THE HORSE - DAYIES Fig. 1. — The Extkenal Paets of the Horse 1. Head 2. Neck 3. Shoulder 4. Withers 5. Forearm 6. Knee 7. Shauk 8. Fetlock 9. Pastern 10. Hoof 11. Back 12. Ribs 13. Loin 14. Flank 15. Belly 16. Brisket 17. Cronp 18. Thigh 19. Gaskin 20. Hock The Horse And How to Care for Him BY C. T. Davies HOW TO CHOOSE A HORSE, TELL HIS AGE, FEED, STABLE, HARNESS AND TRAIN HIM, AND KEEP HIM IN GOOD HEALTH Philadelphia The Penn Publishing Company 1917 COPYHIGHT 1911 BY ThE PexN PUBLISHING COMPANY Contents I. The Selection of a Hoese . . 7 n. How TO Tell a Horse's Age . . 31 III. Sound and Unsound Horses . . 54 IV. Stables and Appliances ... 87 V. Food 104 VI. Stable Management . . . 114 Vn. Feeding and Watering . . . 128 VIII. The Care of the Feet . . . 140 IX. Cost of Keeping a Horse . . 144 X. Hints on Breaking and Drying . 150 XI. Common Ailments .... 170 Index 181 Illustrations Fig. 1.— The Plate I.— Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Plate II.— Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig Fig Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Fig. 17. Fig. 18. Fig. 19. Fig 20. Fig. 21. Fig. 22. Fig. 23. Fig. 24. Fig. 25. Fig. 26. Fig. 27. Fig. 28. Page Frontispiece 13 External Parts of the Horse 2. Chest too wide 3. Good chest 4. Hocks turned in 5. Good hocks 6. Calf knee 7. Over at Knee . 8. Splint 9. Ewe neck and straight shoulder 10 Curb 11. Spavin 12. Good hock 13. Good neck and sloping shoulder — Lower jaw at two and a half years —Lower jaw at three and a half years —Lower jaw at four and a half years —Lower jaw at five years — Lower jaw at six years . —Lower jaw at seven years —Lower jaw at eight years —Lower jaw at nine years — Lower jaw at ten years . — Lower jaw at twelve years . — Lower jaw at fifteen years — Lower jaw at twenty years . — Diagram of the inner side of the off hock — Diagram of the outer side of off fore leg — Showing horse bitted up ready to lead ; also showing position of reins in long rein driv jug 5 13 13 13 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 51 53 61 79 159 THE HORSE CHAPTER I The Selection of a Horse To most people the purchase of a horse is a serious and important undertaking. Any nian who is interested in horses is averse to acknowl- edging that he knows nothing about them, and in this respect more than any other he has a great predilection for doing his own business, however incompetent he may be to do it. It is extraordi- nary how few people are really good judges of this animal, and how little practical knowledge men may possess in spite of much experience among different varieties of horses. To become a good judge a knovvdedge of anatomy is essential ; but as a dissertation on anatomy is hardly within the scope of this handbook, we must confine our- selves to gi^^ng a brief description of the most de- sirable points of conformation for the various r 8 THE HOESE classes of work, together with a few ^particulars of the commonest faults and unsoundnesses. A fact which is often overlooked in connection with the purchase of a horse is that an animal may be admirably suited for one class of work and quite unsuitable and incapable for another. Thus, many horses may be "rough" and uncom- fortable for riding, but will be excellent in every way as roadsters ; and a horse which is capable of pulling a great weight is obviously unsuited for fast galloping. Therefore the intendmg purchaser must first make up his mind exactly what class of work he wants his horse for, and he must then endeavor to secure an animal with conformation such as will enable it to perform this work in the best manner and with least exertion to itself. At the two extremes are the thoroughbred and the cart horse, the former bred for speed, the latter for strength. Two greater differences could hardly be unagined in one species of animal, for the points necessary to the one are utterly con- demnatory in the other; and although perhaps these differences are peculiar to the shell or ex- ternal parts of the animal, rather than to the internal and vital parts, yet they are very ap- parent to the eye, and are the ones to which at- THE HORSE 9 tention should be paid in the choice of a horse. The class of animal most likely to be required by the average horse-owner is the harness horse, so that in considering the various points we will keep this ideal in view. In many respects the harness horse requires the combined points of a saddle-horse and a cart horse, and, leaving out of the question exaggerated examples, such as that galloping machine the race-horse, or that equine giant the Percheron, we shall find that the bony conformation of the one differs very little, except in a minor degree, from that of the others. Such differences as exist are as a rule muscular, and as we go along we shall endeavor to indicate the various classes of work for which each variety of conformation is best suited. Head Although the head is very much less important from a working point of view than many other parts of the horse, yet as it is usually the first point to catch the eye, and as it is the one part from which it is possible to penetrate the secret of a horse's disposition and character, it is given priority of consideration. The chief faults of the 10 THE HORSE head are that it may be too small or too large. The reader may perhaps be surprised when we say that the head can be too small, as popular opinion is generally in favor of a small size of this part. Too small a head may indicate weak masticating muscles, and hence the owner may suffer from a bad digestion ; and it may mdicate small air-passages, and hence the breathing of the horse may be unpaired. If, however, the small- headed horse possesses a broad, flat forehead and large open nostrils, he will not be likely to labor under either of these disadvantages, and the small head will be an advantage rather that the reverse. A large head indicates cart-horse blood, and is un- desirable, because a horse is apt to carry it badly, and consequently put an undue proportion of weight on the forehand. Apart from this, how- ever, provided the horse has plenty of bone, a big head is not particularl}^ objectionable, and no horse need be refused because he is a little " plain." A fairly common pecidiarity is a prominence between the eyes (convexity of frontals), which is very objectionable, and generally indicates a bad temper. A small or sunken " pig " eye and a Avail eye (a ring of white round the iris) are also indi- cations of a wayward temper and ungenerous dis- THE HORSE 11 position. A wide, -flat forehead and bold eye are signs of intelligence and good disposition. It must be mentioned, however, that the eye can be too big, and a "scarey," nervous horse will often possess a large, prominent eye. In this connection the ears will also be some guide, and a continuous backward and forward movement, and an en- deavor to see behuid, etc., may confirm suspicions that the animal is nervous. Apart from the teeth, a sunken appearance of the face, midAvay on a line drawn from the inner corner of the eye to the mouth, will indicate old age. The top of the head between the ears should be prominent, and the skin over the whole head in a well-bred horse should be fine and thin, showing thi'ough it the various nerves, muscles, and blood-vessels. There should be no swellings or thickness be- tween the jaw-bones, nor should the hollows above the eyes be deep in a young horse. JSTeck The neck of a saddle-horse cannot be too long or light, nor of a cart horse too comparatively thick. The harness horse should have something between the two. A weU-shaped neck, with nicely set-on head, adds much to the appearance of a 12 THE HORSE horse (Plate II. Fig. 13), and the ammal wiU be handier and pleasant er to diive than one which is clumsily or a^Ykwardly made. As one of the most important muscles which di^aws the shoulder for- ward runs U23 the neck and is attached to the top of the head, length of neck and good carriage of head mean greater power of this muscle, and hence better action. A big crest is simply an accumula- tion of fat on the upper part of the neck, and is chiefly an indication of fatness and not of good conformation. As it makes the hoi^e heavier in front, i. e., puts more weight on the fore legs, it is an undesh^able f eatm^e. The best class of neck for a harness horse in one of medium length, sHghtly arched (Plate II. Fig. 1 3), and with weU-developed muscles. A very short thick neck, which is usually accompanied by straight shoulders, is a form of conformation which, by reason of the un- due amount of weight it thi^ows forward, makes a horse extremely likely to overbalance and fall down. A horse with a " ewe " neck is often also a " star gazer " (Plate 11. Fig. 9), and extremely unpleasant either to ride or drive, as not only is he liable to get the bit off the bars and into the corners of his mouth, but his carriage of head prevents him from seeing where he is stepping. THE HORSE IB As this last is not of so much consequence in a harness horse as it is in a hunter, the fault is not such a grave one in the class of animal under con- sideration. Shoulders and Withers Whatever his work, every horse should have Plate I. Fig. 2. Chest too wide Fig. 4. Hocks turned in. well-sloped shoulders. Among the advantages to the animal derived from this conformation are — greater lightness of forehand, and consequently greater chance of recovery after a stumble ; less " jar " to the fore legs, which have to support the whole weight of the fore part of the body ; and 14 THE HORSE greater freedom of movement of the shoulders and fore legs. The shoulders should be thin and free from lumber in the saddle-horse, and exactly the opposite in the cart horse, which requires to throw a lot of weight into the collar. The two best in- dications of the amount of muscle carried by the shoulders are — the dift'erence in level between the root of the neck and the shoulder, and the width between the fore legs (Plate I. Figs. 2 and 3). In the hunter or racer the neck should run into the shoulder with an almost imperceptible curve ; in a cart horse the greater development of the muscles on the shoulder-blade make a very perceptible dif- ference in the levels of the two parts, and the animal has consequently a marked " collar place." In the harness animal is required the happy medium, as the absence of a depression wherein the collar can lie is as objectionable as is a con- formation too nearly approaching that of the heavy horse. The fore legs should be moderately wide apart (Plate I. Fig. 3) ; but when viewed from the front there should be no unnecessary muscle either on the outside of the shoulder or between the legs. The chest should be deep (Plate I. Fig. 3), not wide and shallow as it so often is in the front view (Plate I. Fig. 2). THE HORSE 15 The withers should be high, but their leanness is not so important in the harness as in the saddle- horse. They should extend far back in the direc- tion of the tail, as this will give what riders call a " long rein." It is noticeable that hackneys, which we may regard as an essentially exaggerated type of fancy harness horse, have as a rule thick necks, somewhat loaded, but long, v\'ell laid back shoulders, and not over high withers, so presumably this con- formation is necessary to, or comes as a sequence to, exaggerated action and considerable speed at the trot. The objection to loaded shoulders is minimized if they are long and sloping, and the serious drawback of straight shoulders is to some extent compensated for if the horse has a light head and neck and sloping pasterns. Body Every variety of horse should be fairly short in back. That is to say, the distance from the posterior termination of the withers to the promi- nence at the anterior part of the croup (the inner angle of the pelvis) should be short if the horse is to have the greatest power of propelling his body forward, and is to be therefore speedy. The loins should be flat and broad, so as to give room for the 16 THE HORSE attachment of muscles and to ensure plenty of space for the important organs which lie beneath them. All classes of horses should be "well ribbed up," by which term length and a backward direction of the back ribs is understood. Short- ness of the back ribs is a worse fault in a saddle than in a harness horse, but it is very undeshable in any animal, as it indicates inability to " sta}''." In horses in hard condition a badly ribbed-up con- formation will be evidenced by the " tucked up " appearance of the individual. The straighter and more parallel the lower line of the body is with the gi^ound, the greater will be the ability of the horse to stand prolonged exertion, and a buyer should always look for a good depth of body at a line dropped vertically fi^om the lowest part of the back (behind the withers) to behind the girth place. A good spring of ribs is essential to all horses, al- though flatness may be sometimes compensated for in a harness horse by extra depth. Htkd Quaeters The most successful race-horses have usually been somewhat narrow behind ; but this point is not desirable in any other variety of horse. Ob- viously a horse which has to hold back a vehicle, THE HORSE 17 or to jump, must have powerful muscles to enable him to do his work efficiently, and one should al- ways look for plenty of muscular development on the croup and down the quarters. Breadth be- tween the points of the hip bones is also desirable (Plate I. Fig. 5). It must always be remembered in this connection, however, that the hind quarters must be in proportion to the fore parts, and that a horse should not be unduly developed in one part. Droopmg hind quarters are unobjectionable though unsightly, in fact, this conformation is valued in Irish hunters. On the score of appearance, no doubt, a tail set on high and carried in a graceful curve well away from the body is to be preferred, although this shape has no mechanical advantage. Fore ai^d Hii^d Legs One of the most important parts of equine con- formation is the shape of the legs. Without good legs a horse will be quite unable to stand work, and, next to the feet, more attention should be paid to their shape and make than to any other part of the animal. The fore legs have chiefly to support weight ; the hind legs to propel the body. jN'aturally, then, one must look for powerful muscles and tendons and big bones to vrhich they 18 THE HORSE are attached. Successful modern thoroughbreds are usually leggy ; that is to say, their height at the withers is greater than theu' length from the point of the shoulder to the buttock, and this height has been proved to be usually gained by length of leg. The cart horse, on the contrary, has short legs, consequently his length is greater than liis height. As it is not a galloping machine that is wanted, but merely a well- balanced harness horse, the full-grown animal should be slightly longer than he is high at the withers, as such conformation indicates a sufficiency of strength for harness work. At the same time, the greater length over height must be due to shortness of the legs, and not to either abnormally low withers or to a long, badly coupled body. The shortness of the legs should be gained by shortness of the bones below the knees and hocks, and not by shortness of the foreanns and lower thighs or gaskins, on which the muscles which move the legs are to be found. The gaskins should be as wide and long as possible, and covered with plenty of muscle, and are important parts to look at m buying a horse. The knees should be large, flat, and bony; also the hocks. The latter must be well let down (Plate II. Fig. 12), and when viewed THE HORSE Plate II. 19 Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Calf Knee. Over at Knee. Splint. Fig. 9. Ewe Neck and Straight Shoulder. Fig. 10. Curb. Fig. 11. Spavin. Fig. 12. (5ood Hock. Fig. 13. Good Neck and Sloping Shoulder. 20 THE HORSE from behind should be straight (Plate I. Fig. 5), and turn neither in nor out when the animal is walking. "Covr" hocks (hocks in which the points turn in — Plate I. Fig. 4) are very common in hill ponies and horses with pony blood ; but beyond being unsightly they are not a serious fault, and are infinitely to be preferred to the opposite fault of hocks turned too much out. Horses which turn their hocks out give a peculiar " ^vi^ench " to the hind leg when walking. The line from the back of the leg from hock to pastern should be straight, and the front of the hock, when viewed from the side, should run almost imperceptibly down, if the hock is well let down and the bone below it large. The same may be said of the leg below the knee. The straight er the line of the back of the leg (the absence of a " tied-in " condition below the knee), the better the leg may be considered. The leg should have great width when viewed from the side, and the tendons should be plainly visible beneath the skin in a well-bred animal. Horses sometimes stand over at the knees (Plate II. Fig. 7), and when not tem^porarily due to overwork, this formation is an indication of in- sufficient development of the large muscle on the THE HOESE 21 upper part of the forearm. It is objectionable in a saddle-horse, but of less consequence in harness. If combined with straight shoulders and with heavy forehand (shoulders, chest, neck, and head) and a tied-in condition below the knee, it is dan- gerous in any class of horse, as the animal will always be falling down. Horses with straight shoulders and heavy fore part are " built to fall down," and should be avoided for any class of work. Horses with "calf knees" (Plate 11. Fig. 6) are very lial^le to strain a back tendon when putting extra weight on the fore legs, as in jumping, cantering, etc. Long sloping pasterns, like long sloping shoul- ders, are important factors in the prevention of jars, and hence unsoundness. Sloping pasterns are usually an indication of speed. The discomfort to the rider of a horse with bad shoulders is mini- mized by long pasterns, so that it is a point which should never be dispensed with in a saddle-horse. As the harness horse has to do all his work on hard roads, and consequently is subjected to con- siderable shaking if the " springs " (shoulders and pasterns) are not so formed as to reduce it, long sloping pasterns should be looked for in this class also. The amount of jar caused by a horse v:ith 22 THE HORSE straight shoulders and pasterns may be verified by any one who cares to ride successively horses with both parts long and sloping, with both parts short and straight, with straight shoulders and long sloping pasterns, and with long shaping shoulders and short, straight pasterns. Of the last three forms the verdict will be in favor of the long pasterns and straight shoulders as the least un- comfortable, and as the jar is to them so it must be to the horse, and it is impossible to lay too much stress on the importance of good pasterns in harness as well as saddle-horses. The hind pasterns are ahvays more upright than the fore ; but a condition of knuckling over is due to ex- cessive work or to working a colt too young. In the former case it points to wealaiess of tendons. "When viewed from the front, the pasterns should be straight, i. e., the feet should turn neither in nor out. Cart horses very constantly turn their feet in, and apparently this formation, which is most obvious when going up-hill, has some ad- vantage when moving a great weight. Short, straight pasterns are of mechanical advantage to a cart horse, and as these animals have not to travel fast there is no objection to this formation if the shoulders are long and sloj)ing. THE HORSE 23 TThen looking at a horse, it is advisable to note whether he has plenty of " bone," i. e., that his legs are not too small for his body, or, in another way of putting it, that he is not heavy-topped. A horse can hai-dly have too great a width of leg, provided it feels clean and firm to the touch. Many horses shown in excessively fat condition may appear heavy-topped, particularly stalhons ; but the pm^chaser must not allow himself to be deceived by fat, and must judge of the actual size of the body by the proportion between the size of the head, the shape of the chest, the width of the quarters, etc., and the legs. It may be added that it is almost impossible to fairly judge a very fat horse in some points, such as back ribs, as the ac- cumulation of fat may completely hide the true shape. Feet "Without good feet a horse is useless for any purpose. (See Chapter YIII.) Chestnut horses are reputed to have worse feet than horses of any other color ; and it is notorious that the big cart horses err in this respect to a terrible extent. The outer wall of the hoof should be hard and firm and free from ridges, and should not be unduly spread. 24 THE HOKSE When lifted up, the buyer should note whether the frog of the foot is well developed and free from offensive odor. A deep cleft in the frog, and an unpleasant, characteristic smell indicate thrtish, and although it is rare to come across a horse entirely free from it, yet if badly developed, and the frog shiiveled in appearance, the horse should be rejected. In a perfectly healthy foot the cleft of the frog is only a slight depression, and not the deep split so constantly seen. Con- tracted feet are less objectionable than wide-spread feet, as the former may be improved by care and attention, whereas nothing much can be done to the latter to make them permanently sound, and a horse with such feet, if put to fast road work, will be likely to develop fever in the feet, or some such complaint. AcTioisr Conformation makes the action. For road work, exaggerated knee and hock action is out of the question, and undesirable in every respect. At the same time, it is highly desirable that a horse should throw both fore and hind legs well forward. A long stride is obtained by good shoulder action, but it is of little advantage if the horse drags his THE HORSE 25 hind legs. At the walk and trot the marks of the hmd feet should certainly cover, and perhaps overreach, the marks of the fore feet, and the more they do so, provided the animal also thi'ows out his fore legs well from the shoulder, the more rapidly wdll he cover the ground with a minimum of exertion. As long as the feet are lifted high enough to clear the ground there is no advantage in knee action, and the exaggerated up-and-down knee action of some hackneys is objectionable in every way. Such horses have no pace, and they quickly hammer their legs to pieces on the road. In the ideal action of the roadster the fore and hind legs are flung well forward, the former being straightened before touching the ground, and the whole movement suggests to the eye freedom without effort. When viewed from behind, the legs of each side should follow exactly the same course. This con- dition will not be attained if a horse " dishes," or goes wide behind or in front, or crosses his legs. Dishing, or the flinging outward of either or both fore feet, is very common, and although, of course, a fault, yet it is less objectionable than some if not too marked. No horse which goes wide in front is speedy, and it will generally be found that of 26 THE HORSE the two conformations, going too wide, or going too close or brushing, the animal which does the latter is the fastest. Some very fast horses go wide behind, but the peculiarity is unsightly. One of the best tests of soundness, action, and conformation is to have the horse trotted down a fauiy steep hill. By his manner of going a fau' estimate of his value can at once be made. Geneeal Appeaeaxce A horse may have every desu^able point of con- formation and yet be an extremely ugly animal. "When looking at horses, the pm'chaser should en- deavor to find one w^hich has no bad points, and if he can find it he may buy it knowing that it will be useful, and likely to last him for years, how- ever ugh^ it may be. Of course, good looks in addition are desu^able, but they have to be paid for at a rate far in excess of theii' practical value. Therefore the average individual will be fortunate if he is strong enough not to succumb to the temptation of buying an animal with some good or taking points in exaggerated degree, and also some bad ones, and confines his attention to searching for a horse which Is absolutely free from any which the most critical judge could des- THE HORSE 27 ignate " bad." Every bad point is a weakness, it must be remembered, and, as such, liable at any- time to cause the breakdo\vn of the entu'e animal. Age foe Work A horse is probably at his very best at six years of age. It is never wise to purchase one of less than fom* for moderate work, or under five for hard work. Horses which are "out of mark," i. e.