 Martingale. — The bottom of the collar is kept 
 from rising by the martingale, which passes from 
 it, between the fore legs of the horse, to the belly- 
 band. When a horse is holding back, on a hill, 
 the pole-chain pulls on the kidney-link and names, 
 and the martingale must, therefore, pass round the 
 
CH. XI 
 
 MARTINGALE 
 
 215 
 
 collar and inside of one side of the kidney-link, 
 
 binding- it and the collar together, as in Fig. 100. 
 
 It is a common mistake to buckle the billet of the 
 
 martingale to the 
 
 kidney-link only; in 
 
 this case, should the 
 
 hame-strap break, 
 
 or be too loose, 
 
 the link and hames 
 
 may be pulled off 
 
 together, entirely 
 
 leaving the collar. 
 
 Harness-makers 
 sometimes make 
 the martingale bil- 
 let too short to go 
 round the collar, in 
 which case, a new 
 billet must be put 
 on ; as a temporary expedient a short strap should 
 be buckled round link and collar. 
 
 Another reason for buckling the billet round the 
 collar is, that if it is on the link only, it is swung 
 from side to side by the action of the horse, with an 
 ungraceful motion, as may be often noticed on a pair 
 of horses approaching the observer. For the same 
 reason the patent-leather ornament, which is usu- 
 ally on the martingale, must be firmly sewed to it, 
 as shown in Fig. 100, and not attached by a ring. 
 Martingales should not be used on the collars of the 
 
 Fig. too. 
 
2l6 
 
 TUG 
 
 CH. XI 
 
 lead-harness, since the leaders have no part in hold- 
 ing- back the coach. 
 
 Near the upper end of the hame is a terret. 
 through which the rein passes. This terret is usu- 
 ally made with the ring- loose in the foot which 
 attaches it to the hame. 
 
 Tug. — The tug is a strapping- of leather (Fig. 
 101). The clip, made of iron, is slipped into the 
 
 Fig. ioi 
 
 front end of the tug as shown at A, and secured by 
 rivets, the heads of which show ; or for public-coach 
 harness, the tug is sewed to the rino-, as shown at B. 
 The other end of the tug takes the buckle for the trace. 
 
CH. XI TRACE 2 17 
 
 The length of the tug is important : if it is too 
 long, — and harness-makers are very apt to make it 
 so, — the buckle reaches back of the pad and the 
 belly-band and looks very awkward, as is shown 
 in Plate XXV. For a fifteen-three horse of good, 
 average shape, the length from the head of the clip 
 to the middle of the buckle, should be 20^ inches ; 
 to the end of the buckle, 22 inches. 
 
 Trace. — The wheel-trace is made of two thick- 
 nesses of leather, and should have a narrow strip, 
 shaved on both edges, inserted between the two 
 thicknesses to swell it out in the middle, which im- 
 proves its appearance, and diminishes its liability to 
 rub off the hair. Public-coach traces do not usually 
 have this inside piece. 
 
 The stitching of the traces should be coarse, — that 
 is, the stitches should be far apart, about ten to the 
 inch, and made with strong thread ; in fine stitch- 
 ing, the holes are too close together and cut the 
 leather unnecessarily. Public-coach harness may be 
 stitched throughout more coarsely than drag-harness. 
 
 The front end of the trace is pierced by five holes, 
 an inch and a quarter apart, for the tug-buckle. 
 The rear end is fitted in several different fashions : 
 for a drag it has a running loop (Fig. 102, A), which 
 is put on the roller-bolt with the loose end on the 
 outer side ; for a public-coach, what is called the 
 French loop (B) is generally used ; it has the ad- 
 vantage of simplicity, and, if the loop of the inside 
 
218 
 
 TRACE 
 
 CH. XI 
 
 trace is made somewhat small, it will be impossible 
 to get it on over the step iron, which is on top of 
 the outside roller-bolt, and there will be no danger, 
 therefore, of getting the traces on the wrong side 
 
 of the harness. (See Harnessing, Chapter XII.) 
 It will not rattle against the under side of the roller- 
 bolt step as does the metal slide of the loop (A). 
 Public-coach traces frequently have chain ends about 
 20 inches long, which terminate in a ring, by which 
 the chain is looped over the roller-bolt. These 
 
 chains are not as good as the French loops, since, 
 notwithstanding the swivels in them, they frequently 
 take a partial turn and bring the edge of the trace 
 against the horse. 
 
CH. XI PAD 219 
 
 A good arrangement for trace-ends, lately intro- 
 duced in England, * is shown in Fig. 103. On pull- 
 ing the end of the short strap out of the metal loop, 
 the trace is released from the roller-bolt. This is 
 important in the case of a fallen horse, since to un- 
 buckle the trace at the tug-buckle, or to get any of 
 the ordinary trace-ends off the roller-bolt, is almost 
 impossible. 
 
 The near horse's traces should have the short 
 straps both toward the near side, and the off horse's 
 toward the off side, so as to be easily reached. This 
 short strap can always be pulled out, no matter how 
 much strain there is on the trace. 
 
 The lead-traces terminate in cock-eyes (Fig. 104), 
 which hook on the hooks of the lead-bars. Traces 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 should be of such length that even when they are 
 buckled in the shortest hole, the point of the trace 
 will not project more than two inches beyond the 
 last loop on the tug ; few things look more slovenly 
 than six or eight inches of trace flapping about in 
 front. 
 
 Pad. — The bridle, reins, collar, hames, and traces 
 constitute the absolutely essential parts of the har- 
 ness, and street-car and omnibus-harness, and some- 
 
 * Williamson & De Negri, London. 
 
2 20 PAD CH. XI 
 
 times public-coach lead-harness, have no other parts. 
 The pad is used on all wheel-harness, and on the 
 lead-harness of a drag. It is usually made quite 
 straight as seen from the side (Fig. 123), and has a 
 centre-hook to take the bearing-rein, and a terret 
 on each side for the reins to pass through. In 
 wheel-harness the centre-hook is surmounted by the 
 centre-terret, through which runs the lead-rein. 
 
 In drag-harness, it is a good plan to have this 
 centre-terret made to screw into its place, so that it 
 can be taken out and replaced by a small ball when 
 the harness is used for a pair. Sometimes, the 
 centre-terret alone, on its stem, is put on the wheel- 
 pad, and no centre-hook on either wheel-pad or lead- 
 pad, — on the supposition that no bearing-rein is to 
 be used ; but it is better to have the centre-hook ; a 
 bearing-rein may be at some time required. The 
 pad has a broad strap or belly-band, by which it is 
 kept in its place. This belly-band is usually one flat 
 niece eoine round the horse, and buckling on the 
 near side of the near horse, and the off side of the 
 off horse. 
 
 The shape of the pad is important. It is fre- 
 quently made too flat, or too open, on the under 
 side, and rests upon the spine, in which case it will 
 inevitably rub the skin, especially if drawn forward 
 by the bearing-rein ; it should stand up, as in Fig. 
 105. To the end of the pad proper is attached the 
 point-strap, which buckles into a strap running up 
 from the tug-buckle. In drag-harness this is made 
 
CH. XI 
 
 PAD 
 
 221 
 
 as shown at A in Fig. 105, and also in Fig. 123 ; in 
 public-coach harness it is usually made as at B, 
 where one long strap goes through both the ring of 
 
 Fig. 105 
 
 the pad and the loop on the buckle ; this is usually 
 called the Newmarket tug-bearer, or Newmarket 
 strap. A false belly-band is sewed into the under 
 loop of the buckle, and buckles on the outside ; its 
 purpose is to keep the buckle from jumping up 
 when the horse is moving, but it is of doubtful 
 utility, and its point is apt to catch the whip thong. 
 
 Pad cloths are never used with coaching-harness ; 
 they are proper only with dress-harness. 
 
 Since the lead-rein passes from the ring on the 
 bridle through the pad-terret and then, at a con- 
 siderable angle, up to the coachman's hand, it tends 
 to pull the saddle forward, and to prevent this, the 
 back-strap and the crupper are added. This does 
 not apply to the lead-harness, from which the back- 
 
222 
 
 BACK-STRAP 
 
 CH. XI 
 
 strap and crupper are sometimes omitted ; but they 
 are necessary if bearing-reins are used, and on 
 drag-harness, at least, it is best to have them on all 
 the horses. Public-coach lead-harness is often made 
 without them. 
 
 Back-Strap. — The back-strap of the wheel-har- 
 ness is usually double (Fig. 106), but in the lead- 
 harness it should be made as in Fig. 107, because 
 the loose point of the double strap is likely to catch 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 Fig. 107. 
 
 the fork of the lead-reins, which is annoying and 
 might cause an accident. There is no objection to 
 using this single strap on wheel-harness also. The 
 crupper-dock itself should be large ; it is then less 
 apt to wound the tail and is a good preventive 
 against kicking ; a horse when he kicks always puts 
 his tail tight down, and if he cannot do so, he is very 
 apt to give up the attempt to kick. Coaching-har- 
 ness is usually made with the split end of the back- 
 strap sewed to the crupper, which is simpler than if 
 it is buckled to it, but sometimes a horse makes a 
 difficulty about having his tail pushed through the 
 crupper, and to obviate this, it is well to have a 
 spare back-strap with buckles, or one which is split 
 
CH. XI BREECHING 223 
 
 very far up, which will serve the same purpose. 
 The back-strap should be short enough to keep 
 the pad well back ; when the pad is close to the 
 withers and to the collar the apparent length of the 
 horse is diminished. 
 
 Hip-straps or trace-bearers are not used on coach- 
 harness, but sometimes, when driving a young horse 
 on the lead, they are useful, because if he kicks, he 
 takes his trace up with him and is less apt to get 
 over it. It is not considered ' crood form' to use 
 them, but this is, perhaps, one of the cases where 
 simplicity is purchased at the cost of suppressing 
 what is really useful. 
 
 For a kicking wheeler, a kicking-strap may be 
 made fast to the splinter-bar close to the outer 
 roller-bolt, and, passing over the horse's back, be 
 buckled to the pole two or three feet in front of the 
 futchells ; it should pass under the back-strap and 
 be attached to it by a small strap. 
 
 The thorough coachman must be always prepared 
 with the knowledge and, as far as is possible, with 
 the appliances, to overcome all difficulties. 
 
 Breeching. — In early days, when coaches had no 
 brakes, the wheel horses always had breechings to 
 enable them to hold back in descending hills not 
 steep enough to require the skid, and they are now 
 sometimes seen on public-coaches in hilly parts of 
 England. 
 
 The breeching consists of a strap somewhat nar- 
 
224 REINS CH. XI 
 
 rower than the trace (under which it is buckled in 
 the tug-buckle), passing behind the horse to the tug- 
 buckle on the other side, as nearly horizontally as 
 possible ; it is held up by a split strap which passes 
 through or under the back-strap, over the horse's 
 hip. It may be doubled by a wider strap where it 
 passes behind the horse. 
 
 Since the breeching- is not now in fashion, it is 
 hardly necessarv to describe it more in detail, but 
 it may be said that if for any reason a breeching is 
 used, it must be carefully put on, neither too high 
 nor too low. It is apt to chafe a horse not used to 
 wear it, and the modern brake and the shoe should 
 be together quite sufficient. 
 
 In the Sporting Magazine of 1830, ' Nimrod' 
 speaks as if the breeching should be attached to the 
 pole-pieces, and criticises the custom in Germany of 
 attaching it to the breast-collar. His remarks sue- 
 gest the arrangement that can still be seen on heavy 
 wagons in New England cities, where a long yoke 
 crosses the point of the pole, and to this yoke, and 
 not to the trace-tugs, the ends of the breeching, 
 lengthened by straps, are fastened. 
 
 Reins. — The reins are made of russet leather 
 and should all be of the same width throughout. 
 One inch is a good width, suiting the average coach- 
 man. Some men with long, thin fingers prefer to 
 have them a little wider, while other persons, women 
 especially, like them an eighth of an inch narrower. 
 
CH. XI REINS 2 25 
 
 They should be somewhat thick, the four together 
 measuring 3/^ of an inch, and should be made of firm 
 leather. The outer, or draught-rein, runs straight 
 through from the hand to the bit ; the inner, or 
 coupling-rein, terminates in a buckle which runs on 
 the draught-rein, the latter having a number of holes 
 to take the tongue of this buckle. The reins buckle 
 to the bit by billets and buckles. Usually these 
 billets have three holes in them so that their places 
 in the bit can be chanced ; but it is better to have 
 only one hole, and to make all changes in the length 
 of the coupling-reins by the buckle which runs on 
 the draught-rein. This is important for public-coach 
 harness, because a horse-keeper by buckling in the 
 wrong hole of the billet will change the length of the 
 couplings. An objection to a billet long enough 
 to have three holes is, that the branch of the bit 
 may get caught in the loop when the rein is in the 
 middle bar. The billets ought to be frequently 
 examined, and when one is found to be worn, all 
 should be replaced, since the breaking of a rein- 
 billet is sure to cause an accident. 
 
 The lengths of the reins are as follows : The 
 lead draught-rein should be 282 inches (23 ft. 6 in.) 
 in length from the double of the bit-billet to the 
 end : that is, from the bit to the end. At a dis- 
 tance of 81 inches (6 ft. 9 in.) from the bit is the 
 middle hole of fifteen which are punched, one inch 
 apart, to take the coupling-rein buckle. The hand 
 of the coachman will be 242 inches (20 ft. 2 in.) 
 
 15 
 
226 REINS CH. XI 
 
 from the bit, leaving 40 inches (3 ft. 4 in.) of rein to 
 hang down behind the hand. 
 
 If this rein is made of three lengths of leather, 
 the first splice should be 96 inches (8 feet) from the 
 bit, which will bring it behind the holes in the rein, 
 and the second splice 192 inches (16 feet) from the 
 bit, or 14 inches behind the pad-terret of the wheel 
 horse, which is as near as it should be to the terret. 
 
 If the rein is made of four pieces, the first splice 
 will be in the same place, 96 inches, the second one 
 152 inches (12 ft. 8 in.), which will bring it between 
 the head-terret and the pad-terret of the wheeler, 
 and the third splice 220 inches ( 18 ft. 4 in.) from the 
 bit, which will bring it opposite to the coupling 
 buckle of the wheel-rein. 
 
 The lead coupling-rein should be 85 inches (7 ft. 1 
 in. ) long from bit to buckle, and, when buckled into 
 the middle hole of the draught-rein, it will extend 4 
 inches beyond the bit end of the draught-rein. 
 
 This length brings the fork of the lead-reins at 
 the proper place ; if it is further back, it may catch 
 on the tail of the leader and cause an accident. 
 
 The wheel draught-rein is 162 inches (13 ft. 6 in.) 
 in length from bit to end ; at 98 inches (8 ft. 2 in.) 
 from the bit is the middle hole of the fifteen. The 
 hand will be 121 inches (10 ft. 1 in.) from the bit, 
 and 23 inches from the coupling buckle ; and 40 
 inches of rein will hano- down behind the hand. 
 
 The splice is 86 inches (7 ft. 2 in.) from the bit. 
 
 The wheel coupling-rein is 104 inches (8 ft. 8 
 
CH. XI 
 
 REINS 
 
 227 
 
 in.) long, and will then project 6 
 inches beyond the draught-rein. 
 If the leather used does not per- 
 mit of so long a rein in one piece, 
 the splice should be about 86 inches 
 (7 ft. 2 in.) from the bit. 
 
 The diagram (Fig. 108), drawn 
 to a scale of ^ inch to the foot, 
 shows the position of the terrets 
 and of the coupling-buckles. 
 
 Care must be taken that there 
 shall be no splice in that part of 
 the rein which passes through a 
 terret, because, besides interfering 
 with the rein's free running, the 
 splice is likely to rip by its sew- 
 ing becoming worn. Saddlers are 
 often careless about this, and fur- 
 nish reins the splices of which 
 correspond to the terrets or come 
 into the hand. 
 
 In the diagram the proper places 
 of the splices are marked ; for two 
 splices by a single line ; for three 
 splices by a double line. 
 
 Really good reins are expen- 
 sive, since the pieces of which they 
 are made must be cut out of the 
 choicest part of the skin. They 
 must be firm throughout ; any 
 
 LEAD 
 
 Bit[ 
 
 nm 
 
 Bit 
 
 W Collar 
 <iPad 
 
 U Buckle 
 
 WHEEL 
 Bit 
 
 (1 
 
 Collar 9v 
 
 Bit 
 
 II 
 
 QHead 
 
 Pad 96 A Pad 
 
 BucHeU 
 
 Hand 
 
 End 
 
 Hand 
 
 End 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 
2 28 REINS CH. XI 
 
 soft places will stretch. The greatest wear on the 
 lead-rein is where it passes through the pad-terret 
 of the wheeler. 
 
 According to the dimensions given, about 40 
 inches of the ends of the reins will hang down be- 
 hind the hand, which is as it should be ; if there is 
 more than 40 inches, the ends will drop over the 
 edge of the foot-board on the off side, and be likely 
 to catch on the roller-bolt when the coachman is 
 getting up. The buckles of the coupling-reins will 
 be about 23 inches in front of the hand, near enough 
 to be reached for the purpose of changing the coup- 
 lings, and not near enough to bring the buckles 
 into the hand when taking the horses up short, : — 
 a serious fault with coupling-reins which are too 
 long, and one which results in getting a handful of 
 buckles at a critical moment, when pulling up sud- 
 denly. This is a very common fault of reins by 
 even good makers. It is better to have the buckles 
 too far away from the hand than too near to it ; 
 there is always a groom or a guard on a coach who 
 can change the couplings if necessary. 
 
 It must be said, however, in favour of long coup- 
 ling-reins, that should the horses run away they 
 may sometimes be stopped by seizing the wheel 
 coupling-reins in front of the buckles and pulling 
 the wheeler's heads together. 
 
 A loop is frequently sewed upon the coupling-rein 
 about 10 inches in front of the buckle, through 
 which the draught-rein passes. On the wheel-reins 
 
CH. XI SHORT WHEEL-REIN 229 
 
 it does no harm, but it should not be on the lead- 
 reins, because, if the coupling buckle is in the posi- 
 tion given by the directions above, this loop will 
 bring the fork of the reins too near the pad-terrets, 
 and if the loop is at the proper place for the fork, 
 the buckle must be put back 10 inches, with the 
 result of having that much more weight of rein to 
 no purpose. 
 
 This loop is a somewhat modern arrangement, 
 and on pair-horse harness keeps the reins together 
 at the proper point, while permitting the buckle to 
 be near enough to the coachman's hand to enable 
 him to alter it, and its use for a pair has probably 
 led harness-makers to put it on four-horse harness. 
 
 The keeper or loop, in front of the coupling 
 buckle, should not be nearer to the buckle than 2^ 
 inches or else it will be difficult to change the place 
 of the buckle quickly : for the same reason, the 
 holes should be long and not round. 
 
 The reins, at the end behind the hand, usually 
 have buckles, by which they can be fastened to- 
 gether ; a substitute for this arrangement will be 
 described in Chapter XII. 
 
 Four-horse reins are never made of black leather, 
 nor round, nor have they hand parts separate from 
 the rest of the rein, as is sometimes the case in pair- 
 horse harness. 
 
 In the early days of English coaching, a short 
 wheel-rein was used. It was made just long enough 
 to come into the hand, and hung on the second and 
 
230 
 
 LEAD-REIX 
 
 CH. XI 
 
 third fingers. Its buckle was not in the middle, 
 where it would have been in the way, but a few 
 inches to one side, on the off rein. It went out of 
 use about 1825, being considered dangerous, be- 
 cause, should a wheeler fall, the coachman might 
 be pulled off his box ; and it was, no doubt, fre- 
 quently too short or too long, and in either case 
 inconvenient. 
 
 According to ' Nimrod' (Essays, p. 208), the ma- 
 jority of coachmen in the early part of this century, 
 drove with a short wheel-rein, and he discusses the 
 question pro and con through four pages, but it is 
 now only a matter of history, since it has gone 
 entirely out of fashion. According to him (Essays, 
 p. 285), Sir Philip Agar used a short wheel-rein 
 when he drove his coach at a trot round the fox 
 
 which stood in the centre of 
 Tattersall's old yard ; a feat 
 referred to in several of the 
 coaching books. 
 
 The wheel horses are kept to- 
 gether by the pole-chains, but 
 since the lead horses are quite 
 free, one of them, by shying sud- 
 denly, can pull his coupling-rein 
 with the buckle and a part of 
 the draught-rein, through his 
 partner's pad-terret, where it 
 becomes jammed, with every chance of causing an 
 accident. To prevent this, a piece of steel, about 
 
 Fig. 109. 
 
CH. XI 
 
 LEAD-REIN 
 
 23I 
 
 31^ inches long', covered with leather (Fig. 109), is 
 slipped on the coupling-rein in front of the loop (as 
 is frequently done on the snaffle-rein of a riding 
 bridle to keep the martingale ring from catching on 
 the buckle), and this bar is too long to go through 
 the terret. It must be strong, because a horse in shy- 
 ing, will bring it with great force against the terret. 
 It may be put upon the coupling-rein in front of the 
 loop, when there is a loop in front of the buckle (it 
 is obvious that with the loop a bar at the buckle 
 would be of no use) ; but it will not be so strongly 
 fastened at the loop as when it is supported by 
 the buckle ; this is a good reason for omitting the 
 loop. 
 
 Another device for the same purpose is shown in 
 Fig. no : a piece of steel, somewhat narrower than 
 the rein, curved in section so as to increase its stiff- 
 ness, and covered with leather, is fastened at one 
 
 Fig. iio. 
 
 Fig. hi. 
 
 end, by letting the tongue of the buckle pass through 
 the projecting leather, and at the other end by a loop 
 which holds it on the draught-rein. It will be seen 
 from the Figure that if the coupling-rein should 
 be pulled through the terret, it will be stopped, by 
 
 the steel bar orettina- across the terret. 
 
 The strain 
 
232 LEAD-REIX CH. XI 
 
 evidently comes upon the loop, and this must be 
 fastened on strongly. This bar can be also put on 
 the rein when there is a loop at some distance in 
 front of the buckle, as in FjV. 111. In this case the 
 main loop must be very strong. 
 
 What is known as Ward's terret, from the well- 
 known English coachman who introduced it, is 
 shown in Fig. 112. It is used on the lead horses 
 only, and has a bar across its centre with 
 an opening in it through which the rein 
 can be passed edgewise into its place. 
 The space in which the rein is shown, is 
 too small to permit the coupling buckle 
 Fig. 112. to b e pulled through it, but the billet 
 and buckle for the bit will pass through the larger 
 space. 
 
 It may be noted that bar buckles, often used on 
 dress harness, but rarely on coach-harness, are dan- 
 gerous on the coupling-reins, since, should a leader 
 behave badly and run back, or turn round, the front 
 edge of the bar buckle may catch in the throat-latch 
 ring of the wheeler behind him, especially if the 
 coupling-rein is too long and the buckle, conse- 
 quently, far back. This happened once in my expe- 
 rience, fortunately without any serious result, since, 
 as we were leaving a house through an awkward 
 gateway, the men were still near the horses' heads, 
 and one of them instantly cleared the rein. 
 
 A method of buckling together the wheel-reins 
 and lead-reins is used in Hungary : — 
 
CH. XI POLE-CHAINS 233 
 
 The lead-reins are made in the usual way, but the 
 wheel-reins terminate in buckles, and are buckled 
 to the lead-reins precisely as a coupling-rein is at- 
 tached to a draught-rein (Fig. 113), with a distance 
 
 Fig. 113. 
 
 of about ten inches between the buckles. In driving, 
 the portion of the wheel-rein which is between the 
 buckles, and that part of the lead-rein which is oppo- 
 site to it, come into the hand. For the method of 
 using this rein see page 476. 
 
 Pole-Chains. — Pole-chains, and not leather pole- 
 straps, are always used on a coach. Originally 
 they were fastened to the pole-head, as they still are 
 on farm wagons ; but now they are separate from 
 the pole, and may be therefore considered as part 
 of the harness. On a public-coach, if the pole-head 
 and the fittings of the bars are black, the chains 
 are black also, and are kept in condition by being 
 painted or varnished. On drags, they are always 
 of polished steel, and on some public-coaches they 
 are also of polished steel. The approved forms are 
 shown in Figs. 114, 115 ; they should have straight 
 open links, and not links like a curb-chain. For a 
 public-coach, one end has a ring, and the chain being 
 passed through the ring of the pole-head, passes 
 
234 
 
 POLE-CHAINS 
 
 CH. XI 
 
 afterward through its own ring, making a loop. 
 The hook end is then run through the ring- of the 
 
 Fig. 115. 
 
 kidney-link, and hooked into that link of the chain 
 which will make it of the proper length (Fig. 1 16). 
 
 A stout india-rubber ring, which 
 has been already put on the chain, 
 is pushed over the bow of the 
 hook to keep it from unhooking. 
 
 The hook must be always put on, back up, to pre- 
 vent the bar of the bit, if a bit with a bar is used, 
 
CH. XI POLE-CHAINS 235 
 
 from catching in the point. The chain should be 
 somewhat short, otherwise the hook may come down 
 to the pole-head before the horse is poled up tightly 
 enough. 
 
 This chain may be used on a drag, but a chain 
 with two spring hooks (Fig. 115) looks better. It 
 may be somewhat short, so that the hook can be 
 hooked into any link ; but for a private coach, it is 
 better to find the exact length required, by experi- 
 ment with the chain (which, when bought, is always 
 too long), to cut off enough links to make it the 
 proper length when both hooks are in the pole-head, 
 and to have the hook properly fastened into the end 
 link. No links must be left beyond that one in 
 which the hook is fastened ; few things are more 
 slovenly on any kind of a carriage than loose links 
 dangling and jingling.* 
 
 The spring hooks must be put on the pole-head 
 with their backs up, to prevent the bar of the bit 
 from catching in them ; but since the rings on the 
 pole-head are usually vertical, the hooks will be 
 horizontal, which serves the same purpose. Spring 
 hooks are frequently so made that the small eye 
 
 * Pole chains should be used only on a carriage driven by the 
 master or mistress, such as a coach, mail-phaeton, or lady's phaeton ; 
 never on a carriage driven by a coachman, such as a landau, coupe, 
 or victoria, when straps should be used. This is a custom based upon 
 the fact that the working originals of coaches and mail-phaetons 
 had chains ; an adherence to it marks the difference between well 
 turned-out and badly turned-out vehicles. 
 
2^6 COCK HORSE HARNESS CH. XI 
 
 opens when the tongue is pushed open (Fig. 117), 
 and are thus hooked into the chain ; they are very 
 likely to pinch the fingers when put- 
 ting- them on, and are not so strong 
 ^ G II7 as the hooks shown in Fig. 115. 
 
 Cock Horse Harness. — Sometimes, on a road 
 where a stiff hill has to be surmounted, an extra 
 horse, usually called a 'cockhorse,'* ridden by a 
 man, is required. A good pattern of cock horse 
 harness is shown in Plate XXIV. The riding saddle 
 has one wide girth of leather or web. The upper 
 eye of the tug-buckle has a short strap and buckle 
 sewed into it, which buckles on one of the usual 
 saddle girth straps under the flap. 
 
 There being no necessity for changing the length 
 of a cock horse trace, it is better to make it in one 
 piece from the draught-eye to the bar. There is 
 then no buckle under the saddle-flap, where it is 
 always a discomfort to the rider. A simple loop is 
 sewed under the flap to support the trace, and the 
 false belly-band, which is of no use, is omitted. The 
 trace should be 6 ft. 6 in. long, from collar to bar. 
 
 * John Bellexden Ker says, ' Ghack-horse, now cock-horse, 
 'literally fool-horse, in the sense of one who lets another ride him. 
 ' The cock-horse among school-boys, is the one who is fool enough 
 'to carry another astride on his back.' Archeology of Nursery 
 Rhymes, vol. i. p. 274. Ghack, according to Ker, is old Dutch. 
 Gek is fool in modern Dutch. Ker's derivations are often fanciful ; 
 this is given merely as a matter of curiosity. 
 
o 
 o 
 o 
 ?; 
 
 i 
 o 
 
 33 
 
 I 
 > 
 
 33 
 
 -z 
 m 
 
CH. XI COCK HORSE HARNESS 237 
 
 The rope, which passes between the leaders, and 
 is hooked to the pole-hook on top of the main-bar, 
 should be 10 feet long, including its two hooks. It 
 is a good plan to wrap the rope for a distance of two 
 feet with sheepskin, with the wool-side out, where it 
 comes against the shoulders of the leaders, to pre- 
 vent chafing them. The hip-strap, shown in the plate 
 immediately behind the saddle, is perhaps hardly 
 necessary. A strap, 3 feet long, with a spring hook 
 at each end, should be provided, to fasten into the 
 kidney-links of the leaders' collars, across from one 
 horse to the other, on which the rope may rest when 
 the cock-horse is not pulling. It is well to have a 
 ring, about three inches in diameter, in the middle 
 of this strap, through which the rope is passed. 
 
 The cock horse bridle is like the bridles of the 
 other horses. 
 
 If two extra horses are required, they have the 
 regular lead-harness, with the addition of a saddle 
 on the near horse, and with a set of bars attached 
 to the rope ; or they may have traces 
 long enough to reach back to the 
 tug-buckles of the leaders, as in an 
 equipage a la Daumont, in which case Fig. 118. 
 the tug-buckles of the lead-harness must be made 
 with eyes to take the hooks of the traces (Fig. 118), 
 exactly like a tandem harness. These traces must 
 be 10 ft. 8 in. long from tug-buckle to hook. 
 
 Compare Plate VI., Rowlandson, in which the 
 regular leaders are thus harnessed. 
 
238 GENERAL REMARKS ON HARNESS CH. XI 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON HARNESS 
 
 As has been before remarked (p. 14), a coach is 
 a sporting vehicle, and the harness should be plain 
 and look serviceable. The illustrations which have 
 been given, are taken from a set of harness carefully 
 made as a standard pattern, and can be safely copied 
 for a drag-harness. 
 
 The loops through which the loose points of the 
 various straps pass behind the buckles, are some- 
 times replaced by ' pipes' or continuous loops, but 
 there is more coaching style about the separate 
 loops. 
 
 The winkers, the front (whether it has a chain on 
 it or not), the face drop, the outside of the collar, 
 the ornament on the martingale, and the top of the 
 pad are all made of patent leather ; * the rest of the 
 harness is made of plain, black leather, firm in 
 quality, but with a smooth, velvety surface, not 
 showing- minute cracks when bent over the finder. 
 The reins are of russet leather (usually called rein 
 leather), even in thickness and quality throughout 
 the whole length, and since such leather is difficult 
 to obtain, four-in-hand reins are necessarily expen- 
 sive. 
 
 English russet leather, especially such as is used 
 for riding-bridles (usually called tallow-tanned), is 
 
 * Patent leather is modern : in the first quarter of the 19th century 
 it was unknown. 
 
CH. XI MOUNTINGS OF HARNESS 239 
 
 better than American russet leather ; but American 
 black leather, such as is used in the rest of the 
 harness, is more even in surface and wears better 
 than the English. 
 
 The mountings and buckles of the harness shown 
 in the illustrations, are those known to harness- 
 makers as the English wire mountings, and are 
 the simplest and best ; no fanciful mountings are 
 admissible on coach-harness. 
 
 Whether the mountings of a drasf-harness are of 
 silver or of brass is a matter of taste, but for a 
 public-coach they are always of brass ; carrying out 
 the old road traditions.* 
 
 All the mountings of harness, carriages, whips, 
 &c, should be of the same metal in any one stable, 
 and those of the coach must conform thereto. 
 White mountings may be nickel-plated as well as 
 silver-plated, and nickel has the advantage of being 
 hard and of keeping its polish with but little 
 cleaning ; since all cleaning of the mountings 
 with powder is apt to injure the leather, this is 
 an advantage. 
 
 Among yellow metals, aluminium-bronze, one part 
 by weight of aluminium to nine of copper, is strong 
 and does not tarnish readily, but it is difficult to 
 procure, while the common patterns of mountings 
 in brass can be had everywhere. 
 
 * 'Nimrod,' Northern Tour, p. 333, 1835, speaks of silver-plated 
 furniture being old-fashioned for a public-coach. 
 
24O SPARE PARTS OF HARNESS CH. XI 
 
 Bits, chains, kidney-links, and the cock-eyes of 
 lead-traces are always of bright steel. The loops 
 of the wheel-traces are of the same metal as the 
 mountings. 
 
 All the steel about coach and harness should be 
 white, hard, and close grained ; some steel is soft 
 and blue, and will always have a leaden look, no 
 matter how well it is polished and burnished. 
 
 Spare Parts of Harness. — The following spare 
 parts of harness should be carried in the coach : — 
 
 A hame-strap, useful for many purposes besides 
 its legitimate one ; a kidney-link, a curb-chain, or, 
 better, a curb-strap, which is more useful, in the 
 case of a curb-hook's breaking ; a simple bearing- 
 rein, with its bit and the short straps by which the 
 rings are attached to the crown-piece (Fig. 87) ; a 
 chain-trace, — that is, a chain 6 feet long, with straight 
 flat links like a pole-chain, and a ring at one end, 
 so that it can be put, as required, round the 
 roller-bolt, or hooked to the lead-bar, the straight 
 links going into the tug-buckle ; a strap 6 inches 
 long and of the same width as the reins, with a 
 buckle at each end, to be used in repairing a broken 
 rein ; and two or three pieces of cord of different 
 sizes. 
 
 Strong, round, black linen shoe-laces, with the 
 usual metal tags on the ends, are very useful for 
 temporary repairs ; the tags can be quickly passed 
 through holes made in the leather. The coachman 
 
CH. XI SIDE-REIN 241 
 
 will not find it amiss to have one always in his 
 pocket. 
 
 When there is any chance of having a pulling 
 horse, a side-rein should be carried. The simplest 
 is a strap to buckle to the bit, and long enough 
 to pass through the hame-terret of the other horse, 
 and then to go into the tug-buckle. Since this pulls 
 on one side of the horse's mouth, it should be used 
 only when nothing else is at hand. The proper rein 
 is shown in Fig. 119. The short strap, which is 
 neater when round, is buckled to both sides of the 
 bit, and the ring on the end of the side-rein plays 
 upon it, so that the rein draws evenly. 
 
 In an emer- 
 gency, a side- 
 rein may be 
 made with a 
 piece of cord an 
 eighth of an inch 
 
 in diameter, as 
 
 1 - -,-.- Fig. 119. Fig. 120. 
 
 shown in rig. J 
 
 120. One end of the cord is tied to a ring, then 
 
 passed through one side of the bit, back through 
 
 the ring, then through the other side of the bit, 
 
 double knotted into the ring, and the long end made 
 
 fast to the other horse's tug-buckle. In lack of a 
 
 ring, a loop may be made on the cord itself. 
 
 Care of Harness. — On being taken off the horses, 
 
 after even the shortest drive, all parts of the harness 
 
 16 
 
242 CARE OF HARNESS CH. XI 
 
 should be thoroughly wiped with a cloth, no dust 
 being left under the buckles, or in the loops, every 
 strap being unbuckled and cleaned throughout its 
 whole length. The inside of the collars and parts on 
 which sweat has lodged must be well cleaned with 
 water, and dirt on other parts which the cloth will 
 not remove must be washed off, without wetting the 
 leather more than is necessary. The mountings 
 should then be polished, using as little powder as 
 possible, care being taken not to smear the leather 
 round the mountings, or to scratch it with the powder. 
 
 The harness-maker usually furnishes thin plates 
 of metal which fit round the monogram, or crest, 
 and protect the leather from the cleaning powder. 
 
 The leather should then be blackened and pol- 
 ished. Much the best thing for this purpose is the 
 black preparation of wax and turpentine sold by 
 harness-makers, or by shoemakers for polishing kid 
 shoes. It is expensive, but protects the leather 
 from the effects of wet, gives a good surface, and 
 does not rub off upon the hand or glove ; ordinary 
 shoe-blacking is dirty. The same preparation, with- 
 out the black ingredient, is the proper application for 
 reins and for whatever is of russet leather, such as 
 saddles and boot-tops, and is usually called saddle- 
 paste. It must be applied sparingly, and well pol- 
 ished by rubbing, or it will be sticky. 
 
 Every now and then, and especially after a wetting 
 in the rain, harness should be oiled thoroughly with 
 neat's-foot oil, well rubbed in and well rubbed off. 
 
CH. XI CARE OF HARNESS 243 
 
 No varnish should be used ; it hardens the leather, 
 and soon cracks, and looks shabby. 
 
 Patent leather should be wiped and polished with 
 a soft rag and a little oil, or vaseline, but the wax 
 preparation should not be used on it. 
 
 In damp weather a fire is essential in or near the 
 harness-room. Cleaning should not be done in the 
 harness-room, but a light, airy place of sufficient 
 size for the purpose is necessary to secure the best 
 results. Iron rods terminating in hooked ends of 
 good size, covered with leather, and of such a length 
 as will bring the pieces of harness to a proper 
 height for a man to work at them when the rods 
 are hung to hooks in the ceiling, will be found more 
 convenient for holding- harness while it is being 
 cleaned, than the trestles or horses which are gen- 
 erally used. There should be rods of two lengths, 
 a short one to hold the collar, &c, and a longer one 
 to hold the bridle. When not in use they may be 
 unhooked and hung against the wall out of the way. 
 
 The steel pole-chains, bits, and curb-chains should 
 be washed and dropped into a covered vessel con- 
 taining lime-water, which is made by dissolving in 
 water as much common lime as the water will take 
 up, and pouring off, for use, the clear liquid. In 
 this they can remain for any length of time without 
 rusting, and the chains in every-day use may be 
 kept in the vessel, and taken out only when wanted. 
 They are then roughly dried and put into a long 
 bag with a little sawdust and fine sand, and shaken 
 
244 CARE OF HARNESS CH. XI 
 
 until they become bright. For this purpose, a can- 
 vas bag about thirty inches long, with a strong 
 handle at each end, is convenient. The curb-chains 
 are usually polished by rolling between the hands. 
 
 The bits should be taken out of the lime-water 
 after the harness is cleaned ; wiped, polished, and 
 put in the bit-case. If they have rusty spots, it 
 may be necessary to rub them with very fine emery 
 paper, but if this is done they must be afterward 
 burnished. 
 
 Steel articles when received from the maker, have 
 a high polish, which makes them more capable of 
 resisting the action of dampness in producing rust. 
 
 The ordinary stable method of cleaning, with 
 sand or emery cloth, will not produce this polish, but 
 leaves a surface full of minute scratches, and very 
 liable to rust. The only way of regaining a surface 
 at all resembling the original one, is by burnishing, 
 which consists in rubbing with a smooth and very 
 hard, steel instrument. This consolidates the surface 
 somewhat, or, at least, rubs down the edges of the 
 scratches, obliterating the lines made by the emery. 
 
 Usually a sufficiently satisfactory 
 result can be obtained by rubbing 
 with a hard, steel chain, fastened to 
 a pad, so as to be held in the hand 
 (Fig. 121). For large, fixed pieces 
 
 r TO 12 1 
 
 of steel, like the pole-head, a long 
 steel chain can be pulled backward and forward 
 across it. In any case, considerable force and 
 
CH. XI 
 
 CARE OF HARNESS 
 
 245 
 
 pressure must be applied, but steel cannot be made 
 to look well without the burnisher. 
 
 When harness is put away, it should be hung 
 against the wall on racks made for the purpose. 
 Iron racks, made open so that the air circulates 
 through them, are sold by makers of stable fittings. 
 A good arrangement is shown in Fig. 122. 
 
 The crupper dock hangs upon a 
 small semi-circle which can be raised 
 or lowered, so that the back-strap 
 will hang taut to the pad. 
 
 The pad rests upon a bracket of 
 the proper shape. The collar with 
 its tupfs han^s on a curved bracket 
 at the top. Under the pad bracket, 
 the bridle hangs on a bracket, also 
 made to the proper curve. If the 
 bracket has a rim to keep the bridle 
 from slipping off, this rim should 
 be cut through at the top, so that 
 the face-drop will lie in the notch, 
 and the bridle be kept straight, a 
 precaution to which reference has 
 been already made when describing 
 the bridle. When a bridle is huno- 
 on a hook, this face-drop is, of ne- 
 cessity, on one side or the other of 
 the hook, and the bridle will be bent out of shape. 
 
 The traces and the reins are hune on small hooks 
 alongside of the harness. 
 
 Fig. 122. 
 
246 CARE OF HARNESS CH. XI 
 
 Harness is frequently protected by glass doors, 
 but if the room is clean, dry, and well-closed, this 
 is hardly necessary. 
 
 The bits, chains, and all steel articles, should be 
 arranged in a bit-case with crlass doors, which is 
 lined with a bright-coloured baize or cloth. In this 
 bit-case, the flowers may be kept, and it can be 
 made a handsome feature in the harness-room. If 
 there is an open fire, the bit-case may be placed on 
 the wall above it. 
 
 In a well-regulated stable, the harness-room may 
 be made an attractive place ; the floor should be 
 covered with matting, and some coaching prints on 
 the walls will add to its cheerfulness. 
 
 Small spare parts of harness, clippers, bandages, 
 and new cloths should be kept in a cabinet di- 
 vided into a number of shallow drawers ; in deep 
 drawers the articles most wanted are invariably at 
 the bottom. 
 
CH. XII 247 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 HARNESSING 
 
 With a public-coach team, it is usually considered 
 advisable to put on each horse's collar about half an 
 hour before he is to go out, that it may get warm 
 against his neck, and so be less liable to chafe him 
 in his work. Unless, however, it is fastened back 
 in some way, such as by drawing in front of it the 
 neck part of his rug, it will slip forward the first 
 time that the horse puts his head down, and will 
 not stay in its place to get warm. 
 
 The collar having been put on, the hames are 
 buckled on it afterward. The practice of putting 
 the harness on all together, with the hames buckled 
 on the collar, — almost universal in private stables 
 on account of its convenience, — is not a good one ; 
 the collar with the hames in place, is frequently 
 too narrow to go easily over the horse's head, 
 and by forcing it on, the horse is hurt. After the 
 harness is laid on the horse's back, the crupper 
 put under the tail, and the belly-band temporarily 
 buckled to keep the pad from slipping off, the 
 hames are fastened upon the collar. The martin- 
 gale is then buckled to the collar (see Fig. 100), 
 and the belly-band passed through it. 
 
 The traces are laid over the back, crossed, the 
 
248 
 
 HARNESSING 
 
 CH. XII 
 
 outside trace on top, .so that in putting-to it will 
 come off first ; the habit that some coachmen have, 
 of tying a knot in the trace to keep it from drag- 
 ging on the ground is not a good one, because the 
 knot twists the trace. 
 
 The bridle is then put on, the reins passed 
 through the terrets, the drauoht-rein buckled to the 
 
 bit, and the coupling-rein 
 to the throat-latch or to 
 the nose-band, under the 
 chin. Passing the rein- 
 billet through its loop, but 
 not through its buckle, is 
 sufficient to hold it. 
 
 The rein must then be 
 looped over the centre- 
 terret in the manner shown 
 in Fig. 123. Care must 
 be taken that the rein 
 which has no buckle at the 
 end is put on the near 
 horse. The reason for 
 this is, that, when at a 
 chancre, the reins are 
 thrown over from the near 
 FlG - I2 3- to the off side so as to be 
 
 taken up by the coachman, the heavy buckle end 
 might hurt a person standing on the off side. It is 
 therefore a rule, that, even when there is to be no 
 chano-e of horses, the reins should be thus put on, 
 
en 
 
 i- 
 
 LLl 
 
 £T 
 CC 
 LU 
 
 uJ 
 X 
 h 
 
 UJ 
 
 cr 
 i 
 
 a 
 < 
 
CH. XII PUTTING-TO 249 
 
 and it is in this way that they are distinguished 
 from each other. In some stables, it is the custom 
 for the reins of a pair to be put on the other way, 
 that is, with the buckle-ended rein on the near horse 
 but, in a four-in-hand stable at least, it should be 
 the rule to put the buckle-ended rein on the off 
 horse, so as to avoid mistakes in harnessing. 
 
 On the lead horses, the long rein is pulled 
 through the terrets in the way shown in Plate 
 XXV. ; if the bight of the rein, in front of the 
 collar-terret, is too long, it may be loosely looped 
 on itself behind the collar-terret. 
 
 After beine harnessed, the horse is turned about 
 in his stall, and fastened by snapping the pillar- 
 reins into the bit. His mane is then brushed and 
 his foretop pulled down smoothly under the bridle 
 front. 
 
 Putting-to. — The coach having been run into the 
 proper position for driving out, and thoroughly 
 dusted and looked over, the pole is put in, the 
 pole-pin put in its place, and the lead-bars hung 
 on the pole-hook, with the heads of the screws 
 up ; they are up so that, should one 
 come out, its loss would be noticed 
 from the box-seat. 
 
 The chains are put on the pole- 
 head in the manner shown in Fig. 124, and laid 
 across each other over the pole. 
 
 The wheel horses are then brought to their 
 
250 PUTTING-TO CH. XII 
 
 places. If possible, they should be led up along- 
 side of the pole from behind, instead of being 
 brought with their heads to the pole and then 
 pushed round, during which movement they are apt 
 to strike against the splinter-bar, or to slip on the 
 floor. The hooks of the pole-chains are hooked to 
 the kidney-link rings ; the whole length of the chain 
 allows the horse to go back far enough to permit 
 the traces to be put over the roller-bolts. 
 
 The outside trace is first put on its roller-bolt, to 
 prevent the horse from turning his croup away from 
 the pole, and afterward the inner trace. In unhar- 
 nessing- the inside trace is taken off first. 
 
 Since the pole-chains keep the horses somewhat 
 close to the pole, the distance from the collar to the 
 inner roller-bolt is less than that to the outer one, 
 and with traces of the same length the collar will be 
 pulled toward the outer side, and will bear harder 
 on the outer side of the neck, sometimes rubbing 
 the neck at that spot. To obviate this, the inner 
 trace should be shorter by one hole than the outer 
 one. The usual distance apart of the holes in 
 traces (about 1 % inch) is rather an over-correc- 
 tion, but it brings the collar more nearly right than 
 when the traces are of the same length. A better 
 way of making the correction is to cover the inside 
 roller-bolts with several thicknesses of leather to 
 increase their diameter and thus take up more of 
 the length of the trace. The inner roller-bolts 
 mioht be set back from the line of the outer ones 
 
CH. XII 
 
 PUTTING-TO 
 
 251 
 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 about an inch, which is as nearly as possible the 
 difference required. It is still better to have move- 
 able swingle-trees (see page 23). The leaders' 
 traces are all of the same length ; the lead-bars, 
 being moveable, adapt themselves to the position 
 of the collars. 
 
 If chain-end traces are used, they must be put 
 on so that the chain passes from 
 the outside in, as shown in Fig 
 
 125. 
 
 After the traces are on the roller- 
 bolts, the hook of the pole-chain is 
 passed through the kidney-link ring, so as to bring 
 out the chain through the ring from the side next 
 to the pole, and hooked into such a link of the 
 chain, down near the pole-head, as will make the 
 chain the proper length (see Fig. 116). For very 
 good roads there should be two links to play, — 
 that is, the chain should be as tight as though it 
 had been pulled up as far as possible, and then two 
 links let out. It is better to have the chain too 
 loose than too tight. In hooking the chain, the 
 point of the pole should not be lifted, because this 
 will bring its weight on the horses' necks. For 
 inferior roads, the chains should be looser, as few 
 things distress horses more than being jerked about 
 by the coach, in consequence of poling up too 
 tightly, and it is a very common error. One ob- 
 jection to an evener in place of a stiff splinter-bar 
 is, that with an evener the guiding of the vehicle 
 
252 PUTTING-TO CH. XII 
 
 must be done by the pole-chains, which must be, 
 therefore, tight, or else the carriage will run from 
 one side of the road to the other. 
 
 Since the chain of a public-coach is first attached 
 to the pole-head, it cannot be readily put on with 
 the wrong end up, but this may be done with the 
 chains of a drag which have snap hooks at both ends. 
 The mistake should never be made ~>f putting the 
 hooks into the kidney-link ring, as is frequently done 
 with a pair of horses by ignorant coachmen. When 
 the chain is attached first to the pole and then 
 passed through the ring, a man standing in front 
 of the horses, can pull with force upon the end of 
 the chain and get it tight. If it is already in the 
 ring and must then be passed through the pole- 
 head, he has to stand under the horse's head, where 
 he has no pull upon the chain, and where he is 
 beslobbered by the horse. 
 
 The wheelers' coupling-reins then should be 
 buckled to the bits. 
 
 The leaders should be brought to their places ; 
 their traces hooked on, the outer ones first ; and 
 their coupling-reins buckled to the bits. Care must 
 be taken that the horse which carries his head the 
 higher has his rein on top of the other coupling- 
 rein, or else the horse which carries his head low 
 will be continually pressing with his rein upon the 
 mouth of the other horse and worrying him. For 
 the same reason, a ring should never be put upon 
 the coupling-reins where they cross. 
 
CH. XII 
 
 PUTTING-TO 
 
 253 
 
 The lead-rein must then be seized by the end 
 and passed through the throat-latch ring and pad- 
 terret of the wheeler (the loop of the wheel-rein 
 having been first taken off the pad-terret), and the 
 near side reins thrown across the wheelers' backs 
 to the off side (see page 248). If the lead-rein has 
 been properly laid in the lead horse's terrets (see 
 Plate XXV.), it will pull out freely when drawn by 
 its end. 
 
 The leaders' inside traces may be hooked straight 
 to their respective bars, as shown at A, Fig. 126, or 
 
 ~y 
 
 =^j 
 
 ABC 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 they may be crossed, or lapped. When they are 
 crossed, both of the near horse's traces go to the 
 near ends of the lead-bars and the off horse's traces 
 to the off ends, as at B, which equalises the draught 
 of the horses, if one is more free than the other. 
 It cannot be recommended, because it is better to 
 make the horses work evenly by proper bitting and 
 coupling. For the same reason, it is unnecessary 
 to have either a link or a chain between the bars. 
 In lapping, one horse is hooked up straight, — that 
 
254 PUTTING-TO CH. XII 
 
 is, with both his traces to his own bar, — and the 
 inside trace of the other horse is passed inside of 
 the first horse's trace and hooked to its proper bar 
 (Fig. 126, C). Lapping serves two purposes: it 
 prevents the leaders from pulling apart, and it keeps 
 the inside traces away from the sides of the horses, 
 so that in muddy weather they will not chafe ; on the 
 other hand, if a leader kicks over his inside trace he 
 gets his leg over both traces, or if one horse falls it 
 is more difficult to disentangle the pair. 
 
 For park driving it looks better to have the traces 
 straight ; neither crossed nor lapped. 
 
 After all the reins are on the off side, they should 
 be pulled through the terrets to about the right 
 length, straightened, so that there are no twists in 
 them, the ends buckled, and the loop, or bight, 
 drawn through above the trace and tug-buckle from 
 the front toward the back, leaving the points in front 
 (Fig. 127). 
 
 The whip should then be caught up with a double- 
 thong, and laid across the backs of the wheelers, 
 behind the pads and quite well over toward the 
 near side, so that the weight of the handpiece of the 
 whip will not cause it to fall off. It is a good plan 
 to pull the butt of the whip backward between the 
 two parts of the back-strap, which will keep it in 
 place. 
 
 If the thong of the whip, by touching his side, 
 worries the near wheeler, the whip may be laid from 
 front to back across the roof-seats on the off side, 
 
CH. XII STABLE-SHUTTERS 255 
 
 where the coachman can easily reach it after he is in 
 his seat. It should not be put in the whip-socket ; 
 the ceiling of a coach-house is rarely high enough to 
 permit it, without bending or breaking the whip. 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 
 In driving from the stable to the place of starting, 
 the stable-shutters should be up, that is, closed. 
 
 In a public-coach they should be let down upon 
 arriving at the place of starting. There is a differ- 
 ence of opinion as to whether they should be opened 
 
256 BEARING-REIN CH. XII 
 
 or should be kept closed in the case of a drag, but 
 it is more in conformity with road practice to let 
 them down and to pull up the glass, which keeps 
 the dust from the inside of the coach. It is not, 
 perhaps, a matter of much importance, except so 
 far as uniformity is desirable at Meets, and ' stable- 
 shutters down' is the rule at the Meets of The 
 Coaching Club at New York. 
 
 At the New York Meets, since the rule is to have 
 a front load only, the grooms are in the rumble, and 
 there is no one inside ; at the London Meets there 
 is no rule as to loads, and the coach is sometimes 
 full on top and the grooms are inside ; in which case 
 the windows must be open, although it is stated by 
 an Officer of one of the London Clubs that it is 
 understood that the stable-shutters should be closed. 
 
 In driving to races, picnics, and the like, the 
 grooms are frequently inside, or there is an extra 
 servant there for serving lunch, in which case the 
 windows must be open. 
 
 For the sake of uniformity, therefore, it seems 
 better to have the windows open ; with the glass up 
 or down as may be desired. When exercising, or 
 trying horses, or giving lessons, there seems to be 
 a certain propriety in having the stable-shutters 
 closed. 
 
 BEARING-REIN 
 
 There is a great difference of opinion among 
 coachmen as to the use of bearing-reins, and while 
 for road work, either public or private, they have 
 
CH. XII BEARING-REIN 257 
 
 been generally abandoned, they are by many still 
 thought to be necessary for park driving, and espe- 
 cially at Meets. Where uniformity in the appearance 
 of a team is important, as at formal Coaching Meets, 
 the use of bearing-reins certainly ensures uniformity 
 of position of the horses' heads, since some horses, 
 when standing, drop their heads, and may even 
 catch their bridles on the pole-head, and on such 
 occasions the use of bearing-reins, if they are ad- 
 justed with intelligence, may be excused. In this 
 connection a consideration of their action is not 
 unimportant. 
 
 In the first place, the bearing-rein should always 
 have its own snaffle-bit, independent of the driving- 
 bit, to which it should never be attached, since it 
 would seriously interfere with the proper action of 
 the drivino-bit. 
 
 In what is usually called the 'bit and bridoon,' or 
 'double bridle,' for a saddle-horse, the functions of 
 the two bits are essentially different. The bit, which 
 has branches of some length and a curb-chain, has 
 its own head-piece and its own rein, — the curb-rein. 
 The bridoon, which is a plain snaffle, is attached to 
 its own head-stall, and placed high in the horse's 
 mouth ; it has its own rein, — the snaffle-rein. 
 
 The snaffle-reins are held, by most horsemen, on 
 top of the forefinger of the left hand, or, in handling 
 a green horse, separately in the right hand, and are 
 used to raise the horse's head ; in some cases they 
 are held so hicrh as to make their action almost 
 
 17 
 
258 BEARING-REIN CH. XII 
 
 exactly like that of a harness bearing-rein. The 
 curb-reins are on the lower finders of the left hand, 
 and are used to restrain the horse, and to bring his 
 head in, the bit being put as low in the mouth as 
 possible without touching the tusks. By a judicious 
 use of the two bits the horse's head can be ' placed' 
 in the position which gives the greatest control over 
 the animal, and ensures what is usually called ' light- 
 ness of mouth,' which is, in most cases, a matter of 
 the muscles of the neck and jaw, and not of the bars 
 of the mouth. 
 
 A bearing-rein and a driving curb-bit, both prop- 
 erly adjusted, will, to some extent, imitate the 
 action of the two bits of the saddle-horse, except 
 that there is no elasticity in the bearing-rein such 
 as there is in the rider's hand. The position of the 
 horse's head should be carefully studied, and the 
 bearing-rein buckled at such a length as will prevent 
 the horse from dropping his head too low, and at the 
 same time will not hold the head in a constrained 
 position. This will require judgement, as a bearing- 
 rein which seems tia-ht when the horse is standing 
 still, will frequently be entirely too slack when he 
 is moving. It may be said, however, that it should 
 be always somewhat slack when the horse is in 
 motion. With this rein properly adjusted, with the 
 driving-bit as low as possible in the mouth, and with 
 the curb-chain of such a length that the branch of 
 the bit, when pulled upon by the rein, will come 
 back to a position about half-way between the 
 
CH. XII BEARING-REIN 259 
 
 vertical and the horizontal directions, the conditions 
 will be as nearly as possible similar to those of a 
 saddle-horse, and, with a good hand, something of 
 the same effects ought to be obtained. 
 
 As is described in Chapter XV., Article on 
 ' Bitting- ' the best results with a harness-horse are 
 obtained when the horse has been already carefully 
 handled on foot, and the flexions, at least partially 
 executed, so that the action of the two bits in 
 driving will resemble that of the riding bridle. If 
 adjusted and used in this way, the bearing-rein may 
 be considered unobjectionable, and even useful, for 
 parade purposes and in the show ring ; under other 
 circumstances, and in any but the very best hands, 
 it is better dispensed with. 
 
 On the road, and especially in going up-hill, 
 horses work much better with their heads free ; at 
 any moderate pace and with a heavy load a horse 
 throws his weight forward into the collar and puts 
 down his head, a fact recognised in some countries 
 in the practice of tying down a horse's head, from 
 the notion that it adds to his power for draught. 
 On a level, hard road with a light load, a horse does 
 not require to have his body thrown forward, and 
 can assume the gathered position, with head up and 
 in, and with hind legs under him, a position with 
 which the bearing-rein does not interfere. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to add, that a very tight 
 bearing-rein which keeps the head constrained, and 
 elevated above a natural position, is to be strongly 
 
2 60 BEARING-REIN CH. XII 
 
 condemned, but some horses have a habit of putting 
 their heads down and boring on the bit so as to be 
 very fatiguing to the coachman. 
 
 On such a horse, it is well to put a bearing-rein, 
 and let him pull on his own tail, instead of on the 
 arms of the coachman ; but, if he is to be kept in 
 the team, he should, if possible, be broken of the 
 habit by changing his bit, or by such mouthing and 
 handling as the skill of his owner permits. 
 
 One of the reasons for using bearing-reins on 
 parade occasions, is, that many teams which go 
 pleasantly enough on the road, pull uncomfortably 
 when being driven close behind another coach, or 
 when excited by the continual stopping and start- 
 ing, unavoidable in crowds or at such places as the 
 entrance to a race-course. In such cases, bearing- 
 reins will save the coachman much annoyance and 
 fatigue ; but it must be said that a team which 
 will do all this kind of work, and look stylish, with 
 heads in the proper position, without bearing-reins, 
 is a better team and pays a higher compliment 
 to the coachman's hand, than one which requires 
 them. 
 
 The bearing-rein will in many cases prevent a 
 horse from kicking, which he will not usually do 
 unless he can get his head down. As to the bear- 
 ing-rein keeping a horse from falling, it is entirely 
 impossible that it should do so in any sense of sup- 
 porting him ; although as far as it assists in gath- 
 ering him and keeping his hind legs under him, it 
 
CH. XII BEARING-REIN 26l 
 
 may have a useful effect with a horse that is inclined 
 to go in a slovenly way. 
 
 On a journey, or in driving a strange team without 
 bearing-reins, it is a good plan to have in the coach 
 at least one bearing-rein with its proper bit, to be 
 slipped on a troublesome horse if necessary, and 
 for this reason it is wise to have centre-hooks on the 
 pads of all harness, even if they are not habitually 
 used. In the absence of the centre-hook, the rein 
 can be attached to the pad by a short strap, such as 
 should be always carried among the spare articles. 
 If bearing-reins are used, the lead-harness must, of 
 course, have cruppers. 
 
 As to appearance, the less leather there is about 
 a horse's neck the better ; and this is especially 
 true of short-necked horses. 
 
 In nearly all cases, a properly adjusted bearing- 
 rein will be somewhat slack when the horse is 
 moving, and it will shake about in an unseemly 
 way, noticeable from the top of the coach, if not 
 from the ground ; which is the reason for having 
 the housing-straps formerly used. 
 
 Bearing-reins are made in two ways, as already 
 described and as shown in Fig. 93. It is sometimes 
 considered that the double, or pulley-rein, is easier 
 for the horse, because the bit plays backward and 
 forward upon the round part of the rein when the 
 horse tosses his head, but it is much heavier and 
 more complicated than the single rein, which, in my 
 opinion, is to be preferred for its simplicity. 
 
262 BEARING-REIN CH. XII 
 
 An objection to the pulley-rein is, that a careless 
 man can exert twice the power in reining- up the 
 horse with it, that he can with the single rein. 
 
 Bridles sometimes have a light strap, with a small 
 snap-hook on the lower end, sewed under the ro- 
 sette, to hold the bit of the single bearine-rein, 
 which will drop out of the horse's mouth when the 
 rein is not hooked to the centre-hook. 
 
 That instrument of torture, the overdraw-check 
 (the ' Kemble Jackson'), while it may be useful, when 
 judiciously applied, in getting the highest speed out 
 of a trotting horse by keeping his head high and 
 his breathing organs unobstructed, has never been 
 proposed for any four-in-hand team, and, except on 
 a trotter, is seen only on the horses of careless or 
 ignorant owners. The star-gazing position of the 
 head which it enforces, should alone be sufficient 
 to prevent its use. 
 
 According to Bracey Clarke and other authori- 
 ties, the bearing-rein was little used until after 1800, 
 and by 1835 it began to go out of fashion on the 
 public-coaches. 
 
 Cracknell, who drove a fast coach on the London 
 and Birmingham road about the latter date, is said to 
 have been one of the first to give it up, and, in so 
 doing, to have brought upon himself the displeasure 
 of his proprietor, Mr Chaplin, who considered the 
 practice of driving without it to be dangerous.* 
 
 * CORBETT, p. 239. 
 
CH. XII COUPLING 263 
 
 In the coaching prints of the first part of this 
 century the bearing-rein is always shown, but it is 
 not found in those previous to 1800. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be said, that all coachmen 
 should have their attention called to the abuses of 
 the bearing-rein and to the serious pain and dis- 
 comfort resulting to a horse from having it too 
 tight, although it must be noted, that these abuses 
 are confined almost entirely to pairs and single 
 horses, a subject with which we are not at present 
 dealing. 
 
 If bearing-reins are not used, the coachman must 
 always keep his eye on his wheelers when they are 
 standing still, or one of them may drop his head 
 and, getting his bit caught on the pole-head, pull 
 off his bridle. For this reason the bearino-rein is 
 not out of place on a pair used for shopping or 
 visiting, but it should be loose. 
 
 In this connection, Mr Flower's admirable pam- 
 phlets on Bits and Bearing Reins may be recom- 
 mended to the attention of all horsemen. 
 
 COUPLING 
 
 In all harness, the outside rein, usually called the 
 draught-rein, runs from the hand to the outer side 
 of each horse's bit. In some rude farm harness the 
 inner sides of the bits are attached to each other 
 by a short rein, which couples the horses together, 
 so that when one horse is pulled to one side he 
 leads the other with him. This is obviously a crude 
 
264 COUPLING CH. XII 
 
 arrangement, serving only to guide the horses, but 
 not to restrain them. 
 
