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(As to prices in brackets, see top of pagre 2.) HISTORIES, SHORT, OF THE TERRITORIAL REGIMENTS OF THE BRITISH ARMY. 67 numbers, each Id. In one volume, 5s. Ditto. The Scots Guards. Id. (Id.) Ditto. The 6th (Inniskilling) DraguoQS. Id. (Id.) Ditto. Revised Editions. Id. (Id.) each : — Alexandra, Princess of Wales's Own (Yorkshire Regiment). The Bedfordshire Regiment. The Black Watch (Royal High- landers). The Cameronians (Scottish Rifles). The Cheshire Regiment. The Duke of Wellington's West Riding Regiment. The Durham Light Infantry. The East Lancashire Regiment. The East Surrey Regiment. The Hampshire Regiment. The Highland Light Infantry. The King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry. The Lancashire Fusiliers. The Northamptonshire Reeriment. The Oxfordshire and Buckingham- shire Light lufaatry. The Prince Albert's (Somersetshire Light Infantry). The Prince of Wales's Leinster Regiment (Royal Canadians). The Princess Charlotte of Wales's (The Royal Berkshire Regiment). The Princess Louise's Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. The Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers. The Royal Sussex Regiment. The Royal Warwickshire Regiment. The Royal Welsh Fusiliers. The Suffolk Regiment. HOSPITALS. MILITARY FAMILIES'. Nursing Staff Regulations, Dec, 1909. Id. (Id.) HOSTILITIES WITHOUT DECLARATION OF WAR FROM 1700 TO 1870. 2s. (Is. Id) HYGIENE. ELEMENTARY MILITARY. Manual of. 1912. M. (., wound several of them. Veitis are the continuation of the capillaries on the return journey Veins, towards the heart, approaching which they increase in size, receiving fresh tributaries from all parts, till they empty themselves into that organ. Here and there in the course of a vein, slight enlargement of its calibre may be noticed, due to the presence of valves which prevent the blood flowing backwards. A valve consists of two or three little skin-like pouches with their openings towards the heart ; so long as the blood flows in that direction they lie flat against the side of the vessel and do not obstruct it, but if there is any back wash it automatically fills them, causing them to bulge into the vein and completely block it. Their action may be well observed by pressing the blood to and fro in the veins on the back of one's own hands. Veins are thinner and are less elastic than arteries, but are capable of containing more blood when distended. The Blood consists of a straw-coloured fluid, in which an infinite The blood, number of minute bodies {corpuscles) are suspended. During life and when freshly drawn from the body, blood is quite fluid, but rapidly solidifies {clots) on exposure to the air. The blood co7piiscles are of two varieties, red and white. Red corpuscles are very numerous, give the blood its colour, are shaped like a quoit with a solid centre, and measure about 3^ of an inch in diameter. Their peculiar power of absorbing oxygen makes them important factors in questions of ventilation and breathing. White corpuscles are comparatively few in numbers as compared with the red variety, are larger, have the power of moving, and are engaged in the duty of attacking and destroying any harmful germs which attempt to invade the body. The Heart is a hollow, cone-shaped organ, composed entirely of The heart, muscle. It is situated in the centre of the chest with its point directed downwards and slightly inclined to the left. Internally it is divided into four compartments, those on the left side being thicker walled and Animal management. stronger than those on the right. The npper chambers are called auricles from their resemblance to the human ear, while the lower, which constitute the bulk of the organ, are termed ventricles. At the top of each auricle is the entrance of the large veins of the body and lungs, while below they communicate with their respective ventricles. From the right Fig. I. — Diagram to show the course of the circulation. Valves ot and left ventricles respectively the big arteries leading to the lungs and the heart, body originate. The openings between auricles and ventricles are guarded by strong valves, so arranged that when the ventricle is filled with blood the entrance is completely closed and sealed. In similar fashion the exit from each ventricle is closed by other valves to prevent regurgitation of aMimal structure and function. 9 the blood from the large arteries. The ftmction of the heart is to keep up the circulation of the blood ; it begins to work before birth, does not cease till after death, and in the meantime acts as a perfect, self-regulating automatic pump. The circulation of the blood follows the course shown in the accompanying diagram. Starting from the left auricle the blood flows down into the left ventricle ; as it fills, the valves guarding the opening float up on the surface of the blood, till, when they are horizontal, the meeting of their edges closes it. At this moment the heart " contracts." This contraction is familiar to all as the " beating " of the heart ; it violently shortens itself, screws itself slightly round, squeezes all its chambers empty and produces a "lubb-dup" sound at each beat, then relaxes, fills again, and repeats the process. The sounds maybe distinctly heard and the " beat " felt by applying the ear to the chest wall. By the contraction the blood in the left ventricle is forced into the main artery of the body {the aorta). This large vessel immediately divides, one branch going to the head, neck and fore limbs ; the other, the larger of the two, running along the under surface of the backbone and supplying the liver, stomach, bowels, and hind quarters. The finest arteries merge into the capillaries which form a close-meshed network through every part of the body, and it is during this capillary circulation that nourishment slips from the blood to the various structures. Passing successively from the capillaries to the small and the large veins, the blood reaches the right auricle, being reinforced during its passage by the nourishment which has been derived from the food as the result of digestion ; it then passes into the right ventricle, from which it is expelled to the lungs. Here it is brought into contact with the air, after admixture with which it is returned to the left auricle again (see also Respiration, p. lo). The Lymphatic System. — This is another extensive and important The system of vessels, as widely distributed as the blood-vessels, but not lymphatic nearly so prominent. Its largest vessel flows into the blood stream system, near the heart, and to it the whole of the body's lymphatics contribute. Lymphatics are very thin-walled vessels, and as the lymph they contain is colourless, they are not as a rule apparent to the eye. Their functions are to collect from the bowels the goodness which is digested from the food, and to prevent the accumulation of fluid in any part of the body. The fluid which is thus collected is prepared and filtered by the lymph glands, and ultimately poured into the large veins on the right side of the heart, by the vessel alluded to above. Lymphatics only attract notice as a rule when something goes wrong with them, when they are often 16 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. prominent, standing out like veins on the skin, while pain and swelling of the limbs and nearest glands is frequently observed. The glands under the jaw, beneath the arm, and inside the thigh, are those most frequently observed to be so affected. The body, excluding the limbs, is divided into two great cavities — the chest, and the belly. The Chest contains the heart, the great blood-vessels and the lungs ; while a portion of the gullet passes through it en route to the stomach. Its length extends from the point of the breast-bone to the midriff (diaphragm), while on each side the ribs form a strong, sufficiently elastic cage to protect the organs it contains, and permit their free movements during respiration. The first eight ribs are firmly jointed to the breast-bone, and this makes a rigid protection for the heart, which is situated between them ; while the remainder are attached less firmly to each other, and allow greater freedom of movement. The space between the first ribs may be termed the entrance to the chest, and through this the windpipe (trachea), and gullet (oesophagus) make their entry. Respiration i^Breathijig). — Air is drawn through the nostrils or mouth (in the horse through the nostrils only), passes through the larynx (organ or voice), down the wind-pipe, and enters the lungs. In the lungs the air and blood mix, and exchange the elements they require ; the used, polluted air is then expelled, a slight pause ensues, and the process repeats itself. The Nostrils differ in shape according to the animal's requirements, those of the galloping horse being thin, widely open, and capable of still wider distension, if necessary, to increase the air supply, while oxen and camels not being required to go such a pace, are provided respectively with a rigid, thick-edged opening, and a pendulous slit. The Larynx^ the organ which produces the voice, is situated in the throat between the branches of the lower jaw, where it may be readily felt. Its body is made of cartilages, which are jointed together so that the surrounding muscles can narrow or widen its calibre. Food and water pass over its opening on their way down the gullet, and in order to prevent their entrance a lid is provided which closes automatically, and with water-tight accuracy, whenever the animal swallows. Coughing and difficulty in swallowing are immediately experienced if there is anything the matter with the opening (the glottis), or the lid (the epiglottis), e.g.^ during a sore throat. Inside are two thick elastic cords, so placed as to form a triangular opening with the floor of the organ ; when the calibre is varied by the action of the muscles, the edges of the cords are rendered ANIMAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION. 'It tense or slack, thin or thick according to the strain placed upon them, and as the distance between them is widened or narrowed at the same time, the rush of air through this constantly varying aperture produces the sounds of the voice. If they are stretched to their utmost, and brought close together, a high note results, while relaxation and separation of their edges gives a deep tone. The windpipe extends from the larynx to the lungs ; it runs along the The lower border of the neck, and can be easily felt as far down as the windpipe, entrance to the chest. It is composed of rings of cartilage (gristle), the ends of which overlap each other, and as this arrangement permits it to withstand considerable pressure, it is not often injured. It is lined by microscopic hairs, constantly agitated in an upward direction, by means of which phlegm is brought up from the lungs. At the entrance to the chest the windpipe divides, one branch going to each lung, and from this on, they divide and divide until they become very minute, when they lose their gristly rings, and become thin membranous tubes, which continue to divide in the same fashion. The ultimate divisions expand suddenly into little, mulberry shaped balloons [air vesicles)^ the walls of which are so thin that they allow the gases of the air and blood to pass freely from one to the other. The Limgs {lights) are two large, elastic organs which, except for the The lungs space occupied by the heart, completely fill the chest. They may be (lights), described as equally full of air and blood, the entire space, not occupied by the air vesicles just described, being filled with blood-vessels. The outside of the lungs, and the inside of the chest, is covered by a smooth, shiny, slippery membrane {pleura)^ which prevents friction. The Diaphragm {inidrijf) is a strong, thin curtain of muscle which The dia- separates the chest from the belly ; it is attached to the inner sides of the P^'"^?^ ribs, beginning high up under the backbone, just in front of the loins, and (m'., thrown out of the straight line, and given insufficient room at the knee, the tension on them at a fast pace is so much increased that they are more likely to be sprained, and this extra risk rightly causes great attention to be paid to this part. If the toes are turned out from the fetlock, " brushing " is likely to occur, and the liability is greatest when the horse is fatigued. The fetlock of a horse which turns his toe out is bent inwards as well as backwards when the weight is passing over the leg, and is thus brought nearer the other leg, the foot of which strikes it in passing. TA^ quarters should be muscular and full of flesh, but their shape may vary considerably. " Straight'^ quarters^ which run nearly level from the croup to the dock are seen chiefly in thoroughbreds, but a " di'ooping quarter ^^ which slants downwards from croup to dock is also seen in many well-bred horses. When the slant is very pronounced it is termed a ^^ goose rumpP ^^ Rouftd'' quarters are seen in cobs, ponies, and many Arabs. When the points of the hips are wide apart, so that they are very prominent when looked at from behind, they are often termed " ragged hips.