^ over eight years of age, if well formed and sound, are often likely to be more useful for hard work than younger ones. At this age, if they possess weaknesses they will, under ordinary con- ditions, have already broken do^vn, so that it may be taken as a broad rule that a sound old horse is generally a good horse, and for light harness work, or work which is not too fast, there is no reason why an animal should not last until it is well into the twenties. Blemishes and Uis-soui^dness The vendor of a broken-lmeed horse always has a plausible tale of the exact manner in which the accident occurred, and it always is an accident, and never due to any fault on the part of the horse. In nine cases out of ten, however, the 28 THE HOKSE cause is due to faulty conformation, and, under such circumstances, it is a certainty that the horse will fall again sooner or later, however carefully driven. Horses which are straight shouldered and heavy in front, as already remarked, should be looked at with suspicion, and if, in addition to this, they already have telltale marks, they should be carefully avoided. When a horse is well made, and has a light head and neck, the cause of the broken knees must be looked for elsewhere, and one should either suspect thi'ush, or that the horse had fallen from some kind of sunstroke, in both of which cases the accident is unlikely to re-occur if reasonable care is taken to avoid the unfavor- able conditions. Many scars about the hocks in- dicate that the animal is a kicker. There are several conditions which, although they come under the technical head of unsound- ness, yet may not interfere with the working ca- pacity of the animal. In the case of splints (Plate 11. Fig. 3), for instance, the cause and position are the important factors to consider before rejecting an animal which has one. If, as is often the case, they are caused by the horse having been worked too young, and while the bones and ligaments are unlit, they will be less liable to incapacitate the THE HORSE 29 animal than if they were formed in adult life be- cause of defective conformation. When fully formed they do not, as a rule, in themselves cause lameness. But if placed in such a position that they are hkely to be hit by the other leg, or are likely to interfere ^vith the passage of the tendons and ligaments, they may become a serious evil. Therefore, if a horse has a splint high up near the knee where it may be struck by the other leg, or far back where it may interfere Avith tendons and ligaments, or on both sides of the leg, which v\^ould indicate great weakness of the structures, it should be rejected. The same may be said of curbs (Plate II. Fig. 10) and spavins (Plate II. Fig. 11). Of course, a horse with such is unsound ; but if it is not lame, and its action is in no way interfered mth by the defects, it may be good for many years' w^ork, although its value as a saleable animal is much reduced by their presence. Few horses are without a few wind-galls ; but they constitute unsoundness only if they cause lameness. Cutting, clicldng, and overreaching do not come under this category, although " contraction of the hoof " should be considered an unsoundness 30 THE HOESE as are also grease, saddle-galls, and shivering, so that it is within the power of the sharp buyer to get a considerable reduction in the price of an animal with one of these complaints, on the score that it is not wholly sound. It must always be remembered that curbs may be sprung in a moment, splints developed in a few hours, spavin thi^own out in a day or two, and other defects, such as roaring, rapidly de- veloped, so that it is possible to buy an apparently sound horse one day, and find that, through no dishonesty on the part of the vendor, he is un- sound a day or two later. CHAPTER II How to Tell a Horse^s Age The age of a horse is to be accurately de- termined only by an examination of the teeth, with a knowledge of the changes, w^iich, from time to time, take place in them. The following directions, studied in connection with the accom- panying diagrams of the lower jaw, will enable any one of ordinary acuteness and powers of observa- tion to judge for himself, and thus to avoid that most common of all the dealer's impositions, a liability to be deceived in the age of horses held for sale. The incisors furnish the chief indications ; and to them the attention must be mostly directed ; but the back and hook teeth should be observed to some extent, as their condition may occasion- ally serve to correct and more frequently to cor- roborate the indication of the incisors. When first foaled, the colt has no incisors. 31 32 THE HORSE Fig. 14. — Lower jaw at two and a half years. THE HORSE 33 Twelve back teeth have in most cases forced their points by this time through the gums ; but it is not until from two or three months afterward that the four nippers appear ; in six weeks the nippers are seen; and in about eight months the four corner teeth. There are now, at eight or nine months old, twenty-four teeth (upper and lower), called foal-teeth. These are all changed by the fifth or sixth year, and those that follow are called horse-teeth. The back teeth appear as follows: the three front double pair are seen at birth, and are after- ward changed ; the fourth double pair appear from the eighth to the ninth month (this fourth double pair are the first that remain stationary, and they are found in every year-old colt) ; the fifth double pair, or fifth four, appear in the second or third year; the sixth usually in the fourth or early in the fifth year. These three double pairs of back teeth (last named) remain unchanged, as do also the four hook teeth. The hook teeth are uncertain as to appearance, coming sometimes at the end of the third year, sometimes in the middle or at the end of the fourth, sometimes in the middle or at the end of the fifth, sometimes at the beginning of the sixth. 34 THE HOBSE Fig. 15.— Lower jaw at three and a half years. THE HOESE 36 Observe particularly that the incisors of the foal differ from those of the horse (1) by their regular, conical formation ; (2) by a narrow con- traction called the neck, visible almost in the centre of the body of each tooth, while nothing of the kind is seen in horse-teeth ; (3) by their smaller size, even when full grown. The milk teeth (or those teeth which are cast or shed), taken from the jaws of dead foals and compared with horse- teeth similarly obtained, are found to be only about half as long as the latter. The breadth is not to be depended on, since the milk teeth of larger foals appear ahnost as broad as those of small horses. When the nippers become horse-teeth, they form a great contrast to the middle and corner teeth. The size of these last will at once show them to be milk teeth. (4) By the fact that the outer surface of the foal-teeth is smooth and striped with brown, while on horse- teeth the same surface is divided by a dirty yel- low indentation inclining toward the centre, which is sometimes double upon the upper teeth. One should study the form of the incisors by carefully examining those taken from dead horses of different ages. Each incisor will be found to consist of a hard, enameled part, called the grinder, 86 THE HORSE Fig. 16.— Lower jaw at four and a half years. THE HORSE 37 which has protruded above the gum ; of a bony substance, which has been for the most part hid- den in the gum ; and of a root, which has occupied the cavity of the jaw-bone. These teeth (of the foal as well as of the horse) are slowly bat continually worn away by biting and chewing, so that the length is constantly de- creasing, — sometimes evenly and regularly, — so that in old age the tooth that was once two and a half inches long is found to be not exceeding half an inch in length. The breadth generally de- creases in about the same proportion ; but with this diiference in foal and horse-teeth, that the thickness and breadth of the foal-teeth are con- stantly decreasing from the grinder or hard enam- eled part to the end of the root, while horse-teeth decrease from the root upward. The grinder, or hard, grating portion of the tooth, which has not yet been used, has somewhat the form of an egg ; it is ttiree times as broad as thick, and hollowed out in the shape of a funnel, which hollow has two sharp edges inclosing it. This socket or hollow is called the 7na7'k. In the centre of this mark, a sort of kernel may be seen — a tube commencing at the end of the root — that contains the nerves of the tooth ; but this inner hole must always be dis- 38 THE HORSE Fig. 17. — Lower jaw at five years. THE HORSE 39 tinguished from the mark, which is the outer de- pression, lying next to the sharp edges. The inner cavity is a funnel-shaped socket, of hard, enamel shell, around which, and inside the outward shell, is a thick fluid, which remains during the life of the tooth, becoming, by degrees, gray matter. This fluid averages about four lines in depth in the lower incisors and about eight in the upper ones. The outer edge of each incisor always rises a line or two above the inner edge ; therefore, when the upper and lower are fii'st grated together, only the outer edges touch for some time ; and the in- ner edges do not touch until the outer ones are worn down to an equal height with them. Horse- teeth generally do this in about one year. At the age of two and a half, the teeth begin to change, and those which then appear are called horse- teeth. A full-grown stallion or gelding has forty, and a mare thirty-six teeth — the male having four hook-teeth which are lacking in the female, except that sometimes she has imperfect teeth in the cor- responding part of the mouth. Those teeth found in some young horses, next to the first double teeth, and called " wolf teeth," are not included in this number, as they are not real teeth, — frequently 40 THE HORSE Fig. 18.— Lower jaw at six years. THE HORSE 4:1 not breaking thi'ough the gums at all, and usually, in any case, disappearing in eight or nine years. Twenty-four of the true teeth, in both horses and mares, are situated in the upper part of the mouth (that is, in both jaws, ahove the lijps). They are divided into six double pairs, counting upward from below, so that those situated next to the in- cisors in all the four rows are first ; those next to them, second ; and so on to the last pair, which are called the back teeth. Twelve others are in the lower part of the mouth, surrounded by the lips, six in the upper and six in the lower jaw, standing, each lot, in the form of an arch, and occupying the entrance to the hollow of the mouth. These twelve are called incisors. The four innermost, two in each jaw — these forming the key of each arch — are called nippers ; the other two in each arch are called the corner teeth, and those between the nippers and the corner teeth are called middle teeth. Each of these teeth in the lower jaw rubs against the cor- responding one in the upper jaw. The teeth of the upper jaw are broader and thicker than those of the lower. The four hooks are seated alone, over each corner tooth, but nearer to the corner teeth of the upper than those of tiie lower, so that 42 THE HOESE Fig. 19. — Lower jaw at seven years. THE HORSE 43 they (the hooks) never come in contact with each other. The horse has always attained the age of four and a half or five years before he has a full num- ber of perfect teeth. Before this time, the younger the animal the fewer the teeth, and even these are not all permanent. The more a permanent incisor loses in length, by friction, the more it also loses in width, so that the nearer the friction surface approaches to the root, the narrower and thicker it must appear. Every new hook tooth is cylindrical and some- what hooked, with a cone-shaped projecting grinder, and this is surrounded by a spoon-shaped edge, turned toward the hollow of the mouth, so that the cone cannot be seen from the outside ; and the whole grinder, or hard, enameled part, has the appearance of the back part of the bowl of a spoon — the edge, like a screen, surrounding the short cone, but so that two deep furrows remain between. Except this grinder, the rest of the body is uniformly round and the surface almost even. As previously said, however, these by themselves afford no reliable indication as to age. Large horses have, of course, larger teeth than small ones ; but taking a horse of medium size as u THE HORSE Fig. 20.— Lower jaw at eight yeais. THE HORSE 46 a* standard, one can make allowances for either larger or smaller, and easily arrive at just con- clusions. The incisors being our main reliance, our re- marks must be understood to refer chiefly to them. The length of the tooth of a horse of medium size is three inches, or thirty-six lines. After the changed tooth has arrived at its proper length, it shoots up a line regularly every year, and if the teeth stand right, the grinder is worn off a line every year. It is also, as has been said, worn off in both width and breadth, so that the grinder be- comes, from year to year, shorter and smaller, as shown by the chart. If, however, the teeth stand too far forward (irregular teeth) they do not wear down in the same proportion as they shoot upward, and they become very long. The age in this case can be ascertained with ease and exactness by observing with care the following points : At the age of five years, the corner teeth of the lower jaw have grown up ^ve lines above the gum ; each middle tooth, seven lines ; and each upper, nine. At eight years, and older, each corner tooth of the same horse projects only four, the middle, six, and the nippers, eight lines above the gums. This is 46 THE HORSE Fia. Sl.—Lower jaw at nine years. THE HOUSE 47 absolutely necessary to be taken into account, be- cause it is the only means by which one can de- cide with certainty as to the age of a horse whose teeth have become longer than they would have been if set right and wearing regularly. The foregoing remarks and du^ections are based upon the assumption that there is no peculiarity about the individual animal or the breed to Avhich he belongs that would materially interfere with the principles laid down. It remains, however, to notice that to those breeds of horses which de- velop very slowly, of which the Spanish horse may be cited as an example, the rules are a little more difficult of application. The bones of these, and perhaps of some few other kinds, seem to be harder, and the teeth change somewhat later and appear to wear down more slowly ; so that it sometimes happens that such horses, after their fifth year appear a year or two younger than they really are ; but the same animals are apt to be more than ordinarily strong, hardy, and long-lived, and to be taken at a diminished age really detracts nothing from their worth. The age of a mule is somewJiat difficult to deter- mine with exactness, owing to the cause just stated. Deceptions may be practiced with very thrifty 48 THE HORSE Fig. 22.— Lower jaw at ten years. THE HOESE 49 young horses, when it is desirable to make them appear of suitable age for work or for breeding, by knocking out the incisors a year sooner than they would naturally change themselves. If a purchaser suspects deception, he can determine the matter by closely examining the remaining teeth. If the nippers have changed, and the inner edges of the corner teeth have not yet come into con- tact, the foal is but one year old — and so on. The opposite cheat — that of trying to make a horse appear younger than he really is by burning artificial marks in upon the teeth — can be detected by closely examining the enamel and the effect of the mark upon it. When a horse has reached an advanced age, say twelve to twenty, the enameled surface has become so minute that burning in as large a mark as is found in horses considerably younger would disturb the whole enamel and so leave a means of detecting the fraud. In the case of crib-biters, that wear out their teeth prematurely, and so appear really older than they are, examination must be directed to the corner teeth, which are seldom injured ; or, if the corner teeth prove to be injured, deduct from the apparent age as many lines as are wanting to make the teeth of the natural length. To feed con- 50 THE HORSE -^ Fig. 23.— Lower jaw at twelve years. THE HORSE 51 Fia. 24.— Lower jaw at fifteen years. 52 THE HORSE stantly, from weaning time, upon hard, mishelled corn, sometimes produces the same effect as crib- biting, and the same du^ections must be followed in forming an estimate. THE HOKSE 53 Fig. 26.— Lower jaw at twenty years. CHAPTER III Sound and Unsound Horses So much importance is attached to what is technicallj called soundness in a horse, and the value of an animal is so remarkably depreciated if it fails to come up to the somewhat high standard expected by the average buyer, that a chapter devoted to the subject may not be out of place. First of all, unsoundness is usually defined as the disease or alteration of structure, which ren- ders, or will render, a horse less capable of per- forming the work required of it. This definition is not very satisfactory, however, because, as we shall show, many horses are technically unsound, yet are perfectly capable of doing all the work required of them for a great number of years. It is possible that too much stress is sometimes laid upon soundness. For instance, a case may be cited in which the buyers of a cob insisted upon absolute soundness, and rejected a number of useful, mature animals, each of which was tech- 54: THE HORSE 56 nically unsound in some respect ; yet they eventually bought a pony which was passed as absolutely sound in Avind, limb, and eye, but which gave them endless trouble and expense owing to a weak and disordered digestion. Owing to the iron shoes, the hard roads, the rapid and continuous trotting, and the heavy loads which have to be moved, inflammation is constantly set up in the bones, tendons, or ligaments of the legs. When one considers the unnatural con- ditions under which horses labor, the wonder is, perhaps, that any ever reach maturity without some abnormal condition as the result of " work." It is those points of conformation which centuries of experience have proved to man to be best able to stand work, which are the ones sought for by horse-owners, and a Avell-shaped hock, say, is literally one which is put together in such a way as to be able to stand unaltered the malign in- fluences of violent concussions and sudden strains. A cuiious corroboration of the beneficial result of the continual selection of horses with certain points for w^ork has of recent years come to light. In South Africa an endeavor has been made to utilize zebras for harness purposes, but the serious attempt had soon to be abandoned, as they were 56 THE HORSE found to be much too " soft." Zebra hybrids, of which at one time such great things were ex- pected, have also proved to be unfitted for very hard work, and there can be no doubt that the wild horses, originally domesticated by om' re- mote ancestors, were as little adapted for hard labor as their wild relatives are at the present day. A comparison of the hocks of the wild and tame Equidse will reveal the differences brought about by artificial selection. Yeteeinary Examination If the prospective buyer has submitted a horse to a veterinary examination and it is passed as sound, he usually considers that he has done all that is necessary, and is bound to have a good animal. It must be pointed out, however, that a certificate of soundness is far from representing an animal's true worth. Presuming that the veteri- nary surgeon is well up in his duties, and is also a good judge of a horse — two qualifications not always obtainable in every country practitioner — it is yet only his duty to say whether or not a horse is sound at the time it comes under his notice. This is what he is paid to do, and a veterinary surgeon would be exceeding his duties, THE HOESE 57 and also the professional etiquette of his attitude toward the seller, if he was to volunteer an opinion as to the quahty of the horse or its suit- ability for any special purpose. Therefore a buyer can, and must, only legitimately expect to be informed whether a horse is technically sound, and herein, no doubt, lies the pitfall into which a great number of people, who know very little about horses, stumble. The usual form of veterinary certificate sets out a description of the animal, and possibly mentions either that, owing to some specified defect, the animal is, in the opinion of the writer, unsound, or else that it has certain minor defects, such as a splint, cracked heels, etc., but is other- wise, in the opinion of the writer, sound. A horse may have minor defects such as the above-mentioned, yet if he is not lame, and the defect does not seem to detract from his natural movement, he is, at the moment, sound. It is not the veterinary surgeon's duty, even if he could tell (which is unlikely, unless he has had an intimate previous acquaintance with the horse), to say whether the temporary defect is likely to get worse and incapacitate it from work a few days or weeks later. Thus the value of the 58 THE HOESE examination is, comparatively speaking, nil^ un- less the would-be buyer is sufficiently up in veterinary matters to be able to put an exact value on the information gained, in which case he would probably not require the services of a veterinary surgeon at all. Then, again, a horse may be passed as absolutely sound, and may be so at the time, yet he may have hocks so badly shaped that it is obvious to the initiated that he will be likely to spring a curb if hunted, or even if put to certain sorts of carting work. Or he may have the combination of a heavy body, and hoofs which almost certainly suggest laminitis ; he may even have only recently come up from a long run at grass, necessitated by this or some other disease, yet the veterinary sur- geon can only say that the horse, as brought be- fore him, is sound. It is not his duty to take a pessimistic view, to point out weak points of con- formation, or to prognosticate possible disaster in the future. Thus we reiterate that the value of a veterinary certificate of soundness is small com- pared to the value of certain points of conforma- tion in the horse, and that to have the animal passed as sound does not exempt the buyer from the necessity of exercising or obtaining skilled ad- THE HORSE 59 vice on the general make and shape and suitability of the animal to perform a certain class of work without breaking down. Again, if the horse is passed as unsound because of certain specified defects, the buyer who depends solely upon the certificate must perforce reject it, and may at the same time lose the very animal which would have suited him. As stated earlier in this book, a horse with a technical unsoundness is not necessarily unfit for moderate, and even hard work, and it is only by a knowledge of the cause and character of the complaint that a fair estimate can be made of the animal's value. A certificate setting forth that the horse is unsound is, of course, of inestimable value to the knowing man who is not afraid, under certain conditions, to buy at a reduced price. His knowledge may tell him that the horse is equal to performing all his work quite as well as a more expensive and technically sound one. We intend to deal more explicitly with the various common unsoundnesses, and to show the values which must be placed upon them with reference to the different classes of work: it is hoped that to start with we have made clear to the uninitiated that a sound horse is not neces- sarily either a good or useful one, and have drawn. 