':i:i^^A^:i■■■^^!\■:i:i^i!:i^>^^ii(y;:■^i!■:■{;■Hl•;::>;'^^ PONIES D ALL ABOUT THEM FRANK TOWNEND BARTON M.R.C.V.S. c^ Of D JOHNA.SEAVERNS w „- Ponies and All About Them By Frank Townend Barton, M.R.C.V.S. A0THOR OF "terriers: their points and management," "hounds: their points and management," "pheasants: in covert and aviary," " GUN DOGS." WITH TWENTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS PRINCIPALLY FROM PHOTOGRAPHS BY GILBERT H. PARSONS NEW YORK K. p. DUTTON ^ COMPANY PUBLISHERS I9I7 TO LORD ARTHUR CECIL THIS WORK IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIliED BY THE AUTHOR Contents CHAP. I. Points of a Pony PAGE 17 The Head — Front Surface of the Head — Back Sur- face of the Head — Lateral Surface of the Head — Anterior End of the Body — Posterior End of the Body — Top Line of the Body — Infero-lateral Region of the Body — The Fore-limbs — The Hind Limbs. II. Conformation ..... The Head — The Eye — The Muzzle — The Coupling of the Head— The Neck— The Withers— The Back and Loins — The Croup — The Chest, Ribs and Breast — Fore-limb — The Forearm — The Knee — Canon — Fetlock and Pastern — The Foot — The Hind Limb — The Hock. III. Section A. — The Thoroughbred Pony Section B. — The Hackney Pony History of the Hackney Pony — Conformation of the Hackney Pony ; Colour ; Action ; Manners — Posi- tion of the Limbs in Relation to the Body — Cross- bred Ponies. IV. The Harness Pony V. Section A. — The Saddle Pony Section B. — Polo Pony Section C. — Rules of the County Polo Association VI. The Wilson Pony VII. The Child's Pony VIII. The Welsh Pony Points of the Welsh Mountain and Moorland Pony and Cob — Welsh Pony and Cob Society. IX. The National Value of the Welsh Pony, by G. S. Lowe .... The Up-to-date Pony Sources— The Dangers of Rapid Improvement. i.\ 34 54 68 78 81 83 124 161 164 169 180 CONTENTS CHAP. XXXII. Urinary Apparatus .... Normal Composition of the Urine — Abnormal Condi- tion of the Urine — Inflammation of the Kidneys — Diabetes insipidus — Hasmaturia or Blood in the Urine — Retention of Urine — Inflammation of the Bladder — Stone in the Bladder — Inversion of the Bladder. XXXIII. The Generative Apparatus . Diseases of the Generative Organs — Septic Laminitis — Vaginitis — Leucorrhoea — Sterility- — Inversion of the Uterus — Haemorrhage — Parturient Fever — Mam- mitis. XXXIV. Diseases of the Central Nervous System Vertigo — Apoplexy of the Brain — Abscess and Tumours of the Brain — Stringhalt — Paralysis. XXXV. The Eye : Anatomical Outlines of Diseases in Connection with the Eye and Eyelids — Ophthalmia — Recurrent Ophthalmia — Cataract — In- flammation of the Cornea — Inversion and Eversion of the Eyelids — Lacerations of the Eyelids. XXXVI. The Foot : Anatomical Outlines and Dis- eases OF .... . Diseases of the Feet — Sandcrack — False Quarter — Separation of the Wall — Thrush — Quittor — Sidebone — Flat Feet and Shelly Feet — Laminitis or Foot Founder. XXXVII. Section A. — Diseases affecting Bones, Joints, and Tendons Splint — Inflammation of the Bone — Sore Shins — Ringbone — Bone-Spa vin — Sprains. Section B. — Fractures and Dislocations . XXXVIII. Minor Operations .... Firing — Blistering — Fomentations. XXXIX. Poisons and their Antidotes XL. Wounds and their Treatment Various Kinds of Wounds. PAGE 419 426 433 440 458 468 479 487 492 495 List of Illustrations Thk famous Welsh Pony, "Grey Light" The Points of a Pony ...... Pony Stallion Hackney Pony Stallion ...... Typical Head and Shoulders of a Hackney Pony Head, Neck and Shoulders of a " Yearling " Hackney Pony Diagram showing Descent in Male Line of Modern Hackney Ponies Hackney Pony Mare Hackney Pony Stallion Famous Pony Stallion Hackney Pony Hackney Pony Filly Pony Yearling Colt Tubby, Polo-bred Pony Marquis, Polo-bred Pony .... Welsh Cob Welsh Pony Brood Mare .... Black Shetland Pony ..... Black Shetland Pony Stallion Shetland Pony Stallion . Fro7itispiece FACING r.AGE i6 43 67 69 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 87 93 177 187 207 211 215 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PAGE Teeth of Ponies, nine months to three years "off" 265 Teeth of Ponies from "rising" four years to "rising" FIVE years ......... 267 Incisor Teeth of Ponies from five years "off" to EIGHT years "off" 269 Incisor Teeth of Ponies from twelve years to thirty years 271 Some British Forage Grasses 322 Skeleton of Pony 335 Vertical Section of Pony's Foot and Lower End of Canon 336 Superficial Muscles of Pony 346 Diagram of Pony's Eye 442 Preface In whatever light the pony is regarded, the author thinks that it will be conceded that its utility is equal to that of the horse in relation to specific work ; indeed, it can claim advantages over its larger brethren under certain conditions of employment, foremost amongst which must rank its work in the coal pits, for the game of polo, as a hack and hunter for juvenile horsemen, and for the lightest class of work in connection with various trades, whilst to the professional man the addition of a pony in his stud constitutes the most valuable "emergency" animal that it is possible to have. The ease with which it is put in and taken out of harness, its activity, docility and power of en- durance are features that render it specially adaptable for such purposes ; whilst, economically considered, it has a distinct advantage over the horse. Turning to the pony in a commercial aspect, there is every reason to look upon the breeding of high-class ponies as a most lucrative employment, PREFACE and the writer will endeavour, in the following pages, to enumerate the best methods through which success in this direction may be attained. It certainly does not pay to breed ponies of an inferior class, because no man can afford to maintain a pony, say, until it is four years old, and then sell it for twelve or fifteen pounds, or even twenty pounds, con- sequently many look upon pony - breeding as too speculative an undertaking. As previously stated, this matter will be referred to elsewhere, the "pros" and "cons" being duly considered. F. T. B. O \0 ac j: (J u D 1- o a. G ^ ^ O Z "a- 0)^ .2- ■ rtM i- 2 (-.T-H 2 He in C .r<3 . *- . rtrH « T— I S ^ ^* »; £ CD SfofO rt 5* o ^S Ponies and all about Them CHAPTER I Points of a Pony In this chapter I shall endeavour, by the aid of an illustration, to indicate some of the principal external divisions of the pony, which it is, in my opinion, necessary for every horseman to make himself ac- quainted with, so that one may speak with a degree of confidence when discussing matters appertaining to equines. The terms "fore," "aft," and "middle piece " are frequently used by horsemen when referring to certain areas of the external anatomy. A line drawn from the elbow to the withers may be said to include the fore-part ; "aft " when a corre- sponding line is drawn from the stifle to the haunch, and from the latter to the croup, whilst the "middle piece " includes all the body between those indicated as belonging to the areas fore and aft. Thus a horse may be spoken of as being good in its "middle piece," which term implies that it shows quality in the chest, back and loins, flank, etc. The "near" side corresponds to the one used for mounting and dismounting, the "off" side being to the right or opposite side. In this manner it is B 17 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM customary to speak of the near fore limb, the near hind, and the off iort and ^^hind. For convenience of study, it is advisable to divide the external anatomy in different regions, commencing with The Head which is divisible into an upper and lower extremity, with front, back, and lateral surfaces. The upper extremity is called the poll, and if this is manipulated a distinct ridge will be felt. This is known as the occipital crest. The forelock springs from the skin in this region, which is bounded on either side by the ears. The lower extremity com- prises the lips, the mouth and the incisor or nipping teeth. Attached to the lips are numerous stiff hairs which act as " feelers," whilst the lips serve as hands, being organs of prehension, as horses — unlike cattle — gather their corn up by means of the lips, which are con- nected with the muscles of the upper and lower jaws, which help to move them. The lips and the nostrils constitute the 7nuzzle. If the mouth is opened the following parts will be noted : — (a) Six incisor teeth in the upper jaw and six in the lower one, in addition to which, in geldings and stallions (rarely in the mare), there are two tusks above and two below. The six molar or grinding teeth on each side of the upper and lower jaws will also be observed. (b) The palate is divisible into two portions, known as the hard and soft palate ; but in the horse i8 POINTS OF A PONY the first-named constitutes the bulk of this structure, the "soft" palate being at the extreme back part of the mouth. The pink membrane covering the hard palate shows a series of transverse furrows and ridges, the functions of which are to assist in keeping (retaining) food in the mouth during the act of mastication. (c) The tongue, which is principally composed of muscles, will be found fixed about its middle to the lower jaw by means of a fold of mucous membrane, known as the frcenum, which enables mobility of the tongue, at the same time serves to assist in controlling the movements of the organ. The posterior portion of the tongue is united to the tongue-bone — os-kyoides, and this latter is composed of several segments articu- lated together, facilitating its protrusion and re- traction. The tongue is covered by numerous papillae or taste-buds, which are, mainly, of two varieties. Beneath the tongue, on either side of the froenum, the openings of salivary ducts will be seen. [d) The bars. — These are the spaces on either side of the lower jaw between the corner incisors and first molar teeth. The spaces are covered by mucous membrane, and the bit rests upon these surfaces. Rough usage and bad bitting commonly renders this sensitive membrane "fibrous," consequently the animal does not readily respond to proper handling of the reins. In other words, the pony becomes " hard-mouthed " (one or both sides) and troublesome to ride or drive. The fibroid thickening of the bars is Nature's method of strengthening the part against further injury. In 19 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM some instances the bone beneath is injured (necrosed) and suppuration established.' Some horses are extremely sensitive, the slightest stimulus from the reins being immediately answered. The author has noted how very few buyers ever think of referring to the state of the "bars." There is not the least doubt that a considerable percentage of so-called "jibbers," "buckers," "setters," and other ponies guilty of spasmodic, erratic behaviour (vice) arises through injury — not necessarily recent — to the bars, by rough usage, and the use of unsuitable bits. Front Surface of the Head This is divided into the forehead, which forms the upper part of the head and is partly hidden by the forelock. The upper division helps to form the cranial cavity, and its lower portion forms the front wall of the frontal sinuses, or air cavities. The nose and the nostrils form the lower division of this surface, althous^h these structures are frequently confused. The first-named extends from the frontal bone to the so-called "nasal peak." The nasal and other bones form the nose, which consists of a right and left cavity, separated by a plate of gristle or cartilage, known as the nasal septum. The back portion of the nose communicates with the larynx (windpipe entrance) and also with the pharynx or back of the throat. The nostrils are adjustable, being widely opened ' It seems almost needless to state that it constitutes an act of crueity to drive a horse with its mouth in the condition referred to as above. 20 POINTS OF A PONY during exertion, and also in certain lung diseases, as the horse breathes through its nostrils ojily, the mouth being shut off from the air tube by the soft palate or curtain that hangs down at the back of the throat. Inside the nostrils the skin forms a small pouch- like structure, frequently referred to as the false nostrils, in contradistinction to the nostrils proper. A circular opening will be seen close to each false nostril. These are the ducts which let out the excess of moisture (tears) from the eyes, which fluid then passes through the bony lachrymal canal. The nasal cavities are lined by mucous membrane, which is also reflected over the partition between the cavities. This is the Schneiderian membrane. The secretory surface of the membrane is smooth and glistening, but its adherent side somewhat fibrous in structure. It is well supplied with blood-vessels and nerves, and becomes implicated in certain diseases. Back surface of the Head. The branches of the lower jaw (inferior maxilla) and the throat, together with the lower lips, constitute the principal features in this region. The chi7i groove is a depression behind the lower lip. In coarse-bred horses (fleshy heads) the intermaxillary space is too much filled up with tissue, hence the outlines of the jaw-bones are not well defined. The submaxillary lymphatic glands are situated beneath the skin. These glands are commonly implicated in strangles and certain other diseases of a catarrhal, or specific nature, e.g., glanders. 21 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Lateral surfaces of the Head. The cheeks extend from the temples to the mouth, and form the bulk of the sides of the head. The external ears form the upper boundary of the cheeks, whilst the outline of the jaw corresponds to the limit of the cheeks behind and below. Each external ear is composed of yellow fbro -cartilage, covered by thin skin, and a number of muscles are attached to the ears in order to move them, thus facilitating acuteness of hearing. The inner surface of the cartilage is directed for- wards and outwards, so as to act (in conjunction with the sense of sight) in the interpretation of sound, the inlet being guarded by numerous hairs. The temples are situated below and in front of each ear, with the supra-orbit or ''hollow of the eye"" in front of the temple. In young animals this space is filled up with a pad of fat, but in aged horses the latter gradually dis- appears, and a hollow makes its appearance. Poor condition will brinof about a similar result. In order to obliterate these hollows above the eyes in old and worn ponies, unscrupulous vendors have been known to inflate the skin with air. The orbital arch or eyebrow, encircles the upper border of the eyeball. The eyes are placed antero-laterally, and each eye is lodged in a complete bony cavity, being protected by the upper and lower eyelids, to which the eye- lashes are attached. At the inner corner of each eye there is a tri- 22 POINTS OF A PONY angular piece of cartilage or gristle, spoken of as the "haw," or third ^y^\A. The use of these is to remove any foreign material that accidentally falls into the eyes. The third eyelid has a sweeping-like action, and is covered by mucous membrane, which also lines the eyelids, in this manner being partially reflected over the globes of the eyes. The white portion of the eye is the sclerotic coat, and it is composed of ivhite fibrous tissue. The circular watch-glass-like part is the cornea. Beneath this — corresponding to the face of the watch — is the coloured part of the eye. This is called the iris, and in the middle of it there is a circular opening (a dark-looking spot) — the pupil, which contracts when strong light is brought to bear on the eyes, dilating in the shade. The old method of examining the eyes by means of holding a black hat over the eye was based upon this physiological fact, i.e., to dilate the pupil, in order to ascertain defects of the lens, e.g.. Cataract. Very few amateurs, if asked the object of such ex- aminatiofi, could answer the question satisfactorily. One horse-buyer does it, because he has seen some one else do the same, yet seldom takes the trouble to ascertain the " why " and the "wherefore " of so doing. In any case it is not a reliable method of testing the eyes for visual defects. In horses the eyebroivs must be looked upon as very rudimentary, but the eyelashes are long and regularly arranged in rows. Those in the upper lid are longest, and their arrangement is such that the hairs will intercept the rays of light from above or below. The margins of the eyelids are stiffened by pieces 23 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM of cartilage — the tarsal cartilages — serving to keep the eyelashes in their proper place. Small glands — Meibomian glands — are arranged along the free borders of the eyelids, and it is the secretion from these glands that assists in keeping the eyelids from adhering. The bright red membrane lining the eyelids is called the conjunctiva, and its bright red appearance is due to the presence of a large number of minute blood-vessels entering into its structure. Veterinary surgeons commonly refer to the conjunctiva in cases of disease, acting as it does as a kind of health baro- meter. In febrile states it becomes heightened in colour, whilst in anaemic conditions it assumes a pallid appearance, and in liver trouble a saffron tint. Anterior end of the Body. The study of this may be commenced with the neck, which presents an upper and lower border ; lateral surfaces, an apex ; and a base. The tipper border is rounded, and bears the mane — either single or double. It (the neck) joins the poll at the apex, and the withers at the base. In entire horses this border becomes very convex. It is spoken of as the ''crests The longer castration is deferred the better de- veloped the crest becomes, though horses, cut at four or five years old, gradually lose this mark of masculinity. In all well-bred horses the crest is well developed. The gullet and the windpipe, along with large blood- vessels (jugular vein and carotid artery) run along the lower border, there being a furrow (cervical groove or jugular) indicative of the course of the blood-vessels. 24 POINTS OF A PONY The depression — placed antero-laterally — does, to a certain extent, shelter these vessels against injury. The apex of the neck supports the head, whilst the base of the neck blends with the withers, shoiilders and breast, the latter being in front of the chest, and bounded by the arms on either side. Posterior end of the Body. The tail, or "dock," as it is sometimes called, is composed of numerous modified vertebrae, of cartilage, muscles, skin and hair. It is customary to shorten the tail by docking, especially in the lighter breeds, and ponies (Shetland excepted) certainly look smarter when docked. Many people object to docking, and in British Cavalry horses it is not allowed. Docking prevents the animal from using its tail for switching off flies, etc., during the hot weather. Ponies should be docked during foalhood, for preference. Beneath the tail the skin is smooth and hairless, and it serves to cover the anus, and in the mare the vulva as well, so that if a filly has to be docked care should be taken to leave the tail sufficiently long to cover the external generative organ. Immediately under the tail is the anal opening, which is adjusted by a circular muscle (sphincter ani). Below the anus there is a hairless region of skin, extending to the vulva in the mare, but down to the scrotum in geldings and entires. This is called the perine^um. The scrotum (purse) is situated between the thighs and contains the right and left testicle. Between the testicles there is a thin partition. The testicles have 25 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM several coverings or envelopes and a cord of attach- ments (consisting of blood-vessels, nerves, fibrous tissue, etc.), known as the spermatic cord, and it]^is this which is severed during castration. The testicles descend through the inguinal canal before reaching the scrotum. In some instancesfthey remain within the belly (usually only one) or else the inguinal canal : if so, the animal is called a rig, and such are usually vicious. Normally, the testicles descend about the ninth or tenth month, though they are usually in the scrotum at birth, remaining so until the fifth or sixth month, and are then taken up between the inner and outer rings of the canal until about one year, when they again descend. Rigs are some- times spoken of as cryptorchids, i.e., an animal in which one or both testicles are concealed. Top line of the Body This begins at the withers and ends at the " set-on " of the tail. The withers are bounded in front by the neck, and behind by the back, and are formed by the spines of the dorsal vertebrse, muscles, and the ligamentum nuchse. Some horses have *' Jiioh " zvithers, others the con- verse. It is from this (the withers) point that the height of a pony is measured. The back extends from the withers to the loins, though there is no particular line of demarcation. The area may be said to be i?ichtded within that extending from the withers to the last rib. The loins correspond to six Imnbar vertebrae, and the kidneys are in the sub-lumbar region. 26 POINTS OF A PONY The lateral boundary of the loins is formed by^ the flanks, and behind by the croup. The crotip. — This is bounded in front by the loins, behind by the tail, and laterally it becomes blended with the thighs and buttocks. The bones of the Sacrum and pelvis, together with muscles and ligaments, form the croup. The croup is slightly wider in mares than in horses. The angles of the haunch form prominences seen on each side of the croup. These prominences are particularly well marked in old or worn ponies, or those in poor con- dition from other causes. This predisposes to injury such as fracture, otherwise known as ''hip-shot'' or down at " hip!' A well-developed croup materially enhances the value of a horse from both a commercial and utilitarian point, though many ponies are very poor in this region. Towards the end of gestation (preg- nancy) the muscles of the croup sink (due to the relaxation of the pelvic ligaments), and this may be accepted as evidence of approaching parturition. hifero-lateral region of the Body The brisket is that area between the breast in front and elbows behind, and is followed by the chest, which for convenience of study may be said to consist of the apex, base and lateral walls. The apex corresponds to the breast, the base to the diaphragm or midriff, the lateral walls being formed by the ribs and intercostal muscles. The Jloor of the chest is formed by the sternum and muscles. The heart and its coverings, lungs, pleural mem- 27 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM branes, blood-vessels, lymphatic glands, nerves, wind- pipe (part) and part of the gullet are all contained within the cavity of the chest. The abdoynen is the largest cavity of the body, extending from the midriff to the inlet of the basin (pelvic) bone. Its backward prolongation being the pelvic cavity, though there is no real distinction between the two cavities, excepting that the bulk of the female generative organs, and urinary apparatus are contained within the last named. The chief supporting tunic of the belly is a huge sheet of stout elastic tissue [tmiica abdominalis), which confers a remarkable desfree of resistance to the floor of the belly. The skin on the floor of the belly in the foetus has one or two openings in it, viz., the umbilicus or navel, and in the horse another one, the sheath, which protects the penis. The slit-like openings exist- ing in the abdominal wall are situated between the thighs. These are the external abdojninal 7'ing and the internal abdojuinal ring. It is through these openings that the testicles descend into the scrotum or purse. The cavity of the belly contains part of the gullet ; the stomach, the large and small intestines ; the liver ; spleen ; pancreas ; kidneys, blood-vessels, peritoneum, nerves, lymphatic vessels and glands, supra-renal bodies, the female generative organs, such as the uterus or womb, the ovaries ; their ducts the Fallopian tubes ; the ureters ; the bladder, the prostrate gland, the vesiculse seminales (seminal gland reservoirs) and their ducts, etc., though some of the last-named are really in \h.Q pelvic cavity. On the floor of the belly of the mare, in the inguinal region, the mammary gland is placed, bearing 28 POINTS OF A PONY two teats, the groin being" situate on either side of the gland. In the male the testicles are situated in a corresponding position. The flank lies between the last rib, angle of the haunch, and the stifle joint. It serves to assist in joining the hind limbs to the body. The Fore- Limbs The fore-limbs are composed of the shoulders, arms, forearms, knees, canons, pasterns, coronets, and feet. In the fore-limbs there is nothing beyond that of muscular (fleshy) tissue, uniting each limb to the trunk. The shoulder and the arm are more or less blended, though formed by distinct bones. Strictly speaking, the area of the shoulder-blade should limit the meaning of the term, but this is im- possible, owing to the arrangement of the muscles, preventing such limitations, though the shoulders are better defined in some ponies, than in others. The shoulder area may be said to be confined anteriorly to the root of the neck ; above, to within three or four inches of the withers ; posteriorly, to that embraced by a perpendicular line drawn from the point of the elbow, and an oblique line prolonged from the latter to the "so-called" point of the shoulder. When the muscles of the shoulder have become wasted through defective nerve force, as in the diseased condition "shoulder slip," ' the shoulder- blade becomes plainly marked in outline. ^ The term " shoulder slip " is rather misleading, there being no slipping or dislocation at this part as might be inferred from the title. 29 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM The arm extends from the articular angle of the shoulder-blade, to the elbow-joint. The elboiv is formed by the point of the ulna plus, the soft structures attached, and adjacent thereto. The forearm consists of that division of the limb extending between the elbow and knee, acting as a perpendicular support between the obliquely placed bones above (scapula and humerus), and a combination of the perpendicular and oblique ones below. The radius and the ulna combined, afford a good area for muscular attachment, so necessary for freedom of flexion, and extension of the parts below. On the inner surface of each forearm there is a horny area or growth from the skin. These are the chestnuts or castors, and are believed to represent the covering (hoof) of a digit belonging to an ancestral form of the horse. The knee is formed of numerous small bones plus the lower end of the radius, and upper end of the metacarpal bones, and its perfect development is highly essential. The small bones unquestionably diminish the effects of concussion and allow of a degree of gliding motion. Unlike cattle, the horse does not rest upon its knees during rising, so that it is not so liable to bruises in this region from this cause, but that is amply compensated for by the frequent injuries through accidental falling (broken, blemished, or banged knee). The canon. — This region extends from the knee to the fetlock, and the large metacarpal bone plus the small metacarpal bones (on either side of the large one), ligaments, tendons, etc., comprises this region. All horsemen make a point of handling this part at 30 POINTS OF A PONY the back and front, more especially the first-named, in order to ascertain the condition of the tendons ; the presence or absence of splint, sprained ligaments, etc. The extensor tendons of the phalanges run down the front, or are attached to the canon-bone, whilst the flexors and ligaments are placed at the back of it. The suspensory ligament is next to the bone, and to its outer face rests the subcarpal ligament, then the flexor pedis perforans, and flexor pedis perforatus tendons. In the hind limbs, corresponding regions are those below the tarsus or hock, though the canons (meta- tarsals) are inclined to be more cylindrical in their shape. The region following upon the canon is that of the fetlock, formed by union of the lower end of the large metacarpal (canon) bone, the upper end of the first phalanx, and sesamoid bones at the back. The fetlock has (unless clipped off) a tuft of hair springing from the back of it, beneath which is a horny outgrowth. The first-named is called the foot- lock, and the second the ergot, said to be the legacy of a digit in the ancestral horse. The pastern extends from the last-named, to the top of the hoof, being formed by the first and second phalanges — os suffraginis and os coronse — otherwise called the large and small pastern bones. The coronet encircles the hoof, and around the top of the latter there is a band — the coronary band. The hoof encloses the pedal bone, navicular bone, also a portion of the small pastern bone, along with blood- vessels, nerves, tendinous and other structures. Strictly speaking, the forefoot only represents a portion of the human hand, as the wrist corresponds to 31 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM the small bones of the carpus (knee), where the hand really comes ; but in the horse is represented by a single digit — the hoof — (finger-nail) which is specially modified to meet the requirements of the animal. In the hind limb the foot (as corresponding to that of man) begins at the tarsus or hock, though there is only one toe, which is represented as in the fore limb. The Hind Limbs From the angle of the croup to the stifle, and from the latter to the area partly hidden by the tail, regions commonly spoken of as the qttarters, buttocks, and this[h are included. The thigh lies in front ; the quarters laterally, and the buttocks on either side of the tail ; but not beyond a trifle below the level of the stifle. The second thigh begins at the stifle joint and extends to the hock. The tibia and fibula, along with muscles, etc., help to form this section of the limb, which at its junction with the hock represents the foot of man. The first thigh or femur slopes down- wards and forwards, whereas the second thigh points downwards and backwards. The knee-cap can easily be felt at the stifle joint. It articulates with one bone only, viz., the lower end of the first thigh, the front face of which is specially modified for such articulation. The gaskin or second thigh has a couple of tendons (belonging to the gastrocnemius muscle) attached to the point of the hock. These are the tendons of Achilles, also known as the ham-strings, severance of which throws the limb into an inactive condition. 32 POINTS OF A PONY Hock joijit. — This has an anterior surface, two lateral surfaces and an acute angle behind the point of the hock. It represents the ankle-joint in man. The true hock joint is that formed between the lower end of the second thigh-bone and the astragalus or screw-bone. For a description of the various bones entering into the formation of the areas, or regions, that have been alluded to, the reader should refer to the illustration dealing with the structure of the skeleton. II CHAPTER II Conformation When considering the conformation of a pony, one is confronted with many difficulties, chiefly owing to the diverse types of ponies, many of which, so far as anatomical conformation is concerned, are not what may be regarded as corresponding to the " ideal," nor yet built upon lines of structure typical of the individual varieties. Admitting that the conformation of a pony may be good, bad, or indifferent, it will be conceded that the aim of all pony-breeding operations is that of pro- ducing animals, the conformation of which, is such that will enable them to perform their duties with the highest standard of excellence attainable. It is an indisputable fact that the introduction of Oriental blood, in a judicious degree, and subsequently that of a lineal descendant of the latter, i.e., the Hackney pony, has exercised, and continues to exercise, the most beneficial influences that could possibly be obtained, and it is to such influences that there are so many diversified types of ponies, to which, reversions, commonly occur. All that can be said, when speaking of the confor- mation of a pony, is to indicate the broad or funda- mental principles as to what may be regarded as the best construction of a general type, the individual characteristics being relegated to the descriptions of the different varieties of ponies. 34 CONFORMATION The Head The head should be small, though large heads are very common amongst ponies, especially those of moorland animals. A rather ingenious explanation of the development of the large head and ugly croup is that given by Lord Arthur Cecil, in an article on *' Ponies," in the Farmer and Stock-breeder s Year-Book ( 1 906), which is to the effect that moorland ponies have the body huddled up during storms, and that the head and croup continue to develop, whilst the growth of the middle piece is practically stationary. When the head is broad in all proportions, and coarse in the bone, it gives a pony a very ugly appear- ance, particularly so if accompanied with the possession of "lop" ears. The head ought to be narrow, lean, and not too long, the skin covering it thin, and the various bony prominences beneath the latter, felt distinctly in out- line. If a pony has too large a head, it is apt to bear too heavily upon the bridle, and in this manner, tire the hands of the rider or driver. The "blood-head" is one that is the nearest approach to the Arabian type, which is lean, yet ample in all proportions ; wide between the ears, but elegantly set on at its junction with the neck, an even more important feature, than \\\^ form of the head. Economy of material is a characteristic feature of the thoroughbred head, depicted by the broad fore- head ; the prominent nose and dilated nostrils ; wide jowl and full but " clean " throat. The nearer a pony's 35 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM head corresponds to this description, the more typical it becomes. The head of the Arabian is usually straight, or slightly inclined to be hollow under the eyes. Undue pro- minence of the forehead between the eyes, is unsightly, and does not constitute a point of beauty in a pony. This is due to the line of contour being broken, and, by many, is regarded as associated with vice, or bad temper, in some form. A not uncommon type of face is the arched one, which is convex fro7n the forehead to the nose, but this must not be confounded with the Roman nose, in which the prominence begins below the eyes A converse condition to the last-named is the dished face. A pony with a broad face and lop ears is usually of dour (sulky) temperament, though ex- ceptions do occur. In a well-bred pony, the cartilage of the ears ought to be thin, and the hair of soft texture, set well apart, and small. It is wonderful what a difference the size of the ears make to the appear- ance of the face. Proportionate length is the ideal. The ears almost afford a study in themselves, and every horseman generally keeps his eye fixed upon this region. As a rule, when the ears are thrown backwards, it is expressive of vice, though there are many exceptions to this. A blind pony has to make good use of its ears, and usually carries its head high. When a pony is on the alert the ears are usually brought forward, so as to catch the slight- est sound. Erect ears give the animal a keen appearance. CONFORMATION The Eyes Docility of expression constitutes a point of beauty. These organs should neither be too prominent, nor too sunken. The small concealed eye is frequently in- dicative of vice. A pony with such is often spoken of as "pig-eyed." Many look upon a pony which shows the "white " of its eye as being of vicious temperament, which it frequently does indicate — though not always. Some ponies are wall-eyed, that is, the iris is light in colour. It is questionable whether the sight is as strong as in the normal condition. It is only one eye, as a rule, that is in this condition. The Muzzle This includes the nostrils, lips and mouth, and there is a great deal of difference in the muzzle well-bred pony and one of inferior breeding. The muzzle should be small — straight along the front, whilst the nostril should have very little hair at the entrance. In health, the lining membrane is of a bright pink colour (Schneiderian membrane). The Coupling of the Head The head should be well united with the neck ; in fact, this constitutes one of the essentials of beauty in this region. The coupling may be too close or too loose ; in the former, the attachment of the head to the neck is too close from the "poll" to the throat — the union being too fleshy, and this destroys beauty, as well as rendering the pony unpleasant to ride, or drive. It is a characteristic of many coarse 17 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM bred ponies. If the head is too loosely hung, the angle formed between the nose and the root of the neck is too open, and this is very often associated with want of muscular vigour. According to Goubeaux and Barrier, "the head has a good as well as a natural direction, when it extends obliquely from above to below, from before to behind, forming, with the ground surface, an angle of about 45°." When set on in this manner, it gives a good field of vision, as well as safety of movement. Necessarily the carriage of the head, is materially influenced, by the conformation of the neck. The Neck The conformation of the neck varies remarkably, there being good, bad, and indifferent forms of necks. Two of the most objectionable types are those known as the "ewe-neck" and the "swan-neck." In the ezve-neck the upper border is concave, whilst in the swan-neck the curve is confined to the region nearest the head. The arched neck is one in which the whole of the upper border is convex, whilst the straight neck has its upper and lower borders of rectilineal (straight) conformation. The short fleshy neck denotes pulling power and is frequently seen in some of the older types of pony, especially when there has been an infusion of the Suflblk Punch blood into pony stock. This type of neck is neither elegant nor yet adapted for speed, though there are exceptions. It must be borne in mind, that the conformation of the neck is influenced by sex — the crest always being better developed in Stallions than 38 CONFORMATION in geldings, and in the latter, more than in mares. Early or late castration influences neck conformation. The short fleshy neck, previously alluded to, is of a form that can be recommended when a pony is required for slow draught. For swift progression the neck should be long, light, carried well up, yet with the horizontal incline. Many ponies are very weedy, i.e., thin and narrow in all proportions of the neck. Such are decidedly faulty, and should be avoided whenever possible. The diversified type of necks observed in ponies is mainly due to the methods adopted by breeders, from time to time, in the introduction of different sires, belonging to individual varieties. Thus, for instance, hackney and thoroughbred blood, as well as that of the Oriental has blended with such races as the Welsh, the Exmoor, the New Forest, the Connemara, etc. ; consequently there has been no particular fixity of type. For general purposes the most useful form of neck is one which approaches that of the typical hackney, as follows : — The upper border should have a graceful curve from poll to withers ; the underline of the neck being clearly defined — neither too thick nor too thin — but well rounded and displaying the jugular furrow. It should possess a moderate degree of obliquity, so as to give the best carriage of the head, its base insen- sibly passing into the withers and shoulders. A neck too long or too short impairs the harmony of graceful proportion. If too vertical in carriage it throws too much weight on the fore-limbs, and if too long^ — especially if the carriage is inclined to be horizontal — is apt to interfere with the animal's equilibrium. 39 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM The Withers The withers may be defined as high or low, fine or coarse; the height of these depending upon the height of the dorsal spines. When the withers are high, and thin — from side to side — they are spoken of as h^wigfine, but when low and fleshy, they are called coarse, and coarse withers are most objectionable in a pony, no matter whether for saddle or harness pur- poses, unless it is a pony for slow draught, where muscular development indicates power. Coarse withers are very liable to injury, and often give rise to a bad carriage of the neck. The Back and Loins The back is bounded in front by the withers and behind by the loins ; whilst the loins lie between the back in front and the croup and haunches behind. Laterally, the back is bounded by the arches of the ribs, and at the back by loins, the croup, and haunches. The back may be long or short, straight, curved, or hollow. It may be naturally hollow, or hollow from age. A short back is usually regarded as a point of beauty, but this statement must be accepted with reservation. When of this conformation, it is unquestionably the best form of back for both saddle and draught purposes, but in a race or steeple-chase horse a short back would be detrimental, in the matter of speed. Moreover, a horse with a short coupling has a predisposition to the infliction of self-injury, in connec- tion with its limbs, e.g., over-reach. 40 CONFORMATION A short back lacks suppleness, whilst a long back, unless wide and muscular, is usually a weak one. With increasing age the spinal ridge becomes pro- minent, consequently is more liable to injury. If the loins are short and strong, this would minimise the length of the back, in fact, a long back and short loins must be regarded as the best of all for saddle purposes. Narrow or weak loins are decidedly defective, and the nearer the ribs approach the haunches the better. Horsemen speak of the latter as being " well- ribbed-up " ; whereas, when this is wanting, the animal is spoken of as being "slack in the loin." A straight back is generally considered as being of the good conformation, as it allows the greatest freedom of action. The so-called "roach-back," is one that is arched, so that the back is considerably shortened. This is very often occasioned by premature work, especially through constant backing in harness. The " hollow " or " saddle-back " is the converse of the last-named, and is indicative of defective power. This may be more apparent than real, especially if the withers and the croup are high. For trotting purposes a long, straight-backed pony, should prove the best. For a weight-carrying pony or cob, a short back is the correct type. The Croup This region extends from the loins to the set-on of the tail and, on either side, to the upper part of the thighs and buttocks, being formed by the sacrum and '41 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM pelvis, which compose its bony base. The croup may- be straight or sloping, long or short, narrow or wide^ and as this region constitutes a most important part in the forward propulsion of the body, it is indispensable that a pony should be of good conformation in this region. A wide croup indicates great power, and, when combined with length, represents the best form for heavy draught ; but a wide croup, alone — except- ing in a brood mare — is not a desirable feature in itself, as it hampers the movement of the hind limbs. In the so-called "goose rump" or "sloping croup," we have a most decided defect, and one that destroys harmony as well as its relationship to power, besides exerting a pernicious influence on the joints and sinews below. It is a type of conformation that brings the hind limbs too far forward under the body. The Chest, Ribs and Breast The chest (thorax) has the form of a cone, the breast forming its apex and the diaphragm or mid- riff, its base. The floor of the cavity is formed by the sternum, or breast-bone, and its lateral walls by the ribs and inter-costal muscles. A considerable part of the cavity is sheltered be- neath the shoulder-blade. Width and depth are a sine qua non, and by depth we mean its height, that is the direction taken by the ribs, or measurement taken from withers to brisket, which latter should come well down below the level of the elbow. Length of rib is essential to depth, whilst the junction of the ribs with the breast-bone should be gradual rather than abrupt, 42 CONFORMATION thus diminishing the tendency to flat-sidedness, though a sh'ghtly flat side is an advantage in a saddle pony. The greatest freedom of movement exists in the posterior ribs, consequently it is essential that the back ribs should be well developed, otherwise the pony becomes "tucked up," or "washy looking." Regarding the breast or brisket, ponies differ con- siderably in the width of this, though a great deal depends upon the condition of the animal. Ponies often become narrow-chested when affected with navicular disease, due to impaired functional power of the shoulders. The medium width of chest is the best conformation for general p2irposes, but whether width in this region diminishes the pony's speed, or otherwise, is a debateable point. Fore- Limb The importance of good conformation of the fore- limbs can hardly be over-estimated, and every horse- man knows — or pretends to know — what constitutes good conformation in this region. Shoulder, arm, forearm, canon, pastern and foot, must — one and all — be equally good, as a defect in one region will never be adequately compensated for by excellence in the other parts. Regarded in the light of propulsion, the fore-limbs play a less significant part than the hind ones ; never- theless it is by their extension and their action — as fixed points — that the hind limbs are helped in the forward stride. The fore-limbs, as stated elsewhere, are attached to the trunk by muscles only, but they sustain much greater 43 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM body weight than the hind ones. For this reason, they are specially designed to break the force of concussion, which is exerted, both directly and indirectly, upon them. It is, for the purpose of study, convenient to divide the fore-limb into different regions, the respec- tive conformation of which may be good, bad, or indifferent, but the writer is inclined to think the defects of conformation are more commonly found in the lower (distal) than in the upper (proximal) end of the limbs. The different regions comprised are : the shoulder, the arm, the forearm, the knee, the canon, the pastern, and the foot, which will be described in the order named. The shoulder and ariu. — When speaking of the shoulder, it is customary to include the shoulder-blade and the arm, though anatomically these are distinct parts. The typical shoulder should combine depth and obliquity, with strength and Jineness. For a Thoroughbred pony, a long shoulder is the correct type, as this favours swift progression. Ponies required for trotting purposes must possess not only long shoulders, but also a considerable degree of obliquity, as such favour the uplifting of the limb, conferring upon it elasticity of step, and graceful movement. Upright fleshy shoulders are objectionable. The length and the obliquity of the shoulder not only depends upon the area of the scapula, or shoulder- blade, but also upon the inclination of the bone. If the scapula is too upright and short in neck, the shoulder becomes upright and short also ; although 44 CONFORMATION this may strengthen the region, it minimises the freedom of movement. Shoulders are spoken of as thick when the withers are, as it were, buried between them, whereas thin, or fine shoulders, convey the sensation of spareness of flesh in this region. Necessarily the condition of the pony will modify, in a variable degree, the conformation of the shoulders, as also will disease. If a pony is required for carting purposes, the Suffolk (low) type of shoulder is advantageous, whereas the saddle pony should have fineness, obliquity and length combined, which confers elegance with utility. The Forearm The area of this region extends from the point of the elbow to the knee, and there is a wonderful difference in the length and substance of the forearm in the different varieties of ponies. Its length depends upon the length of the radius and ulna, the summit of the latter constituting the point of the elbow. It may be long or short, thick or thin, the last-named beino- an undesirable feature. Vox general purposes medium length of forearm is the best type, but when speed is the main object, length of forearm is essential, whilst for strength, the short forearm is the correct conforma- tion. Both width and thickness are essential points of beauty, but the forearm should not be "tied in" towards the knee, in other words, the grasp of the forearm should be massive and " clean," the latter term being applied to structures that are clearly defined in their outline, and free from packing with subcutaneous 45 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM tissue, so commonly associated with a sluggish temperament. The elbow acts as a lever, to which powerful muscles are attached, and the direction should be neither inwards nor outwards, but directly backwards. If prominent, it increases the area of leverage. In judging a pony, pay particular attention to the forearms, as a pony displaying weediness in this region will never excel for any purposes. The Knee Flexion and extension are the only movements, beyond that of a slight gliding motion, executed by the knees, which are composed of a series of joints — the main ones being above and below. As to conforma- tion, the nearer the knee approaches the square the better, but above all it must be clean, as this favours freedom of movement. A clean knee is at once dis- cernible from the rounded "filled up" knee, indicative of coarse breeding. Width and depth are the great desiderata. Defects of knee conformation are very common and materially alter the relationship of the parts below. There is a condition known as "bowed knee," which is frequently congenital, though commonly acquired either by premature work or as the natural outcome of hard v^ox^. In "bowed knee" the incline or deviation is forwards, whereas in the opposite con- dition — "calf knee" — the deviation is backwards, the latter being a defect not at all uncommon in ponies. Knees of this conformation disturb to some extent, the equilibrium not only during motion, but also whilst 46 CONFORMATION at rest, thus favouring premature wear of the limbs below the knees. When the knees deviate '' inwai-ds,'' the toes turn ''outwards,'' whereas the knees turning ''outwards'' cause the toes to deviate "inwards," both conditions being regarded, by horsemen, with disfavour. In conclusion, it is worthy of remark that good knee action is as important as good shoulder and hock action. Canon This is formed of the large metacarpal bone with the small metacarpals placed on either side of it. It extends from the lower border of the knee to the fetlock joint, and it is to this region that horsemen pay particular attention ; in fact, when a man goes to inspect a horse, he invariably runs his hand down the back of the canon, as if by intuition. He does this, not so much from what he hopes to ascertain, but rather in obedience to a custom. The suspensory ligament, the check ligaments, etc., and the flexor tendons are situated superficially, constituting the sinews, to which particular attention ought to be paid. The length of canon must be proportionate to that of the forearm, and possess breadth and cleanness, coupled with such proportion. Skin, bone and tendon are about all one should see and feel in this res^ion. The check ligament is a short tendinous cord that springs from the back of the knee (also the hock), passes down the leg, and then unites with the flexor tendon, enabling the animal to transfer fatigue from the flexor muscles to the canon. 47 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Lightness of bone constitutes a fault and predis- poses to premature wear in this region. In the fore-limb the canon is always broader than in the hind-limb, the latter being more cylindrical. A weak canon is usually associated with weakness in other parts of the limb. There is no doubt that the canon is the part of the limb that is exposed to a great deal of concussion, a statement that is substantiated by the dense compact tissue entering into the formation of the bone. The canon is the home of splint, and is one of the reasons, no doubt, why horsemen so fre- quently refer to this region. In position, the canon must be absolutely perpendicular, both the inward, outward, backward or forward deviation of it act prejudicially upon the structures above and below. Narrowness, at its junction with the knee, is of the worst defects incidental to this part. The broader the base of support, the better for the distribution of concussion. Fetlock and Pastern The fetlock is formed by the lower end of the canon, the upper end of the first phalanx and at the back by the two sesamoids — the whole forming a joint capable of flexion and extension. The suspensory ligament unites the sesamoid bones to the back part of the fetlock and helps to prevent descent of the fet- lock, yet allows of considerable elasticity. The flexor tendons also play over the bones. Every pony should have broad and clean fetlock joints, free from enlargement — either of a bony nature or one that is soft or puffy (bursal or windgall). 48 CONFORMATION It is a joint that soon manifests signs of premature wear. The pastern extends from the fetlock to the second phalanx, or, roughly, to the top of the hoof, and ponies manifest a remarkable difference in this region. Horsemen, generally, pay particular attention to the pasterns, which may be too long, too short, too oblique, too upright, or wanting in width and thickness. Long oblique pasterns are as objectionable as short upright ones, whilst odd pasterns are often in- dicative of past or present lameness. The upright pastern is looked upon by the writer with suspicion, though it may be a natural defect. The long pastern is usually too oblique and the short pastern too horizontal. The former increases the strain thrown on the muscles, tendons and liga- ments, whilst the latter augments concussion. The correct type of pastern is one of moderate length and obliquity, but broad in front and back, yet clean withal. The Foot Neglecting the second phalanx, we pass to a con- sideration of the foot, upon the good conformation of which the value of the animal so largely depends. Not only must the feet be sound, but the horny box, enclosed in the sensitive structures, be of good make and shape. The degree of concussion incurred by the forefeet is greater than that on the hind, con- sequently we usually find that lameness occurs more frequently in the former. Heavy-bodied ponies are the worst sufferers in this direction, whilst the best D 49 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM and hardest feet are found in mountain and Shetland ponies. It is of primary importance that the feet should be proportionate to size — big feet being as defective as those that are too small. Many ponies have small upright feet, which diminish the basal support and increase the degree of concussion. Flat feet are equally objectionable — the heels, in this case, being low, whilst the sole and frog are prominent. Upright feet have the horny wall high towards the heel. Sometimes one foot is larger than the other, and the question then arises as to whether the feet are odd by nature or rendered so by disease. The wall ought to slope at an angle of about 45° with the ground, and gradually decrease in height from front to back, but the heels must not be narrow or contracted, which, unfortunately, is a frequent defect in all classes of ponies. This is often the result of bad shoeing. The frog should be full, the wall sound, and the sole concave. The Hind Limb The hind limb is attached to the trunk through the medium of the pelvic girdle, the attachment being at the hip joint. When speaking of the shoulder we previously mentioned that the attachment of the fore-limb to the trunk was purely a muscular one ; thus, unlike the hind limbs, the effects of concussion are reduced to a minimum. The disposition of the bones of the hind limb presents many features of interest. The connecting limb, or pelvic girdle, is directed backward and the 50 CONFORMATION thigh forward, but the second thigh again bends backwards until the hock is reached ; the position of the rest of the limb correspond to that of the fore. The hind quarters and limbs, being the propellers of the body, necessarily constitute a most important part of the animal conformation, defects being numerous in these parts. If a pony is not well built in this region it will never attain a high standard of excellence. Considering the parts in the order named — the thigh must be broad, well let down and thick in pro- portion, especially when seen from behind. The muscular development must here attain its maximum degree, thus conferring upon the quarters a graceful outline, combined with power. Lateral flatness is a serious defect, is indicative of feeble quarters, and shows a split-up appearance when viewed from behind. A long and straight quarter is characteristic of the racer, but this is certainly not the type for the harness horse. The second thigh or leg extends from the stifle joint to the hock, its bony base consisting of a large bone — the tibia — and a small slender one, the fibula. The region immediately above the hock is called the gaskin. A long second thigh increases the forward stride, but if too long, it prevents the limb from taking its proper share of body weight. There is great range of movement between the lower end of the leg bone and its articulation with the hock to form the true hock joint. Width of gaskin is an indication of leverage power, though many ponies are very poor in this region. Sharpness of outline is equally important — a clearly defined gaskin being evidence of good breeding. 51 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Just as a long leg places the lower part of the limb too far backward, so does a leg that is too short bring it too far forwards. The Hock In relation to locomotion, the hock constitutes the most important joint in the body, and it is almost impossible to pay too much attention to its conforma- tion. First of all, it is almost unnecessary to say it must be free from disease, as any kind of enlargement will act as a mechanical impediment to its freedom of movement. Diversified types of hocks have been described by various writers — such as the "lean," "fleshy," "coarse," "straight," " overbent or sickle- shaped," "cow hocks," "turned-out hocks," etc., etc., all of which terms are sufficiently explanatory. Broadly speaking, the hock should be wide in all proportions, i.e., broad in front, at the back and at the inner and outer faces, but, at the same time, it is equally important that it should be clean — in other words, that the various prominences be clearly defined, in opposition to the fleshy hocks. It is customary to regard the overbent or sickle-shaped hock as one predisposing to the development of "curb," though this view is not entertained by all veterinary surgeons. There is no doubt that the column of support below the hock is brought too far under the body and the pressure thereby increased. It is necessary to direct attention to the fact that the hock is frequently the seat of bone spavin, which makes its appearance at the inner face and lower border of the hock, just at its junction with the canon. A hock that is tied in or narrow at this point is 52 CONFORMATION undoubtedly more likely to develop spavin, in fact this constitutes the so-called hereditary predisposition. Sometimes one hock is larger than the other, there- fore a difficulty is often experienced in deciding whether it is natural or a defect arising from spavin. Both the sense of sight and touch, combined with experience, are qualifications demanded for the judg- ment of hock conformation. Two forms of hock, viz., the "turned-in" and the "turned-out," are defects that no good judge of a pony would overlook. Viewed from behind, both points of the hock should be in the same plane as the body, and be so placed in relationship to each other that their angle of divergence is neither too open nor too close, as occurs in the case of "cow hocks " and their converse. A common defect in the conformation of the hind limbs is that known as the so-called " bow-legs." The limbs are set wide apart, whilst the toes are turned inwards ; during movement there is a screw - like action of the hock when the foot comes to the ground. In the author's opinion, this is a defect almost tanta- mount to unsoundness, and sufficient ground for rejection. To recapitulate, the general conformation of a pony or cob should be one indicative of elegance combined with power, which implies proportionate anatomy of basal structure with sharpness of con- figuration throughout ; features which are necessarily associated with endurance, agility and speed, combined with freedom of action at the walk, trot, canter and gallop. Displacement of harmony arises, not only in external configuration, but also during action, when one part displays disproportion to another, dis- locating the general symmetry of the animal. 