^^ The actual shape is not a matter of so much consequence for general work, provided the parts are sufficiently large, strong, and full of muscle. The thighs from the stifle to the hock should be long and well-clothed with muscle. The prominent bunch of muscles at the lower and outer part of the thigh is termed the ^'' gaski?i'^ or ^'' second thigh^^ and should be well developed. The strong tendon running from the muscles at the back to the point of the hock is the ^'' hanistringJ' The hock should be a large joint with a prominent point. From the point, the tendons of the hind limb should drop straight to the fetlock, and if there is any bulging over the seat of curb, about five or six inches THE POINTS OF THE HORSE, ETC. 29 below the point, it should be due to the prominence of the bone in this neig"hbourhood and not to an enlargement of the tendons. The inside (best viewed from a point just outside the foreleg) should present a marked knob where the thigh bone terminates and from there slide gradually to the cannon without any very marked prominence over the seat of spavin. When the points of the hocks approach each other, instead of being in the perpendicular, they are termed '■'■ cow /locksJ' " Sickle hocks " are those which are too much bent, so that the line from the point of the hock to the ground slopes forwards. " Curby hock'*'' is an indefinite term used by some to denote the presence of curb, and by others to describe either a hock which they think likely to get a curb, or one which, owing to the prominence of the bone, looks as if it had a curb. When the thighs slope markedly backwards and the hock is further behind the animal than usual, the formation is termed " cat hamniedJ^ The hiiid-qiiarters^ providing as they do the propelling force for the The hind- body, must be muscular and of a size proportioned to the rest of the quarters, frame. For speed, length and depth of the quarter, with long, straight- dropped thighs and hocks, are required ; for strength, bulk is essential. In speedy horses width of the quarter is not so noticeable as length and depth, but it is a prominent feature in heavy breeds. Narrow, short quarters wanting muscle between the thighs i^'' split up^'') with cow hocks and cat hams are the worst types. The class of horses required for the Army may be generally described as follows : — Colours. — Whites and greys are only required for special purposes. Colours, and are always specially ordered. Other very light, or washy coloured horses are not accepted. Entire, unmanageable or vicious, crib-biters, windsuckers, parrot- mouthed, undershot, capped elbows, damaged knees, or horses with injured or deficient teeth are not admissible. Horses with short docks will not be accepted. Soundness in eyes, wind and limb essential ; no stale, upright, or overshot joints, and no curby hocks will be passed. The class required is a deep, short legged, short backed, good barrelled horse, of the hunter stamp, with substance and quality, true action, and going quite clear of the joints. The same description generally applies to cobs. Artillery, Engineers, and Army Service Corps should be good quality draught horses. Ages. — For peace, four off to six years ; for war, six to ten years. Ages. 30 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. Colours and Markings. It is necessary to note colours and markings exactlyas they are recorded for the purpose of identification. The colour of horses is markedly influenced by breed, and is also to some extent an index of character, though to this latter there are numerous exceptions. Breed, however, has a very general effect on colour, which is, of course, the more marked where selection is practised with a view to maintaining a peculiarity. The Cleveland bay is a well- known example, and also there may be cited the whole colour chestnut of the Suffolk punch, the black Belgian horse, the cream-coloured Hanoverian, and the dun Kattywar of India. Whatever the horse's colour it should be good of its sort and not ^^was/iy." This term is used to indicate the faded or washed out appearance of the coats of some horses, and it may be generally noted that the hair on the legs of such gets lighter towards the extremities — Jiiealy legs. When a choice is possible such colours should not be selected as they indicate a general want of hardiness. There is truth in the saying, " A good horse is never a bad colour," whichever way you apply it. The colours usually purchased for the service are bay, brown, black, and chestnut ; others which are not so commonly seen in the ranks being dun, grey, roan, piebald, and skewbald. Bay, ^.'?j horses vary from a light, golden or yellowish, which might almost be called a dun, to a very dark rich shade which merges into brown, and midway between these extremes we have the bright, blood bay with a coat the colour of polished mahogany. If it is a question as to whether the animal is bay or brown, the fine hair on the muzzle will show most distinctly which is correct. Whatever the shade, whether light, bright or dark, it should not be "washy," and where there is a change of colour towards the feet, it should become deeper than that of the body or black. Bay with black points is universally esteemed as a hardy colour, and usually associated with good working qualities. White markings are extremely common both on the faces and legs, but they do not as a rule become so exaggerated as is often the case with chestnuts, and occasionally a leg with a pepper and salt mixture of black and white hair from below the knee or hock downwards may be noted. Brown. Brown^ though usually a sufficiently distinctive colour to admit of ready description, may sometimes be difficult to distinguish from bay or THE POINTS OF THE HORSE, ETC. 3I black, and recourse must again be had to the hair of the muzzle to determine which is correct. As with bay, brown, to be a good colour, should tend to become black towards the feet. Blacky though a particularly attractive colour when it carries a sheen. Black, and the animal is in condition, is not, perhaps, so much esteemed as bay or brown. It is not now so common among our own horses as imported ones, and this, together with the fact that a rusty black or one out of condition always catches the eye at once, may account for the want of appreciation. It is uncommon among thorough-breds and Arabs, and extremely common in Belgium. Chestnuts may vary in colour from a dark, liver which approaches Chestnuts, brown, to a light, washy which is to be avoided. It is not usually found as a whole colour except in the Suffolk punch, and there is often a tendency for the white markings of the face and legs to become exaggerated. The colour is also very generally believed to be associated with a tear-away, headstrong disposition, and there is no doubt that some, especially those with much white about them, are impetuous and excitable ; on the other hand very many of the best horses are chestnuts, and so, perhaps, it may be only when the colour is conspicuous that it attracts attention. Diin^ varying from a mouse colour to a golden dun, is considered good Dun. for hard work, and sound constitution, especially when found with black points. Mule markings, down the back and across the shoulder, and ^ zebra stripes across the arms and thighs, are generally well marked on animals of this colour. It is not common in English horses, but is frequently met with in India. Greys are not usually purchased for remounts, as they are conspicuous against almost any background, but before rejecting a good horse for immediate service one should remember that they only get white with age, many being so dark when young as to look almost black, and yearly becoming whiter. It is common among the draught-horses of France, is a favourite colour among Arabs, particularly the variety known as " flea-bitten," but is unusual in English thorough-breds. Roans are of two classes, the " red,^' or " strawberry^'' and the Roans. '"'' bliie^^ ; and the appearance of tlie coat is produced by the intermingling of red, white, and yellow, or black, white, and yellow hairs respectively. They tend to get whiter with age in the same way as greys, but not in so marked a degree. The red roan is sometimes called " sorrel," and occasionally a chestnut roan may be met. A '''' piebald^^ is black and white, and a ''''skewbald''^ any other colour A "pie- and white, the colours being laid on in large patches all over the body. bald." 32 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. The marks. Star. Race.' Snip." Blaze." "Upper- lip," and " under- lip." "Ray" and "stripe."' Zebra marks. Saddle marks and girth marks. White hairs in the coat. The marks usually noted are as follows : — On the head. " Star^'' a white mark generally more or less rounded in the centre of the forehead ; it is further described as " large," " small," " irregular," or " faint," when necessary. "7v*<2., the inner side of the tooth not yet grown up level with the front. At two years to two years and three months there may be some sign of the centrals giving place to the permanent teeth which are to succeed them. The gum may be red and swollen and the teeth loose. Fir. 9. — l-ivej^ears. At 2 years, At two years and six months \\\^ central permanent incisors appear 6 months, and at three years they are in wear. At 3 years, At three years and six months \\i^\'\'it.x-d\ permanent incisors are cut 6 months, and at four years are in wear. At 4 years. At four years and six months the corner permanent teeth are cut and 6 months. diX five years are in wear, but not full)'. THE POINTS OF THE HORSE, ETC. 41 Between four and five years the tush is cut ; at first it has a sharp The tush, point and edges, but these gradually become rounded with age. At six years the corner teeth are in full wear over their whole surface, At six the marks are broad, but those of the central teeth are smaller, and show years, more wear than those of the laterals and the laterals more than the corners. The wearing surfaces of the teeth are broad ones, the centrals showing perhaps a tendency to become triangular. Fig. 10. — Six 3'ears. Wiih the mouth closed and looked at from the side the teeth are upright and meet each other squarely, the upper corner tooth projecting slightly beyond that of the lower jaw, at the posterior corner. From six years 07i'wards the changes are as follows : — Changes The marks get smaller, rounder, and may disappear from the central after six teeth at about ten years. In some teeth, however, they persist for much years. 42 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. Appear- ance of fang-hole. longer periods, the variation being due to the depth of the mark and the thickness of its enamel lining. The fcm^^-hole vi\7\kes its appearance on the wearing surface of the central teeth at about eight years, as a transverse line, in front of the mark. Fig. II.— Six years. With increasing age it becomes a "spot" rather than a line, and as the mark disappears it occupies the centre of the table. Changes of The shape of the wearhig surface becomes changed from the broad shape ol ^^^ ^^ triangular, the back of the tooth forming the apex of the triangle, wearing surface. THE POINTS OF THE HORSE, ETC. 43 The teeth become lo?iger and project fomvards with age, instead of Teeth get meeting each other in the perpendicular or nearly so. long and project. At and after seven there is a distinct notch on the upper corner Notch in incisor, where it overlaps its fellow in the lower jaw. It is frequently the corner broken off and sometimes removed by unscrupulous persons. tooth. 12. — Seven 3'ears. At ten years " Galvayne's mark," a depression on the outer side of the Gal- upper corner incisor, appears ; it reaches half way down the tooth at fifteen, vayne' to the bottom at twenty, is half grown out at twenty-five and disappears at mark, thirty. All changes appearing in the central teeth are seen in the laterals the following year and in the corners a year later. 44 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. The changes are given here for precise dates, but variations are considerable and can be learned by practice only. Bishoping. BisJwping is attempting to make an old mouth look younger, as follows : — The teeth are filed short and level, a false " mark " is gouged out of the centre of the table and blackened with caustic. Y\G. en years. The trick may be detected by : (i) closing the moulh, when the teeth will not meet naturally ; (2) by observing the absence of the enamel rim to the false mark and errors of its shape due to slips of the gouge ; (3) occasionally the traces of the rasp or file used to shorten the teeth are in evidence. THE POINTS OF THE HORSE, ETC. 45 Fig. i/j. — Fifteen years. (46) CHAPTER III. STABLE CONSTRUCTION AND FITTINGS. Site. The nature of the soil. Founda- tions. Aspect. While it is not essential that officers should possess a detailed knowledge of stable construction, they should undoubtedly have such acquaintance with the main points as will make their opinion of value when, as is the rule, a Board is assembled to decide on a site or whether newly completed stables are fit for occupation. Site. — The chief considerations in selecting a site for stables are : — Pure air ; good light ; dry foundation ; a good water supply ; facilities for free drainage. Prevailing winds, and the position of surrounding buildings are also points to be taken into account. The position of a stable site must frequently be a matter of necessity rafher than choice, but as it will depend on the location of barracks for men, it will undoubtedly be a healthy one. The nature of the soil is of the first importance — a sub-soil of gravel or deep sand offering the best prospect for a firm base, with free drainage and consequent dryness. Next to these self-draining soils, any rocky formation, such as limestone, chalk or granite, is suitable ; but stiff clay, deep loam, peaty and marshy soils are not naturally favourable and should it become necessary to occupy them, sub-soil drainage must be extensively adopted. Dryness means a well-aerated soil and ready drainage ; dampness means rapid decomposition of animal and vegetable matter, a sub-soil water near the surface, and no drainage in case of wet. Foimdations are artificial bases to give stability, wider than the intended structure, and deep in inverse proportion to the solidity of the natural formation. Where the sub-soil water is near the surface, they require draining, and in very damp localities the buildings may have to be raised on arches or piles. Concrete and JDrick jelly are the usual materials of which they are made. Aspect. — The buildings should be sheltered from the severest winds prevailing in the district, and not overshadowed by other structures to such an extent as to interfere with a full supply of pure air and sunlight. STABLE CONSTRUCTION AND FITTINGS. 