 In better harness, therefore, each draught-rein has 
 attached to it, a rein which passes to the bit of the 
 other horse, so that a pull on the off side rein, for 
 instance, will be communicated to the off side of 
 each horse's mouth. It is obvious that to do this 
 evenly, the inside, or coupling-rein must have a cer- 
 tain definite length from the bit to the point at 
 which it is buckled to the draught-rein. Owing- to 
 its crossing over between the horses, the coupling- 
 rein must be longer than that part of the draught- 
 rein which is in front of the coupling-buckle, or 
 else the horses' heads will be brought too near to- 
 gether. Usually, with horses of the same size, and 
 at the proper distance apart, the coupling-rein will 
 be four inches longer than the draught-rein for 
 the leaders, and five or six inches longer for the 
 wheelers ; and, if the saddler has made the reins 
 properly, the coupling-buckle will then be in the 
 middle hole of the fifteen holes which are punched 
 in the draught-rein. If the horses, when driven in 
 this way, are found to be too far apart, the taking 
 up of each coupling-rein one or two holes shorter on 
 each draught-rein will bring them nearer together, 
 supposing always that the horses are of the same 
 size and that they hold their heads alike. 
 
 On driving them, however, it will be very likely 
 found that one of the horses holds his head in, with 
 his neck bent, and the other holds his head out and 
 
CH. XII COUPLING 265 
 
 forward. The coupling-rein of the former will be, 
 therefore, slack, and the horse being less restrained, 
 will go away from the pole until his inside rein be- 
 comes tight. To counteract this, it will be neces- 
 sary to shorten, or take up his coupling, remember- 
 ing always that his coupling is that which goes from 
 his bit to the draught-rein of the other horse. 
 
 It may also happen that one horse is more eager 
 or free, than the other, and will be too far ahead ; in 
 which case the taking up of his coupling will bring 
 him back, — that is, it will draw more tightly on his 
 bit and restrain him. 
 
 In both cases, however, the shortening of the 
 coupling-rein will bring the horses' heads nearer 
 together ; and, if their distance apart was originally 
 correct and is to be maintained, whatever is taken 
 up in one coupling must be let out in the other. 
 
 This is shown in the diagram (Fig. 128), where the 
 relative distances are exaggerated to show the action 
 more clearly. 
 
 N N' 
 Fig. 128. 
 
 When the horses are working exactly alike, the 
 reins are arranged as shown by the black lines ; A 
 
266 COUPLING CH. XII 
 
 and B are the two sides of the off horse's bit, C and 
 D those of the near horse. The drauofht-reins AM 
 and DN run straight to the coachman's hand. The 
 coupling-reins are BN and CM, buckled to the 
 draught-reins at N and M. 
 
 Now, if the off horse bends his neck so as to 
 bring his head nearer to his body, both the reins 
 which run to his bit will be too slack, and he will 
 run forward and do more than his share of the 
 work, while the near horse is held back. To 
 prevent this, the off horse's coupling-rein BX is 
 shortened by running it up the draught-rein to X', 
 the last hole, until it comes just tight to the bit ; 
 but this obviously leaves the off draught-rein AM, 
 as slack as it was before, so that the coachman has 
 to draw his hand back to bring it to bear upon the 
 bit at A'. In so doing, however, he draws back the 
 coupling-rein CM, and pulls the head of the near 
 horse to the inside. To prevent this, the coupling- 
 rein CM must be let out on its draught-rein exactly 
 as much as the other coupling-rein has been taken 
 up, which is equivalent to pulling back the draught- 
 rein, whereupon the coupling-reins will have the 
 positions shown by the dotted lines, with the buckle 
 of C rein in the first hole, and all the reins will act 
 evenly on both horses, notwithstanding that the 
 mouth and bit of the off horse is nearer to the 
 coachman's hand than that of the near horse. 
 
 If the horses are too far apart, but otherwise are ' 
 working evenly, the coupling-reins must be short- 
 
CH. XII COUPLING 267 
 
 ened equally ; or lengthened equally if they are too 
 near together. 
 
 The fact that a horse, when he holds his head in, 
 and curves his neck, is thereby practically lengthen- 
 ing his rein and consequently doing more than his 
 share of the work, must be carefully remembered ; 
 simple as it appears, it is not always noticed by the 
 coachman. 
 
 Reins are frequently made with three holes in 
 the inside billet, or in both billets, the object being 
 to prevent wear by changing the places where the 
 bit touches them (see Article on Reins, in the 
 Chapter on Harness). These holes can be used to 
 alter the length of the coupling-rein, and some coach- 
 men seem to think that there is a difference between 
 shortening it in this way and in moving the buckle 
 up the draught-rein. A little reflection will show, 
 however, that it is only a question of the distance 
 between the part of the draught-rein where the 
 coupling-rein is attached, and the bit, and that it is 
 perfectly immaterial whether this distance is length- 
 ened or shortened at one end or the other, of the 
 coupling-rein. It is better to have only one hole in 
 the billet ; as a matter of fact it is rarely changed 
 for the purpose of preventing wear, and if there is 
 more than one hole and the billet is buckled in the 
 wrong one, the coupling is thereby changed without 
 the knowledge of the coachman. A renewal of the 
 billets when they show the slightest sign of wear is 
 the best precaution, and a most important one ; 
 
268 COUPLING CH. XII 
 
 nothing- can be more dangerous than a damaged 
 rein. 
 
 In a coach team, the wheelers should be coupled 
 far enough apart to enable them to travel parallel 
 to the pole and not to be pulled in with their heads 
 too near together, but since they are kept in a some- 
 what fixed position by the pole-chains, care must 
 be taken that their coupling-reins are short enough 
 to make the bits bear evenly on both sides of their 
 mouths ; it is quite possible for the coupling-reins to 
 be so long that the strain will be almost entirely 
 on the draught-reins. This will not happen with 
 the leaders, because not being held together ex- 
 cept by the reins, they will spread as wide apart as 
 the reins permit. 
 
 Leaders should have their couplings short and be 
 brought somewhat close together, in which position 
 they look much better and work just as well ; at the 
 same time, they should not be driven with their 
 heads almost touching, as is sometimes seen. If 
 their coupling-reins are long and the horses move 
 close up against each other, the inside reins, be- 
 coming thereby slack, will not command them 
 quickly in case of necessity. On bad roads, in hot 
 weather, or for slow, heavy work up-hill, they should 
 be further apart. 
 
 Although what may be called the geometrical 
 principles of the coupling-reins, as shown in the 
 diagram, are simple enough, a great deal of ex- 
 perience and judgement is required to adjust them 
 
CH. XII COUPLING • 269 
 
 to the best advantage, and the lack of such judge- 
 ment is the weakest point of many coachmen. 
 
 Ordinarily, the horse that is the more eager and 
 free will require to be brought back by his rein, but 
 horses have minds and tempers of their own, and 
 purely mechanical considerations are sometimes 
 insufficient. A high-spirited horse, for instance, will 
 be fretted by being restrained and by seeing his 
 partner a few inches ahead of him ; if his coupling- 
 rein is let out he may stop pulling on the bit and 
 go pleasantly. This is much more frequently the 
 remedy than the inexperienced coachman imagines, 
 and is always worth trying, care being taken, how- 
 ever, that the horse does not do more than his 
 share of work. Of course, in addition to changing 
 the couplings, the different place of the rein in the 
 bit, and the tightening or loosening of the curb- 
 chain, discussed in the Article on ' Bitting,' in 
 Chapter XV., are necessary to be considered. 
 
 It seems almost needless to reiterate remarks 
 about the importance of the couplings, but so many 
 teams are badly put together, that it is well worth 
 while for the beginner to master the mechanism of 
 the matter thoroughly, and then to exercise his 
 common sense in applying his knowledge. A team 
 well put together is a delight, and one badly put to- 
 gether cannot be well driven by the very best of 
 coachmen. 
 
 As mentioned in the Chapter on Harnessing and 
 on Putting-to, the horse which carries his head the 
 
 o 3 
 
27O BUCKLING THE REINS CH. XII 
 
 lower must have his rein undermath, or he will 
 be continually bearing- on the rein of his partner. 
 The same horses behave differently about the car- 
 riage of their heads on different days. 
 
 Inasmuch as the coachman sits on the right side, 
 the near horse's coupling-rein may have to be a 
 hole longer than that of the off horse. 
 
 To ensure the coupling and the bitting of a team 
 being correctly done, the diagram devised by Mr 
 Tiffany (Plate XXVI.) is useful. A number of 
 blanks can be printed and filled up as occasion 
 requires. The diagram in force at the time is 
 posted on the order-board of the stable. 
 
 BUCKLING THE REINS 
 
 The question as to whether the reins should or 
 should not be buckled together at their ends is 
 frequently discussed among coaching men, and each 
 practice has its advocates. 
 
 The arguments against buckling are : First, that 
 in case the lead-bars should become loose, either 
 throuo-h the breaking of the pole-hook, or of the 
 eye of the main-bar, or of the bar itself, the lead- 
 reins may be pulled out of the hand, and if buckled 
 together will tear off the pads and the bridles of 
 the wheel horses. Secondly, that an appreciable 
 amount of time is lost at a change, in buckling- the 
 reins before getting up. and that they must be un- 
 buckled before arriving at a change. 
 
 The aro-ument in favour of buckling is, that a rein 
 
PLATE XXVI. 
 
 The holes for the buckles are counted from the "bit end of rein. 
 
 NOTES 
 
 NEAR LEADER 
 
 N9 25 3)loyLe, 
 
 7 
 
 <*>%>& 
 
 OFF LEADER 
 
 N? 13 j2)-ud<^ 
 
 10 tfl %*&, 
 
 NEAR WHEELER 
 
 N? f 3)<ULcans 
 
 CI <* farL 
 
 'CIA. 
 
 a 
 
 OFF WHEELER 
 
 N? 10 2)(H>t<yXs 
 
 a=o 
 
 o 
 
 Diagram proposed by W.G.Tif&usy Esq. 
 for noting tlie Bitting and Couplings of a Team. 
 
CH. XII BUCKLING THE REINS 27 1 
 
 may slip out of the fingers and drop off of the foot- 
 board beyond recovery, in which case a serious ac- 
 cident is almost inevitable. It is also suggested 
 that the catching of the lead-reins in the pad-terrets 
 might check the leaders sufficiently to permit the 
 guard or the servants to get to their heads and stop 
 them, and that, moreover, a coachman has no right, 
 if he can prevent it, to let two frightened horses, 
 with the bars at their heels, run down the road to 
 the danger of the public. 
 
 To this it may be answered, that should the reins 
 pull the harness off of the wheelers, there would be 
 four frightened and unmanageable horses instead of 
 two. It seems hardly possible, however, that the 
 reins could tear off the pads and still remain buckled, 
 so as to tear off the bridles, and the loss of the pads 
 would not render the wheelers unmanageable. 
 
 As to authorities in print : all appear to prefer 
 buckling, except Corbett, who in An Old CoacJi- 
 maris Chatter, p. 245, after discussing the matter, 
 says : ' And now, gentle readers, I leave you to 
 ' take your choice, premising that, for myself, I lean 
 ' to unpinned ribbons.' 
 
 Reynardson [Down the Road, p. 186) says: ' For- 
 1 merly [that is up to about 1825] all reins were buck- 
 ' led. Gradually it became the fashion not to buckle, 
 'and then to have no buckles, on fast coaches.' He 
 ends by saying, ' it is a safe plan to buckle.' 
 
 ' NiMROD,' in his Essay, The Road, printed in 
 1832, objects strongly to the practice of not buckling, 
 
272 BUCKLING THE REINS CH. XII 
 
 and says : ' This is new, and it is a mere piece of 
 'affectation, and should be put a stop to.' Also: 
 ' It is evident, that with the reins unbuckled at the 
 ' ends, should either of them drop out of his hands, 
 'all command of his team is aone.' And ao-ain in 
 his Essays, in discussing the merits of short and 
 long wheel-reins : * ' In quick opposition work also, 
 ' long reins are the best, as there is no occasion to 
 ' buckle them until the coachman is up, and it is 
 ' immaterial whether they are buckled at all — a 
 ' consideration in minute and half time. Indeed, I 
 ' know one or two swells who have banished the 
 ' buckles altogether from the leaders', as well as 
 ' the wheelers' reins, on the ground of their being 
 ' in the way of expeditious changing ; but this must 
 4 be awkward for their horse-keepers, as without 
 ' the buckles, they cannot tell the near from the off 
 ' rein when harnessing their horses, and then the 
 'coupling-reins would be as often wrong as right.' 
 
 Leaving the reins unbuckled was apparently for 
 the purpose of shortening the time required to make 
 the chancres. 
 
 The question seems to be, whether it is more 
 important to guard against the consequences of 
 the rein's being dropped or of the leaders' breaking 
 away. There is certainly much more chance of 
 the former's happening than of the latter. The 
 off wheel-rein may easily slip out of the hand, 
 
 * In early coaching days short wheel-reins were used (see p. 229). 
 
CH. XII BUCKLING THE REINS 2JT, 
 
 especially in cold weather, and if it once leaves the 
 finder it is sure to pfo overboard. 
 
 The weight of argument and experience seems 
 to be in favour of bucklinp- the wheel-reins, at least. 
 From its position in the hand, it is hardly likely 
 that a lead-rein could be dropped. If the reins 
 are to be buckled, it should be done before getting 
 up, since it is at the moment of starting that the 
 rein is the most liable to slip away. 
 
 I long ago devised a way of satisfying all the 
 conditions, and have used it for many years. It 
 is to have (see Fig. 129) the usual loop, or keeper, 
 on the near rein, but without 
 any buckle, and on the off 
 rein a somewhat long point, 
 with a hollow cut in each 
 edee of the rein behind the 
 point, so that when the end of the rein (which fits as 
 tightly into the loop as will permit it to be forced 
 through) is once in, a considerable force is required 
 to pull it out, and it is, for all practical purposes, the 
 same as if buckled. 
 
 If a rein is dropped, it cannot get away, but it 
 will be released by a strong pull, and at a change 
 the reins can be separated by a single jerk. 
 
 This device has the still greater advantage, 
 
 equally important in driving one or two horses as 
 
 in driving: four, that should the driver be thrown 
 
 off, he cannot be dragged by the reins, which will 
 
 immediately come apart. 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 " > 
 
 
 
 ^> 
 
 c 
 
 Fig. 
 
 1 29. 
 
274 CH - XIH 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 DIFFERENT ARRANGEMENTS OF HARNESS 
 
 Tandem. — Since tandem driving is not included in 
 the plan of this book, and is, moreover, fully de- 
 scribed in Hints to Young Tandem Drivers, and in 
 the Badminton volume on Driving, only the mode 
 of harnessing for tandem will be described. The 
 shaft horse has the usual gig-harness, with the ad- 
 dition of rings on the throat-latch for the lead-reins 
 to pass through, and pad-terrets with horizontal 
 bars across their centres to divide the lead-reins 
 and shaft-reins. The lead-harness is light, and the 
 traces are long enough to reach to the tug-buckles 
 of the shaft horse, these buckles having eyes on 
 them, as shown in Fig. 118. If the lead-traces 
 are hooked to the points of the shafts there is 
 more danger of the leader's pulling the shaft horse 
 down in turning, than when they are hooked to the 
 buckles. 
 
 Lead- traces should not be extravagantly long, 10 
 ft. 4 in. is sufficient ; any team looks better and is 
 more handy, if compact, and, should the leader be- 
 have badly, the longer the trace the more likely he 
 is to get his leg over it. Lady Georgiaxa Curzon, 
 in the Badminton volume on Driving, describes an 
 arrangement of light lead-bars, which seems to 
 
CH. XIII 
 
 THREE ABREAST 
 
 275 
 
 lessen the danger of his so doing. The leader 
 should have a hip strap. 
 
 The question which is the more difficult to drive, 
 four horses or a tandem, is frequently discussed ; 
 almost any kind of a horse can be driven in a 
 team, but a tandem leader must have reasonably 
 decent manners, or he will be impossible ; on the 
 other hand, more strength is needed to drive four 
 horses than to drive two, and a coach can be up- 
 set, whereas a cart can twist about in almost any 
 space. 
 
 The position so frequently described, of a tandem 
 leader's turning round and looking the driver in the 
 face, can be usually corrected by backing the shaft 
 horse until the traces become straight again. 
 
 Since the handling of the reins is much the same 
 as that for four horses, Tan- 
 dem-driving is not a bad in- 
 troduction to Coaching. 
 
 Three Abreast. — Three 
 horses driven abreast in the 
 lead require the arrange- 
 ment of bars shown in Fig. 
 35 ; when they are at the wheel, their traces are 
 attached to a long splinter-bar which has six roller- 
 bolts. The best way of running the reins is shown 
 in Fig. 1 30. 
 
 In the South of Italy, a third horse is often used 
 as an out-rigger to a pair ; he is put on the near side, 
 
276 
 
 SPIKE OR UNICORN 
 
 CH. XIII 
 
 with his traces attached to a bar which is lashed to 
 the splinter-bar (or sometimes to the foot-board) of 
 the carriage. He has one forked rein which serves 
 to restrain, but not to guide him. He is guided by 
 a short rein running from his bit to the end of the 
 pole. 
 
 Three horses at the wheel make a eood team for 
 a station omnibus ; for travelling with a coach, three 
 on the lead not only give additional power, but en- 
 sure still having a team of four in case anything 
 happens to one of the horses. It is a favourite 
 team with Swiss and Italian vetturini (Fig. 131), but 
 is a little less handy in sharp turns and narrow 
 places, than four horses. An objection to this ar- 
 rangement of three horses is, that in warm weather 
 the middle horse suffers from the heat. 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 
 Spike or Unicorn. — It may be sometimes conve- 
 nient to drive two horses at the wheel and a single 
 leader, in which case it is necessary to have for this 
 leader a pair of long reins and a single lead-bar 
 
CH. XIII SIX HORSES 277 
 
 with the eye large and set horizontally, or with a 
 regular Q , so that it will go on the pole-hook ; all 
 his harness is the same as that of one of the leaders. 
 The long reins may with advantage be passed on 
 the inner side of the wheelers' bridles. 
 
 Should one of the horses of a team of four give 
 out, thereby forcing the. team to become a spike, or 
 unicorn, the single lead-bars should be taken off and 
 the leader's traces hooked to the main-bar. 
 
 If the hooks of the main-bar are too thick to 
 permit the cock-eyes of the lead-traces to go on 
 them, one of the single-bars must be used, attached 
 to the pole hook by a strap, since its eye is turned 
 the wrong way to go on the hook. 
 
 Six Horses. — When six horses are put to a coach 
 in three pairs, the middle pair is called the swing- 
 pair. This designation is also used in the Artillery. 
 
 The harness is exactly the same as for four horses. 
 The lead-reins pass through the throat-latch rings 
 and the pad-terrets of the swing horses, and then 
 through those of the wheel horses to the hand. 
 
 The swing-reins run exactly as do the lead-reins 
 of an ordinary team, but the throat-latch rings on 
 the wheelers must be doubled to take the additional 
 reins, those from the leaders going on top, and the 
 wheel pad-terrets should have a bar across them to 
 keep the lead-reins and swing-reins apart. 
 
 Either a pole or a chain may be used to connect 
 the lead horses to the coach. 
 
278 POSTING CH. XIII 
 
 The pole has, at its hind end, an eye which goes 
 on the main pole-head hook under the lead-bars, and 
 at its front end, a head, or crab, of the usual form, 
 with bars to which the leaders' traces are attached. 
 This pole should be much lighter than the main 
 pole, since there is no strain upon it, except the 
 direct pull, and the bars also should be somewhat 
 lighter, half the weight of the pole and all the 
 weight of the bars being supported by the necks 
 of the swing horses. 
 
 An alternative similar arrangement consists of a 
 light chain covered with leather, or a rope, like that 
 on a cock horse harness (see Plate XXIV.), instead 
 of a pole, with lead-bars. It should be suspended 
 by a chain, or straps, from the collars of the swing- 
 pair, and the leaders when at rest must be kept 
 well forward to prevent the bars from hanging 
 down. It is also well to have a strap from one tug- 
 buckle of the swin^ horses to the other, on which 
 this chain may rest. 
 
 The swing pole or chain and the bars may be 
 dispensed with altogether, by using for the leaders 
 lonof traces p-oino- to the tusf-buckles of the swingf- 
 
 0000 o 
 
 pair, as shown in Plate VI. 
 
 Posting. — In posting, the near horse of a pair is 
 ridden by a postilion, who leads the off horse. * The 
 
 * In a plate published by Edw. Orme, Bond St., London, 18 16, 
 entitled Paris Diligence, a postilion, on the near wheeler, is driving 
 three leaders. 
 
CH. XIII POSTING 279 
 
 off side harness is the same as that of a pair, with 
 the exception of the reins, but the near side harness 
 has a saddle like that shown in the plate of the 
 cock horse harness. 
 
 The bridle, collar, and traces are as usual, except 
 that a long trace without a buckle is preferable to 
 the ordinary one, on account of its not making- a 
 lump under the saddle-flap. The saddle is plain, 
 and has an iron loop on the tree behind, to take 
 the back-strap, which must be shorter than in an 
 ordinary harness. 
 
 The off, or 'hand horse,' as he is called, from the 
 fact that he is led, has a single leading-rein, which 
 goes to the near side of his bit, and a short rein 
 from the off side of the bit to a point on the lead- 
 ing-rein, about fifteen inches from the bit ; in other 
 words, the leading-rein is forked, so as to be at- 
 tached to both sides of the bit ; the buckle of 
 the short piece runs on the main rein, in order 
 that the proportionate lengths of the forked ends 
 can be so adjusted as to give an equal bearing 
 on each side of the mouth. The near horse has a 
 simple rein for the postilion, like that of a riding 
 bridle. 
 
 If four horses are required in posting, the leading 
 horses are harnessed as already described for the 
 wheelers, except that the traces are sufficiently long 
 to reach to the tug-buckles of the wheelers as de- 
 scribed on page 237. 
 
 Before the days of railways, posting was the best 
 
280 POSTING CH. XIII 
 
 method of travelling in England and on the Con- 
 tinent ; there is an interesting description of it by 
 the Duke of Beaufort in the Badminton volume on 
 Driving. On a journey, either a private travelling 
 carriage belong-in Pf to the traveller was used, or a 
 vehicle was hired from a postmaster. In England 
 the postmasters were usually hotel-keepers, and not 
 employed by the Government, except in some cases, 
 to handle the mails, the horses being their private 
 property ; they were required, however, to have a 
 license and to put up a sign : ' Licensed to Let Post 
 Horses.' They paid a duty of three half-pence per 
 mile for each horse used, and there was an elaborate 
 system by which the toll-gate keepers checked off 
 this duty. 
 
 The stages varied greatly in length, but the dis- 
 tances were all noted in the posting and road-books, 
 published in those days. The charges were not uni- 
 form, but were from sixpence to ninepence a mile, 
 for each horse, and sixpence for the post-boy, which 
 was paid him at the end of the stage, where he was 
 succeeded by a new boy. 
 
 According to the Penny Cyclopadia, 1840 (Article 
 Posting), the stages at that date were from 8 to 1 2 
 miles in populous districts, and from 15 to 20 in 
 others ; the rate of speed from 8 to 9 miles an hour ; 
 and the cost of a pair, with fees and turnpikes 
 amounted to about 22 pence (44 cents) per mile, 
 so that posting with four horses, double the cost of 
 a pair, was an expensive way of travelling. The 
 
CH. XIII POSTING IN FRANCE 28 1 
 
 charge was the same whether a carriage was fur- 
 nished or not. 
 
 On frequented roads, some one was usually on 
 the watch for carriages approaching the post house, 
 and since one or two pairs always stood ready har- 
 nessed, a change was rapidly effected. The speed 
 was frequently ten miles an hour, but depended, 
 naturally, upon the hurry of the passenger and his 
 liberality to the post boys. 
 
 On the Continent, in France for instance, the 
 whole system was under the control of the Govern- 
 ment, and a book, Livrc de Poste, giving a map of 
 all the routes, distances, charges, and general regu- 
 lations, was published annually by the Government 
 Printing Office. The right to furnish horses to 
 travellers by relays was restricted to those persons 
 {maitres de poste) commissioned by the Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 The charge for each horse was 2 francs per 
 10 kilometres, equal to about 3% pence per mile 
 {6*4 cents). One franc per 10 kilometres was estab- 
 lished by law as the fee for each postilion, but the 
 custom obtained, and was recognised by the author- 
 ities, of giving twice that amount, or the same as 
 for each horse, 31^ pence per mile. 
 
 Somewhat elaborate regulations were contained 
 in the book as to the number of horses required 
 for certain sizes of carriages, an d the number of 
 passengers was also taken into account. 
 
282 
 
 POSTING IX FRANCE 
 
 CH. XIII 
 
 Tables of charges based upon these items were 
 given to obviate the necessity of computation, for 
 instance : — 
 
 Number of 
 
 i 
 
 21 KlLOM. 
 
 22 KlLOM. 
 
 23 KlLOM. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Postilions. 
 
 4 at 2 francs. 
 
 2 at 2 francs. 
 
 25.20 francs. I 26.40 francs. 
 
 27.60 francs. 
 
 One person additional 
 
 Two persons additional 
 
 28.35 francs. 
 31.50 francs. 
 
 29.70 francs. 
 33.00 francs. 
 
 31.05 francs. 
 34.50 francs. 
 
 On certain steep portions of the road a traveller 
 was required to take, and to pay for, one or two 
 extra horses. 
 
 Ordinarily a carriage was taken by the post- 
 horses, only on the main road, from one station to 
 another ; but arrangements could be made to go off 
 of the main road to a country-house or to have 
 horses sent there to take the carriage. 
 
 In a town, the carriage was loaded at the door, 
 having been brought round by men, or by a single 
 horse, a short time before the hour fixed for start- 
 ing, at which hour the postilions and horses ap- 
 peared. 
 
 The regulations required that postilions should 
 go at a speed of not less than from 6*^ to 8 miles an 
 hour, depending upon the road, but there was no 
 upper limit of speed prescribed. No postilion was 
 allowed to pass another on the road, except when 
 the carriage in front was stopped intentionally. 
 
CH. XIII DAUMONT 2 8 3 
 
 Five minutes were allowed for changes in the 
 daytime, and a quarter of an hour at night. 
 
 Plate X. gives a good idea of French posting, and 
 shows the dress of the postilions, with the heavy 
 leather boots into which the feet were slipped, thin 
 shoes and all, at the moment of mounting. 
 
 The English postilion was dressed in a dark 
 jacket and a bright waistcoat, a high, white, beaver 
 hat, breeches, and top-boots. He had an iron guard 
 strapped on the outside of his right boot to save his 
 leg from being bruised by the pole. 
 
 While regular posting has given way, in England, 
 to travelling by rail, there are still a few job-masters 
 in London who, for special service, provide horses 
 and postilions, harnessed and dressed, in the regu 
 lar old-fashioned style. 
 
 Daumont. — When four horses, ridden by two 
 postilions in posting fashion, are attached to a 
 private landau, or barouche with handsome harness, 
 the equipage is called a Daumont, or a la Daumont. 
 Thirty years ago, it was not an uncommon gala turn- 
 out, but it is now confined to royalties on occasions 
 of ceremony. The harnessing is precisely the same 
 as for posting, but the pole of the carriage is usually 
 of iron and bent down in the middle so as to be 
 below the leg of the wheel horse postilion to avoid 
 bruising it. 
 
 The postilions wear round caps instead of hats. 
 When the same carriage is used with two horses 
 
284 DAUMONT CH . xill 
 
 instead of four, the equipage is called a Denii- 
 Daumont. 
 
 A Demi-Daumont is a handsome 'turn-out,' and 
 the occupants of the carriage have a clear view, 
 unobstructed by servants in front of them. 
 
 The carriage is made, of course, without any 
 driving-seat, but, for full dress, there is a rumble 
 occupied by two footmen. 
 
 This equipage takes its name from the Due 
 d'Aumont, a French leader of fashion, both before 
 and after the Revolution. He was born in 1762 
 and had estates near Rouen, where he had superb 
 stables, fitted up with mahogany, marble, and Bohe- 
 mian glass. During the Restoration he introduced 
 this style of carriage. La Rousse (Dictionnaire Uni- 
 versel du xix e " ,e Slide, article ' Aumont'), says that 
 the usual spelling is a la Daumont, but also, en 
 cV Aumont and en Daumont. Eugene Sue in one of 
 his novels, writes : ' Je demande si Ton attellera en 
 grand' guides ou a la d'Aumont.' 
 
CH. XIV 28 ! 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 DRIVING 
 
 Getting up. — The horses having been put-to (as 
 described in Chapter XII.) and the coach driven to 
 the door, or ready in the stable yard, the coachman 
 is prepared to start. 
 
 Before getting up to his seat, he should walk 
 round his coach and horses, beginning- on the off 
 side, going behind the coach and coming forward on 
 the near side, then in front of the horses, and to a 
 position abreast of the off wheeler. While doing 
 this, he should make a rapid but thorough inspection 
 of coach, horses, and harness, to see that every- 
 thing is right, especially noting whether the reins 
 are buckled to the bits in the places where he in- 
 tends to have them, and whether the draught-reins 
 are outside, since sometimes the reins are turned 
 over, and the coupling-reins are put outside. If the 
 horses are in for the first time, or have had their 
 places changed, or if the harness is new, this in- 
 spection is all the more necessary. 
 
 Then, standing opposite to the pad of the off 
 wheeler, he draws the reins from above the tug- 
 buckle (see Fig. 127), where they have been looped 
 by the man who has brought the coach round, or, 
 if the coach is still in the stable yard, by the groom 
 
2 86 GETTING UP CH. XIV 
 
 after putting-to, and then taking the near lead-rein 
 in his left hand, draws it until it comes tight from 
 the leader's bit. He then drops his hand, slipping it 
 along the rein until his arm hangs straight down by 
 his side. He draws the off lead rein with his right 
 hand until it comes tight, and, passing it into the 
 left hand, pulls it forward with the right until the 
 buckle ends of the rein are even ; this makes ex- 
 actly the proper amount of slack in the off rein 
 and ensures both reins being of the same length 
 when the coachman gets on the box. He then 
 passes both reins into his right hand, holding them 
 at the same point at which his left hand grasped 
 them. He does precisely the same thing with the 
 wheel-reins, and holds them all in his right hand in 
 the proper fingers, that is, with the near lead-rein 
 on top of his first finger, the off lead-rein and the 
 near wheel-rein between the first and second fingers, 
 lead on top, and the off wheel rein between the 
 second and third fingers. 
 
 This may be also done more simply by taking 
 all the reins in the left hand and drawing them as 
 tight as the shortest will permit, then tightening the 
 others in succession, and finally pulling out the off 
 reins ten or twelve inches, after which they are 
 passed properly divided, into the right hand. 
 
 If the reins are of the proper length, as noted on 
 page 226, the ends will not hang down too far behind 
 the hand. If they are longer than there specified, 
 the ends should be thrown over the right arm, from 
 
CH. XIV GETTING UP 287 
 
 left to right, to prevent them from catching on the 
 roller-bolt in getting up. 
 
 These instructions may seem somewhat minute, 
 but none too minute for a beginner, who will find 
 the first method a good one ; the second method 
 may be used later ; but the coachman should adopt 
 a uniform way of taking up his reins, so that he 
 can always do it quickly and neatly, and not stand 
 fumbling with them in an uncertain way ; and he 
 should always so take them that he will have little 
 to do when he o-ets on fa^ b ox 
 
 An expert can judge, at first sight, pretty fairly 
 of a coachman by the way he gets up. 
 
 If the reins have been carefully put in their 
 place above the tug-buckle (Fig. 127) and have not 
 slipped, they can be taken out ready to go into 
 the fingers without in any way changing them ; 
 when the coachman notices that they have been so 
 placed, he can take them up instantly, and neatly. 
 This is a reason for tuckine the reins into their 
 place from the front backward, as shown in Fig. 127, 
 since they remain there more securely than when 
 merely pushed through from the back. 
 
 When the coachman has the reins in his right hand 
 with the same hand he takes the whip (which has 
 been lying on the wheelers' backs, see p. 254), steps 
 back, puts his left foot on the hub of the wheel, his 
 right foot on the roller-bolt, his left on the step, and 
 his right on the foot-board, using his left hand to help 
 himself and keeping his right arm straight down. 
 
2 88 GETTING UP CH. XIV 
 
 The moment that he reaches the foot-board he 
 should sit down, but, if he is driving a public-coach, 
 before doing- so, and while he is partly facing his 
 passengers, he should raise his hat slightly to them. 
 It is awkward to remain standing while shifting the 
 reins to the left hand, and there is a risk of being 
 thrown off of the box. On a public-coach, the coach- 
 man should not get up until within a minute of the 
 time of starting-. 
 
 As soon as he takes his seat on the cushion, he 
 passes the reins to his left hand in the same order 
 in which he had them in his right. He catches up 
 his whip, if it has become unwound, and arranges 
 the driving-apron. He then adjusts the reins to the 
 proper length. The man at the leaders' heads 
 should keep the horses far enough forward to have 
 their traces nearly as tight as if they were pulling, 
 otherwise the coachman cannot readily judge how 
 long his lead-reins should be. The reins should be 
 taken in the hand at such a point that all the horses 
 when they are started shall have their traces equally 
 tight. 
 
 Many authorities think that the wheelers alone 
 should start the coach, the traces of the leaders 
 being slack, but there does not seem to be any 
 good reason for this. 
 
 Certainly, the leaders alone should not start the 
 coach while the wheelers' traces are slack, but when 
 the team starts, the leaders should feel their traces 
 before they tighten their reins, or from the sudden 
 
CH. XIV STARTING 289 
 
 check to their mouths, they will be apt to stop, or 
 to back, with the result of having the pole run on 
 them, whereupon they will jump forward to be 
 brought up again by the short rein. With leaders 
 inclined to rear at starting, it is best to give a good 
 deal of rein, so that they shall feel their traces and 
 have some work to do from the very beginning ; 
 they can be easily brought back later. 
 
 Once in his seat, with his reins adjusted, the 
 coachman must glance over his team to see that 
 no rein has a twist, that the coupling-reins are 
 crossed, and that neither of the inside lead-traces 
 is twisted ; from the box, he is better able to notice 
 these points than from the ground. 
 
 All is now ready for the start. The groom should 
 be in front of the leaders, and facing the coach. 
 The head man should be at the wheeler's head on 
 the off side. Just before starting, the brake should 
 be taken off, :;: very quietly, the whip having been 
 passed into the left hand ; the brake-handle should 
 never be touched while the whip is in the right hand, 
 because to do so causes a wide movement of the 
 whip, which may be noticed by the horses. 
 
 The coachman then intimates, by a nod, to the 
 groom at the leaders' heads, that, if he is holding 
 the leaders, he is to let go ; the man steps to the 
 near side and moves back a few paces so as to be 
 
 * For a discussion of this question of the brake, see further on, 
 under Stopping. 
 
 19 
 
29O STARTING CH. XIV 
 
 opposite to the man who is at the wheeler's head ; 
 and as the back of the coach reaches them, both 
 men get up at the same time into the rumble. 
 
 The start should be made as quietly as possible ; 
 the movement of the man from the leaders' heads, 
 combined with a slight yielding of the coachman's 
 hand, is generally a sufficient intimation to the 
 horses. If anything must be said to make them 
 start, a short exclamation should be used, such as 
 ' Right !' uttered sharply and only once. Some- 
 times ' Pull up !' is used, but this seems to be 
 hardly appropriate, since to pull up, means to stop. 
 
 In giving a rule for starting a team, it would be 
 difficult to satisfy all coaching critics. Some au- 
 thorities prescribe dropping, or yielding, the hand, 
 to oive the horses the signal, others tighten the reins 
 slightly. ' Nimrod' [Northern Tour, p. 340), speak- 
 ing of a doubtful-looking team at a change, says : 
 ' But dropping my hand to them at starting, they 
 'all went away.' Beaufort (p. 10) says: 'An un- 
 ' workmanlike trick, which the coachman cannot be 
 ' too careful to avoid, is that of slackening his reins 
 'and pushing out his hands before him when he 
 'wants to start; a trick, however, which is much 
 ' affected by many men who find themselves on a 
 'driving-seat which they do not adorn.' Howlett 
 teaches that the hand should be dropped or yielded 
 at starting. 
 
 Possibly, these differences are more imaginary 
 than real ; since the proper action depends a good 
 
CH. XIV STARTING 29 1 
 
 deal upon what has gone before it. I incline to the 
 opinion, that the proper way is, just before starting, 
 to feel all the horses' mouths by tightening the 
 reins very gradually, so as to not excite any one 
 of them, and thus to gather the horses, and indicate 
 that something is to be required of them ; then, at 
 the instant of starting, the hand should be yielded, 
 decidedly, but not too far, three or four inches, for 
 instance, to let the horses get off. It must be said, 
 however, that with another team, which has been 
 differently handled, a tightening of the reins will 
 have the same result ; and, in fact, no coachman can 
 exactly predict what a team entirely strange to him, 
 will do at the start ; and he may have to employ 
 both methods in rapid succession. 
 
 Gathering the horses and then yielding the hand, 
 is more in accordance with the general rules of 
 horsemanship, and the coachman's own team should 
 be accustomed to that way of starting. The excla- 
 mation : ' Right !' or whatever word may be adopted, 
 will, usually, if heard by all the horses, make them 
 start ; the clucking noise frequently made for this 
 purpose is not always heard by the leaders, and it 
 excites other horses which may be near the coach. 
 The reins are, after all, the proper means of com- 
 munication between the coachman and his horses. 
 
 The touch of the whip is too exciting to be used 
 in starting, unless a sluggish horse decidedly holds 
 back, and it is successful only in practised hands. 
 
 It need hardly be said, that the favourite news- 
 
292 STARTING CH. XIV 
 
 paper expression, ' the coachman cracked his whip 
 and started off,' is entirely due to the imagination 
 of the reporter ; no one ever cracks a four-in-hand 
 whip. 
 
 On a public-coach, it is the business of the guard 
 to see that the passengers are seated, and when 
 all is ready for the start, he comes forward, on the 
 off side as far as the wheelers' shoulders, and says 
 ' Riofht, sir !' to the coachman. 
 
 Since on a drag there is no guard, the coachman 
 must be sure that no one on the coach is standing 
 np when he is about to start, and if there are per- 
 sons on the back of the coach where he cannot 
 readily see them, it is well, as a warning, to say 
 ' Sit fast !' before starting. 
 
 If a coach has only one servant with it, or if one 
 of the two is driving, the man on the ground should 
 hold both the wheelers and the leaders, by grasping 
 the coupling-reins of the wheelers and the lead- 
 reins together, with his hand passed under the off 
 wheeler's neck. He can thus restrain the whole 
 four ; but if he holds the leaders only, by their heads, 
 and the wheelers start, they may push the leaders 
 over the man and set the whole team off. 
 
 If a team standing still, starts suddenly, when no 
 one is on the box, a bystander should seize the 
 heads of the wheelers and not run to those of the 
 leaders, as people generally do. If the wheelers 
 are held, the leaders cannot well run away with 
 them. 
 
CH. XIV MOVING OFF 293 
 
 Moving off. — There are larger opportunities for 
 awkwardness in the start than at any other time ; 
 even the most practised coachman will sometimes 
 not know, until the team straightens out whether he 
 has his reins exactly right, and for this reason a few 
 moments spent in making sure that the reins are 
 exactly where they should be, are not wasted. 
 
 A beginner may sometimes have the following 
 experience : when he gets into his seat he has great 
 difficulty in catching his double thong, the loop will 
 run down too far on the stick, and he finds his right 
 hand full of loose thong ; after he has arranged this 
 and has pulled his reins about a good deal before 
 getting them to his liking, he nods to the men to let 
 go, probably forgetting to take off the brake. 
 
 The leaders, which always should be quick at 
 starting, jump forward, and one of them, brought up 
 suddenly by his draught-rein's being held too short, 
 rears, or else stops while his partner rushes forward 
 to the extent of his longer rein. The wheel horses, 
 moving forward, run the point of the pole into the 
 stern of the stopping leader, with the result of 
 making him move forward again, if he does not 
 kick. If he goes on, one lead-rein being shorter 
 than the other, brings both leaders off to the side of 
 the road, so that one of them goes up on the kerb- 
 stone or on the grass ; and in his frantic endeavours 
 to get those two reins straight, the coachman lets 
 the off wheel-rein slip through his fingers and run 
 out a couple of inches, not improving the situation. 
 
294 MOVING OFF CH. XIV 
 
 By this time the second groom may have reached 
 the horses' heads, and straightened the animals out 
 until the reins can be pushed through the fino-ers 
 to their proper places, and a second start made 
 in somewhat improved fashion, although some one 
 rein will keep slipping in the most provoking 
 manner. 
 
 When the coach docs get fairly under way, one 
 of the grooms whispers in as confidential a man- 
 ner as is possible from his distant seat : ' Brake's 
 on, sir !' 
 
 These difficulties overcome, the tyro next finds 
 that in the scrimmage he has got his near wheel- 
 rein on top of the off lead-rein, and the two reins 
 seem to be all edges while he is endeavouring to 
 get them right. 
 
 If the team pulls at all, as is quite likely after 
 this little flurry, the two middle reins keep slipping 
 out from between his first and second fingers, with 
 the result of having the leaders off to the right-hand 
 side of the road ; at last all calms clown and things 
 go more smoothly. 
 
 At such a moment, the beginner is apt to think 
 that driving is not so amusing as he believed it to 
 be when he came out of the house, drawing- on his 
 gloves, and admiring the ' smart'-looking ' turn-out' 
 before him. 
 
 All this is intended to emphasise the importance 
 of having everything as nearly right as possible 
 before giving the signal for starting, with the reins 
 
CH. XIV MOVING OFF 295 
 
 the right length and so drawn up that each horse's 
 mouth is just felt, thus ensuring their being evenly 
 held, or evenly released, as the hand is moved. 
 
 Since, in taking up a load, the coach is usually 
 close to a step or kerb, it follows that immediately 
 after starting an inclination must be made to the 
 right or left, and this is most neatly made by taking 
 a point with both the lead-rein and the wheel-rein 
 on the proper side (see Figs. 136, 137), which may 
 be done before giving- the signal to move. This 
 leaves the whip hand free for a prompt use of the 
 whip on a wheeler, sometimes necessary at the mo- 
 ment of starting, and as soon as the desired incli- 
 nation has been obtained, the points are dropped 
 and the reins are again even. In driving away from 
 the door of a house in confined grounds, nice hand- 
 ling is required, — for instance, to go round a curved 
 road, to the left out of a narrow gate, and then to 
 the right into the road or street, and to keep the 
 wheel tracks in the middle of the drive and not have 
 them almost on the grass, first on one side and then 
 on the other. 
 
 If of two ways of going up to a door one is more 
 difficult than the other, it is best to go in by the 
 difficult way, when the horses are already moving 
 and well in hand, and to go out by the easier way. 
 
 In going through a gateway, the leaders should be 
 taken back and the coach guided by the wheelers ; 
 then if the lead-bar touches the post, the bar will 
 yield and slip by, whereas if the traces are tight, the 
 
296 HAND ON THE REINS CH. XIV 
 
 bar will tear the post, or else the bar or the trace 
 will be broken. 
 
 Having got fairly on the road, a few minutes are 
 spent in noticing how the team is going, and, if it is 
 a strange team, what are its peculiarities ; the places 
 of the reins in the hand can then be determined, 
 and that having been done, the reins should be kept 
 in the left hand as far as possible unchanged, with 
 the right hand always free. 
 
 The rigJit Jiand s/iould not remain on the reins 
 an instant longer than the time required to make 
 a change of some kind. 
 
 For example, in making a point with a lead-rein, 
 it should be done promptly, taking enough rein and 
 not to much, and, after putting the point in its 
 proper place, the right hand should be taken off 
 immediately ; or, if an inclination is to be made to 
 the off side of the road, the two points must be 
 made, or the reins shortened, for that side, but the 
 right hand should not be put on the reins and kept 
 there, since this action is likely to pull the reins a 
 little out of the left hand, and the moment the rio-ht 
 hand is taken off, the horses will run over to the left, 
 and all the beauty of the movement will be spoiled. 
 
 It seems hardly possible that there should be a 
 difference of opinion as to whether or not the reins 
 should be kept in the left hand in an unchanged 
 position ; an unchanged position must not be under- 
 stood to mean that a dead pull should be kept upon 
 the horses' mouths ; the whole hand can give readily 
 
CH. XIV HAND ON THE REINS 297 
 
 to the mouth just as it does on the rein of a saddle 
 horse. 
 
 Some coachmen are constantly changing the posi- 
 tion of the reins in the left hand, in the mistaken 
 belief that they are keeping the horses' mouths 
 light ; in reality, they are only worrying the horses. 
 
 As to the wheel-reins, for example ; when they are 
 once evenly adjusted, the horses are going straight ; 
 if one or the other is lengthened the pair will go to 
 one side or the other, which is not desired, and ex- 
 actly the same is true of the leaders, as a pair. That 
 the lead-reins may require to be let out or taken 
 back is more likely, but even this need not often 
 happen on a level road. 
 
 The more successful the coachman is in keeping 
 his reins unchanged in his left hand the better, 
 always remembering that this does not mean or 
 necessitate a dead pull upon his horses' mouths ; on 
 the contrary, he should constantly give and take his 
 whole hand, so as to prevent his horses from pulling. 
 
 As a matter of fact, a man must be a very good 
 coachman and his team an even one, to keep the 
 reins unchanged in his left hand ; the reins will slip 
 more or less and require re-arrangement by the 
 right hand. Slight chancres of direction can be 
 readily made by the left hand alone (see page 311). 
 
 The perfection of driving is to have the least 
 visible motion of hands or reins, and a cultivation 
 of this quiet way is strongly recommended to the 
 beginner ; it will worry his horses less, save him 
 
298 HAND ON THE REINS CH. XIV 
 
 from fatigue, and be considered much more elegant 
 by good judges, and even by those who admire it, 
 without knowing exactly why. A fussy coachman is 
 not necessarily a good one, although many people 
 seem to think so. 
 
 It was once said in my hearing, of a certain four- 
 in-hand man, that his horses must be very well 
 trained, because they always went along of them- 
 selves ; as a matter of fact, he drove all sorts of 
 horses, but knew how to put them together and how 
 to drive them. 
 
 As to authorities on this matter, the following 
 quotations are interesting. ' Nimrod' {Northern 
 Tour, p. 274), speaking of David Roup, a coachman 
 for the famous Captain Barclay, says : — 
 
 ' His seat on his box is perfect ; his reins well laid 
 ' over his fingers, and as firm as if they were stitched 
 1 there ; his hands as quiet as if he were asleep, the 
 ' right hand never stirring at all till it was wanted, 
 ' when it was used as it should be ; and taken alto- 
 ' gether, there was a combination of strength, with 
 ' ease and smoothness, about his performance that 
 'pleased me as much as it surprised me.' This was 
 written in 1834, the best period of coaching, by an 
 excellent critic. 
 
 Corbett {An Old CoacJunan 's CJiatter, p. 256) 
 says : ' I was once talking on this subject to 
 ' Charles Tustin, with whose name I have already 
 4 taken liberties, when he remarked that a coachman 
 ' should take up his reins at the beginning of a stage 
 
CH. XIV 
 
 POSITION OF HAND AND ARM 
 
 299 
 
 ' and never have to alter them in his left hand till 
 ' he throws them down at the end of it. Some 
 ' drivers I have seen, appear to think it a sign of a 
 1 light hand to be constantly fiddling with their reins. 
 ' I believe it is more a sion of a fidoretino- hand, and I 
 ' am quite sure, from experience, that hot-tempered 
 ' horses settle down much better without it. The 
 'less their mouths are meddled with the better.' 
 
 This subject has been treated here at some 
 lenoth because there are excellent coachmen who 
 hold views opposite to those here expressed, and 
 who advocate a constant playing with the reins and 
 shifting- of them. 
 
 Position of Hand and Arm. — According to the 
 instructions given for getting up, the reins are 
 
 Fig 
 
 shifted from the right to the left in the same posi- 
 tions in which they were held in the right hand ; that 
 is, the near lead-rein on top of the fore-finger, the 
 
300 POSITION OF HAND AND ARM CH. XIV 
 
 off lead and the near wheel-reins between the first 
 and second fingers, the lead on top, and the off wheel 
 between the second and third fingers (Fig. 132). 
 
 There is undoubtedly a disadvantage in having 
 one rein on top of the other between the first and 
 second fingers, but in what is called a full hand, see 
 Fig. 147, where one rein is in each space, the off 
 wheel-rein cannot be held strongly enough by the 
 little finger, and the method of holding the reins, 
 shown in Fig. 132, is that universally adopted in 
 England and sanctioned by the best practice. (See 
 the end of this Chapter for other Continental 
 methods.) The thumb should not be closed down 
 upon the lead-rein, because that tires the hand, and 
 because it should be always ready to receive the 
 loop of the lead-rein when making a point ; for the 
 same reason the fore-finger is kept a little distance 
 away from the second-finger. 
 
 The reins are held, not by squeezing them on their 
 flat surfaces, but by the pressure of the third and 
 fourth fingers on their edges. If they are too wide 
 and too thick for the size of the hand, the two 
 middle reins will not touch the fingers, which will, 
 as it were, arch round them ; if they are of a proper 
 width the fino-ers will touch all the edofes and hold 
 them fast. This is an obvious reason for having 
 them all of the same width. With a light team, the 
 pressure of the reins upon each other, and their 
 friction against the glove are quite sufficient to 
 keep them in place with the hand easy and open. 
 
CH., XIV POSITION OF HAND AND ARM 301 
 
 While reins should not be glassy or slippery, it is 
 a mistake to have them sticky with wax ; it will be 
 difficult to shift them slightly, as may be required. 
 The more experienced the coachman, the less he 
 will care for sticky reins ; just as a beginner on 
 horseback likes a sticky saddle, while nothing is 
 more disagreeable to an old horseman. 
 
 The normal position of the arm is nearly hori- 
 zontal, the hand slightly lower than the elbow, 
 opposite to the centre of the body, and about four 
 inches away from it. The hand must be slightly 
 bent at the wrist toward the body, so that the 
 knuckles point straight to the front. This gives a 
 lightness to the hand, from the play of the wrist, 
 which cannot possibly be had if the hand is held 
 out straight. The lead-rein will, in this position, 
 run nearly over the knuckle. The back of the 
 hand must be vertical, neither turned up nor down ; 
 it is then ready to be rotated on the wrist as may 
 be required. 
 
 If the hand is held much higher than about the 
 height of the waistcoat pocket, there will be no 
 room to raise it further in making a sudden stop ; 
 if it is too low it will be difficult to keep it in the 
 middle line of the body, and the right hand will 
 have too far to go to take hold of a rein in front of 
 the left ; if it is tight up against the body, there will 
 be no room to draw it back in stopping or in short- 
 ening all the reins together ; if it is much further 
 forward than four inches, it will be too far from the 
 
302 POSITION OF HAND AND ARM CH. XIV 
 
 right hand, will not be opposite to the centre of the 
 body, and will induce the coachman to lean forward. 
 
 In fact, it may be said that the normal positions 
 of hand, arm, or body should be intermediate ones ; 
 that is, they should be such as will permit prompt 
 motion in any direction. 
 
 During a long drive, for the purpose of resting 
 the arm, the hand may be permitted to go down 
 and forward as far as it will, for a time. 
 
 Naturally, men of different mould and stature, 
 will adopt somewhat different positions of the arm, 
 but for the average man, the position just described 
 is the correct one, since it permits latitude of motion 
 in all directions and ensures the coachman's sitting 
 straight to the front, which is very important. 
 
 The proper position for the hand and arm is 
 shown in the photograph facing this page, but it 
 is only the average position ; a variety of causes 
 may lead to a change of position. With a very 
 light team and on a short drive, especially where 
 appearance is important, the hand can be held 
 somewhat hi^h with the wrist rounded in. This 
 gives lightness and sufficient strength for the pur- 
 pose. With a pulling team, on a long drive, the 
 hand and arm must come down somewhat. One 
 extreme may be when showing a highly dressed 
 team in the exhibition rino- ■ all the horses will be 
 very light, going well up to their bits and not 
 pulling a pound apiece ; then a high hand, sensitive 
 to the slightest touch, is proper ; the coachman is 
 
PLATE XXVII. 
 
 POSITION ON THb BOX. 
 
CH. XIV POSITION OF HAND AND ARM 303 
 
 perfectly familiar with his team, and knows exactly 
 what he can do with them. 
 
 The other extreme may be with a heavy, lugging 
 team which the coachman has never before seen, 
 with bad mouths and perhaps no one horse bitted 
 as he should be. The coachman must then keep 
 his hand down and his arm rather straight, or he 
 will be tired out in a short time. 
 
 It is just the difference between riding a highly 
 trained horse with a very light hand and steering a 
 pulling brute across country with a snaffle-bit. No 
 doubt a fine horseman with good hands can take 
 the puller with one-half the exertion that a bad 
 horseman can, and at the end of the day will have 
 him pulling less than when he began ; in the same 
 way an accomplished coachman will drive a bad 
 team with less exertion than a poor one will, but 
 he cannot keep his hand and arm as high as with 
 a light team. 
 
 The hand need never be higher than the elbow, 
 that is, with the forearm horizontal ; even this is 
 rather too high for ordinary work ; any greater 
 elevation is an affectation. Every now and then 
 the fashion comes up, especially in pair-driving, of 
 holding one or both hands up under the chin, but 
 for this there is no reason. In road work, and with 
 any but the most finely dressed park team, the 
 hand should come down to about the lower button 
 of the waistcoat, which will give the forearm a de- 
 cided inclination downward ; and the hand must be 
 
304 POSITION ON THE BOX CH. XIV 
 
 at least three to five inches away from the body ; 
 if it is not, there will be no room to draw it back 
 for a sudden stop, and the body will have to be 
 thrown back ; a most ungraceful motion. 
 
 The evidence seems to show that the coachmen 
 ot 1820 to 1840, whom we suppose to have been 
 the best, held their hands somewhat low and out, 
 with a straight arm, as it is sometimes called. 
 
 The left hand should be kept opposite to the cen- 
 tre line of the body, so as to be ready to move in 
 either direction, and not to be too far away from the 
 right hand ; but it is sometimes a relief in a long drive 
 to drop the arm almost straight down by the left side 
 for a short time. In doing so, however, it must be 
 remembered that the off side reins are shortened, 
 and it will be necessary to pull them out a little, to 
 prevent the team from going over to the right. 
 
 The driving-seat must not be so steep that the 
 coachman hardly sits upon it, but only leans against 
 it, which is fatiguing, because the weight of the body 
 does not sufficiently assist the pull of the arms with 
 a troublesome team, and the coachman may be even 
 pulled off the box should a wheeler fall ; neither 
 must it be too flat, as that brings the knees in the 
 way of the reins and diminishes the effect of the 
 legs in resisting a pull. The cushion shown in Fig. 
 $7 and in Plate XXVII. is of a proper shape, and 
 is such that the knees are somewhat bent and the 
 feet rest comfortably on the foot-board, without the 
 ankle's being strained, which will happen if the lower 
 
CH. XIV ON THE ROAD 305 
 
 part of the leg is at too much of an angle with the 
 foot-board. 
 
 The coachman should sit straight, and square to the 
 front, his shoulders back, and his knees and feet close 
 together, his toes not projecting beyond the edge of 
 the foot-board. It is hardly necessary to add that 
 he should never cross his leg-s or have one foot in 
 advance of the other. If he sits with his feet drawn 
 back, off of their proper place on the foot-board, 
 he is merely preparing himself to be thrown on his 
 wheelers' backs, in case of striking a stone or a post. 
 
 The whip is held by the right hand, at the ferule 
 (which is ten inches from the butt), and at an angle 
 of about forty-five degrees from the horizontal, and 
 forty-five degrees to the front. In this position the 
 thong is above the near wheeler, and the whole whip 
 is out of the way of a person on the box. If it is 
 nearer to this passenger, a sudden touch on a branch, 
 in passing, will drive the whip back into his face before 
 the coachman can stop it. If it is too low the loop 
 of the thong may touch, or catch on, passing vehicles. 
 
 On the Road. — On a road which is not crowded, 
 
 the coach should be kept near the centre, where the 
 
 surface is usually hardest and smoothest, and where 
 
 the coach will not incline to one side. On a crowded 
 
 road, the proper side should be kept, or constant 
 
 deviations in meeting vehicles will be necessary. 
 
 The best place, in very crowded traffic, is just to the 
 
 right of the centre line of the road ; advantage can 
 
 20 
 
o 
 
 06 INCLINE TO THE RIGHT CH. XIV 
 
 then be taken to slip along past the vehicles which 
 are in front, whereas if the coach is far over to the 
 right it will be hopelessly hemmed in by the vehicles 
 about it, some of which may be going at a walk. 
 In driving through very crowded streets, this is of 
 the utmost importance if time is to be made. 
 
 Of course the side of the road just mentioned 
 refers to America. In England it must be reversed. 
 In France it is the same as in America. 
 
 In turning - out, when meeting another vehicle, the 
 right hand should take hold of the off reins, with the 
 third finger between them, about six inches in front 
 of the left hand, and then be drawn toward the left, 
 while at the same time the left should be allowed to 
 go forward somewhat, so that the hands nearly 
 meet (Fig. 133). 
 
 If the right hand is moved outward or away from 
 the left, it will inevitably pull the reins out of the left, 
 so that when the movement is completed, the reins 
 in the left hand will not be even, and will require 
 re-adjustment. 
 
 This is a mistake that the majority of beginners 
 make, and it is a serious one. If the right hand is 
 not fully six inches in front of the left on the reins, 
 it is more liable to pull them out. 
 
 The reason for letting the left hand go forward is 
 that the pace shall not be diminished, as will be the 
 case if no rein is given to compensate for the pull. 
 In fact, it must be remembered that the horses 
 should be permitted to go to the right, instead of 
 
CH. XIV 
 
 INCLINE TO THE RIGHT 
 
 307 
 
 being pulled to the right, and with some horses it is 
 better to make the whole movement by letting the 
 left hand go forward, not taking the right hand back. 
 
 FlG. I33. INCLINE TO THE RIGHT (OFF REINS SEPARATED). 
 
 Some good coachmen put the whole hand on the 
 off reins, with the nails downward, taking both reins 
 in one grasp, between the under side of the hand 
 and the thumb (Fig. 134), but it is better to take 
 the reins with the third finger between them, be- 
 cause the hands and reins are then exactly in the 
 position to make a point with both off reins into the 
 spaces on both sides of the third finger of the left 
 hand, if it is desirable to do so in order to continue 
 
;o8 
 
 INCLINE TO THE RIGHT 
 
 CH. XIV 
 
 for more than a few seconds the movement toward 
 the right, or to put the right hand on all the reins 
 in case the horses pull. 
 
 FlG. I34. INCLINE TO THE RIGHT (OFF REINS TOGETHER). 
 
 It may be added, that the hands should be always 
 kept with the backs vertical, and with the fingers 
 pointing toward each other, in order to make the 
 fingering as simple and as rapid as possible. 
 
 Having the reins separated by a finger, permits 
 either rein to be allowed to slip, if this is necessary 
 to make the movement more accurate. 
 
 The right hand must be taken off of the reins as 
 soon as the movement to the side of the road is 
 accomplished, and it may be necessary to use it 
 immediately in the same way on the near reins to 
 return to the centre of the road. 
 
CH. XIV 
 
 INCLINE TO THE LEFT 
 
 309 
 
 In turning out to the left, the converse of this 
 must be followed, and the right hand passed in front 
 of the left, taking the near reins, separated by a 
 finger, and pulling them toward the right hand. It 
 
 FlG. I35. INCLINE TO THE LEFT. 
 
 is sometimes said, that the right hand never should 
 be crossed over the left to seize the reins ; but it is 
 not really crossed over ; only put in front ; it is 
 impossible to take hold of the near reins with the 
 right hand without putting the right hand in this 
 position. 
 
 Since the right hand, when on the near reins and 
 in front of the left, naturally pulls toward the left 
 hand, there, is not much likelihood of disturbing the 
 reins, but too much stress cannot be laid upon the 
 
3io 
 
 INCLINE TO THE LEFT 
 
 CH. XIV 
 
 fault of drawing the right hand away from the left and 
 the reins with it, — the source of much bad driving. 
 
 The method just described occupies the right hand 
 and prevents, for the time, the use of the whip, for 
 the whip never must be used while the whip hand is on 
 the reins. There is another method which is neater 
 and which leaves the whip hand free ; this is, to take 
 
 FlG. I36. POINT OF TWO NEAR REINS. 
 
 a point or loop with both lead-rein and wheel-rein 
 of the proper side in the left hand and to hold it, 
 forwarding the hand slightly to make up for the 
 point, until it is necessary to return to the original 
 direction, when the points are simply allowed to run 
 through the fingers. All this time, the right hand is 
 free to use the whip on a wheeler, if necessary, or 
 to increase for a moment the effect of the point. 
 This is much the better way of making; the move- 
 ment, but it requires strength in the fingers, par- 
 
CH. XIV INCLINE TO THE RIGHT OR LEFT 
 
 311 
 
 ticularly for the off side reins. In turning out to 
 the left to pass a succession of objects on the road, 
 it is especially useful, as it also is in obliquing 
 across a street, after having stopped at that kerb 
 which is on the side against the traffic. 
 
 There is another way of making a slight incli- 
 nation to the right or left, with the left hand only. 
 If the left hand is turned so that the back of it is 
 
 FlG. I37. POINT OF TWO OFF REINS. 
 
 uppermost and at the same time the hand is drawn 
 off toward the left side of the body, the off side reins 
 will be shortened, the near side reins slackened, and 
 the team will go over to the right. If the left hand 
 is turned at the wrist so that the thumb comes 
 toward the body, and the hand moves at the same 
 time toward the right, the near side reins will be 
 tightened and the team will 20 to the left. This is 
 a very neat way of getting over from one side of the 
 road to the other. 
 

 312 
 
 TURNING A CORNER 
 
 CH. £IV 
 
 Turning a Corner. — The next movement to be 
 considered is that of turning a corner. 
 
 Fig. 138. point to the left. 
 
 Fig. 139. point to the left. 
 
 Turning to the left is done by taking the near 
 lead-rein between the third and fourth fingers of the 
 
CH. XIV POINTS TO THE LEFT AND TO THE RIGHT 313 
 
 right hand about seven inches in front of the left 
 hand (Fig. 138), and looping it at that point under 
 the thumb, holding it there (Fig. 139) until the leaders 
 have got straight in the new direction, and then 
 letting the loop slip gradually until the rein is 
 straightened out into its original position. 
 