60 THE HORSE attention to the fact that a certificate of soundness does not invariably qualify a horse as a desirable acquisition for the stable. Sometimes a horse is too sound for its age. By this somewhat paradoxical statement we mean to imply that an animal of, say, seven or eight years old, which shows no work, is an object of suspicion. Few^ horses can do a fair three or four years' work without showing wind-galls, if nothing worse, and an enth^e absence of these concussion-indicators suggests that the horse has been kept in cotton- wool, and has for some reason or other never earned his keep. As people do not usually keep horses to look at, the inference is obvious. The only exception to this rule is in the case of mares which are known to have been kept for breeding. For a reason which does not affect their working capacity, they may have had to be drafted out of the stud, and they may then be as fresh on their legs as colts when they come into the worker's hands at a mature age. CUEB (See Fig. 26.) Curb is a swelling at the back of, and a few inches below, the point of the hock. It can only be seen when the observer is standing THE HORSE 61 a short distance oif, to one side of the horse, and square with the suspected leg. As the accom- panying diagram will show, the horse's hock is composed of a number of bones (usually six), and a broad ligament, not shown in the diagram, fills Fig. 26.--Diagram of the Inner Side of the Oflf Hook. 1, astragalus ; 2, os calcis ; 3, large cuneiform ; 4, median cuneiform ; 5, small cuneiform ; 6, splint bone ; 7, cannon bone ; 8, tibia ; 9, position of bone spavin; 10, seat of bog spavin ; 11, seat of thorough- pin ; 12, capped hocli ; 13. seat of curb ; 14, perfo- ratus tendon ; 15, space filled by ligament, injury to which causes curb. 62 THE HORSE the space from the point of the hock between the bones and the perforatus tendon. This ligament is bound by fibres to the edges of the small bones, and acts, in conjunction with other parts, as a lever to aid in propelHng the horse forward. Kow, in certain cases the fibrous ligament may be torn away from its attachments, or otherwise unduly strained or stretched, with the result that the subsequent disorganization will lead to a swelling which will be broadly called a curb. A simple sprain or twist of the ligament may give rise to a curb, but om^ best modern authori- ties are more of opinion that the most frequent accident is an actual tearing away of the fibres from some of their attachments. The consequent inflammation leads to an abnormal thickening and partial ossification at the seat of the injury ; hence at the point where the ligaments are torn away from their contact with the bones, a lump will form which will, by pushing out the adjacent structures, cause a curb of greater or lesser di- mensions, according to the extent of the injury. Thus a curb may be briefly defined as a thickening or other abnormal condition of the ligament due to its injury. As a rule, the tearing away is in- sufiicient to cause an actual displacement of the THE HORSE 63 small bones themselves ; but in cases of serious injury, the cuboid bone may actually get out of its normal position, may press the ligamentous brace outwards, and in this way cause a bad curb. Again, the seat of injury may be the head of the spUnt bone, or the cannon bone, in which case en- largements i^not technically called curbs) will ap- pear in corresponding positions. It is obvious that to cause a serious injury to structure such as have been described a horse must either have been put to an unduly severe strain, or, if this is out of the question, must have hocks of a shape and constitution which predis- pose him to throw out a curb with very little prov- ocation. We have abeady mentioned that it is necessary to stand square to a horse's hind leg to judge Tvhether it has a curb. On no point, perhaps, in equine conformation does so great a diversity of opinion exist as to the presence or absence of this unsoundness. Some horses have what are called " cur by " hocks, that is, hocks which are not well let down, and which have very prominent heads to the splint bones. From any other point of view but the orthodox one, they are often mis- taken for curbs, owing to their " lumpy " appear- 64: THE HORSE ance. The feel with the hand should decide the matter, because, if the appearance be due to peculiar conformation, and not to a pathological condition, the course of the back tendons will be straight. A horse does not very often have curbs on both legs, so that great suspicion should be aroused if one hock differs in appearance from the other. If there are, indeed, curbs on both legs, the animal should be unhesitatingly rejected as quite unfit for any but the lightest work. Having decided that a horse has a curb, the next point is to endeavor to find out its exact natm^e, and when and how it was acquired. Ob- viously, if the curb is of recent origin there will be inflammation, and the horse will be more or less lame from the pain, and inclined to rest the leg. In this state a horse should never be bought with the expectation that he will be shortly fit to work again. The active mischief will take weeks to repair, and the horse will afterward need at least a six weeks' run at grass, with blistering and per- haps firing. A moribund curb, however, is quite another matter, and a horse with the disfigurement may, under certain conditions to be named hereafter, be almost as good as ever he was, and quite worth THE HORSE 65 buying for some classes of work. The first point of importance is to ascertain whether the hocks are naturally of good shape. If they are, it is fau'ly safe to assume that the unsoundness must have been caused either when the horse was very young, or else by some unusual and extraordinary strain. Curbs are sprung in a moment, just as the ankle in the human being may be sprained during a game, or even when walking. Hunters constantly injure themselves suddenly when jumping ; but if their hocks are well shaped, and they are over the period of active trouble, there is no reason why they should not perform harness work soundly for the rest of their natural lives, although it might be wise not to hunt them again. For example a cob, as a three-year-old, threw out a curb on the near hind leg, owing to being ridden by a man too heavy for it at that early age. Once the active mischief ceased, the working ability of that pony was in no way impaired, and it was still going soundly and well in its daily work many years later. If the history of a curb can be ascertained, and its origin can be proved to date back to a time when the horse was either immature or was being hunted, then it would be fairly safe to buy the ee THE HortsE animal for harness work. A horse bought cheaply because of some defect must, of com'se, always be something in the natm^e of a gamble, but in the case of the particular unsoundness in question, it is safe to assert that once the inflammatory condi- tion is dead, and the injured ligaments have as- sumed their abnormal shape or position, the matter is at an end, and the horse capable of ordinary work. The worst to be feared is that the horse may periodically go lame in the leg owing to rheumatism in the altered structure ; but this is not of common occurrence, although lameness in a leg with a long-standing curb, unaccompanied by heat, may perhaps be traced to something of a rheumatic nature. Apparently sound horses which rest a hind leg (or indeed any leg) at every opportunity should not be purchased. If a horse is very tired after a day's hunting or a long journey he often rests his leg, but it will then be seen that he changes fre- quently from one to the other, and favors neither. He may also legitimateh^, when in his stable and tired, point one fore and the opposite hind foot, resting his nose meanwhile in the manger, in which attitude he apparently goes to sleep. He should not, however, habitually rest a certain leg THE HOESE 67 whenever opportunity occurs, in harness or other- wise, and if he does so it is a sm^e indication that tliere is a sense of discomfort, which will probably ultimately manifest itself. The older the damage the less knob-like and the more diffuse and spread-out is a curb, so that from its shape alone it is possible for the expert to esti- mate whether it is of long standing. It is possible, of course, for a horse to get a swelling in the position of a curb from kicking in harness, or from a blow. When a buyer is assured that the defect is due to some such cause, it is extremely difficult for him to prove to his own satisfaction that the injury is in reality incipient curb ; at the same time, the latter is deep-seated, and feels quite different to the superficial swelling of a bruise. Curb is an unsoundness which is as difficult to hide from the initiated as broken knees, hence it is waste of time to try and make a cure which leaves no telltale scar. In very bad cases the prmiitive method of filing proves efficacious, be- cause the burning of the skin causes it to contract and hence act as a more or less efficient brace to the weakened part. In slight cases, when heat and lameness are the only indications that sona^- 68 THE HORSE thing is "^Tong, a blister composed of biniodide of mercury, one part ; lard, four parts, should be im- mediately well rubbed in. The horse must have absolute rest and a light diet, and should be fit for work again when the effects of the blister have worn off. Spavin (See Fig. 26.) This complaint must not be con- fused with bog spavin, to which it is not even re- motely allied. Bone spavin, as we Avill call it to avoid confusion, is extremely common in some districts, and is much more prevalent in some breeds of horses than others. Actually it may be defined as a bony enlargement found on the inside and lower part of the hock, due to disease. To understand the exact nature of bone spavin, we must return to a study of the horse's hock. As already mentioned, it is usually composed of six bones, sometimes of seven, according to whether certain of the bones are naturally fused together, or separate, or altogether absent. As evolution- ists are well aware, the horse is descended from a five-toed ancestor, and the two splint bones are rudiments of tv\^o additional toes. As evolution- ary changes are always much retarded, if not en- THE HORSE 69 tirely suppressed, under domestication, we find that horses are subject to a certain amount of variation in the number of bones which go to make the hock joint, and these differences no doubt have a certain elfect on the capabilities of the individual Tlie tendency is, of course, for the number of bones to diminish in correspondence with the loss of the toes with which they were once articulated, but owing to reversion some horses possess additional rudimentary bones in the hock which are of no use, and should not actually be there. It is probably this variation, and the consequent instability of the joint, which indi- rectly causes horses to be so predisposed to spavin and other bone diseases in this region. It will be seen, on reference to the diagram of the hock, that there is normally on its inner side a column of bones composed of the astra^galus, large cuneiform, and median cuneiform, which rest on the meta- carpal or cannon bone. Owing to jar, strain, or work, the bones become inflamed, usually between the metatarsal and median cuneiform, or between this and the large cuneiform. Inflammation of bone, its covering membrane, and its articular cartilages, always leads to abnormal limey depos- its at the seat of inflammation, hence the result YO THE HOUSE of disorganization of this region is a bony enlarge- ment, which is called bj horse-owners spavm. In the case in question the infla^med bones are ultimately fused together by the deposit which results from the inflammation, so that instead of the front of the hock being composed of a column of separate bones, each of which plays compara- tively freely over the others and feels smooth to the touch, it becomes fused into a rough, unsightly mass. The seriousness of spavin depends largely upon the extent and position of this fusion. If only the cannon bone and median cuneiform are involved, or even if fusion extends to the large cuneiform also, the horse will be unsound, of course, but not necessarily much the worse. But if fusion extends higher up, between the large cuneiform and astragalus, the horse will be unable to bend liis hocks properly, and his capacity for work will be very materially depreciated thereby. Also the more to the front the fusion is, the more serious it is. Therefore the seriousness or otherwise of spavin depends mainly upon its ex- tent and position, which are easily ascertained by feeling for the rough bony deposit with the fingers, and by noting the manner in which the horse bends his hocks. A horse which cannot THE HORSE 71 back freely, in conjunction with other suspicious indications, is probably suffering from hock trouble. As in the case of curb, a horse is usually only lame from spavin when the inflammation is active, and the bony enlargement actually in process of formation. Unlike curb, however, the hind action can never be quite the same again, however slight the disease, because of the hindrance to the per- fect freedom of movement which inevitably takes place. As already stated, the lower down the disease, the less is the horse's action affected ; thus a lot of work might be got out of a horse with slight spavin if the inflammation is no longer act- ive. It must always be remembered that spavin is perhaps a natural evolutionary tendency toward a union of the bones of the hock, and that a hock which is weakly formed will almost inevitably be- come more badly diseased if the animal has to carry heavy weights, pull heavy loads up hills, or perform work which will create compression or severe strain on this part. Therefore only a horse which moves well and soundly, and has well- shaped hocks, should be considered — at a price — if it has a moribund spavin low down and to one side of the leg. An animal in which the action is 72 THE HORSE affected, which has a considerable development of the disease, and the shape of the hocks of which are not quite satisfactory, should be avoided by any one who hopes to have a horse capable of doing regular work of an exacting nature. The treatment of spavin, when a horse shows by lameness and heat that he is developing the disease, consists in endeavoring to hasten the union of the bony surfaces. Unlike curb, the disease comes on slowly and insidiously, and may be checked by blistering and firing, if taken m time. It must not be expected, however, that a perfect cure, leaving no trace, can ever be effected. In young horses complete rest — which, indeed, is es- sential at all ages — and a blister, may check the evil before serious mischief is done, so that noth- ing but a poor hind action and some ridge-like marks across the front of the joint, which may escape the notice of an unobservant person, will be left to tell the tale of past trouble. Hock Lameness A horse may sometimes be suspiciously stiff in his hind action, may even be lame in the hock, and yet have neither heat nor exostosis. Many people have been puzzled by cases of this nature, THE HORSE ^3 and have at length been obliged to discard the horse for a lameness which, as there is no outward indication oi trouble, it w^as impossible to cure. As a horse should not be bought if it is actually lame, it is unnecessary to enter into the details of this stage of the complaint, but the probable cause of an unnaturally stiff movement w^hen no spavin is visible wall be of value to the reader. As al- ready shown, the hock is normally composed of a number of small bones, which are naturally lubricated by a secretion called synovia, which enables them to play freely over one another. It is possible for a jar or severe strain to set up in- flammation and ultimate bony union between the inner edges of the adjacent bones, or actually be- tween the upper and lower surfaces of any of the superimposed bones. Disease which is deep-seated like this w^ill obviously be undiscoverable to eye or hand, and, once the active stage is past, nothing will be left but a stiffness of gait, w^hich will be apparent to any one acquainted with the correct way in which a horse should move. It is not safe to trust to the actual footmarks made by a horse to decide whether he is bending his hocks in the way he should, because some horses learn to counteract the disability left by liock disease by 74 THE HOESE moving their legs forward from the hip in a rather peculiar way, and thus more than cover with their hind foot the print left by the front one. It can only be repeated that hocks which are not bent are often diseased, and that it is possible for the unsoundness to be in such a position that it is absolutely undiscoverable. In these cases, a veterinary surgeon of course passes the horse as sound, provided it is not actually lame at the time he sees it. It is impossible to say whether horses with occult spavin, as it has been called, should* be purchased or refused. Much depends upon the actual case ; but it is strongly recommended that where this disease is suspected, a few days' trial prior to purchase should be absolutely insisted upon as a preliminary condition. If this is not allowed, refuse the horse at any price. In an ob- scure complaint of this nature, with no surface indication, it is, of course, impossible to tell whether the disease is active or is of long stand- ing, and it is upon the elucidation of this point that the advisabilit}" of purchase depends. If the hock is slightly inliamed, a hard day's work will result in lameness next day ; if the inflammatory stage is long since past, the horse will be but little THE HORSE 75 stiffer in his gait after work than he was before. Therefore it is essential that he be under the en- tire control, and in the stable, of the would-be purchaser for at least a couple of days, so that he can be submitted to a thorough test, and so that his habits, i. e., predisposition to rest the leg at or after work, etc., can be observed. If he comes out of the ordeal none the worse, then he is prob- ably worth buying at a price commensurate ^"ith his poor hind action. It should be added that a thirty-mile drive will fairly test a horse for most of the common unsoundnesses of the legs. Another Mysterious Complaint "When a very taking horse is offered to one at a very reasonable price, the natural conclusion to come to is that something is wrong with it. If, on examination, it proves to be free from splints, spavins, curbs, wind-trouble, and all the common and obvious unsoundnesses, one is rather at a loss to discover what is the matter. A case of this sort came to notice not long ago. The pony was a model. It w^as apparently sound, quiet, and desirable in every respect, and yet the prospective purchaser was convinced that all w^as not right with it. The owner was persuaded to leave it on 76 THE HORSE trial, payment of a definite sum for hire to be made if it was not ultimately purchased. Driving revealed the fact that the pony had a tendency to " drop " one hind leg occasionally in the course of a drive. ISTot only this, but it rested the leg much in the stable, and, furthermore, evinced a tendency to shivering in that thigh. Eventually it was found possible to cause slight pain by pressure on a certain part of the thigh, and the ultimate con- clusion come to was that the pony was suffering from some disorder which affected the sciatic nerve. A sudden twinge of pain, which it ap- parently felt occasionally, no doubt caused the sudden drop of the leg, which was dangerous, as it always occurred going down-hill. The above incident is submitted, partly to show how difficult it may be to detect certain classes of disease, and also to emphasize the great benefit of always having a horse in one's own stable for at least a day or two before buying it. If a seller strongly objects to allow a trial to a responsible person, his prejudices may be overcome by the offer of the papnent of a reasonable sum, per week, if no sale takes place. If he refuses any such arrangement, the buyer has probably not lost an animal which it was worth his while to buy. THE HORSE Y7 Synovial Enlargements (See Fig. 26.) Horses may have a variety of more or less soft enlargements in the region of the hock or hoof, due to an effusion of the joint oil or synovia. Xormally the fluid is kept in its place by taut membranes ; but sometimes owing to overwork when young, however, or to actual weakness of the binding tissue, the synovial sacs may bulge out in certain places where they are unsupported by ligaments, and cause wind-galls (these more commonly on the fetlocks than on the hocks), bog spavin, or thoroughpin. This class of derangement does not usually cause lameness or incapacitate a horse from work ; it is merely un- sightly. Therefore a mature horse, with a soft, cool swelling which is situated on the inner front of the hock, need not be refused on this score. Bad bog spavin is often accompanied by thorough- pin, which is a similar distention situated just above the point of the hock and in front of the tendon. Capped Hocks (See Fig. 26.) Capped hocks are common and unsightly, and lower the value of a horse ; but they are of no disadvantage from a practical point TB THE HORSE of view. Actually they are caused by an abnor- mal accumulation of watery matter, accumulated in a sac formed between the tendon attached to the point of the hock and the skin. They are usually due to blows either accidentally inflicted or caused by the kicking of the horse, and it is al- ways advisable to take special trouble to ascertain whether an animal with this disfigurement is an habitual kicker in harness. Badly bred horses sometimes become the victims of a mange insect which particularly favors the hind legs, and causes the horse to stamp and fret ceaselessly in his stable, especially during the night, and during the autumn and winter. In his distress, he is ex- tremely likely to damage the point of his hock against the stall di\asion or wall. The ob\dous remedy lies in exterminating the parasites, which is easily done by washing the legs with soft soap and water, and applying a few dressings of equal parts of paraffin oil and sweet oil. When a horse rubs one hind leg against the other, stamps and kicks out, and shows every indication of extreme irritation at the back of the legs between heel and hock, as well as a scaly dry eruption, this para- site should be suspected, as it is much commoner than many people might suppose. THE HORSE 79 It is possible that an insufficient supply of bed- ding may sometimes lead indirectly to capped hocks, especially if an ani- mal is startled into rising hurriedly when lying down. Splints (See Fig. 27.) To turn to the fore legs, Ave will deal first with the nature and cause of splint, which is possibly the commonest ab- normal structure to be found on a horse's legs, but which only under certain circum- stances, to be exactly deter- mined hereafter, constitutes an unsoundness. The splint bones are two rudimentary, or rather ves- tigiar}^, cannon bones situ- Fig. 27.