47 Arrangcme7it. — Echelon lines are the ideal arrangement, but the site at Arrange- disposal rarely allows the extensive frontage this requires, and parallel ment. lines are almost as good. Either of these plans admits of each stdble or row of stables getting a free supply of air and light, which is the point desired. Small squares or enclosures are the worst models, as offering less perfect air supply, and greater chance of contagion when any form of sickness is prevalent. Walls should be at least twelve feet high to the spring of the roof, one Walls, and a half to two bricks thick, and damp proof. This latter condition is fulfilled by (i) a water-proof course of asphalt, or layer of vitrified brick, introduced in the wall a little above the ground level, or (2) by double walls with a space between. This space is liable to become a refuge for vermin, but affords good protection against damp from rain beatmg on exposed faces. Bricks measure 9 inches x 4^ inches x 2| inches, are extremely porous, and will hold nearly a pint of water. Roofs are flat or sloping. Flat roofs are found only when living rooms Roofs, or lofts are built overhead. They must be air-tight, to prevent the escape of heated, loul air from the stable into the rooms above, and they offer no means of natural roof ventilation. Sloping roofs without overhead rooms are by far the best, as their Sloping construction secures air space and light, besides admitting of ample roots, natural roof ventilation. Maidrials for 7'oofs : — ■ ]\Taterials (i) Tiles, either flat or pantiles, maintain an equal temperature and for roofs, afford roof ventilation, but are easily broken or loosened and become untidy and leaky. (2) Slates are fixed to the woodwork of the roof by two nails driven through each, and are not easily displaced, but they are as liable to breakage as tiles. Both tiles and slates make excel- lent roofs if kept in good repair and they should have an under roofing of boards. (3) Stone flakes are substituted for slates in some districts where stone is abundant, but are very heavy, clumsy and not to be recommended. (4) Thatched and tarred felt roofs are to be rejected on account ot their liability to fire, which is a fatal objection, though they have the advantage of being noiseless, and warm in cold climates. (5) Galvanized iron is baking in hot weather and freezing in cold ; it is also excessively noisy, but it is cheap, no trouble, and easily transported, so that it is in general use in recently developed countries or localities, where, in spite of its drawbacks, it is very 48 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. acceptable. It should in any case have a wooden inner roofing. Open Open roofs, i.e., without ceilings, may be closed along the ridge or roofs. jiave louvre board ventilation. Louvres consist of two or more over- lapping boards, separated from each other by a few inches, and set at such an angle that rain and snow cannot beat inwards. The pitch or slope of the roof which is necessary varies somewhat with the material employed, tiles which are thick requiring more than slate ; but an angle of forty-five degrees with the horizon may be regarded as a maximum. It is not possible to get all the qualities required in an ideal roof out of any one material at present in use, the desiderata being : an equable temperature in both hot and cold weather, noiselessness, non-inflammability and durability. Floors. Floors should be laid on a solid foundation, raised above the outside ground ; should slope from front to rear only so much as will admit of drainage to the back of the stall ; should be absolutely impervious to wet ; smooth, but not at all slippery, and durable. In the endeavour to comply with these requirements, a bed of concrete four to six inches thick should be first laid and the slope from the front to the rear of the stall made about one in sixty, i.e., a slope of not more than two inches in ten feet. Any floor not laid on concrete will sink in places, and harbour pools of urine. Materials Materials for paving : — for paving. ^j^ Cobblestones, set in cement, are uneven and never give the animal a good or level standing ; they are rarely laid on a concrete foundation and consequently sink in parts ; the supporting cement cracks and urine finds its way between. They are a bad flooring in every way. (2) Bricks are only suitable if thoroughly vitrified. Ordinary bricks are very porous, rapidly absorb moisture, wear quickly and unevenly, but are not slippery. Vitrified bricks, of which there are many kinds, are impervious to wet, but some of them wear very slippery. There are, however, others which do not become too glassy, and these make excellent paving ; " Candy," "blue Stafford," " Dutch," and "adamantine clinkers" being the names of familiar varieties. All such bricks are grooved on the upper surface with one or more lines and the edges chamfered, to give better foothold and facilitate stall drainage. Such patterns are very various, but two crossed lines on a brick which has chamfered edges appears to stai;le construction and fittings. 49 answer as well as any other device, and the multiphcation of grooves makes cleaning difficult. There is probably no vitrified brick which does not wear somewhat slippery, but on the whole they make the best paving. (3) Sto?ie slabs wear smooth and require constant re-chipping ; they also become cracked a good deal and cannot be called a good flooring. (4) Granite setts wear for a very long time, but want re-chipping frequently as they get smooth, and they never give a quite level standing. (5) Concrete is laid in several varieties, some of which are good, durable and non-slipping : but other samples are the reverse and require continual chipping to make them at all safe. (6) Asphalt is too easily affected by heat, and gets too slippery when wet to make a satisfactory stable paving, and especially is this the case when calkins are worn. (7) Wood blocks or any other materials which will absorb wet are quite unsuitable, although when treated with creosote the former may be very usefully employed in forges and outbuildings. Dimensions of stalls. — The dimensions laid down for the construction of Dimen- stable blocks are : — Normal breadth of block, with one row of stalls, sions ot 18 ft., with two rows, 31 ft. Height sufficient to give not less than ^'^^'^^• 1,500 cubic feet per horse. All stalls against external walls. Stalls 5 ft. 6 in. wide, centre to centre, and 1 1 ft. long from wall to centre of heel post. Crib-biter stalls 6 ft. in the clear between walls. Ventilation. The subject of ventilation is best studied here so that its bearing on the cubic space necessary may be fully appreciated. The object of ventilation is to change the air of a building frequently enough to keep it pure without allowing a draught to strike the occupants. Fresh air is Composi- approximately composed of — *^^°" °^ ^^^* Oxygen 2,099 Nitrogen 7)899 Carbonic acid ... 2 per 10,000 volumes. (b 10948) 50 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. Benefit of fresh air. Draught and chill. Tempera- ture of stable air. The amount of carbonic acid is very minute, but if it rises from 2 to 6 volumes per 10,000 the air is "very stuffy," while 6 to 8 volumes per 10,000 makes it " very offensive." The bearing of the quality of the air on the condition of the blood has been already noted (Respiration, p. 11), and unless a full supply of pure air is constantly afforded, the body is not so well able to perform hard work, or to resist the attack of disease as it otherwise would be. Unfortunately, this fact is not at once supported by the appearance of animals which are kept under the most insanitary conditions ; rather is the reverse the case. The horse which lives in a stuffy, ill-ventilated stable may look fatter and sleeker than the occupant of a cold, fresh one, and this is sufficient to make the fresh air stable unpopular with a large section of those whose credit to a varying extent may depend on the appearance of the animal. It is only when called on to undergo hardship or when some epidemic disease is prevalent that the difference in health and strength is noticeable, and these are the very conditions under which the soldier has most need of a really hardy mount. A practical and reliable test for the purity of the air in a stable is the effect produced on the sense of smell when entering it. If there is no apparent difference from the air outside it is satisfactory ; but if there is any stuffiness the ventilation is defective, and the air of the stable requires to be changed more frequently. Draught and chill. — A draught is a current of air passing through a confined space, like a building, at such a pace that it produces a feeling of cold when it strikes the skin. The effect of such a draught on a warm skin full of blood is to drive the blood into the internal organs and produce chill and shivering. The hotter the skin at the moment when the animal is exposed to the draught the greater is the danger of a chill. If the air has to be changed very often, its constant inrush will keep the animals in a perpetual draught, and as it is one of the chief objects of ventilation to avoid this, a considerable cubic space is necessary in order to keep the atmosphere pure without having to change it too frequently. Careful experiments have shown that although men can only bear three changes per hour, eight or ten in the same time is not too often for the horse's comfort or health, and a calculation based on that shows 1,500 to 1,600 cubic feet per head is sufficient, and is a convenient space in all respects. It may be objected that a stable ventilated to such a degree that it does not differ from the open air, will be extremely cold in winter, but this is really no objection ; the health of animals does not suffer from cold to anything like the same extent as that of men ; they stand varying temperatures remarkably well, and chills from standing in a draught STABLE CONSTRUCTION AND FITTINGS. 51 when heated and tired are really the only changes of temperature which are at all likely to produce sickness. In cold weather the heat and condition of the body should, if necessary, be maintained by extra food or clothing and not by allowing the occupants of a stable to breathe an atmosphere heated by the emanations from their own bodies and the exclusion of fresh air. Means for ventilation. — Doors. — Stable doors are valuable additions Means for to, but can hardly be regarded as permanent means of ventilation, since ventila- the tendency is always to keep them shut. They should be kept open as ^°"" much as possible, especially when the stable is empty, so that the floors may be well aerated. When there are doors at each end of the building, one may usually be kept open throughout the day, or, where half doors are fitted, the top half certainly can. Windows. — These are the main inlets for fresh air, and to get the full Windows, benefit from them they should be arranged along both outer walls of the stable, one over each stall. Stable windows should be hinged from the lower edge, or centre, so that they may be opened with an inward slant. The " Sheringham," hinged at the lower edge, is the most suitable pattern, and is fitted to all modern troop stables. With windows on each side of the stable, those to the leeward should always be kept open, and in calm weather those on both sides. The amount of inlet space required per horse is not less than one square foot. The direction taken by a current of air entering a stable is determined Direction by the slant of the inlet through which it comes, so that with a window taken by sloping inwards it will be thrown up, well over the animals standing ^''^A" immediately underneath ; and since it is somewhat cooler, and therefore ^'^ ^^" heavier than the rest of the stable air, it will descend and be spread among those on the opposite side. The advantage of this is that the air is well diffused and slightly warmed before it reaches the animals, and risk of draught is avoided. Loiivre-boards are fitted under the ridge of the roof, and act as Louvre- outlets for the heated foul air. They should be sufficiently broad and boards, overlapping, and set at an angle acute enough to prevent rain beating in. They should be permanently fixed open ; if movable they will always be shut. Ventilating cowls and tubes. — With overhead rooms, or where louvre- Ventilat- boards are not fitted to open roofs, the foul air can be extracted by i"g cowls means of various cowls and tubes, which are so constructed that the wind ^"^ tubes passes over an upward slant or through a narrow slit and creates a continual vacuum below, thus drawing up the foul air. Any patterns which permit birds to nest in them, or which do not act equally well (b 10948) D 2 52 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. from whatever direction the wind blows, are useless. The pattern adopted in the Service, viz., Boyle's, is very good. Where there is only a single row of windows, or if for any other reason the inlets for fresh air are insufficient, inlet cowls may be utilised for the introduction of an extra supply. The openings of the cowls are so arranged that the oncoming wind strikes a surface with a downward slope, and so is led to the interior of the stable. A double tube, the inner an extractor and the outer an inlet, is sometimes employed, but tubes of all descriptions are inferior to windows and louvre-boards properly arranged, and should only be found in troop stables when the latter means are lacking ; at the best they are not so efficient, and there is always the chance of vermin or dust blocking the openings. Tobin's tube is another means of adding to the inlets. The outer opening is low down on the exterior of the stable wall, and from it the tube passes through the wall and upwards, opening on the inside at a height considerably above its entry ; by this the temperature of the air is somewhat raised before it reaches the horse, and by a slight variation of the detail, heel posts and stall partitions are sometimes converted into ventilating shafts. Drainage. The requirements for efficient stable drainage are quite simple : viz. a stall level from side to side, but sloping sufficiently (1-60) from front to rear, to admit of urine flowing to the back of the standing ; a shallow, open, surface drain behind the stalls to convey the collected fluid to the outside drain or sewer. In order that the standing may be as level as possible, the stalls should not slope more than will allow the urine to run off, and the drain at the back should be quite open and as shallow as the quantity of fluid to be carried will allow. If it is a very long stable this drain may be made to slope from the centre towards both ends — a hog-backed drain. Closed and underground drains, although very usual in good-class private stables, are a mistake ; their contents cannot be seen, it is true, but they have no other recommendations, and as they hide the drainage from view it is frequently forgotten, with the result that they become foul and choked from neglect. A drain in the centre of the stall is also a mistake, as in addition to the faults just enumerated, it necessitates a standing which slopes to the centre, instead of a level one. Private owners, for the sake of appearance, will have covered and stall drains, but they are more trouble and less useful and effective than open ones. Where they are in use they STABLE CONSTRUCTION AND FITTINGS. 53 should have removable covers and be freely accessible. All drains should be free of sharp angles, any change of direction being made by curved pipes or " bends." Where the stable drainage runs into the outside drain or sewer, a " trap " Traps, is placed to 'prevent the return of sewer gases. The principle on which Simple Syphon Fig. 15. Stcybie Trt^p Gulley Fig. 16. Water level. Receptacle to catch sediment. Fig. 17. 3. Flap reaching below water level. 