 In turning to the right, the off lead-rein is taken 
 in the same way (Figs. 140, 141), and looped be- 
 tween the first and second finger and afterward al- 
 lowed to slip through. If this rein is put under the 
 thumb, the last part of the loop will snap out with 
 a jerk, but from under the first finger it slides out 
 smoothly, since it is all the time in the space in which 
 it belongs. 
 
 The length of rein taken up to make the point 
 depends upon the sharpness of the turn and the 
 promptness with which the team responds to the 
 rein. In turning an accustomed corner, horses re- 
 quire a very slight hint ; but for a very sharp turn, 
 especially if it is less than a right angle, or, as it is 
 sometimes called, a back corner, it is well to take, 
 first a small point to intimate to the leaders what is 
 expected of them, and then to increase the point 
 a few seconds later. 
 
 In making a point, the left hand must not go for- 
 ward to meet the right, but the right must come all 
 the way back to the left, for the reason that the 
 forwarding of the left hand lets the wheelers rush 
 forward just at the moment when they should go 
 steadily round the turn. 
 
314 POINTS TO THE LEFT AND TO THE RIGHT CH. XIV 
 
 No harm is done by bringing the right hand all 
 the way back, since in a turn, the leaders should be 
 
 FlG. I40. POINT TO THE RIGHT. 
 
 FlG. I4I. POINT TO THE RIGHT. 
 
 a little back, so as not to pull on the point of the 
 pole ; and what is taken in the point is equivalent to 
 
CH. XIV OPPOSITION 315 
 
 half that amount taken back on both reins together, 
 and is usually quite sufficient. If the approach to 
 the turn is up-hill and the leaders are working 
 strongly, while the road beyond the turn is down- 
 hill, it may be necessary to take the leaders back 
 before making the point ; to do this, the lead-reins 
 should be taken entirely out of the left hand, by 
 seizing them with the right (with a finger between 
 them) an inch or two in front of the left hand, pull- 
 ing them out sideways and replacing them in the 
 left by carrying the right hand behind the left. 
 
 Opposition. — In many cases, pointing the leaders 
 is not all that is necessary to be done in making a 
 turn ; the wheel horses usually incline to follow the 
 leaders too quickly, and, by making too short a turn, 
 to force the coach against a corner, or a post. To 
 prevent this, the wheel-rein on the side away from 
 the turn must be shortened. 
 
 If the turn is to the left, after making the point 
 with the near lead-rein, the off wheel-rein must be, 
 for the purpose of making the opposition, pushed 
 back from in front, through the fingers, or, still bet- 
 ter, looped in its proper place between the second 
 and third fingers (Fig. 142). 
 
 If the turn is to the right, the two centre reins, 
 which are the off lead and the near wheel, are short- 
 ened by looping them together between the first 
 and second finders, and then allowing as much of 
 the wheel-rein to slip, — which it will readily do with- 
 
3i6 
 
 OPPOSITION 
 
 CH. XIV 
 
 out disturbing the lead-rein, — as will give the proper 
 amount of opposition. Fig. 143 shows this after five. 
 wheel-rein has been allowed to slip so as to diminish 
 
 FlG. I42. OPPOSITION OF OFF WHEEL-REIN. 
 
 Fig 143. opposition of near wheel-rein. 
 
 its action. All this is done without keeping the right 
 hand engaged. 
 
 Howlett teaches, that a turn to the right, for a 
 sharp corner, should be made by bringing up the 
 near wheel-rein between the two lead-reins, and 
 
CH. XIV 
 
 OPPOSITION 
 
 17 
 
 hanging- it over the root of the thumb before making 
 the lead point (Figs. 144, 145), letting it slip off when 
 
 no longer needed. 
 
 FlG. 144. HOWLETT'S OPPOSITION. 
 
 FlG. I45. DITTO, WITH LEFT POINT. 
 
 The corresponding fingering for the turn to the 
 left, is to push back the off wheel-rein as described 
 above. 
 
 For very sharp turns, going into gateways and 
 the like, this opposition of Howlett's is useful, and 
 he himself employs it with great effect. 
 
■2 
 
 1 8 OPPOSITION CH. XIV 
 
 Another way is, to point whichever lead-rein is 
 required, and then, putting the right hand on both 
 the reins of the other side, in this way to control the 
 turn ; the third finder of the rieht hand beine be- 
 tween the reins, the wheel-rein can be drawn more 
 tightly than the other. If this turn is to the left, 
 the hands will be in the position shown in Fig. 135 ; 
 if to the right, as in Fig. 133, the proper point being 
 made at the same time in the left hand. 
 
 This method occupies the right hand during the 
 whole of the turn, but it is very simple. 
 
 It must be stated generally, that it is desirable to 
 use such methods of fingering as will leave the right 
 hand as free as possible, since the coachman may 
 be called upon, during a movement, to use his whip, 
 which he cannot do if his hand is on the reins. The 
 awkward spectacle is not uncommon of a coachman 
 trying to hit a wheeler while his hand is on his 
 reins ; under these circumstances, to hit a leader 
 is obviously impossible. 
 
 In turning to the right, when the opposition is 
 made by using the two centre reins, they can be 
 shortened by pushing them back instead of looping 
 them, and afterward they can be allowed to slip out 
 to their proper lengths ; in turning to the left, it 
 is obvious that a corresponding result will be at- 
 tained by pulling the same reins out to a sufficient 
 distance, but this necessitates bringing back the 
 hand almost too far against the body in order to 
 make up for this lengthening. 
 
CH. XIV OPPOSITION 319 
 
 With handy horses this is a neat way of working, 
 but any method which keeps these two reins abso- 
 lutely together has the disadvantage of giving too 
 much opposition in proportion to the amount of 
 point. 
 
 After this description of these various methods, 
 it may be repeated, that, in turning to the right the 
 two reins which are between the first and second 
 fingers, — namely, the off lead and the near wheel, 
 — should be looped in that space together, by one 
 motion of the right hand. In turning- to the left, the 
 near lead must be pointed first and the off wheel 
 afterward, each in its proper place, and in both 
 cases the opposition is quickly and simply effected. 
 This is only when an opposition is required ; in 
 easy turns, as out of one wide road into another, 
 with no vehicles in the way, a point of the lead-rein 
 is all that is required, and if sufficient point is taken, 
 steadying * the team with the left hand will keep the 
 wheelers in their places. If, however, the turn is 
 into a narrow gateway, especially to the right, the 
 coach will be close to the corner or to the gate-post, 
 and the wheelers, unless properly controlled, will 
 be almost certain to turn too short, especially if it 
 is a turn with which they are familiar. 
 
 Generally the most difficult place to enter grace- 
 fully is one's own gateway. 
 
 * Steadying a team is an accepted coaching expression for holding 
 the horses back somewhat. 
 
3 
 
 20 DOWN-HILL CH. XIV 
 
 This use of an opposition was called by the older 
 coachmen pointing the leaders and shooting the 
 wheelers, and must have been very necessary in 
 entering the cramped archways of old coaching inns 
 out of narrow streets. 
 
 It is almost unnecessary to add that for such 
 turns all possible room on the opposite side of the 
 street must be taken ; but sometimes it is not to be 
 had. 
 
 In turning a corner up-hill, particularly if the road 
 beyond the turn is still steeper than that on which 
 the coach is, it is sometimes an advantage to let out 
 the outside lead-rein instead of making a point with 
 the inside one, so as to encourage the leaders to 
 make some extra exertion. 
 
 Down-Hill. — It is obvious that the leaders should 
 never have their traces tight when going down-hill, 
 and judgement is required to know how much to 
 take them back. They must not come back far 
 enough to let the bars, or the pole, touch them. 
 They should have their traces just hanging, and the 
 bars entirely clear of their hocks, and this position 
 should be attained immediately before the coach 
 begins to descend, since few things look worse than 
 to see the leaders pulling for several yards after the 
 coach has be^un its descent. 
 
 It will not be necessary, however, to shorten the 
 lead-reins always, or much. Usually a general pull 
 upon all four reins will bring back the leaders suffi- 
 
CH. XIV SHORTENING THE REINS 32 1 
 
 ciently ; it will depend largely upon how the leaders 
 and wheelers are working in relation to each other. 
 
 In a well-assorted team, the leaders should be 
 somewhat more free than the wheelers, and their 
 reins will be therefore a little tighter than those of 
 the wheelers, so that a general tightening of all the 
 reins will be sufficient to shorten the lead-reins. 
 Should the wheelers be pulling and the leaders, in 
 consequence, have slack reins, it may be necessary 
 to take up the lead-reins a little. 
 
 Even with very light-mouthed horses, however, 
 all the reins should be tight enough to enable the 
 coachman to ' feel ' the horses' mouths all the time. 
 
 The horses should always be 'in their bridles,' 
 or, in other words, up to their bits ; else they will 
 not instantly feel, as they should, the slightest in- 
 dication from the hand. This is not at all incom- 
 patible with slight pressure, and constitutes that 
 lightness of hand which is so desirable. 
 
 As a general principle, after the reins are once 
 adjusted to the proper place in the left hand, they 
 should remain there unmoved and held tigJitly in 
 the bend of the third and fourth fingers, as if they 
 were fastened togetJier at that point, in front of which 
 all the fino-erino- must be done. 
 
 The reason for pushing in any or all of the reins 
 
 from the front is, that when the right hand is in 
 
 that position it is just where it is needed to make 
 
 any movement, or to do any fingering ; while be- 
 
 21 
 
32 2 SHORTENING THE REINS CH. XIV 
 
 hind the left hand, it is out of the way and has to 
 be brought forward to be of use. 
 
 The fingering to be good, must be very quick ; 
 a single second lost may mar it. 
 
 In driving at night, it is more difficult to select a 
 rein behind the hand than to find it in front. 
 
 When, however, all the reins are to be shortened 
 together, they may be taken between the first and 
 second fingers of the right hand behind the left, and 
 the left slipped forward on the reins to its new 
 place. It would be difficult to do this from the 
 front, especially if a good deal of shortening is 
 necessary, because the reins are too flexible to be 
 pushed readily, and they separate when they get a 
 short distance from the left hand, so that the right 
 hand cannot take hold of them altogether. 
 
 As examples that authorities do not always agree 
 as to what is proper, the following extracts are 
 given : — 
 
 Corbett (p. 249) says : ' But I have seen what is 
 ' even worse. I once beheld a gentleman perform- 
 ' ing in Hyde Park, who, finding himself seriously 
 ' incommoded with the slack of his reins, stretched 
 ' out his right hand over the left, seizing the reins 
 ' in front of it, and then, like sailors hauling a rope 
 ' hand over hand, proceeded to pass his left hand 
 ' to the front and take hold of them in front of the 
 1 right hand. I have frequently seen this manoeuvre 
 ' practised by coachmen driving one or a pair, but 
 ' only this once did I see the trick played on a 
 
CH. XIV CENTRE REINS SLIPPING 323 
 
 ' four-horse box, and I should think, when it was 
 ' completed, that the reins must have very much 
 'resembled a pack of cards well shuffled and ad- 
 ' mirably calculated to land the coach in the ditch 
 ' after dark.' 
 
 ' Nimrod' (Essays, Malet, p. 345) says : 'There 
 ' is an excellent way of handling reins not gen- 
 ' erally adopted. That is, when you want to take 
 'a pull at your horses, to open the fingers of the 
 ' right hand and to put the reins into them. Then 
 ' pass the left hand, with the fingers open, in front 
 ' of the right hand, and receive the reins into it 
 
 O 
 
 ' again. Thus you get extra power over your team 
 ' without disturbing their mouths.' * 
 
 Who shall decide ? At all events, it is well to 
 have charity toward those who think differently 
 from ourselves. 
 
 One of the first troubles that the beginner will 
 encounter is that of having his centre reins, the 
 off lead and the near wheel, slip through his 
 fingers. He will discover that this has happened 
 by finding his leaders going to the near side of the 
 road, while his wheelers are going to the off side, 
 and it need hardly be said that at all times, except 
 in turning, the horses must be exactly in front of 
 each other and the team perfectly straight. This 
 inequality of the reins must be corrected by push- 
 ing the two centre reins in from the front, and it 
 
 * This is what French writers call la reprise des guides. 
 
324 STOPPING CH. XIV 
 
 must be prevented by holding the edges of the 
 reins more tightly in the bend of the third and 
 fourth fingers (see p. 300). 
 
 When a team pulls so hard as to be nearly 
 unmanageable, it usually happens that these two 
 centre reins slip, and the leaders get far over to 
 the left. For this, the remedy, for the moment, is 
 to take these two reins in front with the right hand, 
 and pull the team up by them, which will, at least, 
 have the result of getting the horses straight and 
 of keeping them in the road. 
 
 With new reins, this slipping is a frequent trouble. 
 
 Stopping ; Pulling-Up. — In stopping straight, — 
 that is, not inclining to the right nor to the left, 
 — it is only necessary to put the right hand on all 
 the reins, with the third finger between the near 
 and off pairs of reins, and to pull slowly with 
 both hands, raising'- the left higher than the right 
 (Fig. 146). 
 
 The right hand must be put far enough forward 
 to enable it to be brought back the distance neces- 
 sary to stop the team without disturbing the posi- 
 tion of the body, but it should not be advanced so 
 far, as to require the body to lean forward to make 
 the motion. Above all, in pulling-up, the coach- 
 man should never lean backward, but he may 
 straighten his legs ; all the pull should be taken 
 without moving the body, and by raising the left 
 hand and lowering the right. If this cannot be 
 
CH. XIV 
 
 STOPPING 
 
 325 
 
 done, it shows that the reins have been too loose 
 before commencing to pull-up. 
 
 With very free leaders it is sometimes well to 
 bring- them back a little before making - a halt, since 
 the wheelers can then more readily stop the coach 
 at the last moment ; but this must be done with 
 caution ; if the leaders stop too soon, the pole will 
 
 Fig. 146. stopping. 
 
 run into them, the coachman not always remember- 
 ing that the coach keeps running on. This should 
 be especially borne in mind at a place where the 
 horses expect to stop, as at a change, or at the 
 end of a drive, when the leaders will often want 
 to stop before the exact spot is reached, and the 
 slightest check to them then will precipitate their 
 action. Pulling-up with the leaders huddled back 
 
^26 STOPPING CH. XIV 
 
 
 
 upon the bars and the point of the pole, is ex- 
 tremely awkward. 
 
 In stopping, and at the same time inclining to one 
 side, as in coming from the middle of the street to 
 the sidewalk, a point should be taken with the two 
 reins on the proper side (Figs. 136, 137), and the 
 right hand kept free to use the whip. This is 
 especially necessary in coming up to an accustomed 
 stopping place, since some one of the horses is 
 likely to stop too soon and may require to be 
 touched with the whip. At the moment of stop- 
 ping, the right hand can be placed on the reins in 
 front of the points to finish the movement, and the 
 points then allowed to slip out. 
 
 The stop should not be made abruptly, but the 
 coach should glide to its place and come to rest, 
 with a gradual diminution of speed, exactly at the 
 proper spot. Coming up at full speed and pulling 
 the horses on their haunches, is bad coaching, and 
 happily has pretty much gone out of fashion, even 
 with pair-horse coachmen. A coach is a heavy 
 vehicle for two horses to stop by the back of their 
 necks, — for the leaders can do nothing to assist, 
 — and if it runs on beyond its place the conse- 
 quences may be disastrous, especially on wood or 
 asphalt pavement, which is apt to be slippery. Too 
 much speed in coming up may necessitate the use 
 of the brake, which is very 'bad form,' because 
 it shows that the coachman cannot stop the coach 
 with his horses. The rattle, sometimes heard at a 
 
CH. XIV GETTING DOWN 327 
 
 halt, of the brake-handle over the teeth of the 
 rack, is enough to set those of a coaching man on 
 edge. 
 
 Getting Down. — After the coach has come to 
 rest, the brake should be put on very quietly and as 
 hard as possible (see discussion of this, further on), 
 and the coachman, shifting his reins to the right 
 hand, in which he retains his whip, should get down 
 immediately, in exactly the reverse way from that in 
 which he got up. He tucks his reins, all kept closely 
 together, into the tug-buckle bearer, in the manner 
 shown in Fig. 127, and lays his whip across the 
 backs of the wheelers behind the pads. 
 
 He should get down immediately, because there is 
 nothing more for him to do on the box, and because 
 the head groom, or the guard, has to wait for him 
 to do so, before putting up the ladder for the pas- 
 sengers to descend. On a public-coach, the profes- 
 sional coachman who is to drive away from the 
 office, should be standing at the wheelers' off side 
 as the coach comes up and receive the reins and 
 whip from the person who has been driving, but the 
 horse-keeper should not do so ; he ought to be at 
 the wheelers' heads. With a private coach, if the 
 head coachman has come from the stable to drive 
 the coach away, it is he who receives the reins and 
 whip, and, keeping them in his hand, mounts the 
 box as soon as the people are all off the coach. 
 If the head coachman has been on the coach, or is 
 
o 
 
 28 GETTING DOWN CH. XIV 
 
 occupied with the ladder, or if one of the grooms is 
 to drive away, the reins remain tucked into the 
 harness until they are taken out by the person who 
 is to drive away, and, if they have been kept to- 
 gether when tucked in, they can be seized exactly in 
 their proper places when taken up (p. 287). 
 
 There is a difference of opinion among authorities 
 as to whether the brake should be put on after the 
 coach stops, on a level ; all agree that it should be 
 on if a coach is standing on an up or down grade. 
 I must express myself strongly in favour of putting 
 it on after stopping, since there are good reasons 
 in favour of so doing- and none that seems to me 
 of any real force, against it. 
 
 In getting down from a coach, the passengers 
 cause a little shaking of the vehicle, which is apt to 
 produce a slight forward movement, and this, com- 
 municated to the horses, causes them to step for- 
 ward, with the result of displacing the ladder while 
 some one may be descending ; this, the brake pre- 
 vents. At a change, the coachman is on the ground 
 and frequently women only are left on the top of the 
 coach. The consequences, should the horses get 
 away under these circumstances, might be frightful, 
 and they are very much less likely to do so with the 
 brake on. At a change, the wheelers just put-to, 
 ma) - push over the horse-keeper at their heads, or 
 there may be some carelessness in holding them. 
 Several instances are on record of accidents of this 
 kind, and I once witnessed one, fortunately attended 
 
CH. XIV TAKING DOWN THE WHIP 329 
 
 with no serious results, which made a deep im- 
 pression upon me. For a public-coach, there should 
 always be a block with a long handle, ready to be 
 put under the wheel, at the changes, but this is 
 sometimes forgotten, and a habit of putting on the 
 brake diminishes danger. The only reason for not 
 putting it on appears to be that it is thought to 
 look rather slow. 
 
 Corbett (p. 55) says, apropos of an accident 
 which happened from the horses' running away from 
 a change place at Colchester, July 1839 : ' Probably 
 ' this accident would not have occurred if the coach 
 ' had been fitted with a brake, which the coachman 
 4 ought to put on tight before leaving his box.' 
 
 What should be done with the whip, on getting 
 down, is also a good deal discussed. On some 
 public-coaches the coachman throws it across the 
 horses' backs before getting down ; this requires 
 practice, and the whip is very likely to fall on the 
 ground, and get muddv, or broken ; on others, the 
 coachman throws it to a man waiting to receive it. 
 It ought not to be put into the whip socket, or 
 bucket, which indeed many coaches very properly 
 are without. In the socket, it is in the way of get- 
 ting up and down, and is likely to be broken by 
 some one's taking- hold of it. It should be taken 
 down by the coachman ; and there seems, on the 
 whole, no better way of disposing of it than to lay 
 it across the wheelers' backs, unless, as has been 
 
330 OTHER METHODS OF HOLDING THE REINS CH. XIV 
 
 before mentioned, a near wheeler dislikes having 
 the thong hanging against him, in which case it must 
 be disposed of by standing it, with its butt on the 
 ground, behind, and leaning against, the lamp iron 
 on the off side of the coach. 
 
 At a change, it is usually kept in the hand, unless 
 the coachman assists with the horses. 
 
 Other Methods of Holding the Reins. — The 
 method of holding the reins and of fingering, thus 
 far described, may be properly called the EnglisJi 
 method, since, with slight variations, it is that which 
 has been in use in England for at least a century, 
 the only essential change having been the substitu- 
 tion of the lone wheel-rein for the short one, de- 
 scribed on p. 229. Although this method is accepted 
 as the best, there are others which should be noticed. 
 
 Fig. 147. FULL HAND. 
 
 In what is called the 'full hand,' Fig. 147, the 
 order of the reins is the same as in the Enolish 
 method, but instead of there being- two reins be- 
 
CH. XIV 
 
 CONTINENTAL METHODS 
 
 TIT 
 JO 1 
 
 ITALIAN VETTURINO. 
 
 ITALIAN VETTURINO. 
 
 tween the first and second fingers there is a rein 
 in each space. The reins are 
 entirely separated, but the off 
 wheel-rein, on top of the little 
 finger, is not firmly held owing 
 to the want of strength in that 
 finger, which is a serious objec- 
 tion to the method. This used 
 to be the manner of holding the 
 reins in France not long ago, 
 and is given as being the proper 
 way, in Montigny's Manuel, pub- 
 lished in 1865. 
 
 Among the professional coach- 
 men of Switzerland and Italy, 
 where there is a great deal of 
 four-horse driving- to diligences 
 and private travelling-carriages, 
 many varieties of fingering can 
 be seen, and the diagrams (Fig. 
 148) show several methods which 
 are certainly widely different ; it 
 will be noticed, however, that in 
 none of them is there a rein over 
 the little finger. The reins are 
 never used in both hands except 
 for some momentary purpose. 
 
 The two Italians (whose meth- 
 ods are illustrated by diagrams 
 A and B) are experienced drivers and masters of 
 
 © 
 
 DILIGENCE. ST MORITZ. 
 
 D 
 
 DILIGENCE. ST MORITZ. 
 
 Fig. 148. 
 
332 
 
 CONTINENTAL METHODS 
 
 CH. XIV 
 
 their art. The arrangement of the reins shown at 
 B is the most illogical of the four ; yet it is that of 
 an extremely good coachman. 
 
 The method of the St. Moritz diligence, C (also 
 shown in Fig. 149), approaches nearest to the 
 English in having the lead-reins adjoining and the 
 wheel-reins adjoining ; in all the others, the near 
 reins are next to each other and the off reins next 
 
 Fig. 149. ST. MORITZ DILIGENCE. 
 
 to each other ; in the American method (see suc- 
 ceeding pages) this latter arrangement is adopted, 
 as is inevitable in all two-handed driving. In the 
 English method more importance is attached to 
 being able to regulate the work of the two pairs 
 of horses, and of all the methods, it is the best 
 adapted to fine work, inasmuch as the reins are 
 in the positions most convenient for making the 
 points both for the leaders alone, and for leaders 
 and wheelers combined, and for taking off the 
 lead-reins in order to equalise the work of the 
 horses. 
 
CH. XIV AMERICAN METHOD 7,3$ 
 
 As an instance of how many different ways of 
 doing the same thing may be suggested, the follow- 
 ing method given in Jouffret's Conduite en Guides 
 deserves mention : The near lead-rein is over the 
 first finger, the end coming out in front, between 
 that finder and the next ; the near wheel is on the 
 second finger, coming out in front, below that finger ; 
 the off lead-rein is over the third, and the off wheel 
 over the little finger, both reins hanging down. A 
 worse arrangement of the reins for any useful pur- 
 pose it would be difficult to imagine. 
 
 In Walker's Manly Exercises, ed. 1835, a plate 
 by Alkex shows the near lead and the near wheel- 
 reins together on top of the fore-finger, but another 
 plate in the same edition shows them in the accepted 
 position, although the back of the hand is horizontal 
 instead of vertical. The first drawing is possibly a 
 mistake of the artist or the engraver ; there is no 
 mention of that method in the text. 
 
 American Method. — An American stage-driver 
 holds his reins in the manner shown in Figs. 1 50 
 and 151. The near lead-rein is on top of, and 
 the near wheel-rein underneath, the fourth finger 
 of the left hand, the ends coming up in the hand 
 and falline backward over the thumb. The off 
 lead-rein is on top of, and the off wheel-rein un- 
 derneath, the second finger of the right hand, 
 the ends hanoine downward in the interior of the 
 hand. 
 
5 34 
 
 OvV 
 
 AMERICAN METHOD 
 
 CH. XIV 
 
 When the coachman wishes to take all the reins 
 in one hand, or to ' club' them, he passes those in 
 
 FlG. 150. AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 FlG. 151. AMERICAN METHOD. 
 
 his ri^ht hand into his left, so that the off lead-rein 
 
CH. XIV AMERICAN METHOD 335 
 
 is on top of, and the off wheel-rein underneath, the 
 first finger, the ends hanging down through the 
 hand. The reins in this way cross in the hand, and 
 can be pressed upon each other very tightly so as 
 to prevent their slipping. The racing jockey often 
 crosses the reins in his hand in the same way. With 
 thick fur gloves, such as are worn by stage-drivers 
 in the mountains in winter, this hold of the reins is 
 strong without being fatiguing. 
 
 For six horses, in the American fashion, the 
 order is as follows : in the left hand, the near wheel 
 under the fourth fino-er, the near swino- under the 
 third, and the near lead under the second, the ends 
 P'oing up ; in the right hand, the off lead over the 
 first fino-er, the off swino- over the second, and the 
 off wheel over the third, the ends hanging down. 
 
 The American stage-driver drives habitually with 
 both hands, the whip being held in the right, close 
 to the butt, and resting on the reins. 
 
 In turning a long corner the near or off reins are 
 frequently pulled to the proper side without changing 
 their relative lengths, an operation called ' chop- 
 ping' ; but in turning sharper corners, the hands 
 are brought near together, and with the thumb and 
 finger of one hand, the lead-rein on the proper side 
 is shortened by pushing or pulling it back ; it being 
 allowed to slip out after the turn is completed. 
 This serves the same purpose as making a point. 
 
 If the road is bad or up-hill and the turn not very 
 sharp, chopping is generally used, as it does not 
 
t -<f\ 
 
 SIX HORSES 
 
 CH. XIV 
 
 take the leaders back, but permits them to pull 
 through the whole turn. 
 
 For the same reason, a coachman turning on a 
 steep place will let out the rein of the leader on 
 the outer-side of the turn, instead of taking up the 
 inner-side rein, so as to permit the leaders to do 
 still more work (see p. 320). 
 
 For further comments upon the American method, 
 see Chapter XX. 
 
 Fingering for Six Horses. — With six horses, ac- 
 cording to the English method, the reins are held as 
 shown in Fig. 152 ; the lead-reins and those of the 
 swing, or middle horses, in the same places as those 
 
 Fig. 152. 
 
 SIX HORSES. 
 
 of the leaders and wheelers of four horses, and 
 those of the wheelers, which may be considered as 
 a pair added, are placed below all the others, on 
 the two sides of the third finger. The lead points 
 are made exactly as with four horses, and if the 
 
 
CH. XIV TURNING AND BACKING $57 
 
 swing-reins require pointing, it is done in their 
 proper spaces. In fact, usually only the lead and 
 wheel horses are driven ; the swing horses follow in 
 their proper places, of necessity, although in making 
 sharp turns they sometimes require guiding. 
 
 For six-horse driving the leaders must work 
 evenly and be quite free, since they cannot be 
 reached by the whip. In making a turn they must 
 be held back somewhat, but, if a chain is used be- 
 tween the swing horses instead of a pole (see p. 
 278), they must not be so held back as to permit the 
 bars to drop too low. 
 
 When more than four horses are required, three 
 harnessed abreast on the lead, with two at the wheel, 
 will do nearly as much work as three pairs, because 
 more easily handled. 
 
 Turning and Backing. — The space in which a 
 coach and four horses can be turned, depends on 
 the angle at which the fore carriage will lock, and 
 on the length of the perch. The angle of lock is that 
 made by the pole with the centre line of the coach, 
 when the front wheel is turned as far as it will go 
 against the body, or against the stop which prevents 
 it from touching the body. In a coach, it is usually 
 about twenty degrees, rarely as much as twenty-two. 
 The larger it is, the smaller the circle in which the 
 coach will turn. 
 
 As breaks are built of many different patterns, 
 their angles of lock vary, but they usually lock much 
 
 22 
 
1 1 
 
 8 
 
 ANGLE OF LOCK 
 
 CH. XIV 
 
 further round than a coach, and consequently can 
 be turned in a smaller space. 
 
 By the following method the angle of lock of a 
 coach is found by a simple measurement, without 
 any computation : — 
 
 Place the coach on a level floor and block the 
 hind wheels, put the pole in its place, and mark 
 upon it a point ii ft. 8 in. (140 inches) from the 
 perch-bolt. With a pole of the usual length this 
 point will be near its end. Put the fore-carriage 
 hard on the lock (Fig. 153), and with a plumb-bob, 
 
 
 Fig. 153. 
 
 or any convenient substitute therefor, drop a line 
 to the floor from the point marked on the pole 
 and mark that spot on the floor ; then, taking care 
 not to disturb the position of the hind wheels, 
 put the fore-carriage on the other lock and mark 
 on the floor the spot vertically under the point 
 on the pole ; measure the direct distance between 
 the two marks ; the angle given in the following 
 Table, opposite to that distance, is the angle of 
 lock. 
 
CH. XIV 
 
 ANGLE OF LOCK 
 
 339 
 
 Example : The first position of the pole being 
 indicated by the black lines, and the second by the 
 dotted lines, the coarse dotted line will be the 
 distance, = 8 feet, and the angle of lock will be 20 
 degrees on each side of the central position of the 
 pole. 
 
 Table for Angle of Lock. Point on Pole ii Ft. 8 In. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 6 
 
 O 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 isy 2 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 i5# 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 1 1 
 
 22 y 2 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 19^ 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 2 3 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 16^ 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 23^ 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 20^ 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 17^ 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 ■2-AYz 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 21}^ 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 The length of the perch also affects the space in 
 which the coach will turn : the shorter the perch the 
 less will be the width required. 
 
 The following Table shows how much the diam- 
 eter of the circle made by the outer front wheel is 
 affected by different angles, and lengths of perch : — 
 
 Perch 6 Ft. 6 In. 
 
 Angle of lock 
 
 Diameter of circle, ft. in. . . . 
 
 20° 
 
 43 ° 
 
 22° 
 
 39 9 
 
 24° 
 37 1 
 
 30° 
 3i 
 
 Perch 6 Feet. 
 
 Diameter of circle, ft. in. . . . 
 
 20° 
 
 40 1 
 
 22° 
 36 11 
 
 24° 
 34 9 
 
 30° 
 29 
 
34° TURNING AND BACKING CH. XIV 
 
 With a coach locking at an angle of 20 degrees 
 and having a perch 6 ft. 6 in. long, a turn can be 
 made in a street which measures 44 feet in width 
 without the outside leader touching the kerb ; if 
 the leaders are pulled well to the inside of the 
 turn before reaching the kerb, it may be done in 
 a few inches less. 
 
 Fig. A, Plate XXVIII., * shows the tracks of the 
 wheels and the position of the horses' feet in such a 
 turn. The dotted lines are the tracks of the front 
 wheels and the full lines those of the hind wheels ; 
 the round foot-prints those of the fore-feet and the 
 longer ones those of the hind-feet. 
 
 If there were no leaders, the space required would 
 be only a few inches less. 
 
 To turn in a road of less width than 44 feet, 
 backing must be resorted to, and the narrowest 
 street in which a turn can be made with a coach 
 that locks at the usual angle, 20 degrees, is 24 feet 
 between the kerbs. 
 
 The manoeuvre must be executed as follows : — 
 
 The coach should be brought into a position 
 about 16 feet from the off side kerb and parallel 
 
 * The diameter of the circle in which a coach will turn may be 
 thus found. In Fig. A, the lines of the front and hind axles, when 
 on the lock, meet in the centre of the circle, the perch is the sine of 
 the angle of lock, and the distance from the perch-bolt to the centre 
 is the radius, to which half the length of the axle must be added to 
 get the radius of the circle of the outside front wheel. The angle 
 of lock is the same as the angle at the centre. 
 
PLATE XXVIII 
 
 TURNING DIAGRAMS 
 
CH. XIV TURNING AND BACKING 34 1 
 
 to it (Fig. B, Plate XXVIII.), the horses turned to 
 the right until the coach is on the lock, and then 
 backed until the hind wheels touch the kerb, which 
 they will both do if the coach has been kept hard on 
 the lock. The leaders must then be drawn to the 
 left, and, in a street 24 feet wide, they can pass 
 the kerb without touching it. As the leaders can 
 be brought back more than a foot behind the posi- 
 tion which they occupy when straightened out, it is 
 possible to squeeze round in 23 feet. About the 
 time that the leaders reach the kerb, the wheelers 
 must be pulled to the left, not letting them go for- 
 ward until the coach is hard on the other lock, and 
 the leaders having been kept turning, the coach can 
 then be drawn off in the new direction, which will 
 be parallel to the kerb and 16 feet from it. 
 
 In making a turn in this way, the coach is backed 
 through an entire quarter circle. If the street is 
 wider, say 30 feet, it is better to draw close to 
 the right-hand kerb, and then to drive obliquely 
 across the street (Fig. C, Plate XXVIII.) nearly 
 on the left lock, until the leaders' feet reach the 
 kerb ; the coach will stand partly across the street. 
 Then putting the horses over to the right until the 
 coach is on the right lock, they are backed until the 
 hind wheels touch the kerb, which they will soon 
 do, since before beginning to back, the coach was 
 already partly in the proper position. In a 30-foot 
 street it will be necessary to back through less than 
 an eighth of a circle instead of a whole quarter, 
 
342 TURNING AND BACKING CH. XIV 
 
 which is important, since the majority of horses dis- 
 like backing ; they have also to back only on a part 
 of the street which inclines toward the gutter, so 
 that the coach runs down-hill. 
 
 In Fig. C, the leaders could be brought back 
 somewhat more on approaching the kerb, so that 
 the coach could go further on, and then on being 
 backed, it would come more nearly square to the 
 kerb behind it. The letter ' a' shows the first posi- 
 tion of the horses; 'b,' the second position just 
 before backing. 
 
 When, therefore, the street is only 24 feet wide, 
 the movement must be commenced parallel to the 
 kerb and about 16 feet from it, in order to get 
 round, but for a width of 30 feet or more, it is better 
 to brine the coach somewhat across the road before 
 going on the lock, so as to diminish the distance 
 through which it must be backed ; in a width of 
 less than 30 feet there is no advantage in obliquing 
 across the road, since the coach will not go far enough 
 away from the kerb (on account of the leaders' 
 reaching the other side) to back square against it, 
 and the movement would have to be repeated. 
 
 If the coachman, starting to make a simple turn 
 in a 44-foot street, finds that he is not going to get 
 round without backing, he should commence his 
 backing movement as early as possible, so as to get 
 the advantage of the slope of the side of the road. 
 It is difficult for the horses to back a coach up even 
 a slight grade. 
 
CH. XIV TURNING AND BACKING 343 
 
 In the movements thus described, the coach is 
 supposed to be put on the lock by one movement 
 of the front axle from a straight line, but in turning 
 into a curve from a straight line, until the constant 
 angle Q f the axles is reached, the hind wheels will 
 follow the front ones, not in a circle, but in a 
 curve called the ' tractrix,' because it results from 
 their being drawn by the front wheels by means 
 of the perch, and, on returning from a circle to a 
 straieht line, it will be some time after the front 
 wheels have taken the straight line before the hind 
 wheels will take it. The further apart the axles 
 are, the more marked this will be, and this is a 
 reason why a long geared carriage, like a landau, 
 runs harder than a short one, after making a turn, 
 the hind wheels coming into the straight line very 
 slowly. 
 
 In backing movements, the mistake is usually 
 made of not turning the front wheels enough to 
 one side, and the coach does not, therefore, in its 
 movement, respond to the expectations of the 
 coachman. 
 
 In driving up to a door, it may be desirable to 
 back into a positio'n closer to the kerb than could 
 be taken at first, owing to some obstacle's being in 
 the way, and it will be found, that unless a very 
 decided anele is made with the front wheels, the 
 result will be unsatisfactory and very little ground 
 will have been gained in the proper direction. 
 
 Should there be an obstruction on the street at a 
 
344 TURNING AND BACKING CH. XIV 
 
 point which must be passed just before reaching a 
 door, the best way is to drive beyond the obstruc- 
 tion, eoingf close to it, and to draw in to the kerb 
 as soon as possible, gradually bringing the horses 
 parallel to the kerb. When all four wheels are 
 parallel to the kerb the coach can be backed straight 
 into its place. 
 
 If, for example, the obstacle projects 6 feet into 
 the street and is 10 feet from the centre of the 
 door, the hind wheels will have to go 20 feet be- 
 yond the obstacle before they will come straight, 
 and the coach must then be backed 14 feet to 
 bring it opposite the centre of the door. 
 
 In backing the horses, they should not be forcibly 
 pulled back, but they should be gathered, by slight, 
 varying pressures, not exactly jerks, and not by a 
 dead pull, and in turning the leaders through the 
 long sweep that they make in going from one lock 
 to the other the handling should be the same ; a 
 dead pull would bring them back ; they should be 
 coaxed round, as it were. 
 
 In ordinary coaching, backing round in a narrow 
 place will not be often required, but if the coach- 
 man finds himself in a road the far end of which 
 is closed, he will be, or should be, mortified if he 
 is not able to turn around promptly and gracefully 
 without help from his grooms, or uncertainty as to 
 the result ; there are sometimes long stretches of 
 road without places sufficiently wide to turn, in the 
 ordinary way, in which the coachman may have to 
 
CH. XIV DRIVING APPARATUS 345 
 
 drive helplessly on when he knows that he should 
 have turned round long before to get his load home 
 in time for dinner. 
 
 At race-courses, country-clubs, and similar places 
 it is frequently necessary to back the coach into 
 position under a shed, or in an enclosure of small 
 size, and although that operation usually falls to the 
 lot of the professional coachman or groom, it is to 
 be assumed that the owner will not expect his ser- 
 vant to do anything of that kind which he himself 
 cannot do as well, or better, and he may be assured 
 that no small amount of practice and judgement is 
 required to accomplish the feat even moderately 
 well, — which may also be said of moving a carriage 
 without horses, in a coach house ; some coachmen 
 do it with quickness and certainty, and others only 
 after many failures. 
 
 Driving Apparatus. — A little device designed by 
 me in 1892, will be found convenient for practising 
 and for illustrating methods of fingering. 
 
 Two pulleys, each with two rollers, have hooks 
 by which they can be attached to eyes screwed into 
 any convenient wood-work, or to clamps fastened 
 on the edge of a heavy table, or on the balustrade 
 of a piazza. 
 
 Over these pulleys, straps an inch in width, repre- 
 senting the reins, are passed. Each strap termi- 
 nates in a ring, to which is hooked a wire stem, 
 long enough to carry eight weights of one pound 
 
346 
 
 DRIVING APPARATUS 
 
 CH. XIV 
 
 each. In Fig. 154, two pounds are represented as 
 on each rein. 
 
 One pound barely keeps the rein tight. 
 
 Two pounds on each rein represent the pull of a 
 very light team. 
 
 Fig. 154. 
 
 Three pounds, a light but strong-going team that 
 will not tire a man in good condition. 
 
 Four pounds, as much as is at all pleasant for a 
 long drive. 
 
 Five pounds, too much to be pleasant, even when 
 in eood condition. 
 
CH. XIV DRIVING APPARATUS 347 
 
 Above five pounds represents a lugging team, 
 and with eight pounds, or, in all, thirty-two pounds, 
 a man's arm would soon give out. 
 
 Since seventy pounds is a fair tractive force for 
 a coach, on a good road, it often happens with a 
 pulling team, that a large part of the traction is 
 throuoh the reins and the coachman's arms ; in 
 speaking of the strength required to hold a team, 
 it must be remembered that no man on the box can 
 exert more strength than the amount required to 
 draw the coach, for as soon as that is reached, the 
 horses draw wholly by their mouths instead of by 
 their shoulders, and the coachman's arms merely 
 take the place of traces. 
 
 In using the apparatus, the conical weight should 
 be put on top, to prevent the weights from catching 
 on each other as they move up and down. 
 
 In discussing methods of fingering, this apparatus 
 is convenient, since all the movements of the hand 
 and fingers can be made, exactly as they are made 
 on the coach-box. Any new fingering can be, by 
 practice, easily acquired, and when one has not 
 been driving for a time, the fingers and arm can be 
 brought into condition by a little daily work with 
 heavy weights. 
 
 The space between the lower roller and the 
 smooth round pin which connects the sides of the 
 frame, permits the addition of a third rein in case 
 practice in six-horse driving is desired. 
 
 Several interesting little matters, such as the 
 
348 DRIVING APPARATUS CH. XIV 
 
 tendency of certain reins to slip more than others, 
 will be discovered by the expert in practising with 
 the weights. 
 
 This apparatus can be simplified by substituting 
 for the pulleys and weights, india-rubber bands, 
 such as are sold by stationers for packages of 
 papers. Such a band, five-eighths of an inch wide, 
 and of a thickness of fourteen to the inch, will, 
 when somewhat stretched, give a resistance of 
 about a pound, and any number may be attached 
 to the end of the rein. This makes the apparatus 
 portable, and a hundred or more pulls upon it 
 every morning, when one has no opportunity of 
 driving, will keep the fingers and the arm in good 
 condition. 
 
ch. xv 349 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON DRIVING 
 
 Although a boy may acquire confidence and 
 learn a great deal about horses and driving, by 
 ' knocking about' and finding out things for himself, 
 the beginner should not fail to take lessons from the 
 most competent teacher that he can find. That man 
 who thinks he can deduce from his ' inner conscious- 
 ness' all the knowledge which is the result of the 
 long experience, and the accumulated ingenuity, of 
 generations of performers, is assuming a great deal. 
 Every art is perfected by the successive inventions 
 of its masters, which, observed by or communicated 
 to one another, are slowly formed into a system 
 much more perfect than it is possible for any one 
 man to create for himself. A self-taught man inevi- 
 tably contracts bad habits which he will find very 
 difficult to abandon, even when he knows the better 
 way, and the longer he drives without competent 
 criticism the more fixed these bad habits become. 
 
 There is no teacher so good as a professional 
 teacher ; he is paid to do what even a very skilful 
 friend is not willing: to do : — find fault, in addition to 
 giving instruction. A pupil should make up his 
 mind to do precisely what his instructor tells him, 
 as long as he is driving with him ; to drive with a 
 
350 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON DRIVING CH. XV 
 
 teacher and to be constantly objecting to or criti- 
 cising his methods is a mistake, although not an 
 uncommon one. 
 
 In addition to taking all the regular lessons that 
 he can get, the beginner will find it greatly to his 
 advantage to observe carefully any skilful performer 
 alongside of whom it may be his good fortune to be 
 placed ; even when a man is well advanced, he will 
 often learn much by watching another who does not 
 drive as well as himself, if only by noticing mistakes. 
 
 The time required to become a fairly good four- 
 in-hand coachman will depend upon a variety of 
 circumstances. If the beginner is young and strong, 
 and has already had a good deal of experience with 
 horses, two or three months of conscientious work 
 under a good teacher will put him well on the way, 
 but only years of practice will make him a master 
 of the art. 
 
 It must be remembered that there are two parts 
 in all driving ; one is general, relating to everything 
 connected with the management of horses ; it is the 
 same, whether one, two, or four are in hand, and 
 may be likened to general strategy ; the second 
 resembles tactics, and must be separately learned 
 in every branch of the service. A movement well 
 planned and well executed is likely to be successful ; 
 one well planned but badly executed is doubtful ; 
 one badly planned but well executed may come out 
 right, but one badly planned and badly executed is 
 sure to be a failure. 
 
CH. XV GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON DRIVING 35 I 
 
 No experience in general practice is thrown away ; 
 a mere knowledge of how to finger four reins in the 
 most accurate manner does not make a coachman ; 
 and a man who has not been brought up among 
 horses, and acquired his general knowledge through 
 rough-and-tumble methods at the time in youth when 
 discretion does not outweigh rashness, will find it 
 difficult, even under the most favourable circum- 
 stances, to attain the highest proficiency, since he 
 will be likely to lack that confidence and coolness 
 which are of the first importance to a good coachman. 
 
 It is for this reason that the old professional 
 coachmen of England were so admirable : put to 
 their work when boys, sometimes under pretty rough 
 masters, they early became familiar with all the de- 
 tails of a complicated art, and acquired an instinc- 
 tive method of meeting every difficulty. Instinctive 
 is the proper expression, because there is frequently 
 no time to think, — the action must be quicker almost 
 than the thought, like the closing of an eye against 
 a missile, independent of any conscious intention. 
 
 One reason for beginning in the right way is, that 
 having adopted a method, it is most important to 
 adhere to it, and obviously no one should wish to 
 adhere for ever to a bad method. Unless a coach- 
 man has a way which has almost become a second 
 nature of doing each thing, he is likely to be con- 
 fused in an emergency, by trying to do two different 
 things at once, and failing in both. 
 
 It will be found that competent professional 
 
352 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON DRIVING CH. XV 
 
 teachers usually have an absolutely fixed way of 
 doing each thing, and are intolerant of any deviation 
 from it, which is only natural, since they cannot 
 teach with authority anything in which they have 
 not an implicit belief. 
 
 One often hears coachmen, those especially who 
 are devoted to public-coach work, speak sneeringly of 
 what they consider ' fancy' four-in-hand driving, such 
 as backing round in narrow places and turning 
 difficult corners, and insist that to go ahead on a 
 reasonably plain road is the only duty of a coach ; 
 and when asked what they would do in a difficult 
 situation they will answer that a coach has no 
 business to be in that kind of a place. The accom- 
 plished coachman, however, will hardly be willing 
 thus to restrict himself, and will prefer to be able 
 to execute all movements which are mechanically 
 possible. 
 
 As the temperaments of men differ, so will their 
 methods of driving : one man, with great skill and 
 a somewhat rash disposition, will not hesitate to 
 take great chances, confident that he can get out 
 of a 'scrape,' which he will probably do in a bril- 
 liant manner ; another, with good judgement and 
 foresight, will attain his end without o-ettincr into the 
 difficulty at all. In the long run, the latter method 
 is preferable, as it is usually better to keep out of a 
 ' fix' than to get out. 
 
 The coachman should train himself to be a good 
 judge of pace : some men never know how fast 
 
CH. XV JUDGEMENT OF PACE 353 
 
 they are going, and either lose time, or overwork 
 their cattle. Four horses to a coach, on a good 
 road, get over the ground faster than they seem to 
 do, to an unpractised observer. In driving a public- 
 coach over an unknown road, as is sometimes the 
 good fortune of a coachman, all that he can know 
 ol a stage is, that it is so many miles, to be done in 
 so many minutes, with a hint that there is such a 
 part up-hill and such a part down-hill ; and, unless 
 he is able to judge accurately of the rate at which 
 he is going, he must do the stage badly, arriving at 
 the end of it either too early or too late. Various 
 suggestions are made as to the means of estimating- 
 the speed, such as looking at the wheels, &c. ; but 
 the only true way is to acquire, by careful observa- 
 tion, a knowledge of the manner in which horses of 
 different qualities and sizes go at a certain pace, 
 whereupon the ability to judge will come insensibly. 
 Perfect judgement in this respect is not given to all 
 men, and in race-riding it is justly considered one of 
 the most important and one of the rarest qualities 
 that jockeys possess. 
 
 Of importance, also, in a minor way, is the ability 
 to decide upon how much time will be required to 
 cover a certain amount of road in attempting to 
 overtake and pass a vehicle, so as not to be forced, 
 after commencing such a movement, to pull up, 
 when half through it, in order to permit something 
 coming in the opposite direction to go by. 
 
 Galloping the horses to a coach may be resorted 
 
 23 
 
354 GALLOPING CH. XV 
 
 to, either for the pleasure of the motion, or because 
 with a team, some of the horses of which cannot 
 trot fast enough, it is better to gallop them all than 
 to permit only one or two to do so ; horses which 
 will not trot evenly can often be made to share the 
 work equally by galloping them all together. 
 
 A horse cannot trot at the top of his speed without 
 soon becoming distressed, whereas he can gallop 
 the same number of miles an hour, still going within 
 his speed, since the majority of horses can gallop 
 faster than they can trot. A gallop rests him, and 
 a tired horse will break into a gallop much slower 
 than his ordinary trot. 
 
 In galloping, except down-hill, the leaders' traces 
 should be kept tight, because their pulling on the 
 point of the pole will keep the coach straighter 
 than if the wheel horses alone pull by the splinter- 
 bar, when the coach is apt to swerve about and get 
 to swinging from one side of the road to the other. 
 What is called rolling, in a coach, commences in 
 this way, the lateral motion soon inducing a rocking 
 motion of the body, which may cause an overturn 
 if it becomes too great. Care must be taken, 
 therefore, that all the horses, and especially the 
 wheelers, gallop evenly ; as a rule, while the horses 
 must be sufficiently steadied by the reins, they 
 should not be held too tightly, especially if, as in 
 the case of galloping to make time, they are doing 
 nearly their best. In galloping, great caution must 
 be exercised that the team does not get ahead of 
 
CH. XV GALLOPING 355 
 
 the coachman ; for no man can stop four good 
 horses on a level road, if once they get beyond 
 his control. At the slightest indication that this is 
 about to happen, they must be pulled down to a 
 slower pace, without a moment's hesitation. What 
 these indications are it is difficult to describe, but 
 the experienced coachman recognises them by a 
 kind of instinct ; to the inexperienced man they 
 frequently come too late. 
 
 Should the horses get away, on a road which has 
 no traffic on it, and which can be seen for some 
 distance ahead, there is one remedy which sounds 
 somewhat desperate, but which, in good hands, is 
 the proper one : this is, not only to let them go, but 
 to urge them on, all the energy of the driver being 
 concentrated on guiding them ; pulling on them will 
 only exhaust him, and with no result. Horses, un- 
 less they are frightened, and therefore crazy, will 
 not run far at the top of their speed, pulling a coach 
 with the brake on, but they must be made to go at 
 the very top of their speed, or they will not tire 
 soon enough. If the coachman, when he finds that 
 they are beginning to slacken their speed, has the 
 good fortune still to have a piece of unobstructed 
 road ahead of him, he may give them a little of the 
 whip all round, when the pace will soon take out 
 of them all desire to run further, and they can be 
 stopped with the impression on their minds, that 
 they have been made to do something disagreeable 
 and fatiguing, which was not by any means fun. 
 
356 GALLOPING CH. XV 
 
 If nothing is broken, nor has hurt or fricditened 
 the horses, a runaway thus managed will not injure 
 them for future driving ; but it will be prudent to 
 take them carefully over that particular bit of road 
 on any future occasion ; they may think that they 
 are expected to repeat the performance, and a horse 
 has a good memory. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the chance of 
 success in the application of this method depends 
 entirely upon the horses being driven all the time 
 that they are running ; if they are allowed to get 
 out of hand and to gallop along, each one on his own 
 account, a leader or a wheeler may come back on 
 his bar, and get to kicking, with every probability of 
 a general smash up. 
 
 In all this, a clear road has been assumed ; on a 
 crowded road with sharp turns, a regular runaway 
 will usually result seriously, and it is, therefore, far 
 better to avoid it than to make the best of it. This 
 is one reason for the excellent old rule of <joino- 
 
 «z> o 
 
 slowly off the top of a hill ; since pulling horses are 
 frequently inclined to start off suddenly when they 
 are relieved of the weight of the coach, and then to 
 get beyond control. 
 
 Horses will sometimes run away at a trot ; that is, 
 without breaking into a gallop, they will get beyond 
 the control of the coachman long before it may 
 appear to any but an expert observer that they are 
 so. 
 
 It may be remarked that galloping is not always 
 
CH. XV USE OF THE BRAKE 357 
 
 faster than trotting, although it usually looks so ; 
 it is quite easy to gallop a team at a slower pace 
 than their best trot. 
 
 Coachmen differ much in the use that they make 
 of the brake, and it would be difficult to lay down 
 positive rules about it. The brake should not be 
 used for stopping, except to avoid an accident under 
 some unexpected circumstances ; on a steep descent 
 it should be put on hard enough to take most of the 
 strain off of the pole-chains, and on a long hill which 
 is not steep (say about three per cent., that is, one 
 foot rise in thirty-three) it should be put on lightly, 
 so that the horses can go along at a good speed 
 without having to pull or to hold back ; toward the 
 foot of an incline the end of which turns, or cannot 
 be distinctly seen, it is well to have the brake a little 
 on, both to moderate the pace and to be prepared 
 for an emergency. 
 
 It is a bad plan to use the brake so much that the 
 horses get out of the habit of holding - back, since 
 upon occasion it is of great importance that they 
 should be able and willing to do so. Many pro- 
 fessional four-horse coachmen on the Continent use 
 the brake to keep the traces tight in going down a 
 moderate hill, so that the horses shall be always at 
 the same distance from the hand ; but it is a bad 
 plan, both because it keeps them at work all the 
 time, and because it does not permit the collars to 
 lift from the necks, — a great relief to the wheelers 
 in warm weather. 
 
358 GROOMS GETTING DOWN CH. XV 
 
 The brake may be used, however, to advantage 
 in descending a slippery slope, even if the grade is 
 but slight ; a horse, when holding back, is apt to 
 pull away from the pole, and in that position is 
 likely to slip sideways on a smooth pavement. 
 
 The person sitting on the off side roof-seat of a 
 coach should never touch the brake unless he is 
 asked to do so by the coachman. 
 
 In driving in a crowd, the horses should always be 
 kept 'in their bridles,' or, in more exact language, 
 ' up to their bits.' If this is not done, they will not 
 respond promptly to an indication of the reins. In 
 fact, horses well driven should always go up to their 
 bits, quite a different thing from pulling or taking 
 hold too much. In crowded streets, it is quite neces- 
 sary to take care that the near leader be not struck 
 by the wheel of a carriage which, overtaking the 
 coach and passing on the left-hand side, turns in 
 too soon in front of the leaders ; unless the horses 
 are well in hand they cannot be pulled off to the 
 right quickly enough to avoid the blow. 
 
 The grooms should not get down and go to the 
 horses' heads whenever there is a block or a slight 
 stop. It indicates an habitual nervousness on the 
 part of the coachman or a want of confidence in his 
 skill, on the part of his men. There are occasions 
 when it is necessary, and then active men who can 
 get to the spot quickly, are invaluable, but the fin- 
 ished coachman rarely requires such aid. In driving 
 away from a difficult place, the men may linger a 
 
CH. XV GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON DRIVING 359 
 
 little near the horses' heads until the horses are 
 fairly started, but out of the way and without inter- 
 fering, merely so as to be at hand, should their as- 
 sistance be absolutely required ; for instance, in 
 leaving a race-course, where there is a crowd, and 
 perhaps a narrow passage or gate, and when the 
 horses are excited, by waiting, and by the people 
 around them ; but, as a rule, when three persons 
 are required to manage four horses, something is 
 wrong. 
 
 A helpless-looking man seated on the driving 
 cushion, with his whip in the socket, his reins all of 
 different degrees of tightness, with a man at each 
 leader's head, endeavouring to make way through 
 an admiring crowd, is not an edifying spectacle. 
 
 A little quick thought will sometimes get a coach- 
 man out of a difficulty. 
 
 On a certain occasion, as ..-' T ^ 
 
 f 
 
 I was driving a coach to { 
 a private race-meeting, I 
 noticed, in approaching 
 the course, that the en- 
 trance to it had been 
 made by pulling down 
 two panels of fence at a 
 corner, making a sharp 
 turn in, as shown in Fig. 155, the full black line 
 being- the track which the vehicles were expected 
 to follow. A friend asserting that it would be im- 
 possible to drive in there with a coach, I offered to 
 
 ^.. 
 
 Fig. 155. 
 
300 BITTING AND HANDLING HORSES CH. XV 
 
 bet that I could do it at a sharp trot, and, following 
 the line indicated by the dots, did so easily. Since 
 the turn was made in a ten-acre field, there was no 
 particular difficulty in the feat. 
 
 Another time, when driving a pair of strange 
 horses to a phaeton and approaching, on an upward 
 slope, a narrow gate into a park, a carriage came 
 suddenly out of the gate and made it necessary to 
 stop. Upon attempting to start up the slope, the 
 horses baulked, and refused to go on ; the groom, 
 jumping down, ran to their heads with the intention 
 of leading them, an operation which, besides being 
 awkward even if successful, would very likely have 
 led to an altercation between the horses and the 
 groom. The latter being ordered to stand aside, 
 the horses were merely turned round down the hill 
 and again turned at a distance sufficient to give 
 them some headway, and then went through the 
 gate at a trot without the slightest hesitation. 
 
 Bitting and Handling Horses for Driving. — 
 The bits described and figured in the Chapter on 
 Harness, are those most in use for driving, although 
 there are many other patterns which, for special 
 reasons, are favourites. 
 
 For saddle purposes, the bits are : first, the plain 
 snaffle, which is a jointed bit (like that shown in 
 Fig. 91), but with cheek-pieces, or horns, added to 
 the rings, so that they cannot be pulled through the 
 horse's mouth. This is the mildest form of bit, and 
 
CH. XV 
 
 BITTING 
 
 S6l 
 
 is used on race horses and sometimes on hunters. 
 With horns, and with loose rings to be attached to 
 the cheek-pieces of the bridle (Fig. 92), it is an ad- 
 mirable hunting 1 bit. Without horns and as shown 
 in Fig. 91, it is used, in a riding-bridle, as the bridoon, 
 or accompanying bit to the curb, but it then has a 
 thinner mouth-piece. Secondly, the curb-bit, which 
 for saddle purposes has lighter branches than the 
 driving-bit, with one ring at the top, to fasten it to 
 the bridle, and one ring at 
 the bottom, for the rein. 
 The mouth-piece usually 
 has the form shown in 
 Fig. 88, B, with a port or 
 liberty of the tongue. The 
 best form of this bit is 
 shown in Fig. 156, in FlG is6 
 
 which the canons of the 
 
 mouth-piece are thick and the port somewhat thin- 
 ner, so as to give room for the tongue while not 
 bringing the port too near the roof of the mouth. 
 
 In Fig. 156, the port is inclined forward, from the 
 line of the branches, so that when they take their 
 proper position under the pull of the reins, the 
 tongue will have really the most liberty, which will 
 not be the case if the port is in the same plane with 
 the branches.* 
 
 * I am tempted to add an extract from a letter written to me in 
 June 1872 by Benjamin Latchford, the well-known bit and spur 
 
362 BITTING CH. XV 
 
 Major Dwyer, in his valuable book, Seats and 
 Saddles, Bits and Bitting, gives what he considers 
 the proper dimensions of the different parts of the 
 bit, namely: i3^ inches from the under side of the 
 mouth-piece to the centre of the upper ring-, show- 
 ing clearly, that for the average horse this brings 
 the curb-chain in its proper place on the under 
 side of the jaw ; and 3^ inches for the length of 
 the lower part of the branch from the under side of 
 
 maker of London. ' Dear Sir, — Yours of 24th May last is now be- 
 ' fore me ; I have noted its contents. Mine is a lifelong experience 
 ' in, and of, the Bitting of Horses : take that for what it is worth, 
 ' and, believe me, you are the first and only one (as far as I can 
 ' recollect) that can see as I do the true position of the horse's head 
 ' with the bits, and the bits with the horses' heads. If you simply 
 ' question any breeder, trainer, breaker, hunting or driving gentle- 
 ' man, park or road rider, or jockey (as I have done hundreds of 
 'them), you will find the idea is that the horse's head is naturally 
 ' horizontal, and the cheeks and the bits perpendicular, and that the 
 ' part in a line with the cheeks is the position to give ease and freedom 
 ' to the tongue ; however absurd, I have always found it the prevailing 
 ' idea among them. Your drawings exactly accord with my proper 
 ' construction of a bit with a port mouth of any sort, — i.e., the port to 
 ' be one-eighth of a circle (or 45 degrees) forward from the perpen- 
 ' dicular cheek of the bit : as you know, the horse's head is nearly 
 ' perpendicular ; the bit fastened to the leather hangs perpendicular ; 
 ' consequently the mouth-piece with a port of any kind, lies a crooked 
 ' bar on the tongue, unless set forward one-eighth of a circle as your 
 ' drawing is, in which case the tongue has the benefit of it when not 
 'in use, and the greater benefit when in use.' The letter to which 
 this was an answer, accompanied an order for a bit, and I was much 
 pleased to find my ideas on the subject endorsed by so good an au- 
 thority. 
 
CH. XV 
 
 BITTING 
 
 J U J 
 
 the mouth-piece to the ring to which the rein is 
 attached. The measures are not from the centre 
 of the mouth-piece, but from its under side, because 
 that is the point about which the bit rotates on the 
 bars of the horse's mouth. 
 
 Major Dwyer's opinions are supported by such 
 good arguments and illustrations, unfortunately too 
 long to be quoted here, that they may be safely 
 adopted. 
 
 It is not so easy to give dimensions in inches for 
 the width of the bit as for the length, since the 
 widths of horses' noses differ greatly, but a good fit 
 in width is even more important than the proper 
 length of the branches ; no horse will work really 
 well with a bit which is not of the proper width ; 
 a fact so rarely recognised that out of any twenty 
 harness-horses taken at random, ten will be found 
 to have bits too narrow or too wide, usually too 
 wide. The bit must be of such a width that when 
 the curb-chain is hooked properly and the rein 
 pulled back, the outside of the 
 lower lip will fill the space 
 between the branches without 
 being pinched by them. If it is 
 much wider than this, it may 
 be pulled sideways in the 
 mouth, and instead of the can- 
 ons of the mouth-piece (C C, 
 Fig. 157) resting fairly on the bars of the mouth, 
 which are narrow, the point of junction of the canon 
 
 Fig. 157. 
 
364 BITTING CH. XV 
 
 and port, or, still worse, even the middle of the 
 port, P, will bear upon one of the bars. As a rule, 
 the width of the port should be about one-third the 
 whole width of the bit; bits will vary from four to 
 five inches, the latter width being rare. 
 
 The width of a bit may be reduced by using a 
 leather washer on each side of the lips, but this 
 still leaves the port too wide for the changed width 
 of the bit. 
 
 The washer prevents the horse from taking hold 
 of the branch with his lip, but if he has this trick, 
 it is better to put on an elbow bit (C, Fig. 88), or a 
 lip strap. Of course, with a straight mouth-piece 
 without a port, the use of the washer is quite satis- 
 factory. A straight mouth-piece is rarely used on 
 a riding bit, and leather washers never. 
 
 The high port, referred to on page 203, when 
 combined with a tight nose-band, which prevents 
 the horse from opening his mouth, is very effective 
 by pressing against the roof of the mouth ; but it 
 must be used with a licrht hand, or with the rein 
 in the cheek. 
 