53 CHAPTER III SECTION A The Thoroughbred Pony BY J. FAIRFAX BLAKEBOROUGH "At the beginning of the Miocene period, there were no horses over six hands, and even at the beginning of the Pliocene period the largest horse known was only about eleven hands. During Pliocene times several large horses were evolved, but even at the beginning of the Quaternary period — after man had appeared on the scene — there were several species which, probably, never measured more than twelve hands. The descendants of wild ancestors which never exceeded, say, thirteen hands, may be regarded as true ponies. If the descendants of wild species under thir- teen hands are regarded as true ponies, it follows that, in prehistoric times, there were two true species in the south of England ; a species not unlike the modern Exmoor pony, and a species not unlike the stout, broad-browed, modern variety of the Shetland pony, and the long-backed, elk-nosed, thick-set Iceland ponies." So says one of the foremost authorities on ponies, and it will be gathered from the above that the remarks one so often hears, more in wonderment than deprecia- tion, "and it is nothing but a pony'' should really not be uttered with the surprise it so frequently is, when 54 THE THOROUGHBRED PONY a pony has shown excessive speed, endurance, and leaping qualities, carried a light man or woman bang up to hounds, or taken a good place in a run. The pony has ever played an important part in English riding and English sport, that position increasing and decreasing from time to time, according to the fashion of the day, together with the equine and sporting- evolution. It has also played its part — and no in- significant one — as the foundation for breeding, but, perhaps, never has the small horse (coming within the pony standard) occupied so prominent a place in sport as at the present time. Speed is a characteristic of the age. Horses and hounds are bred for speed, far more than ever they were. Hunting and racing have each passed through an evolution, because of the demand for increased pace ; on every hand one sees the demand growing — express trains, motors, the invasion of the "hustling" Americans, have all en- couraged it. Thus it is not surprising that just as the thoroughbred horse, the fast twenty-minutes' gallop with hounds (rather than a slow hunt of two hours), the short six-furlong race (rather than the old-time races of two- or three-mile heats) have all been the outcome of this increased demand for pace, so the thoroughbred, or nearly thoroughbred, pony has, in all matters sporting (except deer-stalking), gained a pro- minent place. Polo has done more for this stamp of pony than any other sport, though the increased and increasing number of girls and boys, who now ride and hunt during their holidays, have also created a considerable demand for the well-bred miniature horse, from ten hands or fourteen hands two inches. Polo, and the Society which protects and encourages the 55 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM interests of the pony used for the sport, is responsible, in a large measure, for the number of blood ponies found now in England ; for of the large number annu- ally bred for this popular sport there are, perhaps, two-thirds rejected for some reason or other, which still make excellent hunters. A few, not many, come from studs which are producing race-horses, and which, for some reason, will rarely keep an under-sized animal, at once dubbing it "a weed," and sending it to "the sales,'' to make whatever it can. Yet there have been horses which have been "nothing but ponies" that have been "surprise packets" on the turf. Very few of them are kept in training, however, and even when what would, under natural conditions, be a pony, is retained, the whole system of training, forcing and working yearlings is such as to send them shooting upwards, often two or three inches higher than Nature intends them, so that it is not possible to judge, however successful, or unsuccessful they are as yearlings of fifteen hands or fifteen hands one inch, how much more successful they might have been as two- or three-year-old ponies, fully developed if small. One regrets the lack of pony races in England, such as they have in Ceylon and elsewhere, from a sporting point of view, though it may be urged that this would encourage the breeding of "under-sized thorough- breds," from which so many breeders say "Good Lord, deliver us." This is no place to discuss the vexed question of the over-rating of size and the forcing of thorough- breds, but all this has somewhat reflected upon the pony. It must always be remembered that our thorough- bred horse not only most resembles the Arabian horse 56 THE THOROUGHBRED PONY in limbs and head, but also that the Arabian horse is writ large in his history, and that the Arabian horse was occasionally a little more, but usually fcmrteen hands and a half 171 height ; the beauty of his form, and the quantity of flat bone making up for his height — if this is really a deficiency, which I personally question. So, again, it will be seen how very import- ant has been the pony, not only in foruiDig a basis for types of horses, but for crossing with types to improve them, to bring them to a greater perfection, or to meet the caprice of fashion. What has been most aimed at in the increased size of the thoroughbred horse, of course, has ever been a greater stride, more than greater durability. Here, again, the stride of the thoroughbred pony has been somewhat mimimised, together with his speed. He does, no doubt, take a much less stride than the bigger horse, but he is often sooner on his legs, quicker round corners, and handier in every way. The famous Flying Childers was only about fifteen hands high, yet it is on record that he covered over twenty-five feet when extended ! There are, as already stated, many instances of "nothing but ponies" which have done well on the turf, and of small, roomy pony-mares which have bred valuable blood stock. They are not popular, however, because of the greater number of times they have to strike the ground in the same distance than the bigger horse. Now both this and other pet aversions to the pony thoroughbred, in connection with this branch of sport, though possibly true in most cases in main facts, are surrounded by much prejudice and superstition, in both of which, the whole of racing behind the 57 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM scenes — at the stud and in the training stables — is steeped and reflected. I know one or two trainers, however, who freely acknowledge that some of the most honest animals, and amongst the best they have ever trained, have been only ponies ; and I myself remember some years ago (to quote only one instance) a pony, under fourteen hands two inches, beating a field of thirteen with considerable ease, at Redcar, in York- shire, where, prior to the present meeting "under rules " being commenced, pony races were held on the sands. I do not want to labour the case for the pony in sport, but it is quite necessary to prove the point as to the adaptability of ponies to take their place therein, for it is by no means admitted. That well- informed and always interesting writer, Mr Charles Richardson, the Hunting Editor of the Field, in his book. The Complete Fox-Hunter, has some very preg- nant sentences which apply to both the chase and the turf in not a few respects, though written with refer- ence to the former. He says : — "... And a big, loosely-made horse, who looks up to a lot of weight, will not be equal to within two or three stones of what his appearance suggests. In a really provincial county a strong cob, or a weight-carrying polo pony, will give far more satisfaction than a low-priced hunter. Many powerful polo ponies are a little too short of pace to be valuable for the s^ame, and scores of these are in the market, at the end of the polo season, many of which make capital light or medium weight hunters for an ordinary country. If a man intends to hunt in the shires, or in the best of the provincials, he must, of course, have breed- ing and pace ; but where the country is hilly, 58 THE THOROUGHBRED PONY where there is more arable than grass, and where there is a good deal of scrambling about in the rough and deep woodlands, then a clever, big pony is, as a rule, a capital conveyance, and it is, perhaps, within the mark to suggest that many of this class of animal carry far more weight in pro- portion than big horses. Look at the ponies one sees really heavy men riding at polo, and look at some of the ponies which come into the ring in the saddle classes at Islington each March. Some of these classes are full of weight-carriers, and many hunting men who are content to ride a pony, should bear in mind that, at the expense of a little trouble, many really good ones are to be picked up late in the year." I cannot refrain in this connection from quoting from the Brocklesby Himisman {Srnith's) Diary for 1837. In it he says : — " I have this year given up my old Primo Mare — my last cub-hunter — in hope she will carry Lord Tarborough, who is now selecting small horses to carry him. . . . But horses fourteen and a half high, with power and action, and quiet, are difficult to meet with." Lord Tarborough's views regarding ponies was also equally applied to hounds, for Smith tells us of his reducing the size, and preferring " a little, strong one" rather than one too large. He observed he "hated lumber, and always said a little powerful hound could last much longer than a big one." After considerable experience in racing stables, and amongst hunters, I am more than ever convinced that when one's weight will allow the employment of them for hacking, for hunting in many countries, and 59 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM for general utility, the " blood " pony has a great many recommendations — if certain drawbacks. It is a long since exploded theory that the enduring powers and leaping powers of a horse only are to be found in perfection in the longest-legged and biggest of the equine genus. There was at one time a craze for big, raking animals, but just as the tallest of the genus homo are by no means the strongest, or capable of the most strain, so the big thoroughbred which, as already shown, when he gets on to his legs may be very fast for three furlongs, or three furlons^s and a half, is then often found to have "said his piece." The sharp, handy, blood pony — which may be incorrectly dubbed "a weed" — will frequently wear the bigger horses down, and travel very much better, either up hill or down, than their longer-legged contemporaries. Cast- offs, though many of them may be and only ponies by accident of height, have a distinct mission in the equine and sporting world. The pony has always had its position assured for certain purposes, but never has its status been so important as at the present time in the world of sport, which is quite apart from what may somewhat comprehensively, and for want of a better term, be described as " the business of life." In the latter, the commercial value of the well-bred pony is very meagre indeed, and the demand consequently small. It would be incongruous were it otherwise, for the thoroughbred horse or pony never looks so out of place, as when employed between the shafts of com- merce. The early fathers of sport, the saddle, and withal of chivalry, were slow to recognise the claims of any but the larger, bigger- boned type of animal. One can perhaps understand this. They loved a 60 THE THOROUGHBRED PONY charger ; they saw grandeur and parade in size ; their roads were deep, and their journeyings often long ; their saddlery and their own equipments were such as demanded a heavy stamp of horse. In their sport they did little leaping, and as their hounds and hunt- ing were slow, they required little speed. Their races were of two- and three-mile heats, thus, again, demand- ing much stamina ; so there was very considerably less purpose for the pony of any breed (except in the hill counties) than there is to-day. In the reign of Henry VIII. a law was passed with a view of maintaining the size of the horse and guarding against the breed- ing of a smaller type. The following is an extract from the enactment : — " That no person shall put in any forest, chase, moor, heath, common, or waste (where mares and fillies are used to be kept) any stoned horses above the age of two years, not being fifteen hands high, within the Shires and territories of Yorkshire, Cheshire, Staffs, Lanes, Bucks, South Hampshire, North Wilts, Norfolk. Suffolk, Cam- bridge, Dorset, Worcester, Gloucester, Somerset, North Wales, South Wales, Warwick, Northamp- ton, Leicestershire, Hereford, Lines, Huntingdon, Essex, Kent, Salop and Bedfordshire, on pain of forfeiting the same." The law entitled anyone to go with the local con- stable, seize the horse, impound it, have it measured, and if it did not come up to the standard, seize it. In his history of Cornwall, Carew blames this Act for the loss of the breed of small horses previously much used there. Yet, in the same reign, we find in a list of horses used by the fifth Earl of Northumberland, he 6i PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM kept animals of all sizes and qualifications for a variety of purposes, and not as Somerville advocates, "a diffrn't hound for every diffrn't chase." He had "a gret doble trottynge horse, called a curtal, for his lord- ship to ride on out of townes," i.e., for pomp and vanity. He possessed "an amblynge horse for his lordship to ride on daily. A proper amblynge little nag for his lordship, when he goeth forth on hunting and hawking." Now an "amblynge horse" was one which was much used by ladies, and a little amblynge horse, a pony with ambling paces which were artificial and taught to him.' So the pony was in use for sport so early as this. In the following reign (1558), Sir Thomas Chaloner and others began to import Arabian horses from Turkey, and others from Naples and Spain, which had a marked influence upon the breed of the English horse and pony. Then, in the same reign, came the introduction of coaches, which in time created a demand for coach-horses, and in the epoch which followed, much closer attention was paid to the breeding of horses. Gervase Markham tells us : — " There is a certain race of little horses in Scotland, called Galway nagges, which I have seene hunt the buck and stagge exceeding well, and indure the chase with good courage. . . . The best Barbarys that ever were in their prime I saw them overrun by a black hobby at Salis- bury ; yet that hobby was more overrun by a horse called Valentine, which Valentine neither in hunting nor running was ever equalled, yet was a plain-bred English horse, both by sire and dam." Hentzner, who visited England in 1592, said ^ See As You Like It, III. 2, 256, for mention of "the ambler." 62 THE THOROUGHBRED PONY "the horses are small but swift"; and in 1602 Herr Rathgeb wrote : "horses are abundant, yet, although low and small, they are very fleet."' Those localities which are still famed for their ponies — the Welsh ponies, the Exmoor, Shetland, and Highland ponies — had their own breeds then for local use, they being indigenous to the soil, and always the most suited to the moors and hills. It is safe to assert that many, if not most of the Eastern horses imported to England to form the foundation of the present blood stock, were only from fourteen hands two inches to fifteen hands, or an inch higher, and in an old history of the turf before me, I find the following lines : — "The thoroughbred horse varies in point of size, the preference being given to a low over a large horse. Experience teaches the justness of this preference, for we find that while the largest horses that have ever appeared on the British turf have, with very few exceptions, proved in- ferior in running to those of medium height, many instances are to be found, on the other hand, of the best horse of his year being almost the lowest, as speed does not result from superior height —being more frequently destroyed I'M by It. I quote this principally to support the statement that the small horse or pony should not be dismissed without a hearing because of its size, either as regards its speed, endurance, or leaping powers, though in the latter they sometimes jump short. The popularity of the pony as a hack came when long distances were ' The Diarv of Master William Silence, p. 253. 63 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM not necessarily covered on horseback, when riding became more an exercise and an accompHshment than a necessity, and before the days of " boxing " horses came into vogue. The covert hack was frequently a smart pony, able to carry its rider ten or fifteen miles to the covert side in an hour and a half or so, where he met his hunter. Trotting ponies were much in demand also in this era, and were this a volume rather than a short chapter, some interesting records could be given of wonderful performances by ponies in con- nection with wagers in Yorkshire. In the first and second decade of the Victorian reign, ponies were still more used for driving, riding, and sport. Pony-trot- ting matches continued ; children, especially girls, began to ride more with the improvement in the side- saddle (still very cumbersome) and habit, and there were all over England little race meetings which, ihough coming within the category of " flapping," were of a most sporting character, and which fell through when the Jockey Club made regulations as to stakes being of a certain value. At these meetings, pony races were especially popular, and some of them con- sisted almost entirely of events of horses of fourteen hands two inches and under. Why this should be so, it is difficult to explain. The pony's position was assured, and all the more so, because soon after the running of shorter races became the vogue, not a few instances are on record of thoroughbred horses, coming within the pony standard, being signally successful. This has already been referred to, and also the fact that such success was (and is) invariably referred to with some amount of wonderment : '* Why ! it's no- thing but a pony ! " those using the exclamation being all- 64 THE THOllOUGHBRED PONY forgetful of the position of the pony right down the ages in connection with the history of the horse of all breeds. A thoroughbred pony of fourteen hands two inches with a well-set-on head, thighs down to its hocks, good shoulders and legs, and a place both to put the rider's saddle and its own dinner, is one of the most perfect animals of the equine species.' It is much less liable to break down ; it is quicker, is not so soon tired, and sooner rested than the bigger horse ; it is usually much harder and cleverer than very big horses, nearly all of which is proved by the game of polo, and the restrictions of the Polo Pony and Riding Society. As a child's hunter, the blood pony is invaluable, except in very big jumping countries ; the light man could not have a better mount, though ladies prefer a little more size, owing to their side seat and riding skirt. It is said to be more true of the pony than of the bigger horse that when they are good, they are very good, and when they're bad, they're very bad. It may be that ponies are frequently found to breed back more than horses, and to occasionally wear the form of a thoroughbred, which hides only the heart and phlegmatic temperament of a nag, a Dales, or Brough Hill pony. Speaking for myself, two of the ' Dan. It is the prince of palfreys. — Henry V. (III.) 7, 11. " I believe that this roan Barb — prince of palfreys — came in to Shakespeare's possession somewhere about the year 1592. Thence- forth a change comes over the poet's conception of the perfect horse. The fiery courage and elastic tread of the Eastern pony — transmitted to the thoroughbred of to-day— must have been a revelation to one accustomed to the somewhat wooden paces of the thickset, straight- pasterned courser of Stratford."— Z?/ir7ri' of Master William Silence (by the Right Hon. D. H. Madden, M.A.), p. 25?. E 65 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM hardest hunters I ever rode Were fourteen - two ponies — one of them nearly a thoroughbred, and the other the ambiguous "well-bred." I rode the former two days a week for three seasons in a hill country, often going fifteen miles to the fixture, and often found it fulfof buck-jump on the homeward journey, after a long day over heavy bog and morass. True, I always dismount up steep hills and over sticky ground, under both of which conditions I have always found a pony much quicker, and far less likely to come down. Small hounds and small horses are a sine qtia non of hill hunting, and both can ascend and descend hills very much better than a big horse or dog. I very rarely had a fall from these ponies, and had no fear of asking them to put their hind legs under them and " slither " down the most impossible-looking places, which would have been absolutely dangerous to have negotiated with a big horse, even if it would have faced it. I have ridden these ponies in the low country on occasions, and found that, though they do not inspire one with the same confidence as a big horse, it is often more the fault of the rider than the pony that they do not take everything as it comes. It is true that after riding a big blood horse, or a weight-carrying hunter, a fourteen-one or a fourteen- two^'pony does not seem to give one the same sense of power, but this is not to say that it does not exist where the weight is right. I have seen blood ponies going along well in the van in many countries, their owners having discovered their capa- bilities, and so obtained that confidence which is one of the arts of horsemanship, and which, when ridino- to hounds, is one of the main essentials of "^ 66 THE THOROUGHBRED PONY success. A funky rider makes a funky horse, a bold rider makes the reverse. Mr J. H. Munro Mackenzie, whom I have mentioned in connection with Highland ponies, once told me he saw a long run through, with one of the crack (I think Shire) packs, mounted on a Highland pony twice crossed with Arabian blood, and found it could do all he asked it. Mr Mackenzie must be a man of nearly eleven stone, if not more. I could mention many famous hunting-men who swear by thoroughbred ponies, and not a few of the generation that is gone who, looking back in retrospect, have counted ponies amongst the best mounts they have ever had. Sufficient has been said, however, to show something of the evolution of the blood pony, and something of its possibilities and attainments, in con- nection with the turf, polo, and the chase. Personally, I am convinced that the thoroughbred of fourteen hands two inches has not yet come to its own in the first and last of these sports. Their day has not yet fully come, and their powers have only been realised by the few. ''And only a po?iy too!'' is indicative of the attitude adopted to the horse in miniature. In deer-stalking, shooting, driving, and for saddle purposes, of course, the status of the pony has long- been recognised and appreciated, and more so of recent years, since those most excellent types, the "Cleveland Bay" and "Yorkshire Coach" horses, with their contemporaries (though never equals) went out of fashion. The motor-car has done the pony no harm ; indeed, it is probable that many more ponies are now kept for running small traps and for short distances, now that it is {for the time being at anyrate) Ichabod with the carriage and pair. Blood ponies, 67 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM because of their smallness, are much in demand for such purposes, and will be, I venture to think, more in demand amongst sportsmen as time goes on. SECTION B THE HACKNEY PONY Very few will, I think, dispute that the hackney pony- stands pre-eminent amongst equine bantams, and upon no class of pony has so much attention been bestowed towards its improvement. As a sire the hackney has no equal, and it is almost impossible to misapply the services of such, hence the reason why pony breeders are so keen in selecting a pony of this variety to serve their brood mares. There has not been the same difficulty confronting breeders of hackney ponies as in the case of other varieties, such as the Dartmoor, Exmoor, etc., because the breed had its prototype, therefore there was a standard model as a guide for breeders to work up to. Once the standard of a breed becomes fixed and animals reproduced in conformity with such standard, there is no trouble in working out breeding operations in accordance therewith, it being more a matter of selection than experimental work. The utility of the hackney pony for both harness and saddle purposes is indisputable, though it must concede points to certain other breeds where smallness of size, hardihood and surety of foot are necessary features. To put the matter plainly, we must say that 68 TYPICAL HEAD AND SHOULDERS OF A HACKNEY POXY TO ILLUSTRATE GOOD BREEDING IX HEAD, NECK AND SHOULDERS OF A "yearling" hackney PONY [ To face page 69 THE HACKNEY PONY a hackney pony would starve where some mountain ponies thrive, and be unable to perform the remark- able feats of endurance characteristic of many of these animals. To the best of my knowledge, the Wilson pony and the polo pony are the only two varieties of pony that can approach the hackney for record auction prices. In the making of the hackney within recent years, the names of five sires stand pre-eminent, and their names are as follows : — Oiuners. Sir George . . Wilson. Little Ruby Sir Horace Cassius Pick Up . Le Marchant. Sir Gilbert Greenall. Jones, The foregoing illustrious sires stand out as names to conjure with in the hackney-pony world, and few would, I think, care to dispute their right to the laurels so justly earned. Histo7'y of the Hackney Pony The hackney has been derived from horses of Eastern blood (Arabs and Barbs), but the foundation- stone was laid by the famous Darley Arabian, sent from Aleppo by Mr Darley, early in the reign of Queen Anne. This Eastern sire stood at Buttercramb, close to York. The success of this Arabian horse was phenomenal, and it is to him that the Hackney of to-day traces its origin. The Darley Arabian was foaled in 1702. The Leedes Arabian was contemporary with the Darley Arabian, and he was the sire of Old Leedes. 69 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM The success of the Darley Arabian made all English sportsmen favour the horses of that horse's country, so that it became customary to style all horses imported from the Levant Arabians, no matter whether they were Persians, Syrians, Turks, Egyptians, or Barbs. The blood of the racehorse is derived from a mixture of those Eastern horses, though the Arab and the Barb predominate. A Mr Childers, of Can House, near Doncaster, had a mare called Betty Leedes, and he sent her to be served by the Darley Arabian during the season of 1 7 14, and in the following spring (17 15) a bay colt foal was born, subsequently named Flying Childers, sold when quite young to the Duke of Devonshire. The sire of Betty Leedes was a horse called Old Careless, and his grandam own sister to Leedes, by Leedes Arabian. Flying Childers, it is stated, began his career as a hunter, but on the racecourse proved to be the fastest horse of his time. In six minutes and forty seconds he is said to have run a distance (over the round course at Newmarket) of three miles, six furlongs and ninety-three yards, carrying 9 stone 2 lbs. His height was about fifteen hands. This famous horse died in 1741, aged twenty-six years. Both Flying Childers and his sire were bay in colour. Flying Childers left a worthy son in a horse called Blaze, foaled when the sire was eighteen years old, i.e., in 1733. Blaze travelled the County of Norfolk, and this sire, crossed with the Norfolk trotters, had a most salutary and lasting influence upon the pro- 70 I DARLEY ARABIAN Foa/ed \TOZ, Imported by M^Darley. 4 • charl [ To /ace page 7 1 THE HACKNEY PONY duction of stock. Consequently Norfolk claims to be the home of the hackney, and the present type of pony has been derived from this source by selection. In addition to the Norfolk type of hackney there is also the Yorkshire type, traceable to a sire known as Phenomenon, which was sold for the purpose of cross- ing with the mares of the county. This sire was foaled in 1835, and he was by Wild- fire, foaled eight years previously (1827). There were three Fireaways, viz., by Burgess's Fireaway born (181 5), sired by West's Fireaway, born 1800. The sire of the last named was Jenkinson's Fireaway, foaled in 1780. Since the establishment of the Hackney Horse Society in 1884 an accurate record of all pedigrees has been kept, and the interest of the hackney pony has been safeguarded in every manner possible. The Annual Show of these ponies, and the premiums offered by the Society at various shows throughout the country, has stimulated breeders to try and produce the best type of pony, and anyone contemplating breeding- hackney ponies should visit all the principal shows, make notes on the exhibits, and select sires to breed ponies that appear to be the most typical of their class. Confurniation of the Hackney Pony A typical hackney pony should have a small, finely-chiselled head, free from throatiness at its junc- tion with the neck, and covered by thin skin and fine hair. Angularity is one of the characteristic features of the head of a high-class hackney pony — the out- 71 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM come of careful selection based upon the Eastern ancestry. The lineal contour of the head ought to be sharply defined, in fact, clearness of definition, especially along the underline, is an essential point of beauty in this region, and indicative of superior lineage. Wide nostrils, full eyes, and small, closely-set ears, thin at their edges and tips, are all features of im- portance, but the facial expression, as a whole, is one that judges pay particular attention to. It should be one of vivacious expression and dash, coupled with that indicative of pluck and endurance. The neck should be of medium length — never short, or long and weedy. Most hackney ponies are very good in this region, and the correct type of neck and neck carriage is familiar to most horsemen. The crest is always better developed in stallions, likewise more so in geldings than in mares. The descent of the neck into the shoulders and withers should not be abrupt, otherwise the former are too bulky and the latter too coarse. The oblique shoulder is the correct type. In continuing the top line from the withers, the back should be short and nearly straight, passing into a long but broad loin, and the latter descending into a beautiful turn of croup, in which region the hackney pony certainly excels. The body must be a model of all that is compact and 7ieat, well balanced in relation to the fore and hind limbs. A deep girth, with a corresponding depth of rib towards the flank, are contributory towards the judges' " idear as to conformation of middle piece. Narrow loins, tucked-up belly and sloping quarters are decidedly faulty. 72 THE HACKNEY PONY The thighs and buttocks of goodly length, but not too broad, as this gives a rolling motion whilst in harness. The second thigh or leg ought to be long, and a large part of this length should be in the clean, well-knit gaskins (see points of pony), which corre- spond to the forearms. The arms must be short and strong, whilst the forearms (which begin at the elbow) should display width and thickness in all proportions, combined with that of medium length. There ought to be plenty of width at the junction of the arm with the bones of the knee, and the same, though to a trifling less degree, evidence of breadth at the junction of the canon with the knee, so that the whole structures combine to form a clean, well-developed, strong, thin-skinned joint, free from blemishes or diminished action. The hock joints are just as important as the knee joints, to both of which judges pay great attention. Mere soundness is not the only qualification neces- sary, but beauty of conformation of vital importance. If the conformation is good the tendency towards the development of such diseases as bone and bog spavin is materially diminished. In front the knees should be slightly convex, as backward incline produces the so-called " calf knee " — a bad form of knee conformation ; nevertheless, a fairly common defect in ponies. The hock joints ought to be broad in all pro- portions, yet free from coarseness, covered by thin skin, so as to give the hocks the so-called "clean" appearance. Hocks that are narrow at their junction with the canon (tied in) are usually regarded with disfavour, so 71 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM ^ are over-bent ones (curby) ; straight ones, likewise , those which are odd. ■ The canons (fore and hind) must be broad and j proportionate in length to the bone of the forearms. If too short, it makes a pony too short on its legs, which the hackney must not be. On the other hand, if canons are too long and deficient in bone, then the pony looks "weedy" about the limbs. There is, as it were, "a happy medium," for the discrimination of which practical experience is requisite. Bone, skin and tendon (sinews) are about all that the hand and eye should see and feel from the knees and hocks to the feet. Broad, clean pasterns, neither too long, too short, too upright, or yet too oblique, are necessary points of good conformation, though faults are too often present about this region. Fore and hind pasterns ought to look straight forwards — not incline inwards or outwards. This brings us to the feet, which must be of pro- portionate size and sound. Feet that are upright or narrow at the heels (con- tracted) are not fit to be on a good hackney pony. Unless the base of support is a sound one and well formed, the animal is not a very desirable possession. Toes turned " in " or " out " are most objectionable. The feet should look directly forwards. Colour By far the most frequent colours for hackney ponies is chestnut and bay, most of its ancestors having been of these colours. 74 .'.>'i&£M£tti£^>^»>''''-<%iJiSMBkiE&-'«K>-^SK8L':%'<^ THE HACKNEY PONY Danegelt, his sire Denmark, and grandsire Sir Charles, were all chestnuts. The dates of foaling of these three respectively were, 1879, 1862, 1843. Performer (foaled 1840) was brown in colour, but Jenkinson's Fireaway, Driver, and Shales the First were all chestnut. It is a colour that is usually reproduced when the sire and dam are chestnuts, and one that appeals to most people as not only looking smart but durable. Personally, I would rather have a dark bay, or brown, as it is frequently called. Roan hackney ponies are sometimes produced from sires and dams of the same colour. At other times by the mating of the whole though different colours. There is the strawberry roan, the blue roan, both common enough colours amongst hackney ponies. Both Norfolk Phenomenon (foaled 1835) and Performer (foaled 1850) were roans, so that these colours cannot be regarded as evidence of the intro- duction of alien blood, as both the horses alluded to were the most celebrated sires of their time. Grey, though occasionally seen, is not a colour that finds favour, and is fast disappearing in the hackney. White points are common, especially in chestnuts. The white hair runs up the canon to a variable extent. Sometimes white stockings are on all four limbs half-way up the canons, their line of junction of the hairs being transverse or oblique. In other instances one fore and one hind patch of white exists, and may be confined to the fettock or pasterns. Black points are frequent in bays. 75 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Aciion It seems almost superfluous to say that a hackney pony must have good shoulder, knee and hock action ; in fact, most show ponies of this breed have bfnlliant action. Style and action have been cultivated just as much as good conformation. As a mover in harness no other variety of pony can come near that of the hackney. It leads, the rest follow. Judges attach the greatest importance to the action, both at the walk and trot. Not only must there be perfect freedom of move- ment, but perfect harmony of step, in which the beauty of perfect action resides. Every step should be per- formed and repeated with rhythmical precision, and the degree of concussion of the feet reduced to a minimum. There is irresistible charm in the movements of a high-class hackney pony, and one that must appeal to anyone with the slightest regard for all that is beautiful in animal locomotion. Manners Good manners are not necessarily associated with good breeding, nevertheless the conjoint qualification can and does exist, as a rule, if a pony has been pro- perly schooled to its work. I attach as much importance to good behaviour as to quality in any other respect. A pony with vicious or objectionable habits is 76 THE HACKNEY PONY handicapped in many ways, so far as its trustworthi- ness is concerned, and as titility is the prime fact oi' in the Hfe of a pony, it follows that it must possess the best of manners. Position of the Limbs in Relation to the Body To give perfect balance to the body the arm should almost line in a plane with the set-on of the head, and the foot be perpendicular with that of the arm. The fore-limbs have to bear the oreatest weig-ht, though the position of the head, when altered, makes a difference in such weioht. If the hind limbs are placed too far backward the propelling power is diminished and they don't take their due share of body weight. If too far under the body they have to support excess of weight, which is equally objectionable. By comparison, practice, and cultivating the power of observation one soon learns to appreciate these and other differences of conformation. Uses of the Hackney Pony. It is a difficult matter to put a hackney in the wrong place, as it can do what any other breed of pony is capable of doing, though it is not capable of withstanding the rigour of a severe winter like the Mountain or Fell ponies. No man having a hackney pony would, the writer imagines, be stupid enough to treat one of these ponies in such a manner. 77 CHAPTER IV The Harness Pony For harness purposes almost any variety of pony may be selected, either British or Continental, accord- ing to the purposes for which it is required. The cheapest, or at any rate those which are lowest in price are Iceland, Russian and Norwegian ponies, all of which are particularly hardy, good thrivers and fairly willing workers. Ponies of the latter description are particularly suitable for tradesmen who require the services of a pony for the delivery of light goods, and one that can be utilised for a variety of purposes in connection with trade. Many of these ponies are really good-looking animals, when properly trimmed and groomed, but good looks are subsidiary to utility under these cir- cumstances. Shetland, Welsh, New Forest, Connemara, Dart- moor, Exmoor, hackney and mountain ponies, are all equally suitable for harness use, but foremost amongst these for general utility is the hackney pony, which it is impossible to put in the wrong place. Regarding colour for harness purposes it is more a matter for individual taste, but light or dark bay, light or dark brown, chestnut, blue roan, red roan, black, and grey, (either light or dark,) are the colours that look best when a pony is in harness. 78 THE HARNESS PONY Piebald, skewbald, white and dun colours are too conspicuous, and renders undue prominence to the proprietor, unless that worthy wishes to be much in evidence. For use in a oroverness-car of small dimensions the Shetland pony has no superior, and I should recommend the purchase of one from thirty-six to forty-four inches (nine to eleven hands). Welsh ponies from forty to fifty inches make really serviceable harness ponies, and a fairly typical pony belonging to this variety can be bought for about twenty guineas, but if required for use in the show- ring, three figures are frequently paid by connoisseurs of Welsh ponies, whilst for hackney ponies not un- common sale prices are several hundred guineas. No matter what variety of pony it be elected to purchase, it should be of such conformation as will give it a maximum of speed and endurance, with a minimum of fatigue, but it must be borne in mind that these desirable qualifications in a pony are mainly depending upon what is popularly known as "condi- tion," without which no animal can undergo severe exertion economically. The question may be asked : "What is meant by the word condition.'^ " The answer is : " Ability to under- go the greatest degree of physical exertion with the least expenditure of energy " ; features which are only attain- able by a carefully-adjusted system of training. Concerning conformation for harness purposes, a pony must be short on the limbs ; have strong fore- arms ; be "clean" below the knees and hocks; have clean broad joints and sound feet — many ponies have boxy or upright feet, contracted at the heels, which 79 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM is a most serious fault ; a deep, but not broad chest ; well sprung ribs. Short back and loins, together with gracefully turned quarters and powerful first and second thighs are, in addition to the nearly erect carriage of the neck, points of beauty and utility. Concerning action, it is almost impossible to pay too much attention to this. Ponies, as in their proto- type the horse, exhibit various grades of action, such as low, medium, high and extravagant, but for durability, medium action is the one par excellence. In the show- ring ponies exhibit remarkable degrees of shoulder, knee and hock action, which is greatly admired, though it sometimes overshadows defects in other ways. In all probability there is no variety of pony that manifests these brilliant degrees of action like that of the hackney, which has been cultivated from one generation to another. All harness ponies ought to be free from tricks or vice, though, unfortunately, many are disposed of for these reasons, such faults as shying, backing, kicking and rearing whilst in harness ; also boring, setting, stumbling, etc., necessarily diminish the utility of a pony, so that, when contemplating purchase, endeavour to get the animal either on a week or ten days' trial, or purchase with a written guarantee that it is free from any objectionable habits. By purchasing from a person of repute, future annoyance may be saved. 80 CHAPTER V Saddle Pony, Polo Ponies, Club Rules, etc. SECTION A THE SADDLE PONY In the selection of a saddle pony a good deal will depend upon the individual the animal is required for, and the temperament of both horse and rider must be studied, as well as the age of the latter, and whether required for a boy or a girl. Well-broken saddle ponies may be recruited from either British or foreign breeds, but a home-bred pony is decidedly preferable to a Continental one, though the price is usually higher. As a saddle pony for a child the Shetland pony is par excellence ; but this has already been referred to in other chapters {see Child's Pony and Shetland Pony). The Welsh, New Forest, hackney, Dartmoor, Exmoor and moorland and fell ponies, can all be used for saddle purposes. The mountain breeds of ponies are particularly hardy, thrive well on scanty forage, are very sure- footed, durable and usually of good temperament, and if purchased unbroken do not, as a rule, require a great deal of schooling to make them really service- able for the purpose now under consideration. An unbroken pony of this description could be F 8l PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM purchasable at ten or twelve guineas, but much will depend on the quality. It is not advisable to buy a saddle pony much before four years of age, as boys are apt to be rather careless, not only as regards the amount of work a pony can perform, but also their method of using (sometimes abusing) the animal. With reference to sex, not much need be said either in favour of the filly or the gelding for prefer- ence, some preferring the gelding, others the filly, but the majority of purchasers like the former the best. Quality must have precedence over sex and good manners over both. If I were asked what should be one of the principal qualifications for a saddle pony, I would answer "Good manners," and follow this up with the excellences according to the following order : — A. Docility. B. Good looks. C. A light forehead, which implies a small head ; graceful carriage of the neck and oblique shoulders ; an upright shoulder being a defec- tive one for a saddle pony. D. Sure-footedness. E. A moderate degree of action, but good shoulder and hock action is preferable to excessive knee action. F. A slightly flat side is a recommendation for a pony required for saddle purposes. The foregoing recommendations might be con- siderably enlarged upon, but constitute in the main the primary essentials for a saddle pony. Hackney ponies, also thorough - bred ponies, when properly broken make excellent hacks for boys and girls of from twelve to sixteen years, and most Thoroughbred 82 POLO PONIES ponies make excellent light-weight hunters, for which purpose a saddle pony may be required. Really it does not matter much what breed of pony be selected, provided it is a good mover in all paces and answers the requirements previously mentioned. When purchasing a pony of this kind, the buyer must be careful to ascertain that it has been regularly ridden by a boy or girl, not merely resting satisfied with the statement, ''has been ridden by boy or girl," as this is capable of more than one interpretation. A written warranty that the animal is free from all forms of vice in and out of the stable, and that it will pass motors, traction-engines, stand quiet at railway stations and be at home in all noisy demonstra- tions, should constitute part of such warranty, being more important even than soundness, the examina*^ tion for this purpose being relegated to a qualified veterinary surgeon. _ A saddle hack for boys or girls should be perfecdy quiet to mount and dismount, have a light mouth, and respond to the "aids" in accordance with the rules of a thoroughly trained pony. (See also Chapters VII and XII— Section A.) SECTION B POLO PONIES The polo pony has within this last few years made a distinct advancement towards the establishment of a more fixed type of pony, and this is to a large extent attributable to the salutary influences exercised by the Polo Pony Society, proof of which is supported by PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM the evidence adduced in the succeeding pages of the present chapter. The heterogeneous collection of ponies that appeared upon the polo-pony grounds, fifteen or twenty years since, is vastly different to the smart and beautifully built ponies that can be seen in any of the principal tournaments of the present day. There is no doubt that polo, as a game, con- stitutes one of the finest pastimes, and that it teaches men horsemanship, unacquirable through any other channel. Its popularity has been gained by leaps and bounds, and as a form of sport, it offers a brilliant future. The establishment of polo-pony playing-grounds in many parts of Great Britain, the Colonies and United States, etc., to say nothing of the remarkable popularity of polo in India, is alone sufficient evidence to show the esteem in which the game is now held. International tournaments constitute one of the greatest incentives towards this form of sport. Now that polo ponies are being bred in conformity with Stud Book lines, there ought to be a lucrative employment in this direction for men who are com- petent to train the members of their stud in the tactics of the game. The Roehampton Club has for several years held a Polo and Riding Pony Summer Show, giving liberal prizes for polo-bred ponies, for stallions, for brood mares, geldings, or fillies, three-year-old, and not exceeding fourteen hands one and a half inches. There is also a light-weight class for polo ponies not up to 12 stone 7 pound ; a middle-weight class for the same for ponies up to 12 stone 7 pound, but not up to 14 stone, and a heavy-weight class for polo 84 POLO PONIES ponies up to 14 stone. Therefore this club does a great deal towards the encouragement of the breeding of polo ponies, as well as furthering the interests of the game. The correct height for a polo pony is fourteen hands two inches, and both brood mares and stallions must not exceed this height. All the Stud Books appertaining to British ponies have been admitted by the Polo Pony Society as being suitable for breeding polo ponies, provided that the ponies of the various breeds conform in height and type, and that such be open to inspection by the local committees. Conne- mara, Dartmoor, Exmoor, Fell, Highland, New Forest, and Welsh pony, mares and stallions, of the riding type, can all be registered, if of pure pony extraction, which implies three-quarter pony blood. The local committee of the Connemara Pony Society accept ponies thirteen to fourteen hands for breeding purposes. The Dartmoor Committee fix their height at thirteen hands two inches for stallions and thirteen hands for mares, whereas the Exmoor Committee's standard is twelve to thirteen hands. The Fell pony height for the admission of stallion and mares is fourteen hands, whereas Highland ponies are up to fourteen hands two inches. New Forest ponies, twelve and a half to thirteen and a half hands, whilst Welsh ponies must not exceed twelve hands two inches or thirteen hands two inches, there being two sections for the last-named variety. In course of time the author believes that the polo pony will exist with as great a fixity of type as any other variety, it being only a process of time, selection, and scientific breeding, for the attainment of this 85 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM object. It will not be only the conformation of the polo pony that will render it suitable for this specific form of sport, but it will have the game, so to speak, bred in it, just as the pointer has the special faculty of pointing, or of locating its game. Very high prices are paid for ponies brilliant at the game though, as previously stated, fashionable pedigree may have had nothing to do with the ruling of the price. What is absolutely indispensable in a polo pony is bone, muscle and substance, combined with the highest degree of activity and intelligence, and the bending exercises into which these ponies are schooled, is an essential part of their existence. Oblique shoulders, a neat, small head, strong arms and forearms, strong back and loins, gracefully sloping quarters, broad-jointed, clean hocks, broad knees and cannons, along with clean medium length of pastern bones, neither sloping too much nor too upright, are individually and collectively typical of the polo pony. It seems almost needless to remark that sound, well-shaped proportionate feet, sound wind, sound eyesight, together with general soundness through- out, are indispensable qualifications. Lightness of bone, a weedy neck, high withers, straight shoulders, a big head, badly-shaped hocks, upright pasterns, pasterns too oblique, weak joints, sprung tendons, a sluggish temperament, together with various other minor defects, are objectionable features in a polo pony. In conclusion, the writer would add that the introduction of too much Thoroughbred blood exer- cises a most pernicious influence in the perpetuation of the polo pony, and such should never be tolerated. 86 u "V; ^l ■K ios. per head. Writing in 1891 in reference to this Mr Brydon, Seaham Harbour, says : — " Since then prices have increased to an enormous extent. Average yearlings are now worth, in the North of England, ^15 per head ; two-year-olds, ;^i8, and older ponies are scarcely obtainable. . . The smaller they are the more money they are worth. A good four-year-old, nine hands two inches, will fetch, on an average, ^10 more than one five or six inches higher. This is no doubt partly owing to fancy, but chiefly to small ponies being available for work in thin coal seams where larger ones cannot enter. The sheltie being the smallest breed of ponies (and so far as I am aware the only breed which boasts of ponies under ten hands), it follows that they have the market all to themselves." It was this extraordinary commercial demand which threatened not only the deterioration of the breed but its actual extinction. The ponies were mostly in the hands of comparatively poor crofters, who, tempted with the big prices offered, were rapidly selling their best and keeping to perpetuate the breed only those that were unsaleable. Fortunately for the Shetland pony, the Marquis of Londonderry (an ex- tensive mine owner himself) realised the danger, and, with commendable foresight and energy, conceived the idea of starting a stud for breeding them in the islands. In this he was ably assisted by his agent, 208 THE SHETLAND PONY Mr Robert Brydon, and a lease was secured of the island of Bressay, with the adjacent one of Noss, on which was started the famous Londonderry Stud, which will be for ever associated with better days for the Shetland pony. No expense was spared in laying out the ground suitably, or in purchasing the best that could be ofot for foundation stock, and a start was made about 1880. Soon after, the advantage of a stud book for the breed was recognised, and in 1890 the Shetland Pony Stud Book Society was founded with one hundred and eleven members (many of whom were crofters in Shetland), and, as was only proper, the Marquis of Londonderry was first president. Following on this, the Highland and Agricultural Society gave its recognition to the breed by providing three separate classes for them at their show in Inverness in 1892. There were about fourteen entries, and Lord Londonderry gained first prize in each class, as well as the president's medal for the best pony in the yard. The first volume of the Stud Book contained four hundred and eight mares and forty-eight stallions, of which number Lord Londonderry contributed fifty- one mares (along with one hundred and forty-four of their produce) and nine stallions. Of the latter, Jack (16), Laird of Noss (20), Lord of the Isles (26), Odin (32), and Prince of Thule (36), are the most famous, and taking the show record there is hardly a pro- minent winner, which can be pointed to, which is not descended from one or other of them. Perhaps the best combination is that of Odin, Lord of the Isles, and Prince of Thule, and this combination of blood is. much sought after. o 209 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM The effect on the breed of the enlightened policy- adopted under Lord Londonderry at Bressay was most marked. There was no senseless coddling of the stock, but there was no starvation during the winter months, especially with the young stock and in- foal mares. These got a liberal allowance of the best imported hay. In consequence of this the mares were more prolific, and the young stock grew up more shapely, with greater bone and substance, whilst the " cow hocks," at one time so characteristic a feature of the breed, were entirely eliminated. Of course there were those who prophesied that the small size of the ponies could never be maintained under these generous conditions, but, strange as it may appear, the average height of the ponies was greatly reduced under the Bressay reorime, whilst at the same time the stock was conspicuous for increased bone, better sprung ribs, and improved quarters. It was a shock to all lovers of the breed when in 1 90 1 it became known that the Marquis had failed to arrange a renewal of his lease of Bressay, and that in consequence the stud was to be dispersed. Practi- cally the whole stud (over two hundred) were shipped to Seaham Harbour, and the dispersal sale took place there in September of that year. Bidding was naturally spirited, and only about a dozen found their way back to Shetland. Fortunately, however, the foreigner was not largely in the market at that time, and, although scattered far and wide, the ponies nearly all remained in this country. The result of this dispersal was to greatly increase the number of studs. There is no more adaptable animal in the world 210 THE SHETLAND PONY than the Shetland pony, who seems to accommodate himself to any circumstances or climate. Whilst they live, thrive, and multiply on the barest hillsides of their northern islands, glad in time of stress to eat the sea-weed on the fore-shore, they are by no means averse to better fare, and are equally at home in the rich and sheltered pastures of the South, The theory, at one time so prevalent, that the moist climate and winter hardships of Shetland were essential to maintain the small size of the ponies, is now discredited. There are ample instances to prove that, even under the most generous conditions, the height will not necessarily increase if the ponies are suitably mated. No one, therefore, who has a few acres about his home need fear to breed shelties, and will probably get more real pleasure (not to speak of profit) from them, than from any other stock he could keep on the ground. Whilst this is so, the ideal conditions for a stud, of any size, are what may be described as a combination of poverty and riches, or, to be more explicit, a few fields of really good pasture around the homestead and a considerable out-run of poor hill or rough moorland grazing attached to it. Such were the conditions at Bressay, and they are also very apparent at Earlshall. At the latter there are several hundred acres of good arable ground, cropped in rotation, with about one thousand acres of what is known as Tents Moor ; a bare, wind- swept tract of moorland forming a peninsula between the estuaries of the Tay and Eden, and stretching right out to the German Ocean. It is quite flat, and carries little but coarse benty grass, heather and gorse. 211 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Management. — In working such a subject, the natural course would seem to be to summer the ponies on the moor and keep the better and more sheltered fields for wintering. The opposite, however, is the course adopted, the reason being that when the mares are suckling their foals 'generous keep is considered an advantage. The brood mares therefore (of which there are always between thirty and forty) spend their winter on the moor, from which they are transferred to the better pastures a month or six weeks before foaling begins, and on these they are kept with their foals throughout the summer ; and on the latter being weaned (in the end of September or beginning of October) the mares go back to their winter quarters on the moor. A field of good, fresh, clean grass is always reserved for the weaned foals, which also get a feed of bruised oats, with chopped hay and bran, morning and evening throughout the winter and until the grass is well up in spring. Great importance is attached to the generous treatment of the mares whilst nursing their foals, and to the foals until they are a year old, which is apparently the most critical time of all. If the foals have been kept well forward in this way till they are a year old no amount of subsequent privation seems to do them much harm. Amongst the crofters in Shetland the mares are left to wean the foals themselves, and it is therefore no uncommon thing to see a yearling being still suckled. Whilst the nourishment derived from the dam throughout the winter will to some extent make up for a generous system of hand feeding to the foal, it is hard on the mare, and is not really an economy, 212 THE SHETLAND PONY as under such conditions the mares seldom bear a foal more than once in two years. It is common among breeders in the South to provide shelter sheds for the stock, but the ponies are by no means keen to take advantage of these, and it is doubtful if they are much use. Nature has provided a most effective winter covering, which is all he seems to require as a protection. It is well, however, to keep a keen eye on the health of the young stock especially, and if any are not thriving means should at once be taken to ascertain the cause, which, in nine cases out of ten, will turn out to be worms. A big pot belly, especially if accompanied with scouring, is an unfailing symptom of these pests, and proper measures must be adopted at once to clear them out. It has been recently asserted by one authority that the Shetland pony is practically immune to strangles, but this the writer can emphatically deny, as in his experience they are quite as liable to this malady as any other variety of horse-flesh. The only explana- tion he can think of for such a statement being made, is, that where ponies are always kept in the open they may frequently have the disease without its being detected. Recently at Earlshall one of twenty colts, running together, was seen to be seriously out of sorts, and when the lot were brought into a fold for examination it was found to be a bad case of strangles. The others were all found to have been attacked, although in the majority of cases the disease had already run its course and the wounds almost healed. But for the one case, in which a deep-seated secondary abscess had formed, the epidemic would have escaped 213 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM notice entirely. When a case is suspected now there is no attempt made to isolate or house those affected, but they are simply kept under observation, and an intelligent man very quickly detects any pony that requires special care or surgical aid. Apart from an exceptional case of this sort experience has taught that the less catching or handling the better, and that the disease runs its course, and cures itself best, in the open air, even in winter. The mares are always allowed to foal in the open, and almost invariably do so unassisted. The quieter they are kept at this time the better, and at Earlshall there is no night watching, but the attendant merely gives them a look over the last thing at night and the first thing- in the morningf. The ponies are all driven into folds twice a year and their feet examined and pared where necessary. The distinguishing number is also re-branded on the hoof at this time. It is well also to examine the teeth, as, especially in the case of aged ponies, these some- times require rasping. Sixteen is the usual limit of mares given to one stallion, who is allowed to run with them throughout the summer. Of course, where a show stallion, or one in work, is being used at stud, this cannot be done, and the mares must be served in hand. Although this is successful enough in many cases, the percentage of foals will not be so good as when the sire can be allowed to run with the mares. The stallions are generally taken from the mares in the end of August, and are wintered in cool, airy boxes, from which they get a run out in a paddock as often as possible. They would winter equally well, if not 214 THE SHETLAND PONY better, in the open, but there is always a chance of their fighting and blemishing one another with their teeth. On this account, therefore, it is found most convenient to box, and let them out in turn for exercise. Breaking and Trainmg. — In the case of the sheltie this is a very simple matter, as, although high-spirited, they are extremely docile, and after the first struggle at being haltered they seem to resign themselves and try their utmost to do what is wanted of them. They are not naturally nervous, and seldom or never kick in work. The writer has seen an absolutely unhandled pony, over six years old, taken up for the first time, and the day following going in harness as if he had been at it all his days. Castration is rarer in this breed than any other. This is no doubt partly due to the fact, that, for pit work, entire ponies are preferred, but even for ordinary work a Shetland stallion can be employed without any misgiving, as they are never troublesome. Considering their small dimensions the work of which shelties are capable is simply amazing. Of their record in the mines Mr Robert Brydon writes : — " To give an idea of the work done by a pit pony, it is not overstating the case to say that, on an average, they will travel over three thousand miles in the course of a year and ' shift ' as many tons of coal. This is no mean performance when we consider the work is done in the black darkness of a coal mine, by a pony thirty-eight inches high, working in a place very little higher than itself" However creditable this, their record of work 215 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM underground, may be, we turn from it with a measure of relief to consider what they can do in more con- genial atmospheres and under the light of heaven. As the child's first mount they stand unrivalled, or, as an American writer puts it, "Children and Shetland ponies seem to have for each other a natural affinity." Whilst another from the same country writes : — " A boy or girl can get more fun, physical develop- ment and ruddy health to the square inch out of a Shetland pony than in any other way, and more real unalloyed happiness than he or she is apt to get out of a fortune in after life. " ' If you have a million dollars to spend in giving your child health and happiness, you could not invest it in any way that would accomplish the object better than the investment in a Shetland pony. The full force of this was impressed upon me by a remark of one of our wealthy merchants, known the world over, and who, had he been so disposed, could have spent a million, by saying that an investment of one hundred and fifty dollars for a Shetland pony had given his child more pleasure and happiness, combined with health, than any he could have made for any amount of money.' " All this was fully recognised in this country long ago, and we believe that the living animal will still hold its own with the Anglo-Saxon race, in spite of the attraction that cycles and motors possess. With a full belief in the axiom, " Learn young, learn fair," how many of our most brilliant horsemen, across country or between the flags, had their first lessons on a sheltie ? 