4. Gratings to catch solids. traps are constructed is to place a body of water between the stable air and the sewer air and so prevent the return of the latter. There are many varieties of traps, but the principle is the same in all, and the diagrams appended will help to explain it. Whatever pattern of trap is adopted, it is imperative that the water seal. Water i.e.^ the body of water interposed between the stable and sewer, is of seal. 54 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. sufficient volume to prevent any slight gas pressure overcoming it. To further prevent any risk of sewer air entering a building, all drains should be ventilated on the sewer side, and the outlet of the ventilator carried upwards above the roof of the building ; a disconnecting syphon should be interposed between the stable drain and the sewer. Stable Fittings. Stable doors. Latches. Windows. Stable doors should be eight feet high, and four or eight feet wide, according to whether the men have to lead single horses or pairs through them. Too narrow a door has been the cause of many accidents, both to horses and men, the former striking and frequently breaking their hips, and the latter getting trodden on or squeezed against the door posts. Two low a door has probably been responsible for more casualties in the past than it is likely to give rise to in the future, as there is a noticeable improvement in this respect in recently constructed stables, and eight feet is not too high to prevent the chance of a startled horse throwing up and striking its head. The door may be hinged or made to traverse on rollers ; hinged doors should open outwards to permit free entrance if the animal stands in the doorway, and also to guard against accidents from striking the half- closed door. The hinges should be | shaped, the horizontal arm reach- ing well across the door to support its weight, and a suitable swing back stop should be fitted to prevent it banging to. Half doors, the top and bottom portions opening separately, are excel- lent for stables. The top half can usually be left open — on the lee side at any rate — for ventilation ; and when fitted to loose boxes, the occupant can look out. In this latter case the lower part should be high enough to exclude the possibility of jumping over. Traversing doors should be hung on rollers from above and fitted with large smooth handles, in which a loose horse cannot get hung up. Latches should be strong, easily turned and with large flush handles, which offer no projections for loose horses to get hung upon. Wmdows have been to some extent described under the heading of ventilation. They should be on the Sheringham principle, i.e., hinged along their lower border so that they open with an inward slant. There cannot be too much light in a stable, and if possible each animal should have a window over his stall, the lower edge eiyht feet from the floor and fastened by some method which leaves no rope or projection for the horse to play with or get entangled in. Sash windows are unsuitable for ^tables. STABLE CONSTRUCTION AND FITTINGS. 55 Partitions and bails. — In military stables partitions exist as a rule Partitions only where stalls and loose boxes join ; in front they should prevent and bails, horses seeing or touching each other, and be high enough behind to absolutely stop all chance of an animal kicking over the top. Bails are the usual fittings for the separation of stalls in large stables of all descrip- tions, and they may range in design from a simple wood or iron pole lo a deep, heavy boarding, occupying the rear half of the stall. The bail is either suspended from the manger in front and the stall post behind, or hung from the roof. With heavy patterns the former is the stronger method, but either is suitable for poles. A simple pole, of wood or iron, is a sufficient stall division as long as the horses are quiet, but however it is arranged it can be but little protection against kickers. The most suitable height is probably mid- way between hock and stifle, which will give as much protection as possible to the animal attacked, and if the aggressor kicks over it, will injure him as little as may be. A quick release hook should be fitted to all bails, but springs which act automatica.lly, when extra weight is placed on them, are to be avoided ; they become weak, and ultimately drop the bail on the least touch. Deep, heavy bails of boarding, swinging about two inches clear of the floor, and reaching half way up the stall, are much better protection against kickers : they must be strong and solid so that they do not swing too much when struck, or break from the force of the blow. In fitting heavy bails care must be taken that they are close enough to the ground to prevent a hoof being entrapped beneath them. Kicking boards may be attached to pole bails, to aff'ord extra protec- Kicking tion. These are simply a single or double depth of boards, preferably boards, double, which are hinged to the under surface of the rear half of the bail : they do not prevent all kicking accidents, but are a very desirable addition to the ordinary bail, easily attached and moved when necessary. Of whatever pattern the bails are, they should be of the strongest materials ; the wood employed must be of a tough grain and at least a double thickness of board is desirable. Horses kick very hard, and if the wood breaks the offender is not only encouraged, but the chance of more serious accidents is incurred, if a leg gets through the gap made. Ma?igers are now made entirely of iron. They should be large, broad, Mangers, with a perfectly smooth surface, and all corners well rounded. An over- hanging lip to prevent food being wasted when the horse scatters it by blowing or nuzzling in it, is sometimes found, but it lends itself to accumulating dirt unless well attended to. Broad, shallow mangers are to be preferred to deep, narrow ones, as the greedy horse cannot plunge 56 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. his mouth deeply into the food and seize large mouthfuls, and deliberate mastication is more likely to be obtained. The rim of the manger should be sufficiently broad to prevent it being seized by the teeth, as this encourages crib-biting. The height of the manger for a full-sized horse should be about three feet six inches from the ground. Ha3'racks. Hayracks should be on the same level as the mangers, and not as may be seen in many old-fashioned stables, above the horse's head. In this latter position, the animal was constantly exposed to the risk of getting dust and fragments of hay in his eyes, and in addition an undue proportion of the ration was wasted by his pulling it down, when it was trampled underfoot and soiled as he reached for more. Where all the hay is fed as chop, a hayrack is of course unnecessary, and a manger running the entire breadth of the stall serves the double purpose. Open racks of all patterns are of necessity wasteful, as quantities get pulled out between the bars, trampled and soiled ; and for this reason a deep receptacle without open bars in front, and which can only be entered from the top is a more economical pattern. The importance of all the fittings, such as latches, window fastenings, &c., in a stable being flush with the walls or woodwork, or at any rate not offering any projections on which a chance loose horse can tear himself, cannot be over-estimated, and for the same reason no nails should be driven into the walls. Horses which get loose during the night always appear to have the faculty of finding and wounding themselves on any rough or sharp projection in the stable. Gas or electric light fittings should be well out of reach, and protected from the chance of fire. (57) CHAPTER IV. STABLE MANAGEMENT. Grooming. The objects of groomi?ig are cleanliness, prevention of disease and The improvement of the animal's condition and appearance, the whole of which objects of results may be sufficiently attained for the troop horse by a good brushing grooming. and wisping once a day. The necessity for and the amount of grooming required varies with the conditions under which animals are placed ; the better they are fed and the faster the pace expected of them when at work the greater should be the amount of care expended on getting the skin into perfect condition. Grooming may therefore be limited to the amount necessary for cleanliness and health, or it may be prolonged and amplified, with the object of increasing the power of the skin to work at high pressure, and this latter is the benefit which is derived from hand-rubbing and wisping, i.e.^ massage. The importance of grooming as a preventive of disease must not be A pre- underrated ; whilst it is quite true that mange and many other diseases ventive of are not produced by dirt, it is nevertheless equally true that they are most ai^^^se. frequently met with, spread with greater rapidity, and are much more difficult to eradicate where dirty conditions prevail, and the regular brush- ing and cleansing of the coat is an undoubted preventive. The relation of regular exercise to the amount of grooming required is Grooming another matter which should be kept in mind. It is a well-known fact ^"^ . that an idle horse is always more difficult to clean than one which is at exercise, work ; indeed it is almost impossible to keep some skins free from scurf and grease when the horse is idle, and this liability to accumulate skin dirt is of course greater with corn-fed horses than those at grass. The idle horse therefore requires even more attention and thoroughness as regards grooming than his fellow at work, whilst regular exercise is, in addition to its other benefits, a labour-saving procedure. Extra grooming, especially massage of any variety, has a great effect in improving the general condition, and is a point which has always received the greatest attention from those who train animals for 58 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. Grooming tools. Body brushes. any form of severe and prolonged exertion. It must be borne in mind that all working horses are kept under purely artificial conditions. They receive an amount of food which is very far in excess of their bodily requirements and which is converted into the extra energy which enables them to produce the work required ; whereas in a natural state they eat no more than sustains them, take little more exercise than enables them to change pasture and only carry their body weight. The extra food consumed and work done produce greater and more rapid changes throughout the body than would otherwise result. The digestion is called on to perform much more work in the same time, and the blood has an increased quantity of nourishment poured into it ; at the same time the work, which is rendered possible by the increased nutriment, creates a large amount of extra waste, which is got rid of by the lungs breathing more rapidly, the kidneys and bowels working at increased pressure and the skin throwing off more material in the sweat and dandruff. The amount got rid of by the skin is very considerable and increases enor- mously when exertion is severe and sustained, so that when the condition required is for the production of fast work it is essential that the skin should be in as good fettle and as well trained as the rest of the body. Grooming therefore is one of the means which help to make and keep the body fit as well as clean. Grooffiing tools. — The grooming tools supplied in the service are body brushes, curry combs, rubbers and sponges. Wisps are to be made by the men as required, and every man should be taught how to do so. Dandy brushes are occasionally supplied, but are not usually issued : their use, however, is so general, that a description of them and their employment is included, as well as other articles usually found in stables with which all horsemen should be familiar. Body brushes are made of stout bristles or vegetable fibre and have a broad hand-loop of webbing across the back to prevent the brush slipping from the grasp. The use of the body brush is to remove scurf and dirt from the coat, and for this purpose the bristle brushes are far superior to those made of fibre. Fibre, however stiff at first, ultimately flattens down from the continued pressure on the brush and is then useless ; bristles, on the other hand, though more expensive, do not bend, but simply wear shorter, and retain their upright position till worn down to the back. It is well to remember that as bristles get shorter they become less pliant and stififer, so that a half-worn brush is a very prickly article to bring down hard on a tender, ticklish skin, and should be used with consideration. In England, all body brushes are made of bristles, fibre brushes are sometimes issued at stations abroad. STABLE MANAGEMENT. 59 Curry combs.— 'Y\\t service pattern of curry comb consists of several Curry straight, blunt toothed blades in a metal back, with a broad loop of combs, webbing for the purpose of securing it on the back of the hand. It is essential that the teeth should be smooth and blunt, and in the service pattern they are rounded at the top and bottom. This prevents the bristles being unduly worn away when the comb is used to clean the body brush, and also guards against injury to the skin when used for the removal of dirt. Other patterns have wooden handles, and some have a series of curved springy blades, instead of the straight rigid ones usually met with. At the sides small projections of the blades are seen on many patterns for the purpose of knocking on the ground when dislodging dirt from the back. Use of the curry comb. — In the service the use of the curry comb on Use of the the skin is generally prohibited, and its utility is confined to cleansing curry the body brush of scurf. To effect this, only an occasional rub on the comb, brush is necessary, but its use is much abused by lazy men, who make a great show of cleaning the brush and do little work with it on the skin, the result being that the brush is quickly worn out. The dirt should be dislodged by knocking the side of the comb on the floor behind the horse, where it can be seen and swept up, and is evidence of the man's diligence. Blowing the scurf out of the comb is a dirty plan which is not to be practised ; it results in the dust being breathed by the horses or settling again on the coats from which it has just been removed. Outside the service the curry comb is a recognised instrument of grooming. With light horses its use is as a rule limited to the removal of caked dirt and mud, but with vanners and in commercial stables generally the animals are groomed all over with it, and subsequently brushed with a dandy brush. The method has a good deal to recommend it where time is an object ; it is quick, effective, does not in any way injure the skin, and seeing that this is the case, some discretion may be allowed in its employment. Water brushes are made of longer, finer, and softer bristles than body Water brushes. They are intended for damping the mane and tail, and brushes, washing the feet and legs ; but they are often used dry for grooming fine- coated, ticklish horses, and are certainly very useful for grooming the head and face. When employed for washing feet, their use should be confined to the hoof only, wetting of the legs being prohibited as a routine. Dandy brushes are made of stiff v/hisk fibre. Outside the service Dandy they are in general use as a grooming brush, and, as a matter of fact, are brushes. 