 The Pelham bit has a mouth- piece without any 
 port, but with a joint in the middle (Fig. 158). 
 
 In addition to the ring's for the reins, which are 
 at the ends of the branches, there are rings at the 
 ends of the mouth-piece, and when the reins are 
 buckled to these rings, the bit is practically a snafiie. 
 
 This is a favourite riding-bit and is used with two 
 pairs of reins, so that it acts as a curb or a snaffle, at 
 
CH. XV 
 
 BITTING 
 
 ;65 
 
 Fig. 158. 
 
 the pleasure of the rider. Battersby (p. 69) recom- 
 mends it, with much justice, as a bit for cavalry, 
 supplying, as it does, a snaffle-bit more convenient 
 than the separate watering-bridle now 
 in use. There is an advantage to a 
 cavalry man in having two reins, in 
 case one should be cut. 
 
 The ordinary driving-bit is, in one 
 sense, a Pelham, since, although it has 
 no joint, there is a ring at the mouth- 
 piece for the rein, but, instead of having 
 a ring only at the end of the branch, 
 there are two or three eyes in the 
 branch, to either one of which the rein can be 
 buckled (Fig. 89). 
 
 A, in Fig. 88, is usually called the Liverpool bit, 
 and sometimes, by French writers, the German bit ; 
 B and C are only modifications of it. D, the Bux- 
 ton bit, is on the same principle, but has its branch 
 curved, to prevent the horse from taking hold of it 
 with his lip. 
 
 The Mexican, or South American, bit, which is the 
 same as the Turkish bit, has no curb-chain, but in 
 its place a ring, which is attached to the top of a 
 high port and goes under the chin of the horse ; 
 it is very severe. 
 
 These classes comprise the bits that are in com- 
 mon use, but the number of forms and names is 
 very great ; more than ninety are figured in Latch- 
 ford's Loriner. 
 
366 HANDLING CH. XV 
 
 Handling. — While driving-horses in England are 
 usually thoroughly handled by the dealer before 
 being offered for sale, in America they are ' broken 
 to harness,' as it is called, and only so far prepared 
 that they can be driven with safety, but with little or 
 no finish, and, for a man who likes to have his horses 
 light and handy, are rarely very agreeable to drive. 
 
 On a private coach the pleasure of driving de- 
 pends greatly upon the manners of the horses, and, 
 unless the owner employs some professional trainer 
 who can handle and prepare them for him, he ought 
 to be able to put some work upon them himself to 
 make them anything like perfect. 
 
 A London dealer has at least one man in his 
 employ, to show and to handle horses, who is a 
 master of his business, and who, without any sys- 
 tem that he could describe, will in a comparatively 
 few lessons make a pleasant horse out of a green 
 one. The man himself has had trood training and 
 large experience, and has patience, courage, and 
 hands. Usually he puts a new horse, assuming it 
 to be ' broken to harness' in the ordinary sense of 
 the phrase, to a dealer's break (Fig. 58), alongside 
 of an old horse, ' the schoolmaster,' and soon de- 
 cides upon the bit and the details of harnessing 
 which suit the horse best. After a few lessons he 
 puts him alongside of the horse with which it is 
 desired to mate him, and, driving them together 
 with great judgement and skill, makes them fit to 
 show and to sell. 
 
CH. XV HANDLING 367 
 
 An amateur, if he has equal knowledge and 
 skill, can do the same, and on our side of the water 
 he usually must do it for himself. 
 
 The breeder of a horse should beoqn to accus- 
 torn the colt at an early age to be haltered, to bear 
 a surcingle strapped on, to be led about, and to 
 have his feet held up and struck as if he were being 
 shod. All these things can be easily done with a 
 little weak foal, which will not resent them, if rea- 
 sonable care and gentleness are used, and thus the 
 way is well prepared for the after operations of 
 breaking, — a word expressive of the difficulty of 
 doing anything with a horse which has been allowed 
 to run wild until he is so strong that only brute 
 force can subdue him to obedience, — but which 
 should be replaced by the word framing, where 
 the horse has been properly handled as a colt. 
 
 Assuming that a coaching owner receives a horse 
 as a fairly well broken animal, he will find it ad- 
 vantageous to handle him in the manner about to 
 be described. 
 
 It is frequently supposed that the work done to 
 prepare a saddle-horse, is wasted if applied to a 
 drivinor-horse, and no doubt much of it would be ; 
 but a certain portion of it is most useful. The 
 elaborate systems of training saddle-horses, mainly 
 for military purposes, since the time of Grison and 
 Fieschi, in the middle of the sixteenth century, have 
 been gradually superseded by simpler methods, or, 
 at least, by methods requiring fewer appliances and 
 
368 baucher's method ch. xv 
 
 assistants, and the Frenchman Baucher brought 
 out, in 1842, a method, not, of course, entirely new, 
 which is, more or less, the basis of all the best 
 practice of the present time. 
 
 Baucher's method consists in placing the horse, 
 by the use of the bit and the whip, or the spur, in 
 such attitudes as to give the rider control of the 
 horse's movements, and to make him light, the 
 trainer working first on foot and afterward mounted. 
 
 The attitude assumed by a horse when he resists, 
 or puts himself in a position of defence, is with his 
 legs extended somewhat backward and his neck 
 and head advanced. In order to prevent him from 
 exercising this resistance, his hind legs should be 
 brought under his body, his neck raised and bent, 
 and his nose brought in. In this position he is 
 said to be gathered, and is ready to respond to the 
 indications of his rider, or driver, and cannot exert 
 that resistance which makes a horse heavy on the 
 hand. 
 
 This correct position is of more importance in a 
 saddle-horse than in a driving-horse, but as the stiff- 
 ness of the body affects that of the neck, a driving- 
 horse well gathered will respond more readily to 
 the hand and to the bit, when being driven, than 
 an untrained horse, is more agreeable to drive, and 
 in every way more handy. 
 
 This handling is the basis of what is known as 
 ' High-School' riding, which has always been popu- 
 lar on the Continent, but never so much so in 
 
 
9 
 
 ch. xv baucher's method 369 
 
 England or America, and it may be briefly de- 
 scribed, as modified by successors of Baucher, 
 notably by Fillis, as follows : — 
 
 The horse, in an ordinary riding-bridle, curb, 
 and snaffle, is brought to the place of the lessons, 
 preferably a riding-house where there is nothing to 
 distract his attention. The system, when exactly 
 followed, requires that preceding this he should 
 have been exercised with a cavesson and the lunge, 
 and we will assume that this, or something equiva- 
 lent, has already been done by the breeder of the 
 horse. 
 
 The trainer, standing- on the near side of the 
 
 horse, takes the reins of the snaffle together in his 
 
 right hand, close to the bit and under the chin, the 
 
 ends, with the whip, being held in the left hand, 
 
 and leads the horse forward a few steps at a time. 
 
 Should the horse refuse to move forward the whip 
 
 must touch him just behind the girth, where the 
 
 spur would touch him if he were mounted. This 
 
 lesson is repeated, by the trainer walking on the 
 
 other side, reversing the position of his hands. 
 
 The next thing is to make the horse yield, or bend 
 
 his neck. This is done by taking the snaffle-reins 
 
 in the left hand in front of the horse's nose, holding 
 
 the hand high ; and the curb-reins together in the 
 
 right hand, eight inches from the bit, drawing the 
 
 snaffle up and forward and the curb backward until 
 
 the horse drops his head slightly and opens his 
 
 mouth. This action on his part must be rewarded 
 
 24 
 
370 BAUCHER S METHOD CH. XV 
 
 instantly by yielding the right hand, and should then 
 be repeated, the left hand being used to keep the 
 head up. (It is a fault of Baucher's method, soon 
 recognised by some of his followers, and especially 
 by Fillis, that he made his horses carry their heads 
 too low ; this must be carefully avoided.) This 
 operation is called the ' flexion of the neck and of 
 the jaw,' and, although by some writers these flex- 
 ions are treated of separately, they are usually 
 obtained simultaneously. 
 
 There are two purposes in this part of the train- 
 ing. While a well-made horse may be supposed to 
 assume proper positions when free and following the 
 instincts which prompt his action, all horses are not 
 well made, and even those which are, have their 
 equilibrium altered by being put to draught or by 
 ha vine; a man on their back. The horse's head and 
 neck, overhanging the shoulders as they do, throw 
 weight on the fore-hand, which tends to make the 
 fore lees slow in their movements, and also causes 
 the horse to lue\ or to bore on the bit. Raisine 
 and drawing back the head and neck, as are done 
 by these flexions, improve the position in these re- 
 spects, but, after all, accustom the horse to yield 
 to the pressure of the bit, when he finds that by so 
 doing he avoids the discomfort produced by it. 
 
 Not by any means the least advantage of the 
 process is that it educates the hand of the operator, 
 and eives it that liehtness without which no eo°d 
 riding or driving is possible. 
 
CH. XV BAUCHER S METHOD 37 I 
 
 As the neck comes in and up, the hind legs of the 
 horse tend to come in more under his body, in order 
 to preserve his general balance. 
 
 These preliminary flexions were made by Baucher 
 with the horse at rest, but it is important, as Fillis 
 has pointed out, to combine them with a forward 
 motion, so as to prevent the horse from contracting 
 the habit of retaining himself, a result which is an 
 objection justly urged against Baucher's method. 
 The horse should be, therefore, kept moving for- 
 ward while the flexions are being- made, even when 
 the trainer is on foot, and later on, when the trainer 
 is mounted, the horse should be urged forward all 
 the time, by the pressure of the legs. 
 
 The flexions thus described may be considered 
 the only flexions of the neck necessary for driving 
 purposes ; for saddle-horses, lateral flexions, turning 
 the head to the right and to the left, are added ; but 
 they can be easily overdone, and sometimes result 
 in teaching the horse a means of defence, which he 
 uses to the disadvantage of the rider. 
 
 After the neck is suppled, the next thing is to 
 bring the horse's hind legs well under him. If a 
 horse is observed when free in a field, it will be seen 
 that in his quick movements, especially in turning, 
 he brings his hind legs forward, so as to throw a 
 considerable portion of his weight upon them, and 
 this position will be quickly recognised by a mounted 
 man, as making the horse more pleasant to sit and 
 more responsive to the action of the rider than if he 
 
372 BAUCHER S METHOD CH. XV 
 
 has his legs stretched out behind him. This placing 
 of the hind legs is best accomplished by the use of 
 the spur. 
 
 The horse beine mounted, his head and neck 
 having been brought as completely as possible into 
 position, the tightening of the rider's legs and press- 
 ure back of the girths should induce him to move 
 forward. Since, in so doing, his hind legs propel 
 him, this pressure is usually first answered by the 
 advance of one of his hind legs under his body, 
 followed by that of the other. His forward move- 
 ment being somewhat restrained by the bit, but 
 not enough to stop him, he will step forward in a 
 position slightly different from that which he would 
 have assumed if he had been merely led forward by 
 the head. Thus, the combined action of the legs 
 and the hand, opposed to each other, will gather 
 the horse, throwing more of his weight on his hind 
 lees and liehtenine his fore-hand. It has been 
 assumed that merely pressing with the legs will 
 produce the desired result, and with some horses it 
 will do so, at the first attempt ; but in many cases 
 more vigorous means are needed, and for that reason 
 the heel is armed with the spur, which, however, 
 must be used at first with oreat caution, for fear of 
 exciting the horse and producing a defence. 
 
 Whatever may be the reason, a slight touch with 
 the spur will induce the horse to lift and to move 
 forward the hind lee on the side on which he is 
 touched, and this fact is the basis of the whole use 
 
CH. XV BAUCHER S METHOD $7 2 
 
 of the spur, except when it is employed vigorously 
 as a punishment, a proceeding not at all to be recom- 
 mended, a blow of the whip being much better. 
 
 Since the effect of the spur is to cause the horse 
 to move his hind-quarters away from it, a pressure 
 of the left spur will turn the croup to the right, and 
 one from the right spur will stop or reverse that 
 movement. 
 
 Inasmuch as the turning of the horse's head to 
 the right or left by the rein, will determine his 
 motion in these directions, the rider, when the horse 
 is accustomed to obey all these indications, has the 
 means of entirely controlling him. By the bit, he 
 restrains him, places his head in a position to 
 respond to the action of the hand, and turns his 
 fore-hand to either side ; by the leg and spur, he 
 moves him forward, brings his hind legs under him, 
 and turns his croup to the right or left ; and by 
 skilfully combining these effects he can produce 
 what movements he desires, and all the accurate 
 and exaggerated movements which characterise 
 Haute Ecole riding. 
 
 If, in backing a horse, he is forced backward by 
 mere pressure on the bit, his motion will be awk- 
 ward, his hind legs being stretched out to resist the 
 force which is urging him. The proper way to make 
 him back is to begin by restraining him slightly, and 
 then touching him with one spur to make him lift one 
 hind foot ; a slightly increased pull on the reins will 
 generally make him move to the rear, bringing that 
 
374 BAUCHER S METHOD CH. XV 
 
 hind foot to the ground somewhat back of the posi- 
 tion which it previously occupied. A touch with the 
 other spur will raise the other hind foot, which, re- 
 sponding to the pressure of the reins, will be also 
 replaced further back ; the front feet will follow, and 
 by alternate attacks of the spur the horse will be 
 made to walk backward, all the time in a balanced 
 position. 
 
 This is one of the regular lessons, but it must be 
 used with discretion, because when a horse learns to 
 walk backward, he will sometimes do so as a means 
 of defence. All harness-horses should back freely 
 when called upon. 
 
 Just as regular gymnastics improve the action of 
 the most perfectly formed man, this training improves 
 that of the most perfectly formed horse ; it is not 
 an argument against the svstem to sav that the 
 horse, having been made for his own purposes of 
 life, cannot be improved for man's uses. 
 
 While, therefore, the driving-horse may not re- 
 quire much training beyond the flexions of the jaw 
 and neck, the further training of his hind-quarters 
 will give him lightness and grace of carriage, which 
 are very desirable. 
 
 It is also true that if a horse is excited by the spur, 
 the whip, or the voice, and at the same time some- 
 what restrained by the bit, his energy of movement 
 will be partly put into the height of his action, instead 
 of its being all put into the forward movement, with 
 the result of increasing his brilliancy. 
 
CH. XV OLD METHODS 375 
 
 The English system of riding being based on 
 hunting and racing, its principal object is to get the 
 horse forward as fast as possible, without much at- 
 tention to his manner of going-. The Continental 
 system is based upon the requirements of military 
 service, and, in the training of horses, the methods 
 used are adapted to making the horse quick, handy, 
 and obedient. 
 
 In the eastern part of the United States, the 
 English fashion prevails, but in the West, in Texas, 
 and in Mexico, the Spanish style of riding, with its 
 accompanying horse equipments, is adopted, because 
 it is suited to the purposes for which the horse is 
 there largely used : herding and catching cattle. 
 
 English professional horse-breakers being, by 
 nature and selection, good horsemen, succeed in 
 giving their horses good manners, without working 
 upon any system which they distinctly recognise as 
 such ; but the amateur who wishes to accomplish 
 the same results, should have a good system to 
 work upon. 
 
 Before Baucher's time, the suppling of a horse 
 was produced mainly by riding him, and gradually 
 obtaining all the required results more or less simul- 
 taneously. The horse was carefully urged forward 
 by the rider's legs, and restrained by the rein, until 
 he partly assumed the gathered position. He was 
 then ridden in a circle, which was gradually made 
 smaller as the horse became more handy, the head 
 being drawn in toward the centre by the inner rein, 
 
3J6 OLD METHODS CH. XV 
 
 and the croup turned out by the pressure of the 
 inside leg, until the horse moved nearly sideways, 
 his fore legs being" at or near the centre of the 
 circle. In this way his hind legs were supplied, and 
 he became much more responsive to the demands 
 of his rider. This movement is called shoulder in. 
 The next movement was that of croup to the wall 
 (the work was assumed to be done in a riding- 
 house) ; in this movement, the horse, with his hind- 
 quarters turned to the wall and his body nearly at 
 right angles to it, was moved sideways by the spur, 
 while his head was turned by the rein to look 
 slightly in the direction toward which he was going. 
 These two movements constituted the whole edu- 
 cation of the horse for ordinary purposes ; the use 
 of the pillars, for teaching the l airs' of the ' high 
 school,' such as the croupade, the ballotade, &c, are 
 outside the limits of our present subject. 
 
 To a certain extent, the same results are obtained 
 by all the methods, and the advocates of the older 
 ones contend that the horse is not restrained in his 
 forward action by them as he is by training under 
 the Baucher system. But the old method required, 
 from the first, that the trainer should be an accom- 
 plished and determined horseman, because he en- 
 countered difficulties which one less experienced 
 could not overcome, and much was left to his tact 
 in using means the exact effect of which he imper- 
 fectly understood ; whereas, Baucher has laid down 
 every step with accuracy. As a fact, the horses 
 
CH. XV GOOD HANDS 2>77 
 
 trained by his method, for exhibition purposes in 
 haute ecole riding, are far superior in accuracy of 
 action to anything that was dreamed of by the 
 trainers before his time, and the fact that many of 
 the early lessons of the method can be applied on 
 foot, to a horse that is too young to ride, commends 
 it to the breeder. 
 
 It is not at all my intention to attempt to teach 
 here, in the limits of these few pages, any sys- 
 tem of handling, or dressing, a horse, but only to 
 suggest that if the driving man will undertake 
 to improve his horses by either of the methods : 
 Baucher's or his successors', he will reap great 
 benefit from so doing in the improvement, not only 
 of the animals, but especially of his own hands. 
 
 The secret of good driving is to have good 
 hands, and while good hands may be to some 
 extent a gift, they are to be acquired mainly by 
 practice and thought. In the saddle, no man can 
 have good hands who has not a perfectly firm seat, 
 so that the action on the reins may be absolutely 
 independent of the movements of the body. The 
 action of the hand in driving is coarser than in 
 riding, where the hand, holding light reins, is closer 
 to the horse's mouth, and the action of the animal 
 under the rider indicates to him instantly the horse's 
 intentions ; but the principles are the same, and 
 a good hand in the saddle means a good hand 
 on the driving-cushion. Regularity and accuracy 
 of pace can be much better cultivated under the 
 
378 BAUCHER CH. XV 
 
 saddle, and every riding lesson, judiciously given, 
 will improve the horse for driving. 
 
 The training cf a horse which is to be finally 
 put into a team, may be advantageously continued 
 by driving him single, to a dog-cart, where, the 
 whip replacing the spur, some of the same effects 
 obtained under the saddle may be repeated ; and 
 the method of training by driving on foot with 
 the long reins, described by Captain Haves in his 
 Illustrated Horse Breaking, may be also used with 
 great advantage, at all stages of the work. 
 
 In our American climate, with so many winter 
 days on which riding out of doors with any pleasure 
 is impossible, the amateur will find that the hours 
 passed on the tan of the riding-house, in training a 
 favourite horse, according to some good system, will 
 be among the pleasantest of his ' horsey' pastimes. 
 
 All professional riding-masters have intentionally, 
 or unconsciously, made use of one or other of the 
 old methods, or of a combination of them, generally 
 imparted by tradition. 
 
 When Baucher's book (translated into English 
 by John Sergeant and George H. Boker, of 
 Philadelphia, in 1851) first appeared in America, * 
 some amateurs who had been working somewhat 
 blindly on the old systems, recognised its value, 
 especially when illustrated by the beautiful perform- 
 
 * The first edition of Baucher's book was published in Paris in 
 1S42. 
 
CH. XV PHILADELPHIA RIDING CLUB 379 
 
 ances of two horses trained by Baucher, and ridden 
 by one of his pupils, Caroline Loyo, in the old 
 Walnut Street Circus. A riding-school in Sansom 
 Street above Eighth Street, long since torn down, 
 was the scene of the first applications of Baucher's 
 method, by several enthusiastic horsemen, Judge 
 Cadwalader, John D. Bleight, and others, and 
 out of those pleasant meetings for companionship 
 and discussion grew the The Philadelphia Riding 
 Club, the first, and for many years the only home 
 of that kind of equestrian practice in the United 
 States. 
 
n 
 
 80 CH. XVI 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 HORSES FOR COACH OR DRAG 
 
 Horses for coach or drag will vary according to 
 the taste of the owner and the depth of his pocket. 
 For a drag, horses of fifteen-three hands, all four of 
 the same size, will be generally found the most useful. 
 Of these the lightest and quickest should be selected 
 for the lead, and the strongest put at the wheel. 
 It is not difficult to find four horses of the same 
 height, of which two will weigh fort)' or fifty pounds 
 apiece more than the other two. The team shown 
 in Plate XXIX. corresponds to this description. 
 
 The extreme type of racing thoroughbred does 
 not look in place to a coach, but the half-bred horse 
 of the English hunter style is in every way suitable, 
 although he is not always easy to drive when multi- 
 plied by four. The nearer that this latter type is 
 approached, the better, as f as appearance goes. 
 
 The half-bred mare shown in Plate XXX., fifteen- 
 three hands, bv a thoroughbred sire out of a trot- 
 ting dam, hunted many seasons and driven as a 
 leader, is as nearly as possible perfection in all her 
 points. 
 
 The hackney, as now produced in America and 
 in England, makes an admirable coach-horse when 
 laree enough, and if his recent introduction into 
 
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CH. XVI HACKNEY 38 1 
 
 America has had no other advantage, it has raised 
 the standard of form in the driving-horse. The best 
 horse will be one resulting from judicious crosses of 
 the hackney and the trotter, improving the form 
 of the latter by giving him a finer head, a better 
 carriage of it, and a less sloping rump, and by 
 heightening his action without too much diminishing 
 his speed. 
 
 The free forward action, with sufficient height, 
 which some exceptional trotters possess, is the per- 
 fection of gait for either the road or the park, and 
 in any horse, a trot approaching it, can be often 
 improved by judicious handling under the saddle. 
 
 The Morgan horse, formerly a great favourite in 
 New England, is in many respects not unlike the 
 hackney, both in good qualities and defects. He 
 is ' near the ground,' that is, rather short-legged, as 
 is shown by his heavy weight compared with his 
 height, and this form, although in some eyes it 
 detracts from showiness, is the best adapted to hard 
 work in harness or under the saddle, as many hard 
 riding hunting-men know ; lego-mess is a great fault 
 in a horse. 
 
 This breed, less talked about now than formerly, 
 has had a strong influence upon the horses of New 
 England ; it combines the good qualities of fair 
 speed, great endurance, fine up-headed carriage, and, 
 above all, good temper ; the defects being want of 
 size, and a certain coarseness and shortness of neck. 
 Having rather upright pasterns, the Morgans lack 
 
?82 MORGAN HORSE CH. XVI 
 
 J 
 
 the springiness and grace required in a saddle-horse, 
 or the highest class of drag leader, but to public- 
 coach purposes they are admirably adapted, and 
 several of the coaches running - out of New York 
 have been horsed by animals selected in Maine. 
 
 In the New England States it is usual to describe 
 a horse by weight as well as by height, and the two 
 together give a better idea of him than the height 
 alone. 
 
 A large sixteen-hand horse, rather clumsy for a 
 wheeler, will weigh 1120 pounds, but from 1070 to 
 1090 is heavy enough for an ordinary wheeler. A 
 fifteen-three horse, suitable for lead or wheel, will 
 weigh from 1000 to 1040 pounds ; and one fifteen- 
 two, from 950 to 990 pounds. The Morgan horses 
 of 1855 (described in Linsley's Morgan Horse), 
 when of fourteen-two hands, weighed from 1000 to 
 1050 pounds ; of fifteen hands, 1025 to 1076 pounds ; 
 and the average weight of twenty-two horses is 
 given at 1040 pounds, their heights ranging from 
 fourteen to fifteen hands ; these weights show that 
 the horses were very short-legged, since their bodies 
 were not clumsy. 
 
 For the same breed of horses, from that date down 
 to the present time, the weights are about the same.* 
 
 There is a type of carriage-horse now happily dis- 
 appearing from the show-ring and the best dealers' 
 stables, — awkward and long legged, with a head of 
 
 * Rider and Driver, January 12, 1895. 
 
CH. XVI HORSES FOR A TEAM ^8 
 
 0"J 
 
 one kind, legs of another, and body of a third, 
 which is to be avoided for all purposes. 
 
 The horses of a drag-team should have 'quality,' 
 — that is, a certain fineness and distinction which 
 are not at all incompatible with strength. Weedy, 
 long-legged, tucked up, thin-necked horses are out 
 of place to a coach, especially at the wheel, however 
 well they may suit a hansom. 
 
 Horses over sixteen hands are unnecessarily large ; 
 their rumps are too close to the foot-board ; those 
 under fifteen-two are somewhat small for an ordi- 
 nary coach, although if they are up-headed they may 
 do for leaders. 
 
 For park driving, the leaders may have a good 
 deal of action, but it does not do for long drives, and 
 is not, to my taste at least, as good as the long 
 and only moderately high action which some trot- 
 ters have. A coach-team, to be perfect, must have 
 a sporting appearance, and look as if they were 
 good for long, continuous work, and not for trotting 
 all day in a space of a hundred yards. The horse- 
 shows of the past few years have opened the eyes 
 of judges and of the public to the fact that good 
 action is not incompatible with ability to get over 
 the ground, and, in a coach-team, the combination 
 is exactly what should be aimed at. 
 
 Lord Algernon St. Maur (Driving-. Badminton 
 Library, 1889, P- l 9 2 ) says: 'I dislike carriage- 
 ' horses in a coach ; they are quite different animals 
 ' from coach-horses ;' this is true, but applies more 
 
o 
 
 84 COACH-HORSES CH. XVI 
 
 to England and to some years ago, than to America 
 in the present day. The old-fashioned, large, eight- 
 spring landaus and barouches required tall, heavy 
 horses, which were reined up tightly ; but the mod- 
 ern landau is not a heavy nor very high carriage, 
 and the wheelers of a coach look well to it if they 
 have sufficient action ; and in all but exceedingly 
 large establishments, it is necessary to use the 
 horses for several purposes. The opinion is, how- 
 ever, worth bearing in mind, inasmuch as a coaching 
 man would make a mistake were he to put to his 
 drag a pair of carriage-horses of the type just 
 mentioned. 
 
 The most nearly perfect team is that which is 
 the best matched in temper, size, action, pace, and 
 colour. A cross team of two colours, that is, off 
 leader and near wheeler alike, is always good, but 
 four of different colours, require exceptional ' qual- 
 ity' to bring the team into the front rank. A team 
 with two horses of one colour on one side and 
 two of another colour on the other, always has a 
 one-sided look, and leaders matched and wheelers 
 matched in pairs as to colour, look too much like 
 two pairs. These remarks apply, however, to 
 strongly marked colours, greys, &c. ; bays and 
 browns may be put together in any way. A cross 
 team of two greys and two dark horses has usually 
 a gay and brilliant look. 
 
 Some qualities are* sufficient to exclude any horse ; 
 a kicker is no better in one place than another ; and 
 
CH. XVI COACH-HORSES 385 
 
 an incorrigible puller should be sold, given away, 
 or shot, rather than be put in a team. A horse may 
 pull, from some cause which may be removed ; if 
 he can be cured, very well ; but a regular puller 
 spoils all the pleasure of driving, worries the other 
 horses, and makes impossible any fine handling of 
 the team. 
 
 Some coachmen advocate having the leaders taller 
 than the wheelers, but it is not generally a symmet- 
 rical arrangement, especially as the leaders, when 
 seen from the front, will, from the perspective, 
 always look the larger. 
 
 It is the general practice to put the smaller horses 
 on the lead, where they certainly look the best. In 
 any case, the heavier horses should be at the wheel ; 
 they have to control the coach in going down-hill, 
 and in turns, where the leaders are held back ; and 
 they may be considerably coarser than the leaders 
 without hurting the appearance of the team. At 
 races, when a coach is on the grass, a pair of 
 wheelers that can do more than their share in start- 
 ing the coach on the soft ground, will add to the 
 coachman's comfort and perhaps save a balking 
 match. 
 
 Undoubtedly, the leaders should be the freest ; 
 it is disagreeable to have the wheelers free and the 
 leaders slack, 'floating leaders,' as a well-known 
 coaching man calls them. 
 
 Of the two leaders, the lazier should be on the 
 off side, because it is more easy to get at him with 
 
386 COACH-HORSES CH. XVI 
 
 the whip on that side than on the other. If they 
 are equally free and there is any difference in size, 
 the taller horse should be on the off side, since he is 
 likely to be on the side of the road, which is lower 
 than the centre. 
 
 Of the wheelers, the lazy horse should be on the 
 near side, under the whip, and it is well to put the 
 stronger wheeler on the gutter side (the off side in 
 America and the near side in England) so as to pull 
 the coach out of the low ground to the centre of 
 the road, after having gone to the side in meeting 
 a vehicle, and that is also a reason for putting the 
 taller horse on the gutter side, since he may be 
 generally assumed to be the stronger. 
 
 It is a good plan to accustom the horses to go in 
 any place in the team ; but if a horse does better 
 in one place than another, it is well to keep him 
 there, and this will often be the case, especially in a 
 public-coach team, where the horses cannot be so 
 carefully selected in the beginning, as for a drag, and 
 where one horse sometimes fancies a place, and 
 will, therefore, work cheerfully in it, and unsatisfac- 
 torily in any other. 
 
 As to the pace : horses, to be pleasant to drive, 
 should be able to go eleven miles an hour. On a 
 good level road, a team should take a coach along- 
 at nine miles an hour for two hours, but they will 
 not do this unless they can go a good deal faster ; 
 a horse continuously pushed to the top of his speed 
 never travels pleasantly, and soon tires, but if he 
 
CH. XVI COACH-HORSES 387 
 
 can do eleven, he will easily do nine, which is quite 
 within his powers. 
 
 A team to a private coach not too heavily loaded 
 ought to do from eighteen to twenty miles in an 
 afternoon drive, on fairly level roads, and can do, 
 day after day, from twenty-four to twenty-six miles, 
 divided into two parts, with a couple of hours for 
 rest and feed in the middle of the day. 
 
 Horses are usually clipped in the winter ; indeed 
 at any season, when they require it for appearance, 
 and it undoubtedly adds much to their comfort 
 when doing fast work. In our climate, however, 
 it must not be forgotten that they sometimes re- 
 quire the protection of a blanket when they are 
 not moving ; it is thoughtless and cruel to keep 
 them standing uncovered on a cold day. 
 
 The length of the tails of coach-horses is a matter 
 of fashion. In the early part of the 19th century the 
 tails of all horses were cut short (or docked), and 
 pricked (by cutting the under sinews), so that they 
 stood up very high (see Cordery's Picture, Plate I.). 
 Later, the tails were banged ; that is, cut square 
 just at the end of the bone, as the tails of race 
 horses are now ; and the fashion has ao-ain come 
 round to the very short tail, but without pricking. 
 Undoubtedly, the tail being short makes the horse 
 look ' smarter' and prevents his getting it over the 
 rein. The very long tails of the trotters of some 
 years ago would certainly look out of place in front 
 of a coach. 
 
388 COST OF COACHING CH. XVI 
 
 Horses are sometimes trained, formerly more than 
 at present, to stand, when in harness, with their hind 
 legs stretched out. It is done to prevent the horse 
 from jumping forward when he hears or feels some 
 one stepping into the carriage, — an unpleasant trick, 
 very damaging to hats and bonnets. A horse can- 
 not do this if his hind leers are much stretched 
 out, since he must slather himself before making 
 the movement. The position is, however, an ugly 
 one for a coach-horse, and shows at once that he 
 is a carriage-horse. 
 
 COST OF COACHING 
 
 As to the actual cost of private coaching it is 
 difficult to give exact figures, prices vary so much 
 in different localities, but it may be said, that a well 
 turned-out coach need not necessarily add much to 
 the expenses of a good sized stable. Where four 
 horses are kept for any purpose, it is easy so to 
 select them according to the hints o-iven in the re- 
 marks on Horses, that they can be put together 
 as a team. Four horses in a stable mean, under 
 any circumstances, two men, and all that is neces- 
 sary in addition is the coach, which with its vari- 
 ous appointments can be had for less than three 
 thousand dollars. As has been remarked in the 
 Chapter on Harness, two sets of pair-horse harness, 
 properly made, are right for four horses, and thus 
 equipped, the lover of coaching can have as much 
 of it as he desires, without interfering materially 
 
CH. XVI COST OF COACHING 389 
 
 with other uses of his stable. Two saddle-horses 
 do not make bad leaders, in fact, they often make 
 the best ; and a man and his wife may have their 
 driving, their riding, and their coaching, all within 
 the limits of a modest establishment, while it is 
 quite certain that any man who cares enough for 
 his coaching to obtain it in this way, will enjoy it 
 much more than he who merely buys a team be- 
 cause he thinks it fashionable or wishes to have 
 something better than his neighbours. 
 
 There is so much already in print about Stable 
 Management, the Care of Horses, and Stable Ex- 
 penses, that these subjects need not be touched 
 upon here. 
 
39° ch. xvii 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 THE WHIP AND ITS USE 
 
 While coachmen differ somewhat in their ideas 
 as to the weight, stiffness, &c, of a whip, there are 
 certain dimensions and characteristics which may be 
 considered as standard, and from which the devia- 
 tions are, after all, very slight. 
 
 The whip best adapted to four-in-hand driving 
 has come down to us from the palmy days of Eng- 
 lish coaching, when thousands were made for, and 
 used by the most accomplished coachmen. 
 
 It has a straight stick, crop, or cross, with the 
 thong attached by what is called the quill (from its 
 being made of goose quills), which, being in form a 
 prolongation of the stick, is stiff at its root, gradually 
 merging into the thong proper ; the quill and the 
 first part of the thong forming a bow or portion of 
 a circle (see Fig. 159). 
 
 This quill is characteristic of the English whip, 
 the whip of other countries having a stiff stick to 
 which the thong is attached by a loop. The stick, 
 or crop, is made of an elastic wood : holly, yew, 
 blackthorn, lancewood, or white hickory. 
 
 Holly is by far the most generally used, and is 
 obtained from second growth shoots, six or seven 
 years old. The sticks are carefully selected, the 
 
CH. XVII STICK OF THE WHIP 39 1 
 
 straightest of course being preferred, but those 
 which are somewhat crooked can be steamed and 
 straightened by the maker. They are cut to nearly 
 the length required, and stored, seasoned, and dried 
 with great care, being- examined at intervals, and 
 kept straight, the whole operation requiring, with 
 the best makers, a period of about five years. 
 They are then trimmed to their final shape, stained, 
 varnished, and mounted. The varnishing is of great 
 importance in protecting the stick from the effects 
 of dampness, and every maker has his special way 
 of doing- it, the work of some makers beino- far 
 superior to that of others. 
 
 The stick should be springy but not soft, and must 
 be proportioned to the weight of the thong ; a four- 
 horse whip requires to be stiffer than a pair-horse 
 whip, which has a short thong. 
 
 The whole length G f the stick should be five feet, 
 measured from the metal butt of the handle to the 
 end, which end is marked by the knot always worked 
 on the quill. Five feet, one inch and a half, is the 
 extreme length that the stick should have. 
 
 The stick usually has a handle, but some sticks 
 show the wood throughout from butt to knot ; they 
 do not, as a rule, balance as well in the hand as 
 those that have handles. Rabbit-bitten hollies * are 
 much fancied ; they are found in holly plantations 
 frequented by rabbits ; these animals eat the bark 
 
 * See note on page 414. 
 
392 HANDLE OF THE WHIP CH. XVII 
 
 near the ground, and leave it in irregular patterns 
 on the portion which is used as the butt of the stick. 
 The natural knots of the holly are usually the proper 
 distance apart to look well on the stick ; they are filed 
 to the proper shape, and if there are not enough of 
 them, artificial ones are made by leaving elevations 
 when reducing the size of the stick. In some whips 
 the knots are left quite prominent, in others they 
 show slightly ; this is a matter of taste. The ma- 
 jority of coachmen like to have a few knots close 
 to the upper end of the stick, to keep the thong 
 from sliding down when it is caught up. 
 
 White hickory, worked perfectly plain, without 
 any knots, makes a beautiful stick and looks like 
 ivory. It is particularly pleasant to handle if 
 properly proportioned, but unless the thong is very 
 soft, it is liable to slip down the stick. Owing to 
 the stick having no knots, the thong can be quickly 
 freed from it for use. 
 
 A good holly stick should have a diameter of six- 
 tenths of an inch where it leaves the collar or ferule, 
 and of three-tenths of an inch at its upper end. A 
 hickory stick, being heavier and stiffer, should be 
 very little over a quarter of an inch at the upper end. 
 
 Some coachmen fancy a ' dog-legged stick ;' that 
 is, one with a crook more or less square, a short 
 distance above the ferule, but it is certainly not 
 handsome, and usually it is not pleasant to handle. 
 
 The handle, or hand-piece, of the whip, is ten and 
 a half inches long, including its ferule, or collar, 
 
CH. XVII HANDLE OF THE WHIP 393 
 
 and its cap. To make the handle, the stick is cut 
 down to a cylindrical form about four-tenths of an 
 inch in diameter from the butt to the point where 
 the collar is to be, and an iron tube eight and a 
 half inches long-, fitting- this cylindrical part tightly, 
 is pushed on, and cemented to it. This tube is 
 of such thickness as to weigh about one ounce. 
 Tow is evenly wound round the tube until it has 
 assumed the shape, and nearly the size, that the 
 finished handle is to have, larger at the butt than 
 at the collar ; over the tow, paper is pasted, and 
 over this the final covering of the handle is put on. 
 The ferule, or collar, which has been slipped on the 
 stick before wrapping, is pulled backward to its 
 place on the covering and cemented, and the cap 
 at the butt is cemented on. 
 
 The large end of a well-proportioned handle is 
 nine-tenths of an inch in diameter, the small end 
 six and a half tenths. The cap will be as much 
 larger as the thickness of the metal makes it, and 
 the same is true of the collar, which tapers enough 
 to fit over the leather of six and a half tenths and 
 the stick of six-tenths of an inch diameter. 
 
 For a four-in-hand whip the handle should be 
 covered with pig-skin. It may be put on plain 
 with a neat seam down its length, the usual way 
 for a drag whip, or it may be wound helically 
 round, which is right for a public-coach whip, and 
 is somewhat less slippery when wet. 
 
 The butt-cap and the collar should be perfectly 
 
394 THONG OF THE WHIP CH. XVII 
 
 plain, and made of silver or of brass, always of the 
 same metal with which the harness is mounted. 
 Their proportions affect the appearance of the whip, 
 and they should be neither too light nor too heavy. 
 The collar is the proper place on which to engrave 
 a name or a monogram. 
 
 A stick which has no handle, — a rabbit-bitten 
 stick, for instance, — has a butt-cap, but no collar. 
 
 The thong is of white leather made from horse- 
 hide, other leather, such as sheep-skin, being too soft 
 and absorbent ; it must be plaited tightly without 
 being very hard, and is usually tapered regularly 
 from the quill to the small end. A thong is some- 
 times made with a slight belly or swell, commencing 
 about two feet from the quill ; it is easier to catch 
 than a tapered thong, but not so good to hit with. 
 
 The butt-end of the thong is stiffened by several 
 pieces of quill worked into it, and the stick is pushed 
 into the tube thus made, until its point comes oppo- 
 site to the knot worked on the thong (Fig. 162*) ; 
 the pieces of quill, and the ends of hide of which 
 the thono; is made, come down on the sides of the 
 stick, and are bound to it by waxed silk. 
 
 The quill has a bend or turn up, which is put on 
 the stick opposite to the seam on the handle, and the 
 whip must be always so held that the seam is down 
 and the bend of the quill up. There is something 
 
 * In Fig. 162 the knot shows at the point where the broad pieces 
 of leather commence to separate. The two pieces of quill also show 
 below the knot. 
 
CH. XVII THONG OF THE WHIP 395 
 
 forlorn about a whip without a quill, or a whip held 
 upside down, in which position it can neither be 
 properly caught, nor properly used on a horse. 
 
 The stamp of the maker, which is on the stick 
 above the collar, opposite to the seam and on the 
 same side as the turn up of the quill, indicates the 
 side of the whip which is to be uppermost in the 
 hand. The pleasant feeling of a whip in the hand de- 
 pends largely upon the make of the quill, and a whip 
 is ruined if the quill is allowed to get out of shape. 
 
 Good thongs can be had only from the best 
 makers. The thong terminates in a point, called 
 by whip-makers the lasJi. It is sometimes made of 
 whip-cord, but is much better of the same material 
 as the thong, since the cord, when wet, is apt to 
 wrap round parts of the harness. 
 
 Silk points, of any colour, are entirely out of place 
 on a coach whip, or, in fact, on any whip thong. 
 
 A finished whip should have the following quali- 
 ties : It should feel light in the hand, springy, not 
 as if it were too heavy at the point, and not 'dead.' 
 With the thong caught up (as described further on) 
 it should balance at a point twenty-one and a half 
 inches from the butt, or about one-third of the total 
 length of the stick ; accurately, 36 per cent. If the 
 balancing point is further from the butt, the whip 
 will feel heavy in the hand. 
 
 The spring, or stiffness, must be measured by the 
 feeling, but for the purpose of establishing a nu- 
 merical standard, several whips of the best quality 
 
396 
 
 SPRING OF THE WHIP 
 
 CH. XVII 
 
 were experimented with, and were found to have 
 a deflection of about eight inches at a point four 
 feet two inches from the collar, or near the knot, 
 when a weight of ten ounces, avoirdupois, was hung 
 at that point, the whip being supported at the collar. 
 The following Table gives the details of these 
 experiments : — 
 
 Description of Whip. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 Diameter of handle in 
 iooths of an inch : 
 At the butt 
 
 At the collar .... 
 
 Diameter of stick in 
 iooths of an inch : 
 At the collar .... 
 
 At the upper end . . 
 
 Length of handle, 
 inches 
 
 Length of stick, in- 
 cluding handle, to 
 knot, feet and inches 
 
 Length of thong, from 
 knot, feet and inches 
 
 Deflection with weight 
 of 10 ounces at a 
 point 4 ft. 2 in. from 
 collar, inches .... 
 
 Total weight of whip, 
 ounces, avoirdupois . 
 
 Distance of point of 
 balance from butt, 
 inches 
 
 Percentage of this dis- 
 tance in total length 
 of stick 
 
 70 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 29 
 
 5 0% 
 12 8 
 
 6^ 
 
 No. II. 
 
 90 
 64 
 
 58 
 30 
 
 No. III. 
 
 2 3 
 
 38 
 
 5 ° l /z 
 12 8 
 
 sy 2 
 
 85 
 60 
 
 55 
 29 
 
 10^ 
 
 5 0% 
 
 12 6 
 
 No. IV. 
 
 21 V, 
 
 36 
 
 23X 
 
 37 
 
 88 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 27 
 
 io# 
 
 5 iyi 
 
 12 10 
 
 No. V. No. VI. 
 
 No.VII. 
 
 21 
 
 34 
 
 57 
 55 
 
 52 
 23 
 
 5 itf 
 
 '3 9 
 
 9 l A 
 
 23 
 
 4i 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 57 
 26 
 
 4 10.^ 
 12 2 
 
 9 
 
 8^ 
 
 21 
 
 36 
 
 80 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 ioy. 
 
 48^ 
 11 9 
 
 22 
 
 39 
 
 No. V. has no handle. Nos. VI. and VII. are jointed whips. 
 
CH. XVII BALANCE OF THE WHIP 397 
 
 Nos. II. and III. may be considered standard 
 whips. 
 
 No V., a light rabbit-bitten whip with no handle, 
 T 5 o 2 oths of an inch in diameter ten and a half inches 
 from the butt (the place of the collar), had a de- 
 flection of nine and a half inches. This is an 
 extremely pleasant whip to handle with a properly 
 proportioned light thong. It is really a tandem 
 whip. 
 
 Nos. VI. and VII. are jointed whips made to 
 carry on a board, as spare whips (Fig. 160), and 
 such whips, owing to the screwed joint, are apt to 
 be less springy than an ordinary whip ; these two 
 examples, however, are very good. On them, the 
 point of attachment of the ten-ounce weight came 
 somewhat above the knot on the quill, owing to the 
 shortness of the stick. 
 
 The pressure upon the thumb, of even a well- 
 balanced whip, is considerable, at least as much as 
 twenty ounces when the stick is held at the collar, 
 owing to the centre of gravity of the whip being 
 twice as far from the butt as is the collar. The 
 twisting strain on the hand is caused by this lever- 
 age, of ten inches against the breadth of the hand, 
 which is only four. This strain is usually severely 
 felt by the beginner, for which reason a light whip 
 is desirable. If the butt-cap is weighted to im- 
 prove the balance it makes the whole whip too 
 heavy. 
 
 In buying a whip, the beginner should avail him- 
 
398 
 
 HANGING UP THE WHIP 
 
 CH. XVII 
 
 self of the aid of an expert who can select for him 
 
 one that is really good, as a 
 standard by which future pur- 
 chases can be made ; a man who 
 has been using whips not of the 
 best quality will be astonished, 
 upon getting hold of something 
 exactly right, to find how far 
 superior it is to those which he 
 has been handling". 
 
 Inasmuch as a good whip can 
 be soon ruined by being im- 
 properly taken care of, it is im- 
 portant to keep the quill and 
 upper part of the thong in shape, 
 by hanging it on a spool (Fig. 
 159) fastened against the wall. 
 The spool should have a Y-shaped 
 groove, and pulling the thong 
 tightly into the groove will pre- 
 vent the whip from slipping ; it is 
 better also to tie the point round 
 the thone an d stick together, as 
 shown in the Figure. 
 
 If the proper part of the thong, 
 as shown in Fig. 159, is jammed 
 in the groove, the weight of the 
 stick will give, and will keep, 
 the proper backward curve to 
 Fig. 159. the quill. 
 
CH. XVII WHIP CASE 399 
 
 In default of a spool, a short loop of twine should 
 be tied round the stick below the knot, and the whip 
 hung- by that (Fig. 159) ; but a whip should never be 
 kept leaning against a wall or in a corner. 
 
 A jointed whip, the pieces of the stick of which 
 screw together, should be carried in the coach. It 
 is fastened upon a board, as shown in Fig. 160. 
 Two whips may be put upon the same board. 
 
 Fig. 160. 
 
 For carrying whips on a journey, the leather case 
 devised by me for my own use, shown in Fig. 161, 
 is very convenient. It is 6 ft. 5 in. long, 4^ inches 
 wide, and 1 y 2 inches deep, outside dimensions ; 
 made of sole leather, with a bottom of hard wood, 
 i^ inch thick, on the inside of the case, to make it 
 stiff. Tapes, fastened to the bottom, serve to tie 
 in the whips, six of which can be carried. The 
 tapes round the handles must be tied so tight that 
 the whips cannot slip on to their heads when the 
 case is on end, or else the bows of the thongs will 
 be bent out of shape. 
 
 A whip should always be wiped, or, if necessary, 
 washed thoroughly after use, to keep the varnish 
 in o-ood order, and the thono- must be washed with 
 soft soap (crown soap) and water, and sometimes 
 rubbed with soap alone to keep it soft. Glycerine, 
 vaseline, or a mixture of lard and wax, may be used, 
 
4-00 
 
 WHIP CASE 
 
 CH. XVII 
 
 J 
 
 iy*3 
 
 but to keep a thong in condition, 
 there is nothing so good as soap 
 and constant use. If it is hard 
 and stiff it will be impossible to 
 catch it up readily or to keep it 
 on the stick. Pipeclay should 
 never be used on a thong ; it 
 makes it stiff and rots it. There 
 is a condition into which a thong 
 gets during the first part of a 
 drive in rain or fog which is just 
 right, but afterward it often be- 
 comes too soft, and finally, when 
 dried, it is stiff and 
 requires soaping or 
 oreasinor. 
 
 When a thonof is 
 worn, it is best to 
 put on an entirely 
 new one, with its quill 
 complete. Thongs 
 are sold by whip- 
 makers put up as 
 shown in Fig. 162, 
 and a coachman can 
 learn, without much 
 difficulty, by examining a finished 
 whip, to braid one on to the stick 
 for himself. The two wide strips 
 of leather, which hang below the 
 
 Fig. 162. 
 
 Fig. 161, 
 
 
CH. XVII 
 
 SPLICING A THONG 
 
 4OI 
 
 knot, must be slit so as to give four strips, round 
 and between which to braid the black thread. 
 
 A thong, otherwise good, which has been cut 
 or broken, should be spliced as shown in Fig. 
 163:— 
 
 The unbraided strands ' a' and ' b' of the ends of 
 the broken thong, being tied round the parts of the 
 
 Fig. 163. 
 
 thong, as at A, the two knots are pulled tight to- 
 gether as shown at B. The ends are then cut off 
 and the knot rolled between two hard surfaces. 
 
 In Fig. 163, A, the end 'a' is left in a position to 
 show the knots under it, but before pulling the 
 knots together, it must be pulled * tightly into the 
 space between the two parts of the thong, as at 
 'b,' and it then covers the knots and is jammed 
 when they are drawn together, as shown at B. 
 
 * After tucking the last ends, ' a' and ' b, ' into the space between 
 the two parts of the thong, it is convenient to seize them with a pair 
 of nippers in order to pull them as tight as possible. 
 
 26 
 
4-02 
 
 SPLICING A THONG 
 
 CH. XVII 
 
 Fig. 164. 
 
 A point may be put on in the same way, but it is 
 more usually done as in Fig. 164 : — 
 
 The end of the thong being unbraided, one of the 
 four strands is tied round the others, and pulled 
 
 tight to keep the thong 
 from unplaiting, and the 
 end of the point having 
 been unplaited is pushed 
 close against the end of 
 the thong. Each strand in succession is laid on 
 top of a strand of the thong, and that thong-strand 
 having been turned back, the point-strand is tied 
 round it and the body of the thong, in a single knot 
 and pulled tight. After all four are thus tied, the 
 ends are cut off and the knot rolled. 
 
 Another way of splicing a thong is to make with 
 the two ends, what sailors call a ' shroud knot,' 
 which can be learned from any book on sailors' 
 knots. In this knot the pieces of thong are un- 
 plaited and butted against each other, and each 
 strand is tied with a single knot around the main 
 part of the thong to which it does not belong, one 
 half of all these knots coming above the joint and 
 one half below it. The knots are all pulled tight 
 and the ends cut off. 
 
 The whip used in the West, and elsewhere than 
 in England, has a straight stick of an elastic wood, 
 
 fro 
 
 m 
 
 3 
 
 ft. 6 in. to 4 feet long. The thong is from 
 
 8 to 10 feet long, rather heavy, and has usually a 
 
CH. XVII DOUBLE-THONG 403 
 
 belly near the stick end ; it has nothing resembling 
 a quill, but in its place there is a loop. * 
 
 The stick, or 'stock,' frequently has metal bands 
 at intervals for its whole length, but it has no handle 
 proper, the lower part being swelled out to fit the 
 hand. A leather loop is fastened on the upper end 
 of the stick by wrapping, and to it the thong is at- 
 tached by its loop, exactly like a hunting-whip or 
 like the thong of the long whip, or chambriere, of 
 the circus ring-master. 
 
 The short stick is convenient in narrow forest- 
 roads, where trees are close to the track, but the 
 whole whip is stiff, and entirely inferior to the 
 English whip. It is difficult to strike a wheel 
 horse with it without using the whole length of 
 the thong, since a 'double-thong' cannot be made 
 with it. 
 
 The whips used in Africa with teams of eight or 
 ten animals are described as being exceedingly long, 
 with a very heavy thong, and are used with both 
 hands, one man driving- and another flogging. 
 
 Catching a Double-Thong. — Owing to the length 
 of the thong of a four-horse whip, it is convenient to 
 carry it looped on the stick, and for that purpose it 
 is caught up in what is called a double-thong (Fig. 
 165), with a loop of the upper part hanging on 
 the end of the stick and the rest of the thong 
 coming down to the hand. 
 
 A learner who desires to master the trick of 
 
404 DOUBLE-THONG CH. XVII 
 
 the double-thong should, if possible, get some one 
 to teach him ; it is extremely difficult to do it from 
 a description ; but the mechanism of it is as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 If the whip is held in the right hand, pointing 
 slightly upward and to the front, and moved sharply 
 to the right and a little upward, with the thong loose, 
 
 Fig. 165. 
 
 the thong will turn over the stick, and 
 slipping along it over the top, will come 
 to rest in its original position, having 
 gone over the stick from left to right. 
 
 If, however, the point of the thong is held against 
 the collar of the stick by the thumb, and the opera- 
 tion repeated, the point not being free to run out, but 
 being suddenly arrested, the bight of the thong will 
 swing- back to the left and will wind itself round 
 the stick from right to left, the upper turns being in 
 the direction of a right-handed screw and the lower 
 turns in that of a left-handed screw (Fig. 166, A). 
 Since the upper part of the thong has made a turn 
 over the stick, there will be one more turn in the 
 right-handed part than in that near the hand. If 
 these lower turns are pulled out, leaving only the 
 upper turns, the thong will lie as shown at B, 
 Fig. 166. 
 
 
CH. XVII DOUBLE-THONG 405 
 
 In practice, to catch the double-thong, the hand, 
 after being moved to the right, somewhat sharply 
 but steadily, that is, without a jerk, so as to give 
 
 a swing- to the bight of the thong, must 
 be turned upward a little, and sud- 
 denly stopped, so that the thong will come on the 
 proper point of the stick, the upper turn being just 
 below the knot ; if it is above the knot it may strain 
 the quill. 
 
 In all this movement, the point of the whip should 
 follow a line like this s^-*****, supposed to be marked 
 on a wall in front of the operator, but it is the turn 
 of the wrist at the end of the movement which 
 catches the thong, and that is really almost the 
 only motion made by one who is very expert. 
 
 The motion of the stick must be uniform, until 
 the stop at the end, and the thong must be left to 
 curl round the stick of itself. The thong should 
 not be struck at by the stick, as is frequently 
 done. 
 
 In all movements of the whip, whether catching 
 the thong or in hitting a horse, it must be held 
 easily in the hand, and the wrist must be free and 
 
406 DOUBLE-THONG CH. XVII 
 
 loose. It should be grasped by the whole hand 
 with all the fingers underneath ; to extend the 
 forefinger up the stick, results in an objectionable 
 stiffness. 
 
 The knack of catching the thong dextrously, or 
 even at all, can be acquired only by practice, and 
 while sometimes a lucky man will hit upon it very 
 soon, another will try without success for months, 
 when it will suddenly come to him. 
 
 After the double-thong is caught, the right hand 
 must be moved to such a position that the bight of 
 the thong will come under the thumb of the left 
 hand ; the lower turns can then be pulled out by 
 raising the right hand (for the left hand, with the 
 reins, must not be moved), and the thong having 
 been pulled down tight from the lowest of the 
 upper turns, must be held against the stick by the 
 thumb (Fig. 166, B). Some men take two or three 
 turns of the end of the thong round the whip handle 
 before placing the thumb upon it, but it is better to 
 acquire the habit of keeping it straight, since the 
 operation just described takes some time, and it is 
 not advisable to prolong it. 
 
 If the lower turns are not pulled out, the thong 
 will come unwound too readily. 
 
 If there are knots close to the end of the wrap- 
 ping of the quill, the thong, if it is soft and clinging, 
 ought to remain in its place, but it is likely to slip 
 down, and this can be prevented by putting two or 
 three more turns on the stick by a motion of the 
 
CH. XVII DOUBLE-THONG 407 
 
 wrist. If more than two turns are put on, they will 
 show in the loop, and when it is desired to hit a 
 wheeler hard, they will hold the thong more securely 
 together (see Fig. 167). 
 
 As long as the consecutive motions of catching 
 the double-thong are properly performed, it does 
 
 Fig. 167. 
 
 not make much difference in what position 
 the whip is held ; that is, it can be caught 
 to the right or to the left, directly in front 
 or overhead, and it may be necessary at 
 times to catch it in any of these positions, 
 depending upon whether or not there is anything in 
 the way, but in general, unless there is some reason 
 to the contrary, it should be caught, with the point 
 high and in front, or directly over the horses, for 
 the reason that this is the direction in which the 
 coachman's eyes should be always kept, and if he 
 is tempted to look at his whip he will still be 
 looking in the ri^ht direction. 
 
 What is sometimes called the 'whitewash act,' 
 resorted to by coachmen who have not mastered 
 the double-thong, consists in holding the whip ver- 
 tically downward on the right side of the coach, 
 and stirring it round and round until the proper 
 number of turns are obtained ; it is effective but 
 not elegant. 
 
408 USE OF THE WHIP CH. XVII 
 
 When the wind is strong from the near side of the 
 coach, or the thono- not in the best condition, the 
 turns may slip down the stick ; they may be pushed 
 back to their places by drawing the stick under the 
 thumb of the left hand, which must not be moved ; 
 but it is better to catch the thong up afresh in the 
 regular way. 
 
 Use of the Whip. — To hit a near wheeler, the 
 hand must be somewhat advanced, and the stroke 
 delivered by turning the thumb down and the outside 
 of the hand up, striking the horse on the shoulder, 
 or as far forward as possible. For an off wheeler 
 the hand is carried forward to the right and down, 
 underhanded, the back of the hand going down and 
 the fingers up. The horse should be hit on the 
 shoulders, and with the loop of the thong parallel 
 to the. line of the pole-chains, that is, as extended 
 as possible, when the thong will be less likely to 
 catch on the point of the trace, or on the point of 
 the belly-band chape. Both of these strokes are 
 made with the loop of the thong. 
 
 An off leader is easy to reach : the thong is 
 untwisted by swinging the whip on the right-hand 
 side and letting go the point just as the last turn 
 comes off. The unwound thong is then directed, 
 with the hand in the same position as for the off 
 wheeler, toward the hind legs of the horse below 
 his trace. It takes an extremely long thong to hit 
 a leader in front of his pad, and he should not 
 
CH. XVII HITTING A LEADER 409 
 
 be hit above his trace, which may make him kick ; 
 moreover, if the thong is muddy, it leaves a mark. 
 
 There are three ways of hitting a near leader : 
 The usual one is to swing the thong over the top of 
 the coach (being sure that it is swung high enough 
 to avoid striking any one on the back seat), and 
 then throwing- it out alongside of the near wheeler 
 so as to touch the leader from the outside. An- 
 other way is to pass the whip, unwound, of course, 
 to the left side of the coach, and to describe a 
 vertical circle with the thong, throwing it forward as 
 before, but not permitting any part of the thong to 
 go back behind the driving-seat. This resembles 
 what Scotch fishermen call a ' Spey-cast' with the 
 rod ; used where trees are behind the angler ; it is 
 difficult, and requires long practice. The neatest 
 way is to hit the horse from the off side, under the 
 bars, the point of the thong passing in front of 
 the wheelers and behind the off leader, catching 
 the near leader on his off hind leg. If the stroke 
 is delivered as if aimed at the kidney-link of the off 
 wheeler it will be successful. This is also a difficult 
 stroke, but so neat that it is worth acquiring, and 
 it will be hardly noticed by persons on the coach, 
 whereas, owing to their necessary amplitude, the 
 other two motions are conspicuous. 
 
 Some good coachmen recommend, and practise, 
 throwing the thong on the leaders' backs between 
 the heads of the wheelers ; possibly in certain con- 
 fined places it may be necessary, but it is a bad 
 
4IO 'HOLD AND HIT' CH. XVII 
 
 stroke ; one is almost certain to touch a wheeler in 
 bringing the thong back, or to get the point caught 
 in the harness or on the pole-head. 
 
 In touching any horse, and especially a leader, 
 the maxim 'hold and hit' must be remembered, 
 which means that the coachman must have a hold 
 on the horse's mouth, because if the horse is hit 
 while his rein is loose, he will rush forward before 
 he can be properly restrained. No crack or whistle 
 must be made with the whip ; only that horse alone 
 which is hit should know anything about it. 
 
 After a stroke the thong must be brought back by 
 lifting the point of the stick, so that the thong will 
 fall on the inside of the right arm, whence it can be 
 allowed to slip down to the hand. There will be 
 several feet of thong- hanoqno- down behind the 
 hand, and this must be pulled through the right 
 hand by the left thumb, until only a few inches 
 remain under the right thumb, when a double-thong 
 can be caught. 
 
 In brincrino- the thono- back, it must not touch 
 any horse, or trail on the ground so as to get 
 muddy. 
 
 In striking an off wheeler, the loop of the double- 
 thong may catch either in the point of the trace or 
 in the point-strap which is buckled into the false 
 belly-band, and it will be difficult to get it out ; it 
 may sometimes be released by letting the point of 
 the thong go entirely off of the stick, and then 
 pulling it through single. 
 
CH. XVII USE OF THE WHIP 4 1 I 
 
 After striking- a leader, the point may catch be- 
 tween the hook and the spring of the lead-bar, and 
 it will be generally necessary for one of the servants 
 to get down and release it ; but a series of gentle 
 jerks, or pulling back the leaders, so as to slacken 
 the lead-trace, will sometimes bring it out. To 
 order a servant to get down for the purpose of 
 clearing the thong, the coachman says, sharply, 
 'near side' or 'off side,' as the case may be. If 
 the point is wet, especially if it is of whipcord, it 
 will often lap round the hook of the lead-bar or 
 some part of the bar ; which is called : ' getting a 
 bite ;' a little jerking and coaxing will usually free 
 it. Another expression used for having the thong 
 caught is : 'getting hung up.' 
 
 Should the loop of the thong catch on a tree, the 
 whip must be quickly let go entirely, and picked up 
 afterward ; an attempt to pull it away may not only 
 break it, but possibly inflict a blow upon the occu- 
 pant of the box-seat. The balls or ornaments on 
 gateposts may catch the whip unless it is held high. 
 
 In approaching a spot where the horses may be 
 troublesome, such as under a railroad bridge, the 
 whip should be unwound, and only the point of the 
 thong held in the hand, ready for instant application 
 to a leader. In meeting a steam-roller, for instance, 
 the leaders are very apt to shy, and a quick touch 
 to the off side of the off leader will keep the leaders 
 in the road. 
 
 There is an unwritten rule of the Reunion Road 
 
412 USE OF THE WHIP CH. XVII 
 
 Club, of Paris, that any member neglecting this pre- 
 caution, of unwinding his whip, shall pay a fine of 
 one franc to every other member who may happen 
 to be on the coach. 
 
 The whip should never remain in the socket 
 (many coaches have no whip-socket, which is a good 
 plan) ; it should always be in the hand ready for 
 use, since the wheelers may need to be turned by it 
 more quickly than they can be turned by the reins ; 
 for a sharp forward movement of a wheeler, owing 
 to his pulling on the end of the splinter-bar, will 
 promptly take his side of the coach round. 
 
 In galloping, it is usually better to guide with the 
 whip than by the reins, because pulling a horse to 
 one side will take him out of his even stride or 
 cause him to change his leading leg. 
 