216 THE SHETLAND PONV Then much may be claimed for them as general utility ponies, either to those who can afford nothing else, or even at a large country house. With a minimum of care and attention they are always ready for any odd job and are never sick or sorry. As any- one can drive him, the sheltie is turned out whenever there is an errand to run or a parcel to fetch from the station, and when not otherwise employed he can be harnessed to the mowing-machine. At one country house we know, one of his many jobs was to pump the water by means of a tread-mill in which he was placed for half an hour every morning. This system filled the cisterns with fresh water each day, and was found infinitely superior to the wind-mill it superseded. This is worth the attention of those who are not blessed with a gravitation water-system. The sheltie is also no mean harness pony. If put to a trap within his capacity, he can go his eight to ten miles an hour, and trot on. They can be trained as hard as a race-horse, and when in condition will do thirty miles in a day without showing signs of distress. Most of the leading agricultural societies now provide classes for the breed, at which it is always a condition that they must be entered or eligible for entry in the Stud Book. One of the conditions of this is that they must not, at four years old, exceed forty-two inches. If over this height, however pure bred he or she may be, they are not eligible for the Stud Book. The Shetland classes are always a most popular feature with the public at the shows, and competition is now very keen, as large prices are obtained for those 317 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM which can gain the highest honours. It may safely be asserted, that, taken by weight, the best specimens fetch a higher price than anything in the market except race-horses. Twenty years or so ago, very little preparation was needed to bring out a sheltie for the show-ring, as we have seen them judged like sheep, without even being trotted. This is changed now, however, and no owner need enter that arena without having his ponies reasonably trained, as action counts for every- thing. To bring them to the form now demanded, it is necessary to stable and groom, but shelties are always shown without being clipped, hogged or docked. They must, of course, be trained to walk and trot out properly, but this is by no means difficult, and what they once learn they never forget. At present, things are somewhat in a transition stage, which causes confusion in the minds of some people as to what is the correct type. When the show career of the sheltie first commenced, the best paying demand was undoubtedly for the pits, and the aim was to get the biggest possible bulk as near the ground as possible, whilst symmetry and true action had to take a secondary place. Fortunately for the breed, how- ever, the advent of the foreign demand has created a higher standard. Beauty of shape and smart, well- carried head counts for more than it used to, and true, close and springy action is deemed essential. Occasionally, however, when a Judge, full of the old traditions, officiates, the prizes will go to ponies with huge bodies on abnormally short legs, suggestive of moles, and no doubt most valuable to drag a hutch in the low galleries of a coal-mine, but absolutely un- 218 HIGHLAND PONIES suited for a child's saddle pony. At the very next show, perhaps, the opposite type gets the preference, which naturally creates confusion in the minds of those who are not fully conversant with the show history of the breed. This is quickly righting itself, however, and without for a moment disparaging the pit pony, which, as already stated, has its uses and a most creditable record, we cannot admit it is the highest development of the breed, or the one likely to hold the market of the future. Meantime the prospects for the Shetland pony were never brighter than at present ; the demand for pedigreed ponies largely exceeds the supply, and no one (especially if the best are bred), need fear getting a ready market at remunerative prices. SECTION B HIGHLAND PONIES [By JV. Mackenzie, Calgary, Isle of Mull] The original Highland pony was a small animal of twelve hands two inches to thirteen hands two inches, such as are now found in the Island of Barra and the small islands off the west coast of Scotland. Highland ponies may be divided into three classes — Firstly, the small ponies of Barra and the small Islands, running from twelve hands two inches to thirteen hands two inches ; they have good, hard legs and feet, head rather large and plain, shoulders a bit 219 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM straight, but are hardy and useful little animals, well suited to stand exposure and poor feeding. When brought in to good keep it is quite wonderful how they grow and improve in every way. Colours — black, bay and browns, with some duns and greys. The writer has occasionally seen very beautiful little ponies from the outer Islands, but these are generally to be traced to an Arab cross. Secondly, what might be called the high-class riding pony of the West Highlands and Islands, running from fourteen hands to fourteen hands two inches. This class of pony has almost died out ; they were to be found in Mull, Tiree, Skye, Rum and Uist, and some parts of the Western Mainland. These ponies show a very strong cross of Arab blood. It is said they are descended from Eastern horses wrecked from the Spanish Armada, and also that a number of Highland officers brought their Arab chargers home with them and bred from them. These ponies have beautiful heads and good shoulders ; in fact, they are good all over, and of riding type famous for staying long journeys under heavy weights and on poor keep — the only pity is so few of them are left. Colours — black, brown, dun and grey, with a few bays. The duns and greys, as a rule, show most Arab blood. Thirdly, what is often called the Garron, This class of pony runs up to fifteen hands. The Garrons are more the horses of the Central Highlands than the West Highlands and Islands ; it is thought they were bred from the original small pony crossed with larger horses brought into the Highlands with troops during the unsettled times, and now a very typical Garron 220 THE HIGHLAND PONY can be produced by crossing a small Clydesdale horse with the West Highland pony mare. The Garrons are very useful animals on small farms and for carry- ing deer, but they are in no way riding ponies. Of late years the Garron has been used for crossing with the ponies in the Islands, which is a great mistake, as they have not the quality and cannot do on the same food as a Western Island pony can. It seems a great pity to try to change the character of an old and valuable breed, that is well able to do the work re- quired, and is much more suitable to the country than the softer Garron. Several gentlemen are forming studs of the old Western Island ponies, at present, and no time and trouble is being spared to get together any good specimens of the breed that can be found. THE HIGHLAND PONY [By J. Fairfax Blakeborough] Just as this book is going to press, I am asked to write something regarding the Highland pony. Although the subject is one to which I have given some attention, and regarding which I have made excursions into isolated portions of the Highlands of Scotland, it is difficult either at a moment's notice or within the scope of one chapter, to bring together anything like an historical survey of the species. Pos- sibly it is not desirable that this should be the manner of treatment, but rather that one should write more topically, and, skimming ancient evolution, come to that of more recent years. PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM There are in Yorkshire two distinct breeds of horses, one evolved from the other, and both the produce of one part of England's largest county, known as Cleveland — the Cleveland Bay and the Yorkshire Coach-horse. The former of these two breeds of general - utility horses were found so wonderfully adaptable for crossing with and improving almost every class of horse forty or fifty years ago, and were so largely employed, that the Cleveland Bay in pure form became almost extinct, and societies for the resuscitation and preservation of it arrived almost at the twelfth hour with their Stud Books to rescue it. Journeying to the other end of England entirely, one finds almost an analogous case — the Highland pony. Clydesdale and other foreign blood has been intro- duced for years, and the Highland pony has been made the foundation for improving, and creating, other kinds of horses till it had almost vanished in its original form. Some two or three years ago a few enthusiastic Scottish breeders saw that unless something was done, and done quickly, the local pony was doomed, and commenced to search for such pure mares and stallions as could still be found in the Highlands. It was no easy matter to discover them, and, to quote only one instance, Mr J. H. Munro Mackenzie, of Calgary, Mull, a well-known breeder, informed me he had to tour the adjacent Islands ere he found his stallion Islesman, then doing all the work on a Crofter's small holding. He, Lord Arthur Cecil ; Lord W. de Eresby (Glenartney) ; Mr Mackenzie of Farr ; the Duke of Atholl, at Blair Castle ; Mrs Cheape, " the Squire," of Tiroran, Mull ; the Congested Districts Board, at their Monkstadt THE HIGHLAND PONY Experimental Farm, and Lords Middleton and Ports- mouth, have at their respective studs, done much, not only to rescue the breed, in all its purity, but also to demonstrate its wonderful adaptability as 2. foundalion for other equine stock, likewise for improving existing breeds. The writer has been privileged not only to inspect some of the studs mentioned, but also to see the Highland pony, the Garron, and certain members of their progeny when crossed with other breeds, at some of the agricultural shows and fairs, or as they are called in Scotland, " markets." To a Yorkshire- man the horse is always of deep interest, he perhaps having a leaning towards "blood," but even in this respect his eye would immediately be attracted by the Highland pony, a case in point. At the Mull and Morvern Show, Mr Mackenzie showed a grey pony, which carried off one or two prizes. A friend of the writer's, an English master of hounds, was judging, and after one of the classes had been in the ring I remarked to him, "That grey pony you gave the first ticket to, can't be a pure bred Highland ; it must have a dash of blood in it." Later, I mentioned this incident to Mr Mackenzie at Calgary (also, and by the way, an ex-master of hounds), and he said : " There is no doubt some Barb blood in the breed. When you see the Highland pony excited, it puts its head and tail out, and its nostrils are dilated almost like a Thoroughbred." Lord Arthur Cecil, than whom few know more of the breed, explains this in a measure when he says : " Scientists have now proved to demonstration that the earliest type of the equine race in the 223 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM British Islands is what is known as the Celtic pony^ which type still crops up in all the varieties of ponies ; also that this was succeeded by another type of pony of a heavier-headed and slower kind, which we still find represented (notably in Scandinavian ponies), which has been called the Forest horse. ... It is quite certain that in early times these types would have been freely mingled, and thus the distinctive types of each become somewhat obscured, also that one or the other of them came to preponderate in the different localities which were most suited to its development by conditions of climate, food, geo- graphical position, or work. Then we know at vari- ous times, throughout the whole of the historical periods, there has been the introduction of stallions, now known as the horse, from Northern Africa, and from our present-day experiences it is certain that what we call coarser blood came from the European continent. Thus in all our mountain and moorland breeds, as we know them at present, we have (i) the Celtic blood ; (2) the Forest horse ; (3) the horse of Northern Africa." In an article to Bailys Magazine (January, this year). Prof J. Cossar Ewart, after quoting Sir Richard Owen's conclusion that the small equine teeth and limb-bones from Pleistocene deposits belonged, not to a horse, but to an ass or a zebra, says he is convinced that the square-crowned teeth and cannon- bone from the "elephant bed" belong to neither of these, but to a small horse built on the lines of, but a little taller, longer than the thick-set, short-legged, modern Shetland ponies. I cannot refrain from quoting further from this most interesting and valuable article on prehistoric British Ponies, which has such a bearing upon the 224 THE HIGHLAND PONY subject now under consideration. Prof. Ewart con- tinues : " It may be inferred that ponies of the Celtic type may be regarded as the modified and somewhat mixed descendants of the slender-Hmbed race, which in pre- historic times occurred in the South of England, along with the Mammoth and other large ungulates. Since 1902 I have had in my possession ponies of the Celtic type from the Fai-oe Islajids mid Iceland, from the Hebrides and Shetland, from Norway and Finland, from Connemara, Wales, Exmoor and the New Forest, and I have examined ponies which closely resemble the Celtic variety from various parts of France and Russia. Although these ponies had the fine head, large eyes and small ears characteristic of the Celtic type, they varied both in make and colour. Some, in one or more points, resembled the "Forest" race, others were apparently allied to the wild horse of Mongolia. Hence though numerous Celtic ponies were examined, it was impossible to form a clear conception of the conformation of the slender-limbed prehistoric race from which they had apparently in great part sprung. This being the case, it occurred to me that by inducing reversion, it might be possible to reproduce the small horse represented by the teeth and limb - bones in the Pleistocene deposits in the South of England." One of many of these very thorough experiments did result in an interesting reversion, though Prof. Ewart would find most of the traits to which he refers extant in the pure-bred Highland pony of to-day. He says : " It is extremely probable that in this colt we have a fairly accurate restoration of the colt and conforma- tion and, to a certain extent, of the habits, of a remote p 225 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM ancestor. In its behaviour this dun colt has from the first differed from its companions. It has always been very active and alert. When galloping it carries the tail high like the Arab, and moves the head from side to side like zebras and other wild equidae when escaping from a possible enemy. After it was weaned this colt often wandered about by itself, and it was the only one out of a bunch which discovered, and (regardless of fences) periodically visited, an adjoin- ing field, in which the grass was more plentiful and fresher than in its own paddock." Of course one could give sufficient extracts, theories and facts, regarding the Highland pony and its peculiar idiosyncrasies, to fill a volume. Those already quoted will suffice to explain, to a certain extent, that continuous suggestion of the Thorough- bred and Eastern horse, which is always so striking to those who have made even the least study of this most interesting species of pony. The views of the authorities which have been cited explain much re- garding the height, make, symmetry, staying powers and the wonderful quantity and quality of bone pos- sessed by the Highland pony. The two latter charac- teristics have done much, and still do much, to recommend them during the last decade. The colour — dun and blue, to be true to the type — is explained by the idiosyncrasies of local colouring of mountain heath. The Highland pony has for centuries been bred there, and has maintained its type, because it was found the most suitable pony for the hills and for the food they provided, and because of that work and food. It is a clear case of cause and effect. Take a pure-bred Highland foal and mare into some of the rich pasture 226 THE HIGHLAND PONY countries, and the result would be the foal would possibly grow a hand (four inches) higher than the standard of the type, and possibly, too, become unfitted for the peculiar work these ponies are called upon to do. On the other hand, take Thoroughbred mares to, say, the Isle of Mull, and you would get naught but small weeds from either a pure cross, or a cross with a local breed. Some years ago the experiment was tried. A number of Thoroughbred mares were taken to this small island, and a good stallion of the same breed with them. The result was small, stunted, blood ponies, for which there is no demand. Had Polo been the popular game then as it is now, they would have made splendid Polo ponies, but the Polo pony was a species to be evolved in the future. All this is mentioned to show how peculiarly suited the Highland pony is to the locality, and how, on the other hand, the locality suits the breed. Highland ponies are so wonderfully compact, so short-coupled, possessed of such strength and bone, and yet wonder- ful speed, that they can bring down from the top of the mountains a fifteen- or sixteen-stone deer without a false step, carry a fourteen-stone sportsman about all day upon the moss, trot ten or twelve miles an hour, up hill and down glen, and do all the work on a Crofter's farm, yet the average height is only eleven to fourteen hands two inches, the standard fixed by the Polo Pony Stud Book Society, to which the breed has been admitted. Regarding their height. Lord Arthur Cecil bears out what I have said. He says it is difficult to describe each variety of hill pony by itself. For instance, he surmises : — 337 . PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM " Shetland ponies are after all but Highland poniQs, whose environment has kept down their stature for generations until their diminutive size has become fixed, and is now limited by scientific selection and Stud Book regulations." It has already been stated that there has been a tendency to breed fro7n the Highland pony, rather than to breed the pony itself — to aim at the eggs, without seeing that there was to be a continuance of the golden geese. Those whose studs have been mentioned, intervened almost at the eleventh hour to rescue the Highland pony from extinction. Each of these gentlemen has now a number of excellent ponies true to the type. The game of Polo, the Scottish Mounted Horse, which Lord Tullibardine organised, the breeding of weight-carrying hunters and the demands of the Highland farmer and Crofter, for a pony really suited to these several purposes, has done much within the last year or two (requiring but little encouragement to do still more) to create renewed interest, and encourage the revival of the breed. Each of the breeders mentioned may become more or less faddists, but they are unanimous upon main issues : that the Highland pony is the best horse for the Highlands, and that it is a particularly suitable animal as the foundation for hunters, for trappers, or for Polo ponies. Mr H. Munro Mackenzie pointed out to the writer the tendency had been for the Crofter to intro- duce Clydesdale blood, and breed bigger horses, but they had found the bigger horses did not do any more, if as much, work as the pony mares from which they were bred, and were less economical to keep. Thus the Crofter had to give them the meal he ought to 'i'Zt THE HIGHLAND PONY have had for his own consumption, and had to buy forage in consequence. An enthusiast of the breed, he, Hke the late Col. Cheape, hates the Clydesdale cross, and urges that the Highland pony is the best type of pony extant. These arguments are sound. Not only are Highland ponies bigger than the Exmoor or Dartmoor pony, but they have infinitely more quality than either these or allied breeds, and can live out on the moors with no more support than they can pick up there. Indeed, Mr Mackenzie told me that so full of vitality were the ponies when fed on corn, that they often became almost unmanageable. He has tried the experiment of breeding Polo ponies from the local horse, for which he has done so much, by crossing them with an Arabian stallion, the Syrian — a beauti- fully-made grey pony, with wonderful quality, and the progeny have proved eminently satisfactory. Some of them have been sold for Polo purposes ; some as hunters in hilly countries. They give the rider a *' splendid feel," and are quick over bad or soft ground, and though the pure Highland pony has hair on his legs — with which is usually associated " coarseness and commonness of breeding " — he casts it once a year. He has (though Prof. Ewart fails to mention this fact, except in the case of this experiment in reversion) zebra marks on the inside of the knee (a characteristic of the breed), whereas the cross betiveen the Syrian and the Highland pony come perfectly clean, and are generally fit for Polo — remarkable as it may seem — with the first cross. Further testimony to the breed (as a foundation alike for Polo ponies and hunters) came from Mrs Cheape, "the Squire," who has a property on Mull, 229 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM and is, perhaps, one of the most famous and most successful masters of Harriers in England. She has bred prize hounds, prize stock, and prize horses for years, and has received her initiation in matters venatic, as well as equine, in Scotland, with no less an authority than Col. Anstruther Thompson as her tutor. When 1 last visited her at Tiroran she had several mares and one of the best Highland pony stallions I have seen, appropriately designated " Highland Stamp." Her husband, the late Col. Cheape, was equally as enthusiastic, and Mrs Cheape now has some of the mares formerly the property of her husband. She had bred Polo ponies of note, and on one of these her son won the Polo Championships at Edinburgh, Leamington, Ostend, and elsewhere. Mrs Cheape's daughters have ridden ponies, out of Highland mares, to hounds in various parts of England, and sold them for big figures. She says they are wonderfully fast, clever at jumping, and look where they are putting their feet. Sufficient, therefore, has been said to show what a history, what qualities, and en passant, what recom- mendations this species of the pony has in itself, as well as for forming the foundation for other breeds. The enthusiastic Highlanders ought to be grateful to those who have done so much on behalf of their in- digenous ponies. •30 CHAPTER XIII CONNEMARA PONIES Unfortunately for Ireland the ponies throughout the country are of very diverse types, owing to the promiscuous breeding indulged in by pony owners. Any distinctive type of pony, beyond that possessed by the ponies of Connemara, cannot be recognised. It would be unjust to the people of the Emerald Isle to say that there are no good ponies in the country excepting those of Connemara, because there certainly are many first-class ponies, though these are of a diversified type and cannot lay claim to any particular lineage. The degeneracy of the Irish pony must have been obvious to all concerned, in fact, so much so, that the Congested Districts Board, acting under the Land Commission of Ireland, purchased small hackney stallions of suitable stamina to mate with the brood mares in the various districts. This was certainly a step in the right direction, and has made material improvements. Between the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries Spanish horses were brought over to England, and there are good reasons for believing that Ireland ac- quired some of these Spanish stallions for the purpose of mating with the mares of the country. Arab and Barb blood shows itself in the Connemara ponies. The Connemara ponies have been a good deal 231 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM sought after for Polo work, as they possess certain recommendations for that game. In height the Connemara is about fourteen hands or a little over, and either chestnut, grey or bay in colour. The body is rather long and the limbs short, the latter being well muscled and with fair bone. The long body, deep girth, oblique shoulders and free bending action are qualifications of this breed. A good constitution and good temperament, com- bined with endurance, are characteristics of the Con- nemara ponies. The Connemara Pony Committee at their meeting, held at Clifden, in 1901, gives the following descrip- tion of these ponies : — " The Connemara pony should be intelligent, active and enduring, presenting the outline of a long, low, powerful animal, covering a lot of ground. " The action should be good, straight. " The hobbie should be a yellow-dun, grey, or bay colour, from thirteen to fourteen hands high, having the croup as high as the withers ; the head should be larger than fine, with large jaws ; the ears small and pointed ; the distance from the occipital crest to the eyes relatively great, and the distance between the eyes from seven and a half to eight inches. " The neck ought to be strong and of medium length ; the shoulders somewhat straight ; the withers of moderate height ; the body long and deep (girth from sixty-three to seventy inches), mounted on short legs (foreleg measuring from thirty-one to thirty-three inches from elbow to ground) ; a good back ; power- 333 CONNEMARA PONIES ful loins ; slightly drooping rounded quarters ; well- developed breech ; short below the knee, with flat hard bone (measuring from six and a half to seven and a half inches under the knee), and wide-open, well-formed feet." The foregoing description has many ambiguities enshrouding it, nevertheless it does, in the main, express the class of pony described under this heading. When crossed with the hackney pony stallion considerable improvement follows, the progeny, when properly broken to harness, make very smart trappers, with action free, fast and full. It is not only for harness purposes that these Hackney-Connemara ponies are so useful, but for the saddle as well, and good prices can be got for the best sorts. As the climate of West Galway is moist, the coat grows thick and abundant, so that these ponies must be carefully inspected to find out their good and bad points. An abundant coat is often very deceptive, so much so that one will hardly recognise such a pony after it has been clipped and trimmed up to present fashion. 333 CHAPTER XIV Basuto Ponies The reader will be surprised to find the Basuto pony mentioned in a work dealing with British ponies, but as these small animals .proved so very useful to the British during the recent South African war, the author pleads this in justification of the short chapter devoted to the breed. The Basuto ponies are a hardy race, averaging" from fourteen hands to fourteen hands two inches, in- habiting various parts of Basutoland, but mostly bred in the hilly districts. According to accounts, the Dutch settlers brought the original stock from Batavia, some- time in the eighteenth century, and the change of environment, combined with the introduction of the Arab sire, has exercised a wonderful influence in making the Basuto ponies of to-day such remarkable little animals, to which strength, endurance and good action are combined. The climate was particularly suitable for the in- fusion of Arabian blood, without which condition such a crossing does not prove satisfactory as a rule. The Basutos have, unquestionably, done a great deal towards improving these ponies, though such has, to a large extent, been mainly through horsemanship and good management in a general way, and this is one of the reasons why good specimens of the breed can be made into first-class Polo ponies. 234 BASUTO PONIES Strictly speaking, the credit of having laid the foundation-stone of the Basuto pony is due entirely to the Boers. The rugged nature of the country and the precipitous hills accounts for the surety of foothold so characteristic of these and other hill ponies. In its general conformation the Basuto pony is built so as to combine a maxiniuni of poiver, speed and endurance, with mininuim of size compatible with such qualities, hence the reason why these Basuto ponies were so much used in the last South African war. In colour, the Basuto pony is commonly grey or bay, less frequently black, and as previously stated, about fourteen or fourteen hands two inches in height. The shoulders are those characteristic of the riding — long and of good slope ; the forearm strong ; the canons clean and the sinews hard and clearly defined, with hard, proportionate, sound feet. Bad, or mal- formed feet, are quite exceptional in these ponies. The back and the loins are particularly strong, in fact, it is wonderful what extraordinary weight-carriers these little horses are ; but being built on hunter lines, does, in a measure, account for this qualification. The well- balanced, closely-knit frame and broad, clean joints, with strength developed through physical exertion, are all favourable towards weight carrying. Regarding temperament of the Basuto ponies, the evidence of those competent to speak is that, on the whole, they are very good-tempered ponies, and take to their work with a willingness of heart as readily as any British breed of pony. 235 CHAPTER XV Buying and Selling Ponies There are various channels through which ponies may- be bought and sold, and as everyone likes to buy as reasonably as possible and to sell to the best advantage, we shall endeavour to offer a few words of advice on the subject. First of all, it may be accepted as a general rule that the cheapest method of purchase is that of selecting an unbroken pony out of a drove, provided that sound judgment is used. Such droves are generally to be found at the principal horse fairs throughout England, Scotland and Ireland, and a list of such fairs will be found on reference to most Agricultural Year Books. Some horse fairs are particularly well known as making a speciality of ponies, as in the case of Bampton (Oxon.), Church Stretton (Shrops.), Welsh- pool (Montgomery), etc. Large numbers of ponies at these and other fairs throughout the year exchange hands, and some really first-class ponies can usually be picked up at very reasonable prices. The ordinary buyer is not, however, likely to want to purchase an unbroken pony, therefore the best plan is to either purchase from a private source, through a dealer, or through one of the numerous horse re- positories. Most Agricultural Year Books, as well as the various 236 BUYING AND SELLING PONIES live-stock journals, publish what is called a " Breeders' Directory," so that by consulting such, the names and addresses of breeders of different varieties of ponies will be found, by writing to which and stating one's requirements, such as age, sex, height, colour, breed, price and purposes for which the animal is required, no difficulty ought to be experienced in becoming suited. The breeder is generally a safe channel to purchase through, although a little higher price may have to be paid, though it will probably prove more economical in the long run. When purchasing at a horse repository, the intend- ing buyer should always thoroughly overhaul the pony of his fancy on the day previous to auction, and those who are not competent judges of horse-flesh, are strongly advised to confer with a veterinary surgeon, asking him to go and examine the pony and report accordingly. First-class ponies are obtainable at many horse repositories, in fact, the sale - yards constitute the principal media of horse exchange, and the conditions of sale and purchase are fairly equitable. Many of the purchaser's troubles arise simply because he has not taken the trouble, or else failed to appreciate the description of his unfortunate purchase, the moral is, read and re-read the description relating to the pony which it is contemplated to purchase. When a pony is bought at public auction and does not satisfy the description given, it must be returned within the time specified by the regulations, accom- panied by a certificate setting forth the reasons for its return. If it has been warranted sound in the descrip- 237 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM tion, then a veterinary certificate must accompany its return. If buying from a dealer of repute, one can gener- ally get the pony for a week or ten days' trial ; if so, nothing more reasonable can be expected. Another method of purchase is to advertise one's requirements in some paper, such as The Field, Live Stock Journal^ etc., or in any of the local papers, especially such as principally circulate among the agricultural community. Be careful, however, to state requirements pre- cisely, in order to avoid a lot of useless negotiation. These remarks are equally applicable concerning the sale of a pony, as private sale, certainly, consti- tutes one of the best methods for obtaining at a reason- able price. A word of caution is requisite to the seller, and this is, never warrant a pony as sound, without having the satisfaction of knowing this by professional ex- amination, as no layman or horse-dealer (no matter how much he may know) is competent to make such a dogmatic assertion, and nothing tends to make the seller look more foolish than when an expert points out to him the absurdity of such warranty. Experience constitutes one of the best guides even in horse-dealing, but no amount of such experience will convert the knowledge of the non-professional into that of the professional examiner. 238 CHAPTER XVI How TO Examine a Pony as to Soundness I THINK that it is universally acknowledged that, when contemplating the purchase of a pony, the most economical plan is to employ a M.R.C.V.S. No matter however skilful and experienced the amateur may be, he will never be in a position to ascertain many of the defects that may exist in an animal in a disguised or modified form, though of significance to the professional mind. I have known a considerable number of people who have bought ponies on their own judgment, and it has usually happened that they have had cause to regret their lack of professional examination before purchase. There is a hundred and one reasons why I urge those about to purchase a pony to have a veterinary examination of the animal before deciding, as many pounds may be saved, to say nothing of the annoyance and inconvenience that may be brought about when this precautionary measure has been neglected. The usual professional fee charged for the examination of a pony as to soundness, together with certificate, ranges from half to one guinea, but if the practitioner has some distance to travel by train, the additional expenses are of course generally charged. Incomplete examinations at fairs, markets, and repositories, are not, as a rule, very satisfactory, the facilities for thorough examination being defective. A modified fee is occasionally charged under such circum- 239 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM stances, though such is not obHgatory on the part of the expert. It may happen that circumstances necessitate the intending buyer becoming his own examiner, hence the advisability of acquaintance with the systematic examination of a pony as to soundness, as "method" constitutes the basis of the expert's work. For con- venience we may regard the animal as consisting of symmetrical portions, the line of division extending from the right nostril along the head and backbone to tail and hind limbs of the same side, so that one half of the anatomy can be examined — say the right side of the body — and then the left half. Systematic examination, coupled with a fairly good knowledge of the principal defects, carried out carefully, will yield much more satisfactory results than a slip- shod overhauling of first one part of the body and then some other portion of it. Before commencing to examine a pony, it is usual to satisfy oneself as to the suitability of it for the purpose required ; to drive it in traffic, or ride it accordingly. Take particular notice of its conformation, whether such is good, bad, or indifferent (see Chapter on Conformation.) Defects in the conformation of a pony may be obvious at a glance, but in other instances only during action or after critical inspection. Defective action does not necessarily amou7tt to unsoundness^ neither does defect of conformation, though both may ''predispose'' the animal to injury and subsequently render it unsound. It must not be expected that the seller will point out defects, unless to hide something of a worse character, as for instance where one injury 240 HOW TO EXAMINE A PONY is inflicted and another one wilfully done in order to overshadow the primary one. Tricks of this kind are occasionally resorted to by unscrupulous vendors, whilst excuses to account for certain abnormalities when such exist, are the rule, certainly not exceptional, so that buyers must always be on the alert, otherwise the novice may easily be caught napping. The opportunities for careful observation are of course much greater when purchasing from a private source than at a repository, etc. If buying at public auction, read and re-read the wording of the announcement relating to the animal you contemplate purchasing, there being a difference between warranty and that of representation {see Chapters on Buying, Selling, and the Law of Warranty), a fact that may easily lead the unwary astray. When buying from a dealer or from a private party it is better to visit the owner's premises to examine the animal, without previous arrangement of time, if this can be conveniently managed, so that there may be no preparation of the pony to be examined. If necessary, measure the height, taking care to have the animal placed on level ground, preferably on the road or street, as it is possible to make a pony measure a few inches more or less, according to the requirements of the intending purchaser, by raising or lowering the pony in front. In the absence of a measuring standard, an ap- proximation to the height can be obtained by using the ordinary inch-tape, each four inches being equivalent to one hand. Q 241 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Some ponies manifest vice only when in harness, others in the stable only. Shivering, curb-biting, heaving and wind-sucking are commonly discoverable in the stable, unless ex- ception be taken to the first-named, which is often difficult to detect either in or out of the stable. If purchasing from a private source or from a dealer it is a good plan (in the presence of a witness) to ask whether the animal is free from all forms of vice, and if the seller answers in the affirmative, this may be accepted as a verbal warranty as to such freedom from vicious habits. Stand the pony on level ground and take a general survey of the animal, noting its conformation ; follow this up by observation at the walk and then at the trot. If there is any sign of lameness it is useless to proceed any further, as a lame pony is certainly not a sound one, no matter if but temporary. A pony that takes a short, cat-like step, going upon its toes, has, in all probability, an incurable disease of the forefeet — navicular disease. This foot disease is very common amongst cheaper kinds of horses, or those that have been worked a lot on hard ground. They have a very "stilty" action in front and wear their foreshoes very much at the toe. Such a pony, commercially regarded, is valueless, and really not fit for any work unless on the land. Much the same remark applies to a pony that has flat soles or a chronic form of foot-founder. Begin the examination in detail, by standing on the near side of the pony, at the head, and examine the interior of the left nostril for evidence of discharge (chronic nasal catarrh), etc. Grasp the tongue with 242 HOW TO EXAMINE A PONY the right hand in order to examine the mouth and teeth. Take note of the incisor teeth, so as to ascertain the age. (See Age, and how to know it.) If for immediate use it is not advisable to purchase a pony under five years, at which age there will be a complete set of permanent incisor teeth. The molar or grinding teeth should also be examined to ascertain whether these teeth are all regular and sound. The angle of the cheek — for evidence of a pulling — may be noted and felt for thickenino- or scars. The riofht hand should be run along and beneath the lower jaw and from here down the neck, along the jugular groove. Any swelling about the throat, or previous wound on the jugular vein, will very likely be observed. Complete perviousness of the vein can be ascertained by momentary pressure upon it with the thumb at the root of the neck, indicated by distension of the vessel with blood from top to bottom. The poll and the withers should be examined as the seats of poll evil and fistula, both of which diseases are easily recognised. The examination of the eyes is usually deferred until the general examination is concluded. We have now arrived at the fore (near) limb, which offers, for examination, inner, outer, anterior and posterior surfaces. The front face of the limb should be examined first, which is done by passing the right hand along it from above to below. Blemished knee ; thorough-pin of the knee, or en- largement of it from various causes, may be present ; if so, will easily be noticed. In trifling instances of blemished knee, there may be no other evidence than 243 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM that of a few white hairs, or the hair shorter than normally. Then one requires to look at the face of the knee critically in order to ascertain the truth as to whether the pony has had a fall or otherwise. The front of the canon, fetlock, pastern and hoof will be examined in their turn. Enlargement of the former and bony growths are occasionally present, if so, will be felt on manipulation with the hand, whilst sandcrack, if present, ought to be seen. On the outer face of the limb there is not, as a rule, any defects, excepting wasting of the shoulder muscles, splint, and at the quarter and heel, either quittor, or else sidebone, though the last-named disease is uncommon amongst ponies. It can be detected by pressure upon the extreme back part of the hoof along the upper border. This region should yield like a piece of rubber when pressed with the thumb. In sidebone this springy feel is lost. A modified form of sidebone sometimes exists, in which the lateral cartilages are indurated, and only partially lose their elasticity or yielding power. If splint is present, it may be at the side of the canon-bone, if so, it will be felt. False quarter is an abnormal condition of the hoof and comprises the existence of a vertical furrow and thinning of the hoof wall at this part. It is, when existent, usually on the inner quarter of the wall, and regarded as representing unsoundness, because it pre- disposes the part to sandcrack. The inner face of the limb should now be examined, and such examination extends from the elbow to the foot. The "point of the elbow" is occasionally 244 HOW TO EXAMINE A PONY "'capped " through bruising, and usually (though not always) done by the heel of the shoe. Above or below the knee, on the surface of the leg, there may be evidence of speedy -cutting, indicated by one or more scars, or more extensive abrasion, depending upon either the severity of the injury or the time that it has been in existence. If a pony is narrow in front, turns its toes inwards and has rather high action, it is very likely to "speedy-cut," consequently liable to stumble or fall. Reaching the canon, the possible existence of "splint" must be borne in mind. Sandcrack, sidebone, and false-quarter are the principal diseases affecting the surface of the foot. Attention must be directed to what is called neurectomy, as the high operation is performed on the inner side of the forearm just a little below the elbow. A portion of the nerve is cut out for the destruction of sensation, in order to obscure lameness, arising from some unknown cause, as a rule. A slight scar remains as a legacy of the operation. A similar one is some- times performed at the hollow of the fetlock (inner and outer side) for the relief of foot-lameness. In both instances the pony is spoken of as having been unnerved. Loss of sensation is present below the scar of operation, consequently the animal does not respond if the part is pricked with a pin. Proceed to examine the back of the limb ; flex the knee and fetlocks joints ; feel for splint below the knee and along the back and sides of the canon-bone, also for sp7'ained or thickened tendons, windgall, ringbone, thrush of the foot, canker of it, flat sole, seedy-toe, contracted foot or feet, etc. Diseases of the feet are exceedingly common 245 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM amongst horses of all classes, though probably less so in ponies. Common faults are upright or "boxy" feet, and this condition of contraction of one or both forefeet is very often associated with navicular disease, thus causing the pony to go upon its toes, rendering the action in front short and cat-like. It is better to defer the examination of the feet until the pony has been examined in a general manner, because it is advisable to have the shoes on the forefeet removed in order to facilitate a thorough examination of the feet. The hand should not be passed over the ribs and along the spine for evidence of sore back, past or present. Small white patches of hair on the back, shoulders, etc., are evidence of previous sores, though not necessarily detrimental. Stiffness of the back or loins is not a rare fault in ponies, though in a pony used for Polo or hunting purposes a stiff back con- stitutes a most serious fault, but one that is only discoverable by bending and turning the animal freely. The floor of the belly, inner sides of the thighs, sheath and scrotum should be inspected. If an entire pony, the last-named ought to be felt for evidence of both testicles, if a gelding, that both have been removed as indicated (though not positive evidence) by the scar on each side of the purse. Some operators — though not many — remove both testicles through one opening. In the case of a " rig," the scrotum might be purposely scarred in order to deceive. Instances of this kind are not frequent, though not unknown. The general behaviour of the animal is the only reliable guide under these circum- stances. 246 HOW TO EXAMINE A PONY Compare the quarters and note any defects of conformation in the region of the hind limbs, such as turned-in toes, too much dayhght between the hocks, screwed hock, etc. Pay particular attention to the examination of the hocks, so much depending upon soundness in this region. The principal diseases affecting the hocks are : bone-spavin, curb, enlargement of the hock (bog- spavin), stiff hock, psoriasis (skin disease) and thorough- pin. Bone-spavin can usually be both seen and felt, as it comprises a variably-sized bony prominence upon the inner portion and lower aspect of the hock or hocks. By standing in front of the thigh and viewing the inner surface of the hock obliquely, any slight enlargement or prominence beneath the skin will be seen just at the junction of the joint with the canon or shank. The sense of touch will be a great aid in the decision, though less so if both hocks are uniformly spavined. Again, what are termed "coarse hocks" are occasionally mistaken for spavin, and the converse. A good deal of experience is requisite under these circumstances in forming an accurate or fairly accurate opinion. Very often the action is faulty through the presence of spavin, whilst lameness is often present, but not a constant accompaniment, especially after the spavin (the legacy of the inflammatory action) has become obvious. Dormant forms of bone-spavin occasionally exist, producing an unaccountable lameness, often of a most persistent nature. In cases of this kind the diseased activity is progressing in the interstices of the bones of the hock. It is known as occuit spavin. 247 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Under the term "stiff" hock must also be included a general swelling of the joint, either of an "acute," or chronic nature. So long as stiffness exists — no matter whether temporary or permanent — the animal is unsound. Now as to curb. One or both hocks may be affected with curb, which consists of a variously- sized prominence at the back of the hock, a few inches below the point of it, and most readily dis- cernible when viewed in profile, yet may easily escape observation unless the seat of curb is critically inspected. The tendon sheath or the ligament are implicated in curb. So far as the utility of the animal is concerned a curby hock or hocks may be no detriment, yet it is customary to reject such ponies when examining for soundness. Bog-spavin is indicated by a soft or puffy condition of the true hock joint (see structure of joints), and may or may not be detrimental. Psoriasis may be looked upon as corresponding to a chronic form of eczema, denoted by a thickened and scurfy condition of the skin, usually situated in the bend of the hock, but it is not so commonly observed in ponies as in heavy horses. Thorough-pin will be recognised as a puffy swelling just in the hollows of the hock at its inner, outer, or both sides, due to a distended condition of the synovial sheath of the flexor pedis tendon, closely allied to bog-spavin and windgall. The distension varies in its size, and can be made to bulge from side to side by pressure with the fingers. Young horses are those most generally affected, though chiefly of the heavier class. Sprain of the back sinews (chronic) constitutes 348 HOW TO EXAMINE A PONY the chief remaining defect to look for when complet- ing the examination of the hind limb, excluding diseases of the feet, such as canker thrush, also for evidence of flat sole, etc. This completes the ex- amination of the near side of the animal, and the same is repeated on the off side, in exactly the same manner and with the same care. The examination of the pony as to soundness of wind, eyesight and the feet, may follow the general examination, or precede it, according to fancy. The defects of the respiratory organ must be tested for and these are roaring (also whistling) and broken wind. In testing for roaring (an abnormal respiratory sound arising through variable causes) it is customary to make a feint to strike the animal by placing it against a wall, holding the bridle with the left hand and the stick in the right. If the pony is touched in its wind the probability is that it will grunt under the fear of being struck. Some ponies will grunt and yet be apparently sound of wind, so that this test must not always be accepted without positive evidence. If a pony grunts under this preliminary test then it is expedient to put it to severe exertion in order to settle the matter, pro or con. This can be done by galloping the pony in a park or on heavy land, or driving it at a smart pace up hill in harness. "Whistling" may be regarded as a modification of roaring. Broken wind is denoted by the presence of a soft, hollow cough, provoked by lightly compressing the top part of the throat with the fingers. 249 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM In addition to this cough — so characteristic of broken wind — there is a peculiarity noticeable in con- nection with the breathing. The expiratory (giving out) effort is "broken" or "double." Inspiration is performed quite normally, so that when the chest wall is carefully observed there will be seen a furrow or channel running along the wall of the chest during the expiratory efforts. By trickery the cough may be kept in abeyance, but not the defective breathing. Many an innocent purchaser has been taken in with a broken-winded horse, the market value of which is practically nil. In nine cases out of ten roaring is permanent and incurable, but broken wind is incurable in every instance, the copper being the only cure, according to Nimrod's Remarks on the Condition of Hunters. After testing for soundness of wind the eyesight must be considered, but the non-professional is seriously handicapped in this part of the examination. Cataract and opacity of the cornea (complete or partial) are the chief defects of the vision, apart from acute inflammation (ophthalmia) of the eyes. Defects of the cornea, such as flatness, undue prominence, etc., are, occasionally, causes of impaired vision. Small, sooty bodies (corpora nigra) are attached to the margin of the iris, and in some cases have produced (by displacement or excessive development) defective sight. In strong light the pupil contracts so that the lens cannot be examined under these circumstances. By shading the eye the pupil dilates (enlarges) and allows the crystalline lens at the back of the eye to be seen. In the healthy condition it should appear perfectly 250 HOW TO EXAMINE A PONY clear, but when diseased variable-sized opaque spots make their appearance, or the whole lens may become cloudy, according to the extent of the disease. Any visual defect — no matter how slight — neces- sarily handicaps a pony and mutually detracts from its marketable value, though not necessarily its utility. The ophthalmoscope and the lighted candle are the usual appliances used for the examination of the horse's sight, apart from the inspection previously alluded to. The fore-shoes should then be removed and the condition of the sole and wall noted, also the inner quarter of the sole, for the presence of a corn (bruise). Seedy-toe or separation of the wall and sole must be looked for as low-class dealers have been known to fill up the hollow thus produced in order to deceive the unsuspecting buyer. There are two other fairly common defects, viz., shivering and string-halt, either or both of which are often exceedingly difficult to detect, especially the first named. A shivering exhibits a sudden quivering of certain of the muscles, especially when made to back or turn suddenly around. String-halt is denoted by the spasmodic upward jerk of one or both hind limbs, and in exceptional instances the fore-limbs. In their incipient stages these troubles are usually very difficult to detect and may escape notice for weeks or months. Some form of excitement will very often bring the slumbering defect to light. Both are looked upon as unsoundness, though neither incapaci- tate a pony from work. In detailing the foregoing examination of a pony 251 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM as to soundness, obviously there are many defects of the body that have not been alluded to, some of which may be significant, others less so, but it is quite im- possible to indicate, within the compass of a short chapter, anything beyond the principal causes of unsoundness. If purchasing a pony, the most eco- nomical plan is to have the animal examined by an experienced M.R.C.V.S,, the fee for which ranges from half to one guinea according to circumstances, exclusive of travelling expenses. AUCTION SALE REGULATIONS "^ Messrs Tatter salPs Auction and the warranty of horses at this auction^ as defined in Clause VIII. of the Condition of Sale, are itt accordance with the following terms, which is useful for both buyers and sellers to know: — Horses described as : Good Hunters most be sound in wind and eyes, quiet to ride, have been hu ted, and be capable of being hunfced. Good Hacks must be sound in wind and eyes, quiet to ride, and not lame. Good Harness Ponies must be sound in wind and eyes, quiet in the harness specified, and not lame. Good Polo Ponies must be sound in wind and eyes, quiet to ride, go to a ball, and be capable of being played. Hunters, Hacks, Polo Ponies, Harness Ponies, without the word "good" are not warranted beyond that the animals so described have been so used. Horses sold with a warranty that they are quiet to ride or drive must also be workably sound, and not have any infirmity or disease that renders them incap- able of reasonable work. Horses cannot be described as " regularly " or " constantly " driven in harness unless also warranted quiet in harness. Horses described with good action must not be lame. Horses described as good fencers or jumpers are not warranted unless the horses are sold as "good hunters," and then only that they will jump when with hounds. Horses are not described in the catalogue as warranted " sound." Horses that have been unnerved must not be sold with any description that carries a warranty. A Veterinary Certificate must either be sent with all horses returned for not answering any warranty of soundness, or reach Messrs Tattersall by post on Thursday morning. The word " horses " applies to ponies in the same sense as that of larger horses. 