6o ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. Mane combs. Sweat scrapers. Sponges. Rubbers. A wisp. Rough coir gloves and leather pads. most useful in any stable. On light horses their use is as a rule limited to the removal of hard caked dirt, the rest of the grooming being performed with the body brush, but in commercial stables they are often the only brush used, and are employed in conjunction with a free use of the curry comb. Their use saves time and labour and they are most efficient instruments of grooming. Mane combs are made of horn or metal, with deep, broad teeth ; though convenient, they are not actually necessary and, if they are not very carefully used, tear out and break the hair considerably. Sweat scrapers are long flexible blades of smooth metal, with a handle at each end by means of which the lather of a sweating horse may be conveniently and quickly removed. Another variety has a central handle with a rigid curved blade, but the pattern is not so good as the flexible one, since the rigid blade does not adapt itself to the curves of the body so well ; they are not necessary in troop stables. Sponges are commonly used during grooming for the eyes, lips, nostrils and dock. Though the convenience of sponges for this purpose is undoubted, they should invariably be prohibited on the appearance of any contagious disease, as they are one of the commonest channels by which infection is spread. Rubbers are generally used to give the coat a final polish after the rest of grooming is completed, and a damp rubber may, with advantage, take the place of a sponge whenever possible, since it can be easily disinfected and cleaned by boiling, a process which ruins sponges. A wisp is a pad of hay or straw, made by twisting the material into a rope and doubling it into a convenient-sized pad as described below. Its proper use, which is really a form of massage, is a most valuable method for improving the condition of the skin and coat. To make a wisp, soft hay or straw should be twisted into a convenient-sized rope about eight to ten feet long ; two loops are then formed at one end, one being very slightly longer than the other. Each of these loops in turn, is then twisted beneath the remainder of the rope until the end is reached, when it is passed through the extremity of each loop, and tucked under one of the twists. A really good wisp should be no wider than can be conveniently grasped by the hand, about a foot long and two or three inches thick ; some little practice is necessary to make one really well. Rough coir gloves and leather pads stuffed with hair are sometimes used for the same purpose, the latter (tappees) being in common use as a grooming tool in India. STABLE MANAGEMENT. 6l Time for ^s;7'oojning. — As a matter of appearance and cleanliness, Time for horses should be " quartered " (lightly groomed) before going to exercise, grooming, but the "strapping," i.e.^ thorough grooming, is best carried out on Fig. I! "A Wisp." Commencement, showing two loops formed from one end of rope, and method of twisting the other around them. Fig. 19. Completed (semi-diagrammatic). return from work, unless this has been of a very exhausting nature, when horses are better let alone until recovered from fatigue. Method of grooming to be adopted. — The horse must be cool and dry. Method of Commencing at one side of the Heck immediately behind the ear, the grooming to be adopted. 62 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. coat should be thoroughly brushed out, the brush moving the way the hair lies as a rule, though in order to get out hard dirt or scurf it is sometimes necessary to brush in a circular direction. To use the brush with the best effect, the man should stand well away, keep his arm stiff, and lean the weight of his body on the brush, which should be placed gently on the skin and not brought down with a bang, especially on a thin-skinned, ticklish horse. If the man stands close, with a bent elbow, and brushes with his arm only, he does not force the bristles or fibres through the coat so well, or remove the scurf so effectually. Having completed one side, the other is gone over in the same manner, starting from the neck. The legs may be done at the same time or separately, after the body is completed. The horse is now turned round in the stall, the head and mane brushed and eyes and nostrils cleaned if necessary. Finally he is put about again, the tail is brushed out and the whole coat wisped and given a final polish with a rubber. In grooming the head it is well to use a soft brush if one is obtainable, and for this purpose a dry water brush is frequently requisitioned ; it is further to be noted that a good groom is careful not to knock the skin with the wooden edge of the brush when going over the bony projections of the head and legs. Wisping. Wishing as previously stated, is a form of massage. It stimulates the skin generally, bringing plenty of blood into it, and producing a vigorous circulation. In particular it has a great effect on the oil glands of the hair, increasing their output, and thereby giving a marked gloss to the coat. The wisp should be brought down with a bang on the skin, in the direction of the hair, and the process repeated all over the body. Hand- Hand-rubbi7ig is another excellent form of massage and is specially rubbing, useful for removing the loose hair of the coat as well as stimulating the skin. The hands are slapped down smartly on the coat one after the other, and the weight of the body leant upon them and the forearms, whilst both are moved over the skin with firm pressure. It is a method not much employed in England, but is much practised in the East, and is of such undoubted value that it should be generally adopted when time permits. Hand-rubbing the legs and "stripping" the ears, i.e.^ pulling them gently through the hand from base to apex, are both details which should not be neglected, and in the case of the legs, brisk, but gentle rubbing with the fingers and palms in the direction of the hair is an excellent stimulant to the circulation of the limbs. For the removal of loose hairs by rubbing, the hands and arms should be kept slightly damp. Time Given a clean horse in the first instance and brought in cool, a hearty occupied, man will complete his toilet thoroughly with brush, wisp, and hand- STABLE MANAGEMENT. 63 rubbing, well under an hour, and do both himself and the horse credit. Length of time occupied is no criterion of the quality of work done, and quick, hard grooming should be encouraged in every way. Brushing the rnanc. — If the hair is at all damp, matted or kinked, it Brushing should be brushed till well separated, and then, commencing at the ^^^ mane, highest point of the withers and keeping the horse's head low, so as not to dirty the part already cleaned, it should be taken a lock at a time and brushed out from the roots. To thin the fnafie. — This should only be done when the hair is so To thin thick as to be intractable, and is accomplished by taking a few hairs at a the mane, time from the under surface, freeing them from the rest, and pulling them out quickly. The hairs on the upper surface should not be touched. When sufficiently thinned, the mane should be brushed out and the ends made level by simply plucking them with the fingers. On no account should they be cut with scissors, or the appearance will be spoiled. To lay the inane, — As a rule, water-brushing the mane when cleaned To lay and tying a rubber cornerwise over it is all that is requisite to make it lie the mane, tidily ; but when this is insufficient it may be wetted, plaited in locks, and small weights tied along the ends of the plaits. Very intractable manes can be made to lie by plastering down with wet clay, which easily washes oft when dry, and, after a few repetitions, leaves the hair in the required state ; or a mane layer may be used for the same purpose. A mane layer may be made as follows : — A round stick about the diameter of a broom stick is cut into lengths of six inches ; these are sawn down the centre and a thumb screw fitted through each end to form a clamp ; the flat surfaces are lined with a piece of thin corrugated rubber and the lengths are then clamped on the mane, their weight causing it to lie as required. Hogging the inane. — When " hogging " is practised, the hair should Hogging be cut from each side and carefully edged off to avoid a sharp clipping the mane, line against the hair of the neck ; the forelock should be left both for appearance sake and as a natural eye fringe, and if a mounting lock is required it should be a large one, or it will rapidly pull out and look untidy. Grooming the tail. — The hair of the tail should be treated like the Grooming mane, brushed out from the roots lock by lock for cleanliness, and finally the tail, straight down for appearance. To bang the tail. — Place the hand under the dock to raise it into the To bang position in which it is carried when the animal is moving, and having the tail, determined the right length, an assistant should gather the hair firmly together with a double grasp, holding it quite straight, with the spot to be cut showing between his hands. The cut should then be made with the 64 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. shears inclined a trifle upwards, so that the outer hairs of the tail may be a little longer than those nearest the legs. Troop horses' tails should be banged such a length that they reach within six inches of the points of the hocks when moving, and if the dock is too short to admit of this, they should be left as long as possible consistent with neatness. Tails should not be combed unless a " swish " is required, as it breaks and pulls out the hair. Wet and iVet atid sweating horses should be dried before being groomed or sweating j^fj.^ j£ ^-j^gy ^j-g ^^^^ from rain, wisping with hands full of loose straw horses. ^^^ brisk friction with the rubber subsequently, is a good method of making them warm and dry. A sweating horse should be led about till dry, scraped and wisped as above, or allowed to roll in a sand bath (p. 78), and, if the weather permits, he should not be brought into the stable till he is quite cool. With troops, the return of horses from work wet with sweat can generally be avoided by walking the last part of the return journey. Sweat patches under the saddlery should be dried immediately the saddle is removed, or have some covering left on the back till they are cool. " Breaking out," that is, sweating in patches, is occasionally observed after drying or grooming in hot weather ; the patches should be again dried, and if they recur, the animal may be led out into the open for a little while. The condition occurs most frequently in horses which are not fit, but some animals constantly exhibit it. fo judge To judge the clea7ilmcss of a horse the hand may be passed the the reverse way of the hair, to get a view of the skin, and the points of the fingers cleanliness j-^j^ firmly against the set of the coat, when lines of grey are left on a o a orse. ^^^^^ ^Yya and the points of the fingers are likewise covered with scurf. Between the branches of the under jaw, under the crown piece of the head collar, the bends of the knees and hocks, under the belly and between the fore legs and thighs are the places usually scamped when the work is not thorough, and should be looked at when the horse is being passed. Other stable details which may be included under " grooming " are washing of the mane, tail, and sheath, and picking out the feet. Washing The mane and tail may be washed with soap and water when necessary the mane to remove greasy dirt. Rubbing the tail is not uncommon, and is and tail. generally due to its dirty condition, the irritability being in such cases removed by a good washing and subsequent brushing. Washing The sheath should be washed occasionally, and some horses require the sheath, it oftener than others, especially those that stale without drawing the penis, a habit which is generally induced by the accumulation of dirt. At STABLE iMANAGEMENT. 65 certain seasons of the year, and in hot climates particularly, the prevalence of maggots from the attacks of flies renders a close attention to this detail very desirable. The feet should be picked out thoroughly at every stable hour, and on Picking return from work. It is a detail which does not always receive the care out the it should, as, apart from the necessity of cleanliness, the sole of the hoof feet, is so liable to injury, from accidents at work, that very frequent inspection of it should be made. The most convenient form of hoof-picker is a strong, blunt iron spike or hook, and in use its point should not be forced down the sides or cleft of the frog with more vigour than is necessary to remove the dirt. Any sharp -pointed instrument is unsuitable for this purpose. Washing of the hoof, when required, should if possible be done outside the stable, and the legs should not be wetted during the operation. Washing stable brushes. — It is occasionally necessary to thoroughly Washing wash stable brushes, either to get rid of accumulated grease, or as a stable precaution against spreading disease. The usual method by which this brushes, is accomplished, namely, boiling the brush or soaking it in a tub of hot water, ruins the article by separating the back, and causes avoidable waste. The brushes should have the backs scrubbed with soap and water and wiped dry, the bristles should be " dapped" in hot, strong, soda water till free from grease, and then similarly dipped in strong brine. The latter process is essential to reharden the bristles which become soft in water or soda water. After cleaning they should be stood, bristles down, till dry. Instead of " dapping'' they may be stood in shallow trays of soda and salt water, but the backs should not be immersed. Washing Horses. The washing of horses as a general practice is to be strongly Washing condemned. In cold and changeable, temperate climates, it may very the bodj-. easily lead to sickness, and even in warm and equable temperatures its practice is not always unattended with danger. The only purposes for which the use of water, or soap and water, is necessary on the body of the healthy horse is for the removal of dirt stains which will not groom off, and for the occasional cleansing of the mane and tail and hoofs. The dangers which washing may give rise to are not, however, due to the wetting of the skin, but to want of attention to the subsequent drying ; and in all cases where it is found necessary to wash, too much care cannot be bestowed on making sure that the animal is thoroughly dried, (b 10948) E 66 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. Washing the legs and belly. Cracked heels. Mud fever. Washing white legs, and the warmth of the skin kept up, or a chill may result. The use of soap removes a great proportion of the usual greasiness of the coat, and consequently some of nature's protection from cold, and until this is restored an unusual liability to chills is present, which can only be gua/ded against by thorough drying and protection from draughts. From the same cause, i.e.