 It is in the management of the whip that an 
 amateur coachman is of necessity weakest, private 
 teams generally requiring more to be restrained 
 than to be urged, so that if he does not keep his 
 right hand quiet, his horses may 'get too much 
 for him ;' consequently, it is a good plan to spend 
 some spare time on foot, or on a coach-box, prac- 
 tising upon imaginary animals. 
 
 In addition to the regular whip, old coaching 
 chronicles tell of the 'short tommy,' or 'docker,' 
 and the ' apprentice :' the former appears to have 
 been a whip with a short stick and a short thong, 
 with which, on a bad hill, the coachman of a ni^ht- 
 coach, after putting his whip under his right leg, 
 
CH. XVII USE OF THE WHIP 413 
 
 would ' lay into' his wheelers, while the guard, 
 running alongside, persuaded the leaders with a 
 similar weapon. A plate by Sturgess in Harris's 
 Old Coaching Days, p. j8, illustrates the operation. 
 The ' apprentice' was more like a cat-o'-nine-tails. 
 
 On a coach which has no whip-socket, when it is 
 necessary for any temporary purpose to get the 
 whip out of the hand, the handle is put under the 
 right leg, the stick projecting horizontally to the off 
 side, an eye being kept on it, that it does not catch 
 in a tree. 
 
 Reynardson tells a story, also illustrated by 
 Alken, in Down the Road, p. 134, of 'stamping 
 the foot-board,' in which an old coachman, beine 
 in the habit of rattling his feet on the foot-board 
 whenever he used the ' short tommy,' got his horses 
 so used to the signal that as soon as they heard the 
 noise they jumped into their collars, without it being 
 necessary to apply the instrument. 
 
 The catching up of the whip in a double-thong 
 seems to date from the early part of this century, 
 but not to have become general until much later. 
 The pictures of the last century do not show it 
 (see Plate VI.). In Alken's well-known plate Three 
 blind 'uns and a bolter, published in 1833, and in a 
 plate by J. L. A., published by Watson in 1824, the 
 whip is not caught up. In a picture of a coach-and- 
 six, by Cordery, in 1803 (Coachmakers' Company, 
 London), the double-thong is shown. The books 
 are silent on the subject. 
 
414 THE SALUTE CH. XVII 
 
 The Salute. — When public-coaches meet, the 
 coachmen salute each other with the whip. In 
 early days, it was customary to move the whip-hand 
 to the right, keeping it low, as shown at A, Plate 
 XXXI. ; later, it became the fashion to raise the hand 
 to the level of the face, as at B ; and finally, about 
 fifteen years ago, the manner shown at C, which 
 resembles a soldier's 'present sabre,' was adopted. 
 Corbett (p. 248) calls the oldest fashion : ' a neat 
 meeting,' and the second one : 'a muffish meeting - .' 
 
 A person driving a private coach should always 
 make a salute with the whip to a public-coach, when 
 meeting one. If there are ladies with whom he is 
 acquainted, on a coach, he should raise his hat, 
 passing his whip into his left hand. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to say that a man when 
 driving should always take oft his hat to a lady ; it 
 is in bad taste merely to raise his whip in place of 
 so doing. If he has not hands enough to spare one 
 for his hat, he should continue to practise driving, 
 until he can find one. 
 
 Note to page 391. — Since the issue of the early copies of this 
 edition, I have been told that the so-called rabbit-bitten hollies are 
 not really bitten by rabbits, but that the irregularities are the result 
 of injuries to the bark produced artificially by cutting. 
 
 After correspondence with several persons who ought to be familiar 
 with the subject, I understand that rabbits and sometimes rats, do 
 make the marks, but that they are also made with the knife on the 
 growing shoot, for the purpose of producing the well-known sticks. 
 In both cases the wounds of the bark are healed by growth and their 
 edges rounded into the forms which are familiar to us. 
 
m 
 
 > 
 
 

 
 
 lie-coaches meet, the 
 i oth te whip, 
 
 earj the whip-hand 
 
 Plate 
 a me t 
 
 ft han 
 
 ,en 
 it 
 
 iie 
 >uld continue to . 
 
 aise the hand 
 
 out 
 
 iich 
 
 I led. 
 
 i 
 
 
H 
 I 
 m 
 
 to 
 
 > 
 
 r~ 
 c 
 H 
 m 
 
 > 
 
 -1 
 m 
 
 x 
 x 
 
 X 
 
ch. xviii 4 T 5 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 THE MEN: THEIR DUTIES AND DRESS 
 
 On a private coach there should be two servants : 
 a first and second groom, or coachman and groom. 
 The head man sits on the off side in the rumble, the 
 other man on the near side. When the owner is not 
 driving, as, for instance, when the coachman brings 
 the coach from the stable to the door, the second 
 man keeps his place in the rumble on the near side. 
 After coming to the door, the second man goes 
 immediately to the heads of the leaders and stands 
 in front of them facing the coach, taking hold of their 
 heads if necessary, and straightening them forward ; 
 the leaders, on stopping, are very apt to hang back 
 and to be too near the end of the pole. Their 
 traces should be nearly tight, and while they stand, 
 the man at their heads should see that they are al- 
 ways in their proper places. The coachman quietly 
 puts on the brake, gets down immediately, with the 
 reins and whip in his right hand, draws the reins 
 through the point-strap above the tug-buckle (in 
 the manner shown in Fig. 168), lays the whip across 
 the backs of the wheelers, and then stands at the 
 wheelers' heads on the off side. 
 
 Should there be only men going on the coach, 
 and the ladder is not required, the man who is at 
 
416 
 
 DUTIES OF THE MEN 
 
 CH. XVIII 
 
 Fig, 168. 
 
 the wheelers' heads remains at his place ; if the 
 ladder is to be used, it is his duty to take it down 
 and put it in position, and also to get out any rugs, 
 
 aprons, &c, that may be 
 required. As soon as he 
 has finished these duties he 
 returns to his station on the 
 off side. 
 
 Meanwhile, the second 
 man, at the heads of the 
 leaders, must be looking 
 toward the coach, and at a 
 nod from the person driving 
 he moves to his right, that 
 is, to the near side, and takes three or four steps 
 toward the coach ; at the same time the head man 
 takes a step forward, which brings him opposite to 
 the second man. 
 
 As the coach passes them, they take hold of the 
 irons supporting the rumble, and putting up the 
 inside foot first, mount to the back seat as nearly 
 as possible simultaneously. 
 
 On stopping, they immediately descend, and take 
 their places, as before, at the horses' heads ; but if 
 a lady is to get down, the head man brings the 
 ladder. 
 
 Both men should be on the alert to get down 
 in case of an accident or if their services are really 
 required, but they should not jump down and run 
 to the horses at every temporary block in the street, 
 
CH. XVIII DUTIES OF THE MEN 417 
 
 as if the coachman were not competent to manage 
 his horses. 
 
 All the men about a four-in-hand establishment 
 should be carefully instructed that, should a team 
 suddenly start, the proper way to stop it is by 
 seizing the heads of the wheel horses; there is 
 always an impulse on the part of bystanders to 
 rush to the heads of the leaders ; if they succeed 
 in stopping them, the point of the pole runs into 
 the leaders' rumps, resulting in confusion worse 
 confounded. It is the wheelers alone that can 
 hold the coach ; if they are stopped, the leaders 
 can do but little. Therefore, the proper thing is 
 to reach the wheelers first, and bring them under 
 control. 
 
 When wheelers are troublesome, the man at their 
 heads can hold them by taking all four of their 
 reins in his hand, about two feet from the bits, and 
 every man should be shown how he can hold all 
 four horses at once, by taking in his hand, or in both 
 hands, the leaders' reins in addition, — a much safer 
 way than merely standing at the leaders' heads 
 when there is no one to look after the wheelers. 
 
 In large establishments, the head coachman fre- 
 quently brings the coach to the door, but goes no 
 further, in which case, the two grooms come round 
 in the rumble, and take their stations as above 
 described. Under these circumstances, the head 
 coachman is not in livery. He places the ladder 
 and discharges the duties described above as be- 
 
 ^7 
 
4i8 
 
 DRESS OF THE MEN 
 
 CH. XVIII 
 
 longing to the head man, and the principal groom 
 remains at the wheelers' heads. 
 
 When, as at races and picnics, a stable-man out 
 of livery is taken inside the coach to help with 
 the horses, he does not do any of the duties just 
 described, but assists immediately in taking out 
 the horses, holding them, running the coach into 
 position, etc. 
 
 Dress. — The men should be dressed in breeches 
 and boots, with sinole-breasted coats not too long in 
 the skirt, waistcoats of the striped material especially 
 made for the purpose, known as 'Valencia,' or of 
 any coloured material that is desired. The waist- 
 coats should have sleeves, so that the men will look 
 neat if their coats are taken off to do any work ; the 
 waistcoats should be high enough to show an edge 
 in the opening of the coat when this is buttoned. 
 
 The scarf should be white ; there is a regular 
 form of coachman's scarf, sometimes combined with 
 a collar, which is sold by dealers (Fig. 
 169). The scarf and collar must be 
 always scrupulously clean, and it looks 
 well for the two men to wear small horse- 
 shoe scarf-pins exactly alike. 
 
 The hio-h silk hat should be in the mean 
 of the fashion, and not exaggerated, 
 but always of the best quality and never shabby. 
 The oil-cloth covers, sometimes provided for rainy 
 weather, are not satisfactory : they rub the hat when 
 
 Fig. 169. 
 
CH. XVIII DRESS OF THE MEN 419 
 
 they are being put on, and are heavy. A good silk 
 hat is not much hurt by rain, if, after coming home, 
 it is wet all over and wiped with a wet cloth. After 
 it is quite dry, it should be brushed with a hard 
 brush, and then with a soft one or a velvet pad ; 
 some coachmen keep a hatter's iron in the harness- 
 room to improve it still further. 
 
 Cockades are worn in the men's hats only when 
 the owner of the coach is, or has been, an Officer 
 of the Army or Navy, or in the Diplomatic Service. 
 It is usually considered that the cockade with a fan 
 belongs to military officers, and the cockade with 
 only the oval body, to Civil Servants of the Gov- 
 ernment.* 
 
 Tan-coloured dog-skin gloves complete the cos- 
 tume ; the gloves should not be white. 
 
 A coachman's coat has flaps on the hips where 
 pockets would be ; a groom's coat has not. The 
 buttons are silver or gilt, corresponding to the 
 mountings of the harness, and should have, raised 
 on them, a monogram or crest ; a perfectly plain 
 metal button suggests a livery stable. The tails of 
 
 * The cockade probably originated with the button used to fasten 
 up the brim of the hat, and seems to have been confined at first to 
 the military servants of Army officers ; it has, for a long time, been 
 a badge of party, as the white, the red, and the tricolour cockades of 
 French history and the black or white cockades of the Houses of 
 Hanover or Stuart. The cockades of Embassy and Legation ser- 
 vants have different colours : for Austria they are black and yellow, 
 for Belgium, black, yellow, and red, etc. 
 
420 DRESS OF THE MEN CH. XVIII 
 
 a livery coat, where they lap over, should be sewed 
 together for a distance of about five inches below 
 the buttons, to prevent them from spreading apart 
 when the man is seated. The overcoat is double- 
 breasted, with two rows of buttons, and should be 
 long, — half-way between the knee and the ankle. 
 It is usually of the same colour as the other coat, 
 but it is perfectly proper to have it of drab cloth, 
 whatever the other coat may be. 
 
 The men should always have india-rubber coats, 
 preferably black and with a cloth finish, not with a 
 rubber surface, which looks common. 
 
 For ordinary carriage purposes, the men have 
 trousers of the same colour as the coats, but trousers 
 should not be worn on a coach, with livery coats ; 
 always breeches and boots. 
 
 In a well mounted establishment the men should 
 have, in addition to their liveries, morning suits, 
 consisting- of a sack coat, waistcoat, and trousers, of 
 grey or light brown material, that known to tailors 
 as ' Chipping Norton tweed,' being the most suitable. 
 
 These clothes are worn when the coach is taken 
 out in the morning, or on a journey, or for trying a 
 team. Instead of ordinary trousers, breeches and 
 gaiters, all of the same stuff, may be worn, but 
 trousers are the best on a journey, not being so con- 
 spicuous when the men are walking about a town. 
 
 The hats worn with these suits are Derby or 
 pot-hats, either of the colour of the cloth, or black, 
 but both of exactly the same shape. The white tie 
 
CH. XVIII DRESS OF THE MEN 42 I 
 
 and collar are of course necessary. The coat 
 belonging to this suit may be put on after ar- 
 riving at a race-course or a horse-show, in place 
 of the livery coat, and it looks very ' smart' on 
 such occasions over the breeches and boots. The 
 pot-hat must be worn with it, having been taken 
 out in the coach. 
 
 The colour of the boot-tops is a matter of taste, 
 and varies with fashion from time to time, but the 
 regular old dark brown is much the best, the pink 
 and the white having a less sporting look. 
 
 The breeches, to look well, must be made by the 
 best maker and carefully put on, the buttons not too 
 much to one side, but half-way round between the 
 front and the side. They should not be too tight, 
 but must not be at all baggy above the knee, as 
 hunting-breeches are now made. In fact, livery- 
 breeches and huntino-breeches are altogether dif- 
 ferent articles. Breeches made of leather are 
 handsome and last for a long time, but they are 
 expensive, require a great deal of care, and should 
 be in duplicate, because when they get wet it is 
 difficult to dry them in time for next day's use. 
 The pipeclay with which they are cleaned, rubs off 
 on the cushions and is a little untidy. 
 
 Breeches are perhaps better made of moleskin, 
 an elastic cassimere, which comes for the purpose. 
 This may be pure white, but it usually has a slight 
 grey tinge, which is quite as pleasing as a dazzling 
 white. They are kept clean by washing, and must 
 
42 2 DRESS OF THE OWNER CH. XVIII 
 
 be dried on a breeches-stretcher, or they will soon 
 get out of shape. A careful man will have an 
 apron to keep his breeches clean, when doing any 
 work in the stable after he is dressed. 
 
 It is usual in Europe, for coachmen and grooms 
 to have their own boots and breeches, which they 
 take with them in changing a place. It is a custom 
 that might be introduced to advantage in America, 
 inasmuch as these articles are expensive items if 
 they have to be furnished frequently for new men. 
 Of course, wages have to be adjusted to compen- 
 sate the man for providing this part of his dress. 
 
 The owner's dress for coaching hardly demands 
 remark ; it is the same that he would wear for any 
 driving. For the coat, a dark grey is suitable, and 
 shows dust less than black. The tails should be 
 sewed together as described for the men's coats. 
 A high hat should be worn in the afternoon, but a 
 pot-hat is proper in the morning (unless the occasion 
 is a formal one), and is also proper in the country 
 at any time of day, or on any kind of coaching 
 trip. 
 
 In the early days of The Coaching Club, in New 
 York, the members wore white hats at the Meets ; 
 but later this was changed, and now black hats are 
 worn. Ten or fifteen years ago it was considered 
 the proper thing for a lady, on a coach, to wear a 
 bonnet, but now the rule is relaxed and hats are in 
 the majority. 
 
 Tan-coloured gloves are the proper thing for 
 
CH. XVIII GLOVES 423 
 
 driving ; light or white gloves never. If a coach- 
 man wishes to be happy, he will have large gloves, 
 easy about the wrist, and with very long fingers. If 
 they are short, the bending of the hand will pull the 
 glove against the ends of the fingers, which they 
 will tire and make perfectly numb in cold weather. 
 A glove is sometimes left unbuttoned at the wrist, 
 but this permits the glove to slip about and to 
 catch on the cuff of the coat ; it is much better to 
 have it large at the wrist, or the buttons so moved 
 as to make it easy. Some men like a thin glove, 
 but the majority of coachmen find a thick, soft 
 glove the most comfortable, and for hard work, 
 I like a soft lined glove. It is somewhat a question 
 of thin or fat hands. 
 
 A pair of cotton, or thin woollen gloves should 
 always be carried either in the coach or in the 
 pocket of the waterproof cape, to put on over 
 the other gloves when it rains ; when wet, leather 
 gloves are slippery and most uncomfortable. 
 
 After gloves have been wet, a thorough rubbing 
 with crown soap well worked in will make them all 
 right again. 
 
 For cold weather there is nothing better than the 
 ordinary drab cloth box-coat, easy, but not too 
 large, double-breasted, buttoning up close in the 
 neck. It may have covered buttons to match the 
 cloth, or pearl buttons, plain and not too large. 
 
 A cape, either of drab cloth or of some water- 
 proof material, large enough to lie outside of the 
 
424 
 
 DRIVING CAPE 
 
 CH. XVIII 
 
 top of the apron and over the back of the driving 
 cushion, so as to shed the rain off outside, is con- 
 venient for showery weather. Any shape of water- 
 proof thing which leads the rain down inside of the 
 apron and into the lap is maddening. 
 
 A cape with sleeves (Fig. 1 70) I have found 
 useful. It can be thrown over the shoulders like 
 a cape, while driving, and the arms, one at a time, 
 
 thrust into the sleeves afterward ; 
 the sleeve is short and very large 
 at its upper end, so that the hand 
 readily slips into it, but it fits 
 tight around the wrist. To put 
 on, while driving, an ordinary 
 coat with long sleeves, is a dan- 
 gerous experiment ; for some 
 moments the coachman is per- 
 fectly helpless. 
 
 For public coaching a some- 
 what more ' down-the-road' style 
 of dress may be adopted. It is proper for the 
 coachman to wear a white hat, which may be rather 
 low in the crown and wide in the brim, but not 
 extravagantly so. 
 
 Russet-leather shoes with white linen spats are 
 not out of place in summer ; blackened leather 
 shoes, which soil the apron, are objectionable. 
 
 A white hunting- scarf and collar, with some kind 
 of a coaching pin, is the best neckgear. 
 
 A dark-grey coat is good ; as is also, for cold 
 
 Fig. 170. 
 
CH. XVIII DRESS OF THE WHIP CLUB 425 
 
 weather, a drab box-coat with large pearl, or ivory 
 buttons, on which a coaching device is engraved. 
 
 In wet weather, an apron which can be buckled 
 round the waist, reaching to the ankles and meet- 
 ing behind, is a good protection, and if the coat or 
 cape is put on over it, it is hardly possible for the 
 rain to penetrate ; it must be confessed that in this 
 garb, the coachman, when on the ground, looks 
 somewhat like an old woman. 
 
 In the early part of this century in England, 
 when ' the road' was the fashion, not only the pro- 
 fessional coachmen but the amateurs who imitated 
 them, affected many eccentricities of dress. Coats 
 of many capes, very low broad-brimmed hats, and 
 voluminous wrappings about the neck were the 
 rage, and Lord William Lennox {Coaching, p. 
 202) gives the following description of the dress 
 of a member of ' The Whip Club' : ' A light drab- 
 4 coloured cloth coat, made full, single-breasted, with 
 ' three tiers of pockets, the skirts reaching to the 
 1 ankles, a mother-o'-pearl button of the size of a 
 4 crown-piece ; waiscoat blue and yellow stripe, each 
 ' stripe an inch in depth ; smallclothes, corded silk 
 4 plush, made to button over the calf of the leg, with 
 ' sixteen strings, and rosettes to each knee ; the 
 ' boots very short, and finished with very broad 
 ' straps, which hung over the tops and down to the 
 4 ankle ; a hat three inches and a half deep in the 
 4 crown only, and the same depth in the brim. Each 
 4 wore a large bouquet of flowers at the breast, 
 
426 CLUB UNIFORMS CH. XVIII 
 
 ' resembling the coachmen of the nobility on a 
 ' Drawing-room or Levee day.' 
 
 In the present day the ' Driving' and ' Coaching 
 Clubs' of London, New York, Philadelphia, and 
 elsewhere have a distinctive uniform for Meets, 
 but it is simple, consisting of a plain dark coat of 
 green, brown, or blue, with gilt buttons with the 
 club device, a uniform waistcoat, and plain trousers 
 of any colour. Usually a dress-coat of the same 
 cloth, for evening wear, is prescribed. 
 
CH. XIX 427 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 
 PUBLIC COACHING 
 
 Driving a coach on the road between fixed points, 
 according to a regular time-table, with changes of 
 horses, in imitation of old-fashioned business coach- 
 ing, has a great fascination for the coaching man, 
 and with good reason. It bears much the same re- 
 lation to taking an afternoon drive at one's leisure, 
 that playing an instrument in an orchestra bears to 
 practising solos at home. In the latter case mis- 
 takes are easily corrected, movements may be re- 
 peated ; if one passage is not interesting another 
 can be selected ; but in an orchestra, when once 
 started, the performer must go on, time must be 
 kept, everything must be according to rule, with no 
 chance to correct omissions or mistakes. 
 
 In fact, a coachman never detects how little he 
 knows until he undertakes to drive a fast public- 
 coach, or a musician until he tries his hand in con- 
 certed pieces. In an afternoon drive in the park, 
 if the reins are not quite right, if one horse pulls, 
 if any one of many inaccuracies troubles the coach- 
 man, he can stop, try experiments, and re-arrange 
 matters, and as he has no time to keep, he is not 
 afraid of losing any ; but on a fast public-coach it is 
 very different : it is usually all that the teams can 
 
428 PUBLIC COACHING CH. XIX 
 
 do, to get over their ground in the time allotted ; 
 there is no opportunity to slow down in order to 
 cool a fretful leader ; if he will gallop, he has to 
 gallop, or else to be handled with such skill as to 
 bring him down to a trot without materially dimin- 
 ishing the pace ; for minutes are precious. In a 
 coach timed at ten miles an hour including changes, 
 very close to eleven miles an hour must be made 
 while moving, and a minute or two lost, by stopping 
 or going slow, is hard to make up ; so that whether 
 the team is going pleasantly or most disagreeably, 
 there is nothing to do but to make the best of it, 
 and to notice carefully how things may be improved 
 on the run back, or on the next day. Horses have 
 to be shifted from one stage to another to make the 
 best use of them or to counteract their peculiarities. 
 Some horses go best in town, others in the country, 
 a bad wheeler may make a good leader, changing 
 sides may turn a troublesome horse into a good 
 one, and all these matters are interesting and re- 
 quire judgement on the part of the coachman. 
 
 Ouickness at the changes, smartness of the service 
 generally, attention to small details by all persons 
 employed, are points which interest the proprietor 
 and please the connoisseur ; and the coachman 
 never knows but that in his load of strangers there 
 may be a master of the craft, who will express his 
 opinion, on the spot or at a future time. 
 
 The mere driving is of itself much more interest- 
 ing than that of a simple afternoon outing : every 
 
CH. XIX PUBLIC COACHING 429 
 
 mile of the road must be carefully studied ; a little 
 piece down-hill must be used to make time and to 
 compensate for a loss on another part, where for 
 some reason the pace has to be reduced ; a sharp 
 turn at the bottom of a hill must be remembered, 
 and the horses kept well in hand as they approach 
 it ; the exact minute of passing each point must be 
 learned by experience, in order that there shall be 
 no uncertainty as to whether or not the coach is on 
 time ; the pace on certain parts must be sometimes 
 modified, depending upon the weather, so that a 
 long hill may be taken slowly on a hot day with the 
 wind behind, even at the cost of increased speed 
 over some less trying stretch. A careful study of 
 these conditions makes a road more and more 
 interesting- the oftener it is driven over. 
 
 Added to all this, the variety of passengers that 
 the coachman finds on a public coach is very enter- 
 taining, and there is something- so exhilarating in the 
 motion behind four horses, through the fresh air, 
 that even stupid people wake up and for once 
 make themselves agreeable. 
 
 If a coachman is lucky enough to get a day's turn 
 on a strange coach, on a road new to him, it is most 
 interesting. His only guide as to time will be the 
 pace as determined by a study of the time-table, and 
 he must, therefore, depend upon his own judgement 
 of the rate at which his horses are going, and upon 
 an occasional hint from the guard, as to whether or 
 not he is keeping his time. 
 
430 PUBLIC COACHING CH. XIX 
 
 Under such circumstances the loss of even a few 
 minutes makes it necessary for a coachman to use 
 all his skill to enable him to pull up at his change 
 on time. 
 
 In England the construction of good roads toward 
 the latter part of the last century, the love of coun- 
 try life and its amusements, and the thickly popu- 
 lated state of the country, made travelling by coach 
 a pleasure as well as a business. 
 
 The same kind of talent now bestowed upon rail- 
 way management, was then devoted to coaching, 
 and in connection with the Post-Office system, the 
 Government exercised, with an almost military uni- 
 formity, a rigid supervision over the service. Able 
 and highly placed people were interested in it, as a 
 business. Country gentlemen furnished horses for 
 this important service, and went frequently over 
 their roads, often themselves driving, for the pur- 
 pose of seeing that everything was done properly. 
 A fierce competition as to speed and punctuality 
 sprang up on the important roads, and every de- 
 tail was duly considered by the most competent 
 persons, often under Government penalties as to 
 performance of contracts. It was this series of 
 conditions, lasting through a period of nearly fifty 
 years, that made English coaching the thorough 
 and complete system that it was : the standard 
 for what has now changed from a serious business 
 to an amusement. 
 
 That many men fond of fresh air and horses 
 
CH. XIX DRIVING CLUBS 43 1 
 
 should have availed themselves of the opportunities 
 which the public-coaches afforded of gratifying this 
 fondness was natural, and many an amateur, as 
 skilful as the best professional, passed pleasant 
 hours on the driving cushion. 
 
 After 1835, however, the locomotive came rapidly 
 upon the scene, and one by one the coaches disap- 
 peared, the coachmen dropped into other employ- 
 ments, and four-in-hand driving bade fair to become 
 one of the lost arts. Its traditions were kept up, 
 however, by the Driving Clubs, the earliest of 
 which, The Bensington Driving Club, was formed 
 in 1807. Other clubs, the histories of which are 
 pleasantly told in the volume on Driving, of the 
 Badminton Library, were formed and dissolved, 
 but the ' B. D. C lasted until 1854. There seems 
 to have been a short gap until 1856, when The 
 Four-in-Hand Driving Club was formed, but ac- 
 cording to the annals, this gap was filled by a 
 solitary coachman, Sir Henry Peyton, who, with 
 his yellow coach and grey horses, was a well known 
 figure on the London streets. 
 
 From 1856 until 1870 The Four-in-Hand Club 
 kept Coaching in memory, and in 1870 The 
 Coaching Club was formed in London with a larger 
 number of members, and both clubs now maintain 
 a vigorous existence. 
 
 The Brighton Road, always famous in the annals 
 of coaching, had on it, in different years, some public- 
 coaches, notably 'The Age,' driven first by Clark, 
 
43 2 COACHING REVIVAL CH. XIX 
 
 and in 1862 by the Duke of Beaufort; and others 
 run in 1866, and afterward, by a band of amateurs, 
 among them Messrs Angell, Haworth, Chandos- 
 Pole, and Hoare, whose names appear frequently 
 in coaching- annals. 
 
 About 1869 and 1870, at the time of what is 
 usually called the 'Coaching Revival,' amateur 
 coaching increased in England, and has since then 
 spread to America, and to the Continent. 
 
 Although four horses were used a great deal in 
 America in Colonial days and later, both for public 
 coaches and for private travelling, there does not 
 seem to be any mention in the memoirs of the period 
 of driving as an amusement. The roads were too 
 bad to make driving much of a pleasure, and lovers 
 of the horse preferred to enjoy themselves in the 
 saddle. 
 
 In 1^60, a coach, built by May & Jacobs, of Guil- 
 ford, England, was sent to Mr Bigelow Lawrence, 
 of Boston ; this was probably the first regular Eng- 
 lish coach in America, unless some had been sent 
 out in Colonial times. This coach afterward went 
 to New York. 
 
 It was not until after 1865 that a few four-in-hands 
 driven to brakes or barouches were seen at races in 
 the neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia ; 
 but from that date they rapidly increased in number, 
 and the establishment of 'The Coaching Club,' at 
 New York, in 1875, aided materially in increasing 
 the taste for the sport. 
 
CH. XIX PUTTING A COACH ON THE ROAD 433 
 
 In 1876 Colonel A. DeLancey Kane, who in the 
 previous year had driven in England, working the 
 road from London to Virginia Water, put on the 
 first amateur public-coach in America, running from 
 The Brunswick Hotel, New York, to Pelham Bridge. 
 This was succeeded by others in different parts of 
 the United States, some of which are mentioned 
 below. 
 
 Putting a Coach on the Road. — It is well 
 understood among coaching men that the person 
 who has been working a certain road has a right to 
 that road, and it is not in accordance with coaching 
 etiquette for any one else to put a coach upon it, 
 or upon any important part of it, without having 
 first obtained permission of the original proprietor, 
 or the assurance from him that he does not intend to 
 occupy the road that season. This matter having 
 been arranged, or a vacant road selected, the next 
 thing is to go over the road and to study it carefully. 
 
 In modern public coaching the distance to be run 
 is usually such that a coach starting at a convenient 
 hour in the morning can have time for lunch at the 
 end of the route and get back to its starting-place 
 late in the afternoon ; or a longer route is chosen 
 which requires all day, the coach going down one 
 day and back the next. 
 
 In the first case, starting at ten, a thirty-mile drive 
 at ten miles an hour will allow two hours for lunch, 
 
 with a return to the starting-place by six o'clock. 
 
 28 
 
434 COACHING ROUTES CH. XIX 
 
 The hours of some well-known coaches are given 
 as examples ; the distances are one way : — 
 
 Brunswick Hotel, New York, to Pelham Bridge, 
 Down 10 a.m. to 11.30 a.m. 15.5 miles. 
 
 Up 4 p.m. to 5.30 P.M. 
 
 Brunswick Hotel, New York, to Yonkers, 
 
 Down 11.30 a.m. to 1. 1 5 P.M. 18 miles. 
 
 Up 3.25 P.M. tO 5.IO P.M. 
 
 Holland House, New York, to Ardsley Casino, 
 
 Down 10 a.m. to 12.30 p.m. 25.8 miles. 
 
 Up 3.30 p.m. to 6 P.M. 
 Berkeley Hotel, London, to Guildford, 
 
 Down 11 a.m. to 2 p.m. 28.5 miles. 
 
 Up 4 p.m. to 7 P.M. 
 Northumberland Avenue, London, to Box Hill, 
 
 Down 11 a.m. to 2 p.m. 25 miles. 
 
 Up 4 P.M. tO / P.M. 
 
 Northumberland Avenue, London, to Virginia Water, 
 
 Down 10.45 A - M - to 2 P - M - 2 6-5 miles. 
 
 Up 3.30 p.m. to 6.50 P.M. 
 Northumberland Avenue, London, to Windsor, 
 
 Down 10.30 a.m. to 1.30 p.m. 30 miles. 
 
 Up 3.40 p.m. to 6.40 P.M. 
 Northumberland Avenue, London, to Dorking, 
 
 Down 10.45 A - M - to r «45 P - M - 2 9 m ^ es - 
 
 Up 3.15 p.m. to 6.15 p.m. 
 New York Herald Office, Paris, to Cernay-la-Yille, 
 Down 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. 29 miles. 
 
 Up 3.05 p.m. to 6.05 p.m. 
 
CH. XIX COACHING ROUTES 435 
 
 New York Herald Office, Paris, to Pontoise, 
 
 Down 10 a.m. to 12.45 P - M - 2 6-3 miles. 
 
 Up 3.30 p.m. to 6.15 P.M. 
 New York Herald Office, Paris, to Maisons-Laffitte, 
 
 Down 10.30 a.m. to 12.30 p.m. 19.4 miles. 
 
 Up 3 p.m. to 5 p.m. 
 New York Herald Office, Paris, to Versailles, 
 
 Down 10.45 A - M - to I2 -3° P - M - x 4-5 miles. 
 
 Up 4.30 P.M. to 6 P.M. (Different Road) 12.5 miles. 
 
 The following routes are arranged for one day 
 down and another day up : — 
 
 Plaza Hotel, New York, to Tuxedo Park, 
 
 Down 9.45 a.m. to 5.15 p.m. 47.5 miles. 
 
 Up IO.3O A.M. tO 5.3O P.M. 
 
 White Horse Cellar, Piccadilly, London, to Brighton, 
 Down 1 1 a.m. to 5 p.m. 54 miles. 
 
 Up 12 A.M. tO 6 P.M. 
 
 New York Herald Office, Paris, to Fontainebleau, 
 Down 11 a.m. to 6 p.m. 60 miles. 
 
 Up 1 1 a.m. to 6 P.M. 
 
 On these long routes there is always a stop of 
 from 35 to 40 minutes for luncheon. 
 
 The lengths of the stages, of course, depend 
 largely upon the places where stabling can be ob- 
 tained for the change-horses. If they are of less 
 than five miles, the time lost at the changes will 
 not be made up by the increased speed which the 
 shorter stages permit, to say nothing of the larger 
 
436 LENGTHS OF STAGES CH. XIX 
 
 number of horses and men to be kept, and if they 
 much exceed eight miles, they cannot be travelled 
 so fast. An ideal road is one with eood stabling- 
 every seven miles. On a twenty-eight mile road 
 this would require four teams, or sixteen horses, 
 but as each stage should have at least one extra 
 horse to fill vacancies caused by lameness or acci- 
 dent, twenty horses in all would be required as a 
 minimum, and, if the pace is at all fast, four more 
 horses, to rest the others, would be necessary. 
 
 It is usually considered that a fast coach, running- 
 out and in, should have a horse to each mile of 
 road ; that is, for a coach going once a day each 
 way, between two places thirty miles apart, thirty 
 horses will be required. 
 
 This will w T ork out as follows, each team doing two 
 stages a day, one each way : — 
 
 Stages five miles ; one rest-horse to each team. 
 30 ms., 6 stages ; 24 horses -j- 6 rest = 30. 
 
 Stages six miles. 
 
 30 ms., 5 stages ; 20 horses -j- 5 rest = 25. 
 A horse to the mile would mve two rest-horses to 
 each team. 
 
 Stages seven and a half miles. 
 30 ms., 4 stages ; 16 horses -f 4 rest= 20. 
 A horse to the mile would give 7%Vz rest-horses to 
 each team. 
 
CH. XIX LENGTHS OF STAGES 437 
 
 Beginning with five-mile stages, a horse to the 
 mile will give one rest-horse to each team, and 
 when the lengths of the stages are increased to 
 six, and to seven and a half miles, the number of 
 rest-horses to each team is increased to two, and to 
 three and a half, respectively. 
 
 It may, therefore, be a matter for consideration 
 whether to have shorter stages or more rest-horses, 
 a question obviously controlled by the location of 
 the chance-stables. 
 
 The Maisons-Laffitte coach of 1894, doing igj4 
 miles, with four teams, in two hours each way, or 39 
 miles in the day, ran for six weeks with twenty 
 horses, several of them being replaced for a day or 
 two by hired horses owing to slight causes of unfit- 
 ness. This was a fast coach, always well loaded, 
 running six days in the week, and in warm weather ; 
 five miles of the road not very good. 
 
 It is sometimes a question whether or not the last 
 team down the road should do the last two stages as 
 one, a fresh team bringing the coach back over those 
 two stages. This arrangement will require the same 
 number of horses, but the location of the stable for 
 the last change must be such as to reduce those two 
 stages together to a distance of not over twelve 
 miles. 
 
 A twenty-eight mile road, for example, would 
 be usually divided as follows : first stage 7 miles, 
 second stage 8 miles, third stage 7 miles, and fourth 
 stage 6 miles, each team doing one stage each way. 
 
43§ LENGTHS OF STAGES CH. XIX 
 
 The last stage should always be the shortest, if 
 possible, since the team which does it has the least 
 time to rest between its two turns of work. 
 
 This might be modified as follows : first stage 
 8 miles, second stage 8 miles, leaving 12 miles to be 
 done by the last team, which will, however, have a 
 long rest ; that is, until it is required to take the coach 
 back the next day ; this last stage being done back 
 by the fresh team which came out the day before. 
 
 This is not an uncommon arrangement, and has 
 the advantage of suppressing one stable with its 
 attendant helpers ; but, as a rule, the horses of the 
 long stage are not quite so pleasant to drive, espe- 
 cially in warm weather ; they are somewhat tired 
 toward the end of it, but they will be entirely 
 rested by their long stop in the stable and come out 
 fresh the next day. 
 
 To give an example from actual practice. The 
 coach from Paris to Maisons-Laffitte in 1894, was, 
 in the beginning of the season, arranged as follows, 
 the proprietors of the previous season having so 
 run it : First stage : Paris to Suresnes, 5.6 miles, 
 35 minutes, town team ; second stage : Suresnes to 
 Bougival, 5.3 miles, ^ minutes; third stage: Bou- 
 gival to Maisons-Laffitte, 8.5 miles, 52 minutes, a 
 five-minutes' stop being made on the terrace at 
 St. Germain. The last team remained at Maisons- 
 Laffitte, a fresh team bringing the coach back after 
 lunch to Bougival. 
 
 It was found, however, that the last team, after 
 
CH. XIX LENGTHS OF STAGES 439 
 
 the stop at St. Germain, was not so pleasant to 
 drive as on the first part of the stage, especially as 
 it had surmounted a long, steep hill to reach that 
 point. The arrangement was therefore altered ; and 
 a stable was equipped at St. Germain, so that the 
 last change was made there, and the horses which 
 did the last stage to Maisons-Laffitte took the coach 
 back to St. Germain, no horses or men remaining 
 at Maisons-Laffitte overnight. A man from the St. 
 Germain stable was taken in the coach to Maisons- 
 Laffitte to attend to the horses while they spent 
 their two and a half hours there at noon ; he was 
 assisted by a local stable-man, and replaced by a 
 local man at St. Germain. 
 
 This arrangement was a decided improvement ; 
 the last team was fresh and pleasant to drive both 
 ways. It took no more horses, and only required 
 accommodation in an additional stable for the noon 
 rest, and the services of one additional man, or of 
 two local men for half a day each. 
 
 As this coach ran in warm weather and was fast 
 (19.4 miles in 109 minutes driving time, or 10.7 miles 
 an hour), the fresh horses at St. Germain were very 
 welcome, and since the original time-table provided 
 for a stop of five minutes there, no time was lost by 
 the chanore. 
 
 The examples of twelve miles for a last stage, 
 and of this Maisons-Laffitte time-table, are the ex- 
 tremes, since the former gives a somewhat long 
 stage and those of the latter are very short. 
 
44-0 LENGTHS OF STAGES CH. XIX 
 
 A long stage, with two teams to work it, may be 
 convenient in the middle of a route, if the stables are 
 so situated that a uniform division is not possible. 
 
 Inasmuch as street work in a large city is more 
 trying to the horses than work in the country, and 
 since the horses of the end stage have only a short 
 rest between their work, these two stages (in a city, 
 and at the end) should be shorter than the stages 
 of the middle ground. 
 
 The divisions have been, thus far, considered as 
 if the road were of the same character throughout, 
 but four miles of bad or hilly road may be as tiring 
 as eio;ht of the best, and the distribution of stages 
 must be made accordingly. On a hilly road, where 
 the pace must be slow, a long stage may be made, 
 for ' it is the pace that kills.' 
 
 Four Swiss vetturino horses will take a laro-e car- 
 riage thirty-five miles a day, over heavy mountain 
 grades, at a slow walk when going up, and they will 
 travel twenty-five miles a day regularly, but they go 
 very slowly ; while an average coach team, timed at 
 ten miles an hour, will find two seven-mile stages 
 a day quite enough. 
 
 An active team to a drag; should be able to do 
 nine miles an hour steadily for two hours on good 
 level roads without fatigue, but that is too much 
 work to be continued, at that pace, day after day. 
 Three hours at seven miles an hour, would not be so 
 much work, although the distance would be greater. 
 
 On a hilly road, the time of any one stage need 
 
CH. XIX LENGTHS OF STAGES 44 1 
 
 not be each way the same ; if it is all up-hill one 
 way, it will be all down-hill the other, and the time 
 lost in going up and that gained in coming down 
 must be properly apportioned to the other parts of 
 the road. 
 
 Owing to the wide-spread fondness in the United 
 States, for trotting, an average team of American 
 horses will undoubtedly get over the ground at a 
 faster pace without galloping than the horses usu- 
 ally to be found in England or France, nevertheless 
 it may be desirable to arrange for one galloping- 
 stage on a road. Such a stage is usually very 
 attractive to the passengers, and on it horses may 
 be used which cannot, or will not, trot pleasantly. 
 This stage should be rather level ; it is hard work 
 for horses to gallop up-hill, and it may be timed 
 pretty fast, — thirteen or fourteen miles an hour, if 
 it is not more than six or seven miles long-. 
 
 When Mr Tiffanv was working- the Brighton 
 road in 1873,- he had a galloping stage, from The 
 White Hart, at Reigate, to The George, at Crawley, 
 a distance of nine miles, which he did in thirty min- 
 utes, stopping once at a toll-gate. 
 
 When a coach runs out and in the same day, 
 the arrangement of the teams is simple, since the 
 morning team out is the afternoon team back, the 
 last team having the time for rest at mid-day that 
 the coach has for lunch ; but if two coaches run in 
 opposite directions on the same hours, each the 
 whole length of the road, with a stop in the middle 
 
44 2 LENGTHS OF STAGES CH. XIX 
 
 of the day of only half an hour for lunch, — not time 
 enough for a team to rest, — the arrangement is more 
 complicated. 
 
 If long stages are adopted, each coach can take 
 its teams one after the other straight through, each 
 team working only once on one day and returning 
 the next. This is simple, but not adapted to a fast 
 coach, because the stages will be either too lono- 
 to be done at a high speed, or each team will be 
 doing less than a good day's work, it being assumed 
 that a team can travel a greater distance in two 
 hours than in one. 
 
 If short stages are adopted, and each team works 
 once each way, over its own ground, while the 
 early morning and afternoon teams will have suffi- 
 cient rests between their turns, those working in 
 the middle of the day will not. 
 
 If, for instance, the two coaches start from the 
 different ends of the road at 10 a.m., and arrive at 
 6 p.m., meeting at two o'clock at a point where only 
 a half-hour's stop is made, the team which brought 
 one coach down from i to 1.45 would have to take 
 the other up, starting at 2.15, without sufficient rest. 
 It will be, therefore, necessary to have at this centre 
 point another team for each coach, that team which 
 comes in, resting until the next day. The two 
 stages joining at this place would have to be longer 
 than the others to equalise the work. If the whole 
 road, for instance, is fifty-six miles long, or each 
 half twenty-eight miles, divided into four seven-mile 
 
CH. XIX LENGTHS OF STAGES 443 
 
 stages, and supposing for simplicity that each stage 
 requires one hour, the arrangement will be as 
 follows : — 
 
 Hours — 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 
 
 Teams— A B C D G H I J 
 
 Hours — 6 5 4 3 2 1 12 11 10 
 
 Teams— A B C E F H I J 
 
 Team A 10 to 11 ) Team F 1 to 2 rests all day 
 
 v - rests 6 hrs. 
 
 5 to 6 J ,, G 2 to 3 rests all day 
 
 1 to 12 1 ,, H 12 to 1 ] 
 > rests 4 hrs. 
 
 4 to 5 j 3 to 4 J 
 
 2 tO I I , , 1 I I to 1 2 1 
 
 ■ rests 2 hrs. 
 
 2 to 4 J 4 to 5 J 
 
 1 to 2 rests all day ,, J 10 to 11 1 
 
 ,, E 2 to 3 rests all day 5 to 6 j 
 
 This requires ten teams, four of which, D, E, F, 
 and G, do only one turn a day. 
 
 It is evident that to equalise the work the middle 
 stages should be longer than the others, and they 
 might be divided as follows : 6, 6, 6, and io, making- 
 28 miles, with the times modified to suit the changed 
 distances. 
 
 The fact is, that the additional teams are necessary 
 because there is no long stop in the middle, or be- 
 cause the road is done in two hours less total time 
 than it would have been if there were a long stop, 
 although the actual driving time is the same. 
 
 Of the two coachmen required to work such a 
 road, one coachman, going over the whole road 
 each day, will go out Monday, Wednesday, and 
 
444 TIME-CHART CH. XIX 
 
 Friday, and come in on the other days, the other 
 coachman going in the opposite direction, and each 
 one will drive the end teams every day, but each 
 one will always drive the same middle teams. 
 
 In arranging the time-table of a road it is con- 
 venient to make a time-chart, such as is used on 
 railroads. 
 
 One is shown in Plate XXXII. ; the names of the 
 places and the distances are at the top, the hours 
 and minutes at the sides. If a coach were to start 
 from A at 10 o'clock, and run straight through, 
 without stopping, to F, thirty miles, arriving there 
 at i o'clock, its course would be indicated by the 
 dotted line representing a speed of ten miles an 
 hour. 
 
 If it makes four stops of 3, 3, 5, and 3 minutes 
 each at B, C, D, and E, its course will be indicated 
 by the full line, the flatter angle of which indicates 
 its superior speed while running. If we suppose the 
 road to be varied in its character, so that, between 
 C and D, the pace must be slow, the time required 
 for that stage must be taken from the adjacent 
 stages, making them faster, or from the whole of 
 the rest of the route. 
 
 This is shown, in a somewhat exaggerated man- 
 ner, by the line . If the road is 
 
 up-hill from C to D, the speed coming down from 
 D to C can be greater than on the other portions 
 of the road, as shown by the return line. 
 
sanoH 
 
 n 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 X 
 
 m 
 0) 
 
 > 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 Cn .J* CM N> _ IP 
 
 O O O O O NJ O 
 
 J> CM N5 _ CJI -f^ CM 
 
 oooo — OOO 
 
 N) 
 
 O 
 
 o o 
 
 CM J ' | 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 
 ^T 
 i 
 
 
 /' 
 
 / 
 
 
 V 
 
 J 
 
 v 
 
 
 U1 -\ 
 
 AT Ai- 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ii_ 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 tl 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 X—U— 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 i_i___ 
 
 
 
 
 "\ 
 
 ___„__^ /____ 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 ,___J_X— - 
 
 
 
 
 
 h X/: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 CP 
 
 ^ X J ! 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 / / 
 
 
 
 
 
 X—~~-aX 
 
 \ : 
 
 
 
 
 s z__z__ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 it 7 1 
 
 ! 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 /_/__ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 _____// 
 
 K 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 LP f. J.L - 
 
 
 
 
 
 lj 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 -I--U -A 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 • / 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 _£_ 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 o / 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 o > 
 
 03 
 
 V> 
 
 ^< 
 
 °> £ £ 
 
 o o 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 en j> cm nj — 
 
 ° w o o o o o 
 HOURS 
 
 en j» cm N> — r*l 
 o o o o o w 
 
 N 
 
 "0 
 
 r 
 
 n 
 
 ° x 
 
 x 
 
CH. XIX 
 
 TIME-TABLE 
 
 445 
 
 By constructing a diagram of this kind, it will be 
 easy to see exactly how the time should be arranged, 
 and at what moments the coach should pass any 
 other points : x, y, z. 
 
 The diagram should be made upon the engraved, 
 divided paper which can be bought of any dealer in 
 engineering supplies. 
 
 After the road has been laid out in this way, a 
 Time-table is prepared, as follows : — 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 £ 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 3 
 
 u 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 t/a 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 U 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 z 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 X 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 Start from A at io a.m. 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 A to B . 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 B to C 
 C to D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stop 5 minutes. 
 
 4 
 
 D to E . 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 E to F 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total .... 
 
 
 
 
 The ' Hour of Coach' is the time of arriving at 
 each station. The time in minutes of each staee is 
 from arrival to arrival, except in the first line, where 
 it is from the time of starting from the initial point. 
 
 In the old English mail-coach days the guard was 
 provided with a Time-bill something in this form, 
 except that it had a column in which the actual times 
 of arrival had to be entered by the guard so as to 
 show how the time had been kept. For this pur- 
 
44^ TIME LOST IN CHANGES CH. XIX 
 
 pose he was furnished with an official time-piece 
 or large watch. A number of these Time-bills are 
 printed in Harris's Coaching Age, pp. 277-292. 
 
 The following Table shows how much the driving- 
 speed has to be increased to make up the time lost 
 at changes, with seven-mile stages : — 
 
 At 9 miles an hour, i mile in 6 min. 40 sec. 
 7 miles in 46.6 min., no stop = 9.0 ms. per hour 
 
 7 .. .. 45- 6 ■• ' min - sto P = 9- 2 
 7 .. .. 44-6 ,, 2 ,, = 9.4 
 
 7 .. ,. 43- 6 .. 3 .- .. = 9- 6 
 7 ,, ,, 42.6 ,, 4 ,, ,, = 9.9 
 
 At 10 miles an hour. A mile in 6 minutes. 
 7 miles in 42.0 min., no stop = 10.0 ms. per hour 
 
 7 ,, ,,41.0 ,, 1 min. stop =10.2 ,, ,, 
 7 ,, ,, 40.0 ,, 2 ,, = 10.5 
 
 7 .. .. 39-° -- 3 .. = IO -8 
 
 7 .. -- 3 8 -° .. 4 .. >> = u-o 
 
 At 11 miles an hour. 1 mile in 5 min. 27 sec. 
 7 miles in 38.15 min., no stop =11.0 ms. per hour 
 
 7 .. -- 37-15 " 1 min. stop = 1 1.3 
 7 ,, ,, 36.15 ,, 2 ,, ,, = 11. 6 
 7 •> >> 3 5 • ' 5 " 3 >> >> =12.0 ,, ,, 
 / n ' » j4* * 3 '' 4 >' * * — 3 > > » » 
 
 The importance of making quick changes is evi- 
 dent, and also of not losing time by stopping for the 
 purpose of altering couplings or of changing the 
 
 bittinor- 
 
 The horses intended for the road are usually 
 brought together at one point, as they are bought, 
 and tried so as to arrange them in teams ; it is an 
 
CH. XIX COACHMAN AND GUARD 447 
 
 advantage to have them all of the same type, so 
 that however they may be shifted about, they will 
 look well together. The town-team should be the 
 best looking - , and made up of handy, quick, fear- 
 less horses ; a sluggish team, requiring the whip, is 
 neither pleasant nor safe in the streets. As soon as 
 possible the horses should be put out on the road 
 and exercised over the ground on which they are to 
 work. 
 
 The men required will be : a professional coachman 
 and a guard, whose duties are described further on, 
 and if perfection is desired, two horse-keepers for 
 each change ; but one horse-keeper and a local hos- 
 tler at the change-place can do the work, provided 
 it can be so arranged that the latter will not be 
 called off by his other duties at the change-time. 
 If there are two horse-keepers, one of them must 
 decidedly out-rank the other and have authority 
 over him, or there will be endless friction between 
 the two ; and the chief man must have the entire 
 responsibility of the feeding. Their duties are ob- 
 viously those of ordinary stable-men, but they have 
 to be drilled in all the points of making a quick 
 and neat change so that the changes will be made 
 in the same way at all the stations. 
 
 The material furnished to each stable, such as 
 buckets, sponges, forks (and, by the way, a steel 
 fork should never be allowed in a stable, only 
 wooden four-pronged forks being used), brushes, 
 halters, ruo^s, &c, should be entered in a book, in 
 
448 CHANGE-STABLES CH. XIX 
 
 which should be noted all purchases and losses, 
 or die articles will rapidly disappear. Every man 
 should have a strong canvas bao- for his kit and be 
 required to keep all his tools in it. Each horse 
 should have a number branded on his fore hoof, 
 and his collar, with a corresponding number per- 
 manently fastened on it, must always go with him 
 when he changes his stable, otherwise changes of 
 collars will give endless annoyance due to sore 
 necks. The best way to mark a collar is by a 
 brass number on the small cape, which, for that 
 purpose, should be put upon the top of a coaching 
 collar (p. 2 10). 
 
 Whether or not the horses should have loin ruo-s 
 to be thrown over them while they are standing, 
 depends upon the climate, the time of year, and 
 somewhat upon the fancy of the owner. They are 
 more important at the ends of the road, where the 
 horses stand for some time while the passengers are 
 ofettino- on the coach. At the chancres, if the time is 
 kept punctually, they are not so necessary, since the 
 horses should be brought out only a few minutes 
 before the coach arrives, and they can have thrown 
 over them their stable rues, which, when the coach 
 appears, can be pulled off and laid aside, ready to 
 be put on the horses which are taken from the 
 coach ; rough canvas rugs are good for this purpose. 
 
 If loin rugs are used, they should be unitorm 
 throughout the road; they certainly look 'smart,' 
 but they are apt to fall off" if the horses caper while 
 
CH. XIX TRYING THE HORSES 449 
 
 being led to their places, and sometimes cause a 
 difficulty. They must be laid on under the reins. 
 
 It is a good plan to have in each stable a diagram 
 showing the coupling and bitting of the team, such 
 as is described in Chapter XII. (Plate XXVI.). 
 
 Ten days or two weeks will be required to try 
 the horses and the road thoroughly, and just before 
 the opening day the whole road should be driven 
 over at least twice, keeping the time and making 
 the changes exactly as they are to be made in 
 future. 
 
 It is usual on the opening day to have a party of 
 invited guests, generally persons interested in coach- 
 ing, and on this occasion everything should be done 
 in the most careful manner and with scrupulous 
 attention to punctuality. 
 
 Coachman's and Guard's Duties. — The profes- 
 sional coachman of a public-coach drives the coach 
 from its stable to the office from which it starts and 
 takes it back from the office to the stable, at the 
 end of the day. He has charge of the horses, and 
 should frequently go over the road to be sure that 
 they are properly cared for and to arrange any 
 transfers of horses from one statre to another, which 
 may be necessary. He examines and pays the 
 accounts for wages, feed, and shoeing. If he rarely 
 drives the coach he has plenty of time for all these 
 
 duties ; but if he is called on to occupy the cushion 
 
 29 
 
450 COACHMAN S DUTIES CH. XIX 
 
 several days in the week, he must have exception- 
 ally good horse-keepers. It is convenient for him 
 to have a lieht wagfon in which to PfO over the 
 road, for which the extra horses will serve, and he 
 may sometimes go down on the coach and, stopping 
 at one of the change-places, attend to the business 
 of that and an adjoining station. 
 
 Of some of the London coaches, in late years, 
 the professional coachman is the proprietor, and 
 takes subscribers who pay for the privilege of 
 driving on certain days, in which case the pro- 
 prietor also goes on the coach, sitting on the back 
 seat, and sometimes drives a stage or two if it 
 is agreeable to the subscriber. At times the sub- 
 scriber takes only one or two stages, out or in, at 
 his convenience. 
 
 The duty of the guard is : to receive the way-bill 
 from the booking-office, to show the passengers 
 their places, to see that they have their tickets or 
 to collect the proper fares from those who have 
 not, to take charge of baggage or parcels, to assist 
 at the changes, and to transact all the business 
 connected with the passengers ; ordinarily he has 
 nothing to do with the horses. 
 
 Usually at noon, the coach stops at an inn, where 
 the horses are put up immediately upon being taken 
 out, and the coach is drawn into the yard or left 
 standing- in the road near the door ; but if the 
 stable is at some little distance from the stopping- 
 place, or if, for any reason, the coach cannot remain 
 
CH. XIX GUARD S DUTIES 45 I 
 
 where it stops, it is convenient to have the guard 
 drive well enough to take the coach to its stable 
 and bring it back again, and guards who know 
 anything about horses are glad to get that much 
 practice. 
 
 The guard must be able to blow the horn well, 
 not producing those melancholy sounds sometimes 
 heard. To do this requires good instruction and 
 much practice. The calls are given in the Chapter 
 on 'The Horn,' and the proper ones should be 
 blown at the changes and stopping ; as to this, 
 guards are frequently careless. As a rule, the 
 guard can sound a call better when standing in 
 his place on the hind boot, holding to the strap 
 fastened, for that purpose, to the roof-seat. 
 
 In the country, the horn should be used to ask 
 for the road, of vehicles going in either direction, 
 and also, according to the taste of the proprietor, 
 to enliven the journey. Guards are apt to give 
 too much horn ; it interferes unpleasantly with con- 
 versation on the coach. In a city it should be used 
 with judgement, and the calls needed to warn other 
 vehicles should be short, of a few notes only. The 
 horn is a great help to driving in a crowded street ; 
 but its use should not be abused ; it is particularly 
 annoying to other persons driving, when suddenly 
 blown, in passing, so close to a horse as to alarm 
 him. It is the duty of the proprietor to see that 
 the guard does not thoughtlessly commit this fault. 
 In driving through small towns, there is no objec- 
 
452 COACHMAN S AND GUARDS DRESS CH. XIX 
 
 tion to a free use of the horn ; there are apt to 
 be obstructions in the streets, and the inhabitants 
 usually welcome the passage of the coach, with its 
 accompanying music, as a cheerful break in the 
 day's monotony. 
 
 Coachman's and Guard's Dress. — The dress of 
 a gentleman coachman has been already described ; 
 the professional of a public-coach need not dress 
 very differently. He should always wear a white 
 hat when driving", but when on the coach o-oino- 
 to inspect the stations, this is not necessary. His 
 dress should be plain and neat, and should have 
 that unmistakable coaching or ' horsey' look which 
 is difficult to describe. If the weather is cool, a 
 drab overcoat, single-breasted, with pearl buttons, 
 with Maps to the pockets, buttoning up rather high, 
 and reaching to within eight inches of the ground, 
 is very ' smart.' 
 
 The guard's dress should be a single-breasted, 
 drab frock-coat, the skirt several inches above the 
 knees ; with buttons on the back, and side pockets 
 with flaps ; or it may be double-breasted and easy, 
 having- somewhat the stvle of an overcoat. It should 
 button tolerably high in the throat, and show a white 
 collar and scarf, or a regular hunting-scarf. The col- 
 lar of the coat may be of a bright colour. Trousers 
 of the same colour as the coat are correct, or else 
 somewhat tight breeches, with gaiters, all of the 
 same cloth ; the latter are neater than trousers. 
 
CH. XIX GUARDS DRESS 453 
 
 With gaiters, laced boots look best. The hat should 
 be light grey, with low crown and wide brim, but not 
 exaggerated ; it may have a dull felt surface or a 
 nap. Tan-coloured driving gloves should be worn. 
 A russet-leather case like a cartridge-box, about 
 seven inches by four and a half, is carried on the 
 left side by a strap over the right shoulder. It 
 holds the way-bill or other papers, and has a pocket 
 for the key of the coach. A small case for an 
 open-faced watch is usually fastened on the front of 
 it, but it is better to have the watch on the side next 
 the body, where it can be easily seen by tipping the 
 case outward away from the side of the body, and 
 where it is not likely to be broken. If the watch 
 is on the outside, it should be upside down, so that 
 the guard can easily read the time when the case 
 is turned up. 
 
 The mail-coach guards in England formerly wore 
 red coats, the Government livery, and the fashion is 
 still retained on some of the public-coaches of the 
 present day, but in America it means nothing, and 
 seems to be hardly appropriate. 
 
 Booking-Office, etc. — The booking-office should 
 be at a place where some one will always be in at- 
 tendance to take orders and money for seats. For 
 this reason, an hotel, or a public office which is 
 always open, is selected. For many years the 
 starting-place of the public-coaches in London was 
 The White Horse Cellar (Hatchett's), in Piccadilly, 
 
454 COACH OFFICE CH. XIX 
 
 an hotel and booking-office in the old business 
 coaching days, and later a public parcels-office. 
 About 1889 the coaches abandoned the Cellar and 
 started from the Hotel Metropole, or the Hotel Vic- 
 toria, in Northumberland Avenue ; the ' Guildford' 
 Coach starts from the Berkeley Hotel, Piccadilly. 
 In New York, the ' Pelham' Coach, and afterward 
 the ' Yonkers' and others, started from the Hotel 
 Brunswick in Fifth Avenue ; the ' Tuxedo' Coach 
 from the Plaza Hotel. In Philadelphia, coaches start 
 from the Bellevue Hotel. In Paris, all the coaches 
 start from the office of The New York Herald, 
 Avenue de l'Opera. 
 
 A book, properly bound, with the name of the 
 coach on the outside, should be provided, one page 
 being devoted to each day. These pages should be 
 headed with the day of the week and of the month, 
 and it is better to do this for the whole season, when 
 the book is first opened. 
 
 The following is a good form of page : — 
 
 MONDAY, June 7, 1897. 
 
 Coachman : Mr Thompson Dols. 
 
 Mr Jones 4 Pd. 
 
 Mr Smith 3 Pd. 
 
 Mr Brown 3 Pd. 
 
 Mr 
 
 Mr Robinson out 2 Pd. 
 
 Box 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 and so on for the other six seats, the sum at the 
 foot being the amount for which the agent selling 
 the tickets is responsible. When the settlement is 
 
CH. XIX 
 
 BOOKING SEATS 
 
 455 
 
 made, the amount may be receipted for on the page 
 of that day. 
 
 A ticket should be given to each passenger bear- 
 ing the name of the coach, the date, and the number 
 of the seat. 
 
 The seats are usually numbered as follows : 
 
 
 
 Box-Seat 
 
 Coachman 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 5 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 
 Guard 
 
 IO 
 
 9 
 
 
 In Paris, it is the custom to have the numbers of 
 the front seats run from left to right. 
 
 This diagram should be printed on the ticket, the 
 seat sold being marked thereon. It is usually on 
 the time-card also. 
 
 It should be an inflexible rule that a seat is to 
 be paid for when it is booked ; places merely en- 
 gaged, without payment, are frequently given up at 
 the last moment, to the loss of the coach and to the 
 disappointment of other applicants. 
 
 It is also a good plan to permit places to be 
 booked for any date, no matter how far ahead ; it 
 avoids any possibility of complaint of favouritism. 
 In other words, the coach book should be open for 
 the entire season to any one who chooses to select 
 a date and to pay. It is proper, however, to re- 
 
456 
 
 TIME-CARDS 
 
 CH. XIX 
 
 serve the opening and the closing days of the sea- 
 son, or any day like that of a coaching Meet ; across 
 the page should be written, ' no seats can be booked 
 for this day.' 
 
 For the information of passengers a time-card is 
 prepared and given with the ticket. Two speci- 
 mens are printed below : — 
 
 From Monday, April loth, until Saturday, June 3d, 1899. 
 
 The New York and ardsley Coach, 
 
 GG 
 
 WILL LEAVE 
 
 99 
 
 HOLLAN D HOUSE, 
 DAILY, (Sundays excepted) at 10.00 A. M. 
 
 TIME TABLE AND FARES 
 
 a 
 
 FARES 
 
 s 
 
 
 6.2 
 
 S .75 
 
 2.7 
 
 1.00 
 
 3.6 
 
 1.50 
 
 1. 
 
 1.75 
 
 4.2 
 
 2.00 
 
 1. 
 
 2.25 
 
 3.8 
 1.6 
 1.7 
 
 2.50 
 
 2 75 
 
 3 00 
 
 25.8 
 
 
 LEAVING 
 
 Holland House 
 
 *Hurlem 
 
 Washington Bridge 
 *Kingsbridge. . . 
 Van Cortlandt. . 
 
 f*Yonkers . . ) 
 \ Getty House . . / 
 Glenwood 
 
 ♦Hastings 
 Dobbs Ferry. . 
 