252 CHAPTER XVII Defects in Relation to Soundness or otherwise reconsidered Blindness. — All forms of blindness constitute un- soundness, no matter whether such blindness be partial or complete, temporary or permanent. Broken Knee. — A broken knee or knees cannot be looked upon as representing unsoundness, unless the integrity of the knee-joint has been injured, imped- ing its free movement. The simpler forms of broken knee are usually regarded as nothing more than a blemish, though a pony with blemished knee has diminished in market value. Broken Wind. — It seems almost needless to state that this renders a pony unsound. Bog-Spavin. — In the consideration of this a great deal will depend upon circumstances. If the joint is much enlarged the swelling will interfere with its freedom of movement, therefore the condition will have to be regarded as sufficient to cause rejection of the animal. On the other hand, if there is only a very moderate degree of "puffiness" about the hock- joint it is not correct to regard this as constituting unsoundness. Blood- Spavin. — A distended condition of the saphena vein as it passes over the back. It is not 253 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM the slightest detriment, and of no significance in any- way. Bone-Spavin. — Although bone-spavin may not interfere with the animal's utility, it is essential to regard it as an unsoundness, for the reason that its existence is abnormal and may lead to lameness at any time. Catarrh. — Both in acute and chronic forms catarrh renders the animal unsound, and if a horse has a cold at the time of sale it can be returned if there has been a warranty given as to soundness. Capped Hock. — Although capped hock may, and does not as a rule, interfere with the utility of the animal, it occasionally happens that acute inflammation is set up (by a blow, etc.) in the enlarged part. My view is that a capped hock, if well marked, is sufficient to constitute unsoundness, no matter whether it causes lameness or not. It is distinctly abnormal. Capped Elbow. — Precisely the same remarks are applicable to this condition as those applied to capped hocks. Some capped elbows cause a lot of incon- venience, and sometimes keep the animal off work. Cataract. — In its incipient or in its advanced stages cataract will, if a warranty of soundness has been given, vitiate any contract. Corns. — A corn most certainly constitutes un- soundness, no matter however slight, as the beginning of it usually leads to further trouble. Distinctions of " degree " are quite untenable views as to a defect being the cause for the rejection of a horse relating to its soundness or otherwise. Contraction of the Foot. — Contraction of the foot 254 DEFECTS IN RELATION TO SOUNDNESS or feet (both fore) usually occurs at the heel, and may be either significant of disease (navicularthulis) or the result of bad shoeing. By allowing frog-pressure (if no disease) the foot will again resume its normal condition. Curb. — A curb constitutes unsoundness, though "curby-hocks," i.e., over-bent ones, do not. It is seldom that curb produces lameness. Cutting. — If a pony is constantly "cutting " through defective conformation of the limbs, then "cutting" must be looked upon as representative of unsound- ness, as the chances are that lameness will arise and thus interfere with the utility of the animal. This is the author's view, though not generally entertained by veterinary surgeons. Cough. — If present at the time of sale it renders the pony unsound, A cough is merely symptomatic, and accompanies many acute, and some chronic, affections. Fever in the Feet, or Foot-founder. — This disease necessarily renders a pony unsound, no matter how long since the animal had the disease. It pre- disposes to lameness and to a recurrence of the complaint. " Dropped sole " is the best evidence of its previous existence. Grease. — This is a skin disease affecting the heels, particularly of the hind limbs. Its existence renders the animal unsound. Glandei's. — It is hardly necessary to mention this as a cause of unsoundness. Ma7tge. — A contagious skin disease, and if a pony is sold with this disease, and the owner proved to be 255 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM aware of it at the time of sale, the seller would be liable in damages arising through such sale. Megrims. — This term is applied to a complaint that is allied to a fit or vertigo, in which seizure the animal loses control over its movements, often falling suddenly to the ground. A pony that is affected in this manner is totally unsafe to ride or drive, unless for some very menial kind of labour. Mallenders. — A chronic skin disease, as a rule appearing about the back of the knee joint. It is a troublesome complaint to cure. I regard its existence as sufficient cause for the rejection of a horse as to soundness. Navicular Disease. — A disease affecting one or both of the fore-feet, arising in connection with the navicular bone. It is incurable. A horse having this disease is popularly, or rather vulgarly, known as a " Grog'' and its action is spoken of as being "groggy," or "stilty." Nerve section is occasionally resorted to for the relief of the lameness attendant upon this affection ; if so, the animal is spoken of as being ''unnerved^' or ''undone''' Ophthalmia. — Unsoundness. Pumiced Foot. — The foot becomes malformed and flattened. It usually arises through lameness. It is, needless to say, indicative of unsoundness. Quitter. — Suppuration around the coronet. A pony thus affected is unsound. Quidding. — Dropping food out of the mouth during mastication, so that the animal does not thrive as the result, and therefore it is unsound. Ruptures. — Any form of rupture necessarily renders the animal unsound, though exception must be taken 256 DEFECTS IN RELATION TO SOUNDNESS to the umbilical ruptures so frequently observed in foals and colts. Ringbone. — U nsoundness. Roaring. — Unsoundness. An abnormal respiratory sound heard, as a rule, whilst the animal is at work, and commonly due to an incurable disease of some of the muscles of the larynx, though it arises from variable causes. Splint. — The relationship of splint to unsoundness will greatly be influenced by circumstances. Strictly speaking, splint ought always to be regarded as rendering a pony unsound, though few veterinary surgeons would feel disposed to thus regard it if the pony is over four years and free from lameness, with a small splint in a good situation upon the canon bone. The age of the pony, the size, form, position, etc., must all be weighed when making a deduction of splint in relation to soundness or otherwise. Knee splints are looked upon with disfavour. If a pony is sold with a warranty of soundness it can be returned if splint existed at the time of sale. String-halt. — An involuntary upward jerking of a limb or limbs, usually the hind one, though occasionally a fore one. A horse affected in this manner is unsound. Spavin. — {See Bone, Bog and Blood-Spavin.) Sandcrack. — A crack or fissure in the wall of the hoof, beginning at the coronet and extending down- wards, sometimes to the lower border of the wall. A pony with sandcrack is unsound. Seedy-Toe. — -Like sandcrack this is (unless con- cealed by artifice) a patent defect and renders the horse unsound. R 257 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Strangles. — This constitutes unsoundness. Speedy-Cutting. — A speedy-cutter is looked upon by veterinary surgeons with disfavour, owing to the predisposition to collapse through the pain inflicted when the part is struck. If an examiner discovered that a pony was ad- dicted to speedy-cutting he would certainly reject it, unless it could be proved that it arose through bad shoeing. Shivering. — An incurable disease denoted by the involuntary quivering of certain muscles. If shiver- ing can be proved to have existed at the time of sale it will invalidate a contract of warranty as to soundness. Sidetone. — Unsoundness. Slipped Stifle. — Unsoundness. Its previous ex- istence, when a warranty of soundness has been given, would nullify the contract of sale. Sore Back and Shoulders. — If present, the pony is not sound and should be carefully inspected to ascer- tain the cause. Sinews, thickened. — Thickening of the sinews, either in the fore or hind limbs, renders a pony unsound. Thrush of the Foot. — ^In slight cases thrush is not of much importance, but if the feet are badly affected with thrush the author always considers that sufficient ground for rejection. Opinions are divided upon the point, but the part is diseased for the time being, therefore it is impossible to regard it as being otherwise than un- sound. If a man buys a horse he does not anticipate having to treat it for even the most trivial affection. 258 DEFECTS IN RELATION TO SOUNDNESS Thorough-pin. — It is seldom that thorough-pin does the slightest harm, but it is customary to look upon its existence as a cause for rejection. Whistling. — This is a respiratory defect, allied to, or a modification of, roaring, and, like that abnormal sound, representative of unsoundness. Wind- Site king. — A wind-sucker is not a sound horse, and should always be rejected. {See also Vices.) 259 CHAPTER XVIII Vices Outside the Stable {See also Stable Vices) Many horses have objectionable habits, either in or out of harness, some of which are referred to under the heading of " Stable Vices," Chapter XXVI. If a horse has been warranted free from vice, and if it can be clearly proved such faults were in existence at time of sale, the purchaser has a right to claim restitution of the price paid. In questions of this kind it commonly happens that the vendor argues that such vice has arisen either through mismanagement or unskilfulness subsequent to sale. Shying This is a most objectionable habit and one that may become dangerous. It arises from a variety of causes and ponies are particularly prone to this annoy- ing practice. There is no doubt it is frequently the outcome of pure nervousness, and when a pony shies at such trifling objects as bits of paper, pools of water and a variety of similar things, also at shadows, etc., it may be concluded that it is the outcome of a nervous habit and not due to any visual defect. Once ac- quired it is very difficult to eradicate. The writer concludes that the best method of dealing with it is the sharp application of the whip applied at the right moment, repeating the castigation at such offence until 260 VICES OUTSIDE THE STABLE the animal has learnt to associate the effect with the cause. But plenty of work constitutes one of the most effective methods for its prevention. Shying at such as motor-cars, traction-engines and other road nuisances, is sufficient evidence that the animal has not been broken to the presence of these, so that if a pony has been sold with a warranty ex- pressive of freedom from vice it would constitute a breach of such warranty if such occurs. It is due to nervousness, but the same remark would hardly apply to fright from abnormal sounds, such as the firing off of a gun, a railway engine whistle, a clap of thunder, a band, etc. Visual defects are unquestionably a frequent cause of shying, so that, in every instance, it is expedient to have the eyes carefully examined — which, although apparently normal, may not in reality be so. Around the pupillary opening, i.e., the pupil of the eye, several sooty bodies will, on examination, be noticed. These are called the corpora nigra, and, in some cases, they grow too large, projecting over the line of sight, whereas in other cases they may be displaced and thus become the cause of shying. (See Diseases of the Eye.) BoUinz Bolting is one of the most dangerous habits, frequently leading to destruction of life and property. Once an animal has bolted there is greater liability to a repetition of the offence. Some ponies will bolt on the slightest provocation, whilst in harness or saddle ; and, in some instances, bolting is associated with kicking, which renders this vice doubly dangerous. 261 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Sometimes a pony will commence to kick in harness and end by bolting, whilst in other cases the con- verse applies. Any sudden fright may be the cause of bolting, and yet this is not necessarily indicative of vice. If a pony be left unattended — no matter how well schooled it may have been to stand quiet — it is, through sudden alarm, liable at any time to bolt. Evidence of a pony being a confirmed kicker or bolter will, if there has been a warranty embodying freedom from vice, constitute a breach of such warranty, and the animal should be at once returned to the vendor. Kicking" sometimes results from irritation within the rectum, such as the presence of pin-worms and the red bot., and ceases when the source of irritation has been removed. A variety of causes does, however, give rise to this practice — such as oestrum, irritation from harness or reins, contact with the gig, and so forth. When a pony has been kept in the stable for some days and liberally fed it naturally follows that it bears a spirited inclination, but this must not be confused with the vice of a confirmed kicker. {See also Stable Vices.) Biting A biter is, necessarily, regarded as a dangerous animal. A pony thus disposed should be kept muzzled at all times, excepting feeding hours. A net muzzle can be worn whilst at work. Such ferocious temperament renders a pony dangerous — not only to mankind, but also to other animals. It is incurable. A modified form of this may exist in 262 VICES OUTSIDE THE STABLE many horses whilst being groomed or when tightening the girths, etc., but this cannot be regarded as vice. (See Stable Vices.) /^ earing As to what shall constitute vice in relation to rearing it is difficult to define. Ponies of highly- strung temperament are much given to this practice, especially when insufficiently worked, but this must not be looked upon as vicious conduct. A horse that rears so as to endanger the life of the rider is a vicious animal and, as such, would constitute a breach of warranty. Crib-biting {See Stable Vices.) Setting 07' Jibbing A setter is one that suddenly comes to a stand- still, refusing to move further for a variable period, and it frequently happens that it has to be turned towards home before it can be induced to move ; whilst, if forced, some setters will lie down, and can only be persuaded to get up under pressure or some seductive influence. Peculiarity of temperament is certainly a factor in the development of such a vice. Some ponies will refuse to pass piggeries, tan-pits, slaughter - houses and other malodorous premises. Such vices as these occasionally arise through a different method of harnessing ; for instance, a pony may refuse to go in an ordinary bridle, having pre- viously been driven in an ''open'' one, whilst some ponies will travel in double harness, on one side of the pole only — the result of custom. Therefore, setting or jibbing, though apparently a vice, may 263 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM only have developed into such through some different method of treatment. In the majority of instances it is due to defective breaking, but it must also be borne in mind that " bitting " has frequently something to do with it. A Hard Mouth Some ponies — generally the result of careless "bitting" — become hard on one side of the mouth, and this may actually become a source of danger, through defective response to the stimulus of the pull on the bit. A hard-mouthed pony (equally hard on both sides), though laborious to either ride or drive, is less liable to become a source of danger than one that is unilaterally hard-mouthed. When this habit con- stitutes a source of danger it is correct to regard it as a returnable vice, where a warranty covering the last- named has been given. Backing This may become a dangerous vice, and, certainly, constitutes a breach of warranty, where this has included freedom from vice. A pony given to this habit is, in the writer's opinion, incurable, and usually manages to commence his objectionable practices at the most inopportune moment. In addition to the foregoing vices a pony may exhibit other peculiar faults, i.e., starting suddenly, before one has time to mount or get seated, thus rendering it more or less dangerous, according to the degree of the vice manifested. Weaving has already been alluded to in " Stable Vices " (which see). 264 7' '17^ Yh'.in:: ti!,/i '^.// , 'A -' , M."-h Fig. I Fig. 2 7 ■///•' /<■./«.• YA\n;.^ /)/■■/.■ .,.,.dM'»"'. •'^6'.>... iOntf^ Fig. 3 Fig. 4 TO ILLUSTRATE THE AGES OF PONIES, NINE MONTHS 10 THREE YEARS ''OFF " [ To face page 265 CHAPTER XIX How TO Ascertain the Age of a Pony Prelitniiiary Renia7'ks. — All ponies have two dis- tinct kinds of teeth, which are distinguished as the molars or grinders and the incisors or flippers. In the male — and, of course, the gelding — four tushes are present, though not usually until about the fourth year, being permanent from the time that they^ are cut. Teeth are of two kinds, viz. : those which are cut shortly after birth, though in pairs, are called temporary or sucking teeth, in contradistinction to the teeth that replace them in pairs, and known ^s permanent ones. By replacement in pairs is meant that two appear in the upper jaw (incisors) and a corresponding pair in the lower jaw. The sucking teeth make their appearance in precisely the same paired fashion. The first pair of sucking teeth that appear in the mouth are known as centrals, and are followed by the second pair — the laterals, and lastly by the third pair — corners. These teeth all remain in the mouth until the pony reaches two years, when they are shed in pairs in the order named, at intervals of one year or thereabout, being displaced by \.\\g permane7tt or fast teeth. This shedding of the milk teeth is brought about by the gradual absorption of the fang. The milk teeth are much smaller and whiter than the permanent ones, as will be seen on reference to the 265 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM illustrations depicting temporary and permanent teeth side by side, plainly seen in the cast of a three-year-old. In addition to being whiter and smaller, they do not show the vertical groove on their faces as quickly as the permanent teeth. Moreover, sucking teeth lack the square shape so characteristic of the permanents. A little careful observation will soon enable one to detect the differences at a glance, and it is very im- portant to be able to do this, as it constitutes the basis of knowledge in relation to a pony's age as indicated by the teeth. The tetnporary molar or grinding teeth are only twelve in number and spoken of as the first, second and third molars, owing to the position in the jaws, there being three on either side of the upper and lower jaws. The fourth, fifth and sixth molars make their appear- ance later on and are pei'manent, whereas the first, second and third are replaced by permanent molars. What is termed a wolfs tooth is a supernumerary one in front of the molars. Its presence is of no import- ance. The molar teeth are not much referred to as evidence of age, but it may be necessary to do so in order to verify an opinion as deduced from inspection of the incisors. This can only be done up to a certain age, as later on the molars are not the slightest guide as regards age. Age is judged by the appearances of the cutting surface (tables) of the lower incisors, therefore it is necessary to acquire a slight knowledge of the structure of a permanent incisor tooth. A practical acquaint- ance will materially assist the explanation, so that the 266 Vic. 5 Fig. 6 ''7 Y.ayili.'i """ /,,.'/, hiv'-y Fi<;. 7 Fu;. 8 the teeth as indicative ok age, from " rising " four years to "rising" five years [ To /ace page 267 HOW TO ASCERTAIN AGE OF A PONY reader should obtain or examine specimens of horse's teeth with this aim in view. That portion projecting above the gum is called the crown and it is covered by enamel. The socket is that embedded in the gum and it is covered by cementing substance or crusta-petrosa, whilst the neck of the tooth is encircled by the gum. The bulk of the tooth is composed of dentino, sometimes spoken of as the ivory. The cuttincr surface of the tooth is called its table, in the centre of which there is a dark-coloured mark or cavity. This is the infundibulum,, which in a recently- cut tooth extends right across the table ; But as the tooth wears it gradually alters in shape, finally becom- ing obliterated. Horsemen sometimes speak of it as the "bean" mark. It is surrounded by a ring of ena7nel. This is the inner enamel 7'ing, the outer one being that forming the boundary of the table (outer enamel ring). The changes in the shape of the table and that of the mark are mainly relied upon as a means of judging the age, so that it is necessary to make a careful in- spection, the tongue being gripped with the left hand and slightly withdrawn from the left side of the mouth, whilst the right hand is free to help to get a view of the tables. The age of thorough-bred ponies is dated from ist January, but for all other ponies from ist May. The terms "rising" and "off" are commonly in use amongst horsemen. They may be taken to mean about three months to or after the pony's birthday. Thus, for instance, a pony is ''rising'' four if it is 267 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM about three years and three-quarters; four ''off'' if it is, say, four years and three months. These terms are used more as a matter of con- venience than aught else. When a foal is born it has a pair of central incisors in the top and bottom jaws, also three molars in each of the jaws. At six weeks two more incisors appear. These are the laterals. At two months they are well up. During the next six months matters appear to be fairly stationary, though the jaw grows broader. Soon after eight months the corner milk teeth are through the gum, and at nine months they are in the condition displayed in Fig. i, and at one year (yearling) they meet, when the mouth is closed, i.e., the triangular area seen at nine months is obliterated. This completes the temporary dentation of the incisor teeth, and it is accompanied by the appearance of the fourth molar in each jaw, so that it is quite an easy matter to know a yearling by reference to the fourth molar, recently cut. Altogether the yearling has twenty-eight teeth, i.e., twelve incisors and six- teen molars. Soon after eighteen months the fifth permanent molar in each jaw begins to show itself, and at two years it is well in the mouth, though quite close to the back of the jaw. The tables of the milk teeth gradually wear away, and it now becomes time to replace these teeth with the permanent ones, which Nature begins to do soon after two years. At two and a-half years the central per7nanent teeth are in the mouth, and by the time that the pony^is 268 /•■iy.K Y/iJJus oy/'' v/,v >',v. /./v.y o /•'/<■ y Yr^-iiR^^ ^.■-/■'/•' '' 'In,/ III, Fig. II Fig- 12 THE INCISOR TEETH, FROM FIVE YEARS " OFF " TO EIGHT YEARS " OFF " [ To face page 269 HOW TO ASCERTAIN AGE OF A PONY three years old they will be in the condition depicted in Fig. 3. Precisely the same changes are repeated at three ojffy the laterals being shed and about half-way up when the pony reaches ikree and a half years, whilst rising four is shown very plainly in Fig. 5. hx four years the laterals meet in the same manner that the centrals did at three years {see Fig. 5.) A four-year-old is easily recognised. If it is '' risifig'' four, there will be a notch observed, when the mouth is shut, between the lateral teeth, as de- picted in Fig. 5. A repetition of these changes again occurs at four years off, in which the corner milk teeth are replaced by the permanent ones. These are about half-way up at four and a half years, whilst a rising five is shown in Fig. 8. There is the same notch in the corner incisors as observed at a corresponding period in the middles and laterals. A five-year-old mouth is shown at Fig. 7. This completes the dentition of the permanent incisor teeth. The appearances presented by the mouth of a pony at five years are very striking. The tables of the centrals are well in wear, and so are the laterals, but the corner marks extend right across teeth just like a slit, owing to the tables not being yet formed. The age is now exclusively judged by the tables only. At five years ''off'' the front edge of the corner teeth is the only part worn, and it is not until the pony is six years that the hinder edge reaches the level of the front edge, yet it is hardly in wear. Five, six, seven and eight years are most important 269 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM ages to horsemen, therefore a good deal of care is requisite to differentiate more particularly at or about six, seven and eight. Thousands of horses are sold as seven-year-olds that are nearer ten or twelve years. The horse-seller knows quite well that none but an expert will be able to rectify these little but convenient errors of judgment. Horses can be manufactured, so to speak, to suit all requirements as regards age. At seven years the corner teeth have their tables well formed, whilst the tables in the Tniddles and laterals are triangular, though the central mark is still elongated. In Fig. II the mouth of 2i seven-year-old ". "" "., Fig. 13 Fig. W!;v-2^ i. '/"1 P^^ cent, of carbohydrates, and about 38 per cent, of cellulose. If straw be fed to ponies they ought to have a few roots or other succulent food to counteract its tendency towards constipation. Linseed cake does very well for this purpose, so does treacle. Roots. — Judiciously - employed swedes, turnips, mangels and carrots are most useful adjuncts to the forage, more especially carrots, and these are grown extensively for this purpose. When carrots are oriven it is better to wash them and give whole, there being less risk of choking. The average crop of carrots is from ten to twenty tons per acre, and the most suitable soil to grow these roots is one that is sandy and deep. The leaves of the carrot are better than those of any other root crop for dairy cattle. Parsnips are rich in oil and starch, and a few given to a pony every day will help to keep it in good flesh. Mangel-wurzels should be allowed to ripen properly in the pits before being used. The garden beet is another species of mangel, whilst the sugar beet is identically the same, only its sugar-producing properties have been increased by selection. A couple of whole swedes night and morning to each pony will be found beneficial, given them whole. If found to be too relaxing, give less, but much will depend what other forage is used. PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Swedes grow better in Scotland than in England, because the soil is lighter and the climate moist and cool. The best turnips and swedes are those of medium size. Kohl-rabi can be given to horses much in the same manner as the foregoing. Potatoes. — Potatoes are sometimes used as an addition to the chop and corn ; if so, they ought to be boiled, as cases of poisoning have occurred through using uncooked potatoes. Green Food Very diverse opinions are entertained as to the advantages to be gained through turning ponies out to pasturage during the spring and summer, though many owners of mountain and fell ponies allow the animals to remain out both summer and winter, supplying them during the severe weather with a daily allowance of forage. For ponies of this description the practice is one that experience proves to be the most satisfactory, and certainly the most economical. Many horse-owners consider that when a pony is turned out to graze it does not improve the condition of its limbs, owing to the natural exercise that it gets, and also that the green food only pro- duces excess of flesh, encumbering the respiratory organs by pressure of the stomach on the diaphragm, thus favouring broken wind in its development. The author's experience is that it is distinctly advantageous to health to allow a pony out at pastur- age when the grass is young and succulent, provided 318 STABLE MANAGEMENT AND HYGIENE that the animal's condition is not allowed to be inter- fered with ; in other words, that it is not allowed to become soft in flesh through the exclusive use of green meat. It is the life of a pony to have a run at pasture when not required for work, and it is customary for owners to turn their ponies into the park after coming in from work and being allowed to cool in the stable, or by gentle exercise, which is better still. If a pony has been hard worked and begins to show signs of becoming "bowed" at the knees, then there is no better restorative for bracing up the relaxed sinews than the application of a blister and a couple of months at pasturage. I don't say that this may be a permanent cure, but it is, nevertheless, a means of restoring the limbs to a healthier condition. It is a treatment that acts as a tonic at anyrate, and as such is a commendable practice. Green food — no matter whether grazed or cut — has cooling, diuretic and laxative properties, and con- sequently flushes the system of many impurities and sources of irritation. Bots and worms usually clear out of their lodgings when a pony gets its first fill of grass. The combined system of house and grass feeding answers very well where there is convenience for this purpose. The pony is fed in the usual manner during the day-time, and in the evening it is turned into the meadow and not brought up until the following morning. The addition of artificial grasses (clovers, etc.) in a meadow enhances the value of the pasturage. 319 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM When the nights are warm it is perfectly safe to leave a pony out all night, in fact it is better out than stabled. Foals, yearlings and two-year-olds should be as much outdoors as possible, as exercise and pure air are essential aids towards healthy growth. Roadside grazing is a common practice amongst a certain class of pony-owners, and there is no doubt that the grass obtained from such sources — natural grass — is very beneficial, and the plan is one that is praiseworthy if for " thrift " alone. Various Kinds of Green Food. — Most of the green foods, apart from grasses, belong to the natural order leguminosae, or pea or bean family, therefore all are rich in nitrogenous matter, and must be given spar- ingly. The following are some of the principal members used for forage purposes : — The White or Dutch Clover. — This is often grown along with other clovers, though sown in a cereal crop usually with oats or barley. It produces a moderate aftermath or fog, but this is not of good flavour. It is a quick grower and when young makes a capital feed. Red Clover (Trifolium pratense). — This is a capital variety but not suitable for permanent pasture. The leaves are broad and have a distinct white oval spot on them. It is very liable to become attacked with clover sickness if grown oftener than every eight years. Cow Grass (Trifolium pratense perenne). — A variety of red clover yielding a heavy crop, though it does not come to maturity as quickly as the pre- ceding variety and is more suitable for permanent 320 STABLE MANAGEMENT AND HYGIENE pasture. The leaves are narrow and the white spot is not plainly marked. Alsike (Trifolium hybridum). — This clover grows well on damp soils and lasts for three seasons only. It is immune from clover sickness, hence is a good deal grown. The crimson clover, marl grass, yellow hop trefoil and the yellow sucking clover are the remaining ones, and all are allied in their feeding value. Sainfoin (Onobrychis sativa). — There is only one species of sainfoin though there is two varieties of it, viz. : — the common and the giant. Sainfoin is a perennial plant and makes a useful addition to the hay-crop. It should be cut before coming into flower. Ponies are very fond of it. Lucerne (Medicago sativa). — This is a perennial plant suitable for deep calcareous soils. It is very resistant to drought, owing to the deep penetration of the roots into the soil. It may be cut three times in a single season, consequently it is greatly grown for the market, to be sold in bundles at the door to those who keep horses. For green soiling purposes it has no superior. Lucerne in its green state averages from twenty to thirty tons per acre. Vetches or Tares (Vicia sativa). — There are two varieties, viz., spring and winter vetches. March, April, or early in May are the months to sow the spring tare, whilst September is the best month to sow for the winter crop. Vetches will grow well on any soil. If sown for spring forage may be mixed with cereals, such as beans, winter oats, winter rye, etc. X 321 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Ponies are particularly fond of vetches, and a daily- supply of this green meat is invaluable in the spring- time. It is a crop that is very good for smothering out weeds, particularly couch grass. Furze (Ulex Europaeus). — Furze, gorse or whin makes a useful green food for ponies. During the Peninsular War the cavalry horses subsisted many weeks on this forage, gathered and chopped up by the men's sabres. It should be cut up and a little salt added, and then mixed with the other forage to the proportion of one to ten. Grazing and British Grasses There are many species of British grasses, some of which are invaluable as food for ponies, no matter whether given in the green or in the dry state (hay). If the owner is anxious to turn his pony out for grazing purposes, which many proprietors do for two or three months during the summer, he should select a pastur- age, whenever possible, containing grass of the first or second year, and which consists of clover, phleum pratense or Timothy grass, the perennial or the Italian rye grass, the crested dogs-tail, meadow fescue, rough cock's foot grass, meadow fox tail, etc., etc. A pasture in which most of these grasses are absent and York- shire-fog abundant is not a good one, and should be avoided. 322 SOMK BRITISH KOKAGK CRASSES I. Wheat (7>/7/<7/w -/«/ra/ense). 6. Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass (/'t?a/;-rt/t';/«V). 7. Cock's Foot {Dactlylis _^lomerata). 8. Hand Fescue {Festiua dttriscula). 9. Meadow Fescue {Festuca pratensis). 10. Sheep's Fescue (Fesliica ovtna). II. Meadow Fox - tail [Alopeciiria: pratensis). 12. Rye Grass {Lo/ium perentie). [ To /ace pa^e 322, CHAPTER XXVI Stable Vices A PONY may exhibit various forms of objectionable habits, either within or outside the stable, but in this chapter we are concerned with the former only. A distinction must be made between vices that may render a pony dangerous to man or members of the stud and certain pernicious habits which only cause inconvenience and annoyance. It may be impossible to determine the existence of a stable vice at the time of purchase, and unless it can be clearly shown that the existence of such interferes with the utility of the animal no liability attaches to the vendor, unless there has been an express warranty given at the time of sale. All horsemen are well aware how readily a pony will acquire habits of an objectionable nature and how very difficult it is to eradicate such when once acquired. In the schooling of a pony too much care can hardly be exercised to preserve freedom from all influences that subsequently may become detrimental or dangerous. The following are some of the principal stable vices : — Wind- Sucking A "wind-sucker" is one xhdit apparently s^^Wovfs air, making a gulping sound during the act, the 323 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM intensity of the sound being of a variable degree. Once acquired this pernicious habit soon leads to digestive disorders, and, in many instances, has been known to prove fatal. The question arises whether "wind-sucking" must be regarded as cause or effect. If the latter view be accepted one is confronted with the difficulty as to why that system should be so irresponsive to treatment, its permanent nature being well known to all horsemen. Wind-sucking leads to degenerative changes in the wall of the stomach, which becomes thinner and dilated. During the act of "wind-sucking" the neck is arched, the mouth slightly opened, and a measure of air swallowed. Sometimes a fixed body — such as the manger, a post, etc. — is used as a fulcrum. This is a reason why crib- biting is so frequently associated with wind-sucking, but, be it understood, either vice may exist independ- ently, whilst wind-sucking certainly is the more pernicious of the two. Some authorities regard it as being of nervous origin, whereas others believe it is produced by imitation, consequently they refuse to keep a wind-sucker with the other members of the stud. As a preventative the throat-strap is commonly employed, but it requires to be constantly worn to be effectual. When associated with crib-biting, the best way of dealing with it is to have adjustable fittings, or some other contrivance to prevent the animal seizing hold of the manger, etc. Crib-Biting This is an extremely common habit, and often associated with the former. A confirmed crib-biter 324 STABLE VICES can readily be recognised by the obliquely-worn edges of the incisor teeth in both the upper and lower rows. The author believes that one of the principal causes of crib-biting is idleness and that one horse readily teaches another the habit. A pony given to crib-biting will eat away any wooden fitments within its reach, but particularly the edge of the wooden manger, so that it is better to have either the portable fittings or those that are made of some indestructible material. Failing this the animal must be muzzled or fed off the ground. The best preventative is plenty of work, and horses that are profitably employed have little desire for crib-biting. The liability in the matter of sale, etc., is similar to that referred to under wind- sucking. It is quite possible for a horse to become a crib-biter immediately after sale, especially if kept idle, hence there would be a difficulty in proving breach of warranty (provided that such covered stable vice) apart from evidence afforded by the incisor teeth. Tearing Clothing Some ponies are specially given to tearing their bandages and body clothing, which is a most objec- tionable habit and one causing expense and annoyance to the owner. Horses and ponies addicted to this should be given plenty of work, but not of an inter- mittent nature. The preventatives commonly used are : — The muzzle, the cradle, tying the head up short, etc., all which — in the author's opinion — are secondary to work as a remedy. A simple contrivance to prevent this is that of 325 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM attaching a rod from the head-stall to the surcingle by means of two swivels and rings. Pawing and Scraping Ponies given to this habit render their bedding very untidy and are very liable to blemishes through lying on the hard flooring. In some cases this fault is the result of disease of an incurable nature, the gnawing pain being referable to pain in the navicular bone, etc., resulting in excessive wear of the shoe at the toe. Pawing sometimes leads to capped knee through the continued irritation set up by knocking the knee against the manger, etc. Ponies given to this habit should have plenty of work and, if possible, kept in a loose-box. Eating Bedding This is a most pernicious habit and one frequently leading to serious digestive disorder, more particu- larly to constipation and colic. When an animal has acquired this habit it is very difficult to eradicate it, and the only means to prevent it is either to put on the muzzle or to bed with some material that the animal will not consume, such as sawdust or moss litter. Horsemen may feel amused when told that horses will sometimes eat their bedding of bracken fern, shavings, and even moss litter, but this depravity of appetite is distinctly abnormal. A course of vegetable tonics and alkalis is indi- cated, and for this there is nothing better than half an 326 STABLE VICES ounce of bicarbonate of potash and the same quantity of powdered gentian mixed together and given along with the food night and morning. The use of damaged hay encourages this practice : moral, therefore, is to avoid such. The practice is likewise encouraged by putting the litter under the manger, as hay dropped from the rack falls amongst the litter and has a seductive influence towards the consumption of the latter. Kicking Some horses become very dangerous, whilst in the stable, through this vicious practice, and may endanger the lives of attendants, visitors and other members of the stud ; in fact, many instances have been placed on record of deaths arising from this cause. Squishing of the tail and throwing back of the ears are commonly indicative of a vicious temperament, therefore care should be exercised when such signs are manifested. Some horses kick whilst in the stable at night only, others both during day and night, and the continued battering at the point of the hocks sets up a chronic form of inflammation in this region, finally ending in "capped hock," a condition corresponding to "capped knee" and "capped elbow." Many so- called night-kickers are just as bad in the daytime, only the facility for observing this objectionable habit in the daytime is not so readily afforded through pres- sure of work. Horses that have itchy legs are commonly offenders in this direction. If so, suitable treatment must be resorted to. To prevent the infliction of injury to the point of 327 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM the hocks it is a good plan to pad the stall-posts and adjacent parts of the stall, or else fix a piece of gorse, the prick from which will act as a deterrent. A practice sometimes adopted is to put a hobble on the fore and hind limb, with rope of attachment, but this is an unwise proceeding, as the animal's legs may easily become entangled in it. A loose-box affords a capital means for diminishing this practice. Biting or Savaging This is the worst vice a pony can possess, and one that renders it particularly dangerous. The attendant is not safe from attack unless provided with a means of defending himself. Some ponies can only be approached in this manner, and to keep them muzzled in the stable is an impossibility. This vice is fre- quently associated with kicking, along with efforts to squeeze and trample upon the attendant, such a habit not being uncommon in rigs. It may be acquired through abusive conduct towards the animal, as a pony seldom forgets the infliction of torture, which it will endeavour to repay whenever an opportunity presents itself. Feet in Manger, over Halter, etc. These are very objectionable habits, the counter pressure being bad for the opposite foot, whilst there is also a risk of injury if the leg should become en- tangled in the halter, chain, etc., and which the animal may endeavour to free in its struggles. The best plan of dealing with horses addicted to this habit is to keep 328 STABLE VICES ^ them in a loose-box, or to fix the manger well up in one corner. A feeding-tub, placed on the ground, is another method of obviating trouble in this direction. Objection to being Tied up Some horses object to restraint whilst in the stable and will struggle till they free themselves from such. It may be that such an animal has always been kept in a loose-box, or, perhaps, the neck-strap has been used instead of the head-stall. It is a difficult matter to assign a reason for this dislike, and the only remedy — if such there be — rests with the owner's ability to ascertain the cause. Weaving Weaving comprises a rocking motion of the head and neck whilst the animal is in the stable, the move- ments being evidently of an involuntary nature, and probably ascribable to a nervous origin. It is a habit that induces muscular fatigue and pre- disposes wearing out of the anterior extremities. As a corrective it is suggested to keep the animal in a loose-box, but this does not answer in every case. It is an incurable habit and one that must be looked upon as a defect that will, subsequently, detract from the animal's value. 329 CHAPTER XXVII Structure of the Skeleton Introductory In this chapter the author will endeavour to give a brief survey of the various anatomical features pre- sented by the pony, with special reference to the structure of the various organs and functions allocated to each. The reader should make himself acquainted with the main principles of anatomical constitution, so that he will be enabled to correctly appreciate the facts in connection with the construction of the animal mechanism as presented to his observation. It cannot be too strongly emphasised on readers, the acquirement of such rudimentary knowledge which facilitates deductions in relation to health and disease. As the skeleton constitutes the foundation or framework of the animal this part of the anatomy will be considered first of all. Anatomical Outline of the Skeleton. — The bones comprising the skeleton are, for the sake of con- venience, divided into those of the I. Head. 2. Trunk. 3. Lifnbs, all of which during intra-uterine life — and for a variable period during extra-uterine life — are repre- sented by cartilage or gristle, its subsequent con- version into bone being spoken of as "ossification," 330 STRUCTURE OF THE SKELETON which means the deposition of lime salts within the cartilaginous material. All bones are composed of two substances — (a) earthy or mineral, (d) animal matter. The first-named gives the bone its necessary- rigidity, whilst the second constitutes the necessary base for the nourishment and growth of the bone. An undue proportion of either constituent may result in the production of disease, but the organic pre- ponderates in the young, whereas in the aged the earthy constituent is in excess ; hence the reason why broken bones so readily repair in the former, whilst the converse applies in the case of the latter. The bones are divided into long, short, flat and irregular types, and have a layer of compact tissue externally with cancellated or spongy tissue internally — the former conferring hardness, whilst the latter increases the area — especially the articular area — without an undue proportion of weight. Long bones are typically exemplified by those of the forearm, arm and canon. Flat bones by those of the shoulder-blade, skull, etc. Irregular bones are represented by those of the spinal axis, whilst short ones by the carpal and tarsal bones. A typical long bone consists of a shaft and two extremities, and ossifies from three centres — one for the shaft and one for each extremity. Each long bone has a medullary canal filled with marrow, whilst the spongy tissue is filled in like manner. The nutrient artery supplies the bone with blood, and there is a tough, fibrous, nourishing- membrane covering the free surface of the bone. This is the periosteimi, sometimes called the bone-skin. 331 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM If a transverse section of bone be examined microscopically it shows numerous concentric rings, with minute canals {canaliculi) radiating from dark spots {lacu7ice) between the rings, and in the centre of these rings there is a large dark spot, the Haversian Canal, the whole being known as the Haversian System, whilst in the midst is a funda- mental tissue or groundwork substance. The Haversian system serves to transmit the nourishment required for the bones. Taking a general survey of the bones entering into the formation of the skeleton, we meet with many features of interest. The absence of a clavicle or collar-bone, and the union of the fore-limbs by flesh only, are noteworthy, in opposition to that found in the posterior extremities, which, by means of the pelvic girdle, are in direct bony union with the spinal axis. Let us consider the object of such anatomical variation. Freedom of movement and speed are essential desiderata for the horse and pony, and this would be hampered by any bond of union of a bony character in connection with the anterior portion of the body, whilst the forward propulsion of the same is best attained by leverage coming from the posterior part of the anatomy, through the intervention of the pelvic girdle, which acts as a fixed point of leverage. In addition to the foregoing the fibula is very rudimentary in the pony, whereas in man this is a long slender rod of bone running at the side of shin down to the ankle, with which it articulates. Regarded in a comparative light, it is essential to note the correspondence of parts existing between the man and the horse. The fore- 332 STRUCTURE OF THE SKELETON limb of the pony (horse) is practically identical with that of man, excepting that the hand of the animal is represented by a sifig/e digit ; but ancestral forms bore distinct traces of more than one digit, though the deductions from fossil remains are so ambiguous that any opinion is at the best merely hypothetical. The protection of the sensitive foot by horny or insensitive tissue is a characteristic feature of the solidungulates (i.e., mammals with hoofs undivided). In all vertebrate animals discs of cartilage are inter- posed between the articulating surfaces of the body of the vertebrae, which are relatively thin in the horse in comparison with those found in man, such difference being due to the horizontal position of the spinal axis in the former (i.e., of the horse). The presence of a large elastic ligament running along the upper border and sides of the neck, forming attachment between the head and spines of the vertebrae, in the region of the withers, constitutes a feature of interest, conserving, as it does, muscular energy. T/ie Head This is composed of numerous flat bones united by sutures or dove-tailed-like processes on the margins of the adjacent bones. These may be either dentated or serrated, and the bond of union thus formed does not admit of any appreciable movement. During foetal life — likewise for a certain period after birth — the component parts of the skull can be separated, but later on there is a tendency towards obliteration of the sutures, the individual bones being no longer separable. Ill PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM The total number of bones entering into the formation of the head is thirty-two. With the excep- tion of the following six all the bones are in pairs : — Occipital, sphenoid, vomer, ethmoid bone, lower jaw- bone, hyoid or tongue-bone. The head is divided into the cranium and the face, and fourteen bones take part in enclosing the former. The occipital bone is situated at the upper part of the cranium, and is articulated with the first bone of the neck by means of two condyles (i.e., articular processes). The parietal bones unite in the middle line and form the roof of the brain-box. The temporal bones comprise two pairs. In one pair the organs of hearing are contained, called the petrous temporal bones, and a feature of interest in connection with these is that they are the hardest bones in the body. The ethmoid or sieve bone is situated at the lower part of the cranium, separating this from the face. The frontal bones help to form the bulk of air, i.e., frontal sinus, which communicates with the nostril. The frontal sinuses confer a degree of lightness upon the head, being smallest in the young animal. Each sinus is separated from its fellow by a bony partition. The bones forming the face are the nasal, superior maxillary, anterior m.axillary, lachrymal, malar, palatine, pterygoid, vomer, turbinated bones and in- ferior m^axillary bone. The last-named carries the molar teeth on each side, and the incisor teeth in front, and, in the male, the tusks. There is great freedom of movement in an upward and downward direction, likewise laterally. The former (a nodding) movement occurs between the 334 SKELETON OK PONV. I. Femur or thigh bone. 2. Ilium or branch of pelvis. 3. Tibia or second thigh bone. 4. Patella or knee-cap. 5. Os calcis or heel. 6. Astragalus. "J. Metatarsal or canon bone. 8. Outer small splint bone. 9. Large pastern bone. lO. Small pastern bone. Ii. Pedal orcoffinbone. 12. Coccygeal bones. 13. Angle of croup. 14. Radius or forearm. 15. Ulna. 16. Scapula or shoulder-blade. 17. Lumbar vertebrae. 18. Dorsal vertebrae. 19. Cervical vertebra\ 20. Arm or humerus. 21. Lower jaw. 22. Occipital bone. 23. Nasal bone. 24. Ribs. 25. Carpus or knee. 26. Canon or large metacarpal bone. 27. Sternum. [ To face page 335 STRUCTURE OF THE SKELETON condyles and the atlas, whilst the latter is between the atlas and axis (or second bone of the neck). In all well-bred ponies the head is small and the various prominences upon the bones are relatively small, whereas in a coarse-bred animal the head is large and the tubercles, etc. (which serve for muscular attach- ment), are very prominent and coarse. The wedge-shaped character of the head is at once apparent, thus facilitating rapid progression with a minimum of resistance. The Vertebral Column The vertebral axis extends from the atlas bone to the tip of the tail, and comprises the following verte- brae in the order named : — Cervical vertebrae Dorsal „ Lumbar „ Sacral „ Coccygeal „ 7 segments i8 5 (or 6) „ 5 14 to 18 „ A typical vertebra consists of a body, through the upper part of which there is a comparatively wide canal — spine canal. At the anterior end of the body there is a convex articular area which forms, with the vertebra in front, a ball-and-socket joint, though each joint has a disc of cartilage intervening between it and its neighbour. At the posterior end of the body the articular surface is cup-shaped for union with the succeeding vertebra. Oblique articular processes are present to strengthen the bond of union, or else to serve, as in the dorsal vertebrae, for articulation with the upper end of the ribs. The upper surface of the vertebrae, excepting those of 335 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM the neck, have well -developed spines, particularly those in the dorsal region, which serve for ligamentous and muscular attachment. In the region of the loins, sacrum, etc., the verte- brae have well-developed spiny projections from each side of the spinal column. The chief movements executed by the vertebral column in equines are in an upward and downward direction, most evident in the neck, lateral movement being very limited. Traversing the spinal canal, from the brain to the first few vertebrae in the tail, is the spinal chord, the delicate texture of which is sheltered and admirably protected from injury, the vaulted roof of the canal conferring additional safety. Between the vertebrae, and communicating with the spinal canal, on either side, there are notches which serve for the exit of the spinal nerves. The Sternum This forms the floor of the chest. It is composed of eight segments of cartilage, united with only seven ribs, commencing with the second rib, as the first rib articulates with its fellow. It is distinctly keel-shaped, and the front part of it forms the prominence seen in the animal's breast. The Thorax (Chest) As previously stated, the floor of chest is formed by the sternum. The lateral walls are formed by the ribs, plus fleshy structures, etc. 336 VKRTICAL SECTION OK PONY S FOOT AND LOWER END OK CANON. I. Lower end of canon. 2. Long pastern or os suffraginis. 3. Short pastern or OS corona;. 4. Coffin or pedal bone. 5. Navicular or shuttle-bone. 6. Sesamoid bone. 7. Suspensory ligament. 8. Flexor pedis tendon. 9. Front wall of hoof. ID. Coronary cushion. II. Sensitive lamina.' of wall. 12. Sensitive lamina; of sole. 13. Sensitive frog. 14. Horny frog and bar. 15. Inner surface of sole. 16. Sole. [ To face page 336 STRUCTURE OF THE SKELETON The roof is made up of the bodies of the dorsal vertebrae, whilst the base of the thorax — being- cone- shaped — is represented by the diaphragm (or midriff). The apex corresponds with the point of the breast- bone. The ribs number eighteen pairs, and as the first seven are attached to the breast-bone they are called true ribs, the remainder being spoken of as false. The first pair of ribs are the shortest. Each rib possesses a head, a neck and a tubercle at its upper end. The head fits into a hollow, formed between the bodies of two vertebrae, to which it is united by ligamentous attachment, forming a free moving joint. The tubercle forms another articulation with the transverse process of the vertebra behind. The Pelvis The pelvic girdle, or innominate bone, is formed of three bones, namely, ilium, ischium, pubis, but in adult life the individual separation becomes obliterated. In reality the pelvis consists of six segments, owing to its bilateral structure. When the girdle is in position it is united to the sacrum by ligamentous attachment. The ilium is the largest of the three bones, and the roughened inner surfaces are attached in the manner described. The pubis forms the floor of the pelvis, whilst the ischium is placed behind the last-named, and at each outer angle forms what is called the points of the buttock. The inlet of the pelvis is very much wider Y 117 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM than the outlet, and is wider in the mare than in the horse. It is usual to speak of the pelvic girdle, plus its contents, under the title of pelvis, which contains part of the urinary organs and part of the generative organs in both male and female. The construction of the pelvis enables it to form an admirable shelter for the delicate structures con- tained within it, and at the same time constitutes a powerful bond of union between the trunk and the hind limbs. The mass of powerful muscles clothing its surface forms additional protection, at the same time constituting the seat of the greatest degree of muscular energy. The exteryial angles of each ilium forms the angles of the haunch on each side, whilst the internal angles of each ilium is represented by the angle of the croup — the highest point along the spine. Each half of the pelvic girdle has a cup-shaped cavity for articulation with the head of the femur, and forms along with it a true ball-and-socket joint. In addition two large circular openings are present. These are the obturator fora7iiina, which serve for the passage of blood-vessels and nerves, etc., to the hind limbs. The Limbs {a) THE FORE-LIMBS The fore-limbs correspond to the arm and hand of man, and each limb comprises the following bones in the order named : — The Scapula (or shoulder blade). „ Humerus (or arm). 338 STRUCTURE OF THE SKELETON The Radius and Ulna (or fore-arm). „ Carpus (or wrist), consisting of eight bones. ,, Metacarpus (or canon), comprising one large and two small bones. „ Sesamoids (or two small floating bones situated behind the lower end of the canon). „ Large Pastern (or first phalanx), followed by the „ Os CoroncB (or coronet bone). „ Pedal (or coffin bone), imbedded within the hoof Between the pedal bone and the os coronae — at the back of their articular surfaces — there is a small shuttle-shaped bone — the navicular bone. In the normal position of the limb the scapula is placed obliquely, and so is the humerus, but the fore- arm and the canon are perpendicular, whilst the phalanges are obliquely placed, though the degree of obliquity varies. In order that the reader may become familiar with the various bones it is advisable to pro- cure specimens of the bones from a slaughter-house and study each in detail, the most salient features of which are as follows : — The scapula. — This is a flat, triangular-shaped bone with anterior, posterior and inferior angles. Its upper border carries a plate of gristle — the cartilage of pro- longation — the functions of which are obviously to increase the shoulder area, without the addition of rigidity, which would happen if it were replaced by bone, although there is a decided tendency towards such conversion in later life. The outer face of the scapula has a bony spine running perpendicularly over it, dividing it into unequal parts, which are depressed to accommodate muscles. The inner surface also is depressed for the same purpose. 339 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM The scapula rests upon the side of the thorax, which it protects, and to which it is attached chiefly by a fan-shaped muscle {se7'ratus magnus). The lower angle articulates with the head of the arm or humerus to form the shoulder-joint, which is of a ball-and-socket nature. The humerus. — This is a short, stout bone, placed between the lower angle of the scapula and upper angle of the forearm. It is spiral on its outer surface, the spiral being known as the furrow of torsion. The upper articular head is large compared with that of the articular surface of the scapula, hence a dis- location of this joint is extremely rare. At the front of the head of the bone there are two grooves {bicipital grooves), which, with the ridge between, are covered with cartilage, for the play of a pulley-like tendon belonging to the flexor muscle of the arm. At the back of the lower end of the bone there is a deep pit {or fossa), which serves to accommodate the beak (a projection) of the ulna during extreme ex- tension. The pit at the front of the lower end of the bone is called the coronoid fossa, and that at the back the ole- cranon fossa. The lower end of the humerus forms a hinge joint with the ulna. The forearm. — The forearm is composed of two bones, which in early life are separate, but in later life fuse together. The ulna is the smaller bone of the two and pro- jects above the radius, its summit forming the point of the elbow. 340 STRUCTURE OF THE SKELETON The radius is a long bone inclining- slightly forward. In addition to its articulation (ossification) with the ulna it articulates above in a hinge-like joint with the distal end of the humerus, whilst below it articulates with the upper row of the carpal or wrist bones, popularly known as the knee. The carpus (or knee). — This corresponds to the wrist in man. It consists of seven or eisrht short bones, arranged in two rows, which form numerous articulations amongst themselves, in addition to the principal ones contracted between the lower end of the radius and the upper end of the large and small meta- carpals. The articulations between the small bones are of a gliding nature, whereas those between the radius and the upper row, and between the metacarpals and the lower row, are of a true ginglymoid or hinge-like nature, and the greater the degree of movement in these two joints, the higher the action, otherwise called knee action. To diminish the tendency towards the development of such diseases as splint, it is necessary to have a wide articular area on the upper end of the canon bone, a small area giving the knee a " tied-in " appear- ance. The metacarpus or canon-bone. — This is a strong cylinder of bone, slightly flattened from front to back. It is the large metacarpal, but on its postero-lateral aspect it bears two short rods of bone, which are known as the small metacarpal, or splint bones, each of which consists of a head, body, and a button or bony prominence below, frequently mistaken by amateurs for splint. The buttons are particularly prominent in foals. 341 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM There is no flesh clothing the canon, as all the muscles practically cease at the knee and hock, ex- cepting, of course, their tendenous prolongations. The splint bones are quite separate in early life, but later on fusion takes place just as in the case of the ulna. The lower end of the canon articulates with the first phalanx and sesamoids at the back. The sesamoids. — These are a pair of floating bones, pyramidal in shape and maintained in position through the intervention of ligaments, which serve to attach these bones to the first phalanx in addition. They are covered with cartilage to facilitate the play of the great flexor tendon of the foot, just like a rope gliding on a pulley. The suspensory ligament is also attached to the sides. The first phalanx, or large pastern bone. — This is somewhat square in outline and has a broad upper articular area, which has a furrow from back to front, corresponding to a ridge in the lower end of the large metacarpal bone. It articulates below with the second phalanx, or os coronae, which is a short square bone partly embedded in the hoof ; consequently the latter is very seldom the seat of fracture, whereas the first phalanx is not uncommonly smashed to pieces. The third phalanx (os pedis, or coffin-bone) presents many features of interest. It is extremely hard, and its face and sides are per- forated by innumerable minute openings — the pass- ages of blood-vessels. Its lower or solar surface is vaulted, whilst the upper border has wing- like backward projections, and to each wing there is attached a piece of cartilage. 