— Diagram of the ated on either side of the geg!' ^'"^ °' ^" ^°™ cannon bone proper, on both l, cannon bone; 2, splintbone; J, 1 1 • 1 1 rm 3, its button-like termination; tore and hmd leg's. Iney 4, position of spiiuts; 5, sus- ~ '^ peiisory ligament; 6, seat of are of interest, as already side-bones. hinted, as affording evidence that the horse is de- 80 THE HORSE scended from a live-toed ancestor. They represent the second and fourth digits, the horse walking upon the third. The first and fifth digits, corre- sponding to our thumb and little finger, have long ago disappeared. The heads of the sphnt bones articulate with some of the bones in the lower row of the knee and hock, hence a total loss of the former would involve considerable alteration in both knee and hock, which state of evolution has not yet been reached. Therefore our horses still continue to possess the useless and even det- rimental rudimentary splint bones, as they are called, which sometimes cause him considerable pain, and may in certain circumstances depreciate his value. Xormal splint bones usually have small button- like terminations which are the only vestige left of the moribund digits, and may be felt through the skin. These little bulbs are likely to be mistaken by the uninitiated for splints, especially in breeds such as Iceland ponies, in which they are unusually well developed. The rudimentary metacarpals and metatarsals are attached to the cannon bone by strong inter- osseous ligaments, which have a tendency to be naturally converted into bone with advancing THE HORSE 81 years. The disease called splint is an abnormal deposit of bone between the splint bone and the cannon bone, caused probably most frequently by sprain of the interosseous ligament and subsequent inflammation. The inflammation may, however, be set up in other ways. The jar of trotting along a hard road, a blow, or indeed any violent shock to the leg of a young horse may be sufii- cient to cause it, and the fact that it is so much commoner to find a splint on the fore than on the hind legs is due to the fact that the latter are far less subject to concussion than the former. Splints seem to occur more frequently on the inside rather than the outside of the leg, and are always higher up than the bulbous termination, with which, therefore, they need never be con- founded. Presumably, during the natural course of evolution, the tendency is for the splint bones to become shorter and permanently welded to the cannon bones at an early age. Until this desirable result is consummated in all horses, however, splints will continue to be a prevalent source of trouble. Splints are serious or not, as mentioned in the first chapter, according to their position, their number, size, and activity, and the class of work 82 THE HORSE expected of a horse. They are easily felt as bony exostoses at some position along the course of the splint bones. If a horse has them on both sides of each fore leg, it should be at once rejected as too weak to be of use for hard work. More com- monly only one splint on the inner side of one fore leg will be felt, and in such a case the impor- tant point to consider is its position in relation to the passage of the adjacent tendon. Normally, the back of the cannon bone and the two splint bones form a groove for the suspensory ligament. If a splint forms on the inner side of the splint bone, the exostosis may press on the ligament, and the consequent pain will cause a chronic lameness. Again, a splint weU forward and high up on the outside of the fore leg is apt to interfere with the extensor tendon. Some old carriage horses become chronically lame owing to the " growth " of a splint which eventually be- comes so large as to press on the suspensory liga- ment, although for the greater part of life it had given them no trouble. Therefore the position is the chief factor to take into consideration when estimating the gi'avity of this disease. Owing to the fragile connection in youth be- tween the metacarpal and splint bones, young THE HORSE 83 horses, under five years of age, are most liable to this complaint — indeed, comparatively few three- year-olds escape a slight inflammation during their period of training. The lameness soon passes off, however, and rest and a mild blister will com- plete the cure by hastening a bony union at the injured spot. On the other hand, splints often become absorbed in old animals which are enjoy- ing a period of rest, and it is by no means uncom- mon to find that they have diminished or even dis- appeared vdth the increasing years of their owner. As splints do not constitute unsoundness unless they are actually causing lameness, and as lame- ness is (except in those instances in w^hich the splint, owing to its position, causes the horse to be chronically lame) only evidenced when the splint is forming, it is safe to buy a horse with even a rather large spKnt on one fore leg if the growth is moribund and not unfavorably situated. In the majority of cases, as already mentioned, the growth will diminish with age, and it is in no way likely to interfere with the working capabilities of a horse. Side-bones (See Fig. 27.) Cartilage is extremely liable to ossify if injured. The disease called side-bones is 84 THE HORSE the ossification of the natui'ally elastic lateral cartilages attached to the pedal bone, and is easily felt as a hard, rough lump, which may vary from the size of a pea upward. Usually only the fore feet are affected, and cart horses rather than light horses are liable to the complaint. Tliis is prob- ably due to the fact that the disease is almost al- ways brought on by external injury, and that farm horses harnessed abreast are extremely liable to tread on one another's feet when tm^ning in ploughing, etc. That the disease is usually con- tracted in this way is proved by the fact that it is almost always an outside cartilage which is af- fected. In cart horses, not much is thought of the disease, as animals with it can perform a great amount of work on soft ground at a walking pace. It is a grave unsoundness, however, in light horses, one, moreover, which may increase as time goes on, and no horse should be purchased for trotting road work which has a suspicion of the disease. The pain of side-bone is caused by the nipping or pressure, as it were, of soft tissues between the ab- normal deposit of bone and the hoof, and this is obviously likely to increase as the disease extends, and to be worse after severe work on hard roads. Cart horses with side-bones will often be lame for THE HORSE 85 a day or two after one twenty-mile journey on the road, although they will be able to work regularly on the land day after day without discomfort. It is sometimes difficult to detect side-bone in its very early stages, as the horse may not be per- manently lame, but may onl}^ '' drop " a little once or twice when first moved after a rest. As al- ready stated, the place to search for incipient dis- ease is on the outsides of the fore feet, and if the cartilages seem to have in the slightest degree lost their natural elasticity and smoothness, the horse should be refused. The ossification usually begins as a small spot on some part of the cartilage, and from thence spreads in every direction until the enthe cartilage is changed into a rough, bony mass, lacking the smoothness and sharp definition of true bone. In bringing these remarks on a few of the com- mon diseases of the legs to a close, it must be added that they are intended rather as a guide to the buyer than as a treatise from the veterinary point of view. Almost every horse which is offered at an ap- parently fair, as opposed to a fancy price, '' has something." The question usually is, Will that " somethiDg " invalid him if he is -put to certain 86 THE HORSE regular work, or is he likely to turn out " practi- cally sound " ? This question we have endeavored to answer in detail under the various headings: broadly it may be stated, however, that hock troubles are likely to be increased by hunting or heavy draught work, although there are no doubt men who get all the sport they require out of a horse filled in both hocks; and that side-bones, splints in certain positions, and any feet troubles must be viewed with the greatest suspicion in horses which have to work at a fast pace upon the roads. CHAPTEE lY Stables and Appliances The average individual has, as a rule, to make use of such stabling as he finds himself possessed of, and it must be confessed that very often the accommodation at his command falls very far short of the ideal. A number of inexpensive modifications can, however, generally be made, which will add not only to the comfort, but to the general welfare of the inhabitants. It must be re- membered that a horse spends the greater part of his working life in the stable, and that, under these circumstances, his health can only be secured by due attention to the sanitary conditions under which he lives. Cubical Space It is usually said that 1,200 cubic feet is the minimum space required by each horse in a stable for the maintenance of health. As, however, the average London cab and carriage horse stables 87 88 THE HORSE generally allow only about half, or less than half, this number, it is apparently possible for horses to live and be capable of work in a very much more restricted area. It must be added that horses whose work takes them for long hours out-of- doors will be healthier, and will be able to live under less favorable conditions when under cover, than those who only escape from the vicinity of four walls for one or two hom\s out of the twenty -four. Farm horses who do their regular eight to ten homes' work daily can live healthily in stables which would be utterly condemned for the housing of light horses ; but the factor which makes it possible is not any inherent hardiness of the heavier breeds, but merely theu^ mode of life. It is presumed that the horse-owner is giving his animals the greatest amount of cubic space that his building permits of. To aid in this de- sirable end, the empty staU or stalls should not be littered up with odds and ends, and allowed to become untidy, du^ty receptacles for the deposit of rubbish. Every empty stall in a small stable means more air for the occupants of other stalls, and no detail of this kind is too insignificant to be overlooked. THE HORSE 89 Ventilation The next point to which attention must be paid is to the very important one of ventilation. The correct method of securing the ingress of outside air without causing inconvenient draught is by a series of windows placed on both sides along the length of the stable above the head of each horse. If there is a double row of stalls with passage down the centre and a door at each end of the building, fresh air will gain entrance at right angles to that admitted by the windows, so that no part of the stall is unduly favored, and none of the horses are placed in a position of advantage. Below the manger, and about a foot from the floor, a row of air-bricks ensures that the air near the floor does not become stagnant. The commonest form of stable usually found is that in which the door and window are in the centre of the front wall, the row of stalls being placed immediately opposite. The great disad- vantage of this plan is that there is no through draught or free circulation of air, and such air as is admitted is on the side farthest from the horses' nostrils. It may be possible, if the building stands alone, to have a ventilator placed in the wall at each end of the stable high up, at smaU 90 THE HORSE expense corajDared to the advantage gained. Some old-fashioned stables are provided with hay- racks communicating with the loft above, and open to objections as these racks are, they may yet be desii-able in an otherwise ill-ventilated stable, as they allow a current of comparatively fresh air to reach each horse. Another plan of stabling, which perhaps is the worst of all, is that in which the door and window are at one end of the building and the stalls stretch away from them. The horse nearest the window may get some fresh air and light ; but those at the farthest end of the building have to breathe the atmosphere tainted by the breath of the horses nearer the window, the mischief increasing with each succeeding horse. Possibly one of the healthiest forms of stabling for not too artificially kept horses is a shed en- tirely open at one side. The roof should, of course, jut out to cover a six feet passage behind the horses' heels, both for convenience of the men in attendance and to prevent driving rain from reaching the horses. Horses kept in shedding on these lines have done remarkably well, and have been wonderfully free from the minor ail- ments which so constantly incapacitate those in THE HORSE 91 the ordinary stable. It must always be remem- bered that horses are constituted to live an outdoor life, and that they can, as a rule, stand any amount of dry cold. By reason of their great lung capac- ity they must have plenty of fresh air, and con- sequently they will thiive better under a rough shedding which is exposed to the air, than in the average small, dark, warm, ill-ventilated stable. There is only one drawback (if such it can be called) to a shed-stable, and that is that the horses kept therein must not be clipped. As the trades- man and small owner, whose horses have to stand about in all weathers, would probably in any case dispense with clipping, the drawback is not a very serious one. Hov\^ever, as we before remarked, every owner will usually have to make the best of what he has got, and we would only impress on him the great importance, to the welfare of his animals, of a free circulation of fresh air, which must be secured in the manner best suited to his circumstances and situation. Stall Diyisio>7s The usual stall division is a partition perhaps seven feet high at the point of attachment to the wall and sloping to about five feet high. Since 92 THE HORSE the importance of ventilation has been more fully realized, the wooden partition has been modified to a height not exceeding four feet, and the two feet above are composed of iron bars, which allow of a free circulation of air passing right through the stable on a level with the horses' heads. This arrangement is excellent in theory, and no doubt practically satisfactory in stalls ; but we have known a spirited horse in a loose box, divided from the next by partition and bars, to get its fore legs above the bars in its endeavors to reach the next horse, and to prevent a repetition of this dangerous proceeding the bars had to be covered over with wood to obstruct the view. AVe should certainly rec- ommend the barred tops for stalls, but not for the di^^isions between loose boxes, and it is unnecessary in the latter, where the horse can turn round in any direction it pleases. Even in stalls the bars immediately over the mangers are better covered with wood, as a bad-tempered, jealous horse will often cause terror to his neighbors at feeding time, and will frighten them into leaving or ''gobbhng " their food if within view. The usual width recommended for stalls for full- sized horses is six feet and the length ten feet, but in most stables thev fall far short of this; THE HORSE 93 curiously enough, too, most commonly in cart-horse stables. An excellent plan, much in vogue in France, and certainly to be recommended for hard- working horses where room is limited, is to have partitions made of wide bales, hung by two chains from a small manger-partition to a heel post, the top being about three feet above the stable floor. Besides economizing floor space, these swinging bales give the horse much more room, and allow of a free circulation of au' and a thorough cleaning of the floor. Of course the objection to them lies in the danger of a restive animal getting a leg over the bale. This danger is not a very real one in the case of regularly worked animals, however, and the plan seems to have answered very well in the cases in which it has been adopted. A width of ^ye feet will be suflicient for stalls divided by bales, although another foot is of course preferable if it can be afforded ; and each bale should be so fixed as to be easily unhooked if necessary. Drainage Surface drains are always the best for stables, as undergi'ound drains are liable to get choked with straw and refuse matter. The most objection- able class of drain is the trap gutter in the centre 94 THE HORSE of the floor of each stall, as, unless constantly flushed with clean water, which it seldom is, it is little better than a small cesspool almost under the nose of the horse. An open gutter running the length of the stable, at the back of the stalls, with a good outfall, is sanitary if unsightly. The slope of the back part of the stalls to this gutter will require to be about one in eight}^ ; no greater slope than is absolutely necessary for drainage pui^poses should be allowed, as it is not only un- comfortable, but absolutely injurious to a horse to stand for a prolonged period with his legs at different levels. Floors The material for the floor of a stable must be sanitary, durable, easily cleaned, and not slippery. A variety of gTooved, so-called sanitary bricks are made in these days, and no doubt some of them answer very well. A concrete floor also answers the requirements, and has the extra advantage of being one of the cheapest adequate floors that can be laid. A very rough estimate of the cost of laying concrete twelve inches deep would be about one dollar per square 3^ard, including ramming, and to this must be added a small sum for render- ing the surface with cement. THE HORSE 95 Light There still lingers an old-fashioned prejudice against admitting light into a stable. It is said that light attracts flies which worry the horses. As a nation Ave are only just beginning to realize the importance of air and light to our own healths, so perhaps it is hardly surprising that these old prejudices should linger in connection with the management of our horses. As a matter of fact, flies are attracted by the manure rather than by the horses, and they will not swarm in a stable which is light, and consequently clean. Light, particularly sunhght, is essential to the maintenance of health as being the only natural germicide we know of, and as disease is usually the result of bacteriological action, the importance of allowing sunlight to penetrate the dwellings of man and beast can be fully realized. Also light is essential to the health of the eyes. For these reasons, and for the additional one that dark stables are usually dirty stables, as much light should be admitted as possible. However ill- constructed a stable may be, much may be done toward keeping the inmates in good health by keeping the doors and windows open as much as possible to admit both light and air. Only too 96 THE HORSE often everything is shut up at night, and the heat and foul air which meet one when the door is opened in the morning is eloquent testimony to the need for more thorough ventilation. The windows can at least be left open all night, and bars or stout wire netting can be fixed across the opening to prevent the entrance of undesirable in- truders. Maistgers The modern manger is usually made of iron, and although preferable, from the point of view of cleanliness, to the old wooden manger, it is very often made much too small and shallow. A pro- jectmg lip on the inside certainly, to some extent, prevents the food from spilling ; but, as a rule, the manger is much too small to hold a big feed of cut hay and oats without waste. Almost every horse noses a mixed feed about, and unless he has plenty of room a certain amount is bound to get spilt. A most satisfactory manger is in reality intended to hold the hay, and is deep and low, and the horse can root about m it to his heart's content without losing a morsel of his food. The usual method of attachment of a horse to the stall is by a rope fastened to the head-stall, THE HORSE ^7 which runs throiigli a ring in the centre of the edge of the manger, and is weighted by a block of wood on the end of the rope. The latter should fasten to the head-stall with a spring hook. Hay-Racks Many people object to the overhead hay-rack, because they consider this position for the food unnatural, and also because it allows of the possi- bility of seeds, dust, etc., getting into the horse's eyes. Against a low rack is urged the danger that the horse may injure himself by getting his foot into it. There is certainly much to be said in favor of the overhead rack on the score of waste, as it is undoubtedly an advantage to have the manger beneath to catch bits pulled out by the horse. The waste with an open-barred low rack is very considerable, and if racks in this position are used, it is much better to have them boarded up. General Remarks From the few remarks made on the most im- portant points in connection with stable construc- tion, it will be seen that every owner can, as a rule, do something to remed}^ defects in the build- ing at his disposal. The point of greatest impor- 98 THE HORSE tance, we must repeat, is ventilation, and it is always possible to keep windows open, and, if necessary, substitute a door in two parts for the ordinary door. Furthermore, ventilators can be added at very small cost, if the stable stands in such position as to allow of holes being made through the end walls. If the drainage of a stable is defective or unsanitary, it is better to stop it up and use none, than to have the horses stand- ing for the greater part of their lives over minia- ture cesspools. If the stalls are carefully and thoroughly cleaned out daily, there is no actual need for a system of drainage, and horses can live healthily on bedding of sawdust or shapings — in fact some people, to whom expense is no object, use one of these materials in preference to straw. Box stalls are preferable to ordinary stalls in more ways than one, but are, of course, impossible where space is limited. The ability of the horse to turn about and stand in any direction, of which he al- ways avails himself, is of incalculable benefit to the animal. He can get out of draughts ; he can place himself in