^ removal of the natural grease, the coat of the washed horse is dull and wants the glossiness which it would otherwise carry. Washing of the body, then, should be prohibited as a rule, except for the special purposes mentioned, and should it be necessary at any time to break the rule, the greatest care should be taken to dry the skin thoroughly, clothe the animal warmly for the time ; and keep it out of draughts. Washing the legs and belly on return from work in order to get rid of mud is frequently followed by stiffness and cracking of the surface (chapping). This is more likely to happen if warm water is used or when the weather is cold, and especially when there is a keen wind ; it is most common in the heels, legs and bellies of horses which are washed on return from work. When confined to the hollow of the heel, the condition is called "cracked " or "greasy heel," the latter term originating from the fatty nature of the discharge from the oil glands of the skin which collects round the injury. On the legs and belly it is commonly attributed to the irritation of mud, and is frequently called "mud fever." The condition is a serious one and may incapacitate horses for long periods, but it may be practically banished from the stable by prohibiting the routine washing of legs and feet. Mud should be left till dry, and then brushed off. It has been stated that animals with white legs are more frequent sufferers from cracked heels than others, and this is no doubt the case ; but it is not on account of weakness or peculiarity of the white skin, but owing to the fact that it is more frequently washed. There must, however, be occasions on which it becomes necessary for the sake of appearance to wash white legs, and if they are thoroughly dried no harm results as a rule. The drying must, however, be quite thorough, and the circulation of the part well maintained by brisk rubbing. It is a good plan to rub a little bran over the washed surface to thoroughly absorb all moisture, or where peat moss is in use, a handful of clean moss dust, which does not stain the skin will answer the same purpose. In no case should any washing be permitted without special sanction on each occasion. Washing the hoofs both round the wall and on the sole is occasionally required as a matter of cleanliness after the STABLE MANAGEMENT. 67 feet have been picked out. It is not necessary to do it as a matter of routine, and whenever possible it should be done outside the stable. Horses at work take no harm from rain and may be ridden through Wetting water with impunity, because the natural greasiness and subsequent ^""^T" '^^'^ exertion of the journey keep up the circulation and warmth of the wetted harmful skin till it is dry again. Occasionally horses which are turned to grass will be found with cracked heels from wet and exposure to wind whilst grazing, and the same thing may sometimes happen in camp ; but both causes are infrequent as compared with washing. Clipping. Under natural conditions the horse's thick winter coat provides him with an extra warm covering during the time that the weather is cold and food scarce. The extra warmth of the long, thick hair, added to the increased greasiness always found under a heavy ungroomed coat, keeps the body warm and so helps considerably to maintain the weight and condition. If, however, horses are required to work hard, the coat becomes a Clipping positive drawback, adding considerably to the exhaustive nature of the improves labour, keeping the animal in a constant sweat and preventing rapid working drying of the skin after exertion— as a result it is found that a loss of Po^vers. condition is inevitable. On the other hand, a clipped horse not only maintains condition, but is capable of a greater amount of work with less distress and is, moreover, dried and cleaned with much less labour and risk of chills. There is, then, every reason why army horses should be clipped if they are required to work during the winter ; the only question to consider is whether the clip shall be whole or partial, and on this point Clipping all are not entirely agreed. Horses working at a walk only are some- the bodj'. times clipped " trace high," z>., on the legs and belly only, but this method cannot be entertained for any horse which is called on to work at a faster pace. It is the custom with many horse owners to leave a " saddle patch ' on Clipping the back as a protection against saddle galls, and to allow the hair of the the back, legs to remain untouched, with a view to preventing injuries from thorns, or cracked heels. Experience, however, shows that while saddle patches make the back sweat considerably, their value as a preventive of saddle injuries is open to considerable question, and as far as troop horses are concerned they should be dispensed with ; for if the hair is to be left over the large area covered by the service saddlery, the object of clipping Clipping cannot be fully attained. Leaving hair on the legs makes them harder to ihe legs. (b 10948) E 2 68 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. Clipping lightens labour. The operation of clipping. Period for clipping. dry and clean, but if the back of the fetlocks and tendons be neatly trimmed, this may be left to the discretion of the officer concerned. An argument which is sometimes advanced for not removing the hair from the back of the fetlock is that it acts as a natural drain for water when the animal sweats or is wet. Again, experience shows that with heavy-coated horses wet through from sweat or weather, those with trimmed legs do not suffer more from cracked heels than those with a long coat, and are certainly easier to dry and clean. Altogether apart from its beneficial effect on the horse's condition and working power, clipping enables the men to dry and clean wet and dirty animals better, quicker, and with less labour ; and in considering the question as a whole this point should not be lost sight of. The attempt to dry and groom a pair of muddy, soaking, heavy-coated horses is a heart-breaking finale to a day's work, which should be avoided if possible. The operatio7i of dipping. — Whether the hand or power clipper is used, some little skill is necessary to produce the best results, and as the tooth blades of all cutters are hard tempered and very accurately adjusted, they are easily broken and frequently found out of order unless carefully handled. In using the hand clipper the pressure exerted on the skin should be quite even throughout or the result will be " ridgy," and the right hand, which operates the blades, should do so without any pressure whatever. Care must be taken not to cut any of the mane and tail hair, and when the legs are left undipped the appearance is enhanced by slanting the boundary line from the back of the elbow upwards to the front of the fore arm, where there is a natural dip in the limb. If the power clipper is used, the driving machine should be placed in such a position that it cannot be knocked over by any unexpected movement of the animal, or a barrier should be erected to protect it. With either variety the blades must be kept free from accumulating scurf and dirt, occasional brushing and wiping with a little paraffin oil being all that is required. In trimming the back of the fetlocks when the hair of the legs is left on, the back of the joint should be clipped quite short, and the length of the hair above and around gradually edged off. When skilfully done there should be no apparent ridge to indicate where the clipping ended. With modern clippers singeing is unnecessary, but as a matter of appearance, a lamp may be run over the animal occasionally to keep down rapid-growing hairs, which give a ragged look to the coat. Period for clippitig. — Horses may be clipped with advantage from the time their coat thickens in the autumn until their summer coat shows signs of coming in the spring. The frequency of the operation will STABLE MANAGEMENT. 69 probably depend on the time, labour, and number of machines available. If there is no limit to these, the machine should be run over the coat every time it shows at all long, and frequent clipping certainly keeps animals smart in appearance, as well as giving the other advantages already enumerated. Where, however, labour and machines are limited, it will be found most advantageous to clip at the beginning ot winter, say November, and again about the New Year. The idea that the summer coat is entirely spoilt by clipping after the New Year is not in accordance with fact and, provided it is otherwise convenient, the process may be carried on till the winter coat shows signs of coming out, when hand- rubbing should be relied upon to remove its remnants. This period will vary with the severity of the season and the individual animal. Some animals are, in fact, clipped all the year round and carry quite good coats. The benefit which animals voyaging from a cold to a hot climate at a Clipping time when their coats are thick derive from clipping en route is evident, on a It is true that the long coat falls off naturally under these circumstances, voyage, for the hair rapidly adapts itself to changes of climate, but its removal by the machine at once relieves the animal of an unnecessary blanket and should be carried out when possible. Clothing. The use of clothing during the winter months for working horses Use and which have been clipped is practically universal outside the Army, and abuse of where horses are called on to work up to their rations, it is considered clothing, to be beneficial to the animal's condition, and economical to the owner. A sharp line of distinction must, however, be drawn between the legitimate use of clothing as a compensation for the loss of a thick warm coat, and its abuse, so commonly observed in England, where, in order to preserve a sleek appearance, several rugs are placed on the animal and the stable is closed against all ventilation in order to keep the atmosphere warm. This procedure, although attaining its object, namely, fat and sleekness, does so at the risk of impairing the constitution, rendering the animal more liable to sickness, and lessening its chance of recovery when attacked by any serious disorder. Horses stand changes of temperature and inclement weather Argu- extremely well ; they may be clipped and kept in the open in winter, ments without becoming ill ; and if they receive sufficient food they will even foi" and maintain their condition. Clothing therefore cannot be considered an ^|g^"f ^ absolute necessity to the animal's health, and is not to be thought of clothing, on service. As to the advisability of clothing troop horses in stables, yo ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. opinions are sharply divided. Observation leaves no doubt that the use of a rug in winter and after clipping, helps to maintain condition, and therefore working power, without an increase of ration. This is the practical argument for the issue of a rug to the troop horse, and the experience of large horse-owning companies, who have to extract a maximum of work from their animals at a minimum of cost, goes to prove that a rug is an economical provision, that condition and working power are increased by its use, and constitution and hardness are not impaired. On the other hand it is argued that the provision of clothing is unnecessary, that the troop horse can do what is required of him without it, and will nevertheless, with efficient management, maintain condition ; but it is certain that if provided with a rug he would keep at least as good condition, be capable of producing more work on the same amount of food, and • free ventilation of the stable would be possible without discomfort to the animal. The modern troop stable is a cold stable when properly ventilated, and although this is right and healthy, yet the temperature of the body must be maintained, and if no artificial substitute for the coat is provided when the animal is at rest in a cold atmosphere, more of the food will be utilized for the maintenance of the body heat, and less will be available for the production of work, than would otherwise be the case. Economy and efficiency combined therefore point to the use of a rug whenever the horse is worked up to the amount of food he receives, otherwise his condition must be maintained by extra rations. The comfort and appearance of the animal are both added to by the use of a rug. Clothing Clothing cannot of course be carried on service owing to transport on service, difficulties and the need of mobility, and this is used as an argument against its use in peace, but judging from experience, animals which have been used to a rug endure the rigours of active service quite as well as any others, and on this head nothing need be feared, as the horse does not get ill from cold, and the coat rapidly adapts itself to climatic conditions. Provided horses get plenty to eat, they take no harm from exposure. When to When allowed, rugs should be worn in the stable and camp only ; be worn, under no circumstances should they be permitted whilst horses are at exercise or work, and if mange occurs they should be withdrawn till the outbreak is over. Patterns and Yit of Clothing. In the Service the only kind of clothing issued is a shaped stable rug, and is all that is necessary ; but generally the term "clothing" as applied STABLE managp:ment. 71 to horses, comprises a hood, pad, roller, breast piece and quarter sheet. With the exception of the hood, all these articles are combined in a shaped rug which fastens across the chest and has a surcingle stitched on. Some rugs fasten centrally on the breast, whilst others have a flap which buckles on the side, the latter being the better plan, as it prevents the front being blown up when in camp. For a similar reason a well fitting " fillet string" should be fastened round the quarters to prevent the wind blowing the rug over the back, which not only defeats its purpose, but may stampede the horse ; if not issued already fitted, this detail should be added locally. The fit at the neck is another point which should be looked to, very The fit at often the opening is much too large and as a consequence the rug the neck, gradually works back over the shoulders till the top is drawn tightly across the withers and may cause a sore from pressure. When surcingles are stitched on a space of four inches should be left free where the web passes over the backbone or shrinkage from wet may cause injury by tight pressure. A well-fitting rug should embrace the neck like a collar, but in rather looser fashion, cover the body down to the level of the elbows and extend as far back as the dock ; the fillet string should be capable of adjustment and the buckle of the surcingle sufficiently high up to prevent the horse lying on it when down. Rugs are made of thick woollen blanketing or of jute sacking lined with stout woollen collar check, and both are quite serviceable, though the latter perhaps shows dirt least. Rollers. — If the roller is not stitched to the rug, it should have a pad Rollers, on each side of the spine, sufficiently thick to prevent the webbing coming down on the centre of the back when it is drawn tight. These pads are frequently so badly designed and stuffed that they do not prevent pressure on the backbone and a sore is the result : they should be thickest near the spine and thin off to nothing at their lower edges. Pieces of felt laid on each other, then skived off, and covered with leather or serge, make a very serviceable pad. Clean i?ig clothing.