 Ardsley 
 
 Ardsley Club. 
 
 TIME 
 A. M. 
 
 10.00 
 10.30 
 10.53 
 11.15 
 11.20 
 11 40 
 
 11.45 
 11.50 
 P.M. 
 
 12.10 
 12.20 
 12.30 
 
 FARES 
 
 5 .25 
 .50 
 .75 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.25 
 1.50 
 2.00 
 2.25 
 3.00 
 
 RETURNING 
 will leave 
 
 Ardsley Club 
 
 Ardsley 
 
 Dobbs Ferry . . 
 *Hastings .... 
 Glenwood .... 
 f *Yonkers 
 \ Getty House 
 Van Cortlandt..-; 
 *Kingsbridge . .-. 
 Washington Bridge 
 
 *Harlem 
 
 Holland House. . 
 
 lse . . J 
 
 TIME 
 
 p. M. 
 
 330 
 3.40 
 3.50 
 4.10 
 4.15 
 
 4.20 
 4.40 
 4.45 
 5.07 
 5.25 
 6.00 
 
 The Privileges of the Ardsley Club are Extended to Passengers on the Coach. 
 
 Single Fare, $3.00. Round Trip, $5.00. Box Seat, $1.00 
 extra eacb way This coach stops to take up and set down 
 passengers wherever hailed, except between Holland House 
 and 59th Street. 
 
 BOOKING OFFICE, HOLLAND HOUSE. 
 
 n. b.— passengers are cautioned to be on time 
 ♦Change Horses 
 
CH. XIX 
 
 TIME-CARDS 
 
 457 
 
 This Coach is worked with seven teams daily (including Sunday), 
 
 GIVING FINE VIEWS OF THE 
 
 River Thames, Windsor Castle, and Cliveden Woods, &c. 
 
 On and after 6th APRIL, 1896, 
 
 THE MAIDENHEAD COACH 
 
 "EXPBESS" 
 
 LEAVES 
 
 HOTEL VICTORIA. NORTHUMBERLAND AVENUE, 
 
 at io 45 a.m. 
 
 AND RETUKNS FKOM 
 
 THE THAMES HOTEL, MAIDENHEAD, 
 
 at 3.45 p.m., every day (Sundays Included). 
 
 Inter- 
 mediate 
 Fares. 
 
 s d 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 DOWN JOURNEY 
 
 Daily (Sundays included). 
 
 NORTHUM'LAND AVENUE. *' Hotel Victoria' 
 
 KEW. STAR AND GARTER 
 
 *ISLEWORTH, "Coach & Horses" 
 
 HOUNSLOW, RED LION 
 
 *CRANFORD BRIDGE, " Berkely Hotel" 
 
 HARLINGTON CORNER 
 
 LONGFORD. PEGGY BEDFORD 
 
 *COLNBROOK, "The George" 
 
 SLOUGH, "Crown Hotel" 
 
 TAPLOW. RAILWAY STATION 
 
 ♦MAIDENHEAD, "Thames Hotel" 
 
 Mile- 
 
 Time 
 
 age. 
 
 Table. 
 
 _ 
 
 10.45 
 
 9 
 
 11 .30 
 
 — 
 
 11.45 
 
 13 
 
 12. 5 
 
 — 
 
 12.20 
 
 — 
 
 12.32 
 
 18 
 
 12.40 
 
 
 
 12.55 
 
 23 
 
 1 .25 
 
 — 
 
 1 .50 
 
 30 
 
 2. 
 
 
 MAIDENHEAD. "Thames Hotel" 
 
 — 
 
 3.45 
 
 
 TAPLOW, RAILWAY STATION 
 
 — 
 
 3.55 
 
 2 
 
 *SL0UGH, "Crown Hotel" 
 
 7 
 
 4.20 
 
 3 
 
 COLNBROOK, "The George" 
 
 — 
 
 4.45 
 
 4 
 
 ♦LONGFORD. PEGGY BEDFORD 
 
 12 
 
 5. 5 
 
 
 HARLINGTON CORNER 
 
 — 
 
 5. 13 
 
 
 ♦CRANF0P.D BRIDGE. "Bedford Hotel" 
 
 — 
 
 5. 25 
 
 5 
 
 ♦HOUNSLOW. "Red Lion" 
 
 17 
 
 5.40 
 
 5 
 
 ISLEWORTH, "Coach & Horses" 
 
 — 
 
 5.55 
 
 10 
 
 NORTHUM'LAND AVENUE. " Hotel Victoria" 
 
 30 
 
 7. 
 
 * Change Horses. 
 
 Single Journey, 10/-. Return 15/-. 
 
 Box Seat, 2 6 extra each way. 
 
 The whole of the Coach to Maidenhead and hack, £8 8s. 
 
 Places can be secured at Coach Booking Office, 
 "HOTEL VICTORIA," Northumberland Avenue. 
 
 Some cards are much more elaborate, that of the 
 ' Guildford,' for example, being in three folds, and 
 having on the sides, descriptions of the road. 
 
 Blank way-bills should be also provided ; a good 
 form, one half the proper size, is given on the next 
 page. The way-bill is filled up in the office as far 
 as the seats are booked, and any additional fares 
 are put on it by the guard. A way-bill is not very 
 
458 
 
 WAY-BILL 
 
 CH. XIX 
 
 necessary on a short coach where a majority of the 
 passengers go through, at least the whole of one 
 way. 
 
 THE CRESCENT 
 
 SERVICE FROM PARIS TO PONTOISE 
 
 WAY-BILL 
 
 Destination. 
 
 O 
 
 I 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 9 
 io 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Box- Seat 
 
 Outside Seats 
 
 Guard 
 
 Coachman 
 
 Inside Seats 
 
 Parcels 
 
 8 
 
 < 
 
 H 
 Z 
 
 w 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 PLAN OF COACH 
 
 II IO i 
 
 9 i g a< 
 
 
 8 L 
 
 9 S 
 
 \ 
 
 1 4 ! 3 
 
 2| I | 
 
 ~1 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 Coach- 
 man 
 
 Seat 
 
 
 Pan's i8p 
 
CH. XIX CHANGES 459 
 
 Changes. — Just before arriving at the change, the 
 ends of the reins must be unbuckled ; if the device 
 described on p. 273 is adopted, it is necessary only 
 to pull them apart. 
 
 If the passenger on the box-seat is accustomed to 
 coaching, he will quietly pull up the ends of the reins 
 and unbuckle them, when the change is in sight, or 
 when the guard sounds the call for the change, and 
 if this passenger happens to be a lady, there is a 
 manifest reason for having the reins scrupulously 
 clean, so that they will not soil her gloves. It may 
 be also said that the tongue of the buckle should 
 play loosely, the hole of the rein should be large, 
 and the keeper, or loop, should be large and far back 
 from the buckle, or too much time will be consumed 
 in unbuckling- and buckling. 
 
 The coach should pull up at the change-place 
 easily but promptly, and care must be taken that the 
 leaders do not stop too soon, as they almost always 
 want to do. 
 
 The coachman throws the reins on the horses' 
 backs, the off reins to the off side, and the near to 
 the near side. With a little care they may be so 
 thrown that they will lie in a fold across the back, 
 and the ends will not fall in the mud. The reins 
 must not be thrown down, however, until the coach- 
 man sees that some one is at the horses' heads. 
 
 The coachman then puts on the brake, without 
 noise, but as hard as possible (see p. 328), and gets 
 down, taking his whip in his hand ; if he wants to 
 
460 
 
 CHANGES 
 
 CH. XIX 
 
 get rid of it, he should stand it behind the lamp- 
 iron and leaning against it, with the butt on the 
 ground. The horse-keepers, one on each side, pull 
 the lead-reins through the terrets of the wheelers, 
 and run them through the leaders' terrets, as is 
 shown in Plate XXXIII. They then unhook the 
 traces, the inside one first, and lay them over the 
 leaders' backs, being sure that they are laid well 
 
 over, so as not to fall off 
 when the horses move. 
 The leaders should be 
 led a short distance away 
 and their coupling-reins 
 unbuckled ; they may be 
 trained to stand still where 
 they are left, or to walk to 
 the stable if it is close at 
 hand. 
 
 The wheelers' reins are 
 huno; on the centre-ter- 
 rets (Fig. 171), the pole- 
 chains slacked ; the traces 
 unhooked, the inside one 
 first ; the coupling-reins un- 
 buckled (since the wheelers 
 cannot get clear of the bars 
 unless this is done), and the 
 horses led out of the way. If a spare man, or boy, 
 is at hand, he can collect the four horses and hold 
 them all at once, clear of the coach. 
 
 Fig. 171. 
 
m 
 > 
 
 □ 
 
 33 
 m 
 
 > 
 
 CO 
 
 Co 
 
 m 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 33 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 33 
 33 
 
 m 
 
 H 
 co 
 
 T3 
 l— 
 > 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 
 X 
 
 x 
 
 x 
 
CH. XIX CHANGES 46 1 
 
 The wheel horses are then led to their places 
 from the side or from behind. It is a bad plan 
 to bring them to the pole, head on, and then 
 turn them into their places. The pole-chains are 
 hooked at their full length into the kidney-link 
 ring ; the traces put on the roller-bolts, the out- 
 side one first ; and the pole-chain passed through 
 the ring from the inside, outward, pulled down, 
 hooked into the proper link, and its india-rubber 
 ring pushed over the hook. The coupling-reins 
 are then buckled. 
 
 The leaders are then led to their places, with the 
 coupling-reins already crossed and buckled ; the 
 lead-reins are run through the wheelers' terrets, care 
 being taken that the wheel-rein is first taken off the 
 pad-terret, or it will be bound down by the lead-rein. 
 Then the leaders' traces are hooked to the bars. 
 The reason for running the reins before hooking 
 the traces, is, that if the leaders start thev can do 
 no harm, not being attached to the coach, and they 
 can be stopped by the reins, whereas if they are 
 hooked to the bars before the reins are run, they 
 might bolt and cause a serious accident. If the 
 lead-reins have been properly put into the lead-har- 
 ness terrets, they can be pulled through the throat- 
 latch ring and the centre- terret by taking hold of 
 the end, the whole rein running through freely. 
 When the near side reins are ready, they are 
 thrown over the wheeler's back to the off side, 
 where the coachman is ready to receive them. This 
 
462 CHANGES CH. XIX 
 
 is the reason for having the point, and not the 
 buckle, on the near side reins. 
 
 The horse-keeper remains at the heads of the 
 leaders ; the coachman gathers up his reins, buckling 
 them and adjusting them to the proper length (see 
 p. 286), and, taking his whip, gets up. He should 
 glance rapidly over his horses to see that all is right, 
 and especially that the coupling-reins are crossed, and 
 that the draught-reins are outside and not inside, 
 adjust his apron, take off the brake, and, nodding 
 to the man at the horses' heads, start off as quietly 
 as possible. 
 
 Horses are more apt to give trouble in starting 
 from a change-place than when they are leaving the 
 office at the beginning. In a quick change they 
 know that they are to go the moment that they are 
 put-to, and it is usually necessary to let them go 
 promptly, or they will fret and balk. For this rea- 
 son, the men should be instructed to move aside 
 quickly, well out of the way, and since there usually 
 is, or should be, plenty of room, the horses cannot 
 do any harm. 
 
 The change should never take more than three 
 minutes ; it can be easily done in two minutes if 
 every man knows his business. 
 
 For a very quick change, if there is room enough 
 and there are men enough, the wheelers of the 
 chanee should be waitino-, one on each side of the 
 road, in such places that they will be abreast of the 
 coach when it stops. The leaders coupled together 
 
CH. XIX CHANGES 463 
 
 should be abreast of the place which they are to take 
 in the coach, and standing on the side of the road 
 away from the stable, so that they will not be in the 
 way when the old leaders come from their places. 
 
 For a three-minute change, the horses may stand 
 in a row, with their heads out, on whichever side of 
 the road is the more convenient, usually on the off 
 side, and in such a position that the coach will stop 
 alongside of them. In a narrow road, with vehicles 
 going passing by, they must stand in front. In 
 some confined places they may have to wait in the 
 stable yard, but this will obviously add to the time 
 of makinof the chancre. 
 
 Accounts are given in coaching books, of changes 
 made in old times in less than a minute on very 
 fast coaches like the 'Wonder.' ' Nimrod' [North- 
 em Tour, p. 338) says that on Captain Barclay's 
 famous coach, the 'Defiance,' one of the changes 
 was made in a minute, and that the average did not 
 exceed a minute and a half. In a public-coach com- 
 petition at the New York Horse-Show in 1897, two 
 contestants made a change of horses in the rincr 
 in 58 seconds ; there were two grooms with the 
 change team, and a guard and a groom on the 
 coach. With a fast coach, no time must be lost at 
 the changes ; as will be seen by the Table on p. 446, 
 the pace has to be very much increased to make up 
 such loss, especially on short stages. 
 
 If there is only one horse-keeper, as was fre- 
 quently the case with the old coaches, the coachman 
 
464 CHANGES CH. XIX 
 
 and guard must assist if the change is to be other 
 than a slow one, and the o-uard f t i ie English mail- 
 coach was required, by his instructions from the 
 Post-Office, whose servant he was, to assist, in so 
 far as it did not interfere with his mail duties. 
 
 On the modern public-coach, since the guard has 
 no letter bags, and rarely any packages, to deliver, 
 he assists regularly, and with two horse-keepers it is 
 not necessary for the coachman to do anything. The 
 coachman usually gets down, however, and receives 
 the reins as they are thrown over to him. In rainy 
 weather, if there are plenty of people to assist, he fre- 
 quently remains upon the box to keep himself dry. 
 In this case he keeps the whip in his hand, and hold- 
 ing it to the front, the reins are thrown over it one 
 by one as they are drawn through the terrets, when 
 by raising the whip, they slip down to his hand. 
 This was done on the very fast coaches in old 
 times, and saved, at the change, all the time that was 
 required for the coachman to gather his reins and 
 get up. 
 
 The question as to whether or not the coachman 
 should eet down at the change, has been mooted 
 lately in some criticisms on public coaching ; either 
 way is perfectly correct. 
 
 Howsoever the change is made, the duties of 
 each person must be carefully laid down and strictly 
 adhered to, and the drill for it should be uniform at 
 all the stations on the road. 
 
CH. XX 465 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 PUBLIC COACHING GENERALLY 
 
 Speed. — On good roads the proper pace for a 
 public-coach is ten miles an hour including- changes : 
 if it is made much faster, it may be difficult to keep 
 time, but if the quality of the horses, and their 
 consequent cost, is no object, ten and a half miles 
 may be attempted. Less than nine miles is too 
 slow to be entertaining- either to coachman or to 
 passengers. 
 
 The time of some of the public-coaches running 
 in the past few years, is as follows : London and 
 Brighton, 54 miles in 6 hours, — 9 miles an hour ; 
 New York and Tuxedo, 47 J 4 miles in 5 L> hours 
 (leaving out the time for lunch), — 9 miles an hour ; 
 London and Guildford, 28 I 4 miles in 3 hours, — 
 9*^ miles an hour; New York and Pelham, 15^2 
 miles in \ Y / 2 hours, — 10V3 m il es an hour ; Paris and 
 Maisons-Laffitte, 19^2 miles in two hours, — 9^ miles 
 an hour ; Paris and Pontoise, 26 L3 miles in 2^ 
 hours, — a little over gji miles an hour. In all 
 these cases the time of making the changes is 
 included, so that the actual driving time is faster. 
 
 In old coaching days in England, the mail-coach 
 rates of speed were from 9.4 miles an hour to 10.3 ; 
 the majority running about 9.5. The 'Telegraph,' 
 
466 SPEED CH. XX 
 
 London and Manchester, ran 186 miles in iSj4 hours, 
 — 10 miles an hour ; the Edinburgh and Aberdeen, 
 Captain Barclay's 'Defiance,' 129*4 miles in 12 
 hours and 10 minutes (with a 2-mile ferry at which 
 30 minutes were lost and 30 minutes out for breakfast 
 and lunch, making the driving distance 127^ miles in 
 1 1 hours and 10 minutes), — 1 1.4 miles an hour.* A 
 part of this road was travelled at the rate of 1 3 miles 
 an hour. The London and Bristol, 121 miles, and 
 the London and Shrewsbury, 153 miles, were timed 
 at 10 miles an hour, and the same speed was kept 
 up all the way to Holyhead by the Irish mail. The 
 London and Devonport was also a fast mail. 
 
 An interesting table of the mails and the coaches 
 of those days is given in Corbett's Old Coachman s 
 Chatter, p. 300. 
 
 These speeds over long routes meant going very 
 fast in some places ; ' Nimrod,' Road, speaks of the 
 'Regulator' as doing 5 miles in 23 minutes, that is, 
 13 miles an hour, and of the Devonport mail doing 
 4 miles in 12 minutes, equal to 20 miles an hour! 
 This was in 1832. Reynardson, p. 84, speaks of 
 having driven 14 or 15 miles in the hour. 
 
 The French malle poste (see Plate VIII.) was 
 timed at 10 to 10^2 miles an hour;f it had short 
 stages of only 5 miles. 
 
 In more modern times Mr Tiffany's Brighton 
 
 * Harris, Coaching Age, p. 382. 
 
 f Beaufort, p. 327, and Morix, Report, p. 410. 
 
CH. XX SPEED 467 
 
 coach did the 9 miles between Reigate and Crawley 
 in 30 minutes, stopping at a toll-gate on the way. 
 
 The Paris and Pontoise coach, 1891, did the 7.4 
 miles from Pontoise to Acheres in 32 minutes, at 
 the rate of nearly 14 miles an hour. 
 
 Of drives against time one of the best known is 
 that of Selby, on July 13, 1888, from London to 
 Brighton and back, 108 miles, in 7 hours and 50 
 minutes, a bet having been made that he could 
 not do it in 8 hours. This is at the rate of 13.79 
 miles an hour, including - changes. Selby had 8 
 teams ; the 14 changes took altogether 6 minutes 
 and 1 2 seconds ; which being taken out, makes 
 the driving rate 13.97 miles per hour. 
 
 On July 12, 1892, Mr Eugene Higgins, having 
 as his invited guests Messrs James Gordon Ben- 
 nett, William G. Tiffany and T. Suffern Tailer, 
 drove from Paris to The Hotel Bellevue, Trouville, 
 124 miles, in 10 hours and 50 minutes. There were 
 13 teams, and, owing to the fact that better speed 
 was made than had been anticipated and that con- 
 sequently the horses at the later stations were not 
 ready, the 1 2 changes occupied 49 minutes, leaving 
 10 hours and 1 minute (601 minutes) actual driving 
 time, which was at the rate of 12.4 miles an hour. 
 
 This was a remarkable performance, inasmuch as 
 the horses were strange, many of them had never 
 before been in four-horse harness, and the horse- 
 keepers along the road were entirely unaccustomed 
 to their duties. 
 
468 SPEED CH. XX 
 
 The horses were none of them at all injured by 
 the drive, and were all returned in good condition 
 to the persons from whom they had been procured. 
 The coach used was built by Guiet & Co., of 
 Paris, for Mr Tiffany, and is an exact reproduction 
 of the old English mail. It is shown in Plate VII. ; 
 its weight is 2712 pounds. M. Guiet, M. Hieckel, 
 an amateur photographer, and M. Luque, the well- 
 known artist, were inside passengers, Morris E. 
 Howlett guard. The time was from 6 a.m. to 4.50 
 p.m., no stops having been made except for changes. 
 
 In a drive against time, there is some difficulty in 
 determining the exact distance unless the roadway 
 is gone over with a very accurate odometer, since 
 measurements made on even a large-scale map fail 
 to include some detours absolutely passed over by 
 the coach. In the account of Selby's drive, The 
 Field of July 21, 1888, remarks that while the dis- 
 tance is set down as 54 miles, the road-books call it 
 5 1 by the road actually followed. Unless, therefore, 
 two coaches pass over exactly the same road, it is 
 not easy to compare the times made by them to 
 fractions of a mile in the hour. 
 
 In this same article, The Field mentions a run, 
 from London to Brighton, of a coach taking the 
 report of a speech of William IV., in three hours 
 and forty minutes, which is faster than Selby's time, 
 but the run was only one way. It also states that 
 on May-day, in 1830, the regular coach ran from 
 London to Birmingham, 109 miles, in 7 hours and 
 
CH. XX SPEED 469 
 
 39 minutes, which again is better than Selby's time 
 of 108 miles in 7 hours and 50 minutes. 
 
 Whitley, Coventry Coaching, p. 13, says that 
 Jack Eyeritt drove 'The Wonder' on May-day, 
 from Coventry to London, 150 miles, in 8 hours 
 and 35 minutes; this is at the rate of 17^ miles 
 an hour. 
 
 Corbett, p. 129, says that the Coventry coaches 
 on other May-days, travelled 108 miles in less than 
 7 hours, or at the rate of 15.4 miles an hour. This 
 was about the year 1823. 
 
 In all these cases the coaches were running on 
 their regular routes, with horses and men in thorough 
 training ; their superior speed does not in the least 
 diminish the credit due to the performance from 
 Paris to Trouville. 
 
 Before the railroads to the Pacific were built, the 
 United States mails were sent through by ' pony 
 express,' and upon a number of occasions races 
 were run by the rival Express Companies. 
 
 In 1854 Bill Lowden, a messenger in the em- 
 ployment of Adams & Co., carried the mail saddle- 
 bags, weighing fifty-four pounds, from Tahama, on 
 the Sacramento River in Northern California, to 
 Weaverville, one hundred miles, in 5 hours and 
 13 minutes; that is, at the rate of 19.12 miles an 
 hour. He had twenty-eight horses, stationed along 
 the road, about four miles apart. Each horse was 
 held by a mounted horse-keeper, who, when he 
 heard the approaching messenger's whistle, started 
 
470 PONY EXPRESS CH. XX 
 
 ahead at a gallop, leading the fresh horse on his 
 near side. When the messenger came up along- 
 side, both horses being then at full speed, he jumped 
 from his horse to the fresh one without touching the 
 ground, and pulled the bags after him. It was cold 
 weather, December, and the last forty miles were 
 ridden after dark, over mountain trails and through 
 heavy timber, with a light snow falling. The first 
 sixty miles were covered in 2 hours and 37 minutes, 
 at the rate of 22.9 miles an hour, or of one mile in 
 2 minutes and 7,7 seconds ; the last forty miles in 2 
 hours and 36 minutes, at the rate of 16.44 niiles in 
 an hour, or of one mile in 3 minutes and 36 seconds. 
 This hundred miles was of course only a small part 
 of the whole distance traversed by the express at 
 about the same speed. The nineteen horses which 
 covered the first sixty miles, averaged 3.16 miles 
 each ; the nine which did the last forty miles, 4.4 
 miles each, the pace being slower. 
 
 This account is taken from a Western journal 
 and was furnished by Lowden himself; while not 
 exactly 'coaching,' it is interesting as a record of 
 speed with relay-horses. 
 
 Whatever may be the rate at which the coach is 
 timed, punctuality is most important, and the coach- 
 man should make it a point to start and to arrive 
 exactly upon time, and to be at his changes at the 
 moment marked for them. This accuracy is the life 
 of public coaching, and no delays should be per- 
 mitted nor any passenger waited for. It is a good 
 
CH. XX PUBLIC COACHING 47 1 
 
 plan to print a note to this effect on the ticket and 
 on the time-card and to adhere to it rigidly. 
 
 The coach should not be taken off its regular 
 road or its regular time, unless (in accordance with 
 a notice given in the commencement of the season) 
 for some special reason, such as the holding of a 
 race-meeting, at the place to which the coach runs. 
 A coach which goes here one day and there another, 
 is not a public-coach at all, but merely a vehicle hired 
 for excursions. Public coaching is public business, 
 and as such it must be conducted. 
 
 On a public-coach, persons known to be compe- 
 tent whips are sometimes invited by the proprietor 
 to drive, either a stage or two, or for several days 
 at a time, and it need hardly be said that the most 
 scrupulous care in giving such invitations must be 
 taken, to avoid any possibility of accident. The 
 coaches run by coaching jobmasters sometimes 
 have subscribers, who pay toward the support of 
 the coach, with the privilege of driving on certain 
 days ; in the selection of subscribers, the same care 
 ouorht to be exercised. 
 
 In Paris, the police regulations in regard to public 
 coaching are somewhat onerous. The proprietor, 
 who may be the coachman himself, must be a resi- 
 dent of Paris, and is responsible for damages in 
 any legal action. The coachman must be exam- 
 ined and licensed by the police authorities, and if 
 he is not himself the proprietor, must be regularly 
 registered as employed by the proprietor. This 
 
4/2 PUBLIC COACHING CH. XX 
 
 does not apply to a subscriber, when driving, but 
 in this case the regular, licensed coachman must be 
 on the coach, and is supposed to have charge of it. 
 
 In London, the regulations are more simple, but 
 there, and in American cities, licenses must be ob- 
 tained, and the coaches numbered, like all other 
 vehicles plying for public hire. In London, public- 
 coaches are not admitted to Hyde Park, and there 
 are, in nearly all cities, regulations, more or less 
 restrictive, in regard to Public Parks. 
 
 On a route which occupies all day, or on a road 
 where the coach runs to a place and returns, it is 
 usual to make an arrangement with the hotel at 
 which the stop is made, to furnish a lunch at a fixed 
 price, and to send word by telegraph at the time of 
 starting, or from any convenient place, for what 
 number of persons lunch is to be provided. It is 
 customary for the proprietor, or the amateur coach- 
 man, to sit at the head of the lunch table. The 
 professional coachman and the guard make their 
 own arrangements for meals. At some change- 
 place which is passed in the afternoon, a stop of 
 six or seven minutes is made for a cup of tea. 
 
 The fees given to the professional coachman and 
 to the oaiard belong, of course, to them ; those which 
 are sometimes given to the amateur coachman are 
 either handed over to the professionals or to some 
 charity. 
 
 There are many notes in the books as to the 
 distances driven by coachmen. Corrett, p. 134, 
 
CH. XX LONG DISTANCES DRIVEN 473 
 
 says that, on one occasion, a friend of his drove 
 174 miles without a rest. He also says that Mr 
 Ken yon drove the whole journey from London to 
 Shrewsbury, 153 miles, without resting. Captain 
 Barclay of Urie, who was famous in the early part 
 of this century in all athletic sports, as well as in 
 coaching', drove from London to Edinburgh, a dis- 
 tance of 395 miles, straight through, with only the 
 rests allowed for the passengers' refreshment. This 
 was for a laree wa^er with Lord Kennedy, and far 
 exceeds any long distance drive on record. Harris, 
 Coaching Age, p. 383, calls it 397 miles, and says 
 that the time was 45^2 hours. ' Nimrod,' Northern 
 Tour, p. 335, says that the drive was from London 
 to Aberdeen, which is 495 miles, but this is, probably, 
 an error ; all other authorities give Edinburgh. I 
 have spent a good deal of time in searching for 
 some orioinal or detailed account of this drive, 
 but without success. 
 
 Driving regularly one hundred miles a day is 
 hard work, but with a short rest in the middle of 
 the day, a man in good condition ought to be able 
 to drive daily seventy miles. Much will depend 
 upon the horses ; a hard-pulling team taking more 
 out of a coachman in one stage than easy-going 
 teams in three stages, and horses lazy, or not up to 
 their work are very fatiguing. 
 
 Beside the mere physical fatigue of driving, the 
 mental strain is sometimes great, and at all times 
 the feeling of responsibility and the close attention 
 
474 AMERICAN COACHING CH. XX 
 
 required, take a good deal out of a conscientious 
 and careful coachman. A cool temperament is an 
 immense advantage to a driving man. 
 
 AMERICAN COACHING 
 
 The great extension of railroads in the United 
 States has restricted public stage-coaching to a few 
 mountain districts in the East, and to California 
 and the far Western States, where it still flourishes. 
 
 The following notes on coaching in the White 
 Mountains, as conducted at the present time, are 
 applicable, in the main, to all American coaching. 
 The coach itself has been described in Chapter VII. ; 
 there is nothing peculiar about the harness, which is 
 usually plain and made of single leather, the wheel- 
 horse harness having breechings. The wheel-reins 
 run through the pad-terrets, but the Icad-rems go 
 straight to the hand from the wheelers' heads, and 
 consequently reach the hand at a different angle from 
 the wheel-reins. Since they do not pass through 
 the pad-terrets they swing about in a disagreeable 
 manner. The lead-reins pfo through rino-s on the 
 throat-latch on the inner sides of the wheelers' 
 heads. If there are six horses, the lead-reins go 
 through the throat-latch terrets of the swingf-team 
 and of the wheelers, but not through their pad- 
 terrets ; sometimes the swing-horses have head- 
 terrets. 
 
 With six horses, a chain is frequently used instead 
 of a middle pole, and the swing-team is sometimes 
 
CH. XX AMERICAN COACHING 475 
 
 called the chain-team or the chain-horses. As a 
 rule, the ends of the reins have no buckles. 
 
 The lead-traces are never lapped nor crossed. 
 The harnessing is somewhat loose ; that is, the 
 traces and the pole-pieces are long- and the horses 
 travel far apart. The pole-pieces are straps of un- 
 changeable length (27 inches), and are fastened to 
 the pole-head, a strap attached to the hames being 
 passed through them (see Plate XV.). 
 
 In the White Mountains no great speed is at- 
 tempted ; the roads in many places being soft and 
 sandy, with long ascents. Six horses are frequently 
 driven, the load being usually three tons : — one ton 
 for the coach, one for the passengers, and one for 
 the bao-orao-e. The time is about seven miles an 
 hour down-hill, and five, up-hill. 
 
 In the West, on some routes, the pace is often 
 fast ; the horses, small active mustangs, being driven 
 at a gallop. 
 
 It is doubtful whether or not it would be worth 
 while to attempt any comparison between the Eng- 
 lish and the American methods of handling- the 
 reins. The professional coachman on each side of 
 the water is firm in his opinion that the man who 
 drives as he does, knows how to drive, and that 
 he who drives differently, knows nothing about the 
 matter. 
 
 One can hardly assert that a man who, ever since 
 he was a boy, has successfully driven a coach fifty 
 miles a day, winter and summer, over all kinds of 
 
476 AUSTRIAN DRIVING CH. XX 
 
 roads, is not a good coachman and does not know 
 his business ; so we are forced to the conclusion 
 that both methods must be more or less right. It 
 is undoubtedly true, however, that many persons 
 who have learned to drive four-in-hand with two 
 hands, have afterward taken to driving with one, 
 whereas no one who began with one hand, has ever 
 abandoned that method to take to two hands. 
 
 It is interesting- to note that the Austrian method 
 of driving resembles the American. The reins are 
 buckled together (as shown in Fig. 113), the hind- 
 most buckle coming just behind the hand. The 
 near reins are held in the left hand, the off reins in 
 the right, and, in turning long corners, chopping is 
 usual ; that is, the near or the off reins are pulled 
 while held together, with the result of shaving the 
 corner closely with the hind wheel, the inside wheel 
 horse being sometimes touched with the whip to 
 keep him away from the corner. For sharp turns, 
 a point is made by drawing the lead-rein through 
 the fingers, behind which it makes a short loop, 
 owing to the buckle which holds it, and after the 
 movement is completed this loop is allowed to slip 
 out. For a very sharp turn, the outside wheel- 
 rein is looped in the same way, to make an opposi- 
 tion. 
 
 The fingering is, in fact, almost identical with that 
 of the American method, but from the reins being- 
 fastened together it has the disadvantage of much 
 less flexibility. In the Austrian style, the wheel 
 
CH. XX AMERICAN COACHING 477 
 
 horses are poled up tightly, with their traces always 
 stretched ; the lead-bars are attached rigidly to the 
 pole-head, although the draught is by a rope passing 
 under the pole ; and, in Continental fashion, when 
 going down-hill the brake is always on and all the 
 horses have their traces tight. The length of the 
 team is, therefore, invariable, whether going up-hill 
 or down-hill, and the reins, when once buckled to- 
 gether at the proper place, do not require to be 
 changed, consequently the want of flexibility, above 
 referred to, is not so objectionable as it would be 
 for a team harnessed and driven in the English 
 fashion. In English, and especially in American, 
 driving, the horses are much more loosely har- 
 nessed, and the leaders are held back on a descent 
 and usually on a turn, so that an invariable relative 
 length of the wheel-reins and lead-reins would not 
 work satisfactorily. 
 
 Coaching in America in the past is not sur- 
 rounded by that halo of romance which attaches 
 to English coaching. It was always too severely 
 business-like and too roughly done. The ' stage- 
 waggon' (shown in Fig. 172, which is a photographic 
 reproduction of an advertisement in The Pennsyl- 
 vania Gazette of April 19, 1764), and the stage-coach 
 (Fig. 173, from Ponlson 's American Daily Advertiser 
 of July 11, 1 8 1 2 ), were gradually superseded by 
 coaches of more modern fashion. These old coaches 
 seem to have been described much in the same way 
 
478 
 
 AMERICAN COACHING 
 
 CH. XX 
 
 
 fe^^J??5-~?-:Sitl 
 
 NOTICE it HERtBv GIVEN, 
 
 TH A T the Subfcriber, living in Third flreet, next Door to 
 the Sign of the Three Reapers, has provided convenient 
 Stage-Waggons, which go from Philadalphii to Trenton Ferrjr 
 every Monday, Tuefday, Thursday and Friday, and there deliver 
 Goods and PafTengers to Francis Hulinan, and Daaiel Caflher, who 
 carry them to New-Brunfwick, to William Richards, and Simrji 
 HurTty, who deliver them at Amboy or EUzabeth-Town, where 
 they will be received by Andrew Hampton, who has one of the 
 moft convenient Boats to carry them to and from New- York ; the 
 faid Boats fet out from New- York on Mondays ard Thurfdays; 
 thofe who pleafc to favour them with their Cuflom, rway depend 
 on being well fcrvcd. Jonathan Biles. 
 
 Fi<;. 172. 
 
 as the English coaches, as the following advertise 
 merit in The Pennsylvania Gazette of June 18, 1783, 
 shows : — 
 
 'The New York flying Machine. The Sub- 
 ' scribers beg leave to inform the public, that they 
 ' have established A flying Stage Coach & Wag- 
 ' gon to perform the whole distance from this city 
 1 to Elizabeth Town in one day. 
 
 4 The coach will leave the Bunch of Grapes 
 ' Tavern, in Third Street between Market and Arch 
 ' streets, precisely at 4 o'clock every Tuesday and 
 ' Thursday morning, breakfast at Bristol, dine at 
 
CH. XX 
 
 AMERICAN COACHING 
 
 479 
 
 ^^^HPB^il^S^^S^^'; 
 
 The Cheapest Travelling from 
 Philadelphia to New York. 
 
 THE ACCOMMODATION- fare through 3 
 dollars For seats apply at the City Hoiel or 
 at the Stage Office No. 28 south Thirdstr«et- 
 
 1 50 lbs. Baggage e<jual to a passenger, and all 
 baggage to beat the rwK of the owner. 
 
 The Proprietors. 
 
 jury 8 2vv 
 
 Fig. 173. 
 
 Princeton, :i: exchange passengers with the Stage 
 Coach from Elizabeth Town, and return again the 
 same day to the Bunch of Grapes. 
 
 ' The Waggon will leave the tavern, at the same 
 hour, every Monday, Wednesday and Friday morn- 
 ing, proceed and return as the coach mentioned 
 above. The price for each Passenger in the Coach 
 to Elizabeth Town is Six Dollars and Four Dollars 
 for outside passengers : and One Guinea each for 
 a seat in the Waggon. 
 
 'Each passenger to be allowed 14 lb. weight of 
 baggage under their seat — But One Guinea must 
 be paid for every 150 lb. weight, either in the 
 coach or waggon, and in proportion for any less 
 
 * Princeton is 44 miles from Philadelphia, making the day's drive 
 88 miles. 
 
480 AMERICAN COACHING CH. XX 
 
 'or greater quantity. The baggage must be de- 
 ' posited at the Bunch of Grapes the preceding 
 ' evening, otherwise it cannot be received in the 
 ' stages. 
 
 ' Gershom Johnston 
 ' Philad. June 16, 1783. Charles Besonett 
 
 ' N.B. The Baltimore Stage Waggon leaves the 
 ' Bunch of Grapes tavern on Monday, Wednesday 
 ' and Friday morning precisely at 5 o'clock, and 
 'proceeds for Alexandria (in Virginia) a passenger 
 ' taking a seat in the stage at Elizabeth Town, may 
 ' arrive at Alexandria in four days, a distance of 
 ' 240 miles.' 
 
 From another advertisement it appears that the 
 ' flying Stage waggon ' had four horses and changed 
 every 20 miles. Another advertisement, of 1782, 
 says, ' New Erected Stages. These Machines, 
 'which are on springs, and very easy carriages,' 
 etc. 
 
 In the Pennsylvania Journal for February 4, 1 784, 
 is the following : ' The stage from this city to Balti- 
 ' more on Monday the 19th ult. crossing the Sus- 
 ' quehannah on the ice, broke in, and with difficulty 
 ' the passengers were saved, two of the horses were 
 ' drowned.' 
 
 Evidently there was sometimes a competition in 
 speed, for one advertisement of 1788 says that 
 ' The drivers are prohibited on severe penalties 
 ' from running their horses.' 
 
CH. XX ENGLISH COACHING 48 1 
 
 These coaches carried the mail under contract 
 with the Government, and a guard in charge of it ; 
 in fact, the system seems to have been the same 
 as that of the mail-coaches in England, but less 
 elaborate. 
 
 English Coaching. — The story of English coach- 
 ing is thoroughly told by Corbett, Malet, Har- 
 ris, Beaufort, Lennox, and Reynardson, whose 
 works are mentioned in the List of Books in this 
 volume. 
 
 The characteristic feature of English coaching 
 was : that there were two kinds of coaches, namely 
 Mails, which were under special contract with the 
 Post-Office Department and carried mail guards, 
 who were the servants of the Government and not 
 of the coach proprietors ; on these Mails only a 
 limited number of passengers were carried ; and 
 secondly Coaches, which were loaded more heavily 
 and which had a guard of their own, and some- 
 times, on the less busy routes, no guard at all. 
 
 Of course the original purpose of the guard 
 was to protect the mails, and he was therefore 
 armed with a blunderbuss ; for this reason, he was 
 often called ' the shooter.' The mails usually ran 
 at night. 
 
 On unimportant roads there were no mail-coaches, 
 and the ordinary coaches carried Government mail- 
 bags. These coaches had places for fifteen passen- 
 gers ; four inside, and eleven outside ; hence the 
 
482 ENGLISH COACHING CH. XX 
 
 expression in coaching songs, of 'eleven and four,' 
 meaning a full load : — 
 
 ' As he rattles along with eleven and four 
 'And a petticoat on the box.' 
 
 Both the mails and the coaches were the property 
 of coach-builders, who hired them out to the pro- 
 prietors of the road or to the mail-contractors, at 
 so much a mile run per month. 
 
 On a long route there were usually several 
 proprietors, who together furnished the horses, 
 employed the coachmen, and managed the busi- 
 ness generally, dividing the profits according to a 
 monthly settlement. 
 
 Some of the large proprietors had as many as 
 twelve hundred horses, and horsed a number of 
 lines of coaches and mails. Harris, in The Coach- 
 ing Age and in Old Coaching Days, gives a detailed 
 account of all this business. 
 
 The Encyclopedia Londoncnsis, 1826, p. 308, says 
 that (at that date) ' there are about 1 yo coaches and 
 ' 4500 horses, employed in England for the mails ; 
 'all private property.' 
 
 The average fares were : outside, 2^ to 3 pence 
 a mile, inside, double that ; the mails were some- 
 what dearer. 
 
 The ' road game' is frequently referred to in old 
 books, and it is not a bad aid to merriment in any 
 coaching trip. Each person, or party of persons, 
 chooses one side or the other of the road, and cer- 
 
CH. XX ROAD GAME 483 
 
 tain objects as they were passed on the right or left, 
 counted in a scale of values well understood amono; 
 coaching travellers. According to Reynardson, a 
 donkey counted as 7, a pig as 1, a black sheep as 1, 
 a cat as 5, a cat in a window as 10, a dog as 1, a 
 magpie as 1, a grey horse as 5, and some other 
 objects, now known to us only by tradition, had 
 higher values. The party of travellers making the 
 largest count in a certain time or distance, won the 
 game. 
 
484 CH - XXI 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 COACHING TRIPS 
 
 Few more delightful ways of travelling can be 
 imagined than that of driving a coach through an 
 interesting country. 
 
 When a man starts with his coach and horses, 
 from his own home, few preparations are necessary 
 beyond laying out the route and making arrange- 
 ments ahead at the stopping-places. 
 
 It is necessary, if the party is at all large, to have 
 the heavier baggage sent on by a messenger, day 
 by day, but where that is not possible, it must be 
 despatched to some point ahead, and the travellers 
 must content themselves with modest valises. 
 
 With a good team, carefully driven, from 20 to 
 25 miles a day can be easily made over good roads, 
 for an indefinite time. 
 
 In England and in France, where the roads are 
 admirable, the inns good, and the stopping-places 
 near together, coaching trips can be readily arranged. 
 
 A coach with the men, and with either one team 
 or two, can be had from a jobmaster of London or 
 Paris ; with two teams, twice the distance that can 
 be made with one team, can be driven each day ; 
 four horses being sent on by train every half-day 
 while the others are working. 
 
CH. XXI COACHING TRIPS 485 
 
 A good plan for a trip with one team is as fol- 
 lows : the coach starting about ten in the morning, 
 the baggage is sent by rail to the stopping-place 
 for the night, in charge of a man who engages 
 the rooms and stabling and orders the dinner ; a 
 stop of at least two hours is made at mid-day for 
 lunch, and to rest and feed the horses ; the hours 
 of the afternoon drive may be so arranged as to 
 have the most time at the lunch place or at the 
 night place, as their respective interest demands. 
 
 Barring accidents, the same horses will do this 
 work for any number of days, and an unfit horse 
 can be replaced by rail. One of the men hired 
 with the coach should drive well enough to take 
 it to and from the stable, but if a man is provided 
 who is to drive on the road, a higher charge is 
 always made for him. 
 
 The cost of a trip varies with the locality, but the 
 following list of expenses of a drive in the West of 
 England, with a party of five, will give an idea of 
 the expense : — 
 
 Coach, horses (a single team), and two men, ^42 
 a week (this includes the night-stabling and feed) ; 
 hotel bills, ^38 ; fees at hotels, £2 ; railway fares 
 for valet with baggage, £$ ; fees to coach men, £$ ; 
 lunches, and noon-feeds for horses, not included in 
 the coach hire, £10 ; altogether, ^98, about $484 
 per week. For a larger party, only the hotel bills 
 will be increased, the other expenses will remain 
 the same. 
 
486 COACHING CLUB TRIPS CH. XXI 
 
 Coaching Club Trips. — It has been for many 
 years the custom of The Coaching Club at New 
 York to make one or two trips every year, driving 
 from the city to the residence of a member of The 
 Club, to spend a day there, and to return on the 
 third day. A coach belonging to The Club is used, 
 and teams, sufficient to cover the ground, are fur- 
 nished by members. 
 
 The distance varies from 30 or 40 miles to So or 
 90, and one trip has been made of 317 miles, con- 
 suming four days, but driving only one way. 
 
 The first of these Coaching Club trips was made, 
 on the invitation of a Philadelphia member, on May 
 4th and 6th, 1878, from New York to Philadelphia, 
 through Newark, Elizabeth, Railway, Metuchin, New 
 Brunswick, Kingston, Princeton, Trenton, Bridge- 
 water, and Holmesburg, a distance of 90 miles. 
 The time was from 6.30 a.m. to 6.30 p.m., with a 
 stop of 40 minutes at Princeton for lunch, leaving 
 1 1 hours 20 minutes driving time, at a rate of 8 
 miles an hour. The hours on the return trip, Mon- 
 day, May 6th, were from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., and on both 
 days the arrival at the end of the journey was pre- 
 cisely on time. There were nine teams, the stages 
 being 10, 11, jj4, 7j4, JO, 10, 10, 11, and 13 miles. 
 The coachmen were Messrs A. DeLancey Kane, 
 Francis R. Rives, Perry Belmont, Theodore A. 
 Havemeyer, Hugo Fritsch, George P. Wetmore, 
 Frederic Bronson, George R. Fearing, and the 
 Philadelphia member, the present writer. 
 
CH. XXI COACHING CLUB TRIPS 487 
 
 This trip was repeated in 1887, the route and the 
 time being the same, with the exception that the 
 time taken out for lunch was one hour, thereby 
 reducing the driving time to eleven hours, and that 
 there were twelve teams instead of nine. Many 
 other trips have been made since then in all direc- 
 tions from New York, but the Philadelphia trip has 
 been described because it was the first. The longest 
 trip was made in June 1 894, from New York to ' Shel- 
 burne Farms,' Vermont, the residence of Dr Webb. 
 This required four days ; on the first day, June 6th, 
 the coach went from New York to Poughkeepsie, 
 82 14 miles ; on June 7th to Troy, 83*^ miles; on 
 June 8th to Rutland, 89 miles ; and on June 9th to 
 ' Shelburne Farms,' 63 miles; a total distance of 
 317^ miles. There were twenty teams, the horses 
 used on the first day being sent forward by train the 
 second day to be driven on the third. Those used 
 on the second were again driven on the fourth day. 
 All the horses were sent back to New York by rail 
 on the fifth day, the drive having been made in one 
 direction only. The time was kept throughout accu- 
 rately, no accident happened to any horse and not a 
 man was out of his place, — proofs that the arrange- 
 ments had been carefully made and that the disci- 
 pline was good. 
 
 The arrangements for these trips are briefly as 
 follows : a route having been decided upon in re- 
 sponse to an invitation of a member to visit him, 
 every member is asked whether or not he will 
 
488 
 
 COACHING CLUB TRIPS 
 
 CH. XXI 
 
 furnish a team ; the requisite number of teams 
 having been obtained, each member is assigned a 
 stage, usually by lot, and he is notified at what time 
 and place his horses are to be in readiness, on the 
 road, for his change. It is customary to assign the 
 last stage to the entertaining member. 
 
 All the members going on the trip, start on the 
 coach, and each one takes up his own team at its 
 appointed place and drives it over his stage ; his 
 men go inside the coach with their blankets and 
 stable tools. 
 
 A card for the seats is so made out that the box 
 seat is occupied in turn by each driving member, 
 thus giving each one an opportunity of seeing one 
 other man drive. 
 
 Stages. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 Mr A, 
 
 C 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 IO 
 
 i 
 
 6 
 
 IO 
 
 B 
 
 Mr B, 
 
 IO 
 
 C 
 
 5 
 
 B 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 i 
 
 Mr C, 
 
 4 
 
 IO 
 
 C 
 
 8 
 
 B 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 Mr D, 
 
 9 
 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 C 
 
 IO 
 
 4 
 
 B 
 
 2 
 
 MrE, 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 C 
 
 8 
 
 i 
 
 5 
 
 Mr F, 
 
 5 
 
 B 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 C 
 
 5 
 
 IO 
 
 Mr G, 
 
 i 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 IO 
 
 C 
 
 4 
 
 Mr H, 
 
 B 
 
 8 
 
 IO 
 
 i 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 C 
 
 Mr I, 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 B 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 Mr J, 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 6 
 
 Mr K, 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 B 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 Mr L, 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
CH. XXI COACHING CLUB TRIPS 489 
 
 An example ot a card is here given where there 
 are twelve passengers, of whom eight drive, there 
 being only that number of stages. C stands for 
 coachman, B for box-seat. 
 
 For the servants, these trips are a useful test ; it 
 is no slight matter to have four horses in good con- 
 dition, all the harness complete, nothing forgotten, 
 at a certain spot some distance from home, ready 
 exactly on the minute and everything looking neat ; 
 the head coachman who can accomplish it must be a 
 competent man. 
 
 These trips are usually timed at nine miles an 
 hour, which experience has shown is quite fast 
 enough, and a point is made of keeping time closely, 
 not an easy thing over a road unknown, or only par- 
 tially known, to the members driving. 
 
490 ch. xxii 
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 THE RULE OF THE ROAD 
 
 The rule of the road is to a great extent a matter 
 of tradition and unwritten, although in some cases 
 it is recognised and enforced by laws and ordi- 
 nances. 
 
 In the United States, and generally on the Con- 
 tinent of Europe, vehicles which meet keep to the 
 right ; that is, they have their left sides toward each 
 other ; in the case of ships this rule is rigidly pre- 
 scribed by the laws of navigation. In Great Britain 
 and in some parts of Europe, the opposite rule is 
 observed, and vehicles keep to the left, while pedes- 
 trians, as far as any custom regulating their move- 
 ments is observed, keep to the right. The reasons 
 for this variety of customs are not easy to trace. In 
 all countries when times were less peaceful than at 
 present, and when nearly every man carried a sword 
 or a cudgel, a pedestrian naturally presented his left 
 side to an approaching stranger as giving the best 
 opportunity of warding off an attack with his left 
 arm while enabling him to attack with his ricrht. 
 Inasmuch as those of high rank, however, usually 
 insisted upon taking the wall side, this custom could 
 not have been universal, although the desire to keep 
 to the wall and at the same time to present the left 
 
CH. XXII THE RULE OF THE ROAD 49 1 
 
 side would lead to passing to the right in a narrow 
 street, by all the persons moving in it. 
 
 With persons on horseback it would be different ; 
 each one would then prefer to have his sword arm 
 on the side of the person approaching, and not to 
 be obliged t Q strike across his horse in case of an 
 encounter, so that it is probable that mounted men 
 observed a different rule, as knights in tilting would 
 of course do. 
 
 In early days, when the majority of vehicles were 
 guided by a man who rode, or walked beside, the 
 left-hand horse, it was natural that he should keep 
 his vehicle on the riorit-hand side of the road so as 
 to see how much room to give an approaching 
 vehicle. In all countries it is certain that horses 
 were led and handled from their left side, and the 
 English terms, and American terms as well, of near 
 side and off side indicate that this custom was iden- 
 tical in both countries. 
 
 When carriages with a seat for the driver came 
 into use, the reins were held in the left hand be- 
 cause on horseback they were so held, in order to 
 leave the right hand free for the sword, and the 
 driver sat on the right-hand side of the vehicle to 
 avoid having his whip project over the road, and 
 then it would be more convenient for him to permit 
 approaching carriages to go on his right, so that 
 he could see how near he went to them, and thus 
 the present English fashion might have been, and 
 probably was, established. 
 
49 2 THE RULE OF THE ROAD CH. XXII 
 
 Whether or not the English rule of the road was 
 in force in early days in America, and if so, when 
 it was changed to our present rule, I do not know, 
 although I have made careful researches into the 
 question. On many old bridges may be seen the 
 sign, — ' Keep to the right as the law directs,' — but 
 so far, although aided by the opinion of friends 
 learned in the law, I have been unable to find the 
 date or the text of any such statute. It appears 
 that there is no general enactment in England upon 
 the subject, but in both countries the custom in 
 force has so far become law, that decisions in cases 
 of collision and damage are usually decided by the 
 Courts as if a statute did actually exist. There 
 are in both countries numerous local ordinances 
 regulating traffic on the road. 
 
 Apart, therefore, from any historical interest that 
 may attach to the origin of these customs, they 
 have to all intents and purposes the force of law 
 and must be observed by coachmen. The English 
 rule is embalmed in the familiar lines : — 
 
 ' The rule of the road is a paradox quite, 
 ' Both in riding and driving along ; 
 
 ' If you go to the left you are sure to go right, 
 ' If you go to the right you are wrong. 
 
 But in walking the streets 'tis a different case, 
 ' To the right it is right you should bear ; 
 
 To the left should be left quite enough of free space 
 ' For the persons you chance to meet there. ' 
 
CH. XXII THE RULE OF THE ROAD 493 
 
 As there is no ' paradox' in the American rule, 
 no poet seems to have been inspired to embody it 
 in verse. 
 
 While the rule of driving is perfectly understood 
 in England and adhered to, that of walking is barely 
 recognised, and the lack of a rule must have struck 
 all Americans when walking in London. In Liver- 
 pool and in London there have been somewhat 
 recently put on the lamp-posts, notices to pedes- 
 trians of 'Keep to the right,' a sufficient indication 
 that the public did not of their own motion suffi- 
 ciently observe such a rule. In American cities the 
 rule for pedestrians is usually observed with some 
 strictness. 
 
 The rule in driving, of keeping to the right being 
 universal in the United States, it follows that a 
 vehicle when overtaken should be passed to the 
 left, a rule which should be always observed by 
 both parties ; that is to say, the vehicle which is 
 moving slowly, upon seeing that another wishes to 
 pass it, should incline to the right sufficiently to 
 give the passing one a fair share of the road. It is 
 ill-natured to neglect to give way for a person who 
 wishes to go on at a faster pace ; unfortunately it is 
 a not uncommon form of incivility. 
 
 On the other hand, the vehicle, after it has 
 passed, should be driven on at the faster gait, 
 and should not on any account be pulled down 
 to the same pace as that of the overtaken one, 
 when immediately in front of it. If the driver is 
 
494 THE RULE OF THE ROAD CH. XXII 
 
 not certain that he can go on faster than the car- 
 riage he is about to pass, he should not attempt 
 to pass at all. 
 
 In a wide road or street the slow traffic should 
 keep to the sides, leaving the centre for those who 
 wish to go faster ; only a thoughtless or an ill- 
 natured driver will go at a walk in the middle of 
 
 O 
 
 the road, thereby preventing those who wish to go 
 faster from passing him, yet it is a spectacle con- 
 stantly to be noticed in the public parks. In fact, a 
 courteous attention to the rights of others using- the 
 road is the duty of all drivers. In passing two 
 horses, one of which is ridden and the other led, 
 it is particularly important to go on their left-hand 
 side ; the led horse is on the off side of the two, 
 and when a vehicle passes him on his off side he 
 is likely to turn his croup outward and to kick, 
 in play, or for defence, and in either case an ac- 
 cident may ensue. Obviously, a man leading a 
 horse should keep well over to the right-hand side 
 of the road so as to have his led horse out of the 
 way. 
 
 The introduction of street railways has somewhat 
 unsettled the rule of the road, for the reason that 
 inasmuch as a car cannot go to the right, the over- 
 taking vehicle, if it passes to the left, may meet 
 another one going in the opposite direction on its 
 proper side, where there is rarely room between 
 the car and the kerb for two carriages. It is there- 
 fore usually necessary when overtaking a car to 
 
CH. XXII THE RULE OF THE ROAD 495 
 
 pass upon its right side where no meeting vehicle 
 is likely to be encountered. This change of rule 
 is even more necessary when there are two tracks 
 on a street, because cars going in the opposite 
 direction and carriages following them on the 
 track are still more in the way. These move- 
 ments should therefore be made with much caution. 
 A car usually goes quite as fast as any one ought 
 to drive in the streets, and it is a mistake to at- 
 tempt to pass it even if it is stopped for a moment, 
 since if it starts while the carriage is alongside 
 of it, a considerable distance must be gone before 
 reaching a place in front of it, with the chance, in 
 the meantime, of being obliged to stop for some 
 vehicle coming in the opposite direction with the 
 right of way. 
 
 In going round a corner, the proper side of the 
 road should be kept throughout the whole of the 
 turn. In turning to the right, the carriage should 
 be driven somewhat close to the kerb all the way 
 round, it will then come into the new street on the 
 proper side of the way, but in turning to the left 
 out of one street into another, the left-hand kerb 
 must be avoided, and a wide turn made, so as to 
 come into the new street on the right-hand side, 
 going from the right side of one street to the right 
 side of the other. Even fairly good coachmen fre- 
 quently make the mistake of cutting close to a left- 
 hand corner, thereby obstructing the traffic which 
 is coming on the right side of the street, inviting 
 
496 THE RULE OF THE ROAD CH. XXII 
 
 a collision, and making it necessary to continue 
 crossing obliquely to the right, to get on the proper 
 side of the road, — a slovenly way of turning a 
 corner. 
 
 The traffic of crowded streets is much facilitated 
 by a custom, common in London and Paris, but not, 
 as yet, generally adopted in American cities, of the 
 coachman signalling his intentions to those about 
 him. If he intends to diminish his pace, or to 
 stop, he raises his whip, usually twirling the thong 
 in a circle, to attract attention ; if he is to turn 
 to the right or to go over to the right side of the 
 road, he raises his right hand, having passed his 
 whip into his left, as an intimation to those behind 
 him not to come up on his right side ; if he wishes 
 to turn to the left, he does the same with his left 
 hand. If there is a footman on the box, he may 
 make the motion to the left, as soon as he knows 
 the intention of the coachman. On a coach, it 
 should be made by the groom who is on the inside 
 of the turn, if he knows that the turn is to be 
 made ; as, for instance, in going round a corner 
 toward home. When about to turn or to incline 
 to the left, the coachman intimates his intention to 
 those who are meeting him by pushing his hand and 
 the butt of his whip horizontally to the right ; he 
 can make the same movement to the left, but it is 
 not so distinctly visible. 
 
 In turning completely round, these notices should 
 be given with more care than in turning a corner, 
 
CH. XXII THE RULE OF THE ROAD 497 
 
 since the movement will be unexpected by those 
 behind. . 
 
 Before turning a corner, out of a road which has 
 several lines of traffic in it, the coachman should edge 
 over toward the side to which he intends to turn, so 
 as not to have any vehicle coming up behind him on 
 the inside of his turn. If, for instance, there are 
 three lines of traffic going each way on a wide road, 
 and he intends to turn to the left, he should get into 
 the left-hand line, and when he turns the corner, the 
 carriages behind him will move straight on without 
 his being in their way, but if he remains in the ex- 
 treme right-hand line until he begins to make his 
 turn, he must cross two lines of vehicles and stop 
 them, before he can make his turn. 
 
 If he wishes to turn out to the right he should get 
 into the right-hand line, and when he reaches his 
 corner he can turn round it, without in the least 
 interfering- with those coming behind. These rules 
 seem simple and trite, but it is only necessary to 
 watch for a short time, the driving in a crowded 
 road to see all of them violated. 
 
 A good horseman keeps his eyes always in front 
 of him, observing all that is going on, even if he 
 may be at the same time talking to a person along- 
 side of him. This habit should become a second 
 nature to any man wishing to be a good coachman ; 
 he will then see what those approaching him are 
 doing or are about to do. He must always be de- 
 cided as to what he himself intends to do, and not 
 
498 THE RULE OF THE ROAD CH. XXII 
 
 chancre his mind after havino- commenced a move- 
 ment, or else those meeting him will not know what 
 he intends. This makes an immense difference in 
 the ease and security with which crowded traffic 
 is conducted. In the London streets, where nearly 
 everyone seems to be a born coachman, and where 
 anyone who does not drive well is unmercifully 
 guyed by those around him, it is easy to know 
 exactly what each person intends to do, and the 
 traffic moves smoothly even at the most crowded 
 hours. In Paris, where cabmen and private coach- 
 men usually drive badly, and without the least at- 
 tention to each other's rights, it is often extremely 
 difficult to foresee from his actions what the man in 
 front is cming- to do, and uncertain movements and 
 collisions are the result. 
 
 This is aggravated by the fashion, almost universal 
 in Paris, of driving with both hands, which makes it 
 difficult for a coachman to diminish his pace or to 
 pull up suddenly, owing to his right hand's being 
 so far from his left that he cannot use it promptly 
 to shorten both reins tooether. The reins should 
 be always held in the left hand, and the right should 
 be used in front of the left, and only when required 
 to make some movement. 
 
 In American cities, although the police insist upon 
 a much slower pace than is permitted in Paris, the 
 state of affairs is but little better, owing to the 
 prevalent idea that anyone can drive, that no par- 
 ticular skill or practice is required, and to the fact 
 
CH. XXII THE RULE OF THE ROAD 499 
 
 that there is no recognised standard by which drivers 
 expect to be judged. 
 
 Besides the rules of the road, the courtesies of 
 the road should be strictly observed. Every vehicle 
 is entitled to one-half of the road, but it is usual for 
 a light carriage to yield to a heavily loaded business 
 wagon, since that cannot so readily leave the best 
 part of the road, and some English legal decisions 
 recognise this courtesy as obligatory. A vehicle 
 going up a hill should to some extent yield to one 
 coming down, especially at a crossing, inasmuch as 
 it is more difficult to pull up quickly on a descent 
 than on an ascent. 
 
 Many coaching men seem to have an idea that for 
 some mysterious reason every vehicle should give 
 way to a coach, and are not sparing in unfavorable 
 comments on those who do not accord them an 
 excessive right of way ; but there are no just 
 grounds for such pretensions on the part of a 
 person driving a private coach. The feeling is, 
 probably, traditional, arising from the fact that 
 the mail-coaches and those public-coaches which car- 
 ried a mail, had by law what might be called an 
 almost violent right of way over all traffic. How 
 strongly this was felt is shown by many anec- 
 dotes, among them one told by Stanley Harris 
 on p. 72 of The Coaching Age, and accompanied 
 by a spirited illustration by Sturgess, in which, in 
 the words of a passenger on the mail, ' The sol- 
 ' diers were marching down the military road which 
 
500 THE RULE OF THE ROAD CH. XXII 
 
 ' crossed the main road. Traffic always stopped 
 ' for the soldiers : the mail could not get through, 
 'and Elwin, the guard, insisted on the Queen's 
 ' right. " Damn the soldiers ! drive through them, 
 'Watson!" he cried to the coachman. So the 
 ' coachman went for them, and the soldiers had to 
 'give way, amidst a fair amount of bad language 
 ' from the officers, which was freely and smartly 
 ' returned by the guard and one or two of the 
 ' passengers, especially as the officer had a glass 
 ' in his eye.' 
 
 This sentiment undoubtedly extended itself to all 
 public-coaches, which were more or less identified in 
 the minds of the public with the mail service, and, 
 coupled with the fact that a public-coach is running 
 on time, it appeals to the sympathy of the ' horsey' 
 public of England, so that a public-coach and even 
 a private coach receives an amount of courtesy, 
 perhaps unconscious, not accorded to other vehicles. 
 The demand for the road, suggested by the horn 
 of a public-coach, is usually responded to with 
 alacrity and good nature in England, where it is 
 thoroughly understood, but with a private coach 
 it is not in ^ood taste to demand too much. 
 
 In a city, it is certainly not well to use the horn 
 for such a purpose, but on a country road it may 
 properly take the place of the voice, in intimating 
 to a driver hidden under the cover of his wagon 
 that there are other people besides himself using 
 the road. 
 