a position to attain the greatest amount of fresh air ; and the power to move about, instead of being constrained to stand in one po- sition, enables him to obtain thorough rest when THE HORSE 99 fatigued. A horse which has the freedom of a loose box never stands in the position in which he would normally be tied, and presumably he chooses the position which is of greatest comfort to him- self. It is always possible to improvise a box stall or two at small expense. Two movable bars placed across the end of a six foot stall will make a good loose box for any pony up to 14.2 hands, and is, in om^ experience, exempt from any serious objections. The end stalls in a stable can be turned into box stalls by putting a couple of bars from the stall partition to the opposite wall, thus adding the width of the passage to the length of the stall. This method is open to the objection that the loose horse can, if it so desires, reach its neighbor in the next stall, and the ability to do so may lead to a tooth and heel battle, with unpleas- ant consequences. Grooms always object to box stalls, and will keep the horses tied up in them if not sharply looked after. Their opposition is due to the slight amount of extra work entailed ; and the only real objection ever experienced is that theu^ use adds slightly to the straw bill, which ad- ditional expense is more than compensated for by the increased health and energy of the horses kept in them, 100 THE HORSE If stable room is very limited, tlie substitution of bales for the stall division will allow of each horse being kept in a more restricted area, and in cart-horse stables, the inmates of which are too regularly worked to get into much mischief, it is better to do away with stall divisions altogether, than run the risk of getting an animal cast in the very narrow stalls which are so often provided. Building Stables If it falls to the lot of the horse-o^^^ler to have to build stables, he cannot do better than put him- self in the hands of a finn which makes a specialty of constructing them, seeing that due attention is paid to the points indicated. If expense is an ob- ject, however, he may cheaply construct a wooden stable, which will he healthy and sanitary, on the following lines : The walls are best made entirely of brick, though these can be substituted by a dwarf wall of bricks, surmounted by two-inch yellow deal creosoted boards or slabs. The roof should pref- erably be tiled, and, in every case, boarded under ; but good felt tarred every third year will last twenty years. In no case should corrugated iron be used either for roof or walls, because even THE HORSE 101 when boarded inside it is much too hot in summer and cold in winter. The site of the stable is a point of importance. It is necessary to admit sun without placmg the building in such a position that it becomes unen- durably hot in summer. Xorth is out of the ques- tion. Due south is tempting, because it will catch every ray of sunlight in whiter ; but this position will be too hot in summer unless the building can be placed beneath deciduous trees. The selection of a frontage to east or west must be decided by the prevailing wind of the district, and in a part of the country where sou'westers prevail, the choice must fall on the alternative direction. The floor must be of grooved concrete, with slight slope to an open gutter running along the back of the stalls, with fall to either end of the building. Each stall should be as wide as possible (the minimum being Rve feet), and the divisions, for the sake of economy, may be made with bales. The mangers should be divided into three di- visions. On the left a box-like receptacle, two feet four inches deep, and at its edge about two feet ten inches to three feet from the ground, to hold hay. Xext to it another division on the 102 THE HORSE same principle, but less deep, to hold the mixed feed and oats ; and the thkd of much the same dimensions, wherem the bucket of water can be placed. The door of a small stable, to hold up to five horses, may be placed in the centre of the build- ing, and should be made m two halves, so that the top can be left open if desired. In a longer stable there should be a door at each end. A passage not less than six feet wide must run between the drainage gutter and the outside wall. Ventilators should be placed above each stall and below each manger, and two windows going well up to the top of the building, and capable of being opened both top and l)ottom, may be placed on either side of the door. The favorite position of a harness-room is usu- ally leading out of the stable. As the fumes from the stable, the steam from hot horses, etc., is liable to tarnish the metal, it is usual to recommend that the harness-room be cut off entirely from the stable, and approached from outside. Grooms ob- ject to this plan, as it entails carrjang the harness through the rain in wet weather, and, from their point of view, this is no doubt a drawback. "Where space and economy are important, it may THE HORSE 103 be necessary to keep the harness in the coach- house, and this is certainly less objectionable than keeping it in the stable itself, though undoubtedly less convenient. The elaborate iron fittings which adorn the modern harness-room may be cheaply replaced by a few wooden pegs, etc., but it must be remembered that the angles of all wooden tri- angular saddle supports should be carefully "stopped" with pntty, or the interior will be- come a harborage for moths. CHAPTER Y Food Oats Long- experience and analysis have proved oats to be the best grain for horses, as, indeed, thei? are for many other animals, including man, the reason being that the chemical elements of oats are such as are best suited to repair the waste caused by long-continued exertion. Animals do- ing hard and fast work require food containing a large proportion both of nitrogenous and non- nitrogenous principles. If the former elements are wanting in sufficient quantities in the diet, the animal will become deficient in muscle ; if the lat- ter are lacking, the animal will become thin. Thus a good deal depends on the class and qual- ity of oat supplied to working horses, and every horse-owner should make himself acquainted with the characteristics which distinguish them. Good oats are plump, clean, hard, and sweet, with the appearance of almost bursting out of 104 THE HOUSE 105 their husks. The husks should preferably be thin, because thin-skinned oats will necessarily contain more Hour per bushel than oats which are thick- skinned. All the grains in a good sample should be much of the same size, and should be of a short, plump variety rather than long and thin. Of course, the shape and color of the grain de- pend, to a certain extent, on the particular variety of oat under consideration ; but, as a broad rule, it may be laid down that as black oats grow on inferior soils, and as long, thin seeds are usually a characteristic of common, unimproved varieties, preference should be given to plump white oats, which, moreover, are thinner skinned than black ones. The sample should be free from weed seeds. Oats which are darkened or reddish in color, or which are shriveled at the ends of the husks, or w^hich have a peculiar smell and taste, should be suspected of being kiln dried, and rejected ac- cordingly. Damp, musty, or mouldy oats are, of course, unfit for food. It is never advisable to buy crushed oats, as the grain used is likely to be of inferior quality. If crushed oats are desired, the whole grain should be bought, and (if not crushed in a hand-mill at home) taken to the miller, and crushed under su- 106 THE HORSE pervision. The usual cost for crushing is about twenty-five cents per sack. Good oats should weigh forty pounds to the bushel. Inferior qualities may weigh as low as thii'ty-two pounds, but good oats at a high price are far cheaper for feeding pui'poses than those of poor qualit}^ It is usual to buy oats with the stipulation that they shall weigh so much (not less, we will say, than thirty-eight pounds) per bushel ; but a dealer should never be allowed to make up the number of pounds to the bushel by giving increased quantity, as, apart fi^om the ques- tion of weight, the nutritive quality of good oats, grown on good soil, far exceeds that of inferior grain, and a few pounds' weight added to the measure will not make up for the loss of quality in the bulk. Other Graiit Corn is often used instead of oats, and answers very well for cart horses or horses doing slow work. It is the only other grain which is at all suitable for horses, barley and wheat being too heating if given in a;ny quantity. A good economical mixed ration for cart horses in regular work is a mixture of beans, oats, barley, THE HORSE 107 and corn, but it is unsuitable for light horses which are expected to do fast work. Beans contain a greater proportion of nutritive material than oats, and are beneficial if given in small quantities to old animals or those undergo- ing extremely hard work. They should be given split, and a " double handful " per diem, in addi- tion to the usual quantity of oats, is a fair allow- ance for the average horse. Hay Hay being the staple food of the horse, every o^^^ler should make himself conversant with the various points upon which the quality and value depend. The quality of hay is dependent, first, upon the grasses of which it is composed. Between twenty and thirty different grasses may be found in hay, only a comparatively small proportion of which go to make hay of the best quality. Inferior hay consists mainly of inferior grasses : good hay of about ten varieties of the best grasses. Xow the variety and proportion of the different grasses which grow on land is largely, if not en- tii'ely, influenced by the soil. The best grasses only grow on good soil, so that coarse, rank stuff 108 THE HORSE is an indication that it comes from a poor soil, and as the nutriment in grass is all extracted from the soil, hay from such land will be non-nutritious and of small feeding value. Again, there is consider- able difference in the quality and feeding value of upland, lowland, and water-meadow hay. As only certain of the best grasses are to be found in up- land meadows, upland hay is characterized by the fineness of its herbage, the narrowness of its grasses, and is far the best quality of hay to be got. It should always be supphed to horses doing fast Avork. Lowland hay is known by the coarse- ness of its stalks and the broad leaves of its grasses. Water-meadow hay is coarse, and often full of reed- and rush-like plants, and, although good cattle grass, is considered unfit for horses. The characteristics of the best hay are crispness and green color, sweetness of taste and aroma, the presence of numerous early grasses in flower, and a proportion of fine herbage. As stated above, water-meadow hay is generally considered unsuitable for horses. A third factor, that of the time at which the hay was cut, has such an important bearing on its subsequent feed- ing value, however, that it is necessary to enter into a few details with regard to hay-making as it THE HORSE 109 is, and as it should be conducted, to shoAV how the value of liay may be influenced by the cutting. The average farmer often delays cutting his hay in the hope of getting greater bulk of under-grass. It is a common sight to see fields of standing brown herbage so dry that when it is cut it needs no making. The gi^eater part of the nutriment of all crops passes into the seeds and is exhausted in their production — for instance, the feeding value of straw is comparatively small because the greater part of the nutrient properties has passed into the grains of wheat, oats, etc., as the case may be, and the same principle applies to grass. If, therefore, grass is cut after the seeds are formed and have fallen out (as they immediately do when ripe), the most nutritious part of the crop is lost, and all that is left for the horse to eat is that portion which has been robbed of its most valuable constituents. For this reason we should prefer to buy, at equal prices, a ton of despised water-meadow hay which was early cut, while all the grasses were yet in flower, to a ton of upland hay from the best land which was cut late. Consequently it is almost im- possible to lay do^vn any hard-and-fast rules for the guidance of the novice in the purchase of hay, for in certain cases coarse hay, containing a no THE HORSE quantity of inferior grasses, may be of better feed- ing value than that made from herbage of the finest quality. Experiments have proved that hay made from grass cut early ^vill fat a bullock alone, while hay from similar land cut late has proved quite incapable of doing this without the addition of cake, etc. Furthermore, the way hay was saved may make an appreciable difference in its feeding value, apart from the actual quality of the herbage. Grass may be cut early when all the grasses are in flower, and yet, owing to bad weather, it may have required so much tossing and turning, and have lain about so long, that by the tune it gets to the rick all the sugar will have been washed out of it and its value thus reduced. The careful modern farmer turns and tosses his hay as little as possible, for he knows that the better will the feed- ing value be. The old method of tossing hay ydth a pitchfork is quite obsolete, and a careful turning over with a hand-rake is the most that is required in a favorable season. Mow-burned hay may be recognized by its strong smell and dark color. The condition is due to heating in the stack, and although horses are fond of it, it is apt to act deleteriously on the kidneys if given to them in any quantity. THE HORSE 111 Dust in hay is generally clue to the hay having got slightly over dry. The so-called dust is in reality the outer layers or coats of the stems and leaves in a state of dessication. Dust may also be caused by blight having fallen on the grass when standing. In any case, to whatever due, dust in hay is an indication that the hay is not in the finest condition. Hay which is actually mouldy is ob- viously unfit for food, and its use v\all lead to a form of indigestion which will be likely to result in broken wind. New hay, i. e., hay made in the same year, should ne^^er be used before Christmas, as it is apt to cause scouring. Well-saved hay is at its best at from one to two years. When older than this it will have lost much of its feeding qualities. Good clover hay is fattening, and is much liked by horses. It is not so suitable as meadow hay for animals which do fast work, as it militates against hard condition and good wind. Straw Straw has more feeding value than is usually supposed, although, compared to hay, these prop- erties are, of course, not high. The whole secret of its value, as food or the reverse lies in the time 112 THE HORSE at which the crop was cut. By reason of their liability to seed out, oats are always cut fairly green, when, consequently, a lot of the nutrient material is still in the straw. Oat straw, then, which is known to have been early cut, may make an excellent addition to the forage of horses which are not expected to gallop. Wheat straw is cut when the grain is comparatively ripe, so that there is little if any nutritive material left in it. Barley is cut dead ripe, and the stra^v, for this reason, as well as for another to be mentioned hereafter, is practically valueless either as food or bedding. Othee Foods Bran is generally used in the stable in the form of a bran mash, which is made by pouring as much boiling water on dry bran as will be absorbed, add- ing salt, and putting a handful of dry bran on top of the mixtm^e to keep in the steam. Given on Saturday nights instead of a feed of corn, this mash will, by its somewhat laxative action, help to keep in health those horses which spend their whole lives in the stable with never a run at grass. Dry bran has an astringent action, and is, con- sequently, not to be recommended as part of the regular dietary. THE HORSE 113 Large quantities of bran should never be bought at one time. It should, when fresh, be free from any slight musty or sour smell. Linseed is also slightly laxative, and is to be recommended as a conditioner. It should be boiled to a jelly, and a small teacupful given daily with the corn for a few weeks will make a marked unprovement in the ap])earance of a horse's coat. Harsh-coated horses will particu- larly benefit b}^ a course of boiled linseed. Artificial foods and " conditioners " are not to be recommended. The buyer can never tell what they are made of, and if guaranteed free from injurious ingredients, the price vfill be prohibitive to the ordinary pocket. A horse which cannot live and thrive on a good quality of natural food is not worth keeping, and is certainly not sufficiently valuable to warrant the spending of dollars on patent foods of doubtful benefit. If something extra is required for a horse which, say, is recover- ing from illness, or is from any cause run down, the owner can buy the " raw materials," such as locust-bean. Linseed, ginger, and Indian corn, which is what the^se foods are usually composed of, and mix a food for himself at a quarter the cost, and with the satisfaction of knowing what he is giving. CHAPTEE YI Stable Management Appliances Every horse-owner will have to provide him- self with a certain number of stable tools, and below is a list of those that are absolutely neces- sary in the smallest stable. Pails The first item to be purchased will be buckets, at the rate of one per horse if several horses are kept, or two for one horse, three for two. Best oak pails cost about seventy-five cents each ; if painted, about $1.00 ; galvauized pails a little less. The latter, if of good quality, and consequently strong, answer their purpose as well as the more expensive oak, but will not last so long. If economy is the order of the day, carefully- selected lard buckets, which are to be got at any grocer's, will be found as useful in the stable as they are for many other pm^poses. We say " care- lU THE HORSE 115 fiilly selected,'' because the buckets vary slightly in the quality and thickness of the wood with which they are made. They have a copper-wire handle, which is perhaps their weakest point ; the handle from a worn-out zinc bucket can, however, be fastened on as a substitute when the original handle has succumbed to the strain. These buckets cost very little, and if given a coat of enamel, they pass very well for the real thing. From a sanitary point of view, zinc pails are preferable to wooden ones, as the inevitable deposit from the water is more easily and thoroughly cleaned off. Beushes, etc. Two brushes and a comb are the least that can be done with. A " dandy " brush is indispensable in every stable, and a body brush is-requu-ed to supplement the dandy if the horses are to be even moderately well turned out. A dandy brush costs fifty cents, and will generally last a year for a couple of horses, after which its remaining fibres may be cut down, and the brush will be useful for a variety of purposes. The back of a dandy brush should never be dipped in water, nor should the fibres be wetted except when the brush is oc- casionally washed, if it is expected to last. The 116 THE HORSE flat body brush, Avith its strap across the back under which to put the hand, is a more expensive affair to buy, but as it will, with ordinary care, last several years, its cost will in the end be less than that of the dand}^. A strong mane comb, a small " pick " wherewith to clean the hoofs, and a cmTycomb are the only other really necessary items of the toilet, with two or three rubbers or dusters with which to give the final polish. We have purposely omitted to mention a ^vater-brush, as modern stable management condemns the practice of washing the feet of horses. Other Accessories The coach-house and harness-room accessories depend on the style in which the vehicles are turned out. The least that can be done with in a gentleman's stable is as follows : — wheel jack, spoke brush, cushion brush, sponge, and chamois leather for the carriages ; globe polish, saddle soap, silver sand, harness blacking and brushes, and burnisher for the harness-room, as well as sundiy rubbers and dusters or rags. Of course, a feed-cutter is an excellent and use- ful addition to the stable, and is worth getting if several horses are kept ; and a sieve and quarter- THE HORSE 117 peck measure will be required in a stable of the smallest dimensions. A pitchfork, shovel, and broom will be required for cleaning purposes ; also a wheelbarrow if one cannot be borrowed from the garden. EouTiNE Management The first thing in the morning the groom should clean out the stable, removing all soiled litter, and flushing out drains if such exist. The horses should then have their morning feed of oats or corn and hay, and a bucketful of fresh water. After their breakfast they should be cleaned, either in or out of the stable. It is always preferable that each horse should be taken outside if possible for this operation, as it is objectionable that the dust and debris should fill the stable. The most important part of the toilet is a vigorous grooming with the dandy brush. The object of brushing, which grooms are often apt to overlook, is not so much to get a gloss on the animal, though this is no doubt desirable, but to apply friction to the skin, and thus remove dead cuticle. The gloss is more a matter of general health than an indication of good grooming, and a horse in the most perfect health and condition will carry a bloom without 118 THE HORSE the assistance of elbow-grease. TVhen the mane and tail have been combed and brushed, and the hoofs picked out, the toilet of the horse may be considered to be completed. If the owner has doubt as to the eifiGiency of his groom's work, he can get a fair idea of how the horse is cleaned by partmg the hair of the tail. Much gray dust or grease at the roots of the haks is a sure sign that this part receives but little attention from the brush, and it is then fairly certain that the body of the horse is in the same condition. One should always be able to run one's hand over the body of a well-cleaned, healthy horse ^vithout getting an appreciable amount of grease thereon, and the presence of much grease suggests either that the grooming or the exercise, or both, are neglected. These remarks apply, of course, to horses wliich are constantly stabled. Horses at grass are always greasy. It is customary, as a rule, to feed horses three times a day. The midday feed, like the morning one, is usually chaff or hay and oats, and the same ration is supplemented in the evening by a rackiul of hay. It is usual in most stables to allow the horses to stand on straw all day. It undoubtedly looks THE HORSE 119 nicer; furthermore, it is urged by advocates of the practice that horses will be liable to slip upon the bare floor, but this rarely if ever occurs. This standing on the bedding, and the consequent con- tinual wetness of the floor, is the most fruitful cause of thrush, and probably, indirectly, causes more broken knees than is generally realized. The bedding should always be removed in the day- time, and, if possible, put outside, where it will get purified and dried by the au' and sun. The stable floor will thus become clean and dry, and the result of these measures will be apparent in the health of the feet of the horses so treated. The half measure of thrusting the