— Tho. rug should be well shaken and brushed every Cleaning morning, and not wetted if it can be helped ; if, however, it becomes clothing, necessary to scrub it, as little water as possible should be used, and the material well stretched when drying to prevent shrinkage. When rugs have to be disinfected by soaking, the fluid should be used cold for the same reason. Bandages. — Although bandages are not used for troop horses unless Bandages they are in hospital, their employment is so very general in other stables that a reference to the proper methods of using them is not out of place 72 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. How to bandage. How to fasten. Bandage?: for warmth. Bandages for work. Material of bandages. here. Bandages ,are put on either to keep the legs warm and the circulation active or to protect them from injury whilst at the work, the first of these uses being mainly considered here. To keep the legs warm a bandage should not be any tighter than will prevent it slipping down ; should cover as large a surface as possible ; be applied without wrinkles and with even pressure throughout, and not fastened any tighter than the whole has been put on. Stable bandages are usually about seven or eight feet long, and should be put on as follows : — Starting just below the knee or hock, enough should be unrolled to make one turn round the leg, at a slight downward slope ; keeping the bandage close to the leg, allow it to unroll itself round and down the limb in the same direction it was started, until it reaches the coronet ; here it will naturally take an upward direction and its unrolling should be continued till the point from which it started is reached, where the tapes are to be tied in a bow on the outside of the leg, and the ends should be tucked in neatly. In this position they will be out of the way and not likely to be rubbed undone. As an additional security the corner of the loose end first applied may be turned down so that the next turn of the bandage will pass over and fix it. The nice adjustment of a bandage can only be acquired by practice, but the above directions will enable a correct method to be adopted. The usual difficulties are : starting to unwind at too great a slope and then endeavouring to correct this by pulling the material in the required direction ; and, failing to get the bandage over the fetlock without altering its direction. Warm bandages put on too tight defeat their object by stopping the circulation, and wrinkles are very likely to cause injury to the skin from the pressure of the folds which lie over them : for the same reason, knots or bows should not be tied either on the back of the tendons or on the front of the shin ; they should invariably be removed twice daily and readjusted, a precaution which should prevent any injury from pressure. liandages put on for work should reach from below the knee to above the fetlock and should not in any way interfere with either joint ; they should be fastened with a double strap and buckle stitched on the material, or if tapes are used, by a knot ; they should be removed as soon as the work is done. Material of bandages should be pure woollen for warmth, and some are now made with a fleecy side for this purpose. Bandages which are put on to protect the legs from injury while at work, are, or should be, made of stockinette, an elastic material which permits of some pressure being applied when they are put on. STABLE MANAGEMENT. ']-}i To roll a bandage. — Hold the bandage by the end to which the tapes To roll a are attached, the side on which they are stitched facing you. Double bandage, the tapes into a small bundle about the width of the bandage and lay them across the place they are stitched to, then roll the tapes inside. When the bandage is applied the tapes will then be outside in the most suitable position for fastening. Knee caps to protect the knee in case of a fall at exercise are only Knee seen, in the Service, on the charger. They are made of stout woollen or caps, kersey with thick leather bosses on the front, which are shaped to prevent them interfering with the bending of the joint. The top strap, which must be soft and padded on its inner face, should be tight enough to keep the knee cap in position, whilst the lower one should be quite slack, so that the limb may be freely bent when trotting. If these precautions are not observed, knee caps may occasion the very accident they are used to prevent. Methods of Securing Horses in Stables. A head collar, chain and log are usually supplied for this purpose, but there may be occasions when a head collar is not forthcoming, and a halter is substituted. If a ready made one is not to hand, an efficient To make a article may be made from any rope as follows : — tie a small loop at one halter, end and about four inches further along tie another similar loop. Both loops should be just large enough to admit the free passage of the rope. Now pass the free end through the first and second loops successively. When adjusting, another knot may be added at each loop to prevent slipping. Head collar's are generally made of leather, in the Service always, but Head webbing is occasionally employed. The throat lash may be sewn on collars, each side of the cheek piece, or be a separate strap passing over the poll, and attached to the crown piece by a loop. The fit of a head collar is a Fit of head matter which does not invariably receive the attention it should, for one collars, which is so loose as to be easily got rid of teaches the habit of " slipping " the head collar, which is often difficult to overcome. The nose band must be sufficiently loose to admit the free movement of the jaws in mastication and yawning which is the utmost extent the animal requires to open his mouth ; the brow band should be just long enough to allow the cheek pieces to pass from the crown down, without rubbing the bones on each side of the temples or cutting the base of the ears, both of which accidents occur when it is too short ; and the throat lash should not be slacker than admits of easy swallowing. The cheek pieces should end 74 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. just below that prominent knob of bone which is seen half-way between the eye and the corner of the mouth, so that when side ropes or pillar chains are fitted these will be out of the reach of the lips. Slipping the head collar is a trick some horses become very expert at, and they accomplish it either by getting the head rope over the head and then leaning back, or rubbing the poll under the edge of the manger. In either case the crown piece is pulled forward over the ears and the head collar drops off. To prevent it : (i) if the throat lash is stitched on to the cheek piece, leave off the brow band, the crown piece will then ride further back on the neck and admit of the throat lash being tightened :— mprovised halter. (ii) if the throat lash is a separate strap, lengthen the loop by which it is attached to the crown piece or slip it out of the ear loops of the brow band : — or, (iii) discard the head collar and wear a broad neck strap which should be fitted with only enough looseness to allow the animal to swallow. Boarding up the space from the edge of the manger to the floor may defeat those horses which rub their polls in the effort to get rid of the head collar. Head collar chains are at present universal in the army : they are noisy, very heavy, and from their weight more likely to give rise to STABLE MANAGEMENT. 75 accident than ropes and straps, but they last a long time, which is their sole advantage. The proper length for a head collar chain, or any other Length of similar means of fastening, is the distance from the lower ring of the chains. backstrap of the head collar to the ground when the horse is standing upright. The chain is looped on to the ring just mentioned, and the other end which carries a " T " is passed through an iron " log." The The log. object of the log is, of course, to carry back the slack of the chain whenever it is drawn through the manger ring or hole, and so keep it taut ; but it is evident this action depends on the comparative weight of Weight of the chain and log respectively, and as the former not infrequently log and outweighs the latter, the result is that the log is unable to carry back the ^ ^^"' slack, and a long loop of chain is left hanging from the edge of the manger. Over this the horse not infrequently puts a fore-leg, occasionally Injuries a hind one, should he be engaged in scratching his ear at the moment ^"f ^? the loop is hanging. When the head is raised the chain is tightened, and '^ '^^^' finding himself a fixture the animal struggles, gets cast, and may do himself severe injury. It should, therefore, be determined by actual test that each log is sufficiently heavy to easily pull back the entire length of chain in whatever position it may be. Usually the chain runs through a Bar hole in the manger and drops to the floor, but a far better arrangement fastening is to attach it to a bar running from the edge of the manger to the floor '^ . ^" or wall behind. On this bar a ring, of sufficient diameter to slide easily, is welded, and to it is fastened one end of a two feet six inch chain, the other being attached to the head collar. This arrangement, as will be readily seen, permits the necessary freedom of movement as the ring slides up and down the bar, and at the same time obviates any slackness of the chain no matter what the position of the animal's head may be. Ropes a7id straps^ with wooden logs, though they do not last so long Ropes and as chains, have much to recommend them, and of the two, ropes are to be straps, preferred. They are comparatively noiseless, much lighter, and not so ^^'^^, likely to be a source of accident, as their lightness causes the slack to |^°° ^" run back more easily. A rope, well-tarred or soaked in creosote, is best, as horses and mules are less likely to chew it than either new hemp or leather. Double ropes are sometimes attached to each side of the head collar, Double instead of the usual single one from the back strap, and this method is ropes are useful if it is desired to confine the horse to one side of the stall, for by sometimes shortening one of them, he will be compelled to stand on that side. Pillar reins or chains are attached to the back of the stall posts, .and Pillar are very useful for cribbers and windsuckers, or for the temporary i*eins or accommodation of horses which it is not desired to feed. They should not ^ ^^'"^- 76 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. be longer than will reach to each side of the head collar, for if slack, they are likely to be seized by the animal, and when the horse has a bit in his mouth, accidents are the occasional consequence. Bedding. The provision of a good bed is an important detail in the economical management of working horses. It is quite possible for them to take a considerable amount of rest standing, and as a matter of fact there are some which rarely lie ; but the more rest they can be induced to take, the longer their legs will probably last, and the more likely are they to keep good condition. A good bed has a marked effect in inducing horses to lie down for long periods, and frequently, during both day and night, and it also prevents injury to the elbows and other parts from contact with the hard stable floor. An ideal bed should provide a level elastic surface, be dry and warm, should either completely absorb and deodorize all urine, or allow it to drain away immediately, and have no injurious action on the hoofs, conditions which no material will fulfil unless carefully managed. The various articles which may be used for bedding are, straw, several varieties ; bracken and leaves ; sawdust ; shavings ; sand ; and peat moss. Straws. Straws. — Straw of any variety, which is to be used for bedding, should be long, dry, clean, free from mould, bright in colour, and not much bruised in threshing. This description applies, of course, to first class, truss straws ; excellent beds may be made from inferior qualities, but they do not last so long, are more wasteful, and should only be used when the price admits of a larger issue. Yo To examine straw i7i the truss, note whether the stems are much examine crushed and split. This detracts from its value, as once the outside straw in varnish-like coat is broken, urine does not drain off completely, but is partly absorbed by the stalk which becomes sodden, and on subsequent drying, brittle. The truss should be opened, and the interior examined, for here, if anywhere, the damaged portions will be found. Mouldiness may be detected by smell, and by the presence of discoloured spots and patches ; dampness by the feel, and probably by accompanying mouldiness also. Bale straw, whether English or foreign, is less economical than truss, owing to the extensive crushing which is inevitable, and which lessens its wearing quality. The trade weight of a truss is 36 lb., and 36 trusses make a " load " ; the tru.