342 STRUCTURE OF THE SKELETON These are the lateral cartilages, which it is important to bear in mind, because in heavy horses they are particularly liable to become transformed into a bony- like material, constituting side-bone. The wall and sole of the pedal-bone is covered by a very vascular membrane, and there is a rich blood- supply to the foot, but the veins have no valves. Articulated to the back of the pedal-bone is a small shuttle-shaped bone — the naviculare — maintained in position by tendon and ligaments. The Hind Limbs The hind limb is composed of the femur or thigh, the patella or knee-cap, the tibia plus the fibula, or second thigh, also known as shin-bone, the tarsus or hock — the point at the back of which is the analogue of the heel in man. The rest of the hind limb is exactly that of the fore-limb, merely substituting the word metatarsal for metacarpal, followed by the three phalanges. Femur or thioh bone. — This is the laroest bone in the body, and owing to its great strength and sheltered position is seldom the seat of injury. The shaft has numerous roughened areas on it as well as several bony prominences — attachments for the muscles of the thigh. The upper end has an articular head which fits into a socket in the innominate bone, forming with it the hip-joint. The lower extremity articulates with the knee-cap, and with the upper end of the shin-bone, there being two thick discs of cartilage interposed between the condyles of the femur and the head of the 343 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM shin-bone. The knee-cap is in reality a floating- bone, placed at the front of the joint, riding up and down on the articular surface (trochlea of the femur), being maintained in position by ligamentous and muscular attachment. This joint corresponds to the knee in man, but it is called the stifle-joint. Tibia or shin-bone (second thigh). — This is a peculiarly-shaped bone, being three-sided above and flattened below. It extends from the femur to the hock, and has a long slender rod of bone connected with its outer side, the head of which is articulated with the tibia. This is called the Fibula. As previously stated when speaking of the thigh - bone, the upper extremity articulates with the femur, but the lower end of the tibia has two deep grooves and three ridges, covered with cartilage, which articulates with a screw-shaped bone in the hock, forming the true hock joint, and the freer the degree of movement, the better the " hock- action." The tarsus or hock. — The hock joint is composed of six bones, not counting the two large bones, namely, the tibia and metatarsal, entering into the formation of the joint. The six bones of the hock are as follows : — 1. The OS calcis 4. Cuneiform magnum 2. The cuboid 5. Scaphoid 3. The astragalus 6. Cuneiform parvum The OS calcis is situated at the back of the hock and its point gives attachment to tendons and muscles — the tendon of Achilles being one of these. The astrao-alus is the larQ;est bone of the hock and presents two pulley-like ridges separated by a 344 STRUCTURE OF THE SKELETON deep groove which articulate with the grooves on the tibia. The back of the astragalus articulates with the OS calcis, whilst its lower face forms a gliding joint with the cuneiform magnum. The remaining bones articulate amongst themselves also with the upper end of the large and small metatarsals. The phalanges need not be described, being the same as described in dealing with the fore-limb, only the pedal bone is more pointed at the toe and is slightly narrower in its transverse diameter. In addition to the foregoing bones entering into the framework of the horse there o is a spur-shaped bone in connection with the tongue, known as the hyoid bone, each half of which is com- posed of five segments, joined by articulations forming free-moving joints and conferring upon the tongue its great mobility. 345 CHAPTER XXVIII THE JOINTS The bones of the skeleton are united in various ways, depending upon the purposes for which the particular bones are used. The movements in connection with the limbs are mainly those oi Jlexion and extension, the degree of lateral motion requisite being small. A hinge joint is typically exemplified in the case of the elbow and true hock, there being a prominence or convexity in one bone with a corresponding de- pression on the other. A ball-and-socket joint necessarily requires no explanation, beyond the fact that the movement may occur in any direction, but in the hip joint of the horse free lateral motion is hindered by the presence of a special ligament in this joint. Pivot joints are typically represented between the bones known as axis and atlas, rotatory movement being the characteristic. Gliding joints allow only a limited amount of motion, of which good examples are afforded between the small bones of the hock and knee. Immovable joints are represented by the junctions of the bones of the cranium and face. The following are some of the principal joints : — Shoulder joint (scapulo-humeral). — This joint has only one ligament (capsular) i.e., a ligament which is 346 TO SHOW THE StlPERFKTAL MUSCLES OK PONY. I. Gluteus medius. 2. Superficial gluteus. 3. Biceps femoris. 4. Tensor vagina- femoris. 5. Caput medius. 6. Serratus posticus. 7. Exterior metacarpi magnus. 8. Exterior pedis. 9. Flexor metacarpi externus. 10. Gastrocnemius. 11. Intercostal muscles. 12. Deltoid. 13. Masseter or cheek muscle. 14. Temporalis. 15. Posterior pectoral muscle. 16. Flexor metacarpi internus. 17. Peroneus. [ To face f>asc 346 THE JOINTS attached around the rims of the articular surfaces — Hned internally by a synovial membrane, which secretes the so-called joint oil for lubricating the joint. The capsular ligament is supported by muscles, and the whole joint has a very wide range of movement — backwards, forwards, inwards and outwards. The elbow joint. — This is called the humero- radial and three bones enter into its formation. It has a large capsular ligament. Its movements are practi- cally confined to flexion and extension. Is seldom the seat of injury in ponies. The knee, carpus or wrist joints. — In reality the knee has several joints, the principal ones being the radio-carpal, the carpal, and the carpo-metacarpal — joints formed respectively by (a) the radius and the upper row of the carpal bones ; (b) amongst the carpal bones themselves ; and {c) between the lower row of the carpal bones and the large and small meta- carpals. It is the radio-carpal joint that has the greatest range of movement, so that any injury at this part is liable to be followed by more pernicious results than when situated upon any other part of the carpus. The carpo-metacarpal articulation is more of a gliding nature. The ligaments entering into the formation of the joints are the capsular (which is a large one), the laterals, and numerous smaller ones. The capsular ligament is attached all round the knee, and tendons play over its surface at the back of the knee. It is thick and fixed to the small bones at the back of the latter — being continuous with the so- called check ligament, which, in turn, joins the tendon of the flexor pedis perforans. 347 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM The fetlock joint. — The movement of this is of a hinge-like nature, and is formed between the lower end of the metacarpus and the first phalanx, along with the two sesamoids at the back. Being a very free-moving joint it has numerous ligaments in addition to the capsular ligament common to all bones. The sesamoid bones are maintained in position by ligaments, and particularly by two slips from the suspensory ligament. In the coronet joint, or first interphalangial articu- lation, the movement is very limited, whilst in the coffin joint, or second interphalangial — formed by the lower end of the os coronse and coffin-bone — the movement is also restricted. The principal ligaments are the capsular, the laterals and the navicular ligaments. The movements are restricted to flexion and extension. Hip joint, joints of the hind limb. — The hip joint is formed by union of the head of the femur and the cup-like cavity on the outer side of the pelvic bone. The ligaments present certain interesting features, permitting of various and extensive movements. They comprise a capsular ligament surrounding the joint — a round ligament which is a short, strong cord attaching the head of the femur to the bottom of the cup-shaped cavity. The remaining two ligaments are the cotyloid and the pubio-femoral. The stifie joint. — This is formed of three bones united by strong ligaments, so arranged as to give the greatest degree of movement, which is practically confined to flexion and extension. Tarsus or hock joint. — Numerous ligaments enter 348 THE JOINTS into the formation of this part, which consists of several joints, namely, that between the lower end of the tibia and the astragalus, known as the true hock joint, in connection with which seven ligaments are con- cerned. The second joint is that between the os calcis, the astracralus and the small bones of the hock. The third articulation between the small bones themselves, whilst the fourth joint is one contracted between the lower row of tarsal bones and the metatarsals. There is a broad membrane or capsular ligament stretching over the front of the true hock joint, and being lined by synovial membrane is liable to become overfull, constituting what is popularly known amongst horsemen as bog-spavin. At the back of the joint there is a corresponding ligament, over which the tendon of the perforans glides in its descent to the foot. As stated in the chapter dealing with the bones, the movements of this joint are those of flexion and extension. Articulation of head with lower jaw. — This joint is formed by juncture of the lower jaw and the tem- poral bone, between which a disc of fibril cartilage is interposed, the whole being enclosed with a capsular ligament. The grinding action of the molars comes from this joint. Articulation of the ribs. — The upper extremity of the rib contracts two articulations, the head of it join- ing between the bodies of two adjacent vertebrae, whilst the tubercle of the rib articulates with the trans- verse process of the vertebra behind it. 349 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM The first eight ribs articulate at their lower end with the sternum (breast-bone). These articulations are called the costo-vertebral and the sterno-vertebral articulations respectively. Head and neck articulations. — The head joins the atlas, or first vertebra, by means of its occipital condyles, whilst the atlas rotates on the axis or second vertebra. In the joint between the head and the atlas there is a capsular ligament for each condyle, whilst ligaments maintain the axis in contact with the atlas. The pelvis is united with the sacrum by interosseous ligaments, with additional ligaments in connection with the first-named. Recapitulation of the functions, etc., of the joints. — Regarded in the light of healthy functional activity, the writer wishes to accentuate the fact, in a general manner, that the broader and larger the area of the joint, the greater will be the degree of movement exhibited. A broad joint is not necessarily a coarse joint, though many horsemen look upon coarse ones as affording additional strength. In both hinge-and-ball and socket joints the maximum degree of movement is attained, but of all joints the last-named admits of the greatest latitude without increasing the tendency to the production of disease ; this is typically exemplified in the hip joint of the horse and ox. It is generally admitted that a joint narrow below, or "tied in," as it is called, predis- poses the part to an abnormal state. Precisely the same remark is applicable when the ligamentous and muscular structures in juxtaposition to the joint are either poorly developed or in an atonic condition, as 350 THE JOINTS happens so frequently in the event of a dislocation of the patella in the colt. Extravagant action coming from the shoulder, knee and hock might be supposed to be conducive to the premature decadence of the ex- tremities, as opposed to the medium, low, or so-called "daisy-cutting" action. This is unsupported by facts, whereas there is abundant evidence to prove that the horse with the action last referred to commonly suffers from joint infirmities. Hiofh and medium action both demand the exercise of a greater degree of muscular activity, consequently a proportionate increase of functional vigour. There is a corresponding conservation of energy which serves to diminish the excessive wear through the uplifting of the limb ; in other words, compensation. This statement must be accepted as applicable in most, though not in every instance. Most horsemen will, however, favour the view that a horse with high action will wear out its limbs sooner than one with a fair degree of action. The muscles of locomotion are, with some excep- tions, attached to two bones, either by their fleshy fibres or by tendons, so that bones connected by their extremities are so arranged that they act as bony levers affording locomotive power. A lever has three pro- perties, represented respectively by the fulcrum, power and weight, and in accordance with the respec- tive position of each of these the class of lever is det^ermined. In a lever of the first order the fulcrum is between the weight and power. In the second order the fulcrum is at one end and the power at the other, the weight being between ; whilst in lever of the third 351 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM class the fulcrum is at the ends with the power between it and the weight. A good example of a lever of the first order is afforded in the horse when the canon is extended on the hock ; the foot being off the ground, the muscle supplying the power acts upon the point of the hock (fulcrum), whilst the weight is represented by the parts below. As soon as the hind limb touches the ground the weight and fulcrum are reversed and we have a lever of the second order. In this case the weight is at the hock joint and the fulcrum at the ground, whilst the power is the same as in the first order. From the foregoing it will be noted that a bone which may act as a lever of the first order when the limb is raised may become a lever of the second order when the foot is on the ground. When the fore-limb is flexed we have a lever of the third order, the fulcrum being the point of the elbow, the power supplied by the biceps muscle in raising the weight residing in the limb below. Temperature^ Pulse, and Respiration in Health The normal temperature of a pony ranges from ioi° to ioii° Fahrenheit, and the best place to take the temperature is in the rectum or lower end of the bowel. In fevers the temperature often rises to about 1 06° F. The clinical thermometer is used for this purpose. Normal pulse numbers about 42 per minute, and the respirations 12 or 14 per minute when animal is at rest and in health. 352 CHAPTER XXIX SECTION A Specific Diseases Introductory. — Under the heading of specific diseases we shall refer to a class of maladies which are now universally recognised as produced by fixed and definite causes, most of which are of an organismal nature — i.e., due to the entrance of the so-called germs or minute organisms into the animal economy, entering it through a multiplication of channels. Nearly all these organisms belong to a class known as Infusorians, which are extremely minute forms of living matter, requiring high powers of the microscope for their demonstration. Although bacteriology is a comparatively new science, centuries ago the ancients were not altogether ignorant as to the germ theory of disease, there being evidence to prove that they suspected that "some- thing " (though inappreciable) existed in the atmo- sphere in the production of certain maladies, though they had no appliances for demonstrating their hypothetical ideas. The commonest microbes are those producing fermentation and putrefaction, whilst the organisms universally concerned in the production of both health and disease are of manifold varieties. Diseases such as scarlatina, tuberculosis, enteric, z 353 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM cholera, diphtheria, etc., and a host of other maladies, are all due to micro-organisms, which can be cultivated both within and without the body. Artificial cultivations will, under favourable con- ditions, reproduce these maladies with all their virulence. A feature of particular interest in relationship to the artificial cultivation of many micro-organisms is that in connection with the attenuation of the "virus," which is weakened by a series of cultivations, so that it ultimately becomes invaluable as a medium either for protection against disease or for its modification when such disease has become established. The terms "serum" and "anti-toxin" are usually applied to these attenuated viruses, some of which confer only a temporary immunity, whilst others are useful for the diagnosis of disease, as in the serums commonly employed in the diagnosis of tuberculosis and glanders. In all probability there are a great many diseases affecting horses that will, with the advancement of science, ultimately be proved as arising through disease- producing germs. Many tropical and sub-tropical diseases, in both man and animals, have within recent years been shown to be solely caused by the lowest forms of living matter, to which the term " Trypanosomes " is applied. These organisms generally gain an entrance into the animal body through the bites of insects, as happens in the case of the tsetse fly, producing the tsetse fly disease, whilst in the horse such complaints as surra, etc., are introduced in a similar manner, and protection against the bites of insects in the locality 354 SPECIFIC DISEASES where such diseases prevail constitutes one of the best safeguards against the perpetuation of these ills. Anthrax Although a fairly common disease in cattle, par- ticularly in certain localities in Scotland, anthrax is not in Great Britain a common complaint in the horse, though there are reasons for believing that some acute abdominal complaints which prove so rapidly fatal are in all probability due to anthrax. In certain parts of India, and on the Continent of Europe, anthrax is not at all an uncommon disease in the horse. Returns from the Board of Agriculture show that anthrax amongst cattle is more prevalent in Aberdeen- shire than in any other counties of Great Britain, and the author believes that this is attributable to the careless manner in which farmers deal with the sick animal when about to succumb throuoh sudden illness in order to save the carcase from destruction. Although the Board of Agriculture distribute leaflets relating to the deadly nature of this complaint stock-owners are singularly negligent in their apprecia- tion of the instructions laid down for their g-uidance. Without further digression we may say that anthrax is due to the entrance of minute rod-shaped organisms into the blood-stream ; these are known as the bacilli of anthrax, which multiply with enormous rapidity in the blood-stream, usually by transverse division of each organism, though when outside the body anthrax germs are readily destroyed by the organisms of putrefaction, and spore-formation begins, 355 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM and the spores of anthrax are much more tenacious of life than the organisms themselves. It is important to know this because the correct diagnosis of anthrax depends upon the detection of the organisms by means of the microscope ; in fact, it is the only diagnosis accepted by the Board of Agri- culture. It is customary for veterinary inspectors, in cases of suspected anthrax, to cut off a portion of the ear of the animal, the blood being thus preserved from exposure to the air. Films are then prepared, stained and mounted, subsequently being examined with a high power of the microscope. Anthrax is communicable from animals to man and the converse, and one of the chief channels of transference is through the medium of a wound, particularly a recent one, no matter however slight the wound may be. In horses and cattle there are reasons for believing that many cases of anthrax inoculation occur through abrasions of the mucous membranes of the mouth, but the ingestion of infected forage from abroad has in more than one instance sufficed to cause an outbreak of this deadly malady in a stud of horses. In man this complaint is known as "wool-sorter's disease," also as "malignant pustule " ; the reasons for this are because those engaged in the handling and sorting of woollen goods, as well as horse-hair, etc., occasionally fall victims to this complaint. Inoculation is not at all uncommon amongst men who are engaged in skinning cattle, horses and sheep that have died from this complaint. 356 SPECIFIC DISEASES In handling dried hides from abroad man has been known to contract "malignant pustule," which at the beginning is apparently a pure local affection, but subsequently develops into an acute attack of anthrax, followed by death. In some cases horses have been known to contract the disease by grazing over an anthrax grave. The symptoms are somewhat variable, and in no case diagnostic. Sometimes death occurs so rapidly that there is little facility of noting anything of im- portance, whereas in other instances the disease may continue for twelve hours or more. The sudden illness, its stormy nature, rise of internal temperature accompanied by severe abdominal pain and quick breathing, are suggestive but not positive symptoms of anthrax. An illness of this nature occurring in a locality where anthrax has been known to exist will be of assistance in helping one to form an opinion, but the diagnosis must be based upon microscopic examination of the blood and subsequent verification by the Board of Agriculture. In all cases of sudden death, no matter whether horses, cattle, sheep or pigs, it is expedient to exercise the greatest caution in dealing with the carcase, the control of which is regulated by the local authority acting under the direction of the Board of Agriculture. The disposal of anthrax-stricken carcases by cremation constitutes one of the best means for the eradication of this dreadful malady, there not being the slightest doubt that its perpetuation is mainly attributable to the slovenly manner in which our predecessors dealt with infected animals. 357 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Tuberculosis Tuberculosis, or consumption as it is popularly- called, is not a frequent disease of the horse, though this animal is occasionally affected with it. It is a specific infective malady due to the presence of the bacilli of tuberculosis, and inter-communicable between man and other animals, birds, etc. It has been produced experimentally in the horse and ass by inoculation with tuberculous material. The channels of infection are by the respiratory and digestive tracts, consequently some forms of the disease affect the respiratory organs, others the digestive, and very often a combination of these, though in every instance it is a well-known fact that the absorbent system is early implicated in tuberculosis. The disease is denoted by the appearance of the so- called tubercles, either in the lungs or some other organs, more rarely in the skin and muscular tissue. The irritation set up by the micro-organisms not only leads to the production of the tubercles previously referred to, but also to the growth of nodules or variable-sized masses of new tissue in connection with the lungs, pleural membranes, and in the horse to the growth of large tumour-like masses in the substance of the spleen ; in fact, tuberculous disease of the spleen is a remarkable feature of this disease as it occurs in members of the Equidse. The symptoms are generally of a very obscure nature in this animal, and may persist for months without the owner having the slightest idea as to what is really amiss, whilst the irresponsive nature of the complaint to treatment usually renders it necessary 358 SPECIFIC DISEASES to have the animal destroyed, which is certainly the most economical plan. The leading symptoms are gradual loss of condition, sweating easily on exertion, and the want of vigour. Diabetes is occasionally present and this symptom aggravates the others. The most reliable method for the diagnosis of tuberculosis is by the injection, beneath the skin, of tuberculin, which causes a febrile reaction if the animal is tuberculous. The temperature must be normal for injecting the tuberculin ; in fact it is usual to ascertain this before injecting the tuberculin. A rise of two or three degrees is sufficient indication as to the existence of tuberculosis. Tetanus This disease, popularly known under the title of "lock-jaw," is of somewhat frequent occurrence, but apparently more so in some localities than in others, though the organisms — the bacilli of tetanus — are present in the soils that contain the most organic matter. A feature of particular interest in connection with these germs is that they cannot live in an atmosphere of oxygen — in other words, are anaerobic. In addition to this it is said that the organisms do not enter the circulation, but confine their deadly operations to the manufacture of a toxin at the seat of the wound. This then enters the circulation and exerts 359 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM destructive influences upon the nerve centres, and from here to the nerves and muscular system. The bacilH of tetanus are shaped Hke a drum- stick, the spore being at one end. Attenuated cultivations can be obtained outside the body for the production of a serum which is frequently employed by veterinary surgeons as a prophylactic or preventative of tetanus, though the writer's experience of its utility has not been satis- factory. It is generally acknowledged by professional men that tetanus infection never occurs without the existence of a wound, no matter however slight. It is a disease that not uncommonly follows castra- tion, and very often wounds of the feet, hence the expediency for careful attention to the last-named. Docking is occasionally followed by tetanus, and in not a few instances this malady arises from the infection of a collar or saddle-gall. Symptoms. — After a variable period of infection, though usually within a few days, the animal is noticed to move stiffly, and if at pasture will probably be found separated from the rest of the stock, obviously indicative to the observent stock-owner that something- is wrong with it. When approached the animal will, if suddenly touched beneath the chin, shoot the membrana nictitans across the eye, so that it shows what is called a third eyelid. The disease usually rapidly advances, the breathing becomes very distressed, and the muscles are thrown into violent paroxysms on the slightest alarm, which materially adds to the suffering of the poor creature. 360 SPECIFIC DISEASES The rigid condition of the muscles, the distressed breathing, severe sweating, fever and muscular spasms, along with the locked condition of the jaw, constitute the most significant signs of this intractable malady. In some instances tetanus assumes what is called a sub-acute form ; if so, the symptoms are altogether less pronounced, whilst the chances of recovery are of a more hopeful nature than in an acute case. Treatment and Management. — Medicinal agents exercise very little control over this disease, no matter whatever drugs be employed ; more good can be done by careful management and attention to details. A prime factor in the management of a pony labouring under this affection is to keep it absolutely quiet and undisturbed from the slightest noise, as the most trifling alarm brings about the paroxysms pre- viously referred to ; a loose-box with clean short straw or sawdust is the best place to house it in, and the more secluded such is the better for the animal. To attempt the forcible administration of medicine is a suicidal policy, as it not only annoys the animal and aggravates the complaint, but owing to the closed condition of the jaws (which, as a rule, exists in the horse in tetanus) the difficulty of administration is greatly increased. In the early stages of the complaint the author considers it advisable to place the animal in slings, but later on to attempt to do so only makes matters twenty times worse. If the animal has already fallen to the ground the sooner it is destroyed the better. Owing to the closed condition of the jaws it follows that sloppy foods alone should be given, therefore 361 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM bran and linseed, scalded oats, flour gruel and milk, etc., are the most suitable forms of nourishment. The most economical plan is to send for a veterin- ary surgeon, and he will advise accordingly. In the absence of such professional advice a drachm of extract of belladonna, combined with five grains of calomel, and smeared on the inside of the mouth three times a day, will be found as useful as any other drug. The calomel must be omitted after the first four or five doses, or at anyrate it must not be employed to the production of diarrhoea. The percentage of recoveries in cases of tetanus is comparatively small, and it often happens that some animals will linger on for weeks, finally finishing up by dying. It is the exception for recovery to occur, the most hopeful signs being relaxation of the jaws, diminished frequency of the spasms, decrease of muscular rigidity, a lowering of the temperature, whilst the pulse becomes softer, fuller in volume, and less irritable. It is not difficult to discern improvement, but such improvement is not always permanent, because, as previously stated, relapses are frequent. Plenty of cold water should be allowed, the body clothed if the weather is cold, and particular attention must be paid to cleansing the wound, if such is dis- coverable. Glanders From time immemorial equines have been sufferers from this terrible scourge, there being evidence of its existence hundreds of years ago. At one time it was a remarkably common disease, but the measures adopted for its suppression during 362 SPECIFIC DISEASES the last ten or twenty years have exercised a favour- able influence in reducing its prevalence. Though it is to be regretted still exceedingly common, especially in the principal cities, not only in Great Britain but in almost every other country, the motor-car will do more towards stamping out this disease than veterinary inspection and legislation combined. Without wishing to be prejudiced I think that it is tolerably accurate that one of the greatest agencies in the dissemination of glanders has been the cab-horse, rightly displaced by the taxi-cab ; whilst the substitu- tion of mechanical traction by tramway and horse 'bus companies has had a similar influence. At one time glanders was particularly prevalent in the British army, but it has ceased to exist owing to the rigid veterinary supervision exercised. Glanders is due to the entrance of minute oerms gaining admission through various channels into the body, the organisms being known as the bacillus malleus, which are extremely minute organisms, cap- able of being cultivated upon suitable media outside the body, and artificial cultivations thus produced will reproduce the disease when a horse, ass or other animal is inoculated with the cultivated material. This malady assumes both acute and chronic forms, the last-named being the most frequently met with, but the acute may become chronic, or the chronic terminate in the acute. As a rule, however, most cases of glanders are of a slow but progressive course. One glandered horse in a stable will lead to the infection of the whole stud, without the owner beinof aware of the existence of the malady, as the disease is so insidious in its nature that it will easily escape 363 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM observation. A horse may be glandered and yet show no clinical signs of the disease, whereas in other cases the owner may think that the animal is suffering from nothing but an ordinary cold, or it may be an attack of strangles. In a considerable percentage of cases the absorbent vessels and skin are implicated in the disease, and formerly it has been customary to speak of this manifestation under the title of "farcy." The older observers used to think that this form of the disease was curable, which was incorrect, con- sequently horses thus affected were allowed to freely intermingle with healthy animals, and in this way the malady was perpetuated, and still is in a modified form. Farcy is simply glanders, and the same regulations apply to it as to that disease, and such regulations are that if any man has reason to believe that he has a glandered horse on his premises he must report the matter to the nearest local authority at once, or to the veterinary inspector of the district. Glanders is not only communicable from horse to horse, by direct and indirect means, but also to man, in whom it usually proves fatal, so that the utmost care must be exercised in handling infected animals. The period of incubation, i.e., the time between the reception of the infection and the development of the clinical phenomena, varies from a few days to a year or more, but when a horse is inoculated artificially with the virus of glanders the malady usually develops in about ten days. There are many difficulties confronting one in connection with the period of incubation, owing to the 364 SPECIFIC DISEASES facilities afforded veterinary surgeons for the observ- ance of the symptoms. Glanders may be transferred direct from one horse to another, as may happen when the nasal discharge of one animal is brought into contact with the mucous membrane of a healthy horse standing adjacent to it ; but indirect infection is probably the commonest method of transmission, and horse-keepers and grooms often unwittingly infect first one horse and then another in the stud. The nasal discharge from a glandered horse may adhere to the manger and other stable fitments, to the groom's clothes, to a sponge, grooming appliances, or (what commonly happens) be conveyed by means of drinking-vessels. The street water-trough has always been regarded as a fertile source for the perpetuation of glanders, and there is no doubt that this is a frequent channel of communication or infection. Symptoms. — A horse may have glanders and yet show no evidence of it, and there is a considerable number of horses working in towns, though not visibly affected, who nevertheless have the seeds of the disease within them. As the chronic manifestation is the usual one we shall briefly describe this first. The animal has a cough and a discharge from the nostrils, particularly from one side (left) ; the glands beneath the jaw are often swollen, though neither hot nor painful ; it is a chronic swelling, and in many cases may be so slight as to escape observation. The most significant sign of glanders is, however, ulceration of the mucous membrane lining the nasal 365 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM cavities, and when present affords one the best possible evidence of the existence of the disease. In advanced cases the ulceration extends into the air chambers of the head to the larynx and to the trochea. The ulcers within the nostrils are circular and have a "punched out" appearance, with little dis- position to heal. The primary lesions are apparently in the lungs, which become studded with minute tubercle, impart- ing a shotty sensation to the fingers when the lungs are examined after death. When the skin is implicated the absorbent vessels become corded and swollen at points, which then suppurate, leaving an unhealthy-looking ulcer. These sores are commonly observed in connection with the limbs, especially the hind ones. In an acute case of this nature the whole limb may suddenly become enlarged, very hot and exceedingly painful, similar in appearance to that common affection popularly known as " weed " or a " shoot of cold." Veterinary surgeons now rely upon what is called the Mallein test for the diagnosis of glanders, which comprises the injection of mallein beneath the skin. If the animal is glandered there are usually two reactions, one local and one constitutional, but either may exist independently, and of the two the local reaction is probably the most significant, being denoted by a large flat swelling at the seat of inoculation, whereas the constitutional reaction is indicated by a rise of temperature, as evidenced by the clinical thermometer. The incurability of glanders, so far as known, 366 SPECIFIC DISEASES renders it expedient that infected animals should be destroyed. Since the introduction of compulsory slaughter compensation is now paid by the local authority when that body has given orders to that effect. Influenza This is one of the commonest diseases affecting the horse, and is particularly prevalent during the spring and autumn, though it may occur at any season of the year ; but a wet season certainly pre- disposes the development of this catarrhal fever, which may be defined as a specific infective disease, readily communicable from horse to horse, either by direct or indirect means, though its infective nature has been denied by many. When there is an outbreak of infiuenza amonsfst a stud of horses the malady usually spreads throughout them, unless precautions are taken to isolate the infected animals at the beginning of the disease. By isolation the writer does not mean it to be understood that the sick animal should be kept in a loose-box in the same stable, but that it shall be kept in a loose-box or stall at a reasonable distance from where the healthy members of the stud are located. Infiuenza assumes several forms, or, at anyrate, there seems to be a decided inclination for the poison of the malady to make a special attack upon certain organs or tissues of the body which confers the dis- tinctive titles recognised as particular manifestations of this complaint. Thus, for instance, there is a form of infiuenza 1^7 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM universally recognised as "pink eye," which is denoted by severe redness of the lining membrane of the eye- lids, accompanied by swelling of the same ; this is really a specific form of ophthalmia plus severe constitutional disturbance. Another form is referred to as bilious fever, in which the liver seems to be mainly implicated ; there is also a rheumatic, pulmonary and catarrhal form, but in the majority of instances catarrhal signs are the classical features of influenza occasionally spoken of as "horse distemper." There are many questions of interest in connection with this disease that still remain for elucidation, and it is always worth while when an outbreak occurs to make notes and record any facts of interest. Influenza has a preference for attacking young horses, but whether one attack confers a degree of immunity against a succeeding one is open to doubt. But from its analogy to certain other complaints one might reasonably conclude that it would do so. Sympto?ns. — Like other specific diseases there is a period elapsing between the infection and the develop- ment of the clinical signs, during which time the temperature of the body begins to rise, so that an early indication of its approach is afforded by using the clinical thermometer. The temperature will pro- bably be found about 104° or 105° F., but as the disease advances the temperature commonly rises a degree or two higher than this. In addition to this early indication the pony will refuse its food, is dull, has a cough, which is at first hard but subsequently becomes soft and moist ; the mucous membranes lining the eyelids and nose are 368 SPECIFIC DISEASES heightened in colour, but in the bilious form have a saffron tint. In the preliminary stage the membranes alluded to are drier than normally, but soon become excessively moist, and a purulent discharge issues from the nostrils and eyes, but particularly the former. These symptoms correspond to an ordinary attack of catarrh, but influenza has one feature superadded to it, and that is extreme prostration ; in fact, the weakness that accompanies this malady is one of the principal matters that requires particular attention in order to guide the animals through the critical stages of the complaint. The mortality is about five per cent., being greatest amongst horses which are badly housed, badly fed and debilitated by over work. Treatment and Management. — More good can be done by good nursing than by the administration of medicine. Regarded in the light of a specific fever running a definite course, it is impossible to cut it short by medicinal agents. Early isolation has already been advised, but care must be exercised to see every animal is placed in a light, well-ventilated and clean loose-box, with plenty of dry straw to lie on. The body should be clothed and the limbs of the pony bandaged, but not too tightly, as the circulation is very weak and swelling readily induced. The clothing should be removed night and morning* and the body groomed. The discharge from the nose should be encouraged, which can be done by steaming the nasal passage with medicated steam, say twice a day. 2A 369 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Grooms generally do this by pouring boiling water on to bran, to which is added a tablespoonful of oil of eucalyptus and the same quantity of turpentine, or else spirits of camphor. The steaming bran is put into a bag or pail and the animal compelled to inhale the steam. For the soreness of the throat some counter- irritant should be applied externally, and for this purpose mustard paste or white oil may be used. The most convenient method for the administra- tion of medicine is by adding it to the drinking water. Half an ounce of hyposulphite of soda may be added to half a pail full of water every morning, and half an ounce of chlorate of potash to the same quantity of water every evening, and con- tinued until there is a distinct improvement in the animal's condition, when these remedies may be changed for tonics, such as half an ounce of powdered gentian combined with a drachm of sulphate of iron given as a powder night and morning mixed with damp corn. The cough is usually very persistent, and not much can be done, but it will generally wear away with the advent of warm weather and the application of a stimulating liniment or a blister to the throat, but repeated blistering cannot be recommended. Stimulants are nearly always required in the treat- ment of influenza, and there is nothing better than small doses of whisky given three times per day. Half a teacupful of whisky may be mixed with a pint of milk and eight eggs well beaten up. Both pleurisy and pneumonia are frequent com- plications, but certainly require professional skill for 370 SPECIFIC DISEASES their treatment, so if the presence of lung trouble is suspected the sooner professional aid is obtained the better. In the bilious form twenty grains of grey powder may be mixed with two drachms of powdered gentian and half an ounce of bicarbonate of soda to form a ball or powder, preferably the last-named, which, if mixed with treacle, can be smeared inside the mouth once or twice a day. When the joints are swollen these should be rubbed with opodeldoc and salicylate of soda given internally. As to food, the best substances to give are scalded linseed, bran and oats, green food in moderation, carrots, scalded hay, but particular care should be taken not to leave any food before the sick animal. If it won't eat it take it away and try it again later in the day. Finally, a word of advice is necessary to those attending horses affected with this and other infective diseases. The horse-keeper, stud-groom or coachman must never look after sick and healthy horses at the same time, otherwise he stands a good chance of trans- ferring it to healthy members of the stud. Contagious Lung Fever This is described as a separate affection by some writers on equine diseases, but it is in reality nothing but the ordinary lung complications coincident with influenza; in fact, the pneumonic form of that complaint. Under these circumstances the mortality is much higher, the writer's experience being that this is a 17^ PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM very fatal form of the malady and particularly irre- sponsive to treatment. (See Influenza.) Strangles is a very common disease, though one mostly confined to young horses ; but when a colt has passed through a well-marked attack of this malady it is to a certain extent protected against succeeding ones. Foals are occasional sufferers, but yearlings and two-year-olds are the most frequently affected, whilst aged horses are not exempt. In its ordinary form strangles may be regarded as a comparatively mild disease, so mild that many horse-breeders allow their colts to remain out of doors when affected with this complaint, but I think it is better to keep them in a straw-yard for the time being. Opinions are divided whether strangles are com- municative from one colt to another, but it is better to regard it as a transmissible disease, though many owners believe in letting their colts all contract the disease simultaneously, so as to save further trouble later on. Symptoms. — There is generally a period of dulness followed by a slight degree of fever, cough, sore throat and swelling beneath the jaw. The swelling gradually increases in size until the interspace between the jaws is filled up and the throat in a tense condition. In the course of a few days the skin becomes soft, pitting on pressure of the finger, which indicates the seat where the abscess should be opened, though it 172 SPECIFIC DISEASES commonly breaks itself; but it is very much better to open the swelling, so as to give free exit to the con- tents, as the opening formed by Nature is generally too small for that purpose. In some instances there is one abscess, with a secondary one encapsuled within the primary one, but the wall of the encysted abscess must be broken through with the finger, which sometimes requires a little patience. Secondary abscesses often form, either beneath the jaw or along the lower border of the neck ; and oc- casionally internally, in connection with the peritoneum, pleura meninges of the brain, or spinal cord, etc. Sometimes a large abscess forms at the point of the shoulder, but when pus formation is removed from its usual situation, i.e., beneath the jaw, it is usual to speak of such as the "irregular" form of strangles. Treatment. — Not a great deal is necessary in the way of treatment, either locally or constitutionally, though many apply hot fomentations or poultices to the throat in order to hasten the abscess to maturity ; but as a rule it is a much better plan to clip off the hair and blister the swelling, so that the abscess can be opened in due course, the cavity syringed with an antiseptic solution and kept open for a few days by inserting a pledget of cotton wool or tow. In the irregular form of strangles professional aid should be obtained, soft food, of course, must be given, and the animal kept in a comfortable place. Epizootic Lymphangitis Fortunately for horse-owners of Great Britain this 17Z PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM malady is non-existent, though it was introduced into Britain some time during the Boer War ; though long before this time it was known to continental veterinary- surgeons, as well as those in India, Japan, China, etc. In some of its features it is closely allied to glanders, but can be distinguished from that disease by the Mallein test. It is infectious, being due to cryptococci or minute living organisms. The lesions of this disease are in connection with the skin and lymphatic vessels, and this is the reason why it simulates the cutaneous form of glanders. It is scheduled by the Board of Agriculture, therefore noti- fication to the local authority if there is any reason to suspect its existence. Cape Horse Sickness This is a disease affecting the horses of South Africa and one that has received a great deal of ex- perimental investigation ; yet in spite of all the disease is as yet but imperfectly understood. It assumes several forms, the pulmonary one being the most rapidly fatal. A horse may be in apparent health an hour before attack, which is denoted by hurried breathing, lying and rising, and other signs of acute pain. Death may occur within a few minutes, and before and after death a frothy spume is ejected from the nostrils and mouth. In ordinary cases of Cape horse sickness the symptoms are generally evident about the tenth day after infection. 374 SPECIFIC DISEASES It is a disease that is chiefly met with in low-lying localities along the east coast of South Africa, being favoured by a wet season. It seldom occurs during a dry one. As a preventive against this deadly malady the farmers take their horses up at night, and don't turn them out again on the follow- ing morning until the dew has been evaporated off the grass. The months of February, March and April are the seasons of the year when most cases occur. It has been shown by Dr Edington that Cape horse sickness can be transmitted by inoculating the blood of a diseased horse into the body of a healthy one, but the methods of infection are too speculative to make any definite assertion. It is possible that mosquitoes and other insects may serve as media for the transference of the virus of this disease. In some cases of the malady the head becomes enormously swollen and the tongue hangs from the mouth. A horse that has recovered from the disease is spoken of as "salted," being regarded by some as protected against a future attack, but this is hardly a correct view to accept. Various forms of treatment have been adopted, and in some cases with success, but there is no really reliable method of dealing with the malady, beyond the lines previously indicated, which affords the best preventive measures one can adopt. m SECTION B Diseases of the Chest and Heart [Also PycBmic Arthritis) The diseases affecting the chest include those located in the lungs, in the bronchial tubes, in the heart, its covering, the pericardium, the bronchial glands, and the coverings of the lungs, the plural membranes, any of which structures may, individually, or collectively, be implicated in disease. Ponies, like all other animals, domesticated and otherwise, are liable to suffer from chest affections, either of a sporadic nature, or else as part of some specific disease, such as influenza, glanders, contagious pleuro-pneumonia, etc. Most chest affections are characterised by presence of certain " general " or clinical phenomena, which may be briefly stated as follows : — Increase of internal temperature ; increased fre- quency of the pulse ; injection of the visible mucous membranes ; increased respiration ; together with "general" signs of ill-health. Ponies, as a rule, stand persistently, when labouring under chest affections, and generally try to find a corner of the loose box where there is a current of air coming through a niche in the door or an open window. Briefly considered, the disease is as follows : — Congestion of the Lungs, or Pneumonia The term "congestion of the lungs," or "pneu- monia," indicates that the organs are in a state of 376 DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND HEART engorgement, or over-filled with blood, and that the circulatory current has, in certain areas of the lungs, become impeded, and as the result, the affected portion of the lungs are no longer capable of performing their functions. Two kinds of pneumonia are distinguished, namely, croupous or lobar pneumonia, and catarrhal or lobular pneumonia ; but to the layman, such dis- tinctions are of very little importance. When pneu- monia comes on suddenly, as may happen in a pony that is overridden or overdriven without beinof in hard condition, the affection is spoken of as pulmonary apoplexy, a disease that comes on with remarkable rapidity, and runs an equally rapid course. It is de- noted by a rapid breathing, heaving of the flanks, sweating, a rapid, but small pulse, dilated nostrils, and general distress. Unless relief is immediately afforded, the animal speedily succumbs, or else the inflammatory action is diverted to some other part of the body, such as the feet — "Acute Founder." In cases of this nature, it is almost needless to say that professional aid should be obtained at once. In the majority of instances, though by no means in all, congestion of the lungs is associated with influenza, for a description of which the reader must turn to the chapter dealing with that complaint. When inflam- mation of the lungs is produced through exposure to cold, or some other allied cause, the general principles of treatment are based upon similar lines to those adopted in the pneumonia accompanying influenza. The animal must be kept in a comfortable loose-box ; have its body and limbs clothed, be allowed cold water to drink, and scalded oats, bran, and linseed as food, with, if possible, a small quantity of green food. In 177 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM addition to this, repeated small doses of whisky, say, half teacupfuls, may, along with six eggs, be ad- ministered three times a day. Pleurisy Pleurisy, otherwise pleuritis, is not an uncommon affection in ponies, and may be either acute or chronic, but, as a rule, it is the former, and usually intermingled with pneumonia, more especially in association with influenza. The chief danger in connection with this trouble arises from the fact that there is always a certain amount of what is called effusion, or dropsy of the chest, this being an essential accompaniment of all advanced cases of pleuritis. When the amount of fluid is small, it may be re-absorbed ; if so, and there are no other complications, recovery occurs. As a rule, pleurisy, if severe, usually proves fatal, and when it does so, the chest cavity is usually after death found to contain a variable amount of straw-coloured or turbid fluid. Sometimes this amounts to several gallons, even when drawn off from the chest during life, but such withdrawal is unfortunately not satis- factory, as the fluid generally re-accumulates. The causes of pleurisy are variable, sometimes specific — as in influenza, whereas in other cases it results from exposure to cold ; extension of inflammation from adjacent parts ; external injury, such as a penetrating wound of the chest wall. No matter whatever be the cause, this affection is one that demands profes- sional assistance for its treatment. The symptoms of pleurisy, though variable, are tolerably well marked, comprising as they do a short 378 DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND HEART suppressed cough, elevation of internal temperature, thirst, loss of appetite, sighing, pain on manipulation of the chest wall, and the presence of a furrow, running alongr the lower border of the ribs, similar to that observed in a broken-winded pony. The animal is disinclined to move, and, in some instances, when it does so, it evidently causes it pain. In the absence of professional aid, the application of some counter-irritant, such as mustard paste, to the chest wall, is indicated. The mustard paste should be rubbed well in, and then washed off in a couple of hours' time, the pony being subsequently well clothed. A comfortable loose-box, clothing to the body and bandages on the limbs, along with bran and linseed mashes, and good nursing, constitute the general principles of management. Emphysema of the Lungs {Broken Wind) Ponies, like other horses, are liable to suffer from an affection popularly known as "broken wind," which term is expressive of the most characteristic sign observed in this affection, namely, that one phase of the respiratory act is broken in two. As the reader may know, respiration comprises the intake of air (inspiration), and the giving out of air (expiration). In broken wind, the inspiratory portion of the act of respiration is performed normally, but the expiratory part is broken, or divided into two, there being a momentary lull between the beginning of expiration and its completion, denoted by a furrow running along the chest wall, and this is accompanied by a charac- teristic cough, which is of a deep hollow character, 379 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM especially liable to begin when the animal has been fed or watered, particularly if the food is of a dry nature. Unprincipled horse copers sometimes attempt to disguise the cough through the adcninis- tration of such substances as shot and grease, etc., but the breathing indicative of broken wind cannot be disguised, being permanent and persistent. As a marketable commodity, a broken-winded pony has no value, but regarded in the utilitarian light, it may be as useful as any other pony. The term "emphysema of the lungs," as used at the heading of this paragraph, indicates that the air cells of the lungs in various areas of these structures are ruptured, so that large irregular air spaces are produced, which leads to an increase in the volume of the lungs, although it must be admitted that such pathological changes are not constantly present. When a pony is fed on dusty forage, especially of a bulky nature, watered, and then put to severe exer- tion, it is very liable to develop broken wind, which as previously stated is a chronic affection, and quite in- curable. Bronchitis Inflammation of the bronchial tubes is a common accompaniment of pneumonia, or it may be the starting- point of the latter affection. It is liable to assume either acute or a chronic form, but, as a rule, it exists in the former state, whereas as a chronic manifestation it may, and probably does, exist much oftener than one supposes. Acute bronchitis is denoted by a bronchial "rale," which is characteristic, and due to air passing through fluid, or excess of secretion in 380 DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND HEART the bronchial tubes. Sometimes the rales are coarse and other times they are fine, in accordance with the calibre of the tubes implicated. If the larger tubes are mainly implicated, the rales are coarse, but of a more whistling character when the smaller ones are affected, though it is hardly likely that such clinical phenomena would be detected by a layman. In addition to these signs, there is generally a cough, a variable degree of fever, in conjunction with other signs of ill-health. Heart Affections The heart occupies a position midway between the lungs, and is suspended from the roof of the chest by large blood-vessels and other structures proceeding from the base of the heart. It is enclosed in a serous sac or bag — the pericardium, which closely invests the organ, serving to protect it, and to maintain it in position. The pericardium is strengthened externally by fibrous tissue, but internally it is of very delicate texture, smooth, and slightly moist. Within the sac there is always a trifling amount of fluid — pericardial fluid, though in disease this fluid sometimes becomes greatly augmented ; if so, the diseased condition is known as "dropsy of the heart." The heart itself is a hollow muscular organ, having four chambers or compartments, two above and two below, whilst its muscular substance is composed of a special variety of striped muscular fibres, known as "cardiac muscle." The fibres are twisted and of branch-like processes, which strengthens their bond of union. The two upper compartments of the heart 381 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM are called the "auricles," whereas the lower ones are the "ventricles." Through these compartments blood passes in and out, first of all into the upper ones, and then the lower ones, and from here, by large blood- vessels, it is distributed throughout the body. Each beat of the heart sends a jet of blood into the blood-vessels, and it is this which causes the elastic wall of the arteries to expand, constituting the pulse. Normally the heart beats from thirty-six to forty times per minute, though in foals, this number of beats is nearly doubled. In certain diseased states, the number of pulsations is greatly augmented, more rarely diminished. The impulse of the heart against the chest-wall can be distinctly heard and felt on the left side. Palpitation of the Heart The heart in its working powers is largely in- fluenced by various impressions, such as excitement, etc., and also by drugs, food, and the organisms of certain specific diseases. Palpitation may arise from pure functional disturbance of the organ, or it may be due to organic changes in connection with its structure. The violent beating of the heart, in other words palpitation, is commonly present in such deadly maladies as " tetanus," or "lockjaw," and can often be heard at a considerable distance from the animal, such as outside the stable door, though it must not be con- fused with an allied sound known as "spasm of the diaphragm," which is also apparently of nervous origin. There are many other affections of the heart, such 382 DISEASES OF THE CHEST AND HEART as "endocarditis," or inflammation of the membrane lining the compartments of the heart, otherwise the endocardium. This form of inflammatory action is not an uncommon accompaniment of rheumatism, and can be either acute or chronic. When it is chronic, warty-like excrescences are often found, growing from the valves of the heart. During life, such growths interfere with the proper adjustment of the valves, and disturb the balance of health, likewise predisposed to sudden death. Inflammation of the heart sac ; pericarditis ; aneurism ; tuberculosis ; fatty degeneration ; dilata- tion, and various other pathological states, constitute the remaining heart troubles, into discussion of which it is not necessary to enter in a work of this de- scription. Pycsmic Arthritis (Joint 111) This disease is of a specific nature, and one that frequently attacks foals only a few days old, though at any period of foalhood, and exceptionally older horses. Pyaemic arthritis ("joint ill") is due to the entrance of septic organisms into the circulation, which gain entry either through the navel cord or else a wound — apparently sometimes a very trifling one. The foal begins to lie about and one or more joints swell. Fever and prostration supervene and the animal sooner or later dies. It is a very fatal disease and little can be done. 383 CHAPTER XXX Constitutional Diseases Lymphangitis This complaint is popularly known as "weed," "a shoot of cold," " Monday morning disease," etc., and is denoted by the sudden swelling of a limb, usually a hind one, though not uncommonly a fore one. The swelling begins in the absorbent glands, on the inner side of the thigh, or else the inner side of the arm, and gradually extends in a downward direction to a trifle beyond the hock or knee accordingly, so that the animal may be unable to move the limb through its swollen and tense condition. The swelling is a painful one, as the animal can hardly bear the part to be touched ; in fact lymphangitis is usually accompanied by a considerable degree of constitutional disturbance, which gradually subsides with the subsidence of the local swelling. This affection is not a frequent one among ponies, though very common in the heavier class of horses, and one attack predisposes the animal to subsequent ones, whilst repeated attacks are apt to leave the permanent enlargement of the limb. It is a disease that comes on suddenly, following upon work succeeded by a day or two's rest, this being the reason why it is so often seen on Monday morning. The animal is generally very dull, refuses its food, 384 CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES pulse is quick, and the temperature elevated two or three degrees ; and in some cases there is a variable degree of abdominal pain, as indicated by lying and risinsf, turninof the head towards the flank, etc. The excretory organs are in abeyance, whilst the mouth and tongue are usually hot and dry. In exceptional instances both hind legs may be swollen, and the swelling may extend down to the feet ; but it always begins in the superior part of the limb, thus disting-uishino- it from what has been called traumatis lymphangitis, or swelling resulting from an injury to the foot and extending from below upwards. The principal cause of lymphangitis is, so far as we know, due to diatetic disturbance, combined with a sluggish or lymphatic temperament. Horses living upon green food, or those out at pasture, are practically exempt from this affection, therefore it is a very good plan to feed liberally upon green meat if the animal is compelled to remain in the stable after active work. Treatinent. — The most efficacious treatment com- prises the administration of a full dose of physic, so that a pony should have from three to five drachms of aloes in the form of a ball, along with bran mashes to assist the action of the purgative medicine. Locally it is customary to apply hot water to the swollen limb, which generally reduces both the pain and swelling. In addition to this the inner side of the thigh or arm may be rubbed with belladonna liniment. In the course of a day or two give a diuretic ball every third day until two or three doses have been ad- ministered, or, to save trouble of administering the ball, a drachm of nitrate of potash may be added to 2B 385 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM the drinking water night and morning for three con- secutive days. Regarding exercise in the treatment of this com- plaint one would naturally suppose that it would prove beneficial, owing to the muscular movements increasing the circulation in the absorbent vessels. The author's experience is that exercise does not exercise the beneficial influence anticipated, but it may be tried, and if no benefit occurs discontinue it. Purjntra Hcsniorrhagica Ponies, like other members of the equine tribe, are liable to purpura, which occasionally develops as a sequel to some exhaustive malady ; consequently it may make its appearance after influenza or strangles, particularly if the animal's constitution has been ship- wrecked by debilitating and degrading extrinsic forces, influences which are not uncommonly present in many of the stables (hovels would be a better term) in various parts of the country. The deductions to be drawn from this statement are, first, thorough disinfection ; secondly, due regard for cleanliness ; thirdly, to see to the ventilation, drainage, and to feed the animal as liberally as possible under the circumstances. In some instances purpura occurs in horses apart from previous disease, and in animals that are ap- parently in good condition, though it is possible that the blood of such may be vitiated through bad sanitation. Regarding the causative agent of the disease we have every reason to believe that it is due to living 386 CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES organisms, possibly some form allied to the infusorians or trypanosomes productive of certain other diseases in animals. Sy7nptoms. — These are very characteristic, and begin either with swelling about the lips or a dis- charo-e of blood from the nose ; the swellino;; extends up the side of the head and face, so that the breathing is interfered with ; so much so in some cases that it is necessary to open the windpipe. Swelling along the floor of the belly and of the limbs is frequent in this disease. Sloughing of the skin is not uncommon, and may be accompanied by haemorrhage from it. The death of the skin over limited areas leaves angry-looking sores, which, if present, should be dressed with some antiseptic. The mucous membrane lining the eyelids and nose are marked by spots of extravasated blood, and the urine may contain blood. In every instance purpura must be looked upon as a serious malady, and one that it is necessary to employ professional aid for its treatment, so the sooner such is obtained the better. A great deal will, however, depend upon the attendant, as to the manner in which he looks after the pony. The animal must be put in a comfortable loose- box, well drained and well lighted, and particular attention given to the ventilation. The body should be clothed and the limbs bandaged, and the animal kept under the best conditions obtainable. Four times per day give a quart of milk, half a pint of claret, and six eggs all beaten together ; scalded oats, bran and linseed, together with a little green 387 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM food, will be of service, but too much care cannot be exercised in nursing the patient. Hcein - Glob in it r ia Haemo-globinuria occasionally affects the horse, and is characterised by its sudden onset and lameness in one hind limb, together with a discoloured state of the urine, containing a quantity of albumen, though in some cases the urine may be normal, as far as physical appearances are concerned. The term "azoturia" was formerly given to this complaint on the supposi- tion that the urine contained an excess of urea, though this has proved to be fallacious. In nearly every instance the malady makes its appearance after a period of rest in conjunction with a rich nitrogenous diet, but it only develops after the animal has been put to work. It some cases it may only have just left the stable, when it is impossible for the animal to proceed any further. The muscles over the affected region feel as hard as boards, and are said to be in a state of tonic-con- traction. The sudden development of the illness, the hard condition of the muscles, and the brown-coloured urine, are pathognomic. As the disease advances the patient usually falls to the ground, and such cases are generally hopeless. Even in those instances when the patient recovers the muscles of the croup and the thigh are generally a good deal wasted, so that it is necessary to give the animal a few months summering, and if necessary apply a good strong blister over the quarter. Treatvieiit and Management. — The patient should CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES be placed in slings as soon as possible, and the excretory organs acted upon by purgatives and diuretics. But this is a malady that must be treated by a veterinary surgeon if the services of such can be obtained, as it is the most troublesome malady to deal with. If it is not convenient to obtain the services of a veterinary surgeon, then, as previously stated, a dose of physic may be given, and the muscles rubbed with camphorated oil. Large closes of bicarbonate of soda have been recommended in the treatment of this affection. In some cases sedatives are required, but it is difficult to lay down any rules for treatment, so much depends upon individual cases. As a rule the urine has to be withdrawn with catheter. RhcunialisiJi Rheumatic affections are not uncommon amongst ponies and other equines, and when rheumatism does occur it is generally in a chronic or slow form, particu- larly in connection with the joints and ligamentous and tendinous structures. In one case, seen some little time ago by the writer, the muscles of the pony were badly affected with rheumatism ; but muscular rheumatism is less fre- quently observed than those metastatic swellings above the joints so characteristic of a rheumatic affection. When the loins are affected it is spoken of as lumbago. Now it is a very difficult matter to ascertain when a pony is suffering from the last-named or from some injury, such as a twist of the loins. 