CH. XXII THE RULE OF THE ROAD 5OI 
 
 In connection with this, one is tempted to enquire 
 if a wise legislation ought not to prohibit any 
 driver from shutting himself within a cover which 
 prevents him from seeing out in any direction but 
 forward. 
 
502 
 
 CH. XXIII 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 ACCIDENTS 
 
 While it is often said that a man who has had 
 many accidents knows how to avoid them and how 
 to ' get out of a scrape' with the least damage, it is 
 not agreeable to obtain experience in this way, and 
 to avoid accidents altogether is desirable. 
 
 It is important, first of all, to have coach and 
 harness in the best order ; it is almost criminal to 
 use rotten harness or any weak tackle ; next, con- 
 stant watchfulness is absolutely necessary, and no 
 man is a <jood or a safe coachman who does not, 
 all the time, see what is going on around him, in 
 front, at his side, and among the horses, no matter 
 what else is engaging his attention. His ear must 
 catch the slightest unusual sound about the coach ; 
 a break is generally preceded by some warning. 
 He must not court danger by driving too close to 
 any object or to a doubtful-looking edge of the road. 
 But apart from the accidents arising from bad 
 judgement or carelessness, there are many which 
 even attention will not altogether avoid. 
 
 On slippery pavements the best of horses may 
 fall ; against this, india-rubber pads in the front feet 
 or all round, are the best preventive. 
 
 With soft snow on the ground, balls are formed 
 
CH. XXIII ACCIDENTS 503 
 
 in the foot, which slip and render the horse quite 
 helpless ; to prevent this, india-rubber balling-pads 
 are used, but in their absence, filling the hollow of 
 the foot with tallow or with common soap is a 
 satisfactory substitute. 
 
 Sometimes an unruly leader, held too tightly at 
 starting, will rear, and throw himself and the other 
 leader down ; but they generally manage to scramble 
 to their feet without any damage since they are so 
 loosely attached to the coach. 
 
 The fall of a wheeler is a much more serious 
 matter ; the proper thing is to hold him down until 
 the other wheeler is got out of the way to avoid 
 his being kicked by the fallen horse, and then to 
 release the latter by unbuckling his hame-strap, 
 which will loosen all his harness and permit his 
 traces to be unfastened. In cases of this kind, the 
 trace-end shown in Fig. 103 is useful. 
 
 If a leader kicks over the trace, it is, usually, 
 easier to unhook the trace from the bar than to 
 unbuckle it at the tug ; and an objection to the 
 arrangement, otherwise good, of lapping the traces, 
 is that if the horse kicks over an inside trace he has 
 his lesj over both traces. 
 
 A wheel horse's kicking over his inside trace and 
 getting his leg between it and the pole, is a serious 
 matter. The traces will be drawn so tight that it 
 will be impossible to unbuckle them, and the proper 
 way is to unbuckle the hame-strap on the top of 
 the collar ; the trace will then be slackened and can 
 
504 ACCIDENTS CH. XXIII 
 
 be taken off the roller-bolt, or unbuckled ; there is 
 no excuse for cutting a trace. On no account must 
 the pole-chain be unhooked first ; that permits the 
 horse to get back on the splinter-bar and will make 
 him kick. 
 
 A leader may kick and catch his leg between the 
 main-bar and the single-bars if they are connected 
 by a link or chain, — a dangerous arrangement which 
 cannot be too strongly condemned. 
 
 The breaking of any part of the harness, such 
 as that of the hame-strap of a wheeler, when going 
 down-hill, or of a rein under any circumstances, is 
 a serious matter. 
 
 The breaking of a trace has usually no bad 
 result beyond that of delay, which need not be long 
 if a chain or extra trace is carried in the coach. 
 
 The breaking of a pole may occasion a serious 
 accident if the coach is going" down-hill ; should it 
 happen, if the brake is not sufficient to hold the 
 coach, it is sometimes possible to keep the horses 
 going, out of the way of the coach ; but if the pole 
 is broken absolutely in two, so that the front part 
 trails on the ground, an accident is almost unavoid- 
 able. The soft side of the road may be sought, to 
 aid in stopping the wheels, care being taken not to 
 get into a gutter, which may turn the coach over. 
 A turn across the road, or up a slope, is also a 
 remedy ; but while this is possible with a pair and 
 with a vehicle which turns under, it is usually, for 
 want of space, impossible with a coach. 
 
CH. XXIII ACCIDENTS 505 
 
 In making a short turn, the pole may easily be 
 broken by the lead horses jumping- sideways when 
 the coach is on the lock. When this happens, 
 the break is usually through the pin-hole, in the 
 futchells, and if there is only a short distance to go 
 and not down-hill, by taking out the broken piece, 
 the remaining part of the pole can be jammed back 
 between the futchells ; then the pole-chains being 
 taken up very tight and the leaders prevented from 
 pulling on the point of the pole, home may be 
 reached. If a piece of rope is run from the D 
 of the main-bar to the futchells, the leaders can 
 pull by the rope without disturbing the pole. 
 
 A broken pole can be temporarily mended by 
 pushing the fractured ends tightly together and 
 then binding on, by a strong cord, two or four thin 
 pieces of board, like splints. A rope should then 
 be carried from the bars to the futchells (as men- 
 tioned above) to prevent the leaders from pulling 
 the pole out of its splints. 
 
 For mending breaks there is nothing so good 
 as an article not often found in civilized places, 
 namely : a strip of raw-hide. If this is wetted and 
 bound round a joint, or a splice, it will contract in 
 drying, and be much tighter than any cord can be 
 drawn. Skill in tying some of the knots used by 
 sailors is of great advantage in case of accident. 
 
 The breaking of a lead-bar, or the coming loose 
 of one of its ends, does little damage, unless the 
 bar falls on the horse's heels and makes him kick. 
 
506 ACCIDENTS CH. XXIII 
 
 The reason for putting on the bars with the screw- 
 heads of the furniture up is, that if a screw breaks 
 or falls out, its loss will be noticed by the coach- 
 man. This is not an uncommon accident, and is 
 best guarded against by using the rivets shown in 
 
 Fig- 3i. 
 
 The breaking of a front axle-arm, or the coming 
 
 off of a front wheel, is serious, and if the coach be 
 
 going at all fast, an overturn is probable. 
 
 The box of a Collinge axle will sometimes work 
 loose in the wheel and the wheel will gradually slip 
 off, but an observant coachman should detect the 
 mishap before any damage is done, especially in the 
 case of the off side wheel. 
 
 I once saw a friend bring his coach home from a 
 considerable distance, after the* box of a front wheel 
 had become loose, by ingeniously putting the skid 
 under the wheel and fastening- it bv its chain to 
 the splinter-bar, which was protected from being 
 scratched by having a horse-cloth wrapped round 
 it, the coach being dragged on the skid ; of course 
 the wheel had not come off, but had only started. 
 
 As may be gathered from the remarks in Chapter 
 IX., it is not difficult to capsize a coach, but it is an 
 unpardonably careless thing to do unless something 
 is broken, or the horses are running away. The 
 coming off of the skid or the breaking of the skid- 
 chain in descending a steep hill, may cause a cap- 
 size, whence the importance of having this tackle in 
 good order. 
 
CH. XXIII ACCIDENTS 507 
 
 On icy roads, the skid will slip and, with the 
 brake hard on, the tire of the wheel slips also. 
 The ice-skid (Fig. 49) is good for steady work ; 
 a temporary substitute for it may be made by put- 
 ting on the ordinary skid and wrapping a chain- 
 trace or the chain of the hook, round the skid and 
 the rim of the wheel so as to present a rougher 
 surface to the road, as described on p. 89. 
 
 It is possible for a wheel horse to catch his bit in 
 the pole-chain hook so as to pull off his bridle, an 
 accident likely to be attended with danger ; also, a 
 leader, in throwing his head up and down, may 
 catch the branch of his bit in the bridle of his 
 partner. 
 
 Some leaders will kick violently if a rein gets 
 under the tail, an accident likely to happen in the 
 fly season. If the horse is dangerous in that way, 
 one of the men should get down and free the rein, 
 beino- careful to seize the tail and lift it off the rein 
 instead of trying to pull out the rein. If the horse 
 is not a kicker, the rein can sometimes be set free 
 by pulling the leaders to one side and the wheelers 
 to the other in such a way that the diagonal pull 
 will draw the rein out ; the rein should be slack at 
 the moment, and a slight flick with the whip on 
 the horse's rump will cause the tail to be lifted, 
 and so facilitate the operation. 
 
 A way of preventing the horse from getting his 
 tail over the rein, is to pass both lead-reins through 
 a ring slipped on them between the leaders and the 
 
508 ACCIDENTS CH. XXIII 
 
 wheelers, which keeps the reins together, and away 
 from the tails. This ring must be lashed tightly to 
 one of the reins or else it will slip out of place. 
 
 Another way is to run the rein of the horse that 
 whisks his tail, through the throat-latch of the 
 wheeler diagonally behind him ; but this is obviously 
 desirable for a short distance only, in an emergency, 
 since it is apt to interfere with the wheeler's work. 
 
 A not uncommon accident, which cannot happen 
 if the reins are properly made, is that of catching 
 the fork of the lead-reins on a leader's tail. 
 
 Should a leader shy violently, he may pull his 
 coupling-buckle through the pad-terret of his part- 
 ner. For the means of preventing both of these 
 accidents, see the article on ' Reins' in the Chapter 
 on ' Harness.' 
 
 Driving too fast round a turn, and striking the 
 wheel against a stone, is perhaps the most common 
 cause of serious accidents, since by the shock the 
 coachman may be thrown off the coach. 
 
 A horse standing unattended, by the side of the 
 road, should, in passing, be watched ; he may turn 
 suddenly into the road and throw down a leader. 
 
 To have a horse balk, or jib, and refuse to go, 
 can be, perhaps, hardly called an accident, but it is 
 desperately annoying and very difficult to manage. 
 Every horseman has his own method of inducing 
 the horse to move, which he considers infallible 
 until he tries to put it in practice, when it usually 
 fails. 
 
CH. XXIII ACCIDENTS 509 
 
 Anything which distracts the horse's attention 
 from the idea which he has in his head, may be suc- 
 cessful, — for instance, lifting his foot and hammering- 
 on the hoof as if shoeing him. Violence of any kind 
 usually makes matters worse. 
 
 A pulling horse may be made more manageable 
 by passing his coupling-rein under the throat-latch 
 of his partner before buckling it to the bit. This 
 is called throat-latching, frequently pronounced 
 ' throat-lashing-.' 
 
 In old coaching days, wild or troublesome horses 
 were sometimes 'moped,' that is, a leather screen 
 or shade was fastened to the bridle and covered the 
 eyes, so that the horse could see only downward ; 
 ' moping a leader' was an expression frequently used. 
 
 Horses must never be left unattended ; no matter 
 how quiet they may be, something may frighten 
 them and disastrous results ensue. 
 
 During fog, or falling snow, it is frequently difficult 
 to see the road or what is ahead, and at nieht the 
 light of the lamps shining on the fog is bewildering. 
 This may be somewhat obviated by partially covering 
 the lamps so that the light may shine down on the 
 road, but not too much ahead. 
 
 In driving tired horses, the work must be so 
 distributed as to favor a weak horse ; under some 
 circumstances the leaders should be kept as fresh 
 as possible, since, as a coaching writer tersely puts 
 it, ' a tired wheeler may be dragged home, but if a 
 leader cuts it, you're planted.' 
 
IO 
 
 CH. XXIV 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 COACHING CLUBS 
 
 Mention has been made of the Coaching Clubs 
 in England. Similar ones have been formed in the 
 United States ' for the encouragement of four-in- 
 hand driving.' The oldest is that in New York, 
 established in 1875, which has for its title 'The 
 Coaching Club ;' the following is a list of its mem- 
 bers from the beginning ; those who have died or 
 resigned beinor marked D or R : — 
 
 Charles A. Baldwin. 
 J. D. Roman Baldwin. 
 F. 0. Beach. R. 
 George A. Bech. D. 
 Isaac Bell, Jr. D. 
 August Belmont. D. 
 August Belmont, Jr. 
 Oliver H. P. Belmont. 
 Perry Belmont. 
 James Gordon Bennett. 
 A. S. Bigelow. 
 Frederic Bronson. D. 
 Harold Brown. D. 
 Neilson Brown. 
 H. R. A. Carey. D. 
 Charles Carroll. 
 Alexander J. Cassatt. 
 William P. Douglas. 
 Tracy Dows. 
 George P. Eustis. 
 
 George R. Fearing. R. 
 Hugo O. Fritsch. D. 
 Frederic Gebhard. 
 Robert Livingston Gerry. 
 William C. Gulliver. 
 Charles F. Havemeyer. D. 
 Theodore A. Havemeyer. D. 
 Theodore A. Havemeyer, Jr. 
 George Griswold Haven. 
 Eugene Higgins. 
 Thomas Hitchcock, Jr. 
 C. Oliver Iselin. 
 William Jay. 
 Leonard \V. Jerome. D. 
 C. H. Joy. D. 
 Delancy A. Kane. 
 S. Nicholson Kane. 
 Gustav E. Kissel. 
 Prescott Lawrence. 
 N. Griswold Lorillard. D. 
 
CH. XXIV 
 
 COACHING CLUBS 
 
 5" 
 
 Pierre Lorillard. R. 
 Richard McCreery. 
 George Von L. Meyer. 
 Ogden Mills. 
 Edwin D. Morgan. 
 William Forbes Morgan. 
 Edward Morrell. 
 Richard Mortimer. 
 Stanley Mortimer. 
 Frederick Neilson. D. 
 Thomas Newbold. R. 
 Harry Oelrichs. R. 
 E. M. Padelford. R. 
 James V. Parker. R. 
 George R. Read. 
 Isaac H. Reed. D. 
 A. Thorndike Rice. D. 
 Francis R. Rives. D. 
 Reginald Wm. Rives. 
 
 Honorary Member. The 
 
 Christopher R. Robert. D. 
 Fairman Rogers. 
 J. Roosevelt Roosevelt. 
 F. Augustus Schermerhorn. 
 W. Watts Sherman. 
 F. K. Sturgis. 
 E. V. R. Thayer. 
 Nathaniel Thayer. 
 Perry Tiffany. 
 William R. Travers. R. 
 Francis T. Underhill. R. 
 James J. Van Alen. 
 Alfred G. Vanderbilt. 
 William K. Vanderbilt. 
 W. Seward Webb. 
 George Peabody Wetmore. 
 Augustus Whiting. R. 
 Harry Payne Whitney. 
 William C. Whitney. 
 Duke of Beaufort. D. 
 
 ' The Four-in-Hand CI 
 
 from February 28, 1890. 
 
 J. C. Mercer Biddle. 
 Edward Brooke. 
 Neilson Brown. 
 Edward Browning. 
 Harrison K. Caner. 
 William E. Carter. 
 Alexander J. Cassatt. 
 
 B. Dawson Coleman. 
 A. J. Drexel. 
 
 G. W. C. Drexel. R. 
 William L. Elkins, Jr. 
 
 C. Davis English. 
 Henry Fairfax. 
 John R. Fell. D. 
 
 These lists are con 
 
 ub ' of Philadelphia dates 
 Its members are : — 
 
 S. F. Houston. 
 
 H. P. McKean, Jr. 
 
 J. Willis Martin. 
 
 E. RlTTENHOUSE MlLLER. 
 
 Edward Morrell. 
 P. S. P. Randolph. 
 Reginald W. Rives. 
 Edward B. Smith. 
 William Struthers. 
 Barclay H. Warburton. 
 J. G. Waterman. 
 J. E. Widener. 
 S. Megargee Wright. 
 
 ected to May 1900. 
 
5 12 
 
 COACHING CLUBS 
 
 CH. XXIV 
 
 There are Clubs in other cities of the United States. 
 
 In Paris, there is, besides 'La Cercle des Gtiides' 
 which is a French Club, 'The Reunion Road Club,' 
 formed in 1893 with the object of encouraging road- 
 coaching. 
 
 Its members are : — 
 
 Chester Arthur. 
 Frederick 0. Beach. 
 O. H. P. Belmont. 
 Perry Belmont. 
 J. G. Bennett. 
 Marquis Du Bourg. 
 Frederic Bronson. D. 
 
 COMTE DE CARCARADEC. 
 
 Henry R. A. Carey. D. 
 A. J. Cassatt. 
 William P. Douglas. 
 George P. Eustis. 
 William C. Eustis. 
 Captain Pryce Hamilton. 
 T. A. Hayemeyer. D. 
 Eugene Higgins. 
 . C. Oliver Iselin. 
 
 William Jay. 
 Delancy A. Kane. 
 De La Haye Jousselin. 
 Vicomte de La Rochefou- 
 cauld. 
 Prescott Lawrence. 
 Baron Lejeune. 
 donatien levesque. 
 Forbes Morgan. 
 Henry Ridgway. 
 Reginald W. Rives. 
 Fairman Rogers. 
 J. R. Roosevelt. 
 F. K. Sturgis. 
 William G. Tiffany. 
 William K. Vanderbilt. 
 George Peabody Wetmore. 
 
 The rules and customs of the Meets of Coaching 
 Clubs are simple, and adopted principally with the 
 view of ensuring a certain uniformity. 
 
 At the Meets of the Coaching Club in New York, 
 the coaches take a front load only ; the wife of the 
 owner, if he has one, takes the box-seat ; there are 
 two ladies and two men on the front roof-seat, the 
 back of the hind roof-seat is turned down, and the 
 two grooms are in the rumble. These rules are not 
 
CH. XXIV MEETS OF COACHING CLUBS 5 1 3 
 
 observed by the London Clubs, where either a front 
 load or a full load is carried. In the case of mourn- 
 ing, when the wife of a member does not, for that 
 reason, wish to appear at the Meet, a lady takes her 
 place, or the load is made up of men only. 
 
 The only occasion on which the wife of the owner, 
 if she is on the coach at all, is not on the box-seat, 
 is when a very distinguished personage, such as 
 the President of the United States, takes that seat 
 on the leading- coach. 
 
 If the owner is unmarried, the lady on the box is 
 usually one of his own family. 
 
 The owner and his servants usually wear bouton- 
 nieres of the same variety as the flowers in the 
 horses' heads. There are no lamps on the coaches, 
 and the grooms' overcoats are not on the rumble 
 but, if carried at all, are inside the coach. The 
 stable shutters are down (that is, open), and the 
 glass windows either up or down. 
 
 The owner wears the uniform of the Club and a 
 black silk hat, as do all the men on the coach. 
 Some years ago, it was considered de rigneur for 
 ladies to wear bonnets, but hats have become so 
 general as to be considered correct even on a coach. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to add that every attention 
 should be paid to the proper turning out of the 
 coach and to the dress and attitude of the servants. 
 
 At a Meet of private drags, two servants in livery 
 should be on the coach ; never a servant in the 
 dress of a guard, as is sometimes seen in Paris. 
 
 33 
 
514 MEETS OF COACHING CLUBS CH. XXIV 
 
 The time of assembling, by which time all the 
 coaches should be on the ground, is usually fifteen 
 minutes before the hour of starting. The coaches 
 take their places in the order of arrival, either in 
 one or two lines or in a single column, depending 
 upon the locality. One place at the right, or at the 
 head, is left for the President of the Club, and the 
 Vice-President takes the rear. Inasmuch as punc- 
 tuality is a coaching virtue, the start should be made 
 on the minute by the President, and the coaches 
 should follow at intervals of a coach length ; that is, 
 about forty feet. These intervals should be kept 
 with great precision, since, if they are alternately 
 lost and regained, the changes of pace will be much 
 increased toward the rear of the column, where the 
 coaches will be frequently compelled to go very 
 fast, to make up the gaps. It is a good plan for 
 the leading coach, ten minutes or so after the start, 
 to stop for a few minutes at the first convenient 
 place ; the horses are very apt to get fretted by the 
 waiting and by the start, and an opportunity is 
 hereby afforded of calming them and of changing 
 the couplings or the bitting, if desirable. 
 
 The pace should not be slow ; eight miles an hour 
 is not too fast, and an even pace should be kept up 
 all the time, up-hill and down ; this ensures the in- 
 tervals between the coaches being properly kept, 
 even if the line is long-. 
 
 If the route chosen permits, it is well to have a 
 countermarch at some place, around a circle in a 
 
CH. XXIV MEETS OF COACHING CLUBS 515 
 
 park, for instance ; so that the members may see 
 each other's coaches ; if this cannot be arranged, 
 a manoeuvre adopted some years ago by The New 
 York Coaching Club serves nearly the same pur- 
 pose. At an appointed spot, the leading coach, 
 and of course the whole column, halts on the rio-ht- 
 
 o 
 
 hand side of the road ; the rear coach then drives 
 out, passing to the left of the column and takes up 
 its place at the head ; the coach which has now 
 become the rear one does the same, and they 
 all make the movement in succession, until the Presi- 
 dent, in so doing, resumes his original leading posi- 
 tion and then continues the drive. At times, the 
 drive occupies an hour or so, and the coaches return 
 to the point of departure and there separate ; at 
 other times the coaches go to some out-of-town place 
 for lunch or for dinner, and return independently. 
 
 The latter is the custom usually followed at the 
 Meets of both the London Clubs ; in Paris, the 
 coaches, after meeting on the Place de la Concorde, 
 drive out together to La Marche or to the Auteuil 
 races, and come home independently. 
 
 In the early days of the Coaching Club in New 
 York the Meet took place late in the afternoon, and 
 after a drive over the whole length of the Park, the 
 members and their guests returned to the Bruns- 
 wick Hotel for a formal dinner. In the last few 
 years, the Meets have been earlier in the day, with 
 a drive to Clermont for lunch. 
 
 Where there are Coaching Clubs, it is usual, 
 
51 6 MEETS OF COACHES CH. XXIV 
 
 on certain race-courses, to have places specially set 
 apart for coaches, those for the Clubs separated from 
 those for other coaches. At Jerome Park, in the old 
 race days, the grassy slope at the foot of the Club 
 House was reserved for coaches, and was a gay point 
 of rendezvous on that most beautiful of courses. 
 
 On several Entrlish courses each Club has its 
 special enclosure, opposite the Grand Stand, and 
 the penalty attached to a non-appearance at the 
 established Meets of the Club is exclusion from this 
 enclosure. Eighty or ninety coaches, including 
 those of the Clubs, are often drawn up in a line, 
 opposite the Grand Stand, at Ascot. 
 
 A few words as to the disposition of a coach on a 
 race-course or at any other gathering, such as a 
 horse-show, a cricket-match or polo-match, will not 
 be out of place here. 
 
 The coach should be driven as nearly as possible 
 to its place, the leaders occupying the spot on which 
 the coach is finally to stand ; the leaders' traces 
 are unhooked, the AW-reins thrown down, and the 
 leaders moved out of the way. The bars are taken 
 off of the pole-head and laid on the ground at one 
 side, and the coach is drawn forward as far as pos- 
 sible by the wheelers ; the pole-chains are slackened, 
 the wheel-traces taken off of the roller-bolts and the 
 wheel-reins thrown down. The chains are unhooked 
 from the kidney-link rings, one end being left hooked 
 to the pole-head, the pole is withdrawn and the wheel 
 
> 
 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 
 UJ 
 
 < 
 
 I 
 o 
 < 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 en 
 
 z 
 o 
 
 cc 
 cr 
 < 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 
 2 
 < 
 
 LU 
 _l 
 
 o 
 
 a. 
 
CH. XXIV MEETS OE COACHES 5 1 7 
 
 horses led out of the way. The coach is then run 
 forward to its place by hand, the grooms of other 
 coaches usually assisting, until it is as close to the 
 rails or rope of the enclosure as is desired. On sod, 
 or on ground which is known to be soft, it is well to 
 have, in the coach, four small pieces of board, which 
 can be quickly laid down in front of each wheel be- 
 fore the coach is brought to its final position ; the 
 wheels run on these boards and are thereby pre- 
 vented from sinking in the ground, which, from the 
 movement caused by those who get up and down on 
 the coach, they will be likely to do, with the result 
 that it will be difficult to move the wheels out of these 
 deep ruts when the time comes to start for home. 
 
 While one man holds the horses, the other one 
 pushes the pole under the centre of the coach, so 
 that its point comes under the splinter-bar ; then, 
 hooking the chains together, he hangs up the head 
 of the pole by passing the chains over the roller- 
 bolts, and lays the lead-bars on top of the splinter- 
 bar, as shown in Plate XXXIV. He then takes 
 the halters and horse clothing out of the front boot 
 and assists the other man in leading the horses to 
 where they are to be put up. 
 
 Even for a short stop at a race or at a game, it is 
 dangerous to keep the horses attached to the coach ; 
 people become interested in the spectacle ; the 
 grooms often forget themselves, and if the horses 
 start suddenly, any one standing erect on the coach 
 is liable to be thrown off with serious injury. 
 
5i8 
 
 MEETS OF COACHES 
 
 CH. XXIV 
 
 The same is true, of course, of any vehicle, 
 under similar circumstances, and I once saw a 
 
 woman, who was standing on the 
 
 seat of a buggy, thrown off by the 
 
 k=~J sudden start of the horse as the 
 
 <* o racing horses passed, receiving in- 
 
 j) juries which caused her death in a 
 
 few hours. 
 
 After the coach has been pushed 
 to its place, the coachman puts on 
 the brake as hard as possible, and, 
 taking three or four loops of the 
 bight of his whip thong, round the 
 stick at the ferrule, he hangs the 
 whip on the handle of the brake, 
 as shown in Fig. i 74. 
 
 The whip may be strapped along 
 the pole, instead of hanging it as 
 just described, but this is a more 
 troublesome way of disposing of 
 it. It must not, under any circum- 
 stances, be put into the whip socket, 
 where it will be not only in the way 
 but almost certainly broken. 
 
 If at the termination of a meet- 
 ing, the rope or rail in front of the 
 coaches is taken down, it is neces- 
 sary only to put the horses to, and 
 Fig. 174. , . . , Tr . • 
 
 to drive straight out. 11 this can- 
 not be done, the coach must be backed by hand 
 
 c; 
 
CH. XXIV MEETS OF COACHES 519 
 
 and turned into a position which will allow the horses 
 to be put-to ; it is well to drill the men in doing this, 
 so that the coach can be brought into position with- 
 out any awkward failures. 
 
 Starting off from a race-course requires much 
 judgement, and few things show more clearly the 
 good or bad coachman. The horses after standing, 
 are often somewhat fractious and impatient ; other 
 coaches about them are just getting of, and unless 
 the coachman does the proper thing he is likely to 
 o-et into trouble. He must be certain before he 
 starts that he has his reins exactly right and that 
 all his horses tighten their traces together, for, on 
 the soft ground, it usually takes all four to pull the 
 coach. If they make a false start without moving 
 the coach, they will be likely to balk or run back, 
 and then a good start is almost impossible. 
 
 Everything should be done in the most quiet 
 manner ; the brake must be taken off without any 
 noise, the man at the leaders' heads must draw 
 the horses gently forward without exciting or jerk- 
 ing them, in order to tighten their traces, keeping 
 his eye steadily on the coachman so as to obey any 
 signal promptly. If all this is properly done, the 
 team will get into motion smoothly and quickly, and 
 they should be permitted to go straight on, to give 
 them no chance to rebel. If it is not properly done, 
 one leader will be on his hind le^s and the other 
 turning his croup out sideways, while a wheeler will 
 be hanging back with his collar half-way up to his ears. 
 
520 RULES FOR JUDGING CH. XXIV 
 
 It seems hardly necessary to add that a start 
 should not be made unless there is room to eo 
 somewhere, but one often sees an inexperienced 
 coachman try it, with awkward results. 
 
 Judging at Horse-Shows. — It has become the 
 custom at Horse-Shows to make classes for Har- 
 ness Horses, which classes include the vehicles to 
 which the horses are shown, together with the har- 
 ness and liveries ; these appointments, as they are 
 usually termed, count for fifty per cent, and the 
 horses for fifty per cent., in making up the number 
 of points for the award. The Coaching Club in 
 New York has formulated, as suo-o-estions to Judges 
 
 OO J O 
 
 and Exhibitors, certain Rules for Judging, which are 
 here reproduced by permission of the Club. These 
 Rules will be found to agree with the descriptions 
 of coaches and harness given in the earlier pages 
 of this book, and, being a codification of the best 
 practice among coaching men, may be taken as a 
 guide for turning out a coach properly. 
 
 The Rules are printed in double column, for con- 
 venience in comparing drags and public-coaches : — 
 
 The Drag. The Coach. 
 
 The Drag should have a perch The Road-Coach should be 
 and be less heavy than a Road- built stronger than a Park Drag, 
 Coach and more highly finished, especially as to the under-carriage 
 with crest or monogram on the and axles, which latter should not 
 door panels or hind boot. measure less than two inches in 
 
 diameter. 
 
CH. XXIV 
 
 RULES FOR JUDGING 
 
 521 
 
 The Drag — (continued'). 
 
 The axles may be either Mail 
 or Collinges (not imitation). 
 
 The Coach — (continued'). 
 
 The axles may be either Mail 
 or Collinges (not imitation). 
 
 The hind seat should be sup- The hind seat is usually sup- 
 ported by curved iron braces, ported by solid wooden risers 
 and be of a proper width for two with wooden curtain, but the sup- 
 grooms, without lazy-back. ports may be of curved iron, as 
 
 in a Park Drag, in which case 
 a stationary leather curtain is 
 used. Its seat should be wide 
 enough for at least two besides 
 the guard, who should occupy 
 the near side, with an extra 
 cushion. He should have a strap 
 to take hold of when standing to 
 sound the horn. 
 
 The lazy-backs on the roof- The lazy-backs of the box-seat, 
 seats should be turned down hind seat, and roof-seats should 
 when not in use. be stationary. 
 
 The under side of the foot- The under side of the foot- 
 board, together with the risers, board, together with the risers of 
 should be of the same colour as the box and hind seat, should be 
 the under-carriage. of the same colour as the under- 
 
 carriage. 
 
 The body of the Drag and the The body of the Coach and the 
 panel of the hind boot should cor- panel of the hind boot should 
 respond in colour. also correspond in colour. 
 
 The door of the hind boot 
 should be hinged at the bottom, 
 that it may be used as a table 
 when open. 
 
 The door of the hind boot 
 should be hinged on the off side 
 to enable the guard to open it 
 from the near hind step when the 
 Coach is in motion. 
 
522 
 
 RULES FOR JUDGING 
 
 CH. XXIV 
 
 The Drag — {continued). 
 
 The Coach — (continued). 
 
 The skid and safety hook (if The skid and safety hook must 
 carried) should be hung on the be hung on the off side in coun- 
 off side. tries in which it is customary to 
 
 drive on the off side of the road- 
 way, for the skid should be on 
 the outside wheel, or the Coach 
 will slide toward the ditch. 
 
 It is customary to trim the out- 
 side seats in either pigskin or 
 cloth, and the inside of the Drag 
 in morocco or cloth. 
 
 The coachman's driving-apron 
 when not in use should be folded 
 on the driving-cushion, outside 
 out. Passengers' aprons if carried 
 to be neatly folded and placed on 
 the front inside seat. 
 
 A watch and case are not 
 essential, nor is the pocket in the 
 driving-cushion. 
 
 There should be no luggage 
 rails or straps on the roof between 
 the seats. 
 
 Inside, the Drag should have : 
 Hat straps fastened to the roof ; 
 pockets on the doors ; places 
 over the front or back seat where 
 the lamps may be hung when not 
 in use ; an extra, jointed whip. 
 
 The trimming of the outside 
 seats should be of carpet or any 
 suitable material, not leather. 
 The inside of the Coach is usually 
 finished in hard wood or leather. 
 
 The coachman's driving-apron 
 when not in use should be folded 
 on the driving-cushion, outside 
 out. 
 
 A foot-board watch with case 
 should be provided. The driving- 
 cushion should have a pocket on 
 the near side. 
 
 The iron rails on the roof be- 
 tween the front and back seats 
 should have a lattice or net-work 
 of leather straps to prevent small 
 luggage, coats, rugs, etc., placed 
 on the roof from falling off. 
 
 Inside, the Coach should have : 
 Hat straps fastened to the roof; 
 leather pockets at the sides or 
 on the doors ; an extra, jointed 
 whip. 
 
CH. XXIV 
 
 RULES FOR JUDGING 
 
 5 2 3 
 
 The Drag — {continued). The Coach — {continued). 
 
 The umbrella basket, when The basket shall be hung on 
 
 carried, should be hung on the the near side and in front of the 
 near side. guard's seat. The horn should 
 
 be placed in the basket with the 
 
 mouth-piece up. 
 
 Two extra lead-bars, consist- Two extra lead-bars, consist- 
 ing of a main-bar and a side-bar, ing of a main-bar and a side-bar, 
 fastened to the back of the hind fastened to the back of the hind 
 seat with straps ; main-bar above, seat with straps ; main-bar above. 
 
 Lead-bars put on with screw Lead-bars put on with screw 
 
 heads of furniture up. heads of furniture up. 
 
 The following articles to be 
 neatly stowed in a convenient part 
 of the Coach : A wheel jack, extra 
 hame-straps, a chain-trace, extra 
 lead-trace, an extra bit, a bearing- 
 rein, a rein splicer (a short strap 
 of the same width as the reins, 
 with a buckle at either end) or 
 two double buckles of different 
 sizes, a kit of tools, comprising 
 a wrench, hammer, cold chisel, 
 coil of wire, punch, hoof-pick and 
 knife. Two extra, large rings for 
 kidney-links, or a pair of pole- 
 pieces. 
 
 It is usual for a Park Drag to The guard should be appro- 
 be fitted with luncheon boxes, priately dressed, and should have 
 wine racks, &c, also with a box a way-bill pouch with a watch 
 on the roof called an " Imperial." fitted on one side and a place 
 This latter is never carried ex- provided for the key of the hind 
 cept when going to the races or boot, 
 a luncheon. 
 
 The following articles to be 
 neatly stowed inside the front 
 boot : A small kit of tools, an 
 extra lead-trace and wheel-trace, 
 a rein splicer or two double 
 buckles of different sizes, extra 
 hame-straps. 
 
 Loin cloths for team, and the 
 necessary waterproof aprons, 
 should be carried in a convenient 
 and accessible part of the Drag. 
 
524 
 
 RULES FOR JUDGING 
 
 CH. XXIV 
 
 The Drag — (continued). The Coach — (continued). 
 
 Lamps off. Lamps inside Side lamps in place and ready 
 
 coach. 
 
 for use. 
 
 Park Harness. 
 
 Pole-chains should be bur- 
 nished and have spring hooks. 
 The chains should be of a length 
 which will admit of snapping 
 both hooks into the pole-head 
 ring. If too short, one end 
 should be hooked in the pole- 
 head ring and the other in a 
 link. If too long, one end 
 should be snapped in the pole- 
 head ring, and the other brought 
 through said ring (from the out- 
 side in) and snapped in a link. 
 
 Road Harness. 
 
 Pole-chains should be bur- 
 nished or black, but pole-head 
 and chains must be alike. Hooks 
 should have india-rubber rings, 
 not spring hooks. Chains with 
 single hooks should be put on 
 pole-head from inside, out ; then 
 passed through the kidney-link 
 and hooked into one of the links 
 of the chain. 
 
 Cruppers, with buckles, on all 
 horses preferred. 
 
 Cruppers, with or without 
 buckles, on wheelers, but not 
 necessarily on leaders, unless 
 bearing-reins are used. Martin- 
 gale back-strap. Trace-bearers 
 on the leaders from the hames to 
 the tug-buckles are permissible. 
 
 Loin-straps and trace-bearers 
 are permissible. 
 
 Xo loin-straps. 
 
 Face-pieces (drops). 
 
 Face-pieces (optional). 
 
 Martingales around the collars Martingales around the collars 
 of wheelers and not through kid- and not through kidney-links 
 nev-links alone. alone. 
 
CH. XXIV 
 
 RULES FOR JUDGING 
 
 525 
 
 Park Harness — {continued). 
 Martingales on all horses. 
 
 No rings on coupling-reins. 
 
 Road Harness — (continued). 
 
 No martingales on leaders ; 
 kidney -link rings on leaders. 
 
 Mountings of coach and har- Mountings, preferably of brass, 
 
 ness and the buttons on servants' but at least all of the same metal 
 
 liveries should be of the same throughout. 
 metal. 
 
 Wheel-traces with metal loop 
 ends, not chains. 
 
 Wheel-traces with French loop 
 or chain ends. Chain put on 
 roller-bolt with chain out and 
 ring in. 
 
 Wheelers' inside traces shorter Wheelers' inside traces shorter 
 
 than outside traces, unless the than outside traces, unless the 
 
 inside roller-bolt is enlarged to inside roller-bolt is enlarged to 
 give the same result. 
 
 Lead-traces straight or lapped, 
 not crossed. 
 
 Eyes on ends of names through 
 which the kidney-links pass. 
 
 Plain kidney-links. No kid- 
 ney-link rings on leaders. 
 
 Solid draught-eyes on names. 
 Clip inside of trace leather, and 
 showing rivet heads only. 
 
 give the same result. 
 
 Lead-traces lapped, crossed, or 
 straight. 
 
 Hook ends to names. 
 
 Chain and short kidney-links 
 or all chain. 
 
 Ring draught-eyes on hames. 
 
 Full bearing-reins, with bit and One or more bearing-reins are 
 
 bridoon. Buxton bits preferred, optional. 
 
 Single point strap to tug-buckle. 
 
 Metal or ribbon fronts to Metal or leather fronts to 
 
 bridles ; if ribbon, the colour bridles ; if leather, the colour to 
 
 should match the livery waist- match the colour of the coach, 
 coats. 
 
526 RULES FOR JUDGING CH. XXIV 
 
 Park Harness — {continued'). Road Harness — {continued"). 
 
 The crest or monogram should A crest or monogram is not 
 
 be on the rosettes, face-pieces, generally used in road work, but 
 
 winkers, pads, and martingale instead, lead-bars, or a special 
 
 flaps. Ribbon or coloured 10- device in brass, are put on the 
 
 settes are inappropriate. winkers and rosettes. 
 
 Hames-straps put on with the Hames-straps put on with the 
 
 points inside, — i.e., to the off side points inside, — i.e., to the off side 
 
 on the near horse and the near on the near horse and the near 
 
 side on the off horse. side on the off horse. 
 
 Reins of single brown leather. Reins of single brown leather. 
 
 Draught-reins sewed in one Draught-reins sewed in one 
 
 piece, with end buckles only. piece, with end buckles only. 
 
 Lead-traces with screw heads Traces with screw heads of 
 
 of the cock-eyes up. cock-eyes and chain ends, up. 
 
 All parts of the harness should All straps preferably of single 
 
 be double and neatly stitched. leather. 
 
 Collars to be of black patent Collars may be of patent, plain 
 
 leather, shaped to the neck. black, or brown leather ; straight, 
 
 thick, and full padded. 
 
 The hames bent to tit the The names straight to fit the 
 
 collar accurately. collar. 
 
 Harness black. All straps Harness black or brown, 
 should be of proper length, but 
 not too short. 
 
 When the owner or his repre- 
 sentative drives, the stable-shut- 
 ters should be down ; otherwise 
 up. 
 
CH. XXIV DRIVING COMPETITIONS 527 
 
 Driving Competitions. — Driving competitions 
 are frequently arranged with the view of deciding 
 which of the contestants has the best seat on the 
 box, the best method of handling the reins and 
 whip, and the best general style of driving, while 
 merely going over a simple course ; or an intricate 
 course, with obstacles, may be laid out for the 
 purpose of testing the skill of the coachman. In 
 the first case, a figure-of-eight may be added to the 
 simple course ; a moderately high rate of speed 
 should be required. 
 
 At the Philadelphia Horse-Show of 1893, the 
 course was laid out as in Fig. 175. 
 
 •1 
 
 4»f» »>3 
 
 <~ Start 
 
 \\ 
 
 1 ! 
 1 1 
 
 t \ 
 
 Fig. 175. 
 
 Blocks, 10 inches square and 36 inches high, were 
 placed in pairs, with a space of 8j4 feet between 
 the blocks, at the points 1, 2, 3, and 4. The coaches, 
 stationed on the short sides of the ground, were 
 twice driven, one by one, at a sharp trot, through 
 each pair of blocks, following the course shown by 
 the dotted line, thus twice making a figure-of-eight ; 
 finishing at the point marked by the star. Striking 
 a block was counted against a contestant, but the 
 
528 
 
 DRIVING COMPETITIONS 
 
 CH. XXIV 
 
 t ; 
 
 f 
 
 style of driving and the accuracy of the turns were 
 
 mainly considered. The ground was 300 feet in 
 
 length and 125 feet in width, so that 
 
 the turns were portions of circles of 
 
 about 100 feet in diameter. 
 
 For an obstacle course, the follow- 
 ing is a good arrangement : Barrels, 
 painted a light colour, are placed (as 
 shown in Fig. 176) 8 feet apart in one 
 direction and 50 feet apart in the other, 
 the coach being driven between them 
 as shown by the dotted line. After 
 passing through the last pair of 
 barrels, a turn is made to the left 
 and the coach is driven in a straight 
 line between two rows of stakes 7 
 feet apart, the pairs of stakes cor- 
 responding to the pairs of barrels. 
 With seven pairs of barrels, the 
 whole space required for the course 
 will be about 600 feet in length by 
 120 feet in width. On a course of this length. 
 two minutes is the time allowed for driving up 
 one side and down the other, the time being taken 
 from the moment of starting at the word 'go,' 
 from a line 75 feet in advance of the first pair 
 of barrels, to crossing the same line after having 
 passed through the stakes. 
 
 In counting the points to the credit of each com- 
 petitor, a number is adopted, for example 30 ; from 
 
 P 
 
 Fig. 176. 
 
CH. XXIV 
 
 DRIVING COMPETITIONS 
 
 5 2 9 
 
 this number are deducted two points for each barrel 
 or stake touched, and one point for each 15 seconds, 
 or part thereof, above the two minutes ; for each 
 15 seconds, or part thereof, less than the two min- 
 utes, one point is added. Four points are deducted 
 for going outside of a barrel or stake, and four 
 points are deducted should a groom touch the 
 horses. 
 
 The following is the form in which the judges' 
 card may be made : — 
 
 Competitors 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 Time . . 
 
 2. 10 
 
 2.30 
 
 3 
 
 1.48 
 
 
 1 55 
 
 2 
 
 1.36 
 4 
 
 2.00 
 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 Stakes touched 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 Outside 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Groom touching horses . . . 
 
 1 
 — 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 2 
 
 + 1 
 
 + 1 
 
 + 2 
 
 
 
 
 —6 
 
 — 12 
 
 —6 
 
 —4 
 
 — 20 
 
 —8 
 
 Points to be deducted from 30 
 Result 
 
 —4 
 
 —4 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 1 1 
 
 —18 
 
 -5 
 
 —3 
 
 —18 
 
 —8 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 27 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 In this example, competitor D having the greatest 
 number of points to his credit, is the winner. 
 
 The foregoing are the Rules for the Driving Com- 
 petitions at The Ranelagh Club, London. There, 
 after passing through the barrels, the turn is made 
 to the right in accordance with the English custom 
 of driving on the left-hand side of the road. 
 
 At one of the Open-Air Horse-Shows in New 
 York, a pen of hurdles was arranged as in Fig. 177. 
 
 34 
 

 _^V."""i*— A 
 
 d _:: 
 
 \ X -'' 
 
 c- 
 
 \ ' 1 1 
 
 ' i 
 
 J B 
 
 53O DRIVING COMPETITIONS CH. XXIV 
 
 The coach is to be driven in from A in the di- 
 rection shown by the arrow, passing the barrel C ; 
 
 then backed into 
 the space between 
 B and C until the 
 horses could be 
 turned to the right 
 and finally driven 
 out toward A in 
 the direction opposite to that in which it entered. 
 The fences, between A and D, are 22 feet apart, 
 and the barrels B and C are 22 feet apart. The 
 hurdle at D should be moveable, to permit a coach- 
 man who is unsuccessful in backing round, to drive 
 out at that end. 
 
 In all Driving Competitions, especially when the 
 turns to be made are sharp, the vehicles used should 
 have nearly the same angle of lock ; a coachman 
 driving a break, the front wheels of which turn far 
 under, has a great advantage in being- able to make 
 a sharp turn without risk of an accident ; breaks 
 should not therefore be admitted to a competition 
 with coaches. 
 
COACH CALLS ON THE HORN 
 
 Get Ready. 
 
 The Start. 
 
 &>& U" 
 
 ^ 
 
 2?=4 
 
 i 
 
 r> 
 
 Clear the Roac . 
 
 ^m 
 
 m 
 
 r> 
 
 jij- j, w-j i j- j j;ju- ^ 
 
 Off Side. 
 
 ^H-j F fju r rJ' i ^^ 
 
 /Cn 
 
 Near Side. 
 
 fe 
 
 p 
 
 C\ 
 
 -0—0- 
 
 m 
 
 -0*- 
 
 Change Horses 
 
 ^ jj i ^~r j i •H" j? i ^ J J ^ J j 
 
 /?\ 
 
 Slacken Pace 
 
 ^p^ 
 
 ^mm 
 
 3 '3 
 
 I^IP 
 
 22Z 
 
 Pull Up. 
 
 3^ 3 
 
 a little shiver 
 ~3^ "T^ 
 
 O 
 
 4JirJirJic[rC£r ' ^ ^ 
 
 w 
 
 Higher Up. 
 
 Hi 
 
 1ST. 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 Steady. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
To the Right. 
 
 To the Left. 
 
 i 
 
 m^t 
 
 Home. 
 
 nome. o 
 
 i 
 
 The Post-Horn Call. 
 
 mm 
 
 P^ 
 
 JMMV 
 
 (Continued.) 
 
 -6L 
 
 g 
 
 ^ffl'J^P 
 
 3E 
 
 Off to Charlestown. 
 
 1*4 • f t 
 
 g )4 I Lj 
 
 jl/ i rnr ^ i *r g F^ 
 
 (Continued.) 
 
 # 
 
 "Lf l J i r i Q»M £± 
 
 ^ 
 
 The Huntsman's Chorus. 
 
 ^uirtfircriJJJJ i ^rip^ i rcr i JjjJir 
 
 Buy a Broom, 
 
 ^ r irccrir rr irjjtfrr+ra'irrrirjJ i r 
 
 (Continued.) 
 
 jifr i rJJ i rrrirjJirrrg 
 
 WTT 
 
 *» 
 
 -**- 
 
 f 
 
 Short Call. 
 
 A A 
 
 Short Call. 
 
 A A rr\ / ^. ^. 
 
CH. XXV 531 
 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 
 MUSIC FOR THE HORN 
 
 In this Chapter are given the most useful calls 
 for the Coach-Horn, together with three airs adapted 
 to that instrument. 
 
 Since the ordinary, straight coach-horn (Pig. 178) 
 has no keys, only the six open notes C, G, C, E, G, 
 C, can be sounded on it ; these notes are written in 
 
 Fig. 178. 
 
 the key of C, the first note in the list being the C 
 below the stave. The high C, with which the l post- 
 horn call' ends, is difficult to produce. 
 
 The actual pitch of the notes sounded when any 
 call is played, depends upon the length of the horn ; 
 a horn with a length of about 39 inches, including 
 the mouth-piece, will give the sound of E flat when 
 what is written as C is sounded ; one of about 
 52 inches in length will give B flat, the pitch of a 
 cornet. 
 
 The shorter the horn, the more difficult it is to 
 play, but the more brilliant are the calls ; the longer 
 horn has a softer tone. A horn 42 inches in length 
 has an agreeable pitch. A horn 54 or 56 inches in 
 
53 2 HORN CH. XXV 
 
 length may be reduced to the more convenient 
 length of 24 or 25 inches by being doubled on 
 itself ; its tone is not materially changed. 
 
 A horn made of hard brass has a better tone 
 than one made of copper, and the ' cornet' bell is 
 thought to give a sweeter tone than the conical or 
 ' bugle' bell. Ribs of brass or of german-silver 
 are sometimes soldered lengthwise on the horn to 
 strengthen it. 
 
 Old coaching books speak of 'the yard of tin,' 
 meaning the horn ; a horn made of tin and only 
 36 inches long could not have been a very musical 
 instrument. 
 
 On some coaches, in the early part of the 19th cen- 
 tury, the guard used a key bugle instead of a horn. 
 'Paddy Blake' {New Sporting Magazine, 1834, 
 p. 102) speaks of a coachman's having a horn in 
 his pocket. 
 
 Owing to the limited number of its notes, few of 
 the well-known tunes can be played on the coach- 
 horn, but the calls can be varied indefinitely. 
 
 Much practice is necessary to enable a person to 
 play the horn well ; useful hints and useful exercises 
 are contained in the three little books by Godden, 
 by Kohler, and by Yixov, the full titles of which 
 will be found in the ' List of Books' in the present 
 volume. 
 
ch. xxvi 533 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI 
 
 COACHING MEDALS OR TOKENS. 
 
 Two medals or tokens are mentioned- in the 
 Coaching books ; photographic reproductions of 
 them are here given. 
 
 The first (Fig. 179, Plate XXXV.), known as the 
 'mail-coach halfpenny,' was struck soon after the 
 introduction of the mail-coaches. 
 
 It has upon the face a mail-coach, with coachman 
 and guard, and four horses galloping ; above, ' mail 
 
 COACH HALFPENNY,' below 'TO TRADE EXPEDITION 
 & TO PROPERTY PROTECTION. PAYABLE IN LONDON.' 
 
 On the reverse, ' to j. palmer esq. this is inscribed 
 
 AS A TOKEN OF GRATITUDE FOR BENEFITS REC'd FROM 
 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF MAIL COACHES,' with 3. wreath 
 
 of palm leaves and the letters QJ , c/\ 
 
 The second (Fig. 180) is a copper halfpenny 
 struck by William Waterhouse, a coaching pro- 
 prietor, whose headquarters were, about 172 2-1 800,. 
 at the Swan with Two Necks, * Lad Lane, London. 
 
 It has, upon the face, a swan with two necks 
 turned in opposite directions ; above, ' payable at 
 
 THE MAIL COACH OFFICE,' below, ' LAD LANE LONDON 
 
 * It is the custom for the owners of swans to mark them by 
 one or more ' nicks' on their beaks ; the name of the tavern is no 
 doubt a corruption of ' The Swan with two nicks.' 
 
534 COACHING MEDALS CH. XXVI 
 
 w. w.,' on the reverse, a coach with four horses, and 
 the Wend ' speed regularity & security.' 
 
 After a thorough search I have failed to find any 
 other coachinor medals. 
 
 Of those just described, one seems to have been 
 a compliment and the other an advertisement. In 
 the United States, at a later period, numbers of 
 stage and omnibus tickets in the form of coins, 
 were issued, two of which are here shown (Figs. 
 1 8 1, 182), together with an English railway ticket 
 
 (Fig. 183). 
 
 The copper 'road ticket' (Fig. 184), for the 
 King's Private Road, is a badge, granting admis- 
 sion to certain roads which were closed to the 
 general public. 
 
 Finally, the coin (Fig. 185) marked 'Warington,' 
 called in the Coin Catalogues ' a racing token,' seems 
 to be a bad^e, or an admission ticket to some 
 enclosure, since it has a number, ' N° 260,' stamped 
 upon the back. 
 
PLATE XXXV. 
 
 ***Vi .war* 
 
 i8« 
 
ch. xxvii 535 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII 
 
 LIST OF BOOKS 
 
 This does not pretend to be an exhaustive Bib- 
 liography ; it is merely a list of books which are of 
 interest to the coaching man : — 
 
 Adams. 
 
 English Pleasure Carriages; their Origin, His- 
 tory, Varieties, Materials, Construction, &c. &c., 
 together with Descriptions of New Inventions. By 
 William Bridges Adams. London : Charles 
 Knight & Co. 1837. 8vo, 315 pages. (Numerous 
 plates of carriages. The author, brought up as a 
 carriage builder, afterward became a civil engineer, 
 and his book is one of the first on carriage building 
 in which a higher grade of mechanical perfection 
 in carriages is recognised and insisted upon.) 
 
 Apperlev, see ' Nimrod.' 
 
 Artillery. 
 
 Light Artillery Drill Regulations. United States 
 Army. Washington : Government Printing Of- 
 fice. 1896. 
 
 Ashford. 
 
 Whips and Whip-Making. By W. G. Ashford, 
 Birmingham. Walsall: T. Kirby & Son. 1893. 
 8vo, 38 pages. 
 

 
 536 list of books ch. xxvii 
 
 Bailey. 
 
 Bailey s Magazine of Sports and Pastimes. Lon- 
 don. (Commenced in 1825, continued to the 
 present day.) 
 
 Baines. 
 
 On the Track of the Mail- Coach. By F. E. 
 Baines, C.B. London : Richard Bentley & Son. 
 1895. i2mo, 351 pages. (Reminiscences of 
 Post-Office matters in England.) 
 
 Baucher. 
 
 Methode d Equitation basee stir dcs nouveaux prin- 
 cipes, &c. Par F. Baucher. Paris: 1842. 8vo. 
 (And many later editions.) 
 
 A Method of Horsemanship, &c. By F. Baucher. 
 Philadelphia: A. Hart. 1 85 1. 121110. (An Eng- 
 lish translation by George H. Boker and John 
 Sergeant.) 
 
 (There are other books by Baucher, but the 
 important matters are contained in the Methode.) 
 
 Beaufort. 
 
 Driving. By His Grace the Duke of Beaufort, 
 K.G., with contributions by other authorities. 
 Illustrated by G. D. Giles and John Sturgess. 
 London : Longmans, Green & Co. 1889. Sec- 
 ond edition, 121110, 426 pages. (One of the 
 volumes of The Badminton Library, and the 
 most comprehensive book yet published on 
 Coaching in general.) 
 
ch. xxvii list of books 537 
 
 Berdmore. 
 
 Carriages, Roads and Coaches. By S. Berdmore. 
 London : 1883. 8vo. 
 
 Blew. 
 
 Brighton and its Coaches. A History of the 
 London and Brighton Road. By William C. A. 
 Blew. London: John C. Nimmo. 1894. 8vo, 
 354 pages. (There is an excellent chapter on 
 ' The Growth of Coachmanship' at the end of 
 this volume.) 
 
 Brighton Road, see Harper. 
 
 Clark. 
 
 A Treatise on the Bits of Horses. By Bracy 
 Clark. London: 1835. Second edition, 4to, 
 63 pages. (The first edition was about 1830.) 
 
 Coaching. 
 
 A Coaching Souvenir of 1890. Paris to Ram- 
 bouillet, Paris to Poissy. By C. D. i6mo, 18 
 pages. (A prettily printed Guide-book to two 
 coaching roads.) 
 
 Coaching. 
 
 The Delights of Coaching. By An Old Whip. 
 Imprinted for Murphy & Company, New York, 
 Cleveland, and St. Louis. 1883. With etchings 
 by Stephens James Ferris. Oblong 121110, 56 
 pages. 
 
538 LIST OF BOOKS CH. XXVII 
 
 CORBETT. 
 
 An Old Coachman s Chatter, with some Practical 
 Remarks on Driving. By a Semi-Professional, 
 Edward Corbett, Colonel, late Shropshire Militia. 
 With 8 full-page illustrations by John Sturgess. 
 London : Richard Bentley & Son. Second edi- 
 tion. 1 89 1. 8vo, 304 pages. (This book con- 
 tains some history of Coaching and a great deal 
 that is very interesting and valuable about driving 
 four horses.) 
 
 * Craven,' see Walker. 
 
 Cross. 
 
 The Autobiography of a Stage- Coachman. By 
 Thomas Cross. London: Hurst & Blackett. 
 1 86 1. 3 vols., i2mo, 311, 312, 292 pages. (A 
 somewhat rare book ; the second and third vol- 
 umes contain interesting: reminiscences of Coach- 
 ing in the early part of the century.) 
 
 Dickinson. 
 
 The Dickinson Gallery. Revised Catalogue of 
 an Exhibition of Pictures illustrative of the Old 
 Coaching Days, with an Introduction and addi- 
 tional Descriptive Notes by Captain Malet. Lon- 
 don : Dickinson Bros. & Foster. 1877. i2mo, 
 48 pages. (A catalogue of two hundred and 
 sixty-three pictures and prints of Coaching sub- 
 jects.) 
 
CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 539 
 
 J DWYER. 
 
 Seats and Saddles, Bits and Bitting, and the Pre- 
 vention and Cure of Restiveness in Horses. By 
 Francis Dwyer. Edinburgh and London. 1868. 
 i2mo, 265 pages. (There are many later editions. 
 The Fourth, reprinted in America, by the United 
 States Book Company, n. d., contains chapters 
 on Draught which are of the oreatest interest 
 to the driving man. The whole book may be 
 studied with profit. Major Dwyer, an English- 
 man, was for a long time in the Austrian military 
 service.) 
 
 Edgeworth. 
 
 Essay on the Construction of Roads and Carriages. 
 1817. 
 
 English. 
 
 Four-in-hand Driving. By C. Davis English. 
 Lippincotf s Magazine, April, 1892. 
 
 Form in Driving. By C. Davis English. Lip- 
 pincotf s Magazine, November, 1892. 
 
 Felton. 
 
 A Treatise on Carriages, etc. William Felton. 
 London: 1794. 2 vols. 
 
 The Field. 
 
 London. Articles and Correspondence on Coach- 
 ing in Numbers for Nov. 8, 1890 ; April 16, 1892 ; 
 April 30, 1892; May 14, 1892; June 11, 1892; 
 
54° LI ST OF BOOKS CH. XXVII 
 
 June 1 8, 1892 ; July 9, 1892 ; July 16, 1892 ; 
 July 23, 1892; July so, 1892; Aug. 13, 1892; 
 Sept. 3, 1892. (The pages of all Sporting jour- 
 nals contain articles on Coaching, but the refer- 
 ences above given are useful, because the details 
 of Driving are there discussed at some length.) 
 
 Fillis. 
 
 Principes de Dressage et de V Equitation. Par 
 James Fillis. Troisieme edition. Paris : E. 
 Flammarion. 1892. 8vo, 422 pages. (Illus- 
 trated. The most satisfactory treatise on Equi- 
 tation yet written, and by a master of the art.) 
 
 Fitzgerald. 
 
 The Harness Maker s Illustrated Manual. W. 
 N. Fitzgerald. New York : 1875. 
 
 Flower. 
 
 Bits and Bearing- Reins. By Edward Fordham 
 Flower. London: William Ridgway. 1875. 
 Second edition, 8vo, 31 pages. 
 
 Horses and Harness ; a Sequel to Bits and Hearing 
 Reins. By Edward Fordham Flower. London : 
 William Ridgway. 1876. Second thousand. 8vo, 
 20 pages. (These two pamphlets contain admi- 
 rable illustrations, which should find a place on 
 every harness-room wall. The author for many 
 years preached a crusade against the abuse of 
 the bearing-rein, and with marked effect upon the 
 fashion.) 
 
CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 54-1 
 
 Frith. 
 
 The Romance of Engineering : The Stories of the 
 
 Highway, the Waterway, the Railway, and the 
 
 Subway. By Henry Frith. London : Ward, 
 
 Lock, Bowden & Co. 1892. 121110, 356 pages. 
 
 de Gatines. 
 
 Conference Hippique, I. Les Cinq Mouvements 
 Cles de r Equitation. Par Rene de Gatines. 
 Paris : Le Goupy. 1 894. (A good analysis of 
 the Baucher method.) 
 
 Conference Hippique, II. La Gueriniere, d ' Aure 
 et Baucher. Paris : Le Goupy. 1896. 
 
 Godden. 
 
 Ye Coach Horn Toot/ers. By Walter Godden. 
 London and New York: Boosey & Co. 1894. 
 Long i2mo, 20 pages. (A collection of twenty- 
 five coach-horn tunes.) 
 
 Guiet. 
 
 From Paris to Trouville in Thirteen Stages. Some 
 Notes on Coaching, with Reproductions of Photo- 
 graphs taken during the journey, and a Descrip- 
 tive Account of the Art of Carriage Building. 
 By A. Guiet. Illustrated by L. Vallet. Paris : 
 Guiet & Co., Coach Makers. 1893. Oblong 
 8vo, 54 pages. 
 
542 list of books ch. xxvii 
 
 Harper. 
 
 The Brighton Road : Old Times and New on a 
 Classic Highway. By Charles G. Harper. 
 London: Chatto & Windus. 1892. 8vo, 272 
 pages, illustrated. 
 
 Harris. 
 
 Old Coaching Days. By Stanley Harris ('An 
 Old Stager'). Illustrated by John Sturgess. 
 London: Richard Bentley & Son. 1882. 8vo, 
 279 pages, 12 full-page illustrations. Sub-title: 
 Road Sketches in Bygone Days. (As its sub- title 
 indicates, a history of Coaching, with anecdotes 
 of the road.) 
 
 The Coaching Age. By Stanley Harris ('An 
 Old Stager'). Illustrated by John Sturgess. 
 London: Richard Bentley & Son. 1885. Large 
 8vo, 16 full-page illustrations, 468 pages. (A 
 continuation of Old Coaching Days, containing 
 much interesting matter.) 
 
 
 Haworth. 
 
 Road Scrapings : Coaches and Coaching. By 
 Captain M. E. Haworth. London: Tinsley 
 Brothers. 1882. Small 8vo, 202 pages. (Anec- 
 dotes of Coaching.) 
 
ch. xxvii list of books 543 
 
 Hayes. 
 
 Illustrated Horse Breaking. By Captain M. 
 Horace Hayes. London : Thacker & Co. 
 1890. (A very valuable work.) 
 
 Riding on the Flat and Across Country. By 
 Captain M. Horace Hayes. London: 1891. 
 
 Haywood. 
 
 Accidents to Horses on Carriage-way Pavements. 
 By William Haywood. Report to London Com- 
 missioners. 1873. 
 
 ' Hieover.' 
 
 Stable Talk and Table Talk ; or. Spectacles for 
 Young Sportsmen. By 'Harry Hieover.' Sec- 
 ond edition. London : Longmans, Brown, Green 
 & Longmans. 1846. 8vo, 2 vols., 452 and 408 
 pages. (There is a great deal in these volumes 
 of importance to the coaching man. ' Harry Hie- 
 over' is the pseudonym ol Charles Brindley.) 
 
 The Sportsman 's Friend in a Frost. By ' Harry 
 Hieover.' London : 1857. Svo, 416 pages. 
 
 Hooper. 
 
 Notes 071 the Construction of Private Carriages 
 in England, and Reports on the Carriages of the 
 International Exhibitions of Paris, 1855 ; London, 
 1862 ; Dublin, 1865 ; Paris, 1867 ; London, 187 J. 
 By George N. Hooper. London : printed by 
 G. Phipps. 1876. i6mo. 
 
544 list of books ch. xxvii 
 
 Houghton. 
 
 The Coaches of Colonial New York. By George 
 W. W. Houghton. New York Historical So- 
 ciety. 1890. 8vo, 31 pages. 
 