straw under the manger, where its presence is injurious to eyes and lungs, is worse on the whole than leaving it down on the floor, and every horse-owner should insist on its entire removal for a few hours during the daytime. Washing Feet It is the custom in some stables to wash the feet of horses when they come in from exercise or work. The prevalence of cracked heels, grease, thrush, and other evils which more or less inca- pacitate a horse for the work which he has to 120 THE HORSE perform, has led to the closer study of the matter, and has resulted in the discovery that the above- mentioned ills are enthely due to (or, at any rate, can be entirely prevented by abstention from) washing the feet and legs. The evil lies, of course, in the drying rather than the actual wash- ing. The extreme cold produced by the rapid evaporation of the half -dried hair drives the blood away from the part, and the consequent cold feet are liable to eczema and cracked heels. The cHp- ping of the hair off the back part of the fetlock is another predisposing cause. Bandaging the legs immediately after washing may to some extent prevent the evil ; but the only true and satis- factory method is to clean the legs with a wisp, and never allow water to be applied to them. Grooms object to this, as it gives them more trouble and the legs do not look so nice ; but it should be insisted on. The slight dust and mud collected by the feet during exercise has been found to be the reverse of prejudicial if left on, and no horse-owner need fear any ill effects from departing fi^om the old-established method of washing the feet and legs of horses. He will find, on the contrary, that his stable will be abso- lutely free from those complaints to which nine THE HORSE 121 out of ten stabled horses are subject in the winter. Mud fever is another ailment which can, as a rule, be traced to faulty methods of management. At one time quite a large proportion of clipped hunters and harness horses in certain districts were the victims of this complaint. It has now been found that if the mud is left to dry on the horse will never suffer from any inflammatory condi- tion of the skin. This may seem a somewhat drastic and dirty method, and it does not recom- mend itself to tidy grooms, but it is the only sure preventative of the complaint. In those stables in which the owner takes an intelligent and active interest in his animals, the hunters are turned into their boxes with legs and belly uncleaned, and the dried mud is not removed until the following morning. This practice has been attended with the happiest results as far as the health of the horses is concerned, and it is to be recommended to all who wish to keep their animals fit and well, and free from those tiresome minor ailments which incapacitate a number of harness horses and hunt- ers every year. The practice of washing the bodies of horses is not to be recommended under ordinary circumstances, as it has a tendency to 122 THE HOESE check the action of the oil glands, which, under natural conditions, secrete oil to assist the thatch or covering of hair to turn off rain ; also, unless each part is immediately and thoroughly dried, one of the above-mentioned skin diseases will be likely to appear. A sweating horse should be unmediately dried on its return home by vigorous rubbing with hay or straw wisps. If a heated horse is allowed to dry by evaporation it will probably contract a chill. The extremities should always be dried first, and while this is being done a blanket should be thrown over the body. A fruitful source of coughs and chills is exposure of the heated back and loins to the cold while the groom is drying legs and head. The saddle or harness should al- ways be left on while these parts are attended to, and in addition, if the horse is very hot, a blanket should be throTsm across the loins. While on this subject we may suggest the advisability of always throwing a light cloth across the loins of the clipped harness horse in winter if it has to stand about out-of-doors for more than two or three minutes. If for any reason it is impossible to immediately dry a perspiring horse, the evil consequence which THE HORSE 123 may result from the delay may be minimized by clothing the animal warmly and putting on band- ages, or by having it led about with saddle on un- til it can be attended to. Grooming with a hard brush immediately after exercise is essential to the health of a horse, as the pores are then all open and the brush will thor- oughly clean the skin. Extra grooming should always be insisted on as a substitute for exercise in bad weather. Clipping Well-bred horses kept continually stabled sel- dom want clipping, and if the animals have to do work which entails much standing about, it is cer- tainly not to be recommended. Clipped horses are easier to clean and dry, and can (theoretically) do their work better, than horses carrying a long winter coat ; but against this it is necessary to put the increased liabilitj^ (and consequent risk of total or temporary loss) of the animals catching cold, and the additional expense of providing blankets, clipping machine, etc. The method of clipping the legs and belly only, mth the idea of leaving a warm covering over back and loins, is not to be recommended, as the horse is as likely to contract 124 THE HORSE chill if his extremities are bare as if he was entirely clipped. In rough countries the legs of hunters are often left undipped to save them from slight in- juries. Some people leave the hah under the sad- dle of a riding horse. Is is difficult to see what benefit results from doing so, as the long hah can only add to the heat of a part which ^dll in any case become heated, and the risk of a sore back is increased thereb}^ One thick cloth is enough covering for the body of a cUpped horse in the average stable. The legs and feet of the horse, which has had his hair arti- ficially removed from them, get colder than they ought, and for this reason the hair should be left on the legs of all horses, whatever their work. If the hair is removed, bandaging is the only way in which the extremities can be protected, and con- tinual bandaging is not advisable. The horse- cloth should always meet over the chest. It must always be remembered that the horse must nat- urally feel the artificial removal of his protective covering during the time of year when natm-e has provided him with it because he requires it, and that, therefore, he must be supplied with a fair substitute if it is desired to keep him in health and condition. It is usual to supply a common night- THE HORSE 1^5 blanket to save the better clay-cloth from the mev- itable soiling when the horse lies down. In some stables it is the practice to keep the horses clothed practically all the year round in one kersey cloth, and to load them with two or three when clipped. The horse's hair is, no doubt, made finer and shorter by this treatment ; but it must also be weakening to an animal to be so loaded with hot blankets, and the liability to chills at all times of the year is, of course, intensified. The fewer blankets the better in every stable, espe- cially for horses such as hunters, whose work en- tails a lot of standing about in every class of weather. Clipping should not be commenced before the end of the first week in October, and may need to be done once again before Christmas. IS'o horse should be clipped after Christmas, or it will be very late in getting its summer coat. If the removal of the hair is left until the coat is " set," which will be early in November, the operation will only need to be performed once. Bedding The clioice of bedding lies between the various straws and sawdust. Some few people favor 126 THE HORSE sawdust because of its slightly antiseptic prop- erties, which they consider beneficial to the horse's feet. When stra^Y is scarce there is no reason it should not be used as a substitute, pro- vided all the drains are carefully stopped up. For horses which eat their beds, some substitute for straw has to be provided, and we should prefer sawdust. The latter is only to be recommended if the o\vner is unusuall}^ favorably situated for obtaining it easily and cheaply. About 100 lbs. per week will be required, and the sawdust should be entirely renewed every week. Grooms will generally raise objections to the use of sawdust, because it is apt to make the stable and the horse very dusty, and consequently their work is in- creased. Of the various straws, wheat is, in every re- spect, the most suitable for bedding. Oat straw is too expensive, and also few horses will be able to resist the temptation of eating it. Barley straw should never be used, as the " 3.vms " get into the horse's coat, cause intense irritation, and subsequently lead to a skin eruption. All '' bearded " straws are open to the same objection. Therefore we are perforce reduced to common wheat straw, which varies in price, according to THE HORSE 12t district, season, etc. About thirty pounds a week will make a good bed for one horse ; but under strictly economical management, and if the litter is turned out and dried daily, this allowance can be considerably reduced. In all cases a thick bed should be provided, as it adds to the rest, comfort, and therefore to the general welfare and working capacity of the animaL CHAPTEE YII Feeding and Watering Feeding As already remarked, hay and oats is the staple food of the horse. Corn is not a natural food, and it is questionable if too large a proportion in the dietary is not absolutely injurious. As we keep horses in a.n artificial manner and work them, we must presumably feed them to a certain extent artificially to enable them to perform their duties. At the same time, it is constantly proved that horses are capable of long and sustained exertion on a dietary of nothing but grass. We hear of men in the far West catching up a horse and riding it for distances such as we should not dream of traversing in the Eastern states, and the animal is apparently in no way the worse. It is doubtful, however, if a grass-fed animal would be capable of doing regular hard work under these conditions, although it is certain that it is capable of violent exertion occasionally. Many horses, 128 THE HORSE 129 however, live on grass alone, without the addition of dry food, and are not less active or capable than stabled horses. In autumn and winter, though, they are liable to sweat profusely if driven far, and in consequence of the danger of a chill from this cause, and the difficulty of drying the long coat thoroughly before turning out again, it is perhaps inadvisable to keep out at grass all the winter a horse which has to work regularly. As hinted in a previous chapter, it is not wise to clip horses which are kept in the stable. Presuming, then, that a horse is regularly worked, he will require a proportion of oats in his dietary. The regulation cavalry allowance is twelve pounds per day, given in three feeds, and ex}3erience has proved that it is sufficient for anunals doing regular work. Hunters are often given as much as fifteen or sixteen pounds, and the same amount is the average quantity con- sumed by race-horses in training. There is no doubt that the harder the work the greater the quantity of food required ; but we question whether the additional food, always remembering that oats are not a natural food, is not best suited to the horse's stomach and digestive capacity if it takes the form of best quality hay. Four quarter- 130 THE HOHSE peck measures, or ten pounds of oats (each quarter- peck measure weighing two and a half pounds if the oats are of good quality and forty pounds to the bushel) per diem, should be ample for a sixteen-hand carriage horse doing daily work. When doing little work, one measure less is suffi- cient. The demeanor of the individual is the best indi- cation of the quantity of oats which suits him, as horses undoubtedly vary in the amount which they require and which is good for them. Unduly exuberant spirits, and a playfulness which borders on the dangerous, is generally an indication that the work is inadequate for the food, and a better adjustment, by the reduction of the latter by a " feed," will usually result in a rational sobriety. Some horses are unable to " stand " corn at all, and do not thrive as well if it is included in their menu. Such animals are usually what we might call the less refined members of the race — the older, less improved varieties. The more thorough- bred blood a horse possesses, the more corn will he be capable of assimilating, and the less well will he do without it as a rule. As thoroughbreds are practically raised on oats, theu' digestion has presumably adapted itself to this food. Ponies, THE HORSE 131 on the contrary, can rarely stand oats, which im- mediately " get into their heads," and cause them to be unruly and unmanageable. Oats are said to be unsuitable, also, for Arabian horses, and one of our greatest breeders cautions purchasers against feeding horses of this variety on the regular sys- tem, and advocates a diet exclusively composed of hay and grass. The exciting principle in oats, it may be mentioned, is an albuminoid called avenine, and its bad effects are minimized if the oats are given bruised or ground. Ponies under twelve hands, then, will do better on hay on] 3^, and all ponies which are doing little work will thrive best if corn is withheld. Ponies of about fourteen hands, which are doing hard and regular work, may have an allowance of two quarter-peck measures daily if they can stand it. It must always be borne in mind that the com must be regulated to the vrork, and that it is only needful as an addition to hay or grass when or be- cause a horse is working. Also that, as a rough rule, the longer hours a horse works, the more oats will he be able to consume with benefit to himself, and, consequently, the more work will he be capable of performing. In mentioning the necessary allowances of oats, it is, of course, pre- 132 THE HORSE sumed that the grain under consideration is of the very highest quality. Hay The horse is so fashioned as to require a certain proportion of bulky food for the mechanical dis- tention of his stomach, without which it will not act properly. Hay, in the absence of grass, fulfils this function, and for this reason it is not correct to give a dietary of oats ad lib., vfith a little hay as an addition, but exactly the opposite, and, pre- sumably, more natural and healthy regune. It is customary to give chopped hay with the oats in many stables, with the idea that it will prevent the horse being able to " gobble " his feed up too rapidly. We fail to see any advantage in this mixed ration, and it is liable to give rise to several undesirable results. For instance, a horse will generally " nose " out a good deal of the chopped hay to get at the grain, and a proportion of the feed will in consequence be wasted. Also, the owner is sometimes tempted to cut up inferior hay with the idea that the horse will eat it thus, though he would refuse it if given whole. As bad hay is equally injurious to the animal whether he eats it long or short, this practice cannot be tOQ THE HORSE 133 strongly condemned, raul we would also particu- larly warn the horse-owner agamst buying hay already cut. The commonest trick of the hay merchant is to cut inferior stuff, and deliver it as a portion of the purchased load, as in this way he saves a bale or so of the good hay for which he has been paid a fair price, and substitutes some damaged fodder which is probably worthless and unfit for food for horses. If chopped hay is used, it must be cut at home from such samples of hay as would be given to the horse long ; but, as we have akeady suggested, such slight advantage as may accrue from its use is hardly worth the ex- pense of purchase of a feed-cutter, and the waste of a man's time using it. The army ration of hay is twelve pounds, and this is no doubt sufficient for a horse m ordinary work. If the oat ration is cut down the hay al- lowance must be proportionately raised, and for every pound of oats which is saved three extra pounds of hay should be given. For animals do- ing hard work we should allow as much hay as they will eat, which amount will soon be arrived at by experiment and observation. Horses which are leading an easy life will need to be rationed if it is desired that they do not become unduly 134 THE HORSE fat. In any case, if a horse " picks over " his hay, pulling out and neglecting all but the choicest locks, it is an indication that he is being supplied with too great an amount. Ponies of fourteen hands v/hich are not having oats will need twelve to fourteen pounds per diem ; small ponies under twelve hands eight to ten pounds. One should never stint hay to any variety of horse, preferring rather to limit the oats if a reduction in the diet- ary is necessary. If chopped feed is given, a pro- portion of the above-mentioned allowances must of course be cut up. It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the horse-owner that the food must be regulated to the work of the individual, and that consequently it is impossible to lay down any hard and fast rules about the quantity of food required. Too fat a horse is as incapable of doing good work as one too thin, and the object must always be to keep the animal in that condition vrhich will best enable him to perform that which is requked of him with the greatest ease to himself. TuET^iiS-G Out to Grass It is undoubtedly beneficial to every horse to get an annual run at grass. Kot only does the THE HORSE 135 change to their natural diet have a good action on the digestive organs, but their feet also benefit. The temporary loss of "hard" condition is of small consequence when compared with the gain in health which results. Every horse-owner is not, however, in a position to be able to throw liis animals out of work while they indulge in a well-earned holiday, and to these it is suggested that they should turn their horses out at night all thi^ough the summer, giving then* usual corn ration but no hay during the day, and working them as usual. By this method no loss of condi- tion will ensue, and the horses will be found to work as well as when kept entirely stabled. The change should be made gradually, and the animals turned out for an hour or two at first only. Also before bringing them in for the Avinter their hay ration should be begun, and daily increased for a week or two before bringing them in altogether. Horses may run out at night from about the first week in May until well on into September. It is not advised, under any circumstances, to turn horses out during the daytime in summer as is so often done by the inconsiderate owner, unless the animal has its natural mane and tail. The cruelty of turning out a docked (and hogged) horse 136 THE HORSE in the daytime cannot be too strongly condemned, for when de^Drived of his only protections his exist- ence is merely one of misery and irritation. The torment to which he is subjected by the myriads of flies deprives him of all peace, and he is unable to feed or rest. Under these conditions the prac- tice is simple cruelty. Tlie same mutilated horse can spend the night in comparative comfort, and will gain the full benefit from the changed condi- tions of his existence if taken indoors not later than eight o'clock every mornmg. If a horse has a long mane, tail, and forelock, there is less ob- jection to leaving him out all day, though he will spend all his time in some shady corner and will not get much food or rest. Watering Much diversity of opinion exists as to the best methods of watering horses. In a natm^al state the wild Equid^ drink only once or at most twice a day, consequently we might be tempted to pre- sume that our horses are not thirsty animals. We must remember, however, that we feed our stabled animals on food which is entirely lacking in juici- ness and natural moisture, and that therefore they are obliged to acquire this necessary moisture by THE HORSE 137 drinking a great deal more water, and by taking it oftener, than they would need to if fed on naturally juicy food. The horse's intestines are so formed that they can drink a large quantity of water at a time, so that the common practice of watering a horse three or four times a day is founded on the natural capacity of the animal. It is better, however, to ahvays stand a bucket of water in the stall or box, so that the horse may take it when he likes and in what quantities he fancies. Furthermore, horses when eating dry hay, etc., will be seen to constantly take a mouthful of water wherewith to moisten it if a bucketful is within reach. Under these circumstances the bucket should be refilled each time the horse is fed, and it is strongly urged that every horse- owner adopt this method, and keep water always within reach of his animals. Some people have protested against standing a bucket in the corner of a loose box on the score of possible injury to the horse by getting his foot into it ; but no accident from such a cause has ever been reported. If the manger is unsuitable to stand a bucket in, the lat- ter could no doubt be dropped into an iron support attached at a convenient height to the w^all. Horses should always be vratered before they 138 THE HORSE are fed, as water given in any quantities after food is liable to cause colic. There is no objection to allowing a horse to drink a bucketful of cold vrater immediately he comes in heated from work. If he is much ex- hausted, however, or if he has had time to partially cool, the cold water should be withheld, as it may lower the whole temperature of the body, and cause chill. In such cases a little tepid water, or a bucketful of warm gruel, will be beneficial. Horses always prefer soft water to hard ; spring water to well water. Rain water collected in tanks is not wholesome, as it is generally fuU of a quantity of decomposing matter. Obviously, only the cleanest, purest water, such as would be drunk in the house, is iit for horses. Many fallacies exist with regard to the most suitable water, and there is an example of a coachman who habitually gave his horses soapy water to drink, with the idea that it was better for them than the clean, pure liquid. In o one can go wrong if they give the best and purest water, and plenty of it. A horse will drink from five to eight gallons a day, and it has been found that the animal will drink a much gi^eater quantity when watered than he wiU if he always has access to it, Naturally a horse should THE HORSE 139 never be watered immediately before going out to work. All these small rules require attention if the method of watering is persisted in. Salt A lump of rock-salt should have a place in every CHAPTER YIII The Care of the Feet It is necessary to pay great attention to the feet and legs of a horse, as there is no truer saying than " No foot, no horse." Blacksmiths are not always infallible, and it is advisable to know what ought and ought not to be done when one's animal pays its periodical visits to the smithy. The first essential is to preserve the foot in a sound and healthy state, and if this is done, almost any kind of shoe will be found to answer fairly Avell. The foot consists of an outer wall or crust ; the bars, which are a reduplication inward of the crust at the heels ; the sole, which is the flat or rather concave surface ; and the frog, an elastic pad placed on the back of the foot. The crust is the