389 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM In an acute form of this complaint there is a good deal of constitutional disturbance, as indicated by fever, thirst, a hard, quick pulse, and other signs of ill-health ; whereas in the chronic form, sometimes spoken of as rheumatic arthritis (though this may exist in an acute form), there is seldom any systemic disturbance. The shifting nature of the swelling of the joints is peculiar, and no explanation can be given for the erratic behaviour. When the joints are repeatedly attacked with rheumatic inflammation they are very liable to become permanently enlarged. Regarding the causation of this affection very little is known, but exposure to wet and cold act as exciting causes, while a damp and draughty stable is equally liable to provoke the malady; but "predis- position " has something to do with its development. TreatmenL — One of the worst features in connec- tion with rheumatism is the liability to recurrence, and also participation of the valvular structures of the heart, and if the valves are the seat of chronic vegeta- tions the animal becomes unfit for work. The remedies given internally are salicine, salicylate of soda, salicylic acid, bicarbonate of potash, iodide of potash ; the last-named being principally used in the chronic form of the complaint, but at the best of times it is a difficult affection to treat, consequently it is better to consult a veterinary surgeon. In the meantime the joints, muscles, etc., may be rubbed with capsicum liniment, then bandaged, and the pony placed in a comfortable stable or loose-box, and the body clothed. 390 CHAPTER XXXI The Digestive System The digestive system comprises the mouth, the pharynx, oesophagus or gullet, the stomach, the small intestine and the lavQ-e intestine. The total length of the alimentary canal is about one hundred feet, divisible as follows : — Mouth and pharynx about a foot, the cesophagus three feet, the stomach two feet, the small intestines seventy-two feet, and the large intestines about twenty-six feet. The small intestine is divisible into two parts, namely, the ileum and the jejunum. It begins at the outlet of the stomach and ends at a blind part of the large intestine known as the caecum, there being a valve-like arrangement at its entrance. This is the ilio-caecal valve. The large intestine is also divisible into several portions, namely, the caecum, which is three feet in length, and has the form of a cul-de- sac or blind pouch, into which the small intestine previously mentioned opens. This part of the intestine seems to be a sort of reservoir for the watery con- stituents of the food, and is in communication not only with the small intestines but also with the large one. It will hold about (in a pony) five gallons. Externally it presents longitudinal bands, and is situated on the right side of the abdomen. The next part of the intestines is called the double colon, and it has a capacity of about fifteen gallons, its total length 391 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM being about twelve feet ; and in order that the abdomen may accommodate it, it is folded up as it were double. Like the caecum it has numerous longitudinal bands ; it communicates with the caecum on the one hand and with the single or floating colon on the other. The single colon is about eight or ten feet in length and ends at the rectum, which is about a foot in length, terminating in a circular muscle, the sphincter ani. So far no mention has been made of the stomach, which in equines is very small and presents many features of particular interest, not only with regard as to its inner lining but also in connection with its shape and the anatomical relationship in regard to its inlet and outlet. The gullet penetrates it at what is called the cardiac orifice on the left border of its upper curvature, the larger border being known as the greater curvature. Where the gullet enters the stomach the inner lining of the latter is arranged in the form of circular fibres to form a constricting or sphincter muscle, and as this is particularly well developed it may be one of the reasons why horses so seldom vomit. The outlet of the stomach into the small intestine has a much weaker development of the sphincter muscle, whilst the intestine at this part has a syphon- like form and leaves the stomach on the right side or pyloric outlet. The wall of the stomach is composed of three coats, namely : — An outer or serous, a middle or muscular, and a mucous lining, but the latter only covers the right half, therefore there is only one-half of the stomach that is truly digestive ; the left half — so far as the lining is concerned — is practically a con- 392 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM tinuation of that of the gullet. The two portions are easily distinguishable. The accessory appendages of the alimentary canal are the lips and teeth, together with the salivary glands, the liver, and the pancreas. The teeth are spoken of as the incisors or nippers, the molars or grinders, and the tushes or tusks. The lips of the horse are used for prehending the food, which is then ground between the molars, being thoroughly incor- porated by the saliva secreted by the salivary glands. The salivary glands consist of three principal pairs, but the parotid gland is the largest and the sub- linguals the smallest. Each parotid gland is placed immediately below the ears and has a duct opening on the inner side of the mouth, whilst the other glands have also ducts opening inside the mouth. The salivary secretion is under the influence of the nervous mechanism, and begins at once as soon as food enters the mouth. During mastication three pounds of hay will be increased to about twelve pounds, through the addition of the saliva, whilst oats will be double in their weight when intermingled with the same secretion. The liver occupies the front and right part of the abdominal cavity, lying immediately behind the diaphragm or midriff. It has three principal lobes and is composed of masses of minute cells united together by a small amount of connective tissue. It is reddish brown in colour and has a delicate covering known as the capsule of the liver. It is maintained in position by ligaments, and communicates with the beginning of the small in- testines by means of the bile duct, which opens in 393 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM common with the duct of the pancreas into the duodenum. Bile is continually poured forth, there being no gall bladder. Attached to the stomach is the spleen, a triangular, flattened, ductless gland, the functions of which are not understood ; but the functions of the liver are to secrete the bile and to manufacture glycogen or animal starch, which is stored up in the cells of the liver, to be subsequently used, being con- verted into sugar, so that it can be absorbed by blood at the liver, from which it is carried to the muscles, producing heat and energy. The pancreas, commonly known as the sweetbread, is an average weight of a pound to a pound and a half, of a pinkish grey colour, and is placed between the stomach and the spine. Its functions are concerned with the digestion of starch, oils and proteids. Food and Digestion. — Grasses and cereals consti- tute the natural food of the horse, but under domestica- tion a modified system of feeding has to be adopted ; hay, straw, chaff, beans, peas, oats, bran, barley, maize, etc., are the usual foods supplied, all of which contain proteids, farinaceous, saccharine and other constituents ; and these materials are split up into various complex organic compounds, some of which are appropriated by the system for the nutrition of the body, whilst the waste products are cast out by the excretory channels. The term carbo-hydrate is applied to starches, sugars and gums, the two first-named being abundant in all food materials of the horse. Strictly speaking, digestion begins in the mouth, the food here being mixed with the saliva, which 394 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEJNI contains a ferment called "ptyalin," and this substance has the power of converting starch into dextrin, and then into a modified form of sugar known as " maltose," so that an insoluble starch contained in the food is converted into a soluble sugar, so as to be capable of being absorbed by animal membranes. The food then passes into the stomach, where it undergoes a churning movement, and is acted upon by the gastric juice of the stomach, which chiefly consists of an acid known as hydrochloric and a ferment called pepsine, though these mainly act upon the proteid constituents of the food. Oily material in the stomach has its cell walls broken down, the oil set free. Under ordinary circumstances stomach digestion of food in the horse lasts about three hours, being hastened by water, especially warm water. The partly-digested food in the stomach is known as chyme, which, after the period mentioned, passes into the small intestine and is known as chyle. The chyle excites a flow of bile from the liver, a juice from the pancreas, and also from the glands in the mucous surface of the bowel, which fluids are alkaline, so that the previously acid chyme has now become alkaline, and assists in the emulsification and saponification of oils and fats. The pancreatic juice contains three ferments, all of which have a special action upon the food ; the intestinal juice assists the action of the other juices. From the small intestine the food passes into the large, and it is quite possible that both absorption and diges- tion is carried on in this portion of the bowel, though in a less extent than in the small intestine, and least of all in that portion of the bowel succeeding the large or double colon. 395 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Diseases and Disorders of the Digestive Organs The Lips. — The lips are occasionally the seat of various inflammatory troubles and liable — like other parts of the body — to external injury. During certain specific fevers the lips may be blistered, or the latter may arise through want of adequate pre- cautions to protect the lips when some part of the body or limbs has been blistered ; it may be the skin that is covering the lips, its mucous lining, or it may be the angles of the mouth that is mainly implicated. There is also a kind of skin disease which affects this region, known as " Herpes labialis." Treatment . — If there are any wounds these must be attended to, superficial ones or excoriations being dusted with powdered boracic acid or else painted with Friar's balsam ; this must be done night and morning. Deep wounds will, of course, require sewing up. Vesicles about the lips can be dressed with boracic acid ointment, but if upon the mucous membrane, borax and honey is as good as anything else. A solu- tion of alum and permanganate of potash is also an excellent application ; vaseline is useful in some cases. Inflammation of the Tongue {Glossitis). — Inflamma- tion of the tongue is not of frequent occurrence, and when it does occur it is a serious complaint, as a rule the outcome of either some chemical irritant or else the result of injury by the bit. This organ is also acutely affected in gloss-anthrax and in Cape horse sickness. The organ becomes swollen either as a whole or partially, depending upon the cause. In exceptional instances the tongue of the horse is 396 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS affected with actinomycosis, the gradual enlargement of the tongue being significant of that disease. Treatment. — As in the last complaint, soft or sloppy- foods is one of the first essentials, but considering the severity of this affection it is expedient to have professional opinion. Wounds about the tongue require to be kept very clean, as they heal but slowly. Lauipas. — This term is used to indicate a swollen condition of the hard palate immediately behind the upper row of incisor teeth. It is commonly observed in ponies when they are shedding their temporary for their permanent incisor teeth, and usually disappears when this act has been completed. Old horses are occasionally affected, and it may be that it is associated with digestive disorder ; but no matter what the cause it is seldom necessary to do anything for it, and the old practice of burning is a criminal offence, and rightly so. If needful the congested part may be cut with a lancet and the pony fed on soft food for a couple of days. Inflammation of the Throat {Sore Throat). — Sore throat is a very common complaint, especially with young horses ; particularly so in connection with influenza and other catarrhal affections during the spring and autumn. Various foreign substances are liable to set up inflammation of the throat, and in exceptional instances such inflammation may extend from the mouth to the throat. During an attack of strangles the throat is more or less inflamed. Symptojns. — The symptoms of sore throat are very characteristic and there ought to be no difficulty in recognising them. When the animal attempts to 397 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM swallow it does so with difficulty, endeavouring to avoid the pain occasioned by this act, which is often accompanied by repeated coughing. All solid matter causes the animal a good deal of discomfiture, so that nothing but sloppy food should be given, some of which may return through the nostrils. Ti'-eatineiit. — In addition to the sloppy food already recommended it is a very good plan to apply counter- irritant to the throat, for which purpose mustard paste will generally answer admirably ; but any of the other ordinary blistering or stimulative applications may be used for the same purpose. Half an ounce of chlorate of potash can be added to the .drinking water night and morning. Steaming the nostrils encourages the discharge, and this usually relieves the cough and sore throat. It is not, as a rule, advisable to give much (forcibly) in the way of liquid, but it is necessary in some cases, e.g., when sore throat is an accompaniment of influenza. As a mild laxative half to two ounces of Epsom salts may be added to the drinking water and repeated until it has had the desired effect. In the general management of the pony it is advis- able to bandage its limbs, to clothe the body, and to administer to its comfort in other ways, according to circumstances. Abscess of the Throat. — Abscess of the throat does not often occur apart from strangles, but it may arise through an injury in this region, either from within or without. The treatment is in any case identical with that described under the heading" of strangles, which comprises counter-irritants or fomentations externally and the use of soft food, etc. Chokijtg. — This is not a frequent accident, but 398 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS when it does occur it is attended with very severe symptoms, which if not speedily relieved will prove fatal. Choking arises through variable causes, the commonest cause being a piece of carrot or swede, etc. In some cases an egg has been the cause of choking, as there used to be an idea that eggs given to a horse whole would improve its condition. In some instances the cause resides in the wall of the gullet, which is constricted along some part of the tube, and as the constriction does not allow the masticated food to pass through it, it accumulates until the tube is blocked up with it. The seat of the obstruction varies, and may be in the upper, lower, or middle portion of the gullet, con- sequently the signs of choking vary ; in some cases the obstruction can be felt externally, whilst in others there may be no obvious indications of its existence beyond signs which are significant of oesophageal obstruction. The ordinary signs of choking are, attempts to swallow, accompanied by coughing and discharge of fluid from the nose, while saliva dribbles from the mouth. The nose is poked forward and the neck extended, whilst attempts at vomition are frequent. The poor creature arches its neck, the muscles of which become spasmodically contracted, whilst the nose is brought towards the breast ; in addition to these signs there is an anxiety of facial expression, sweating, and other indications of acute discom- fiture. Treat7iient. — This comprises the administration of small doses of linseed oil, so as to lubricate the gullet, and at the same time to examine the back part of the 399 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM mouth. If these simple methods fail the sooner a veterinary surgeon is sent for the better. Vomiting. — Vomition seldom occurs in a horse, and when it does it is indicative of serious disturb- ance in connection with the digestive apparatus ; in fact, it is sometimes, though not always, indica- tive of a ruptured stomach. The vomited food is returned through the nostrils. If this symptom is observed it is advisable to have professional skill at once. Parotitis. — This affection, popularly known in the human subject under the title of " mumps," occasion- ally affects equines, and when it does so it is indicated by a swelling beneath the ear and at the back of the jaw. The swollen condition causes difficulty in swallow- ing, whilst the head is extended forward. Parotitis is generally part of an attack of strangles, and abscess formation nearly always occurs. Sometimes the abscess breaks internally ; if so, the discharge of matter occurs through the nostrils, though it is usual for its exit to be provided for externally. Ti'eatment. — A stimulative liniment or a mild blister may be applied to the swelling, and if this does not prove strong enough to bring the abscess to maturity the best plan is to try a liniment composed of mustard and turpentine. As soon as the abscess is matured it should be opened and the wound dressed with some antiseptic. If preferred poultices can be used instead, and the animal compelled to inhale medicated steam. Fistula of the Parotid Duct. — The parotid gland pours its secretion through a duct or canal which winds round the lower border of the jaw and opens in 400 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIV^E ORGANS the mouth on a level with the second or third molar tooth in the upper jaw. This duct is occasionally the seat of injury, so that the salivary secretion escapes through the injury, and a fistulous opening thus becomes established, which is difficult to get to heal, so that it is necessary to consult a veterinary surgeon. In all standing cases the animal loses condition through imperfect salivation of the food. hidigestion. — Strictly speaking the term indiges- tion is merely symptomatic of derangement of some of the internal organs, such as the heart, kidneys, liver, stomach, bowels, etc., and not, as commonly believed, an affection in itself, though the horse does unquestionably suffer from many functional derange- ments of the digestive organs ; consequently it has become customary to speak of indigestion as a distinct disorder. According to the duration, severity or otherwise of the symptoms it is usual to regard indigestion as being acute or chronic. Amongst stablemen this affection is often spoken of under the peculiar titles of "grass staggers," "sleepy staggers," and "mad staggers," all of which titles have obviously been coined for the purpose of describing the predominating symptoms ; thus, for instance, "sleepy staggers " implies a derangement of the stomach accompanied by a degree of coma or unconsciousness, whereas in " mad staggers " the acute engorgement of the stomach leads to delirium. Causes. — The sole cause of this affection is due to a distended condition of the stomach with food, usually rising through an excess of food after a pro- 2C 401 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM longed fast, the result of which is that the wall of the stomach temporarily loses its tone. Ponies that have recently been turned out to grass sometimes exhibit grass staggers. Symptoms. — Acute engorgement of the stomach is denoted by a variable degree of pain in the belly, pawing with the feet, lying and rising, though brain symptoms may precede or succeed the abdominal pain ; the staggering gait is very characteristic, especially when accompanied by indications of colic. Treatynent. — The pony should be placed in a loose-box with a deep bed of sawdust, peat or moss litter, and a full dose of purgative medicine ad- ministered at once, supplemented by enemas two or three times a day, and if necessary ice bags or cold water may be applied to the poll. In the meantime no food must be given, but plenty of tepid water for drinking purposes, to each pailful of which a couple of ounces of Glauber's Salts has been added. In many cases of acute indigestion the belly is distended with gas ; if so, the best remedy is half-a-pint of linseed oil combined with an ounce and a half of oil of turpentine. The latter form of indigestion is most likely to occur if a pony is turned out to graze, especially when there is much dew on the grass. In chronic indigestion the course of the disease is much slower, being marked by occasional attacks of abdominal pain, of variable appetite, a staring con- dition of the coat, irregularity of the bowels, paleness of the mucous membranes, along with other signs of general unthriftiness. The causes of chronic indiges- tion are quite different from those which provoke the 403 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS acute manifestation. Internal parasites, bad food, irregular feeding, the abuse of drugs, condiments, and damaged fodder, together with the use of inferior forage, defective teeth, etc., are chief amongst the causes. If a pony be irregularly watered, or given too much water when it comes in from work, it is very liable to suffer from chronic indigestion. Treatment. — The first essential is to try and ascertain the cause, and if possible to remove it. If worms is suspected, treat accordingly. The teeth should be examined, especially the molars. In the spring a liberal allowance of green food will be advantageous. The fodder should be inspected, its quality noted, together with the amount given. Aged ponies are not uncommon sufferers from chronic indigestion ; if so it is a very good plan to feed on crushed oats mixed with linseed and a very small quantity of bran, and chopped food. The use of a swede or two daily, or a few carrots and some rock salt in the manger, will usually prove beneficial. On some farms it is customary to use treacle for the horses, the feeding- value of which is great, so that a couple of tablespoonfuls of treacle once a day for a pony, along with its ordinary fodder, will be of service. Two drachms of powdered cinchona bark and two drachms of bicarbonate of potash mixed together and given in damp corn night and morning is a capital remedy for improving the condition of a pony that manifests signs of chronic indigestion. Dilated Stomac/i. — The wall of the stomach some- times becomes attenuated, and the result is that the organ becomes unduly stretched, particularly towards 403 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM the outlet of the stomach. It is the muscular coat of the stomach wall that is mostly implicated. Dilated stomach is not uncommon in old horses, whilst it occasionally accompanies broken wind. It is an incur- able affection and only recognisable after death. Ruptured Stomach. — Rupture of the wall of the stomach, either partial or complete, has already been referred to in connection with vomiting, as the latter symptom is by many regarded as indicative of rupture of this organ. Though this is not a correct view, as the active vomition occurs apart from this lesion, dilatation of the stomach wall predisposes to this injury, which is certainly uncommon in ponies or other lighter breeds of horses. Gastritis, or Inflarmnation of the Stomach. — In- flammation of the stomach may exist in either its acute or chronic form, in accordance with the agencies producing the inflammatory process. Acute gastritis is certainly not a common affection, apart from that produced by irritant poisons, either of a mineral or vegetable nature. Some horse-keepers are in the habit of giving powdered arsenic in the food daily, and in more than one instance death has been caused through this dangerous practice. An occasional cause of acute gastritis is through eating the leaves of the yew, the leaves and shoots of which are very deadly to horses. Any toxological plants are capable of acting in a similar manner, and as a rule nearly always prove fatal, bringing about death within a few hours to several days. In chronic inflammation of the stomach the cause is usually found either in the gradual inception of some irritant mineral, such as lead, antimony, etc., or else 404 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS induced by the food being- unsuitable in quality or quantity. Very little can be done in these cases ; at anyrate treatment required is quite beyond that of the layman. Spas7n of the DiapJiragm. — Spasm of the diaphragm is an uncommon affection, and when it does occur it is usually the result of severe exertion. The sound pro- duced evidently arises through muscular contraction and may shake the whole of the body. It is quite easy to mistake this affection for palpitation of the heart, but the heart sounds do not correspond to those of the spasm, which can be ascertained by comparison. It is quite possible that the pneumogastric nerve is implicated in this affection ; if so, the correct treatment would appear to be sedatives combined with a laxative. Colic. — A variety of names are applied to this affection, but the principal ones are "gripes," "belly- ache," "fret," "the bats," "flatulent colic," etc. It is one of the commonest complaints, and affects all classes of horses, from the diminutive Shetland to the Clydesdale, though in the majority of instances the attack is ascribable to dietetic errors, and we might say in some cases to mismanagement. Reference has already been made to this affection, under the heading of acute indigestion ; in fact, the two complaints are in many instances synonymous, though it is impossible to regard colic as arising in every instance from causes analogous to those productive of acute indigestion. When colic is accompanied by an obvious degree of gaseous distention of the belly it is usually spoken of as the flatulent variety, and acute flatulent colic, unless speedily relieved, is very liable to terminate fatally ; particularly so if the cause resides in fermenting 405 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM green food. It is customary to look upon colic as due to spasmodic contraction of the wall of the bowel, but the pain is not always referable to this condition, as many cases of colic have their origin from other structures within the abdominal cavity. The common- est causes of colic are as follows : — Over-driving, drinking too much cold water when over-heated, the abuse of purgative medicine, a sudden change of diet, say from dry food to green food or the converse, over- heated forage, fermenting food, coarse or indiges- tible herbage, lead poisoning, concretions in the intestinal canal, worms (especially if numerous), in colts particularly. Colic and diarrhoea is not un- commonly produced by four-spined-strongyles (strongy- lus tetracanthus), whilst another strongyle (strongylus armatus) inhabits the arteries, especially the mesentric arteries, giving rise to aneurism and to colic. Accumulations of sand must be ranked as another cause, and in exceptional instances the foetus in utero. Symptoms. — The affection comes on suddenly as a rule, and sometimes disappears as suddenly, without any explanation whatever, but such cases are rather the exception than the rule. Alternate standing and lying, striking the belly with the feet, turning the head towards the flanks, lying on the back and rolling, and general uneasiness, are the prevailing symptoms. If the pains are very acute the pony will soon begin to sweat, first of all in patches, subsequently all over the body, so that the animal will be wringing with wet. In typical cases of colic the spasms or pains are suc- ceeded by intervals of ease, and it is not a good sign when these intervals decrease ; that is to say, the more continuous the pain becomes the less hopeful the case. 406 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS The pulse is not much disturbed, except during the spasms, but if the pain is one indicative of inflammation it becomes hard and of a settled, wiry character, whilst the facial expression of the animal gradually assumes that of anxiety. It is a very difficult matter for an amateur to distinguish between an ordinary case of colic and one of acute inflammation, because what seems a comparatively simple affection at the outset may run on to one ending fatally. The duration of the complaint varies, lasting from a quarter of an hour to several days, and in exceptional instances longer than this, although the pain may be of a subdued character. Treatment and Ma^iagement. — When a horse is affected with colic it is customary to keep it walking about, but the advantages of this are sometimes less than the disadvantages ; in any case it is expedient to place the pony in a loose-box as soon as possible, and give it a good deep bed to lie on. In the selection of medicinal remedies much will depend on the cause or supposed cause. I f due to the food, the best plan is to give a dose of purgative medicine, though the relief of pain is a primary consideration. The following draught will be found useful for this purpose : — Linseed oil . \ pint Sulphuric sether i^ ounces Tincture of ginger . I drachm Laudanum, . 4 drachms Mix by shaking thoroughly, and then administer the whole to the pony. I f no relief follows the administration of this draught, say within a couple of hours, repeat it, in half doses, every three hours, until three more doses have been given. If the belly is distended with gas 407 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM add an ounce of turpentine to the draught first mentioned. A stimulating liniment may be well rubbed into the belly, and enemas of warm water given if required. In all cases of colic, probably the most economical plan is to send for the veterinary surgeon, but pending his arrival the draught mentioned may be given. Chlorodyne is a very useful remedy for colic, so is paregoric (ounce doses of the latter in water), whilst whisky, ginger and warm ale makes a very useful domestic colic draught, and one that may always be safely administered. Inftanunatiofi of the Bowels. — Unfortunately horses of all kinds are frequently troubled with this disastrous and fatal complaint. So fatal is it that it is questionable whether there are any recoveries from it. It arises from a variety of causes, and most of such causes are sufficient to determine a fatal termination. Thus, for instance, strangulation of the bowels, intussusception and other lesions of an allied nature, are beyond the control of medicinal agents. Irritants, poisons, and an excessive number of worms, concretions, together with certain specific causes, are mainly operative in the production of inflammation of the bowels. The most that can be done is to try and subdue the pain through the use of narcotics and sedatives ; the latter, externally, may consist of the application of hot water rubbed to the belly, but the hopeless nature of this malady renders it expedient to have professional advice. Diarrkosa. — The passage of liquid evacuation is the essential feature of diarrhoea, and arises through a variety of causes. Aged ponies are more liable to 408 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS become affected with diarrhoea, owing to the diminished tone of the alimentary canal. In the foal diarrhoea is a frequent complaint, and unless checked will ultimately cause the foal's death. Colts are often affected with this symptom, and in these it is generally caused by small red-worms — the four- spined strongyles. Sudden changes of food, excess of green food, drinking cold water when overheated, over-driving, damaged fodder, feeding on unsuitable food, the alum of purgative medicine, together with certain causes of a specific nature — for instance, the diarrhoea often accompanying influenza — are the principal agencies productive of diarrhoea. Treatment and Manaoement . — The treatment will depend upon the cause, and diarrhoea can only be properly dealt with when regarded in this light. Boiled wheat-flour gruel, with three ounces ot arrowroot added, is useful as liquid, especially if made with skim milk. When a foal has diarrhoea, and it has not yet been weaned, it is expedient to treat the mare at the same time, for which purpose half an ounce of bicarbonate of potash may be given mixed with a warm bran mash night and morning. The foal should be given a laxative consisting of a couple of ounces of castor oil combined with a drachm of laudanum, shaken well together, and the whole given just as it is. Follow up with the following powders : — Grey powder . . 2 drachms Powdered rhubarb . 2 drachms Bicarbonate of soda . i ounce Mix thoroughly and divide six powders, one to be 409 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM given every eight hours shaken up with a tablespoonful of corn-flour gruel. In excessively bad cases astringent injections will prove beneficial. Get a two-ounce glass (male) syringe at the chemist's and inject three drachms of hazeline, two drachms of laudanum, blended with one and a half tablespoonfuls of fluid (cold) boiled starch gruel. It is quite useless to give astringent remedies in diarrhoea in the hope of arresting the fluid evacuations if the cause, or supposed cause, is ignored. If worms are the cause a course of anti-worm medicines must be used, supplemented with mineral and vegetable tonics, such as powdered gentian root and sulphate of iron, of each two drachms. These powders may be given in the damp corn, night and morning, for three weeks or more. For ordinary cases of diarrhoea, such as those pro- duced by over-driving, too much purgative medicine, sudden changes of food, etc., three drachms of chloro- dyne should be given to the pony in half a pint of flour gruel night and morning. Feed on boiled flour gruel, dry bran and bean meal, a little dry corn, etc. Dysentery. — This complaint is characterised by a discharge of fluid evacuations, intermingled with blood, mucous, etc., and is frequently associated with certain specific maladies, such as influenza, purpura, etc., therewith tending still further to exhaust the system. Some cases of poisoning are accompanied by dysenteric symptoms, which, in addition to the haemorr- hage, is attended with a degree of abdominal pain, straining, and other signs of systemic disturbance. It is very often associated with defective sanitary 4i« DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS conditions Two other causes must be mentioned, namely, irritation produced by worms and polluted drinking water. The rectum is the principal seat of this affection, therefore local applications are very useful. The pony must be kept warm, its limbs bandaged and placed in a clean, comfortable loose- box. Half-ounce doses of chlorodyne, in half a pint of water, every five hours, will be of great service, but most reliance must be placed upon small injections into the bowel, and, internally, ipecacuanha powder com- bined with bicarbonate of potash. The injection is : — Hazeline . . i ounce Laudanum . . 6 drachms Cold boiled starch . lo ounces Mix and inject the whole. Repeat daily. The dose of the bicarbonate of potash should be two drachms and the ipecacuanha one drachm, given in a little wheat-flour gruel every four hours till amend- ment occurs. Feed on wheat-flour gruel, eggs, with the addition of half a teacupful of brandy. Carbolic acid, in twenty-drop doses, is sometimes given inter- nally. If so, it must be blended with olive oil, say, five ounces of the latter twice a day. Internal Parasites and Wor7ns. — Ponies, like other members of the equine tribe, are liable to parasitical invasion, both internally and externally, but it is those parasites that have their true habitat within the in- testinal canal, blood-vessels, etc., that exert the most pernicious influence and are the cause of a variety of symptoms, many of which are of a very obscure nature. Both round and flat worms infest the alimentary canal, and there are numerous varieties of these. There is one very common round worm known as Ascaris 411 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM megalocephala, which attains as much as eighteen inches in length, the males being smaller than the females. These worms are easily recognised as they taper at each end and have their bodies striated. When very numerous they may completely block up the beginning of the small intestine, not only causing obstruction but set up acute inflammation of the bowels at this point. Whenever the intestine contains many worms, no matter whether round or flat, they always exert a pernicious influence and keep the animal in either a backward or indifferent condition. Any part of the intestinal tract may be the habitat of worms, though some species have a decided preference for one part more than another, the csecum and the colon being the most frequent situations in which worms are found, whereas they are not often present in the stomach. The commonest round worm, as previously stated, is that mentioned above, and no difficulty can be ex- perienced in recognising it. A variety of worm known as Strongylus tetra- canihus, or the four-spine-strongyle, is an extremely pernicious parasite, especially when numerous, as these pests pass a part of their life in the wall of the bowel, and if the bowel is examined the worms can be seen shining through the wall. The part invaded is weakened by their presence, consequently it is quite possible that they predispose to rupture of the bowel. These worms are reddish in colour and about three-quarters of an inch in length, the csecum and the colon being their chief habitats. The mouth of the parasite is circular and surrounded with a number of teeth, and it is stated 412 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS that the embryos of these worms are taken in with the drinking water ; colts that are grazing upon marshy or fen land seem to suffer more than others from this form of parasitic invasion. The chief symptoms are the gradual loss of flesh, a staring condition of the coat, and diarrhoea. Another species of parasite is that known as the pin- worm, the habitat of which is in the rectum. These small round worms are easily recognised by their awl shape. There are several varieties of tape worms, one being known as the leaf-shaped and the other being- known as the wrinkled tape worm ; the latter ranges from half to three feet in length, and, as the name implies, is flat. Its habitat is also in the small bowel, and also in the stomach. Other parts of the alimentary tract may be the seat of parasitic invasion, whilst it is not uncommon to find organs such as the liver, eye, etc., affected. Some parasites have a remarkable life history, as in the case of the liver fluke, so common amongst sheep, and producing liver rot. One species of animal, e.g., a horse, will perhaps harbour the larval or resting-stage, whilst another species of animal, e.g., a dog, will constitute the medium for the fully-matured parasites only. This is the case with Echinococais veterinorum. These small worms, in their active adult condition, exist as tape-worms in the alimentary canal of the dog, and when the parasites pass out of this animal's body, as may happen whilst a dog is passing over grazing land, etc., they will (the eggs contained in the worms), under favourable circum- stances, gain admission into the digestive tract of the horse, ox, or sheep, and on entering the blood stream 413 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM be carried to such organs as the liver, brain, etc., here becoming encysted to form Echinococci or dormant phases of the mature parasites (worms). Other examples might be cited, as in the case of sturdy in sheep, in which animal the brain becomes the seat of hydatit or resting form of a small tape-worm infesting the dog, known as Taenia coenuris. The most significant signs of internal parasitism have already been noticed, but to recapitulate the signs may be briefly summarised as follows : — (a) A dry condition of the skin, with the coat staring and a want of bloom upon it. (d) Capricious appetite. (c) A want of vigour, as indicated by sweating easily on exertion, together with a poor condition of the body, or at anyrate one not commensurate with the amount of food supplied and work the animal performs. [d) Sometimes the mucous membranes are pale, in other cases they are heightened in colour. Extreme redness of the eyes, when ac- companied by occasional colicky signs, together with those mentioned, and irre- gular action of the bowels, constitutes fairly reliable evidence that the animal is troubled with these pests. Tke Gadfly or Horse-bee (^strus equi). — This fly is very troublesome to horses, particularly during hay- time, when the female fly deposits her eggs upon the hair, in the neighbourhood of the shoulders, inner side of the knee, arms, etc. These are of a creamy colour, discernible by the naked eye, and are frequently mis- taken for lice. The eggs adhere firmly to the hair, and in due course a maggot is hatched out, and as 414 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS this causes irritation the animal bites the part, and in this manner the maggot is in all probability transferred to the stomach, becoming attached to the cuticular lining or non-digestive part of the stomach. The maggot remains in this situation till the following spring, when it passes out along with the ejecta. After a further period of rest in the grass, etc., the maggot is metamorphosed into the full-blown fly, again ready to perpetuate its species. The male fly is easily distinguished from the female — the abdomen of the former being blunt, whereas that of the female ends in a point or egg- laying apparatus, known as the "ovipositor." The maggots in the stomach are spoken of as " bots," and are sometimes very numerous, though it is questionable whether they do any harm unless they block up the outlet of the stomach (pyloric opening), when of course the effects may be fatal. There is another species of horse-bot infecting the rectum, also the beginning of the small intestine. Prevention comprises smearing certain parts of the pony — especi- ally about the shoulder, knee, etc. — with some volatile oil, such as oil of eucalyptus and linseed oil combined, and housing the animal during very hot weather. Internally small doses of turpentine (half an ounce) and linseed oil are the best, and the larvae should be destroyed when observed. Jaundice. — Jaundice, or, as it is more popularly termed, " the yellows," is symptomatic of liver derange- ment, either of a temporary or a permanent nature, and such derangement is not of uncommon occurrence in equines, though in all probability it is most fre- quently observed in connection with influenza, con- . - 415 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM stituting the bilious or hepatic form of that malady. Chronic enlargement of the liver, abscess of the liver, obstruction of the bile duct, are all liable to produce the condition or symptom known as jaundice. If a pony is fed on a diet that is too stimulative in its nature, such as too much maize, and given very little exercise or work, it is predisposed to develop a sluggish condition of the liver, which will produce a discoloration of the mucous membrane lining the eye- lids and mouth, yellowness of the skin, and, though not the least significant, a distinct saffron tint of the white portion of the eyeball. The yellow tint im- parted to the tissues is due to the bile pigment enter- ing the circulation. Symptoms. — There need be no difficulty in recog- nising this affection, as the yellowness of the parts already referred to is absolutely characteristic of it. The skin is dry and scurfy, the pulse slow, internal temperature usually elevated two or three degrees, and the urine deep yellow, being stained with the bile pigments. Treatment. — The treatment to be adopted will necessarily vary in accordance with the causation ; the pony must be fed very carefully in any case, bran and scalded oats being best for this purpose. To the drinking water it is advisable to add an ounce of bicarbonate of soda daily. If a pony is troubled with repeated bilious attacks, the best plan is to give it an occasional aloetic purge, say a four-drachm physic ball, to which twenty grains of calomel has been added. After the purgative has exerted its action, follow this up with a dilute mineral acid, such as dilute nitro- hydrochloric acid. Give a drachm of this acid in the 4x6 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS drinking water night and morning. Continue this treatment until the animal is better. Aaite l7iflam7nation of the Liver. — In tropical climates ponies are occasionally affected with this disease, but it is seen in Great Britain amongst foals when they are suffering under the disease popularly known as "joint ill," which arises as an infection from the umbilical cord. External injuries in the region of the liver are capable of exciting inflammation in this organ. Symptoms. — These are very similar to those described under the heading of jaundice, though the affection is much more liable to terminate fatally, beingr more severe in its nature. The treatment comprises counter-irritants exter- nally and saline laxatives internally, but this is a malady that requires skilled advice. Intestinal Concretions. — The intestine of the pony — like that of the horse — is occasionally the seat of one or more concretions popularly known as "stone." These foreign bodies are extremely detrimental, es- pecially when about the size of a cricket-ball, as such a stone may, with increased peristaltic action, wander about the gut, blocking some part up, and thus create a fatal obstruction (inflammation of the bowels). This not uncommonly happens in the single colon or else in the rectum, and frequently causes not only severe abdominal pain but straining as well. The forma- tion of these concretions is of interest, and horses fed largely upon bran seem more subject to this development. There is usually a nucleus around which calcare- ous matter is deposited, so that increase in size is by 2D 417 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM one layer upon another. The surface of the concre- tion may be rough or smooth, and the form rounded or angular, angularity being the rule where several concretions are in opposition. Sometimes such stones are as large as a cannon-ball. Owing to the possible existence of these concretions, in cases where a pony has repeated attacks of colic it is necessary to be very careful about the administration of purgative medicine, otherwise fatal results may be brought about. 41S CHAPTER XXXII Urinary Apparatus and Diseases affecting THE SAME The urinary apparatus comprises the right and left kidney, each with a ureter leading into the bladder, their entry being guarded by a valve. The bladder is a hollow muscular organ serving for the temporary storage of the urine, and consists of two parts, viz., the fundus, or expanded portion, and the neck. The neck is continued as the urethra, or conduit, to convey the urine outwards. In the mare the urethra is short and straight, and its outlet guarded by a valve, the 7neat7is urinarius, which is placed within the vulva. In the horse the urethra is long and winds round the ischiatic arch of the pelvis. Returning to the kidneys, these are placed beneath the loins, one slightly in front of the other, and maintained in position by blood - vessels and con- nective tissue. The blood supply is by the renal artery, and the venal blood carried away by a corre- sponding vein. There is a thin serous covering over each. This is the capsule. The function of the kidneys is to separate the watery constituents and waste products from the blood, and interference with their normal activity soon leads to serious disturbance of the system ; but the functional complaints are attended 419 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM with less danger than those arising from lesions in the organs themselves. The number of urinary diseases affecting the horse is similar to those affecting man and other animals. Some of these derangements are due to mechanical impediments, e.g., stone in the neck of the bladder or urethra, which, unless relieved, produces secondary- symptoms more disastrous than the primary ones. NorTnal Composition of the Urine The quantity of urine secreted mainly depends upon the amount of water consumed, but it is influ- enced by the activity of the skin, as sweating diminishes it. When feeding on grass or succulent herbage the secretion is increased. Under ordinary circumstances the average amount passed by a pony per diem would be about a gallon. The colour is clear yellow and should have a specific gravity of about 1.042, with an alkaline reaction. The organic substances contained in it are : urea, hippuric, benzoic, uric, oxalic acid and their salts ; the inorganic substances being carbonates, sulphates, phosphates ; of the metals, sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium, and chloride of sodium and silica, besides various aromatic substances. Hippuric acid exists in the urine of herbivora in general and can be obtained in a crystalline form, whilst uric acid exists in the greatest amount in the urine of the foal. Shortly after urine has passed it undergoes decom- 420 URINARY APPARATUS AND DISEASES position, the urine being converted, by a ferment, into ammonium carbonate. Ahiormal Conditio7is of the Urine In various diseased conditions the urine undergoes striking alterations in its physical appearance, likewise in its chemical composition, so that it is necessary to pay particular attention to the urinary discharge. Its colour may be altered either through the presence of bile pigments in it, as happens in jaundice, or it may contain the colouring matter of the blood, as in azoturia, or there may be blood in it, as blood, or pus, mucous, albumen, oxalate of lime, etc., etc. Albumen in the urine is an abnormal constituent of considerable importance, and if permanent is indicative of disease of the kidneys. Nitric acid will coagulate the albumen and is used as a test for it. In inflammatory disease of the kidney tube casts are present in the urine. Oxalate of lime often exists in large quantities and its presence is thought to be due to some disturbance of the digestive system. Diseases of the Urinary Apparatus Inflam7nation of the Kidneys. — Ponies, like other equines, occasionally suffer from inflammation of the kidneys, either in its acute or chronic form, but kidney diseases are much less frequent in the horse than in man, and when inflammatory action does occur it is not uncommonly associated with some other specific affection and forms part of a general inflammatory action. Consequently it may arise during blood- poisoning, influenza, and has an extension of inflam- 421 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM mation from adjacent structures. The abuse of diuretic medicines, for instance, the repeated administration of small doses of saltpetre, turpentine, etc., is liable to excite inflammation of the kidneys, so that grooms should be warned against the abuse of these and other diuretic medicines. In some cases the can- tharides blister has produced inflammation of this kind. Injuries to the loins may be followed by a similar result. The principal symptoms are colic pains, frequent attempts to urinate, and when any urine is expelled it is in very small quantities. As the malady progresses the pulse becomes quick and hard, the mucous mem- brane deep red ; patchy sweating occurs, and the sweat has a urinous odour, indicative that the kidneys are not acting properly. Being a grave malady it is not advisable for the amateur to attempt any treatment, beyond that of subduing pain with half-ounce doses of laudanum every four or five hours until three doses have been administered. Hot flannel should be ap- plied to loins. The chronic form of nephritis corre- sponds to Bright's Disease in the human subject. Diabetes Insipidus {or Polyuria) There is profuse urination, and this is of somewhat frequent occurrence, as a rule, due to some defect in the forage, such as musty oats, mow-burned hay, or damaged fodder of some kind. It sometimes occurs in tuberculosis, but as this is not a frequent complaint in ponies, one may conclude, when this affection makes its appearance, that the food is at fault, so that it should be examined with a view to ascertain the cause. 422 URINARY APPARATUS AND DISEASES Strictly speaking it is purely a functional disorder of the digestive tract, the kidneys being left to deal with it. Excessive urination, marked thirst, and a pale condition of urine are characteristic symptoms. The treatment must be directed to a removal of the cause. Iodine and iron are the drugs usually employed in this affection, along with a mild dose of physic. Energetic treatment must be adopted as the animal rapidly loses flesh and soon becomes incapable of doino- its work. ."