 Howlett. 
 
 Lecons de Guides. Par Edwin Howlett. Paris : 
 Pairault et Cie. 1893. Large 8vo, 154 pages. 
 (Edwin Howlett is well known to American and 
 French coaching men, as an admirable teacher 
 of four-in-hand driving. To a natural ability for 
 instructing, he has joined large practice in driving, 
 and in his book he has endeavoured, most success- 
 fully, to impart what he says to his pupils on the 
 box. Every word should be carefully studied by 
 an aspirant for coaching honours, and the author 
 himself should be sought by any beginner who 
 may have the good fortune to be within reach of 
 his stables in Paris.) 
 
 Driving Lessons. By Edwin Howlett. New 
 York: R. H. Russell & Son. 1894. Large 8vo, 
 159 pages. 
 
 The Hub. 
 A Magazine for Carriage Builders. New York. 
 Monthly, from 1871. 
 
 Huth. 
 
 A Bibliographical Record of Hippology. By F. 
 H. Huth. London: Bernard Ouaritch. 1887. 
 Small 4to, 439 pages. (A very complete cata- 
 logue of works on Horses, Driving, etc.) 
 
ch. xxvii list of books 545 
 
 Inman. 
 
 The Old Santa Fe Trail, The Story of a Great 
 Highway. By Colonel Henry Inman, U. S. A. 
 New York and London : The Macmillan Com- 
 pany. 1898. 8vo, 490 pages. (Contains inter- 
 esting passages on Coaching in the West.) 
 
 JOUFFRET. 
 
 Traite de la Conduit e en Guides et de V Entretien 
 des Voitnrcs. Par le Commandant Jouffret. 
 Paris : Librarie Militaire de L. Baudoin et Cie. 
 1889. Large 8vo, 149 pages, 62 wood-cuts. 
 (Does not contain a great deal about Four-in- 
 hand Driving, but gives many explanations of 
 terms, and of parts of harness, which are useful 
 to a person driving in France.) 
 
 Knight. 
 
 Hints on Driving. By Captain C. Morley 
 Knight, R.A. Illustrated by G. H. A. White, 
 Royal Artillery. London and New York : George 
 Bell & Sons. 1894. 121110, 180 pages, with 
 illustrations. (Contains detailed instructions both 
 for four-horse, and for tandem, driving.) 
 
 KOHLER. 
 
 The Coach Horn : What to Blow, and How to 
 Blow it. By An Old Guard. London : Kohler 
 & Son. 1893. Third edition. i6mo, 23 pages. 
 
 Lagard. 
 
 La Carrosscrie Francaise. Six Livraisons par An. 
 Paris: L. Lagard. (Magazine.) 
 
 35 
 
546 list of books ch. xxvii 
 
 Latchford. 
 
 The Loriner : Opinions and Observations on 
 Bridle-Bits and the Suitable Bitting of Horses. 
 With illustrations. By Benjamin Latchford. 
 London: Nichols, Son & Co. 1871. Small 4to. 
 (A useful, short treatise, with a large number of 
 drawings of bits, and a translation of a treatise 
 on Bitting by Don Juan Segundo, 1832. The 
 Loriners' (Bit Makers') Company is one of the 
 old Guilds of London, dating back to the thir- 
 teenth century.) 
 
 Lennox. 
 
 Pictures of Sporting Life and Character. By 
 Lord William Lennox. London: i860. 2 vols., 
 i2mo. 
 
 Coaching, with Anecdotes of the Road. By Lord 
 William Pitt Lennox. London: Hurst & 
 Blackett. 1876. (Contains interesting coaching 
 gossip and hints about driving. ) 
 
 Lenoble du Teil. 
 
 Conrs Theorique d' Equitation, de Dressage ct 
 d'Attelage. Par J. Lenoble du Teil, Ecuyer; 
 Professeur a l'Ecole des Haras Nationaux. Paris 
 et Nancy : Berget-Levrault et Cie. 1889. Large 
 8vo, 455 pages. (This book treats of a depart- 
 ment of driving too much neglected in America ; 
 the handling and bitting of horses before they 
 are put to harness, and while they are being 
 
CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 547 
 
 prepared for driving- ; the remarks upon this 
 subject are useful.) 
 
 Levesque. 
 
 Les Grandes Guides. Par Donatien Levesque, 
 Paris: Librarie ^Cynegetique Pairault. 1886. 
 i2mo, 180 pages. (Only three hundred num- 
 bered copies printed. An admirable little book 
 by a good coachman.) 
 
 Les Guides. Par Donatien Levesque. Paris ; 
 Adolphe Le Goupy. 1897. i2mo, 217 pages. 
 
 Linsley. 
 
 Morgan Horses : A Premium Essay 011 the Origin, 
 History, and Characteristics of this Reinarkable 
 American Breed of Horses. By D. C. Linsley, 
 Middlebury, Vermont. New York : C. M. Saxton. 
 1864. 121110, 340 pages. (First edition 1856.) 
 
 Macniell. 
 
 Seventh Report of the Commissioners, on Road 
 from London to Holy head. House of Commons, 
 13 July, 1830. Folio, 54 pages. (The Appendix 
 contains reports by Parnell, by Telford, and 
 by Macniell, and a description of Macneill's 
 Dynamometer. ) 
 
 ' Magenta.' 
 
 The Haiidy Horse Book ; or, Practical Instruc- 
 tions in Driving, Riding, and the General Care 
 and Management of Horses. By a Cavalry 
 
54-8 LIST OF BOOKS 
 
 CH. XXVII 
 
 Officer ('Magenta'). Edinburgh and London: 
 William Blackwood & Sons. 1878. Ninth edi- 
 tion, i2mo, 167 pages. (First edition 1865.) 
 
 Malet. 
 
 Annals of the Road ; or. Notes on Mail and Stage 
 Coaching in Great Britain. By Captain [Harold 
 Esdaille] Malet, 1 8th Hussars. To which are 
 added Essays on the Road. By ' Nimrod.' Lon- 
 don : Longmans, Green & Co. 1876. Large 
 8vo, 403 pages. (An interesting book on Four- 
 horse Driving, and especially valuable as contain- 
 ing (pp. 177-387) a reprint of Essays on the Road, 
 by 'Nimrod') [Charles J. Apperlev], first pub- 
 lished in The Sporting Magazine, London ; Vols, 
 ix. to xx. New Series ; the first in 1822, the last 
 in 1827. These Essays are particularly inter- 
 esting because they were written by a practical 
 coaching man at the time when public coaching 
 was at its best in England. A coachino- man 
 should study them with care, and cannot fail to 
 learn much from them. A large portion of the 
 Chapter on ' Driving' in Walker's Manly Exer- 
 cises is taken from these Essays. An admirable 
 Glossary of Terms of the Road is appended to 
 Malet' s volume.) 
 
 Maudslay. 
 
 Highways and Horses. By Athol Maudslay. 
 London: Chapman & Hall. 1888. 8vo, 471 
 pages. 
 
CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 549 
 
 MlCHELIN. 
 
 Le Pneumatique, son Application aux Voitures a 
 Chevaux et sans Chcvaux. Par M. A. Michelin. 
 Paris: 1896. Pamphlet of 40 pages. (Reprinted 
 from The Memoirs of the Society of Civil Engi- 
 neers of France, June 1896. Contains an account 
 of valuable experiments on the draught of vehicles 
 with pneumatic tires.) 
 
 MONTIGNY. 
 
 Manuel des Piqueurs, Cockers, Grooms et Pale- 
 frcnicrs, a V Usage des Ecoles de Dressage, et 
 d' Equitation de France. Par M. le Comte de 
 Montigny. Paris: L. Baudoin. 1891. Seventh 
 edition, i2tno, 559 pages. (The first edition was 
 published in 1865, under the Second Empire. 
 This book treats very thoroughly of all stable 
 matters, and there are instructions for driving 
 pairs and fours.) 
 
 Morin. 
 
 Nouvelles Experiences sur le Frottement des Axes 
 de Rotation, faites a Metz en 18 'jy. Par Arthur 
 Morin. Paris: Carilian-Gceury. 1838. 4to, 
 100 pages. 
 
 Experiences sur le Tirage des Voitures, faites en 
 1S37 et 1838. Par Arthur Morin. Paris : Ca- 
 rilian-Gceury. 1839. 4to, 102 pages. 
 
 Expeneiices sur le Tirage des Voitures et sur les 
 Ejfets Destructeurs quelles exercent sur les Ro7ites, 
 
550 LIST OF BOOKS CH. XXVII 
 
 executees en 1837 e * f ^S^y e ^ en J ^39 c ^ fS-/ 1 - 
 Par Arthur Morin. Paris: L. Mathias. 1842. 
 4to ; 3 parts, separately paged: I. 188 pages; 
 II. 124 pages ; III. 67 pages. (The edition of 
 1842 includes that of 1839.) 
 
 Voitures employees anx Services public ct prive 
 autres que celles des Chcmins tie fcr. Report 
 by General Morin on Class VI. of the London 
 Exhibition of 1862. Published in the second vol- 
 ume of Official Reports. Paris : Napoleon Chaix 
 & Cie. 1862. 
 
 Murray. 
 
 The Perfect Horse. By William Henry Murray. 
 8vo. Boston: 1873; New York : 1881. 
 
 ' NlMROD.' 
 
 The Road. By ' Nimrod' [C. J. Apperley]. 
 First published in The Quarterly Review in 1832. 
 (Numerous reprints of this have been made, 
 among them a i6mo, by John Murray. London : 
 : ^53- 63 pages. This covers some of the same 
 ground as the Essays. The description of the 
 astonishment of an old fellow who fell asleep 
 in 1742, and woke up to drive on a coach in 
 1832, is spirited and has been always deservedly 
 popular. ' Nimroo' had a happy faculty for 
 treating sporting subjects, and his famous ac- 
 count of a run with the Ouorn Hounds has 
 served as a model for many succeeding writers 
 in that line.) 
 
CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 551 
 
 ' Nimrod 's Hunting Tour in Scotland and the 
 NortJi of Bug/and, with the Table-Talk of Dis- 
 tinguished Sporting Characters, and Anecdotes of 
 Masters of Hounds, Crack Riders, and Celebrated 
 Amateur Dragsme?i. London : C. Templeman. 
 1857. Second edition, 8vo, 427 pages. (This 
 is also called ' Nimrod s Northern Tour, and 
 was written in 1834-35 and first published 
 in 1835. The Coaching part is interesting and 
 valuable.) 
 
 NOBBS. 
 
 ( lid Coaching Days ; Some Incidents in the Life 
 of Moses James Nobbs, the Last of the Mail Coach 
 Guards. Told by Himself. With a Preface by 
 the Controller of the London Postal Service. 
 London : No date or publisher. The Preface is 
 dated December 1861. i8mo, 55 pages. (Some 
 unimportant anecdotes of Coaching.) 
 
 d'Ocagne. 
 
 Le Mail- Coach en France. Par Mortimer 
 d'Ocagne. Paris: Adolphe Le Goupy. 1891. 
 i2mo, 32 pages. (A short sketch of Coaching in 
 France, England, and America.) 
 
 Parnell. 
 
 A Treatise on Roads. By Sir Henry Parnell, 
 Bart. London: Longmans. 1838. 8vo, 465 
 pages. 
 
55 2 LIST OF BOOKS CH. XXVII 
 
 Paterson. 
 
 Pater son 's Roads; being- an entirely original 
 and accurate Description of all the Direct and 
 Principal Cross Roads in England and Wales, 
 etc., etc. Eighteenth edition. London : Edward 
 Mogg. 1829. 
 
 Philipson, John. 
 
 Harness : As It Has Been, As It Is, and As It 
 Should Be. By John Philipson. With remarks 
 on Traction, and the Use of the Cape Cart by 
 1 Nimshivich? Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Andrew 
 Reid ; and London: Edward Stanford. 1882. 
 8vo, 80 pages, numerous illustrations. (This 
 treatise is full of valuable information, which the 
 coaching man should have by heart.) 
 
 The Technicalities of the Art of Coach-Body- 
 Making. By John Philipson. London : John 
 Kemp & Co. 1885. i2mo, 46 pages. 
 
 The Art and Craft of Coach Building. By John 
 Philipson. London: George Bell & Sons. 1897. 
 
 Philipson, William. 
 
 Draught. By William Philipson. London : 
 John Kemp & Co. 1885. i2mo, 23 pages. (A 
 short scientific treatise on Draught from the point 
 of view of the resistance of the vehicle.) 
 
 Prize Essay on the Suspension of Carriages. By 
 William Philipson. New York : The Hub 
 Publishing Co. 1889. 121110, 61 pages. (With 
 
CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 553 
 
 many plates. Although this is essentially a 
 coach-maker's book, it is interesting to the driving 
 man who cares to understand the construction of 
 his vehicle.) 
 
 Paper on Brakes for Retarding the Motion of 
 Carriages in Descending Inclines. By William 
 Philipson. Read before the Institute of British 
 Carriage Manufacturers, August 5, 1888. Lon- 
 don : 1888. 8vo, 20 pages. 
 
 Quarterly. 
 
 The London Quarterly Review, October 1877. 
 Article on Coaching. Anonymous. 1 7 pages. 
 
 Reynardson. 
 
 Down the Road ; or, Reminiscences of a Gentleman 
 Coachman. By C. T. S. Birch Reynardson. 
 London: Longmans, Green & Co. 1875. 8vo, 
 224 pages. (Eleven good coloured plates by 
 H. Alken. Agreeable reminiscences, with some 
 useful hints.) 
 
 Richardson. 
 
 Practical Carriage Building. By M. T. Rich- 
 ardson. New York : M. T. Richardson & Co. 
 1892. 2 vols., i2mo, 222 and 280 pages. 
 
 Rider and Driver. 
 
 The Rider and Driver. Weekly, First number, 
 March 7, 1891. New York. Large 4to. 
 
554 LIST OF books CH. XXVII 
 
 Road. 
 
 The Road. The Riding, Driving, and Coaching 
 Journal. London. Folio. Monthly. Com- 
 menced April i, 1891. Edited by ' Fortinbras.' 
 
 Sidney. 
 \1 The Book of the Horse. By S. Sidney. London : 
 n. d. 1874 (?). 4to, 604 pages. (Contains good 
 Chapters on Driving and Coaching.) 
 Four-in-Hand Driving as a Fine Art. By S. 
 Sidney, in 'The New Quarterly Review. London : 
 October, 1876. 13 pages. 
 
 ' Stonehenge,' see Walsh. 
 
 Strattox. 
 
 The World on Wheels ; or, Carriages, with their 
 Historical Associations from the Earliest to the 
 Present Time, &c. &c. By Ezra M. Strattox. 
 Illustrated. New York : Published by the Author, 
 325 East Eighteenth Street. 1878. Large 8vo, 
 490 pages, 364 illustrations. (A very complete 
 history of carriages, which, with Thrupp's book, 
 really exhausts the subject as far as it is of 
 interest to the driving man.) 
 
 
 Swales. 
 
 Driving as I Found it, What to Drive, How 
 to Drive. By Frank Swales. Illustrated by 
 Walter Pettie. London, Paris, Washington, 
 Chicago, New York : Brentano's. 1891. i2mo. 
 
CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 555 
 
 1 80 pages. (Contains some useful hints, and 
 good plates of Hands. Some of the Chapters 
 are taken from Stable Talk and Tabic Talk, now 
 a somewhat rare book.) 
 
 Tailer. 
 
 Coaching in France. By T. Suffern Tailer, in 
 Illustrated American, August 29, 1891. 
 
 Coaching and Coachmen. By T. Suffern Tailer, 
 in Illustrated American, September 5, 1891. 
 (Both of these articles are beautifully illustrated.) 
 
 Tally Ho. 
 
 The Tally Ho ! Notes on Coaching. New York : 
 Valentine & Co. 1877. Pamphlet of 28 pages, 
 with illustrations by Grey Parker. 
 
 Tandem. 
 
 Hints to Young Tandem Drivers by an Old Hand. 
 Oxford: T. Shrimpton & Son. 1875. i6mo, 
 24 pages. 
 
 Thrupp. 
 
 The History of Coaches. By G. A. Thrupp. 
 With numerous illustrations. London : Kirby 
 & Endean ; New York : The Hub Publishing 
 Company. 1877. 8vo, 152 pages. (The title 
 ' Coaches' includes all carriages. This is a very 
 complete and important book, and of interest to 
 every coaching man.) 
 
556 list of books ch. xxvii 
 
 Tristram. 
 
 Coaching Days and Coaching Ways. By W. 
 Outram Tristram. Illustrated by Hugh Thom- 
 son and Herbert Railton. London : Macmillan 
 & Co. 1888. Large 4to, 367 pages. There is 
 also a small edition, i2mo, 376 pages, 1893; tne 
 same publishers. (Mainly anecdotes and descrip- 
 tions of English coach roads.) 
 
 Twining. 
 
 Travels in America One Hundred Years Ago ; 
 being Notes and Reminiscences. By Thomas 
 Twining. New York : Harper & Brothers. 
 1894. i6mo, 181 pages. (Contains some notes 
 on travelling by coach.) 
 
 Underhill. 
 
 Driving for Pleasure ; or, the Harness, Stable and 
 its Appointments. By Francis T. Underhill. 
 New York. 1896. Large 4to. (Profusely illus- 
 trated and thoroughly up to date.) 
 
 Uzanne. 
 
 La Locomotion a Trovers /' Histoire et les Mceurs. 
 Par Octave Uzanne. Paris : Paul Ollendorf. 
 1900. Small folio, 281 pages. (A very complete 
 history of locomotion, beautifully illustrated.) 
 
 VlNEV. 
 
 Methode de Trompc dc Ma il- Coach. (Preface par 
 M. le Comte Henrv d'Yanville.) Par Victor 
 
CH. XXVII LIST OF BOOKS 557 
 
 Viney et Alexandre Passevant. Paris : Adolphe 
 Le Goupy. 1893. Oblong- i2mo, 88 pages. 
 (Contains a collection of the regular coach calls and 
 a large number of tunes and fanfares.) 
 
 Walker. 
 
 British Manly Exercises ; in which Rowing and 
 Sailing arc now first described, and Riding and 
 Driving are for the first time given in a work of 
 this kind, &c. c2fc. By Donald Walker. Third 
 edition. London: J. Hurst. 1835. The first 
 and second editions are dated March 1, 1834, and 
 March 14, 1834. i6mo, 291 pages. (There are 
 2 plates by H. Alken, and 53 line drawings on 
 copper. Seventy pages of the book are devoted 
 to driving, a large part of it drawn from ' Nimrod's' 
 Essays, and from his article in The Quarterly 
 Review. There are other editions of this popu- 
 lar book ; the tenth (London : H. G. Bohn, i860) 
 is edited by ' Craven' [John William Carleton], 
 and has some slight additions and modifications.) 
 
 Walsh [' Stonehenge'] . 
 
 Riding and Driving. By J. H. Walsh. Lon- 
 don : 1863. 
 
 Ward. 
 
 Hints on Driving. By C. S. Ward, the well- 
 known ' Whip of the West.' London : pub- 
 lished by the Author. 1870. 4to, 24 pages. 
 (With a photograph of the author, one of the 
 most famous Whips of his time.) 
 
558 LIST OF BOOKS 
 
 CH. XXVII 
 
 Whitley. 
 
 Coventry Coaching and Coach Roads. By T. W. 
 Whitley, Coventry. Printed at The Herald 
 Office. 1887. i2mo, 27 pages. (A Sketch of 
 Coaching in the Neighbourhood of Coventry in 
 the early part of this century.) 
 
 Wrangel. 
 
 Das Luxus-Fnhrwerk. Ein Handbuch fur Equi- 
 pagenbesitzer. Von Graf C. G. Wrangel. Stutt- 
 gart : Schickhardt & Ebner (Konrad Wittwei) 
 1898. Large 8vo, 191 pages. 
 
 YOUATT. 
 
 Draught. By William Youatt. 46 pages, 8vo. 
 Forms the latter part of ' TJie Horse! (By the 
 same author.) London : Longmans. 1866, and 
 many other editions. (This is the classical treatise 
 on Draught.) 
 
 Young. 
 
 The Four-in-hand, and Glances at the Literature 
 of Coaching. By Jennie J. Young. Lippincotfs 
 Magazine, June 1878. 
 
CH. XXVII 
 
 LIST OF FRENCH NAMES 
 
 559 
 
 LIST OF FRENCH NAMES FOR PARTS OF 
 
 HARNESS 
 
 The following French equivalents for the English 
 names of parts of harness or of a coach are given 
 for the convenience of persons driving in France. 
 The list has been revised by Mr Morris E. How- 
 lett, of Paris, and may be trusted as giving the 
 names actually used in a French stable. The gen- 
 der is denoted by (m) or (/). The figures refer to 
 the cuts in the text. 
 
 Axle-arm, 13, 14 . 
 
 Back-strap, 106, 107 
 
 Bar-bit, B, 88 . . 
 
 In the lower bar 
 
 In the middle bar . 
 
 In the upper bar 
 
 Upper ring (of a bit 
 
 Bar- buckle . 
 
 Bearing-rein, 93 
 
 Belly-band 
 
 Billet (of a rein), 89 
 
 Bit (used for a bit gener- 
 ally, but especially for 
 a curb-bit) . . . . 
 
 Black leather . 
 
 Boss, 84 
 
 Essieu (m) 
 
 Croupiere {/) 
 
 Mors (m) a barette {/) 
 
 en bas 
 
 an milieu 
 
 au banquet 
 
 CEil (m) 
 
 Boucle (/) a traverse 
 
 Enrenement (;//) 
 
 Sous-ventriere ( f) 
 
 Porte-mors (m) 
 
 Mors (m) 
 Cuir (m) noir 
 Cocarde {/), [Bossette 
 ( / ) when on a bit] 
 
560 
 
 LIST OF FRENCH NAMES 
 
 CH. XXVII 
 
 Breast collar, 81 
 Breechinor 
 
 Bridle, 84 . . 
 
 Buckle 
 
 To burnish . 
 
 Buxton bit, D, 88 
 
 Canon (of a bit), C, 90 
 
 Centre-hook, A, 105 . 
 
 Centre-terret 
 
 Chape, A, 105 . 
 
 Cheek-piece, 84 
 
 In the cheek .... 
 
 Clip (of a tug), A, 101 
 
 Clipper 
 
 Cock-eye, 104 . 
 Cock horse .... 
 Collar, 94, 95, 96 . 
 Coupling-rein 
 
 To cross the traces, B, 1 26 
 Crown-piece (of bridle), 
 
 86 
 
 Crupper, 106, 107 . 
 Crupper-dock .... 
 Curb-bit 
 
 Bricole (/) 
 
 Reculement (;//) 
 
 Bride (/) 
 
 Boucle (/) 
 
 Polir a la gourmette 
 
 Wellington 
 
 Canon (m) 
 
 Crochet (;;/) d'enrene- 
 
 ment (m) 
 Crochet d'enrenement 
 
 portant clef ( f) 
 Courroie (/") de man- 
 
 celle (/) 
 Montant (;;/) 
 Au banquet (or en haut), 
 
 equally correct 
 Chape (/) 
 Tondeuse {/) 
 Mousqueton (m) ferme 
 Cheval (m) de renfort 
 Collier (m) 
 Italienne {/), Guide (/") 
 
 interieure, Accouple- 
 
 ment (m) 
 Croiser les traits (;;/) 
 
 Tetiere ( /") 
 Croupiere ( /) 
 Culeron (m) 
 Mors ( in) a gourmette ( f) 
 
CH. XXVII 
 
 LIST OF FRENCH NAMES 
 
 561 
 
 drag 
 
 Curb-chain . 
 To cut the tires 
 
 D 
 
 Draught-eye (for 
 
 harness), A, 99 . 
 Draught-eye (for coach 
 
 harness), C, 99 . 
 Draught-rein . . 
 Driving cushion, 37 . 
 Dutch collar, 81 . . . 
 Elbow bit, C, 88 . . . 
 Face-drop (face-piece), 84 
 False belly-band, Plate 
 
 XXV. . . . 
 Foot-board . 
 French loop trace, 
 Front, 84 . . . 
 Gag-runner, A, 93 
 Girth .... 
 Halter .... 
 Web halter . . 
 Hames, 100 . 
 Hame-strap, 100 
 Hame-terret, 100 
 Harness . 
 Head-stall, 84 . 
 Hip-strap . 
 Hole (in a strap) 
 Horse clothing . 
 
 B. 
 
 102 
 
 Gourmette ( f) 
 Chartrer les roues (/) 
 De (m) 
 
 Tirage (m) a chape ( /) 
 
 Tirage a anneau {in) 
 Guide ( f) exterieure 
 Coussin {fit) de guide 
 Bricole (/) 
 
 Mors {in) a baionnette(y r ) 
 Plaque { f) de front (m) 
 
 Fausse sous-ventriere(y) 
 Coquille {/) 
 Trait {in) a crosse 
 Frontail (m) 
 Panurge {/) 
 Sangle (/) 
 Licol (///) 
 Licol de sangle 
 Atelles (/) 
 Curroie {/) d'attelle 
 Clef (/) d'attelle 
 Harnais {m) 
 Tetiere {/) 
 Surdos {in) 
 Point (w) 
 
 Couverture {/) de cheval 
 (m) 
 
 36 
 
56: 
 
 LIST OF FRENCH NAMES 
 
 CH. XXVII 
 
 Kidney-link, 97 . 
 Kidney-link ring, 100 . 
 
 Lamp 
 
 To lap the traces, C, 126 
 Lead-bars, 30 ... 
 
 Lead-horse 
 
 Lead-rein 
 
 Lead-trace, 104 . 
 
 To let out near coupling- 
 rein 
 
 To take up near coupling- 
 rein 
 
 Off coupling-rein . 
 
 Link (of the pole-chain, 
 of the curb-chain) 
 
 Liverpool bit, A, 88 
 
 Loin-cloth 
 
 Loop 
 
 Loop, fixed or sliding 
 Loop-trace, A, 102 . 
 Main-bar, 30 . 
 Martingale, 100 . 
 
 Coulant (m) d'attelle (/) 
 Anneau (m) de chainette 
 
 (/) 
 Lanterne {/) 
 
 Entrelasser les traits (m) 
 
 Palonniers (m) de volee 
 
 Cheval (w) de volee 
 Guide {/) de volee 
 Trait (m) de volee 
 Allonaer l'italienne de 
 
 gauche 
 Raccourcir l'italienne de 
 
 gauche 
 Italienne de droite 
 
 Maille (/) 
 
 Mors (m) a ballon sans 
 
 barette (f) 
 Caparacon (;;/) de drap 
 Passant (m) 
 
 Passant fixe, ou coulant 
 Trait (m) a de (m) 
 Sommier (;//) 
 Martingale ( /) 
 
 (It is customary, in America and in England, to call, in double 
 harness, a 'martingale,' the strap which goes from the belly-band to 
 the bottom of the collar, as shown in Fig. 100 of the text ; this in 
 America, but not in England, is frequently called 'choke-strap,' or 
 'breast-plate.') 
 
CH. XXVII LIST OF FRENCH NAMES 563 
 
 Mountings (of harness) . Garniture {/) 
 
 Wire mountings, 105 . . Jonc (m) anglais 
 
 Mouth-piece, 90 . . . Embouchure {/) 
 
 Monogram ChifTre (m) 
 
 Near horse Cheval (;;/) de gauche 
 
 Newmarket tug-bearer, Courroie (f) de man- 
 
 B, 105 celle (/) mobile 
 
 Nose-band, 84 ... Muserolle (/) 
 
 Off horse Cheval (m) de droite 
 
 Pad, 105 Mantelet (m) 
 
 Pad-terret, 105, 112 . . Clef (/) de mantelet (m) 
 
 Patent leather .... Cuir (m) vernis 
 
 Pipe Fourreau (m) 
 
 Point-strap, A, 105 . . Contre-sanglon (m) de 
 
 fausse sangle (/) 
 
 Pole Timon (m) 
 
 Pole-chain, 114, 115 . . Chainette (/) [d'acier 
 
 M] 
 Pole-head, 29 ... . Trompe (/) de timon (m) 
 
 Pole-hook, 116. . . . Crochet (m) de timon 
 
 Pole-strap (pole-piece) . Chainette de cuir 
 
 Polishing pad, 121. . . Gourmette {/) sur buf- 
 
 fle, Cotte de maille 
 Port (of a bit), 90 . . . Liberte (/) de langue 
 
 To put-to Atteler 
 
 Reins, 108 Guides (/) 
 
 Set of reins Jeu (m) des guides ( f) 
 
 Rein-billet, 89 ... . Porte-mors (m) 
 
 Ring snaffle, 92 . . . Filet (m) a quatre an- 
 
 neaux (m) 
 
5^4 
 
 LIST OF FRENCH NAMES 
 
 CH. XXVII 
 
 Roller-bolt, 125 
 
 Rosette . 
 
 Russet leather 
 
 Splinter-bar, 8 
 
 Single bar, 30 
 
 Snaffle-bit, 91 
 
 Spring, 27 . 
 
 Spring-hook (for pole- 
 chain), 1 17 
 
 Splice (in a rein, or in a 
 whip-thong), 163 
 
 Swivel 
 
 Stable-shutter . 
 
 To take out the horses 
 Terret, 112. 
 Throat-latch, 84 
 Tongue (of a buckle) . 
 Trace, 102, 103, 104 . 
 Trace-bearer 
 
 Paumelle (/) 
 Cocarde ( f) 
 Cuir (m) jaune 
 Volee (/) 
 Palonnier (m) 
 Filet (m) 
 Ressort (;;/) 
 Mousqueton 
 sort (m) 
 
 m a res- 
 
 Tuct 101 
 
 Tug-buckle, 10 1, 118 
 
 Eye of tug-buckle, 118 
 
 Wheel 
 
 Wheel horse 
 Wheel-trace, 102, 103 
 
 Anture (/) 
 Pivot (m) 
 
 Volet (;;/), Store (m), 
 Jalousie ( /"), Persienne 
 
 (/) 
 Deteler 
 
 Clef (/) 
 
 Sous-gorge ( f) 
 
 Ardillon (m) 
 
 Trait (m) 
 
 Porte-trait (m) 
 
 Grand boucleteau (w) de 
 
 trait (;;/ ) 
 Boucle a crampons (m), 
 
 or, a mancelles ( f) 
 Crampon (m), Mancelle 
 
 (/) 
 Roue (/) 
 
 Cheval (m) de timon (m) 
 
 Trait (m) de timon (m) 
 
CH. XXVII LIST OF FRENCH NAMES 565 
 
 Whip, 159 Fouet (m) 
 
 Handle of whip, 159 . . Poignet (m) 
 Ferrule, or collar, of whip, 
 
 159 Virole (/) 
 
 Butt-cap of whip, 159 . Cuvette (/) 
 
 Thong of whip, 162 . . Monture (/) 
 
 Point (of thong) . . . Meche 
 
 Winker, 84 CEillere 
 
 ! 
 
567 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Abbott Downing Co. . . 116 
 
 Aberdeen coach. . . . 466 
 
 Accessories. .... 80 
 
 Accidents 502 
 
 ackerman 28 
 
 Adam 104 
 
 Adams 1 
 
 Adams & Co. Express. . 469 
 
 Agar 230 
 
 Alken 333, 413 
 
 Aluminium bronze. . . 239 
 
 America. Coaching in 432, 
 
 474 
 
 American coach. . . 37, 116 
 
 " method of 
 
 driving. . . 333 
 
 Angell. 
 Angle of lock. . 
 " trace. 
 Apparatus. Driving 
 Apprentice. 
 
 Aprons 
 
 Ardsley coach. . 
 Arm. Position of. 
 
 • 43 2 
 28, 337 
 
 . 189 
 
 • 345 
 . 412 
 
 . 98 
 
 434, 45 6 
 
 ■ 3 QI 
 
 Ascot 516 
 
 Attachment of horse. . . 187 
 Austrian method of 
 
 driving 476 
 
 Awnings 
 
 Axle 
 
 Breaking an 
 
 Colli nge 
 
 Dip of arm of 
 
 friction . 
 
 Gather of . 
 
 Length of . 
 
 Mail . . . 
 
 Parallel 
 
 Taper . 
 
 96 
 
 3° 
 506 
 
 3 2 
 40 
 
 J 57 
 47 
 37 
 3 1 
 34 
 34 
 
 Back-strap 222 
 
 Backin g 337 
 
 Baggage net. . 17 
 
 Ball-bearings 159 
 
 Balling 502 
 
 " pads. . . . . 503 
 
 Balls. The crushing of 
 
 steel 160 
 
 Bar. Splinter- ... 22 
 
 Barclay. 298, 463, 466, 473 
 
 Barker. 125, Plates 
 
 XX., XXI. 
 
 Barouche landau. . . . 112 
 
 Bars. Lead- .... 55 
 
 Bartlett 3 
 
 Basket 93 
 
5 68 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Battersby 365 
 
 Baucher. . . 368, 375, 378 
 Bearing-rein. . . 206, 256 
 Beaufort. 31, no, 198, 280, 
 
 290, 432 
 Bedford experiments. 
 Beginner. The 
 
 Belmont 
 
 Bending lessons. . 
 
 Bennett 
 
 Bensington Driving Club 
 Berlin. . 
 Bianconi. . 
 Billets. Rein- 
 Birthday parade. 
 Bits. . . 
 Bitting. . 
 
 Blake. . 
 Blekjht. 
 Blunderbuss 
 Body. . 
 
 BOKER. . 
 
 Booking. 
 
 " office. 
 Books. List of 
 Boots of coach. 
 " men. . 
 Box coat. 
 " Hill coach. 
 " seat. . . 
 " Position on the 
 Boxes. Lunch- 
 Braces. Thorough 
 
 Brake 
 
 " Foot . . 
 
 201, 
 
 163 
 
 2 93 
 
 486 
 
 3 6 9 
 
 467 
 
 43 1 
 
 4 
 112 
 
 225 
 103 
 ^60 
 
 360 
 
 532 
 
 379 
 481 
 
 61 
 
 378 
 
 454 
 
 453 
 
 535 
 10, 64, 71 
 
 421 
 
 423 
 
 434 
 
 67 
 
 3°4 
 94 
 4, 6, 117 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 . 84 
 107 
 1 10 
 
 23, 187 
 
 421 
 
 • 223 
 
 Brake. Lemoine . 
 Break. Dealer's . 
 ' ' Wagonette 
 
 Breast -collar. . 
 Breeches. . 
 Breeching. . 
 Brewster & Co. Plates 
 XVII. , XVIII. 
 
 Bridle 194 
 
 Brighton coach. 435, 465, 
 466 
 " road. 
 
 Britszka. 
 Bronson. . 
 Brougham. . 
 Buckling reins. 
 Buggy. . . . 
 " wheels. 
 
 bugle. 
 
 Buttons. Club 
 
 " Livery 
 
 Buxton bit. . 
 
 Cadwalader. . 
 Calls on the horn. 
 Cantering leader. 
 Cape cart. . 
 
 " I )riving- . 
 Card. Time- . 
 Care of coach. 
 
 " harness. 
 Carriage-part. . 
 Catching up whip 
 C -spring. 
 Centre of gravity. 
 
 229 
 
 20 
 
 o> 
 
 43 1 
 10 
 
 486 
 
 133 
 
 270 
 
 1 10 
 48 
 532 
 426 
 419 
 
 365 
 
 379 
 
 53 1 
 428 
 
 "3 
 
 424 
 
 45 6 
 126 
 
 241 
 
 !9 
 
 403 
 
 9 
 
 *33 
 
INDEX 
 
 569 
 
 Centrifugal force. . . . 137 
 
 Cernay-la-Ville coach. . 434 
 
 Chain-end trace. . 218, 251 
 
 " trace 240 
 
 Chains. Pole- 54, 55, 233 
 Chandos-Pole. . . .432 
 
 Change 459 
 
 Chaplin 262 
 
 Char a bancs 1 1 1 
 
 Chart. Time- . . . 444 
 
 Check-rein 207 
 
 Chopping 335 
 
 Circus horse 143 
 
 Clark 431 
 
 Clarke 262 
 
 Clipping 387 
 
 Club buttons 426 
 
 Clubbing reins. . . . 334 
 
 Clubs. Coaching. 431, 510 
 
 Coach 1 
 
 " and Drag. Dis- 
 tinction between 16 
 
 " Care of . . . 126 
 
 Cost of ... 128 
 
 " Development of . 1 
 
 ' ' General charac- 
 ter of . . . 16 
 
 " Height of 49, 61, 120 
 Name of . . 11,12 
 
 " on a race-course. 516 
 
 " Weight of . . 129 
 
 Coaching Club. New York 422, 
 
 " " Meets. . 512 
 
 trips. . . 486 
 
 Coaching Clubs. . 
 Cost of . 
 
 43 1 * 5 J ° 
 
 • 388 
 
 43 2 > 474 
 425, 481 
 
 533 
 
 in America 
 in England 
 medals. . 
 Public . 
 Revival of 
 trips. 
 Coachman's dress. 
 ' ' duties 
 
 Coat. Box 
 Cockade. 
 Cock-eye. . 
 " horse. 
 " " harness 
 Coefficient of axle - fric 
 tion. 
 " of rolling-fric 
 tion. 
 
 Collar 207 
 
 " Attachment of 
 
 trace to . . 213 
 " Breast or Dutch 23, 
 
 187 
 " Form of 
 
 Kay . 
 " lining. 
 Rim . 
 Collinge axle. . 
 Colonial coaching. 
 Colours of coaches. 
 Comparison of coaches. 
 Competitions. Driving 
 Computation of resist- 
 ance 161 
 
 427 
 
 43 2 
 484 
 
 45 2 
 449 
 423 
 419 
 
 219 
 236 
 236 
 
 158 
 
 J 53 
 
 208, 210 
 
 . 208 
 
 209 
 
 . 208 
 
 3 2 
 
 5> 477 
 
 75 
 123 
 
 5 2 7 
 
57o 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Concord Coach. . 4, 37, 116 
 
 Coned wheels 41 
 
 Continental methods of 
 
 driving 331 
 
 Contractors. Mail- . .482 
 Corbett. 137, 262, 271, 298, 
 
 322, 329, 414, 466, 469, 
 
 472, 4S1 
 
 CORDERY. . 9, 125, 387, 413 
 
 Cost of coach 128 I 
 
 " coaching. . . . 388 
 
 Coupling 263 
 
 " diagram. 270, 449 
 " reins. . 225, 263 
 
 Coventry 469 
 
 Crab 53 
 
 Cracknell 262 ! 
 
 Crest 76, 196 
 
 " panel 76 
 
 Cross 8, 71, 72 
 
 Cross team 384 
 
 Crossing traces. . . . 253 
 Croup to the wall. . . 376 
 Crown of street. . . . 178 
 Crown-piece. . . 196, 199 
 
 Crupper 222 
 
 Crushing steel balls. . . 160 
 Curb-bit. . . . 201, 361 
 
 " chain 204 
 
 " strap 205 
 
 Daumont. . 
 
 Dealer. London 
 
 Dealer's break. 
 
 ' Defiance. ' . 
 
 Demi- Daumont. 
 
 Dennet spring. 
 
 Development of the coach 
 
 Devices on panels. 
 
 Devonport mail. . 
 
 Diagram. Backing- . 
 Bitting- . 
 " Coupling- 
 Seat- . 
 " Speed - 
 " Turning- 
 Dickey 
 
 Diligence. 
 
 Ghent 
 Swiss 
 
 Dip of axle. 
 Dish of wheel. 
 Docker. . 
 Docking. 
 Dog-legged wh 
 Doors of boots 
 Dorking coach 
 Double-thong. 
 Down-hill. 
 Drag. . 
 Dragsman. 
 Drag-staff. 
 
 Curricle I]t 3 Draught. 
 
 Curzon 274 
 
 Cushion. Driving- 67, 69, 
 
 3°4 
 
 Cycling track 144 
 
 P- 
 
 orse 
 
 Action of h 
 
 in . 
 Angle of 
 Experiments on 
 
 2 37, 283 
 366 
 107 
 
 463, 466 
 284 
 
 5° 
 
 1 
 
 76 
 466 
 
 34o 
 270 
 270 
 488 
 444 
 340 
 72 
 
 7i 
 10S 
 
 455 
 
 40 
 40, 44 
 412 
 387 
 
 39 2 
 
 64 
 
 434 
 403 
 320 
 16, 102 
 102 
 89 
 147 
 
 181 
 
 189 
 162 
 
INDEX 
 
 571 
 
 Draught-eyes. . 
 Dress of coachman. 
 
 " guard. 
 
 ' ' servants, 
 length of 
 
 Drives. 
 Driving. 
 
 • 213 
 
 419. 45 2 
 
 45 2 
 418 
 
 472 
 
 285 
 
 333 
 345 
 
 5 2 7 
 
 Dupuit. 
 Dutch collar. . 
 Duties of servants 
 
 D\VYER. . 
 
 American 
 
 apparatus. 
 
 competitions. 
 
 cushion. 67, 69, 304 
 
 General obser- 
 vations on . 349 
 
 Methods of . 330 
 
 seat. . .67, 304 
 . . 148 
 ■ 23, 187 
 
 • ■ 4i5 
 189, 362 
 
 Edinburgh coach. 8, 463, 466 
 
 Elastic trace 185 
 
 Elbow bit 202 
 
 Eleven-and-four. . . . 482 
 
 Elliot 9 
 
 Elliptic spring. . 9, 51, 107 
 
 Evener 27 
 
 Experiments on draught. 148, 
 
 162 
 
 Express messenger. . . 469 
 
 Falling. Horse . . . 502 
 
 Fares 482 
 
 Farm wagon 2 
 
 Fearing 486 
 
 Fees 472 
 
 FlESCHI 367 
 
 Fifth wheel 21 
 
 FlLLIS 369, 37o 
 
 Fingering 306 
 
 Flexions. . . . 369, 370 
 
 Flower 263 
 
 Flowers 195 
 
 Fog 509 
 
 Fontainebleau coach. . . 435 
 
 Foot-board 68 
 
 " boxes 74 
 
 " brake 85 
 
 Force. Centrifugal . . 137 
 
 Four-and-eleven. . . .482 
 
 Four-in-hand Club. . -431 
 
 Four - in - hand Club of 
 
 Philadelphia. . . 511 
 
 French harness terms. . 559 
 
 " loop trace-ends. . 217 
 
 Friction. Axle- . . 157 
 
 " Rolling- . . 147 
 
 Fritsch 486 
 
 Fronts 194 
 
 Full hand 330 
 
 Futchell 3 
 
 " Hook under . 53 
 
 Gag-runner 206 
 
 Gaiters 420 
 
 Galloping. . . . 353, 441 
 Game. Road . . . .482 
 Gammon-board. ... 73 
 Gather of axle. ... 47 
 
 Gauge 37 
 
 German bit 365 
 
572 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Getting down 327 
 
 " up 285 
 
 1 Glencairn.' .... 26 
 Gloves 4!9> 4 22 
 
 GODDEN 532 
 
 Grades. . . . 167, 186, 357 
 
 Grison 367 
 
 Grooms 415 
 
 " getting down. 358, 
 416 
 Guard's dress 452 
 
 " duties. . . . 449 
 Guiet. 104, 468, Plates VII., 
 
 XIX. 
 Guildford coach. 434, 454. 
 
 457, 465 
 
 380 
 
 560, 
 
 Hackney 
 
 Haldemax. 
 
 Half-penny. Coaching 
 Hame-strap. 
 
 Hames 
 
 Hammer-cloth. 
 Hand on the reins. 
 " Position of . 
 Handling horses. . 
 Hang of axle. . 
 Harness. 
 
 " Care of 
 
 " racks. . 
 
 " Spare parts of 
 
 Harnessing 247 
 
 Harris. 413, 446, 466, 473, 
 
 481, 482, 499 
 Hats. . . . 41S, 420, 422 
 
 533 
 213 
 
 21 1 
 
 104 
 
 296 
 
 299 
 
 366 
 
 4° 
 194 
 
 241 
 
 2 45 
 240 
 
 373' 377 
 486 
 
 43 2 
 
 378 
 180 
 
 3 6 9 
 199 
 
 120, 
 
 Haute ecole. 
 Havemeyer. . 
 Haworth. . 
 
 Hayes 
 
 Haywood. . 
 Head. Placing the 
 " terrets. 
 
 Height of coaches. 6r, 
 
 125 
 
 Herdic 28 
 
 HlECKEL 468 
 
 HlGGINS 467 
 
 High-flyer 112 
 
 " school riding. 368, 373, 
 
 37 7 
 
 Hip-straps 223 
 
 Hitting a leader. . . . 408 
 
 " a wheeler. . . 408 
 
 Hoare 432 
 
 Hogarth 72 
 
 Hold and hit 410 
 
 Holding four horses. . . 292 
 
 Holly for whips. . . . 390 
 
 Holyhead road. . . 169 
 
 Hook under futchells. . 53 
 
 Horn. ... 93, 451, 531 
 
 Horse. Action in draught 
 
 of .... 181 
 
 " Attachment of . 187 
 
 " keepers. . . . 447 
 
 " shoe pads. 180, 502 
 
 " shows. Judging 
 
 at . . .520 
 
 Horses for coach . . . 380 
 
 " to the mile. . . 436 
 
INDEX 
 
 573 
 
 Ladder. 
 Lamps. 
 
 not carried in 
 daytime. 
 
 92 
 89 
 
 9 1 
 
 Hounds. . . ■ . . 2 
 
 Howlett. . . . 468, 560 
 
 Howlett's opposition. . 316 
 
 Hungarian reins. . . . 232 
 
 Ice-skid 88, 507 
 
 Imperial 95 
 
 Inclination of road. . . 168 
 
 Inclining to right or left. 306 
 
 India-rubber tires. . 37, 151 
 
 Jack 98 
 
 Jaunting car 112 
 
 Jeantaud 28 
 
 Jerome Park 516 
 
 Jibber 508 
 
 Jouffret 333 
 
 Judging at Horse Shows. 520 
 
 Kane. ... 12, 433, 486 
 
 Kay collar 208 
 
 Kennedy 473 
 
 Kenyon 473 
 
 Ker 236 
 
 Key Bugle 532 
 
 Kicking over trace. . . 503 
 
 " strap 223 
 
 Kidney-link 211 
 
 King-bolt 2 
 
 Knife-board 75 
 
 Kohler 532 
 
 Landau 133, 343 
 
 Lapping traces. . . . 253 
 
 La Rousse 284 
 
 Latchford. . . 361, 365 
 
 Lazy-back 70 
 
 Lead-bars 55 
 
 " Swiss. . . 58 
 
 " " Three horse . 59 
 
 " reins. . . . 225, 230 
 
 " " Ring on . . 507 
 
 Leaders. 383, 385 
 
 Leather 238 
 
 Laurie &: Marner. 
 
 66 
 
 Lawrence 432 
 
 Lemoine brake. 
 Length of drives. . 
 " trace. . 
 Lennox. . .112, 
 Lessons. 
 
 Lettering of coach. 
 License. 
 Light hand. 
 
 " mouth. 
 Linchpin. . 
 
 186 
 
 425 
 
 LlNSLEY. 
 
 Liveries. 
 Liverpool bit. 
 Livery buttons 
 Lock. 
 
 ' ' Angle of 
 On the 
 London. Coaching in 
 " dealer . 
 
 LOWDEN 
 
 LOYO 
 
 37 
 
 20 
 
 84 
 472 
 191 
 , 481 
 
 349 
 76 
 
 47 1 
 
 1 377 
 
 37i 
 
 3 1 
 
 382 
 
 418 
 
 . 365 
 419 
 
 28 
 
 -■> -> *n 
 JJ / 
 
 22 
 
 43 r 
 366 
 
 469 
 379 
 
574 
 
 INDEX 
 
 LUQUE 
 
 468 
 
 Lunch -boxes 
 
 94 
 
 MacAdam 
 
 170 
 
 Macadam road. 
 
 170 
 
 Macneill. . .129, 163, 
 
 169 
 
 Maidenhead coach. . 
 
 457 
 
 Mail axle 
 
 3 1 
 
 " coach 
 
 102 
 
 " French .... 
 
 104 
 
 " Le 
 
 13 
 
 " Model of . . . . 
 
 103 
 
 " phaeton. . . no, 
 
 1 33 
 
 " The old .... 
 
 102 
 
 Mails. Parade of the 
 
 103 
 
 " Right of way of 
 
 
 the . . . 
 
 499 
 
 Maisons - Laffitte coach. 
 
 435, 
 
 437, 465 
 
 
 Malet. 7, 25, 58, 79, 
 
 112, 
 
 3 2 3> 481 
 
 
 Ma lie poste 
 
 104 
 
 Marey 
 
 i85 
 
 Martingale 
 
 214 
 
 May & Jacobs. 
 
 43 2 
 
 Medals. Coaching . 
 
 533 
 
 Meets 
 
 5 12 
 
 Men. Duties and Dress of 
 
 415 
 
 Mexican bit 
 
 365 
 
 Michelin. . . . 152 
 
 163 
 
 Mileage 
 
 482 
 
 Monogram 76 
 
 196 
 
 Montigny 
 
 33 l 
 
 Moping 
 
 5°9 
 
 Morgan horse 
 
 381 
 
 MORIN. 104, 105, 148, 153, 
 
 159, 162, 169, 189, 466 
 
 Morning suits 420 
 
 Mountings 239 
 
 Mouthing 369 
 
 Moving off. . . . -293 
 Music 531 
 
 Name of coach. . . 11,12 
 Net. Baggage ... 17 
 Newmarket tug-bearer. . 221 
 New York Coaching 
 
 Club. . . 422, 486, 510 
 Nickel plating. . . -239 
 'Nimrod.' 7, 25, 58, 102, 
 
 129, 199, 224, 230, 239, 
 
 271, 290, 298, 323, 463, 
 
 466, 473 
 Le Noble du Teil. . . 26 
 Nose-band 197 
 
 d'Ocagne 13 
 
 Oil 35, i59 
 
 ! Omnibus 113 
 
 Opening day 449 
 
 Opposition 315 
 
 Overturn. . . . 135, 506 
 Oxford coach. . 9, 125 
 
 Pace 386 
 
 " Judgement of . 352 
 
 Pad 219 
 
 " cloths 221 
 
 Pads, for horses' feet. 180, 502 
 Painting of coach. . . 75 
 
INDEX 
 
 575 
 
 Palmer mails. . 
 " medal. . 
 
 Panels 
 
 Paris. Coaching in 
 
 102 
 
 75 
 438 
 
 Parnell 129 
 
 Patent leather 238 
 
 Pavement. Asphalt . . 179 
 
 " Stone 169, 175 
 
 " Wood . . 179 
 
 Pedler 26 
 
 Pelham bit. . . . . . 364 
 
 " coach. 12, 77, 433, 
 
 434, 465 
 
 Perch 2, 19 
 
 " bolt 2 
 
 Peters 65 
 
 Peyton 431 
 
 Phaeton. High . . . 112 
 
 " Mail . no, 133 
 Philadelphia. Coaching 
 Club trip 
 
 to . . 486 
 " Fou r - i n - 
 Hand Club 
 Riding Club 
 1 1 
 
 Philipson. 
 Pipe. 
 
 ' ' clay. 
 
 ' ' collar 
 Places of reins in hand 
 Placing the head. 
 Platform springs. 
 Plumb spoke. . 
 Pneumatic tires. 
 Point. . . . 
 
 5 11 
 
 379 
 190 
 
 238 
 
 400 
 
 210 
 
 299 
 
 3 6 9 
 
 48 
 
 40 
 
 15 1 
 
 3 IO > 3 T 3 
 
 Point. 
 
 Pole. 
 
 Howlett's 
 on whip. . 
 
 Breaking a . 
 
 55. 
 
 'OO' 
 
 • 3 l6 
 
 395> 402 
 
 • 5 1 
 
 • 5°4 
 249 
 
 54 
 53 
 233 
 25 1 
 47i 
 244 
 
 " chains. 
 
 " head. 
 
 " Length of . 
 
 " straps. . 
 Poling up. . 
 Police regulations. 
 Polishing steel. 
 Pontoise coach. 435, 458, 465, 
 467 
 
 Pony express 469 
 
 Position on the box. 302, 304 
 
 Postilions 278 
 
 Posting 278 
 
 " French . 107, 281 
 " harness. . . -279 
 
 Postmasters 280 
 
 Procession of mails. . . 103 
 Proportions of horses. . 382 
 Public coaching. 427, 465, 470 
 Pulling horses. 241, 324, 509 
 
 up. 
 
 Punctuality in coaching. . 
 Putting a coach on the 
 road. . 
 " to 
 
 Quiet driving. 
 Quill of whip. 
 
 324 
 
 470 
 
 433 
 249 
 
 297 
 390 
 
 Rabbit-bitten whip. . 391 
 
 Race-course. . . 359, 516 
 
576 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Rate of driving. 
 Raw-hide. . 
 Red coats. . 
 Rein. Bearing - 
 " billets. 
 Side- . 
 Reins. 
 
 " Buckling 
 " Coupling- 
 Hungarian 
 Lead- . 
 Length of 
 
 • 386 
 
 • 5°5 
 
 • 453 
 206, 256 
 
 225, 267 
 
 241 
 
 224 
 
 229, 270 
 
 228, 230 
 
 232, 476 
 
 225, 230 
 
 • • 225 
 
 170 
 
 3°5 
 
 on tug-buckle. 
 
 416 
 Places of, in hand 
 Short wheel- . 
 Wheel- .... 
 
 2 55> 
 
 299 
 229 
 
 226 
 
 Resilience 151 
 
 Resistance to traction. . 147 
 Reunion Road Club. 79, 411, 
 
 5 12 
 Review at Meets. . . . 514 
 Revival. Coaching . 432 
 
 Revnardson. 271, 413, 466, 
 
 481 
 Ribbons. . . . 194, 195 
 
 Riding bits 360 
 
 Club. Philadel- 
 phia . . . .379 
 
 Rim collar 208 
 
 Ring on lead-reins. . . 507 
 
 Rives 486 
 
 Road-coach 16 
 
 " coaching. 427, 465, 470 
 " game 482 
 
 Road making. . 
 
 " On the . . . 
 
 " Rule of the . . 490 
 
 " surface 173 
 
 " ticket 534 
 
 Rock 28 
 
 Roller-bolt 22 
 
 Rolling-friction. . . . 147 
 
 Roof-seats 72 
 
 Rosettes 194 
 
 Roup 298 
 
 Rowlands! >n. . 72, 237 
 
 Rubber tires 151 
 
 Rugs 448 
 
 Rule of the Road. . 490 
 
 Rumble 69 
 
 Running away. . . . 355 
 
 Russet leather. . . 238 
 
 St. Mal'r 383 
 
 St. Moritz diligence. . -331 
 
 Sailor-fashion 322 
 
 Salute with the whip. . 414 
 
 Scarf. 418 
 
 ' Schoolmaster. ' The . 366 
 
 Seat-diagram. . . 45 5 , 488 
 
 " on the box. . 302, 304 
 
 Selby's drive. . . 467, 468 
 
 Sergeant 378 
 
 Servants. Dress of . 418 
 
 " Duties of . . 415 
 
 Shanks. . . Plate XXII. 
 
 Shaver 1-98 
 
 Shelburne Farms. . . .487 
 Shoe. (See Skid.) . . 85 
 
INDEX 
 
 577 
 
 Shooter 
 
 Shooting wheelers. 
 Short tommy 
 
 " wheel-rein. . 
 Shortening reins. . 320, 
 
 Shoulder-in 
 
 " of horse. 
 
 Shrewsbury 
 
 " 'Wonder.' 
 
 469 
 Shutters. Stable- . . . 
 
 Side-rein 
 
 Signals in the street. . 
 Six inside 
 
 " horses. . . 277, 336, 
 
 Skeat 
 
 Skid 
 
 " Ice- 
 
 Sleigh 
 
 Snaffle 205, 
 
 " Ring- .... 
 Soap in horse's foot. . 
 South American bit. . 
 Spare parts of harness. 
 Speed. . . . 444, 446, 
 
 " diagrams. . 
 
 Spike team 
 
 Splicing thong. 
 
 Splinter-bar 
 
 Springs 
 
 " Effect of, on 
 
 draught. 164, 
 Spur. Use of . 
 Stable-shutters. 
 
 " tools 
 
 481 
 320 
 412 
 229 
 322 
 
 376 
 188 
 466 
 62, 
 
 2 55 
 241 
 496 
 
 8 
 
 474 
 
 3 
 
 85 
 88 
 
 "5 
 360 
 
 205 
 5°3 
 
 365 
 240 
 
 465 
 444 
 
 277 
 
 401 
 
 22 
 
 48 
 
 Stage 5 
 
 " waggon 5 
 
 Stages. Length of . . 435 
 Stamping the foot -board. 413 
 
 Starting 289 
 
 " off from a race- 
 course. 359, 519 
 Steadying a team. . . . 319 
 Steel. Polishing . 127, 244 
 Stop on lead-rein. . 230 
 
 Stopping 324 
 
 Stratton 1, 35 
 
 Straw in boot 71 
 
 Stretched. Horse stand- 
 ing 388 
 
 Strokes 44 
 
 Sturgess. ... 413, 499 
 
 Subscribers 471 
 
 Sue 284 
 
 Swan with two necks. . 534 
 
 Sway-bar 3, 21 
 
 Swing chain 278 
 
 " of axle 40 
 
 " pair 277 
 
 " pole 278 
 
 Swinging of coach. . . 167 
 
 Swingle-tree 3, 23 
 
 Swiss coaching. . 105, 331 
 
 Tables, of coach. ... 96 
 
 " Time- .... 445 
 
 166 Tailer 467 
 
 372 Tails 387 
 
 255 Taking up reins. . . . 286 
 
 447 ! Tallow for balling. . . 503 
 37 
 
578 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Tally-ho. 
 Tandem. 
 Tantivy. 
 Taper axle -arm. 
 Tattersall's. 
 Telegraph coaches 
 " springs. 
 Telford roads. . 
 Terret. . 199, 2 
 
 Ward's 
 Thomson. . 
 Thong. Double- 
 Thorough-braces. 
 Thorough-bred. 
 Three abreast. . 
 " leaders. . 
 Throat-latch. . 
 " latching. 
 Thrupp. 
 Thurston. . 
 Tiffany. . 65, 2 
 Time-bill. . 
 " card. . 
 " chart. 
 • ' lost in chang 
 " table. 
 Tipping angle. 
 Tire. 
 ' ' Pneumatic 
 Rubber . 
 " Width of 
 Tired horses. . 
 Tokens. . 
 Tommy. Short 
 Tools for stable. 
 
 o, 
 
 12 
 
 • 274 
 
 14 
 
 3L 34 
 
 • 230 
 
 • 1, 9 
 . 48 
 
 170 
 226, 230 
 
 ■ 232 
 
 ■ 152 
 
 • 403 
 4, 6, 117 
 
 380 
 
 275 
 276 
 
 197 
 5°9 
 
 7° 
 
 es. 
 
 45 
 
 32 
 441, 466 
 
 445 
 45 6 
 444 
 446 
 
 445 
 135 
 
 44 
 J5 1 
 L5* 
 i49» J 54 
 
 • 5°9 
 
 • 533 
 412 
 
 • 447 
 
 Tools in coach. 
 Tops. Boot 
 
 Trace 
 
 " Angle of . 
 
 Chain- 
 " Chain-end 
 
 Elastic 
 " Kicking over 
 
 Lead- . 
 " Length of 
 
 Wheel- 
 Traces. Crossing . 
 " Lapping. 
 
 Tractrix curve. 
 Transom. 
 
 186 
 
 98 
 421 
 217 
 189 
 
 240 
 
 218 
 
 185 
 
 5°3 
 219 
 
 , 191 
 
 217 
 
 253 
 
 253 
 
 343 
 2, 19 
 
 Travelling-carriage. . . 107 
 
 Trips. Coaching Club . 486 
 
 Private . . . 484 
 
 Trouville drive. . . .467 
 
 Tug 189, 216 
 
 Turning. 312, 319, 335, 337 
 
 TUSTIN 298 
 
 Tuxedo coach. 435, 454, 465 
 
 Unicorn team. . 
 Uniform. Club 
 Up-hill. . . . 
 Upsetting. . 
 Use of the whip. 
 
 277 
 426 
 
 320 
 
 506 
 
 408 
 
 Versailles coach. . . -435 
 Vetturino. 58, 276, 331, 440 
 
 Vidler 103 
 
 Virginia Water coach. . 434 
 
INDEX 
 
 579 
 
 Wagon 2 
 
 Wagonette break. . . . no 
 
 Walker 333 
 
 Ward. ...... 103 
 
 Warde 7 
 
 Ward's terret. . . 232 
 
 Washing a coach. . . . 126 
 
 Watch 453 
 
 Waterhouse 533 
 
 Water-proofs 10 1 
 
 Waude 62 
 
 Way-bill 458 
 
 Webb 487 
 
 1 ^O 
 
 Weight. Distribution of 
 
 " of coach, 
 
 of horses. 
 
 " of vehicles. . 
 West. Coaching in the 
 
 Wetmore 486 
 
 Wheel 38 
 
 129 
 
 382 
 
 474 
 
 . 48 
 41 
 
 ■ 39 
 40, 44 
 
 . 48 
 
 Buggy . 
 Coned . 
 Cylindrical 
 Dish of . 
 Patent . 
 
 rein.'. . . . 226 
 " Short. . . 229 
 Size of 39, 47, 120 
 Wheelers. . . 383, 385, 386 
 
 Whip 390 
 
 " American . .402 
 " Balance of . . 397 
 " case 399 
 
 • 403 
 
 ■ 425 
 
 • 39° 
 
 • 39 2 
 
 • 39 2 
 
 ■ 398 
 397, 399 
 
 • 39° 
 
 • 395 
 
 • 4i4 
 398 
 401 
 
 9 
 390 
 395 
 
 ► Whip. Catching . 
 
 Club. . . 
 " Crop of . 
 
 " Dog-legged 
 
 " Handle of 
 
 " holder. . 
 " Jointed . 
 
 quill. . . 
 " point. 
 
 " Salute with . 
 
 " Selecting a . 
 
 ' ' Splicing thong of 
 
 " spring. 
 
 Stick of . . . 
 
 Stiffness of . 
 
 thong. 394, 400 
 
 Use of ... 408 
 White Mountain Coach- 
 ing 474 
 
 Whitley 469 
 
 Width of tire. . 45, 149, 154 
 
 Williamson & De Negri. 219 
 
 Windsor coach. . . . 434 
 
 Wings 2 
 
 Winkers 195 
 
 'Wonder.' Shrewsbury 62, 
 
 469 
 
 Work per day for a horse. 440 
 
 Wright 103 
 
 Wrist 301 
 
 Yonkers coach. 
 
 434 
 
 FINIS