equivalent of our finger nail, and consists of a number of fibres running longitudinally from the coronet. This crust should never be rasped. To give a neater appearance to the shoe and to make the hoof fit it, the average blacksmith generally 140 THE HORSE 141 runs his rasp over the crust, and in so doing destroys the strongest fibres, leading eventually to disease, inflammation, and other evils. A good blacksmith will make his shoe to fit the horse, and no worlanan should be tolerated who cannot do this. In consequence of the protection afforded by the shoes, the crust will requke to be pared down each month by removing with a knife the ground surface. The heels should be kept sufficiently low to allow of the frog touching the ground, as the frog is used by the horse in a state of nature to get a grip with, and obviate concussion and slip- ping. Nothing is worse than to see a horse raised up on his shoes, with a cavity between his frog and the ground. The bars are provided by nature as a preventa- tive (by acting as a stay) against contraction, and if left alone they answer their purpose very well. Blacksmiths are very fond, however, of cutting them out, with the result that horses so treated will suffer from contracted feet and corns. Most of the cases of bad corns and quittor can be traced to this cause, and the only way to effect a cure is to shoe the horse with tips, so as to cause again, by use and pressure, the development of the bars, U2 THE HORSE The sole, again, needs only to be left alone, and should on no account be pared or interfered with. The frog, like the sole, exfoliates in flakes, and therefore also needs no paring. Curiously enough, without pressure and friction the frog will shiivel and almost cease to exist, and it can only be kept in a healthy state by allowing it to touch the ground, as mentioned above. If the frog is abeady in an unhealthy condition, and is the seat of thrush, it may be necessary to trim off ragged ends ; but this should be no excuse for paring it down. Horses should, as a rule, be shod once a month with new shoes. If theu' work is of a light nature and mostly slow, or on soft ground, it will not be necessary to renew the shoes more than once in six or eight weeks ; but under these circumstances the shoes should be removed at the end of three or four weeks, in order that the crust may be pared and the shoe shaped before being reapplied. A better method still is to have new, thin shoes (as thin as is compatible with the amount of wear required) every month ; but it is more costly than the former method. Tips requii^e removing every fortnight ; but in spite of this drawback their use is much to be recommended, as there is no doubt that the foot will be kept in a sounder, healthier THE HORSE 143 condition, and will grow much stronger than it will with ordinary shoes. Ko fear need be en- tertained that the frog or crust will wear out. On the return of the horse from the smithy, observe (1) that there is no mark of rasp on the hoofs, and that they are not blacked or oiled to hide the signs of rasping ; (2) that the sole has not been Spared out; (3j that the frog has not been pared out unless it is unhealthy and ragged ; (4) that the clinches have not been rasped after being turned down ; (5) that the shoe does not project beyond the wall of the hoof ; (6) that the bars have not been cut. Some blacksmiths make it a practice to run a little tar into the cleft of the frog: this plan is a good one where there is a tendency to thrush, and under any cu'cumstances can do no harm. CHAPTER IX Cost of Keeping a Horse As a number of people are deterred from keep- ing a horse because of their uncertainty of the expense to which such a luxury will put them ; and as an equal number embark upon horse-keep- ing and eventually find, to their sorrow, that the expenditure is gi^eater than they anticipated ; as also a good deal of ignorance is constantly dis- played (and consequently taken advantage of) about the fair and proper prices of stable accessories ; a chapter devoted to prices may be useful to the novice, and ma}^ save liim from hav- ing to learn these matters in the most expensive of schools, experience. The prices we give are, of course, only approximate. Prices vary in every part of the country, so that it is impossible to do more than suggest a fair average price for the best quality of article. If the prices paid by the reader are less than we name, he should be sus- picious of the quality of the goods he is buying. It always pays to buy the best of everything ; and it must be remembered that, as a rule, the best 144 THE HORSE 145 costs more to produce than the inferior, therefore it is impossible to buy " best quality " at second best prices. Stable Utensils We Tvill first see what amount of capital will need to be invested in the minimum number of stable utensils and appliances for one horse : 1 head collar, $2.50 1 tie rope with spring hook, . . . .25 1 shovel, 75 Ifork, 75 1 broom, .50 ^ doz. dusters, 50 1 hoof pick, 25 1 currycomb, 40 1 mane comb, 35 2 pails, 1.50 1 corn measure, 50 1 sieve, 50 1 dandy brush, 75 1 body brush, 1.50 1 4-bushel corn-bin, 4.00 $15.00 To these may be added — — 1 kersey horse-cloth, . . . . $7.00 1 roller, 1.00 1 jute night-cloth with surcingle, . . 2 50 1 clipping machine, 2.00 Sundry brushes, metal polish, soaps, etc., for cleaning harness, .... 2.50 $15.00 146 THE HORSE If two horses are kept, the above total of $30.00 must be augmented by another SIO.OO for extras, blankets, etc. The great additional expense of artificially removing a horse's coat will at once be seen, and it is for the individual owner to make up his mind whether the amount of work his horse has to perform warrants this. Naturally, cloths for ponies ^\ill be slightly cheaper. Of course it is not necessary to use a kersey cloth, and the jute cloth can be made to serve the double purpose ; but a change of clothing is healthier for the ani- mal, so that the cloth not in use can get a daily airing. A slight saving in expense may be made by the purchase of a second-hand cloth. Such are always procurable at some of the dealers in any large citj^ ; but it may be remarked that the danger of the contraction of some skin or other disease from a second-hand cloth is. a very real one, and it is strongly advised that the clothing should be sub- jected to thorough disinfection before being used. EODDEE AND LiTTEE Good hay varies in price according to season, quality, neighborhood, demand, etc., but as a rule, under ordinary conditions the best quality cannot be bought for less than 120.00 per ton. As a THE HORSE 147 horse will consume not less than twelve pounds per diem, at this rate of consumption a ton of hay- will last one horse about 170 days, or, roughly speaking, six months. Oats will average from sixty to seventy cents per bushel. Taking the larger price as the one most likely to be paid for a good quality of grain, we shall find that with a consumption of ten pounds per diem a sack of one hundred and sixty pounds will last sixteen days, and as we must allow for an extra feed or two and for slight w^aste, we find that a fair allowance for a horse is two sacks per month. Bran we will leave out of the question, as if it is occasionally used the oats will be proportionately saved. Straw will cost on an average twelve cents per bundle, and two bundles a week will be required to make a horse a good bed. We therefore find that the annual cost of food and litter for one horse works out to a sum, roughly, of— Hay, 2 tons, at S20.00 per ton, $40.00 Oatfl, 100 bus. at 70o., 70.00 Straw, 104 bundles, at 12c. each, .... 12.50 $122.50 or about §2.35 per week. us THE HORSE The lowest estimate of cost of keep of a small pony which consumes, say, about ten pounds of hay daily would be, roughly, seventy-five cents per week, and straw fifteen cents in addition, giv- ing an annual total of 845.00 in round figures. As the foregoing table proves, oats are the ex- pensive item in the horse's menu, the daily reduc- tion of every two and a half pounds (or quarter-peck measui-e) will mean an annual saving of $15.00 on the total bill. To this sum has to be added the shoeing bill. Two and a half dollars is the usual price charged by good reliable blacksmiths and shoes should be renewed at least every month, making an annual cost of $30.00. Sometimes the shoes will not be worn out in a month and will only requu^e remov- ing, in which case there will be a saving in the shoe bill. The horse-owner must also allow an annual sum for replacing worn-out accessories, buying harness paste, mending harness, etc. Such incidental expenses as veterinar}^ bills we do not take into consideration, because if the horse is fed on the best of food, is sensibly treated, and is care- fully chosen in the first instance, it should remain healthy and sound for a great number of years. The total estimate for entu'e keep of one horse on THE HORSE 149 a generous scale amounts approximately to $150.00 per annum. The keep of cart horses can be made to come to considerably less. As they are not required to do fast work, they will thrive on a mixed ration such as would be quite unsuitable for hunters and har- ness horses, and they can in consequence be kept for from $2.00 to §2.50 per week. The shoes of farm horses, instead of being steel, are often made of iron, and it is usual for farmers to contract vrith the village blacksmith to keep their horses shod for a fixed annual sum. We have hitherto left out of consideration the fact that the horse-owner may be able to run his animals at night all through the summer in a pad- dock. The hay saved will probably be swallowed up in rent of land, so that the only profit will be the indirect one of increased health and longer working capacity of the horses. If the land is cheap its quality will be bad, and consequently a greater acreage will be required to run the horses on. We have also omitted to add groom's wages, and the prospective owner must not forget this item, nor the additional capital which has to be expended on horse, carriage, and harness, etc., when going into the matter of the cost of a turnout. CHAPTEE X Hints on Breaking and Driving There is a fascination for some people in the idea of buying or breeding young horses, breaking them in, and selling them when they have " grown into money." That they more often grow into some unsoundness has nothing to do with our present aspect of the case, and the true gambler in immature horse-flesh is not usually deterred from his speculative amusement by one or two pieces of what he calls " bad luck." It is obviously impos- sible, within the limits of the present handbook, to do more than touch upon the outlines of a mat- ter which has been the subject of many volumes. Therefore a few hints on the most important points in connection with the breaking to harness and driving of horses, for the benefit of the amateur who has hitherto had little experience in these matters are all that it is possible to embody in the present article. Tackle The indispensable equipment which is required 150 THE HORSE 161 is a strong set of harness, a head-stall, a surcingle, and a large stock of patience. The quality of the last is probably the most important, because although horses of a certain disposition may be hurriedly broken in with success, yet the colt with pluck and spirit, which will eventually make the most pleasant harness horse, requires dealing de- liberately with. Also, the more gradually each lesson is instilled, the more permanent will be the impression. Some people seem to thinli that by some wonderful and unexplainable hereditary process, a horse is born more or less broken in. Obviously, unbreakable and vicious animals have in course of ages been weeded out, and a naturally tractable stock hands on its nature to subsequent generations ; but it is the disposition only which is passed on, nothing more tangible is acquired ; and every colt has to be as carefully taught what is requu^ed of him in his service to man as his mother was before hun. Horses are by nature good tempered; some, however, are much more nervous and high spirited than others, and if roughly handled are extremely liable to resent bad treatment by a display of their powers of self-defense, which we call bad temper. These are the horses which try the 152 THE HORSE breaker's skill and patience, and are so often returned as spoilt from the hands of the profes- sional. The breaker cannot spend too much time over the education of a nervous horse, and as such subjects are usually of good breeding and quality, the time spent wiU be vrell repaid later on when seUing time comes. Food The first pouit to be taken into consideration is the feeding of the colt. Possibly more depends on this, particularly when breaking ponies, than might at first sight be supposed. A colt is not going to be worked, he is merely going to be broken in, and a diet wliich would be quite unfit for him under the first conditions wiU suit him admu'ably during his educational course. Corn should be absolutely withheld, and the diet re- stricted to hay ad lih., or, preferably, grass picked up in a small paddock. The more sluggish the colt is at this time, in reason, the more quickly will he accept the ne^v instruction and adapt himself to new conditions. Therefore it is perfectly legiti- mate, indeed it is of important assistance, to keep the colt in an obese and phlegmatic state by a grass dietary — which must not be confounded THE HORSE 153 with a low and weak condition, w^hich is an entirely different thing, and not to be recom- mended, on account of the various troubles it may indirectly bring in its train. Catching If a colt will not come to hand in the paddock, he will have to be driven into a shed or stable and there captured. It will save time if he is ac- customed to come to a quarter-peck measure with some corn in it. Then, if he is without a head- stall, he can be captured with a halter in the fol- lowing manner : Pull out the running nose-band, and slip it round the quarter-peck measure, keep- ing the head piece of the halter to the outer side of the measure. As the horse feeds with his nose in the measure, the nose-band can be almost imper- ceptibly slipped up the measure and round his nose, while the head piece is passed quietly over his ears. When endeavoring to catch or drive in a horse, never run. If the animal breaks back, do not, by violent gesticulations, endeavor to stop him, or run and try to cut him off. If you rim, so will the horse ; and as he can run the fastest, he will get the best of it, and will, furthermore, enjoy the 164 THE HORSE excitement. Walk slowly after him, and grad- ually ^vork him in the desired direction, and in the end you will get him to do what you want. It may take time, but not half so long as it will if he is upset and frightened or excited. If a halter must be used to break in instead of a head -stall, do not forget to knot the slip rope, to prevent, as far as possible, squeezing and chafing the jaws. Teaching to Lead The next point is to teach the horse to lead. In this connection, and, indeed, throughout the pre- liminary handling, much more rapid and success- ful progress will be made if the breaker makes up his mind to work single-handed and to have no spectators. Xo animal is more suspicious than a young horse — suspicious of every object and every movement. Thus his whole time is spent in closely watching the actions of those around him, and this very peculiarity of his is of the greatest value to the horse-breaker. It is essential that he should follow every movement, and learn to connect each with its proper function in connection with himself, because only in this way does he assimilate and profit by the lessons taught him. THE HORSE 155 Now, if two or three persons are present, the colt gets confused with trying to keep an eye on all of them at once, gets terribly nervous, hardly realizes what is being done to him, and much valuable time and energy of both horse and breaker are wasted. This has been proved time after tune. In the case of a terribly nervous and wild little hill pony brood mare of nine years old which was being broken, she could be caught, bridle, surcingle, and crupper ailixed in about five minutes, alone ; but the presence of an assistant rendered it impossible to do these things at all except by sheer force and after a prolonged struggle. The first step in the actual breaking, then, is to affix the head-stall with a fom^-foot rope attached to its back dee, and by pulling the horse's head round to one side to upset his equilibrium and get him to move. Xever stand m front of a horse and endeavor to drag him forward. For one thing, it is impossible to succeed in making him budge an inch by this means if he does not "^vish to, as he is perfectly stable in this position, and is heavier than his breaker. If you stand close to the shoulder, hovv^ever, and pull or push the head round gently, the horse is bound to move a fore- 156 THE HOHSE foot. Then he can be judiciously made to move again in a more or less circular direction, until he suddenly seems to understand what is wanted, and leads freely. MOUTHIXG The next lesson is to mouth the colt with a bit affixed to the side dees of the head-stall. Here a surcingle, and the crupper off the set of harness, will be requu'ed, and a rope or rein passed from the bit thi'ough the back loop of the crupper, which is kept in place by the surcingle. It may incidentally be mentioned that a horse cannot kick the operator when putting on the crupper if the latter is careful to stand just behind the shoulder and close to the horse, remembermg to keep the animal's head pulled round slightly toward him. The horse should be reined up just sufficiently tightly for the head to be held in its best natural position. The object is to connect in the mind of the animal the fact of the bit being placed in the mouth necessitating the best natural carriage of the head. If the horse has a badly-formed neck, how- ever, no amount of reining-up can permanently im- prove it. Great care should be taken not to rein up so THE HORSE 157 tightly as to cause the corners of the mouth to be- come sore, as is so often clone. Theu^ sensitiveness, upon which the future " mouth " so much depends, is impaired if they have been cut and raw at this stage of breaking. Having got thus far, be con- tent to lead the horse about (by a rope attached to the back dee of the head-stall, and not attached to the bit or side dees) for some days, taking him into traffic, introducing him to persons and motor cars, and otherwise endeavoring to accustom him to the many things he will have to be intimately acquainted with before his education is complete. Lead alternately from the off as well as the near side, as, if every operation is performed from the near side, it will be found one day, when urgent necessity compels an off-side approach, that the horse resents that to which he has not been ac- customed. Also, it may be hardly necessary to mention, when leading from the near side, keep to the right side of the road when passing vehicles, and vice versa^ as only thus can a horse be con- trolled and prevented from suddenly turning his quarters across the roadway. Teaching to Guide Difficult horses, or ones which are to be very 158 THE HORSE highly educated, should next go through a course of long rein driving to mouth and supple them. This consists essentially in diiving them round and round in a large circle by means of a pair of long reins (two pau-s of driving reins will do) at- tached to the bit. One rein passes over the back or round the quarters of the horse, and the other passes direct from mouth to hand, the superfluous rein being gathered up in loops ready to let out as requu'ed. The horse must be taught to circle in either direction, to turn about in the figure 8, and perform either at the v^^alk, trot, or canter. As success depends almost as much upon the skill of the operator as upon the tractability of the horse, and as a paddock or large yard is necessary for the evolutions, we will not dwell on the system, ex- cellent though it is, but will refer the reader to special works which treat of the matter in detail. The whole system is far superior to lunging with one rein only, which has not the same effect, and which must not be confused with long rein driv- ing. (See Fig. 28.) The breaker has now reached the stage when he has to teach the horse to understand and obey certain signals given with the rein. A good mouth, as understood by drivers, may be ana- THE HORSE 159 lyzed as the promptness, accuracy, and precision with which the animal obeys the signals given him. This, again, depends partly upon the sensi- tiveness of his mouth, and partly upon the way in which he is taught the meaning of certain signs. Now, no one is more helpless than the man who is walking behind a horse and driving it in front of him with reins. If the smallest pony chooses to Fig. 28. Showing Horse bitted up ready to lead ; also showing Position of Reins iu Long Rein Driving. bolt under these circumstances, it can hardly be prevented, and the driver usuall}^ ends by ignomin- iously letting go the reins and sitting down rather suddenly in the road. Having harnessed the horse fully, except, perhaps, for the hames and traces, and having passed the breeching straps 160 THE HORSE through the tugs and strapped them, and fastened up the belly-band, put on two rems, one fastened to each side of the bit, being careful to leave the ends which pass to the hands separate. There are several reasons for this. First of all, the longer the reins, the greater the control of the man over the horse ; secondly, if things do not go smoothly, the horse can be pulled round by one rein and stopped ; thhdly, the danger of the man getting tripped up in the loop of the rein is done away with. Some instinct of the horse leads it naturally to pull against the indication of the rein. Thus, if the left rein is pulled, the untrained horse always endeavors to bear to the right, and vice versa. To counteract this, a slight, sharp flick with a long wliip must be given to the left side of the animal when the right rein is pulled, and so on, the pull and flick being simultaneous, and graduated to the degree of turn required. It is wonderful how quickly the colt learns to obey the indication of the rein alone, its promptness being in exact ratio to the precision with which the double indication is given in the first instance. Once the horse has learned the meaning of the various pulls on its mouth — left rein, turn to the left; both reins, THE HORSE 161 stop (this always accompanied by a decided verbal *' whoa ! ") ; " click ! " go on, etc. — he is fit to put into the shafts, provided he has got used to blink- ers, in which he is sure to be a little strange at first. Putting Into a Cart Bad starting, than which no more tiresome trick exists, is usually caused by (a) putting a horse into too heavy a cart at first; {h) starting it up-hill; (c) or driving it with tender shoulders. A very light, empty cart should be used, and not a YiQd^xj one loaded up with men, on the supposition that the heavier it is the less possibility will there be of the colt running away with it ! An assistant will be required to hold the shafts up over the horse's back and to help to harness him. Everything should be done without fuss, quietly and expeditiously, as the whole future be- havior of the animal depends upon the first im- pression