^ Hcematuria or Blood in the Urine The presence of a blood clot in the urine is always a grave symptom, and may arise from injury to the kidneys, or any part of the urinary tract. Stone is not an uncommon experience of this con- dition. In a case of this nature professional skill must be obtained. Retention of Urine The urine may be partially or completely retained. The temporary retention of urine is very common in colic, and laymen usually think that the animal is suffering from some urinary trouble, whereas this is not the case, as the accompanying spasm at the neck of the bladder will subside with the abdominal pain. In fact, free urination is one of the first signs of the subsidence of pain in the belly. Another cause of re- tention is want of opportunity, as some ponies will not stale whilst in harness. Stone, stricture, swelling of the sheath, various morbid growths, are occasional 423 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM causes of retention. Some ponies will not pass their urine till they get into the stall and the harness has been removed. Treatment in accordance with the cause. Inflammation of the Bladder This affection arises from a variety of causes, and consists of an inflammation of its lining membrane. In some cases it is due to an inflammatory action set up during difficult parturition, whereas in other in- stances the causes are either chemical or mechanical. Stone may cause inflammation of the bladder ; so may irritant drugs, such as cantharides, not uncom- monly used by stud - grooms for exciting venereal appetite. Irritability of the bladder is, doubtless, often confused with an inflammatory condition of it. The leading symptoms are abdominal pain, fre- quent attempts to urinate, a deep colour of the visible mucous membranes, and other signs of severe consti- tutional disturbance. The treatment consists in the repeated administra- tion of some drug that will soothe the inflamed or irritable bladder. For this there is nothing better than tincture of hyoscymus in half-ounce doses, given in a gill of barley-water three times a day. Stone in the Bladder The bladder is occasionally the seat of stone or calculi, composed of earthy salt in combination with inorganic matter, but carbonate of lime constitutes the bulk of the calculus. There may be one calculus or several calculi — the size of such varying. When small, stone may be passed along with the 424 URINARY APPARATUS AND DISEASES urine, but, as a rule, a calculus either remains in the bladder or else blocks up some portion of the canal leading- from it, producing the retention of urine. The physical appearances differ considerably, but there is usually a nucleus around which concentric layers of calcareous material are deposited. Bladder calculi are mostly ovoid in form, with generally a rough surface. Horses are more troubled with calculi than mares, probably because of the short urethra in the mare. The symptoms vary, being severe in some cases, slight in others. The urine is passed with difficulty and evidently causes pain. A sign of considerable importance as to the existence of stone is the passage of blood, either before, during, or after the act of urination. The diagnosis mainly depends upon the examination of the bladder, pe7' rectum. Treatment — being purely operative — must be left to the surgeon. Inversion of the Bladde7' This is an uncommon accident, but sometimes happens in the mare during severe labour. The bladder is turned inside out and the orifice of the ureters, or tubes by which the urine is conveyed to the bladder, will be found at its expanded upper part. In some instances the organ is prolapsed — not inverted — through a tear in the lower wall of the vagina. Care must be exercised in dealing with an accident of this kind, and the sooner professional aid is obtained the better. 425 CHAPTER XXXIII The Generative Apparatus (Mare) The generative organs in the mare comprise the right and left ovary and their ducts or fallopian tubes, the uterus or womb, vagina, the external orifice or vulva, and mammary gland. The ovaries are oval in shape and weigh about a couple of ounces in the pony. Each is suspended in a pouch of tissue formed by the broad ligament. The essential part of the ovary consists of small bladder-like bodies called Graafian follicles, which when mature are filled with fluid and contain the eggs. Each ovum consists of a yolk and a larger spot, i.e., the germinal vesicle, within which is the germinal spot. When a Graafian follicle ruptures the ovum escapes and passes along the fallopian tube to the uterus, where, if fertilised, it develops into a foetus, if not, it undergoes disintegration. The uterus is composed of a right and left horn and a body with a constricted part, known as the os uteri, which normally shuts off the uterus from the other part of the generative passage. The uterus serves to accommodate the foetus during gestation, and when the time for parturition arrives its muscular fibres contract and it expels its contents. Opening on the floor of the vulva is the urethra, or outlet of the urinary conduit. It is guarded by a valve directed backwards. The uterus is situated in the pelvic basin, and its body 426 THE GENERATIVE APPARATUS is about eight inches long, whilst the horns are also of about the same length. Affections of the Generative Organs {in the Mare) Inflammation of the 6^/^7'^^i'.— Metritis, or inflamma- tion of the uterus, is a malady attended with most serious consequences, and one that usually arises through infection as the result of injury during the act of parturition. Such injury sometimes occurs apart from manual interference, though, as a rule, it is mostly the outcome of the latter, although the injury inflicted may not have been severe. The author's experience is that it is a very fatal disease, usually running its course within four or five days. Another cause, probably the most common one, is the retention of the placenta, or "cleansing," beyond a reasonable time, say twelve hours in summer, and twenty-four hours in winter. No mare should be allowed to ^o long^er than the time specified without being "cleansed." When a portion of the placenta is retained, " septic " laminitis is more likely to occur, than inflammation of womb. The symptoms are acute ; the temperature begins to rise, and will, probably, go up to io6° Fahrenheit. Patchy sweating occurs, with pain in the belly ; the breathing is quickened ; shivering is marked during the early stages. Lameness in the hind quarters is sometimes observed, but this is due to principally pain. Sometimes chronic manifestations of this affection occur, but the acute form is nearly always fatal, there- 427 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM fore treatment is usually of little avail. In any case it is expedient to have professional advice. Septic Laminitis (Fever in the Feet) This affection arises from one cause only, and that is, the retention of a portion of decomposing placental menibrane, or ''cleansing'' inadvertently remaining in the uterus after the mare has foaled. [See Diseases of the Feet.) Vaginitis An inflammatory condition of the vagina is not uncommon, and, when it does occur, is generally associated with some injury to the vagina inflicted during labour. It is indicated by a congested or deep red condition of the vagina, accompanied by a difficulty of staling or urination, along with the passage of a mucous-like discharge from the organ. Treatment is comparatively simple, comprising the injection of some antiseptic and astringent solutions, such as alum and water, sulphate of zinc and permanganate of potash, allowing ten grains of either to each ounce of water. About half a pint of this fluid should be injected with a female syringe. A course of tonic medicine should be given inter- nally, whilst a physic ball will usually do good. Leucorrkcea This affection is characterised by a chronic dis- charge from the vagina, and in breeding establish- ments is known as the " whites." 428 THE GENERATIVE APPARATUS It is of a chronic nature and sometimes trouble- some to cure. The lining membrane of the passage is relaxed and the mouth of the os usually dilated. Treatment comprises a course of tonic medicine along with astringent injections, such as alum, sulphate of copper, lead, etc., in the proportion of half an ounce to a quart of water of any of the drugs named. Steri/ity Barrenness may arise from a multiplicity of causes, some constitutional, others local in their origin, and is ascribable to either sex, though on which side sterility arises may be difficult to determine. Some cases of sterility are due to cystic disease of the ovary — the substance of which may be completely destroyed through this cause. Sterility arises from senility, also from disease of the uterus, vagina, etc., and through failure of the fertilising element to reach the ova, and for over- coming this ''Artificial Insemination'' is sometimes practised, and it is said, very often, with satisfactory results. A mare may be barren through being too fat, just as the latter may be the cause of defective procreative power in the male. Prolapse of the Uterus Fortunately for mares this accident is not of very frequent occurrence. Nevertheless it does at times occur, and is nearly always the result of violent strain- ing during labour, and is most liable to happen in old mares. The uterus is turned inside out and hangs 429 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM down according to degree of displacement. The inverted organ becomes congested, swollen, and of a deep blackish red colour, and the longer it remains out the more critical the animal's condition becomes. Managejuent. — First of all send for the veterinary- surgeon, and meanwhile have the protruding part supported by a sheet, held by an attendant on either side, in order to facilitate free circulation in the extruded organ. The application of a warm, mild antiseptic solution may prove beneficial. Hcemorrhage This is an accident that seldom occurs in the mare, but it may happen after premature labour or abortion, also in easy births, but very rarely when there has been manual interference in delivery. If the placenta is suddenly torn away from the wall, bleeding may arise. Some animals are more predisposed to bleed- ing than others. The symptoms are those of trembling, staggering gait, cold sweats, and a running-down, feeble pulse. It is not absolutely necessary that the haemorrhage should escape outside ; in fact, it will probably not do so till the uterus has become logged with it. Profes- sional aid should be obtained as quickly as possible, though, in the meanwhile, good will result from the application of cold water to the spine. The placenta will have to be removed so as to allow the mouth of the womb to close up, but this, of course, is a matter for the veterinary surgeon. Particular care has to be exercised to guard against septic infection, hence the necessity for the free use of antiseptic solutions — one 430 THE GENERATIVE APPARATUS of the best being chinosol and witch-hazel — the latter being a styptic. Mare must be kept very quiet and carefully watched. Parturient Fever As the name implies this is a febrile condition occurring at, or subsequent to, labour, usually the result of infection from the womb or generative passage, in which connection it has been previously referred to when dealing with " Inflammation of the Womb." This affection may supervene within a week or less, and begins with a severe rigor, followed by the usual signs of a disturbed state of the system, and particu- larly by pain in the belly and cramp in the hind limbs. Sometimes there is a brownish discharge from the vulva. In all cases the temperature of the body is elevated. This is a very fatal affection, recoveries being rare. Whatever treatment is adopted must be directed towards the removal of the cause, and will comprise both local and general measures, demanding the highest professional skill. The prognosis is unfavourable. Ma77imitis iylnflammation of the Udder) Inflammation of the mammary gland, so common in dairy cattle, is not particularly frequent in mares, and when it does occur is generally the result of ex- posure to cold. The organ is predisposed to congestion at the time of parturition, owing to its physiological employment. 431 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Troubles in this region necessarily handicap the foal's welfare, therefore it becomes expedient to resort to artificial feeding, for which purpose Spratt's Malt Milk is very suitable. When the gland is acutely inflamed it becomes hard, extremely sensitive to the touch, and the skin shiny. The milk secretion is diminished, and the teats, on being squeezed, yield curdled milk or pus. In some cases abscess formation occurs and the quarter may die. Necessarily the constitutional disturb- ance is considerable, so that the mare will require good support to tide over the critical stages of the disease. The author believes that freely rubbing the gland with belladonna ointment is most useful, as it favours the flow of milk, relaxes the surrounding parts, and, in addition to this, relieves pain and tension. A very good plan is to rub the gland freely with opodeldoc, or else camphorated oil. Internally give a dessertspoonful of Epsom salts in drinking water, night and morning, till the medicine begins to act freely. If an abscess forms this will require the use of anti- septic solutions after the swelling has been lanced. The same remark applies to sloughing parts, which must be kept thoroughly clean ; above all, the bedding must be scrupulously dry and clean, and the mare fed on scalded oats, bran and linseed, green food, and, if necessary, eggs, whisky and milk, in small doses, three times a day. 432 CHAPTER XXXIV Diseases of the Central Nervous System Introduction, — The central nervous system com- poses the brain and spinal cord. The brain is divisible into two portions, the larger portion being known as the cerebriwi, and the smaller part as the cerebellum, which latter lies behind the cerebrimi. The brain is situated in the cranial cavity or brain- box, which is continuous with the canal running through the vertebrae, and ending in the bones of the tail. It is known as the spinal or neutral canal, and in it the spinal cord is accommodated. The brain is composed of white matter internally and grey matter towards the surface, the latter being arranged in the form of numerous convolutions. The cerebrum or larger brai?i is divided into a right and left Jietnispherc, and the whole brain of a pony weighs about one pound, or a trifle over this weight. Three coverings or membranes invest the brain^ and these are known as the pia mater, the arachnoid and the dura mater, the latter lining the brain-box. The dura mater is a tough fibrous membrane^ whereas the covering last named is closely adherent to- the brain and consists chiefly of blood-vessels. The arachnoid rests between these two membranes. The under surface of the brain is a very complex structure, and from it twelve pairs of nerz>es originate^ 2E 433 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM forming a sort of telegraphic system throughout the body, the brain being the chief office. On the lower or under surface, and at the anterior end of the brain, the two bulbs of smell are placed, and a little behind this the optic nerves, followed by the remaining ten pairs, the bulk of which arise in the brain-bulb or medul/a oblongata, and this looks like the expanded portion of the spinal cord, with which it is continuous, The pons varolii is a thick band of transverse fibres extending across the base of the brain, just in front of the medulla oblongata, extending from one hemi- sphere of the brain to the other. The spinal cord weighs about eight ounces in a pony, and, as previously stated, it is lodged in the spinal canal, being invested by coverings corresponding to those of the brain, and has two swellings upon it (ganglia), one in the region of the neck, and the other in the loins. These nerve masses of matter give origin to the nerves running to the fore and hind limbs. There are forty-three pairs of nerves arising by two roots from the spinal cord. Unlike the brain, the grey substance is placed in the middle of the spinal cord and arranged to form superior and inferior horns (cornua), which join the nerve roots previously referred to, thus establishing communication with the nerve cells forming the grey matter of the cord. The nerves of the spinal canal pass out through minute openings {^foramina), between the vertebrae, just in the same manner that the cranial nerves make their exit from the skull to the nose, the eyes, the ears, the cheeks, the tongue, etc. 434 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The cerebj'o-spinal nervous system responds to im- pressions made upon the organs of sense, such as that of sight, smell, taste, etc., whereas the sympathetic nervous system controls the supply of blood to the various organs, such as the stomach, heart, etc., etc. Vertigo [Megrims) This affection — or rather symptom — commonly known as megrims, staggers, etc., is not at all un- common, and when it does occur it is indicative of some form of defective circulation in the brain. Excessive heat, or a collar that is too tight, will sometimes occasion this trouble. It is also observed as a symptom of certain digestive troubles (stomach staggers), being, under these circumstances, only of a temporary nature. In other instances it arises through organic disease of the brain, heart, etc. External injury is sometimes the cause. When a pony is troubled with seizures of this nature, the chances are that there is some disease in connection with the brain. Needless to say such a pony is quite unsafe to ride or drive, and, of course, unsound. Being a latent trouble there would be a difficulty in proving its existence prior to sale. Liver trouble is an occasional cause. Attacks of this nature are characterised by the pony shaking its head or turning it to one side, most likely whilst it is at work. The next' seizure is more pronounced, but there is no knowing when it will occur. Sometimes the pony falls to the ground, partially unconscious, though this is usually of temporary dura- 435 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM tion. It may get up and do the rest of the journey as though nothing had happened, provided it has escaped injury. The best means of obviating an attack is to have a loose-fitting collar, not to work during excessive heat, and feed at least a couple of hours before using. Damp crushed oats, bran and linseed is the best food. Avoid using bulky forage, especially before work. If liver trouble is the suspected cause, give twenty grains of calomel, and two drachms cut off a purging ball, every other day, until two doses have been administered. Bromide of potash (three drachms) in drinking water (daily) is often beneficial, but, as pre- viously stated, a pony thus addicted is never safe. Apoplexy of the Brain Sunstroke, — This disease is due to the rupture of a minute blood-vessel in connection with the brain, and the pressure of the extravasated blood upon the nervous matter of which it is composed. In some instances it is due to excessive heat, hence the reason why it is also known as sunstroke. External injury and disease (softening) of a blood-vessel of the brain are amongst other causes. The animal is suddenly levelled to the ground and becomes unconscious, dying in a variable time. Treat- ment is practically useless, but a purgative and ice- bags to poll are indicated, if such be attempted. Abscess and Tumours of the Brain Sometimes an abscess or other morbid growth 436 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM starts into existence in connection with the brain, and when it does, it always proves fatal. Secondary abscess of the brain occasionally follows upon an attack of strangles, giving rise to variable symptoms, but all referable to either the pressure upon the brain, or else upon the spinal cord. In blood-poisoning (pyaemia) abscesses occur in various parts of the body, brain, etc. The most significant sign is either depression of of the head, or else its lateral deviation. Treatment would be of no avail even if it were possible to carry it out. In cases of this nature the most economical plan is to have the pony destroyed as speedily and. mercifully as possible. Brain tumours are occasionally found in the ventricles of the brain, and sometimes externally to the cortex of the brain. Stringhalt This affection is characterised by an Involuntary jerking up of one or both hind limbs, or of the fore- limb, the foot or feet being then forcibly brought to the ground. Stringhalt varies greatly in degree, some cases being so slight as to be hardly noticeable whereas others are of the most pronounced type. With increasing age, it usually becomes aggravated, so that hope of the animal growing any better is quite beyond expectation. The affected limbs wear out quicker owing to the greater amount of concussion to which they are subjected. Although a disease im- plicating the nerves, stringhalt is attributable to a variety of causes, such as bone-spavin, a morbid growth on the pelvis, etc. 437 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM It is almost needless to say stringhalt constitutes un- soundness, and a pony sold with a general warranty can be returned on proof of the existence of this trouble. Paralysis {Local and General^ Paralysis or loss of functional power may be con- fined to one side of the body — right or left — or consist of loss of power of the hind quarters of the animal. The latter is most frequently encountered in veterinary practice. Again, some particular part of the body, such as an eye, a limb, the tongue, lips, etc., may be seat of paralysis, due to injury, or to disease in connection with the nerve supply. Reflex paralysis arises from irritation in other organs, such as the bowels and womb. When the source of such irritation has been removed the paraly- sis usually disappears. Kidney disease and azoturia may cause paralysis. Most cases of paralysis are those affecting the hind quarters, and generally due to some form of injury in connection with the spinal column and the cord. The part behind the seat of injury is that in which loss of function occurs, and it may be also loss of sensation. The pony is unable to stand, and falls a helpless mass to the ground. A not uncommon form of paralysis is that affecting the seventh nerve (facial paralysis). This nerve gives off branches to the lips, nostrils and muscles of mastication, and paralysis may affect one or both sides of the parts named. It is due to pressure upon the nerve, and the causes of such pressure are variable. In some instances direct injury, such as a blow, is the exciting cause. 438 DISEASES OF THE NERVOTS SYSTEM Facial paralysis is quite easy to recognise. If partial, the nostril is distorted, being drawn to one side. The affected side causes distortion of the opposite nostril, the balance of muscular pull being lost on the diseased side. Treatment and Management. — Most cases of paralysis are of a very hopeless nature, unless due to reflex causes. If the hind quarters are paralysed, it is useless to try and place a pony in slings, as this will do more harm than good, under these circumstances. In every instance a dose of purgative medicine ought to be administered at once, and the rectum emptied by means of an enema of tepid water. In facial paralysis, the animal has great difficulty in taking up food and water, so that it soon begins to lose flesh. It is a troublesome affection to treat, demanding professional skill, and even then many cases end fatally. If due to the pressure of an abscess this will require healing in accordance with surgical principles. Inflammaiion of the Brain and its Membranes Inflammation of the brain is spoken of as cerebritis, but when the membranes are implicated, it is known as meningitis. Both these diseases give rise to different symptoms. In the former malady there is a greater degree of coma and paralysis. Delirium and convul- sions are more significant of the latter trouble. The terms "stomach staggers " and "sleepy staggers," are often applied to symptoms of an allied nature. A dose of purgative medicine and bran mashes should be given. 439 CHAPTER XXXV SECTION A THE EYE, ANATOMICAL OUTLINES OF The eyes are placed in complete bony sockets, and protected at the back by a bed of fat, with the addi- tional protection afforded by eyelids, the membrana nictitans or haw, and the retractor muscles, which serve to draw the eye backwards. The membrana nictitans, or third eyelid as it is sometimes called, is a triangular piece of cartilage situated on the inner angle of the eye, and attached to a cushion of fat at the back of it. The front edge of this piece of cartilage is very thin, so that it can sweep the globe of the eye, in order to remove any foreign particles that may accidentally gain admission on to the eyeball, and also to sweep away the tears. The eyeball is moved by seven muscles, namely, the superior and inferior oblique muscles, four recti or straight muscles, and the retractor bulbi. The coats of the eye are three in number, named from without to within as follows : — first, the sclerotic and cornea. The sclerotic constitutes the white of the eye, and the cornea the circular transparent part in front, being specially modified to admit the rays of light into the interior of the eye, for transmission by the optic nerve, to the brain. In structure the sclerotic is a tough 440 ANATOMICAL OUTLINES OF THE EYE membrane, thickest at the back and thinnest where it joins the cornea ; in front it is covered by the con- junctiva, which is reflected over the globe of the eye. Although the cornea is transparent, the white portion is composed of the same fibres, though differently arranged in the two structures. The second coat of the eye is the corhoid, com- posed of a network of blood-vessels, many of which are arranged in loops like the other coat. It is pierced by the optic nerve at the back, and it contains pigment cells. The third coat is called the retina, which in reality is an expansion of the optic nerve, and specially adapted for the transference of impressions from with- out to the brain. The layers of cells entering into the structure of this membrane are numerous. Between the cornea and the crystalline lens there is a small membrane consisting of blood-vessels and muscular fibres, most of which are arranged in a circular manner, though some radiate. This is the iris, and the colouring matter in the iris determines the colour of the eye. In the centre of the iris there is a slit-like opening which widens in the dark and con- tracts in strong light ; this is the pupil of the eye, and upon its adjustment depends the sight. In other words, it regulates the flow of light through the lens. Small sooty-like bodies are attached to the margin of the iris. These are called the corpra nigra, and they are occasionally displaced or project from the free margin of the iris over the pupillary opening, and in this manner have been known to interfere with perfect vision. The crystalline lens is a bi-convex body about 441 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM half an inch in diameter, and rests behind the iris ; it is enclosed in a capsule and composed of fibres. It enables the rays of light to be brought to a focus on the retina and the image there formed. In the interior of the eye there are two chambers, which contain the humours of the eye. In the anterior chamber the aqueous humour is contained, this chamber being situated between the cornea and the lens ; the vitreous humour is in the posterior chamber. Along the margins of the eyelids are the eyelashes, and the lachrymal gland secretes the tears for keeping the globe of the eye moist. The gland is situated at the side of the eyeball. Diseases in Connection with the Eye and Eyelids Ophthalmia. — This is one of the commonest affec- tions of the eyelids and either one or both eyes may be affected. It is an inflammation of the conjunctiva or mucous membrane lining the eyelids, and may be either acute or chronic, but usually exists as an acute affection. It frequently leads to implication of the cornea, as the prolonged irritation sets up opacity of this structure, which, if neglected, may end in the sight being per- manently impaired. Ophthalmia arises from a variety of causes, but the commonest of such are, turning "in" or " out " of the eyelids ; the admission of a particle of chaff (hayseed or some other foreign body) ; injuries to the eyelids ; chemical irritants of various kinds. As an accom- paniment of influenza " ophthalmia " is frequently en- countered. In fact the so-called " pink eye," is a severe manifestation of ophthalmia, but this must not be 442 The Pupil In a maderalsUghl' The Pupil In d strong Light- The Slerotic Cadt he Choroid Membrane Crystiiline Lens Vitreous Humour J E/e Lash 6 Pupil 7 The Iris ^QT he Retina [Interior Cnamber 0. Posterior Chiimber Transparent Cornea Cllinry Process /J Central Artery 14. The Optic Nerve The Eye when affecleJ with Cataract The Crj/stdline Lens thoroughly dscayed DIACPwVM OF pony's EYE; ALSO SHOWING THE NORMAL PUI'IL IN STRONG LIGHT AND MODERATE LIGHT. THE BOTTOM FIGURES DELICT EYES WITH CATARACT. \To face- /'age 442 ANATOMICAL OUTLINES OF THE EYE confounded with a similar form of eye inflammation (recurrent ophthalmia), which is much more disastrous in its effects. Inflammation of the eye is easily recognised by intolerance to light, redness of the white of the eye, and injection of the vessels of the lining membrane of the eyelids. Tears are suffused over the face, and in course of time suppuration is frequently established. Treatment. — An effort must be made to ascertain the cause, and if practicable remove it. Follow this up by bathing the eye three or four times a day with the following lotion : — Hyposulphite of soda , . 2 drachms Boiled cold water . . . lo ounces To apply the lotion take a small piece of boracic lint and wet the eyes freely. In some cases an astringent lotion is required ; if so, a very weak solution of nitrate of silver may be used — about two grains to each ounce of distilled water. Bathing the eyes with an infusion of camomile is also an excellent practice, whilst a strong infusion of cold tea is very often useful. Keep the patient in a darkened loose-box, and if the sight appears cloudy it would be better to consult a veterinary surgeon at once. Recurrent Ophthalmia. — Many years ago this used to be a very prevalent affection, but fortunately is not often encountered now. The reason why it has been named "■recurrent'' is because of its liability to recur again and again until the eyesight is completely destroyed. Doubtless, it is a specific form of disease of a malignant nature ; it is also spoken of as "moon-blindness," and used to be at- 443 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM tributed to the effects of bad sanitation. The eyeHds become swollen, the conjunctiva reddened, tears flow over the face, and the upper eyelid is drawn upwards, whilst the anterior chamber of the eye assumes a yellow colour. In due course, the lens becomes affected and the sight destroyed. Cataract. — In this disease it is the crystalline lens, its capsular covering, or both, that are involved, and the affection may be either partial or complete. As a rule cataract begins in the form of a small speck, which on careful examination can be seen at the back of the eye. As the disease advances the spot enlarges and often assumes a star-shaped appearance, but in advanced cases of cataract there is no difficulty in determining its existence, whereas there is very great difficulty detecting it in the early stages, excepting by the expert. Needless to say this defect constitutes unsoundness and is a frequent cause of shying. Inflammation of the Cornea. — When speaking of the simple form of ophthalmia mention was made that the cornea sometimes becomes opaque, but occasion- ally true suppuration is established between the layers of cells entering into the structure of the cornea, known as "suppurative keratitis." In some instances, a small growth appears on the cornea, and the front of the eye begins to bulge. This is known as staphyloma. Inversion and Ever si on of the Eyelids. — In the first- named, the "eyelid" is turned "inwards" so that the eye- lashes grow inwards towards the conjunctiva, whereas in "eversion" of the eyelids the upper eyelid is turned outwards, exposing the conjunctiva. For the relief of both conditions operative interference is necessary. 444 DISEASES OF THE SKIN Lacerations of the Eyelids. — A torn eyelid is a common enough accident, and if severe, frequently implicates the conjunctiva, and in this way may set up ophthalmia. This is occasionally of a suppurative na- ture, owing to infection of the wound by pus organisms. When the margins of the eyelids are torn through the injury is of a much more troublesome nature, though, as a rule, wounds about the eyelids — at least such is the author's experience — usually unite very readily, in some cases by what is called "first inten- tion." In order to bring this method of healing about, the injury must be well cleaned with some weak anti- septic solution, such as permanganate of potash (five grains to the ounce), and the wound then carefully sewn up. SECTION B DISEASES OF THE SKIN Introductory Remarks. — Ponies, like all other animals, are liable to suffer from various skin troubles, some of a mild type, others of a very severe nature. All skin complaints arise either from constitutional causes, or else from external irritation. Mange and ringworm are both infective skin troubles, therefore, measures must be adopted to prevent extension to other members of the stud. Many local authorities compel notification in cases of psoroptic mange, this being the commoner parasitic affection of the horse. Good stable management does a lot towards keeping the coat and skin in a thoroughly healthy condition, whereas the converse predisposes to troubles in con- 445 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM nection with the cutaneous structures. Badly fitting harness, negligence in the care of the same, and improper treatment after a pony comes in from work, are, either individually or collectively, responsible for many skin complaints affecting the horse. An idle or an ignorant groom — though the two are usually inter- linked — is not only an annoyance to his master but a veritable curse to the animal placed under his charge. The following are some of the principal skin diseases affecting ponies : — Urticaria, or Nettle-rash This is a very common complaint, and one that is usually associated with some form of digestive disturbance, though such may be inappreciable. Nettle-rash is characterised by its remarkably sudden appearance, and in many instances by its ephemeral nature. It does not, however, always disappear so suddenly, but undergoes a gradual subsidence. The elevations under these circumstances have a tendency towards confluence, not disappearing until they have broken and discharged their serous contents. The weals or elevations may appear on any part of the body, but they are most abundant upon the shoulders, withers, back, sides and quarters, and vary in their size from a shilling to that of a saucer, but the larger elevations are nearly always produced by fusion of one weal with another. A pony may show no signs of this trouble, say, in the evening, but on the follow- ing morning it may possibly be studded over with nettle-rash. It is a trouble that often comes on 446 DISEASES OF THE SKIN when the animal has been fed on food of a too stimulating nature, or as the result of a change of food. In all probability the nervous system is de- ranged, secondarily to that of the digestive organs, in other words, nettle-rash arises through reflected irritation, disappearing when such is removed. Treatynent and Ma^iagemcnt. — This is compara- tively simple and resolves itself into conditions that are easily controlled by the groom. Experience proves that the administration of a full dose of physic constitutes one of the speediest methods of dissipating the trouble. This should be followed up by vegetable bitters and alkaline carbonates, for which purposes the following prescription can be used : — Powdered Gentian . . 3 ounces Bicarbonate of Potash . . 2 ounces Bicarbonate of Soda . . i ounce Mix and divide into twelve powders, one of which should be mixed with the food night and morning. In addition to the foregoing it is expedient to employ some local remedial agents for the relief of the irrita- tion, which in all cases of urticaria is intense, and a simple application for this purpose is diluted acetic acid one part, Goulard's Water, one ounce, methylated spirits of wine, four ounces, water added to make sixteen ounces. This lotion should be applied to the elevations several times a day, and continued until an abatement of the trouble ensues. Under ordinary circumstances nettle-rash is a comparatively benign malady, and one that ought to respond to the treatment already laid down. 447 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Erythema [Collar and Saddle Galls) The term erythema is expressive of the preliminary- manifestation of most skin troubles, in other words, of congestion which in nearly all cutaneous affections constitutes one of the principal initial features. There are various forms of erythema, but it is not necessary to enter into a discussion of these, the simplest being popularly known under the titles of sore back, saddle galls, girth galls, sore shoulders, etc., all of which are indicated by redness of the skin and the production of a sore thereon at the seat of irritation. Sore shoulders are familiar to every horseman, and much the same remark applies to sore backs and saddle galls. In the majority of instances these injuries are produced by badly-fitting harness, therefore, when- ever they occur, the collar, saddle-tree, girths, etc., should be looked to, in order to ascertain the cause of the injury. A frequent cause of these cutaneous injuries arises through allowing the removal of the collar, saddle, etc., immediately the animal comes in from work ; in other words, when the skin is hot, and subsequently exposed to the cool air, it is particularly liable to become congested, and thus arises the skin affections now under consideration. The best pre- ventive is that of allowing the saddle or the collar to remain in position until the skin has become cool. In some countries sore backs are very troublesome, in fact, in the army during war-time, troubles of this kind are the chief causes for throwing horses off their work. The bruised skin swells and, as a rule, breaks, leaving an angry-looking sore of variable size, which, unless the source of irritation be removed, continues to 448 DISEASES OF THE SKIN become worse. The simplest treatment under ordinary circumstances comprises the application of a cooling lotion, such as the following : — Methylated spirit of wine Tincture of opium Tincture of iodine 4 ounces I ounce I drachm Chloride of ammonium Cold water I ounce 12 ounces Mix and apply several times a day freely, wetting the sores with the lotion. Eczema {Non-parasitic) Eczematous eruptions of the skin are not of very frequent occurrence in ponies, but when such does occur it is very often troublesome to eradicate. It is customary to speak of eczema as being acute or chronic, in accordance with its duration. The cutaneous eruption arises from some irritation within the body, it may be congestion of the liver, kidneys, or other organs associated with the digestive, etc., apparatus. Acute eczema is denoted by a preliminary congestion of the skin, upon which small blisters form, and in due course burst, their contents drying upon the surface, producing an ugly - looking variable- sized patch, which may extend more or less over the shoulders, back, sides and quarters, but eczema in its acute stage is more liable to assume the form of a widely-spread eruption than in the case of chronic eczema which, in its simplest manifestation, is gener- ally of a more patchy character. All eczematous eruptions are characterised by the possession of certain features, which, though not by any means 2F 449 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM diagnostic, are fairly good evidence of this skin trouble. These signs are as follows : — Firstly — Redness of the skin, followed by moisture of the part, the result of vesiculation, the vesicles appearing diffused over the inflamed area, and lasting until their contents have escaped, the fluid poured out forming a crust on the surface of the sore. Secondly — The sudden appearance of the eruption without any visible cause for its existence, as in the case of erythema and mange — parasitic mange. Thirdly — The tendency of the eruption to remain stationary or fairly stationary, coupled with its non- communicable nature. Although the foregoing features are fairly charac- teristic of eczema, they are not, as previously stated, positive signs of this trouble, therefore the diagnosis can only be arrived at by the exclusion of other skin affections. In the treatment of eczema, no matter whether it be acute or chronic, it is necessary to apply not only local remedies but also give a course of medicine internally, which in the case of chronic eczema should comprise such remedies as arsenic, iodide of potash, iron combined with vegetable bitters, although arsenic is a drug that ought to be prescribed only under professional advice, and never given con- tinuously beyond, say, a period of three weeks or a month, being an accumulative drug. Fowler's Solution of Arsenic is the safest preparation to use, and the dose for a pony is about half an ounce once or twice a day. The food should be of a non-stimu- lating nature, preferably comprised of chaff and scalded oats, bran and oats, hay, green food, such as vetches, clover, rye grass, sainfoin, lucerne, etc., 45° DISEASES OF THE SKIN whenever these are procurable. Maize and other stimulating foods must be avoided. Regarding the local applications, a great deal will depend upon the stage at which the disease is arrived, in other words, whether dry or moist. For the former, tarry applica- tions are the most suitable, whereas for the latter, oleate of zinc ointment, oleate of aliminium ointment, boracic acid ointment, are the most suitable applica- tions. Any of these ointments should be rubbed well in night and morning, and, when necessary, can be supplanted with a dusting powder, such as powdered starch and boracic acid in equal parts. This powder will help to dry up the sores, and will materially aid matters. Under any circumstances eczema is a most troublesome complaint, necessitating perseverance in treatment ere a cure can be hoped for. Parasitic Mange Unfortunately for the horse, mange is a very common affection, and one that frequently leads to a great deal of trouble, especially where a large number of ponies are kept, as it rapidly spreads throughout a whole drove, and its eradication necessitates the adoption of the strongest legislative measures, which have been framed by many local authorities, though not by all, yet the Board of Agriculture has considered it necessary to deal with the matter, in order to curtail the spread of the trouble. For a long time an order has been in force in the Shetland Isles to limit and prevent the spread of this infective skin disease, as its appearance has occasionally given rise to the most serious consequences amongst the Shetland ponies of 451 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM the islands. Parasitic mange is denoted by its infective nature, readily spreading from one pony to another by direct as well as indirect means, hence the reason why mange is commonly spoken of as con- tagious, but this is not a convenient term, implying, as it does, transmission mostly by contact of one animal with another, whereas the term infective (mange) embraces all methods of transmission, direct or indirect. There are several varieties of mange, or rather of mange parasites, each of which seems to have a preference for attacking certain portions of the skin, but the commonest variety of mange is that produced by the Chorioptes acari, which have a pre- ference for the hair beneath the mane, at the root of the tail, likewise on the back and the sides, but the acaiH are not necessarily confined in their operations to the parts named, as mange rapidly spreads over a large area of the skin, more especially if hygienic con- ditions are bad, and the animal neglected in other ways ; in fact, mange must be looked upon as a disease associated with malnutrition and negligence, though it does occur in stables where there is no neglect. It must, however, have been introduced into such stables from without, and as the methods of transmission are so variable, it is readily conceivable that such can occur. Mange acari, or the eggs of the parasites, may be conveyed by means of brushes, curry combs, mane combs, chamois leathers, the hands and clothing of attendants, stall posts, mangers, feeding- racks, and various other stable appliances, though the period which such appliances may harbour infection does not appear to be decisive. The other form of mange attacking the skin of the body is that due to 452 DISEASES OP^ THE SKIN Sarcoptes equi. the parasites of which burrow into the skin, thus rendering the trouble more difficuk to cure. The third variety of mange arises from the presence of Symbiotes acari, and is confined to the lower parts of the extremities, particularly the fedocks and heels, more especially of the hind limbs. These acari con- gregate in groups and cause intense irritation, in fact the irritation or itching sensation produced may be regarded as one of the earliest indications of the trouble. This form of mange is popularly known under the title of "Grease," owing to the sticky or greasy condition of the skin and hair invaded by the parasite. It is not a very troublesome complaint in ponies, but exceedingly common in coarse-bred hairy-legged horses of the heavier breeds. The principal symptoms of mange are severe irritation of the part attacked, fallinor off of the hair, redness of the skin, followed by the appearance of small blisters, which after a time pass and form a crust on the surface of the sore. The animal is constantly rubbing the part against the stall posts, etc., which may become infected in this manner. The presence of the acari can be demonstrated by means of a powerful pocket lens or a low power of the microscope, but for this purpose it is necessary to take a scraping from the surface, as the parasites are usually beneath the crust of the sore. In the treatment of this affection, isolation constitutes an important factor, and all appliances which have been directly or indirectly in contact with the infected pony should be washed in hot water and strong disinfectant. Following isolation and disinfection, the next thing to do is to clip off the hair all around the affected 453 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM areas, in fact, it is advisable to clip off as much hair as possible, as this materially facilitates recovery, and favours the application of the dressing. If the animal has the disease extensively distributed over the body, it is a good plan to clip the whole of the body and then wash it with carbolic soap, hot water and some strong disinfectant. Follow this up by dressing with liniment as per prescription below : — Flowers of sulphur . Creasote .... Oil of eucalyptus . Paraffin oil . Mineral or any other cheap oil 4 ounces I ounce I ounce 6 ounces I quart Mix thoroughly and rub the liniment well in to the diseased patches daily until cured, but take care to wash off after each third application. This must be repeated until the animal is cured, but it is necessary to be careful in judging whether a cure has been effected or not, because the recurrent nature of mange is a fact well known to all veterinary surgeons, there- fore, unless the trouble has been completely eradicated, fresh outbreaks will from time to time take place and be a source of constant annoyance. In combination with the local treatment, it is advisable to supplement this with all measures likely to be conducive towards an improvement in the general health of the animal and its surroundings. Ecthyma This affection is characterised by the appearance of numerous pustules upon various parts of the body, and it is well known under the titles of the American 454 DISEASES OF THE SKIN " Horse Disease,'' likewise " German Boil,'' owing to its frequent occurrence amongst horses belonging to the United States and Germany. Its contagious malady and its appearance in a stud are a source of great annoyance. The pustules are commonly found about the shoulders, sides of the withers and lower part of the neck. It is a disease, and is readily trans- mitted by horse clothing and various stable appliances. Being a com.municable malady, isolation constitutes one of the first essentials when dealing with this trouble, and the subsequent treatment comprises the applica- tion of some antiseptic solution, ointment, or dusting powder to the sores. Ringworm It is not necessary in a work of this description to say very much about this affection, because it is, com- paratively speaking, uncommon in adult ponies, though the young are occasionally affected. When it does occur it is denoted by the appearance of one or more circular patches upon any portion of the body, but frequently upon the hind quarters, about the first and second thigh. Ringworm is readily transmitted from horse to horse and to other animals of a different species, whereas the converse is equally applicable. It commonly happens in some instances, probably in the majority, ringworm is derived from the cat, which in its turn obtains it from mice or, as commonly happens in farm steadings, the disease is contracted from calves. This affection is due to a microscopic fungus — Tricophyton tonsurans — which parasite invades the shafts of the hairs and subsequently their roots, which 455 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM it may completely destroy, in this manner leaving a permanently hairless patch, but the characteristic sur- face of ringworm has a stubbly appearance, the hairs being broken across ; the circular character of the patches, together with the appearance of yellow or grey hair after the application of a drop of chloroform, are plus its infective nature, the chief features of ring- worm, but the diagnosis must be based upon the detection of the fungus. Treatinent. — The treatment of ringworm is of rather variable nature, so much depending upon its extent, its duration and the appearances presented by the surface implicated. The best plan is to shave the hair all round, then wash with soft soap and water, and follow up with the application of any of the following agents : — Tincture of iodine, iodine ointment, solution of hyposulphate of soda, acetic acid, chrysophanic acid, ichthyol, biniodide of mercury, creolin, etc., etc., etc. Any of these applications will, if persevered with, effect a cure, but the great secret in dealing with ring- worm is to prevent its extension to healthy areas of the skin, likewise to guard against infection of the attendants, being readily transmitted to human beings. Phthiriasis [Lousiness) Ponies are occasionally troubled with lice, and there are two kinds infesting the horse, namely, one which is a blood-sucking parasite, with a sharp-pointed mouth, and known as HcBmatopinus, and the other variety clings to the hair. This is the Trickodectes, though the two varieties are generally found co-existent on the 456 DISEASES OF THE SKIN same animal. It is most unfortunate when a pony becomes infested with Hce, but is very much worse if the trouble occurs amongst a drove of ponies. As a rule, lousiness is the result of negligence, but not positive proof of such, as infection may occur, and the parasites so rapidly multiply that the attendant of the ponies may be unaware of the existence of the parasites until the animal is thoroughly infested. The best treatment is to wash the hair and skin with a decoction of tobacco, made by boiling an ounce of tobacco in a quart of water ; this application must be freely applied every day until both the parasites and the eggs (nits) have been completely destroyed. A decoction of stavesacre seeds is also a good remedy. Clip off as much hair as possible and avoid re-infection by thoroughly cleansing the stable fittings and all appliances used in connection with the infested animal. Poultry houses and fowls are often troubled with lice, and these pests sometimes cause a pony a lot of irritation. The result is that the animal begins to fall away in condition. Fowls should not be allowed to go into stables. The treatment is practically the same as in the case of a pony attacked with the other species of lice. 457 CHAPTER XXXVI Anatomical Outlines of and Diseases of THE Foot The feet of the horse constitute such an important part of the anatomy in the relation to work that it is expedient for every one interested in ponies to acquire an elementary knowledge appertaining to the feet in their normal state, thus rendering it easier to under- stand the various abnormal conditions so common to this part of the equine anatomy. The hoof may be regarded as an insensitive horny box, with a slight degree of elasticity, and specially developed for the purpose of protecting the sensitive structures contained within it. The hoofs of the fore-feet are more circular in their outline than the hind ones, which serves to distinguish them. Each hoof has an upper and lower border, the latter joining the horny sole at a line known as the "white line"; the upper border is encircled by a band — the coronary band. It is customary to speak of the hoof wall as con- sisting of the toe and quarters, indicated by the front and inner and outer sides respectively. The hoof wall is thickest at the toe and thinnest at the inner quarter, hence the reason why sand-cracks are usually found on the inner quarter. It is composed of numerous horny tubes united together by an inter- tubular substance. The inner surface of the hoof wall is quite different from its outer one ; it is arranged in 458 ANATOMICAL OUTLINES OF THE FOOT the form of numerous leaf-like structures, known as the insensitive laminae, which serve to accommodate the dovetailing of a corresponding number of sensitive leaf-like structures upon the wall of the pedal or coffin bone enclosed in the hoof, and known as the sensitive laminae. The bond of union between the two is a very firm one, but in disease (laminitis) a separation between the two frequently occurs. The horny sole is also divided into the toe and quarters, but the inner and the outer quarters are bounded by the inflexion of the wall known as the "bars," whilst between the last- named there is a triangular pad of solid horn popularly known as the frog, owing to its supposed resemblance to that amphibian. The point of the pad is called the apex, and the depression in the middle, at the heels, as the cleft of the frog. In its normal condition the sole is concave or vaulted, and the only weight-bearing structure of the foot is the lower border of the wall and a very small portion of the sole adjacent thereto, along with the frog, which constitutes a most important weight- bearing structure. From this it is obvious that the frog should never be pared way, as directly the pressure upon it is removed the hoof becomes contracted at the heels, and such contraction may be inducive of disease. Within the hoof there is the sensitive foot, comprising the numerous leaf-like structures investing the pedal bone and fixed to the hoof wall in the manner previ- ously indicated, corresponding to the inner surface of the hoof wall. Whilst the lower surface of the sensitive foot rests upon the inner surface of the horny sole, and has a 459 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM velvety-like appearance, encircling the upper border of the sensitive foot there is a band known as the "coronary cushion," and immediately above this another band — perioplic band. The horn of the wall is secreted by large pappilse on the coronary cushion, and grows at the rate of about an inch in three months, so that it is necessary to frequently remove the shoes, otherwise the hoof may become deformed, or, in the case of colts which have not been shod, care must be taken to see that the hoofs are rasped at frequent intervals in order to avoid an unequal distribution of pressure, as there is no doubt that many defects, such as splint, etc., are in young animals brought on through this cause. Continuing the description of the foot it is necessary to explain that the sensitive structures are endowed with a rich blood supply, but the veins of the foot have no valves, which diminishes the risk to some extent of impeding the circulation, particularly neces- sary in the sensitive foot, owing to its enclosure in the hoof, and which admits of no expansion during inflam- matory processes. The frog rests upon a corresponding structure known as the sensistive frog, which is principally com- posed of an elastic-like tissue. The bones of the foot are the coffin or pedal bone, and a small shuttle-shaped bone at the back of this — the navicular bone, which articulates with the pedal bone ; and the flexor tendon of the leg plays over the back of the bone, becoming inserted on to the back of the lower surface of the pedal bone. The foregoing outlines will give the reader, if studied, a rough idea as to the structure of the foot. 460 ANATOMICAL OUTLINES OF THE FOOT Some Diseases affectmg the Feet These are divisible into two classes — namely, those affecting the insensitive structures and those affecting the sensitive structures, though being more or less related to each other it is not advisable, in a work of this description, to make such distinction, consequently we shall deal with them in the usual manner. Broadly speaking, it may be said that ponies suffer less from diseases of the feet than horses ; thus, for instance, "side bone," so very common in cart horses, is comparatively a rare affection in ponies. Sand-crack. — This is a diseased condition affecting the wall of the hoof, and denoted by a split or crack in it, beginning at the top of the hoof and extending in a downward direction. The size of the crack and its extent varies, in some cases being so small as to escape observation, unless the hoof is critically examined. The hair over the coronet may easily conceal a crack of this description, hence the necessity for careful inspec- tion of the foot when purchasing a pony. Sand-crack is usually found on the inner quarter of the hind feet and on the toe of the hind ones, though exceptions to this rule are not uncommon ; the crack may involve the entire thickness of the wall or be only very superficial. In the former case lameness may be severe, owing to the sensitive structures of the foot becoming nipped in the crack, whilst bleeding is not uncommon under these circumstances. A brittle condition of the horn, and dryness combined with concussion, are the chief factors in the production of sand-crack. It is hardly necessary to state that sand- crack constitutes unsoundness, and rightly so, as it is a 461 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM very troublesome matter to deal with, and often necessi- tates a long period of rest in order to check the exten- sion of the crack and produce fresh growth of horn ; in fact, upon this one has to place their sole reliance. Treatment. — To prevent the extension of the crack the simplest method is to draw a line with a hot iron below the crack. The groove must be burnt fairly deep, but must not extend to the wall. What is called clasping the crack is the general method of dealing with it. Holes are cut on either side of the crack and a clamp put on, or a horse nail may be driven through one groove and out of the other, the end of the nail then being clinched. Special clamps and pincers are sold for this purpose. A notch should be cut out of the lower border of the wall correspond- ing to the crack, or the shoe hollowed out beneath the crack. It is a very good plan to blister round the coronet, so as to stimulate the growth of healthy horn. False Quarter. — This comprises an indentation of the wall of the hoof, and is due to a defective secre- tion of the horn by the papillae of the coronary cushion. It weakens the wall and renders it liable to spring a sand-crack, so that it is looked upon as sufficient cause for rejection of a horse when examin- inof it for soundness. Separation of the Wall. — The wall and the sole occasionally becomes separated, owing to disease inducing a mealy state of the horn, which is particu- larly liable to occur at the toe, just where the toe-clip goes, and to this diseased condition the popular name of *' seedy-toe" is applied, owing, I presume, to the seedy or mealy condition of the horn. 462 ANATOMICAL OUTLINES OF THE FOOT There is every reason for believing that this affec- tion is due to parasites or minute worms. In some cases the quarters, or even all round the hoof, is affected ; if so, it will prove a most troublesome disease. Treatment. — The best method of dealing with this troublesome foot disease is to remove the outer fibrous layer from the wall at the toe to a point above the line of separation, so as to obliterate the cavity ; follow this up by a blister around the coronet about once a fortnight, and put on a thin-heeled bar-shoe. A common method is simply that of filling up the cavity with some stopping, such as tar and tow, and this is what the shoeing smith does when he finds this condition exists, which is really brought about by separation of the outer horny with the inner layer of horny tissue of the wall. Thrush. — This is a disease affecting the cleft of the heel, either in one or more of the feet, but it is particularly common in the hind ones, owing to their greater liability to infection from decomposing organic matter. As a rule thrush is indicative of a dirty condition of the feet, and very often found in horses that are not properly attended to as regards their feet, and possibly in other ways as well. This disease is easily recognised by its offensive odour, and when thoroughly established leads to dis- organisation of the frog, and in some cases to lame- ness, though this is exceptional, and when it does occur it must be indicative of an advanced stage of the disease. If the feet are thoroughly washed several times a day, and the stable floor kept as it ought to be, thrush of the feet will seldom be observed. The treatment 463 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM comprises, in addition to the cleanliness indicated, the application of some antiseptic and astringent to the cleft of the frog. As a dry dressing there is nothing better than boracic powder inserted into the cleft with a pledget tool, but a liquid penetrates better, so that a solution of chlorate of zinc is as useful as anything else. Dissolve five or six grains of chlorate of zinc in each ounce of water, and pour a little of this fluid into the diseased part. The frog must not be cut away, but allowed to take its proper share as a weight-bearing structure. Quittor. — This disease of the foot is denoted by one or more suppurating points around the coronet, and usually the outcome of an injury to the foot, such as a puncture of it by a nail, either wrongly driven or one that has accidentally been "picked up" during progression. Suppuration results, and as the matter has no other channel of exit it makes its way out at the coronet, and establishes one or more fistulous openings, which are quite useless to effect a cure. In some cases the lateral cartilage becomes dis- eased ; if so, a cure will not be effected until this has been removed. Quittor is a very troublesome disease to treat, and the most economical plan is to consult a veterinary surgeon. Side-Bone. — It is seldom that ponies are troubled with this disease, which consists of a calcification or hardening of the lateral cartilage or cartilages, according whether one or both are affected on the same foot, though both fore - feet may have side - bone. The lateral cartilages are flexible plates of cartilage or gristle, forming backward prolongations of the pedal 464 ANATOMICAL OUTLINES OF THE FOOT bone, which can be felt in the living animal at the upper and back part of the hoof, yielding to pressure of the thumb just like a piece of india-rubber ; but when affected with side-bone this elasticity is lost, either partially or completely, according to the area of carti- lage involved. If side-bone is present in the pony it constitutes the most serious defect. A modification of side-bone are the so-called in- durated cartilages, which may be looked upon as a transitional form between the healthy cartilage and the calcified one or side-bone. Flat Feet and Shelly Feet. — Of the two conditions it is difficult to say which is the worst, as both, if not the actual result of disease, are precursive of it, there- fore I should never advise the purchase of a pony with feet of this description. It is a very difficult matter for the shoeing smith to make a satisfactory job of shoeing a pony that has brittle feet. La?mnitis or Foot- Founder.^ This affection, more popularly known under the title of fever in the feet, though a very common affection in the horse, especially with the heavier type, cannot be regarded as a frequent occurrence in ponies, though it is by no means a rare complaint. Laminitis is an inflammation or congestion of the sensitive laminae of the feet, most commonly affecting both fore ones, but commonly the hind ones in addition, and comes on, as a rule, quite suddenly, varying in its severity, duration and termination. One of the principal causes of this affection is concussion, but it may arise as a transferred congestion, i.e., a pony might be labouring from acute pulmonary congestion, when quite suddenly the feet become implicated in the acute inflammatory process. Amongst other causes 2G 465 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM of laminitis, mention must be made of feeding on new wheat, barley and beans, excessive purgation following the administration of a dose of physic, whilst now and again it comes on after foaling, due to the retention of septic products within the generative apparatus. A fat or heavy condition of the body no doubt is a predisposing factor in the production of laminitis. Symptoms. — The signs of this disease are easily recognised. If the animal is pushed backwards it moves with difficulty, endeavouring to throw all the weight upon the heels, and places the fore-limbs as much in front of the body as possible, whereas when the hind ones are affected these are drawn forward under the body so as to diminish the pain under the toe. The pulse is full and bounding, there is a con- siderable degree of fever, and the eyelids are some- times swollen. Very soon the animal has great difficulty in moving, in fact, he is afraid to do so, whilst the breathing becomes embarrassed through pain and exertion. The duration of the disease varies from a few days to several weeks, not uncommonly being prolonged in a sub-acute form. The worst attacks of laminitis are, in the author's opinion, those following foaling, and the recovery is most protracted. The descent of the pedal bone causes the horny sole to bulge, whilst in severe cases the bone has been known to force its way out through the sole. Extraordinary malformations of the feet are some- times attributable to this cause. Treatment and Management. — First of all remove the pony's shoes and place it in a loose-box in a deep bed of peat-moss litter ; hot or cold bran poultices must now be fixed on the feet and be kept constantly wet with 466 ANATOMICAL OUTLINES OF THE FOOT hot or cold water, according to whichever may be used, which can easily be done with the aid of a watering- can. A physic, ball, ranging from three to five drachms, ought to be administered at once, or half-ounce doses of Epsom salts may be added to the drinking water till free purgation begins, and after this two drachms of chlorate of potash may be given in the food or drinking water night and morning. A course of tonics, gradually increasing exercise, and the use of bar-shoes, will prove of material service in hastening a cure, though in some cases two or three months on marshy land does good to the feet. Navicula rthritis Navicular disease is a trouble that implicates the navicular bone — a small shuttle-shaped bone inside the hoof — its cartilage and sheath wasting a portion of its surface. It is a progressive, destructive, and incurable disease frequently observed in ponies, giving the animal a very " stilty " or cat-like action in the front limbs. One or both feet may be affected. Contraction of the foot follows as the result of the lameness, the latter being most evident immediately after rest following upon work. 467 CHAPTER XXXVII SECTION A Diseases Affecting Bones, Joints and Tendons Unfortunately for equines, the diseases affecting the bones, joints, tendons and ligaments are very- numerous ; in fact, a very large proportion of horses and ponies are thrown off work from causes directly or indirectly attributable to disease in connection with the limbs. Lameness, the most salient expression of pain in this region, always exists, though to a variable degree, being less marked in chronic affections than in those of the acute nature. The young, or immature, are more liable to develop infirmities of the limbs than ponies that are fully developed or aged within reasonable limit. Many of the diseases in connection with bones and joints are popularly regarded as being hereditary, i.e., handed from parent to progeny, not necessarily from the sire or dam, but from some antecedent generation. The hereditary theory has, in all probability, been greatly over-extended, many diseases springing into existence through accident rather than through any inherent predisposition of the animal. Such diseases as splint, bone-spavin, curb, roar- ing and so forth are commonly regarded as being hereditary. 468 DISEASES AFFECTING BONES, ETC. Peculiarity of conformation does unquestionably show itself as an inheritance from parent to offspring, and this may prove a predisposing influence in the development of disease. As a working hypothesis it is correct to respect the '■'hereditary theory'' as this regulates one's conduct in breedino- and selection of suitable sires and dams. Many of these diseases are brought about by con- cussion and unequal distribution of pressure, to both of which conditions the horse is predisposed, owing to the nature of its work. The following are the principal diseases and their salient features. Splint This is the commonest form of bony trouble in connection with the fore-limbs, and a considerable per- centage of ponies have splint, though it may not cause the slightest inconvenience, whereas in other instances lameness may be marked. This is particu- larly the case whilst the splint — i.e., the bony deposit — is being laid down. The usual situation to find splint is on the inner side of the canon, just where the inner splint-bone joins the latter, and a few inches below the knee, but it is not necessarily confined to this situation. The splint may, for instance, be close under the knee (a bad form of splint), or much lower down the canon, or at the outer side. There may be a single splint, when it is spoken of as "simple," or there may be several, or a whole chain of them down the back of the canon. This is the "compound" form. The size of the splint is no 469 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM criterion as regards the production or degree of lameness. Thus, for instance, a very tiny splint close under the knee may be productive of obscure lameness for years. Some of these small deposits are never dis- covered until after death, when perhaps the bones are obtained for examination. Strictly speaking, splint consists of a circumscribed inflammation of the periosteum or bone-skin, and the deposit of bone, i.e., the splint, is the legacy of this inflammatory action. This inflammation may be induced by too early work, by a blow, by concussion, or injury from other causes. The "hereditary theory" is regarded as one of the most potent factors operative in the production of splint. Bad shoeing will favour the appearance of splint. From one to four years are the periods of life when a pony is the most susceptible to develop splint, though there is no specific time of life that confers exe7nption. Veterinary surgeons entertain very different opinions as to the significance of splint, but all are agreed as to the rejection of a pony when the excrescence is close to the knee. The author's opinion is that all splints, no matter of what form or where placed, must be regarded as rendering the animal unsound, for the following reasons : — 1. That splint is abnormal. 2. That its existence predisposes to lameness. 3. That there can be no guarantee of exemption from lameness. 4. That if a stallion or brood-mare has splint, and 470 DISEASES AFFECTING BONES, ETC. the "hereditary theory" is believed in, then it would be foolish to disregard its existence, under these cir- cumstances. Many veterinarians take into consideration the age of the pony before deciding \n favour of, or rejection of, the animal. If over four years and free from lameness, with the splint in a favourable position, the majority would pass ike pony as sound, mentioning, of course, the existence of splint. Strictly speaking, a veterinary surgeon is acting within his right to reject for splint, though everything may be favourable to the animal. Litigation so often arises regarding splint, in rela- tion to soundness or otherwise, that it is only natural for a veterinarian to protect himself against an action in damages for professional negligence. When there is no opportunity for determining the existence of splint at the time of sale no such action can be maintained. These remarks would apply to obscure forms of knee splint. In ordinary cases, the splinty deposit can be seen, or felt (according to size) on manipulation, at the back of the canon. One or both fore-limbs may be the seat of splint. A good deal can be done towards the prevention of this trouble. In foals, yearlings, and other young ponies the feet ought to be rasped regularly, so that the pressure is uniform, as unequal distribution of the latter is a predisposing cause. Never allow your pony to wear its shoes longer than three weeks without being removed. 471 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Avoid work, especially in town, until the limbs are properly set — say five years of age. When splint is forming, the pony must be kept in the stable and cooling applications applied to the in- flamed part. A pad of cotton wool steeped in spirit and water, fixed on with a bandage, will be found suitable. In the course of a few days a little red-blistering ointment may be rubbed in for a few minutes, twice a week or so. A remarkable feature about splint is that it occa- sionally entirely disappears of itself. The deposit is re-absorbed, though how, it is not known. Inflammation of Bone Inflammation of bone, especially in young animals, is not uncommon, though mostly in the long bones, such as the canon. Sore shins, when the inflamma- tion is confined to the bone-skin or covering, is called periostitis. Such inflammation may be either acute or chronic. If acute, part of the bone may die and then slough. The leading signs indicative of this trouble are lameness, pain on pressure, shellings over the bone and beneath the skin, the latter being hard at first ; but when suppuration occurs it becomes soft. The skin breaks and pus issues. There is a good deal of con- stitutional disturbance accompanying this complaint. Professional aid should be sought — the sooner the better chances of success. 472 DISEASES AFFECTING BONES, ETC. Sore Skins This disease of the bone is usually confined to the fore-limbs, though the hind ones occasionally suffer from the same trouble. Trotting ponies and racers are those most liable to suffer from sore shins or inflammation of the periosteum (bone-skin) covering the canon bone. It is a very painful affection, and usually brought on by concussion upon legs that are not in a fit state to withstand the effects of such. The canon becomes hot and painful when pressed with the fingers. In the course of a few days swelling is obvious, and this, later on, " pits " on pressure. Pain, lameness, and constitutional disturbances are marked features as the malady progresses. Being a severe affection it is not advisable for the amateur to begin doctoring the animal ; in fact, such would be neither economical nor satisfactory at the finish. Needless to say that rest is indispensable to this disease, so that the pony must be kept in a stall. Pending the arrival of the veterinary surgeon hot- water bandages may be put on the diseased limb, though opinions differ as to whether hot or cold water is the best for this purpose. The writer prefers the former. Ringbone Ponies are not a great deal troubled with ring- bone, in fact less so than most other horses. In this complaint it is the pastern bones, either large or small, that are affected. The bony excrescence is the result 473 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM of inflammation at the seat of its formation, and may involve the front, back, sides, or all around the pastern joint. The disease is spoken of as being " high ringbone " when it extends close up to the fetlock joint, and "low ringbone " when affecting the short pastern. In the latter case the exostosis often forms a ring around the top of the hoof, hence the term ringbone. The bony growth may destroy the integrity of either the pedal joint, or else that between the large and small pastern bone. If the ringbone is situated between the hoof the degree of lameness is severe, and the pony will, when bringing the foot to the ground, come down on the heel. On the other hand, if the ringbone is on the back of the bone the toe is placed on the ground before the heel. Like bone-spavin, splint, etc., it is customary to regard ringbone as hereditary. If the pasterns are of bad conformation this will favour the appearance of ringbone when any exciting cause (blow, etc.) is brought into play. Sometimes there is a difficulty experienced in de- ciding as to the presence or absence of ringbone if the pastern bones are coarse or unequal in size. Ringbone, needless to say, constitutes unsoundness, and materially diminishes the market value of a pony. Rest and hot fomentations are about the most that can be done in the formative stage of the disease. Later on the part may be point-fired so as to set up a reparative inflammation. One or both fore-limbs, or the hind, are liable to be the seat of ringbone. 474 DISEASES AFFECTING BONES, ETC Bone-spavin Strictly speaking the term spavin alone ought to be sufficient to indicate disease of the bone at the inner and lower aspect of the hock or hocks, but as horsemen distinguish other forms of hock enlargement as spavined — bog-spavin — the prefix "bone" is in- cumbent. Spavin is a very common disease of the hock, and one that causes a large percentage of re- jections under examination for soundness. A bone, spavin is the legacy of a local inflammation invading the small bones of the hock and head of the canon bone, resulting in the production of a bony excrescence of variable size and shape, at the inner face of and bottom part of the hock, sealing the small bones of the hock together. Like splint there is a predisposi- tion for it to appear on the inner side of the limb, owing to there being greater pressure on that side. A spavin may be large yet cause very little lame- ness, whereas a small, placed well to the front, often produces most intractable lameness. Some ponies have very coarse hocks, others odd hocks, and this leads to a degree of uncertainty in diagnosis of spavin. Practice and the sense of touch and sight are the best guides in determining its existence. The " hereditary theory " is usually regarded as a predisposing cause of bone-spavin. An injury, such as a blow or a twist of the hock, is, in my opinion, capable of starting bone-spavin. It is induced by a variety of causes. Ponies ranging from one year to four years are the most liable to develop spavin, which, in its incipient stages, may 475 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM easily be ignored and the lameness ascribed to some other portion of the limb. If a pony is, say, five years of age, and has bone- spavin, yet quite free from lameness, the chances are that it will continue to do its work satisfactorily, and such might be purchased with safety, though at a slightly-reduced price. Spavin lameness is marked by a want of free flexion of the hock and by shortness in the stride. A common test for spavin is to pick up the foot, flex the hock forcibly, hold it for a few seconds, and then cause the pony to turn sharply, so as to throw it on the limb suspected of being spavined. If the hock is affected the pony will suddenly give upon the leg, as though the excessive flexion had caused pain in the part. Spavin lameness is most marked when the pony comes out of the stable after a rest following work. Quite apart from the relationship between bone- spavin and a difference in the size of a pony's hocks, as regards diagnosis, there is a form of spavin that in- vades the small bones of the hock without any ap- parent indication of the deposition of new bony material. This is spoken of as occult or latent spavin. Litigation has occasionally arisen in such cases. In the treatment of spavin, the most that can be done is to give the pony a few weeks — sometimes months — rest, and apply a cooling lotion to the part, for which purpose the following will be found useful : — Liquid subacetate of lead . . 2 ounces Methylated spirit .... 6 ounces Water 4 ounces 476 DISEASES AFFECTING BONES, ETC. Mix and keep the inflamed part well wetted with the lotion. Apply a flannel bandage. When the spavin has formed it may either be blistered, setoned, or fired. Puncture firing is the best. Several months' rest must be allowed if this is done. A milder course of procedure is to blister the spavin at intervals of three weeks or thereabout. If the lameness persists — which it commonly does in old worn ponies — after a reasonable trial of the treatment recommended, it may be concluded that the lameness will persist, though it may be intermittently. Sprains The term "sprain" or "strain" is applied to a part in which the ligaments or the tendinous struc- tures have been over-extended, producing either partial or complete rupture of the minute fibres enter- ing into the formation of such structures. All ponies are subject to injuries of this nature, but the com- monest sprains are those in connection with the flexor tendons, or else the check-ligaments, between the knee and the pastern, such injury being indicated by lame- ness ; increased heat in the part ; a variable degree of swelling, and in some instances, as a legacy of the sprain the part remains thickened, such thickening being as a rule permanent ; if so, the injury is spoken of as "chronic sprain," which usually implies a vari- able degree of shortening of the structures impli- cated. Sprains are more frequent in the fore than in the hind limbs, owing to the greater degree of concussion. 477 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Sometimes a joint, e.g., the fetlock-joint, is occasionally sprained ; if so, it is usually the ligaments in connection with the joint that are mainly the seat of the sprain. When a joint is affected, it is generally a difficult matter to differentiate between the swelling resulting from an injury and that significant of rheumatism — rheumatic arthritis. Both may be developed suddenly, and both be accompanied by swelling, increased heat, pain on manipulation, lameness, and a variable degree of constitutional disturbance. Granted this to be so, how is one to differentiate ? The author's advice is to consult a veterinary surgeon, leaving this complex problem for him to decide. A sprain occasionally met with in hunter ponies is one known as "sprain of the psoas muscles" — a group of muscles situated beneath the loins. Another form of sprain not uncommonly met with is " sprain of the loins," and this accident is liable to happen in jumping, backing, or in bending. The muscles of the shoulder, the arm, and hind-quarters are all liable to sprain, though of less frequent occurrence than the form first alluded to. In the absence of professional aid, the simpler forms of sprain should be treated by the application of some evaporating lotion, such as the following : — Sal ammoniac .... 2 ounces Nitrate of potash . Methylated spirit Tincture of arnica Tincture of opium Water . 2 ounces 4 ounces I ounce I ounce Make half a pint The sprained part should be freely wetted with this solution three or four times a day, but if appli- cable it is advantageous to soak a pad of cotton-wool 478 FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS in the lotion, and fix this on with a cotton bandage neatly adjusted, and above all a flannel bandage. The application of a bandage to a sprained part is a great help, in fact, dry bandaging will sometimes cure a sprain, provided that a bandage is made to exercise equable, but firm pressure, but not too firm, otherwise the circulation is liable to be impeded. It seems almost needless to state that rest is of primary importance. SECTION B Fractures and Dislocations It may occur to the mind of the amateur as to what hone of the skeleton of the horse is most frequently broken, and to reply to this with any attempt towards accuracy would become too speculative, because so varied are the fractures in this animal. In the writer's experience the most frequent fracture has been that of the tibia or second thigh-bone, a short distance above its union with the hock-joint. It is a common form of fracture and, as a rule, one that demands destruction of the animal, because it is generally the result of a kick from another horse, the bone being usually broken clean across and repair an impossibility. I shall refer to this further on in the chapter. Fractures are spoken of as being transverse, oblique, longitudinal, or a combination of these. A transverse fracture, as the name indicates, is one that is broken across the bone, and renders attempts at repair either useless, or exceedingly troublesome. 479 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Most transverse breakages of bone are of a hope- less nature to the horse, more especially where the bone has no natural support, such as that afforded by- muscular tissue or flesh. This form of fracture is commonly met with in children, and, usually, speedily unites. Oblique fractures commonly cause the ends of the breakage to be sharp-pointed, and it often happens that the broken ends penetrate the skin, appearing externally and, it may be, wound an artery, vein, etc. The canon, pastern and second thigh - bones are often injured in this manner, and usually, in the shaft of the bone, but, occasionally, at the joint ends of the first and last named. The fractured ends are generally displaced at the time of injury, though not necessarily so. Sometimes a considerable time elapses before dis- placement occurs. Diagnosis is difficult under these circumstances. A longitudinal fracture is one in which the splitting runs in the long axis of the bone. It is not uncommonly associated with oblique fracture. A fracture is said to be complicated when an organ or tissue in juxtaposition to the injury has been damaged. Injuries to the cranial, pelvic, and chest regions are frequently of a complicated nature. Fractures are again divided into simple, compound, impacted, and comminuted. In a simple fracture there is no wound to the skin, etc., but in a compound one there is a wound. An impacted fracture means that one broken part is driven into the medulla of the bone, or wedged in some other fashion. When the bone is split up into 480 FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS fragments — as sometimes happens to the pastern (from apparently very trifling- causes), rendering repairs very doubtful, though there are cases recorded showing that complete healing is quite possible, even with an injury of this nature, provided that the animal is placed under favourable conditions for the attainment of the object. Compound fractures are much more troublesome to deal with than simple ones, and may arise either through the fractured end of a bone piercing the skin, etc., or the soft tissues may be torn at the time of injury to the bone, as frequently happens when one horse kicks another, more especially if shod. Bullet wounds are often of this nature. In some cases a fracture becomes "compound" in the course of a few weeks, the result of suppuration, sloughing, etc., and this increases the gravity of the injury much more so than when the flesh has been torn at the same time, or given way within a week of the fracture. The usual cause of fracture in the horse is external violence, but certain diseases of bone predispose to it. The following are some of the different forms of fracture and dislocations : — Fracture of the Skull Necessarily, injuries to the region of the head are nearly always the result of external violence, generally through the animal falling upon the head, or else coming into contact with some other hard body. Strictly speaking, a fractured skull means that some portion of the cranial (hair case) wall has been broken, 2H 481 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM and it commonly happens that the fracture is at the base of the brain box, though the blow was received at the front of the skull. This is known as indirect fracture. In other cases the part struck may be broken, and the broken frag- ments compress, or wound, the brain. Many fractures of this nature are immediately followed by death. Much will depend upon the damage done to the soft structures within. In injuries of this nature professional aid is neces- sary, in order to advise as to what ought to be done. Fracture of the Ribs This is not an uncommon accident, but not as a rule of serious import, unless complicated by wounding of the soft tissues or organs on the inner surface of the injury. Shaft wounds sometimes fracture the ribs, so that under these circumstances the injury is necessarily attended with a oood deal of danoer. o o The lungs may be torn, and pleurisy or pneumonia result. The animal should be kept as quiet as pos- sible ; the wound (if there is one) cleansed and pro- fessional aid sought as speedily as possible. If this cannot be obtained, a sedative draught (one ounce of laudanum to half a pint of cold water) may be adminis- tered, and repeated on the following day, combined with four ounces of brandy. Feed animal on bran and linseed mashes, wash the wound well out with some antiseptic, and water daily. 482 FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS Fracture of the Tibia Fracture of the tibia or second thigh is a frequent injury in the horse, and one that usually demands prompt destruction of the animal. In almost every instance it is the result of a kick from another pcny, and in the majority of cases it usually happens where a number of strange ponies are turned out on grazing land, at any rate this has been the author's experience. Fracture of the tibia is not, as a rule, difficult to diagnose, the leg generally hanging powerless. When the bone is broken without any displacement, there is more trouble in ascertaining the true nature of the injury. In either case the skin, etc., may or may not be torn at the time of injury, but the presence of a wound complicates matters. As previously stated, most of these fractures are quite hopeless, but it is always advisable to have the opinion of a M.R.C.V.S. Fractured Canon-bo?te The canon-bones extend from the knee and hock to the joint below (fetlock), and on either side of each bone there is a "split bone," consisting of a "head" or tiffer portion, and a "button" or lower end, the little projection sometimes being mistaken for "splint" by the uninformed. The canon-bones are very stoutly and solidly built, being mostly composed of dense compact bone. When these (fore or hind) canon-bones are broken, destruction constitutes the best end of the sufferer, 483 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM because it is exceptional for repair to occur, no matter whether the animal is young or old. Fracture of the Sesamoids At the back of each of the fetlock-joints there are a couple of small pyramidal bones, known as the sesamoids, kept in position by ligamentous attach ments. Now and again these — one or both — are the seat of fracture, causing sudden lameness. Sometimes crepitation can be detected. In other instances, the fetlock-joint comes towards the ground. As a rule there is pain when the back part of the fetlock-joint is manipulated. The only chance of repair is that afforded by the use of the slings, together with fixation of the joint by means of an adhesive bandage. Split Pastern Fracture of the pastern is not an uncommon acci- dent, and when it does occur it is usually in one of the fore-limbs, seldom in the hind ones. Oblique fractures are the commonest in the author's experience. Injuries of this nature occur in a variety of ways, sometimes so simple in causation, that one can hardly believe that split pastern could be so easily induced. Jumping about on soft ground has been known to produce this injury as readily as upon hard ground. Sometimes a small portion is split off the upper end of the bone. If so, the case is of a more hopeful nature. There is, in many cases, difficulty regarding a correct 484 FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS diagnosis, because crepitation cannot always be de- tected. The sudden lameness, together with negative signs of injury in other portions of the limb, is of value, when forming an opinion as to the existence of this injury. In some cases there is considerable heat, pain, and swelling over the pastern bone ; if so, the chances are that the case is one of split pastern. Fractures of the coronet, pedal and navicular bone, are even worse injuries than split pastern, yet they have a certain amount of natural support. Veterinary surgeons usually recommend the im- mediate destruction of ponies suspected with injuries of this nature, unless the animal is of considerable value, either pecuniarily or for breeding purposes. Many cases of suspected fractured pastern are probably not fractured at all, hence the recoveries reported, even when the patient has simply been allowed to run at grass with no surgery beyond a blister over the part. If an attempt has to be made to assist nature to repair the damage, the pony must be kept in slings, and a plaster or starch bandage neatly adjusted over the injury. From three to six months' rest will be necessary, and the bandages should be allowed on, say, ten weeks, then removed, and a good blister applied. There can be no doubt that many cases of fracture of the pastern would be better blistered than bandaged, especially in aged animals. The blistering ointment increases the reparative power so feebly shown in many cases. 485 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM Dislocations By a dislocated joint we mean that one of the bones entering into the formation of the joint has slipped out of its normal position. The pony is singularly free from all forms of dis- location excepting one, and that is what is known as slipped-stifle dislocation, or luxation of the patella, and this is a very common injury, more especially so to colts and foals. A condition closely simulating dislocation of the patella frequently observed in older ponies, is what is termed "cramp of the stifle," usually disappearing within two or three days. When colts are kept in poor condition they are predisposed to dislocation named, and if the irritation is allowed to continue, dropsy of the joint generally results. Diagnosis. — It is easy to recognise this accident. The animal drags the limb, the front of the hoof scraping the ground, it being unable to advance the leg properly. If manipulated, the knee-cap — the stifle joint of the pony corresponding to the knee of man — will be found if displaced, and can be replaced as a rule. The bone may be to the "inner" or, the outer side of the joint. Treatment. — Rest. Blister the part, and keep the limb drawn as far forwards as possible. This may be done by fixing a strap around the fetlock, joining this to a cord twisted around the neck. The joint may be blistered several times at intervals of, say, six weeks. The pony should receive the best of food, so as to fatten it, thus helping to strengthen the joint. 486 CHAPTER XXXVIII Minor Operations Without entering into a discussion as to whether it is advisable or otherwise for the owner of a pony to perform certain minor operations upon his own animals, it is, at any rate, expedient that he should be in a posi- tion to meet the exigencies of circumstances, which may necessitate him doing so, therefore, it will not be out of place in a work of this description to briefly outline the method or routine for carrying out such simple operations. The method of treating wounds, likewise fractures, dislocations, and sprains, have been dealt with, under separate headings, to which the reader is referred. Firing, or the actual Cautery The practice of firing, that is of firing horses, by veterinarians is one that has been for many years, and still is, universally employed. Universality of its employment may be accepted as evidence that it is beneficial, which it certainly is, when discriminately employed, but indiscriminately used, it is liable to do more harm than good. It must be borne in mind that the application of the actual cautery to the skin is attended with a considerable degree of pain, con- sequently the animal resents the infliction of this punishment, though the pain is of variable degrees, 487 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM depending upon whether the firing is superficial or deep. In some cases, the firing iron is very Hghtly appHed, whereas in others it may go completely through the skin, so much depends upon the purposes for which it is employed, and the object to be attained. Two kinds of firing are employed, namely in lines and in points. Line firing is commonly employed for chronic sprains and bursal enlargements, also for curb, and restoring the tone of tendons and ligaments, weakened by overwork. In line firing, the lines must not be placed too close together, otherwise too much sloughing subsequently occurs. They should be about half an inch apart, and arranged feather fashion. Cross-line firing is sometimes resorted to, but its effects are severe, and it is seldom warrantable. Point firing, on the other hand, is frequently used in such diseases as splint, bone-spavin, ringbone, and various other exostoses. Point firing irons are sold for the purpose, and after being heated to a dull red heat, the points are pressed into the enlargement, and repeated over various parts of the growth. Before firing, no matter whether in line or point, it is necessary to clip the hair off the part to be fired. To increase the activity of the cautery, many veterinary surgeons smear the part with blistering ointment immediately afterwards, but, as a rule, it is a better plan to wait a few days. Some horses can be fired in a standing attitude, vvhereas others have to be thrown with the hobbles, so much depending upon the temperament of the animal, and the part that has to be fired. Point firing necessarily leaves less blemish than the lines, and as a MINOR OPERATIONS rule is equally efficacious, or even more so. After a pony has been fired, the head must be tied short, otherwise the animal will probably injure the part by biting at it. If it is going to be turned out to pasture, immediately after firing, then it is necessary to put on a cradle. Firing gives the best results in splint, curb, bursal enlargements, chronic sprains, etc. Blistering The application of various blistering agents — tech- nically known as "vesicants" — to the horse's skin, is one of the commonest processes employed in the stables, but, like that of firing, it has been greatly abused. There is no doubt that their judicious em- ployment is decidedly beneficial, and, to some extent, blistering agents can be used as a substitute for the firing iron. Before the application of a blister, the hair must be clipped off, and it is advantageous to wash the part with soft soap and warm water, then thoroughly dry it, subsequently rubbing in the blister- ing agent. As a rule, considerable friction must be employed, the time to rub in the blisters occupying from ten to twenty minutes. Some ponies' skins are very sensitive, and blisters will rise within two or three hours, or even less, after the application of the agency, whereas, in other instances, little or no effect may be produced, and perhaps the blister will require repeating- It is necessary to bear this individual susceptibility in mind, otherwise a fault may be ascribed to the defec- tive power of the blistering, which may or may not be true. When a blister is applied about the fetlock, or the lower parts of the limbs, it is, as a precautionary 489 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM measure, advisable to smear the hollow of the heel freely with lard or vaseline, in order to prevent the skin from becoming excoriated, through the discharge from the blisters. In addition to this, the head must be tied up short for about forty-eight hours, as the irritation the blister- ing induces is intense. Not more than two limbs must be blistered at the same time, preferably one only, however, this is a matter for individual consideration. In the course of a few days, after the blistering- agent has been allowed to do its work, it is advisable to apply some soothing application to the blistered surface, for which purpose, vaseline is very suitable, as it softens the part, soothes the irritated skin, and prevents the latter from cracking. Regarding the various agencies, these can be used either in the form of an ointment or liniment, but, as a general rule, ointments are used. The Indian blister beetle, or cantharides, is a genuine vesicant, and one that is universally employed for this purpose. Cantharides ointment requires to be properly prepared, and the best plan is to purchase it from a veterinary surgeon, the formulae of which are usually based upon the best principles. Cantharides liniment is occasion- ally used for blistering the chest during pneumonia, pleurisy, etc., but a simpler application for such pur- poses is mustard paste, rubbed well in, and washed off in two or three hours' time, though it is a common practice to leave the mustard on. Biniodide of mercury ointment, more popularly known as "red blistering ointment," is in general use, whilst a mixture of cantharides and the latter is employed by many. The multifarious purposes for which blistering agents can 490 MINOR OPERATIONS be employed, renders this method of treatment simple, safe and, in many instances, decidedly beneficial. If a pony is turned out at pasture immediately after some part of it has been blistered a "cradle" should be put on, otherwise it will very likely blister its nostrils and lips. Fo7nentatton The application of hot or cold water in veterinary practice is largely employed, more especially hot water, which to a great extent supplants poulticing, being more convenient, cleaner, and more efficacious, all features particularly desirable. It is not only for external injuries, but also for internal inflammation, that hot fomentations are employed, whilst internal functional pain, e.g., colic, is often benefited by the application of hot-water rugs to the belly, but where this is not convenient, it can be substituted with some stimulating liniment, such as white oil. Injuries of the feet, such as puncture of the foot and inflammation of the feet, or founder, are benefited by the repeated applications of hot fomentations, but care must be taken not to have the water too hot, otherwise harm will be done. To apply hot water to the belly, flannel rugs are dipped in it, then rung out, and wrapped round the belly and loins, with a mack- intosh sheet and strapping, to keep the heat in, and to maintain the rug in position. Mustard-plasters (see Blistering) 491 CHAPTER XXXIX Poisons and their Antidotes Poisonous substances are divisible into two main classes, namely, those belonging to the vegetable kingdom and those which are of a mineral nature ; whilst a third class are really the products of the lowest forms of animal life, such as the toxic prin- ciples excreted by micro-organisms. Both the poisons of the first and last named are sometimes spoken of as organic, in contradistinction to the mineral or inorganic substances. Ponies, like all other animals, are liable to fall victims to various poisonous agencies, either through negligence, malicious administration, or through the ingestion of such substances existing in herbage, hedges, etc. There are numerous poisonous British plants, and instances of poisoning by such, amongst both horses and cattle, are not at all uncommon. One of the most deadly plants is the yew, which exists either as an ornamental shrub or tree around villa gardens, and in the fronts of country houses, whilst hedges are frequently formed largely of yew. The deadly effects of yew are well known to most horse- men, and it is surprising how rapidly the ingestion of it proves fatal ; in fact, there is very little time to observe symptoms or to apply any remedies likely to be of service. Its deadly effects are, doubtless, influenced by the 492 POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES amount of food contained in the stomach at the time when the plant is partaken of. Poisoning by the leaves of foxglove has been known to occur through these having been mistaken for the leaves of the comfrey. Digitalis or foxglove, in excessive doses, is a powerful sedative and diuretic, therefore, if abundant around the walls of pastures, bank-sides, etc., to which ponies have access whilst grazing, it is better to remove such. Four other fairly common poisonous plants are — the deadly nightshade, the bittersweet, fool's parsley, and the hemlock, whilst a fifth one is the water hemlock, found growing in ditches and ponds. The general symptoms comprise those of sudden collapse. All cases of this nature being of an extremely urgent and grave character, call for professional advice, and the sooner such is obtained the better. Arsenic and lead are the two chief poisons to which ponies are liable to suffer from. Lead poison- ing may be either acute or chronic, and usually occurs amongst ponies grazing in the neighbourhood of lead- smelting works, the finely divided particles being- diffused over the adjacent ground. The leading- symptoms are, quivering of the muscles, paralysis, roaring, pain in the belly, etc. Lead colic may, however, occur from the ingestion of lead through other sources, such as the drinking water contaminated with lead. Epsom salts is the best antidote, and should be given in the drinking water daily. Another antidote is iodide of potash, which is principally given in chronic lead poisoning. Arsenical poisoning may be malicious or it may be inadvertent, but in either case, the substance used 493 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM will most likely be in the form of white arsenic, otherwise known as arsenious acid, or arsenic trioxide. The medicinal dose of this drug for a pony should not exceed two or three grains a day, but its prolonged use, except under professional guidance, is liable to end disastrously. Arsenic, in the form alluded to, is a caustic irritant ; but in medicinal doses, an alternative and vermifuge, being frequently given as a remedy for worms, likewise to improve the condition of the animal, having a marked effect on the respiratory organs. It is com- monly employed by veterinary surgeons in a state of solution, under the name of Fowler's Solution of Arsenic, the medicinal dose of this for a pony being from two to four drachms twice daily in the food. Arsenical poisoning is denoted by severe ab- dominal pain, dysentery, and the sudden collapse of the patient. With regard to the poisons excreted by living animal matter, it may be said that these are all of a very deadly nature, and include the poisonous excretions produced by the various disease- producing organisms, such as anthrax, tetanus, glanders, etc., and also complex organic substances known as ptomaines. 494 CHAPTER XL Wounds and their Treatment : Broken Knee and PiCKED-up Nail Ponies, like every other variety of horse, are liable to suffer from wounds, either externally or internally, but wounds in connection with the skin and muscles are those most frequently encountered. Penetrating wounds are, as a rule, much more serious than those involving skin, muscle, tendon, etc., as such are very liable to injure internal organs, e.g., lungs, bowels, etc. For instance, a penetrating wound of the chest wall occasionally leads to pleurisy, whilst that in con- nection with the bowels may set up peritonitis or enteritis. When the skin is cut clean, such an injury is spoken of as an incised wound, but if the edges of the wound are torn, it is called a lacerated one, whereas a wound combined with a fracture is referred to as being of a compound nature. All wounds, excepting those made for surgical purposes and performed under strictly aseptic conditions, are at the time of infliction infected, such infection being due to the presence of micro-organisms in the atmosphere, the presence of which are the cause of suppuration in a wound. The situation of a wound has necessarily an important bearing upon the ultimate issue, though such is not always proportionate to the gravity of the injury. Hence it is not expedient to predict the results. For instance, the most trifling injury is occasionally 495 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM followed by the death of the animal, either through aseptic infection or else tetanus, or lockjaw. In some localities the last-named disease supervenes after the most simple injuries, but it is specially prone to occur in connection with wounds of the feet, hence the reason why it is always advisable to have professional aid whenever a pony has the slightest injury about the feet. " Picked-up nail " is a common injury, but why it should be so, it is difficult to explain. The nail pene- trates the foot, usually entering it where the most damage is liable to be done, setting up suppuration within the hoof and other undesirable consequences. The shoeing-smith not uncommonly punctures the foot with a misdirected nail, though the latter may be withdrawn at the time the injury is inflicted, never- theless, infection will probably have occurred. Lame- ness, increased heat in the foot, and pain when the foot is carefully examined, combined with a variable degree of constitutional disturbance, are in the main the leading features characteristic of the trouble under consideration. Wounds are very common in the region of the face, more especially the eyelids, and these usually demand accurate adjustment for their proper healing. The skin alone may be torn or the whole thickness of the eyelid may be lacerated, if so, severe ophthalmia usually occurs, and this will require to be treated according to the condition of affairs. Another common form of injury is either broken or blemished knee, in which one or both knees may be the seat of injury, whilst the extent of damage done is liable to considerable variation, so much depending upon the nature of the ground upon which the pony falls. Sometimes the hair is only broken across, whereas in 496 V^OUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT othe.- instances the skin is completely denuded of the hair over a variable-sized area, or it may be that the skin and subjacent tissues are extensively lacerated, wh'ist in the most severe forms of injury the tendinous sheaths are laid open, or the bones of the knee may be fractured. Needless to say, injuries of the latter class usually end in permanent disorganisation of the knee, destroying its freedom of action. The simplest form of broken knee is usually accompanied by a considerable amount of bruising of the surrounding tissues, and the swelling resulting produces a good deal of stiffness and discomfiture to the animal. Treatment of broken knee varies in accordance with the nature of the injury, but, in every instance, it is expedient to foment the knee with warm water, as such will materially aid in the reduction of the swell- ing. All particles of grit must be removed, as the presence of foreign materia in a wound only serves to irritate it and aggravate the trouble. Therefore, thorough cleansing of the injury with some antiseptic solution constitutes a matter of vital importance. There is not, as a rule, much haemorrhage from wounds of the knee, but if there is, foment freely with cold water, or hot and cold water alternately. Follow- ing the reduction of the swelling, the cleansing of the wound and general attention to the animal's comfort, it is necessary to dress the injury with some anti- septic, either as a lotion, liniment or ointment, for which purposes the following will be found useful : — Tincture of arnica . Pure carbolic acid . h ounce 2 drachms Glycerine Water .... 3 ounces lo ounces 21 497 PONIES AND ALL ABOUT THEM This lotion should be applied by means of boracic lint soaked in it and then adjusted to the knee or knees with a flannel bandage. In all probability it will be necessary to re-apply the dressing three or four times a day, until the healing process is completed, which varies from a few days to several weeks, de- pending upon the severity or otherwise of the injury. Broken knee, like most other wounds, heals by granulation, and until the granulations become level with the surface, the skin will not spread over the latter. In the treatment of broken knee, it is advisable to keep the pony tied up short, in order to prevent it from lying down, as movement of the joint hinders the healing process. It is a good plan to expose the wound to the action of the air as soon as ever the granulations are level with the surface of the skin, as its drying action materially aids the final process of healing. It is only in the case of superficial injuries to the knee that what may be termed the dry method of treatment should be adopted, which consists of the application of some desiccating powder, such as boracic acid and starch, or these in combination with powdered myrrh, say one part of the former to two parts of each of the latter, mixed together and then dusted on the wound. Wounds in the regions of the quarters are sometimes both extensive and deep, necessitating powerful sutures, but this is a matter for the veterinary surgeon, who will deal with it according to surgical principles. To arrest bleeding from a wound, either bathe it with cold water, hot or cold water alternately apply a pad or compress, or paint it with tincture of steel, Friar's Balsam, or some other styptic. The 498 WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT actual cautery is a oood method of arresting bleeding which, if coming from an artery, is emitted in jets, whereas that from a vein is continuous haemorrhage ; moreover, the former is bright scarlet blood and the latter purple in colour. Poll-Evil and Fistula of the Withers The term poll-evil is applied to a bruise on the poll or top of the skull, which gradually turns into a suppurating sore, and the pus burrows into the inter- stices of the muscles around the seat of the injury. It is a most troublesome disease to treat, and may persist for months before a cure is effected. Nothing short of professional skill will be of any avail, and patience must be exercised ere the veterinary surgeon will effect a cure. Fistula of the withers is a similar disease, and usually due to an injury. The pus burrows into the surrounding muscles and ligaments, whilst several small openings (sinuses) make their appearance, from which matter escapes. This is also a very intractable disease, and precisely the same remarks apply as in poll-evil. 499 Index Abscess and tumours of the brain, 436 Abscess of the throat, 398 Acute founder, 377 Acute inflammation of the liver, 317 Adhesive and rubber bandages, 296 Anatomical outline of the skeleton, 330 „ head, trunk, limbs, 330 „ eye, 441 „ foot, 459 Anthrax, 355 Apoplexy of the brain, 436 B Back, soreness of, 448 Bandages, 295 ,, adhesive and rubber, 296 Basuto ponies, 234 Bedding, 287 wheat straws, 288 oat straw, 288 barley straw, 288 peat-moss litter, 288 dried bracken, 289 Biting, 328 Blistering, 489 Bone, dislocations of, 486 fractures of, 479-86 ,, inflammation of, 472 -spavin, 475 Bones of the hock, 344 „ OS calcis, cuboid, Bones of the astragalus, ,, cuneiform magnum, ,, scaphoid, ,, cuneiform parvum, Broken wind, 379 Bronchitis, 380 Buying, 236 Canon-bone, fracture of, 483 Cape, horse-sickness, 374 Capped elbow, 254 ,, hock, 254 Care of the feet, 305 Carpus, 341 Cataract, 444 Catarrh, 254 Cautery, 487 Central nervous system, 433 Champion cup conditions, 149 Child's pony, 164 Choking, 398 Cleansing the stable, 286 Clipping, 290 Clothing, and care of clothing, 293 Colic, 405 Collar-galls, 448 Conformation of the hackney pony, 71 ponies, 34 head, 35 „ eyes, muzzle, 37 „ the coupling of the head, 37 „ the neck, 38 „ the withers, 40 „ the back and loins, 40 501 INDEX Conformation of the croup, 41 „ the chest, ribs and breast, 42 ,, fore-limbs, 43 „ the forearm, 45 „ the knee, 46 „ canon, 47 „ fetlock and pas- terns, 48 „ the foot, 49 „ the hind limb, 50 „ the hock, 52 Congestion of the lungs, 376 Connemara ponies, 190 Constitutional diseases, 384 Contagious lung fever, 371 Contraction of feet, 254 Corns, 254 Cough, 25s County Polo Association, 128 Crib biting, 324 Cross-bred ponies, 163 Cumberland ponies, 190 Curb, 255 Cutting, 255 D Dangers of rapid improvement, 185 Dartmoor ponies, 198 Defects in relation to soundness, 253 „ blindness, 253 „ broken knee, 253 „ broken wind, 253 „ bog-spavin, 253 „ blood-spavin, 253 ,, bone-spavin, 253 „ catarrh, 254 „ capped hock, 254 ,, capped elbow, 254 ,, cataract, 254 „ corns, 254 „ contraction of feet, 254 „ curb, 255 cutting, 255 „ cough, 255 „ fever in the feet, 255 „ grease, 255 „ glanders, 255 Defects, megrims, 256 „ mallenders, 256 ,, ophthalmia, 256 „ pumiced foot, 256 „ quittor, 256 „ quidding, 256 „ ruptures, 256 „ ringbone, 257 „ roaring, 257 „ spavin, 257 „ splint, 257 „ string-halt, 257 „ sandcrack, seedy-toe, 257 ,, strangles, 258 „ speedy-cutting, 258 „ shivering, 258 „ slipped stifle, 258 „ sore back, 258 ,, sinews, thickened, 258 „ thrush of feet, 258 ,, thorough pin, 259 „ whistling, 259 „ wind-sucking, 259 Diabetes insipidus, 422 Diarrhoea, 408 Digestive ailments, 396 Digestive system, 391 Dilated stomach, 403 Diseases of bones, joints and tendons, 468 „ the skin, 445 „ the eye, 442 „ urinary apparatus, 421 „ the feet, 460 „ central nervous system ,, generative organs, 427 Dislocations, 486 Dysentery, 410 Eating bedding, 326 Ecthyma, 454 Eczema, 449 Emphysema of the lungs, 379 Epizootic lymphangitis, 373 Erythema, 448 502 INDEX Eversion of the eyelid, 448 Exmoor pony, 202 Eye, anatomical outlines of, 440 Facial paralysis, 438 False Ouarter, 462 Feet in manger, over halter, etc. 328 Femur or thigh bone, 343 Fever in the feet, 42 Firing, 487 Fistula of the paroted duet, 490 „ „ withers, 499 Flat feet, 465 Foods and feeding, 306 Foot, anatomical outline, 458 Fomentations, 491 Fractures, 479 „ of the skull, 481 „ „ ribs, 482 „ „ tibia, 483 ,, „ canon-bone, 483 ,, ,, sesamoid, 484 Gadfly or horse bee, 414 Gastritis, 404 Cicnerative apparatus, 426 (lirth galls, 448 Glanders, 362 Grease, 255 Green foods, 318 „ various kinds, 320 „ the white clover, 320 „ red clover, 320 ,, cow grass, 320 , alsike, sainfoin, 321 „ vetches or tares, 321 „ furze, 322 Grooming, 302 Grooming appliances, 294 H Hackney pony, 68 „ history of the, 69 Hackney pony, conformation of, 7> ,, colour, 74 „ action, 76 „ manners, 77 H;cmaturia, blood in the urine, 423 Haimo-globinuria, 388 Ha?morrhage, 430 Halters and head collars, 298 Harness pony, 78 Hay, 314 Head, the, 333 Heart affections, 381 Highland ponies, 219 Hind limbs, 343 Hints to umpires, 122 Horse bee, 414 How to ascertain the age of a pony, 265 How to examine a pony as to soundness, 239 Humerus, 340 Hurlingham rules, 137 „ „ penalties, 145 „ „ bye-laws, 147 I Indigestion, 401 Inflammation of the tongue, 396 „ „ throat, 397 „ ,, stomach, 404 „ „ bowels, 408 „ „ bladder, 424 „ „ uterus, 427 „ „ cornea, 444 „ „ brain and its membrane 439 „ „ bones, 472 Internal parasites and worms, 411 Intestinal concretions, 417 Inversion of the bladder, 425 „ uterus, 429 „ eyelids, 444 J Jaundice, 415 Joint ill, 382 503 INDEX Joints, 346 shoulder joint, 346 K Kicking, 327 Knee caps, 297 Laceration of the eyelids, 445 Laminitis or foot-founder, 465 Lampas, 397 Law in relation to the carrying of ponies on land and sea, 272 Lawn boots, 298 Lentils, 312 Lencorrhoea, 428 Limbs, 338 „ carpus, 339 „ humerus, 338 „ large pastern, 339 „ metacarpus, 339 „ OS coron?e, 339 „ pedal, 339 „ radius and ulna, 339 „ scapula, 338 „ sesamoid, 339 Linseed, 312 Lymphangitis, 384 M Mammitis, 431 Mane and tail, 291 Mange, 255 Mash for improving condition, 313 Megrims, 435 Metacarpus, 341 Minor operations, 487 Moorland ponies, 172 N National value of Welsh pony, 180 Navicular disease, 256 Nettle-rash, 446 New Forest ponies, 194 Normal composition of the urine, 420 Numnah's saddle girths and rollers, 299 O Objection to be tied up, 329 Ophthalmia, 442 Palpitation of the heart, 382 Paralysis, 438 Parasitic mange, 451 Parotitis, Parturient fever, 431 Pawing and scraping, 326 Pelvis, 337 Phthiriasis, 456 Picked-up nail, 496 Pleurisy, 378 Pneumonia, 376 Points of a pony, 17 „ the head, i8 „ front surface of head, 20 ,, back surface of head, 21 „ lateral surface of head, 22 „ infero - lateral region of the body, 27 „ anterior end of the body, 24 ,. posterior end of body, 25 „ top line of the body, 26 „ fore limbs, 29 ; hind limbs, 32 Ponies, thoroughbred pony, 54 ,, the harness, 78 ,, the saddle, 81 „ polo, 83 „ moorland, 174 „ the Wilson, 161 „ the hackney, 68 ,, W^elsh pony, 169 „ the Cumberland, West- moreland, 190 ,, the Rum, 194 ,, the Dartmoor, 198 „ the Shetland, 205 504 INDEX Ponies, the Connemaia, 231 „ Basuto, 234 „ the child's, 164 „ New Forest, 194 „ the Exnioor, 202 „ the Highland, 219 Poisons and their antidotes, 492 Position of the limbs in relation t() the body, T] Pumiced foot, 256 Purpura Hi^morrhagica, 386 Qiiidding, 256 C2uittor, 464 Q R Radius, 341 Recurrent ophthalmia, 443 Red clover, 320 Reflex Paralysis, 438 Remarks on the improvement of the polo pony, 87 Retention of the urine, 423 Rheumatism, 3S9 Ribs, fracture of, 482 Ringbone, 473 Ringworm, 455 Roaring, 257 Roehampton club rules, 131 Rugby polo club rules, 152 Rules of the county polo associa- tion, 124 Rum ponies, 194 Ruptured stomach, 404 Ruptures, 256 Saddle galls, 448 Saddle ponies, 81 Sand-crack, 461 Savaging, 328 Scapula, 339 Seedy-toe, 462 Selection and preparation of food, 308 Selling ponies, 236 Separation of the wall of the foot, 462 Septic Laminitis, 428 Sesamoids, fracture of, 484 Shelly feet, 465 Shetland pony, 205 Side-bone, 464 Singeing, 292 Skull, fracture of, 481 Sore shins, 472 Specific diseases, 353 Splint, 469 Split pasterns, 484 Sprains, 477 Stable management, 2S0 Staphyloma, 444 Sterility, 429 Sternum, 336 Stone in the bladder, 424 Strangles, 372 Stringhalt, 437 Structure of the skeleton, 330 Tactics of captaining a side, 120 „ polo, 92 ,, umpiring, 121 Tarsus or hock, 344 Tearing clothing, 325 Temperature of stable, 289 Tetanus, 358 The stable, 281 Thorax, the, 336 Thoroughbred ponies, 54 Thrush, 463 Tibia or shin-bone, 344 Transit of ponies on land, 272 „ „ sea, 274 Tuberculosis, 358 U Ulna, 340 Urinary apparatus, 419 Urticaria, or nettle-rash, 446 505 INDEX V Various kinds of foods, 308 „ oats, 309 „ barley, 309 „ wheat, 309 „ maize, 310 ,, malted barley, 310 „ beans, 311 „ peas, 31 1 Vertebral column, 335 Vertigo, 435 Vices, 260 shying, 260 bolting, 260 biting, 262 rearing, 263 crib-biting, 263 Vices, setting, 263 „ a hard mouth, 264 ,, backing, 264 Vomiting, 400 W Warranty, 241 Watering ponies, 300 Weaving, 329 Welsh ponies, 169 „ points of, 172 Westmoreland ponies, 190 White clover, 320 Wilson pony, 161 Wind-sucking, 323 Worms, 411 Wounds and their treatment, 495 506 EDINBURGH COLSTONS LIMITED PRINTERS