it gets of harness work. A head-stall or halter should be left on under the bridle to lead by, and a rope should be tied across the loins as a preventative of possible kicking. When everything is ready lead the colt off quietly, a person on each side of its head to pre- 162 THE HORSE vent accidents. In most cases, if the preliminary lessons have been well instilled, the colt will go off well and quietly. For two or three days his work should be confined to a few miles out and back along all classes and gradients of roads, making a " round " whenever possible. At length, if all goes well, the breaker should get into the cart and drive the colt, the attendant still leading from one side. In a day or two both may ride, and the pace may be increased and the journeys lengthened. SoEE Shouldees A light cart, short journeys, and as small an amount of exertion as possible for the colt have been insisted on because only thus can that bane of horse-breakers, sore shoulders, be avoided. The soreness of course starts as a bruise, which quickly works into a sore place, and will necessitate a total stoppage of breaking operations at a time when it is most unportant that the work should be regu- larly carried on ; and it may, in addition, lead the colt to acquire the habit of starting badly or awk- wardly. Thus, at all costs, must these catastro- phes be avoided. If the animal is confined at first to pulling a very light, empty cart, and is THE HORSE 163 not made to sweat excessively, the shoulders will gradually harden of themselves, without any dis- organization ensuing. Of course we are assuming that the colt is provided with a properly -fitting collar. A straw collar is better than a leather one at this stage, and if a breast collar is used on alternate days, bruised shoulders may be avoided. In any case, if the neck becomes in the slightest degree bruised, stop all shaft work at once until it is perfectly well again. Also, daily from the commencement of breaking-in to harness, bathe the neck under the collar immediately on the re- turn from work, with a saturated solution of alum and water, which will help to harden the skin. Tkicks It must be borne in mind throughout the break- ing that it is a comparatively simple matter to prevent a horse doing that which he should not do, but that if he is once allowed to develop a trick or vice it may take months of trouble and hard work to make him forget it again. Shoeing A visit to the blacksmith is, of course, part of the necessary education of every horse, and is very 164 THE HORSE often actually the first point attended to by the amateur horse-breaker. We do not hold Avith this early shoeing, and consider that, for a variety of reasons, the business is best deferred until the colt is so far broken as to be fit to drive regularly. Leaving out of the question the undue fright ex- perienced by an almost unhandled animal, and the hoiTor and dislike with which in consequence it may, in futm^e, associate a visit to the blacksmith, a young horse is much more likely to injure him- self, or do harm of some sort, if he is shod. Furthermore, if the breaking process is unduly prolonged owing to galled shoulders, the ammal will be as well without shoes during his enforced idleness. The feet must, of com^se, be trimmed up, and the edges of the hoofs rasped to prevent a tearing out of ragged edges, and if this is attended to, the horse will be able to do quite a lot of work on dry roads without further attention. The dampness of our clunate is one of the chief causes which make it impossible for a horse to do all his work unshod. "Water softens horn, and causes it to become much too weak to stand fric- tion ; but in the case of a colt the work it does (or should do) during breaking is not of a sufficiently arduous nature to be likely to do harm to the feet, THE HORSE 165 provided, of course, that the animal has naturally hard and Avell-shaped feet to start with — a condi- tion we are taking for granted. DrIYI]S"G The breakiug-in of a colt has been treated en- tkely from the single harness point of view, be- cause a horse which will go alone will always work in double harness, although the reverse is not always the case. Once broken, a horse has to be mannered and taught the thousand and one little items, insignificant enough in themselves, which, in the aggregate, help to raise his value to that of a high-class and expensive animal. Many people confuse quietness with sluggishness. A quiet horse should be full of spirit, free and fast, but he should have been so perfectly man- nered that he never "plays up," or shows the exuberance of his spirits in an unorthodox manner, but is absolutely free from tricks, vice, or pecuhar- ities. All this is taught by the exercise of great patience and attention to detail when driving the colt after the rough breaking-in is completed. First of all, teach the horse never to fidget or move off until the signal — a combined " click " and tightening of the rein — is given. Teach him 166 THE HORSE to stand well and alertly, and not to rest his legs or go to sleep. Teach him to stop dead at a de- cided " Whoa ! " without any additional signal with the reins, as this habit may prove most use- ful in an emergency and always give him his signal in a firm, decided voice. In driving, always go slowly off the top of a hill, and at the summit pull the horse well back into the breeching, so as to get his Aveight off the forehand. If the animal is thoroughly steadied like this, and his head is kept up with a tight rein, he can trot down almost any hill with a good surface in safety. Horses most frequently fall on a slight hill down which they are being driven with a slack rein. If their Aveight had been taken off the forehand, a false step would not have resulted in anything worse than a slight stumble. Therefore the driver must be " didv- ing " all the time, and must not allow himself or his steed to be lulled into a false sense of security. It is difficult to define the exact tension at which the reins should be held. It should vary with the gradient of the road and other factors ; at the same time, of the two extremes, a tight rein is much safer than a loose one, for with it THE HORSE 167 the horse is aiwiiys under control in the case of a sudden shy or stumble. With a loose rein he may fall, or shy right across the road, before the rein can be brought to a tension sufficient to steady him. Kever whip or flick a horse going down-hill if it can possibly be avoided, and never use the whip unless the reins are held tightly. One of the worst errors the amateur driver falls into is an inability to keep the vrhip still. This is, of course, fatal to the freeness of a colt ; and we have known many old horses turned into inveterate plugs in their old age solely through this fault on the part of their driver. If a horse is being continually flicked and touched with the whip-lash, he will, in a remarkably short time, have become so familiarized with it that he will fail to respond. If the whip must be used to correct some fault or to stimulate, it should be used sharply and de- cisively — in other words, it should not be used at all unless it is absolutely necessary. He will thus always have a wholesome fear of the weapon, and will never develop into a plug. A sluggish horse may often be cured by a few thorough beatings, which show him that his driver intends to put up with no nonsense. Therefore, if a diiver cannot 168 THE HORSE resist flicking his horse's back with the whip in and out of season, then the whip must be kept in its socket, so that he may not be tempted to make improper use of it. As a rule, it is not advisable to whip a horse for shying. If he is really frightened the punish- ment will only increase his fright ; if he shies from high spirits, such bad manners must be suit- ably punished only if it is impossible to ignore them altogether. In these days of motor cars and other road nuisances, it is especially necessary that only com- petent and experienced diivers should be allowed on the roads. Very often a horse shies at some object solely because of the nervousness of his driver. By instinctively tightening the reins, and settling himself in his seat, the driver conveys to the horse that something is about to happen. The animal becomes agitated and nervous by the un- usual signs conveyed by the reins, looks about expectantly for the supposed danger, and shies or otherwise displays his alarm at some object which, had the driver not given him the office, he would probably have taken no notice of. Always put on the brake gradually, and in a degree to correspond with the steepness of the THE HORSE 169 gradient. Some people put it on hard at any and every hill, whereas it is more restful for a horse in a light vehicle to hold back down slight in- clines. In any case, the brake power should be applied notch by notch as the declivity increases, and should be taken off gradually in the same way as the bottom is approached. CHAPTEE XI Common Ailments A SHORT chapter will be of value on those minor ailments of Tvhich every horse-owner is likely sooner or later to have experience, but the more obscure or serious diseases will be left to the attention of the veterinary surgeon. The rem- edies given are as simple as possible, as elaborate concoctions are often neither procurable at short notice in an emergency nor of any particular ad- vantage to any one but the druggist. It may be mentioned that the commonest causes of diseases of the bowels and urinar}" organs are bad food and water, hence in such cases an entire change of forage will probably be necessary. Dis- eases of the chest (coughs, colds, etc.) are most frequently due to bad ventilation, exposure, neg- lect ; diseases of the skin to bad grooming, bad forage, or barley straw : diseases of the feet to bad shoeing and neglect ; and thrush, cracked heels, and grease to neglect and bad management. 170 THE HORSE 171 Abscess An abscess or swelling on the face should always awake suspicion of a decayed tooth, and if on ex- amination such proves to be the case, removal of the tooth is the only remedy. Cataeeh Acute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nose and air-passages. SyinjJtoms. — Loss of appetite, staring coat, watery discharge from the nostrils, followed by swollen glands under throat, and perhaps sore throat. Causes. — Atmospheric changes, such as when first bringing a young horse into the stable ; neg- lect ; bad management. Treatment. — ^Eemoval to a cool box ; plenty of clothing ; flannel bandages ; carrots or green food, and warm mashes (laxative diet). This disease, if taken in time, Avill not develop seriously, and no medicine is required. If, however, it is neglected at first, and the patient in a few days is worse in- stead of better, a veterinary surgeon must be called in, as there is always danger of complications, such as bronchitis, pneiimonia, etc. 172 THE HORSE Ceacked Heels Chaps of the skin: when neglected, run into Grease. Symptoms. — Itching of the heels ; offensive dis- charge from the skin ; tender cracks ; general swelling of the legs ; sometimes lameness on first going out. Causes. — J^eglect and bad management leading to deranged secretion of the skin in the hollow of the heel. Though often due to debility, may also arise from fatness and insuiScient exercise. Clip- ping the hair off back part of the legs is another frequent cause. Low-bred horses, by reason of their weaker circulation, are more prone to this disease than high-bred animals, and it is frequently present in cart horses which are walked through water to clean their legs before going into the stable. Treatment. — The most important treatment is to cease wetting the legs. In slight cases this alone will effect a cure. In severer cases the heels must be washed daily with water containing disinfectant to remove all dirt from the cracks, and then, after being thoroughly dried, they should be dressed ^^dth carbolic ointment. A narrow bandage round the pastern will afford protec- THE HORSE 173 tion from dirt and cold until the cracks are healed. Colic or Gripes Spasm of the muscular coat of any portion of the intestines. Symptoms. — Apparent internal pain ; the horse looks round to his flanks ; scrapes with forefeet ; walks round box ; lies down and rolls, or lies down and gets up again ; belly frequently tense and swollen. "When the attack is going off, the inter- val of time between the spasms becomes longer. Cause. — Indigestion in some form. Treatment. — The horse must be led about. Friction over the abdomen will also give relief. The patient must be prevented from throwing himself down. If alternate friction and walking exercise do not alleviate, a dose of a drachm and a half of camphor and an ounce of nitric ether mixed with twelve ounces of water will probably give relief. If at the end of, say, six hours the horse is no better, skilled aid must be resorted to. Goran's Injury produced by pressure to the angle be- tween the crust and the bars. Symjptoms. — A reddened appearance in the angle 17^ THE HORSE of the sole, and lameness. The horse will often start lame, and go perfectly sound after a mile or two, and by this symptom may a corn be recog- nized from other diseases of the foot. Causes. — Bad shoeing, and particularly the cut- ting away of the bars and the paring out of the seat of corn, whereby dirt accumulates in the hol- low so made and causes injury. There is also a predisposition to corns in fiat feet and feet with wired-in heels, because undue pressure is liable to come on the seat of corn. Treatment. — If the cause — ^pressure — is removed, the corn will be cm^ed. A three-quarter shoe will do this as a rule. Continual paring out will only effect a temporary cure if the pressure is not also removed. Some horses suffer from corns only in the winter when in the stable, and become per- fectly sound immediately they spend a portion of their time at grass. In such cases, the dryness of the feet when in the stable seems to be in part the cause. In any case, the most important factor in the prevention of corns is never to allow the blacksmith to pare out the seat of corn. Lampas Congestion of the blood-vessels of the palate. th:e: horse its Symptoms. — Loss of appetite, and, on examina- tion, a swelled condition of the roof of the mouth. Causes. — In young hoi'ses, teething. In old horses, very often u'reguiarity of the molar teeth, bit injuries, or indigestion. Treatment. — If the molars are at fault, the irregularity may be removed by a rasp. The diet must consist of wet bran and soft food for a day or two, until the uiiiammation subsides and the mouth is no longer tender. The cruel practice of burning the palate v» ith a hot iron, which was in old days considered the recognized cure, is as useless as it is brutal, and is never now done. Mange Due to a parasitical insect which burrows into the skin. Symptoms. — Minute pustules usually commenc- ing on the vv^ithers or croup, which burst and coalesce and form patches of encrustation on the skin. The hah' falls out, and the skin becomes harsh and sore if the horse rubs himself to relieve the intolerable itching. Causes. — Bad food, by lowering an animal's condition, may predispose it to ^' catch " mange, but if it is well groomed, the parasites cannot get 176 THE HOESE a foothold. Mange is due, therefore, to neglect and nothing else, and its appearance in a stable should suggest the instant dismissal of the re- sponsible servant. A well-groomed, badlj-fed horse will not develop mange ; neither will a well-fed, ungroomed animal. Treatment. — This consists of killing the parasites. The skin should be well washed with soft soap and water, and, after being carefully dried, should be dressed with a mixture of one part petroleum and six parts of oil, or with some sheep dip, or with, in fact, almost any germicide, ap})lied with a soft brush. Every day the spots should be washed and redressed. A change of diet is beneficial, and green food desirable. All cloth- ing worn by the horse should be thoroughly baked or boiled before being used again, and the stables should be whitewashed, as the ailment is highly contagious. Sore Back axd Galls Causes. — Badly fitting saddle or collar, or awkward rider. If a horse is ridden or driven when out of condition, or put to a long day's hunting when unused to carrying a saddle, he THE HORSE 177 may become tender, and if used again before the bruise is healed, will become sore. Treatment. — Entire cessation of work. The saddle or collar should be left on a colt for a time when he comes in hot from work. If the skin beneath is bruised, swelled, and tender, the place may be bathed with a strong solution of salt or alum and water, which will help to harden the skin. The only treatment for an advanced case is rest, as, if the owner continues to use the horse, the sore which will develop will take weeks to cure instead of only a few days. In any case, the padding of the saddle should be altered so as to shift the pressure. If a colt becomes tender dur- ing breaking, and it is undesirable to temporarily discontinue his education, a breast collar may be used for a few days. Grass-fed horses sometimes become girth-galled when first put into work. A handful of flour thrown on the sore immediately it is noticed will prevent it giving much trouble. Thrush An unhealthy secretion issuing from the cleft of the frog, and one of the commonest diseases of horses. 178 THE HOUSE Causes. — Bad stable management and neglect ; dirty stable floor ; feet not picked out ; also oc- casionally due to paring of the feet or high- heeled shoes, so that the work and pressure necessary to maintain the frog in health is not obtained. Treatment. — In trivial cases, when the horse is to be kept in work, some Stockholm tar run into the cleft once a week will prove beneficial. In severe cases, after the part has been cleansed, a piece of tow saturated with a lotion composed of a mixture of one part carbolic acid to twenty parts of water thrust into the cleft, and renewed night and morning for some days, will prove effectual. In chronic thrush it may be necessary to shoe the horse \vith tips, as, if the disease has not gone too far, the wear and pressure will prob- ably cause the foot to again become sound and strong. WOUXDS All flesh wounds should be carefully cleansed with warm water to remove all particles of dirt, etc., and should be dressed with carbolic ointment or lotion. The same treatment applies to broken knees, and, in addition, a fold of lint kept con- THE HORSE 179 stantly wet with a lotion composed of one part carbolic acid to twenty of cold water will be beneficial during the first few days. The most important matter in the treatment of all wounds is disinfection. THE END Index Abscess, 171 Action, 24, 26 Age for work, 27 Age, how told, 31 Ailments, common, 170 Appearance, 26 Arabian horses, 13 1 Artificial food, 113 Assistant, when needed, 161 Assistant undesirable, 155 Bandaging legs, 120 Beans, food value, 107 Bedding, 79, 112, 119, 125 Blanketing, 122 Blemishes, 27 Blinkers, 161 Blister, 68 Body, 15 Bone, 23 Bone spavin, nature of, 69, Brakes, use of, 168 Bran, 112, 113 Bran, hay, oats, 147 Breaking and driving, 150 Brushes and combs, 115 Calf knees, 21 Capped hocks, 77, 78 Care of the feet, 140 Carriage, cost of, 149 Cart, use of, 161 Catarrh, 17 1 Catching a colt, 153 Cavalry food allowance, 129, Chest, 14 Clipping, 123-125 Clover, 1 1 1 Coach-house accessories, 1 16 155, Cold water, 138 Colic, or gripes, 138, 173 Collar, kind of, 163 Common ailments, 170 Corn, 106, 130 Corns, 141, 173 Cost of keeping a horse, 144 Cow hocks, 20 Cracked heels, 120, 172 Curb, 29, 30, 60, 62 Curb, history of, 65, 67 Currycomb, 116 70 Diet, 152 Diseases, 170 Dishing, 25 Divisions of stall, 91, 98, lOI Doors, 102 Drainage, 93, 98 Driving, 165 Driving and breaking, 1 50 Dust of hay, ii i Ears, movement of, li Eye, indications, lo, II 181 182 INDEX Feeding, cleaning, etc., 117 Feeding value, no Feeding and watering, 128 Feet, 23 Feet, care of, 140 Fever in feet, 24 Fever, mud, 121 Floors, 94, 101, 119 Food, 104 Food allowance, 129, 133 Foot, struLiuie of, 140 Fore leqs, 14 Fore and hind legs, 17 Frequent shoeing, 142 Frog, 24, 142 Galls, saddle, 30 Galls, ^vind, 29 Grass, 134 Grazing season, 135 Groom, wages of, 149 Grooming after exercise, 123 Harness, carriage, cost of, 149 Harness room, 102, 116 Harnessing a colt, 161 Hay, 107, 132-134 Hay dust, in Hay, food value, no Hay, mow-burned, no Hay, oats, bran, 147 Hay-racks, 97 Haying, 109 Head, size of, 9 Heels, cracked, 120 Hind quarters, 16 Hints on breaking and driving, Hock lameness, 72 Hock, structure of, 69 Hocks, capped, 77 Horse, choice of, 7 Horses, sound and unsound, 54 Hov/ to tell a horse's age, 31- Keeping a horse, cost of, 144 Kind of collar, 163 Lameness, 66 Laminitis, 58 Lampas, 174-175 Legs, bandaging, I20 Light, 95 Linseed, 113 Litter, 147 Loins, 15 Long rein driving, 158 Management of stable, 114 Mange, 175 Mangers, 96, loi Mark, 38 Moths, 103 Mouthing, 156 Mow-burned hay, IIO Mud fever, 121 Mule, age of, 47 Neck, ii, 12 New hay, ill No assistai;t, 155 No spectators, 155 Oats, 104 Oats, hay, bran, 147 Observations on feet, I43 Pails, 114 Pasterns, 13, 21, 22 Patience, need of, 152 INDEX 183 Ponies, 130, 1 3 1, 134 Proper shoeing, 140 Proportion, 18 Purchasing a horse, 74, 76 QUITTOR, 141 Racks for hay, 97 Rain water, 138 Reining up, 156-157 Ribs, 16 Routine management, 117 Saddle galls, 30 Salt, 139 Shoeing, 140, 148, 163 Shoulders, 13, 15, 21 Shoulders, sore, 162 Shying, 168 Side-bones, 83 Signals, 159 Signs of age, 31 Site of stable, loi Sore back and galls, 176 Sore shoulders, 162 Sound and unsound, 54 Spavin, 29, 30, 68 Spavin, bone, 68 Spavin, treatment of, 72 Splints, 28-30 Splints, nature and cause, 79-81 Stable, 87 Stable, building of, 100 Stable utensils, 145 Stable ventilation, 89, 98, 102 Stall divisions, 91, 98, loi Straw, III, 112 Structure of foot, 140 Suspicious animal, 154 Sustained exertion, 128 Sweat, blanketmg, etc., 122 Symptoms of ailments, 170-178 Synovial enlargements, 77 Tackle, 150 Teaching to guide, 157 Teaching to lead, 154 Technical unsoundness, 59 Teeth, 31-52 Temper, 151 Tension of rein, 166 Thoroughbreds, 130 Thoroughpin, 77 Thrush, 24, 119, 142, 177 Treatment of ailments, 170-178 Tricks, 163 Undesirable horses, 66 Unsoundness, 27, 28 Use of brakes, 168 Use of cart, 161 Use of whip, 1 67-168 Utensils, stable, 145 Veterinary examination, 56 Wages of groom, 149 Water, hard and soft, 138 Water, rain, 138 Water, spring and well, 138 Watering, 128, 136 Whip, use of, 167, 168 Wind gal]s, 29 Wounds, 178 Zebra hybrids, 56 POPULAR HAND-BOOKS QOME books are designed for entertainment, others for informa- tion. ^ This series combines both features, The information is not only complete and reliable, it is compadt and readable. 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THE CARE OF THE One of the few books that CHILD ^^^^ ^^^^ ^-^^^ °^^ ^^^ ^^^^ By Mrs. Burton Chance ^^^ problem in all its aspects — mental, moral and physical. ^The author, a mother and the wife of a physician, has anticipated nearly every nursery difficulty. ^She gives all that one ordinarily needs about diet, clothing, bathing and sleep, summarizing the practice of leading, specialists. ^ There are helpful practical discussions on obedience, imagination, personality, truthtelling, play £md education. tHOME DECORATION A beautiful home means By Dorothy T. 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