>- STABLE MANAGEMENT. 77 a bale may be of any size, but usually they are not less than two trusses in weight. As a bedding, straw is doubtless the most attractive material on account of its bright, cleanly appearance, and the comfortable elastic bed it provides when new, and well arranged ; but unless a sufficient amount can be supplied to admit of its being frequently changed, and thoroughly dried, it becomes a dirty, damp, urine-soaked mass, particularly in wet weather, which is neither comfortable nor sanitary. Management of straw bedding. — Old bedding, when removed from Manage- the stalls, should be well-shaken up, and only the dung and short refuse ment of taken to the dung-heap. In fine weather it should be spread in the open f^^^^'^Y till thoroughly aerated and dried, then placed in wind-rows till required, redding. In hot climates it may become too dry and brittle if exposed to the sun for long periods, and should, when sufficiently dry, be stacked in large heaps. In wet weather, it should be spread out under cover, outside the stable if possible, to get well-aired and as dry as can be. The fresh straw should be well-mixed with old before bedding down, and kept towards the rear of the stall, where it cannot be reached and eaten by the animal. Under no circumstances should the bedding be stacked in the front of the stall, under the manger, where a greedy horse can eat it, and where he is compelled to breathe the ammonia which rises from it. In making a bed, the litter should be tossed so that it lies evenly over the stall, the straws cris-crossed, and not all one way. This will ensure it being elastic, and not easily disarranged. The rear of the bed should have the loose ends of the straw neatly turned in, which is done by placing the handle of a fork near the edge, pressing one foot on it to steady it, and twisting the straggling ends beneath it. As horses usually lie well back, at the extent of their rack chain, the bed should not be made right up to the front of the stall. Wheat straw is the best, it is long, stout, and sufficiently tough, is not Wheat so .sweet as oat straw, and, therefore, not so readily eaten. It should be ^traw. of a bright but pale yellow colour, and if it has been much weathered, becomes discoloured and greyish. Oat straw is not so hard and tough, is more easily crushed, and does Oat straw, not wear so long ; but as it is more digestible, and sweeter to the taste, it makes excellent ctiaff either alone or when mixed with hay. In colour it should be a bright golden. Barley straw is not suitable for bedding ; the awns on the ears are so Barley prickly that they may cause an irritation of the skin, and if eaten, colic, straw. Rye straw is the toughest of all, and wears longest, but it is scarce Rye and dear, there being another market for the limited supply as a stuffing straw. 78 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. Sand. A sand bath. Peat for collars. The straws are finer than wheat, and the colour not so bright. Bracken and leaves are, at the best, inferior bedding materials, but are sometimes made use of in the country as a matter of economy. They are not very absorbent, nor do they act well as drainers, so that except as an emergency bed, for which use might occasionally arise in camp, they are not likely to be met in the Service. Sawdust may be utilized when it can be obtained in plenty, but owing to its liability to rapid fermentation, it cannot be successfully employed unless the supply is ample. In any case only sawdust from well- seasoned wood is suitable, green sawdust becoming hot as soon as it is pressed together in the bed and soiled by the urine. As with all absorbent litters, stable drains should be stopped before the bed is laid, or it will fill and choke them ; the soiled portions must be removed at every opportunity and the whole well turned and aerated daily. If these precautions are not observed, the sawdust gets hot, and rapidly becomes fly-blown and full of maggots. Shavi7io;s are occasionally used in the neighbourhood of factories which produce them in quantity. They make a fair bed, are not so liable to get hot as sawdust, but are not so absorbent, and often contain small blocks and chips of wood which must be carefully picked out before use. Sand under favourable conditions makes a most excellent bedding, but is unsuited for damp, cold climates. In hot, dry weather and especially where the stable floors are not impervious to wet, it makes a comfortable, sanitary bed and is much liked by horses. Sand free from any trace of salt must be used, or horses will eat large quantities and suffer from serious sand colic. A sa?id bat/i, i.e., a large circular bed, several inches deep, is an excellent addition to any stable ; horses thoroughly enjoy a roll on it when they return hot from work, and it dries them at once. It is occasionally stated that sand spoils the coat, but the objection has no foundation in fact. Peat 7noss makes excellent bedding ; it is very highly absorbent, gives a firm but elastic surface, sufficiently warm, yet cool to the feet, and is a deodo];iser of" the urine. To this last quality some of the faults of which it has been accused can be traced, for there being no smell in the stable, sufficient attention may not have been paid to the litter, with the result that horses' feet have suffered. Peat moss requires the same attention as any other absorbent litter, and if this is not given, it will have the same effect as any other urine-saturated material, namely, to rot STABLE MANAGEMENT. 79 the horn of the foot, and cause an eruption on the skin from contact with it when lying down. These conditions are hkely to occur if the so-called " continental " system of allowing bedding to remain down for long periods without any sanitary attention, is adopted. The soiled portions should be removed daily and during the day the litter should be swept to the sides of the stalls. With care it is possible to leave the unsoiled portions down for a few days in boxes and partitioned stalls, but very careful attention to the removal of soiled portions is called for, since, as already pointed out, the absence of smell may lead to neglect of sanitary precaution in this matter. Good peat moss should contain no earthy matter, but consist of close- fibred lumps of moss, which can be easily broken by the hand, but which hold closely together by their interwoven threads. A certain quantity of other plants, often the variety called "horsetail " (equisetum), is unavoid- able, but any amount of stones or dirt, or a dark earthy appearance, stamp it as a bad sample. General 7ioies on bedding. — Before using any absorbent litter. General securely block all stable drains ; if this is not done, the material will get notes on down, gradually choke them, and render them very troublesome if they bedding. are required at any future time. A wooden or brick ledge, or, in hot climates, a mud rim, at the back of a sand, sawdust, or peat moss bed, helps to keep it tidy. When sand is being used and the weather is cold, a layer of straw on the top makes a very comfortable bed. Generally speaking sand is not a good litter in England, but an exception must be made in favour of the sand bath, which is a great enjoyment to horses and a good means of drying them rapidly. Dung should be removed from the beds as soon as passed if possible as it is otherwise trodden into the litter and increases wastage. In order to induce horses to take plenty of rest it is a good plan to keep them bedded down as much as possible, a comparatively simple matter with peat moss, but one which requires more management where straw is used and the quantity limited. In order to check waste as far as possible, the litter should not be put down until the horses are done over, and since they often stale as soon as the bed is under them, a handful of the worst should be shaken under the geldings, and the back of the stall littered last ; the wet straw and urine can then be removed and a dry bed left. A system of leaving the litter down constantly, and adding fresh Conti- bedding to the mass daily without further attention, is practised in some nental parts of the Continent, and has been tried in our own stables. It systems. 8o ANIMAL MANAGEiMENT. certainly provided a thick, soft standing, but the greater part of the bed worked gradually to the rear of the stall and became a dung heap which, when it was removed, rendered the stables unbearable. In a drier, less variable climate the plan may be feasible from the point of view of keeping a thick bed under the horses, but it can never be a sanitary method and is to be condemned on this account. Stable Tricks and Vices. Horses should be kept out of the stable as long as possible daily, for long hours of work are a distinct preventive of stable tricks and vices as well as beneficial to the general health and condition. Weaving is a nervous habit acquired by many wild animals in captivity, and occasionally by horses ; the animal rocks itself to and fro continually, sometimes lifting each forefoot in turn as the body is swayed to the opposite side. As the collar chain is drawn through the manger ring at each motion the habit is often accompanied by a good deal of noise, and while some do it constantly, others practise it at intervals only. Seeing that a constant weaver gives himself no rest, and that the habit is incurable, it must necessarily take a great deal out of animals which practise it, though no special accident or disease can be directly attributed to it. It is advisable that they should be kept apart, so that others are not disturbed, and do not learn the trick from observation : it is also well to provide weavers with a bedding, e.g., peat moss, which will not readily slip from under the feet, and to give them a head rope or strap instead of a noisy chain. Windsucking and Oib-biting. — A windsucker is an animal that swallows air by arching its neck, drawing its head towards its chest, and giving a gulp. A crib-biter achieves the same end, but leans on or catches hold of the manger with the teeth in order to get a firm purchase, and at the moment he gulps, a characteristic " grunt " is emitted. Horses are prone to learn these two vicious habits from their neighbours ; once acquired they are never forgotten, and are incurable, though much may be done to prevent horses indulging in them until they learn to outwit the preventive. For both windsuckers and crib- biters, a broad strap, fitting tightly round the top of the neck, with a small wooden or metal gullet plate stitched on so that it projects on each side and sticks into the throat when the head is bent, will stop "Fhite" both habits whilst the discomfort is sufficiently great. A "flute" bit ^'t- may be worn. This is a hollow tube snaffle, perforated with several STABLE MANAGEMENT. 8l holes throughout its length like a tin whistle, so that when it is adjusted, suction cannot be exerted owing to the impossibility of completely closing the mouth ; it is an effectual preventive whilst worn, but unfortunately it is not always replaced immediately after work or feeding, and so the animal gets an opportunity to fill himself with wind, of which he takes full advantage. A piece of thick indiarubber Another tubing, with a strap passing through it, fastened around the lower jaw variety of just behind the tushes, will sometimes have the same effect, but is not strap, invariably successful. Muzzles of various patterns with the object of Muzzles, preventing the teeth grasping or leaning against the manger have been tried, but are not sufficiently successful to warrant their adoption. Crib-biters may be put into a loose box with four blank walls and Four blank nothing to lay hold of, until they learn to windsuck, or they may be walls, turned about in the stall and kept constantly on the pillar reins ; Placing on but no means of effecting a permanent cure has yet been found. pillar The effect of the constant pressure of the incisor teeth of the crib- '"^J^s. biter against the manger or other hard objects, results in the fronts of the teeth of both the upper and lower jaw getting worn away, and in bad cases they may be down to the level of the gums. Indigestion and colic also frequently result from windsucking and crib-biting, and as the habits are easily acquired by others, horses that practise them should be separated as far as practicable. Biting is a vice more common in stallions than in mares or geldings. Biting, though occasionally savages may be met with in all three. A playful habit of snatching at the man whilst being groomed which some horses display, may not come under the head of viciousness, but as the results are equally painful, it should not be encouraged by unnecessary tickling. A wicked biter, when being groomed or otherwise handled, may be rendered safe for the time, by a thick wooden bit which prevents the teeth being closed ; or by a side stick. A side stick is a short stick reaching from the cheek piece of the head collar to the roller or sur- cingle and tied to each. It allows vertical but not lateral motion of the head. Tearing the clothing is another bad stable habit which is very per- Tearing sistent when once acquired, and can only be absolutely prevented by the the use of a stout leather guard fixed on the head collar. This should be clothing, of sole leather, fastened to the back strap of the noseband and sufficiently deep to reach well below the level of the lips ; this will render it impossible for the clothing to be reached by the teeth, and as it is permanently attached to the head collar, it is always in place when required. (b 10948) Y 82 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. Kicking Kicki?!^^ in the stable may be due to want of work, the remedy for in the which is obvious ; or a persistent vice which is always troublesome, and sta e. frequently dangerous, and is more common in mares than in geldings. Some animals kick constantly in the dark, and a light in the stable keeps them quiet, but others will continue the habit in spite of every precaution. The following are some methods by which it may be combated : — The bails and stall posts may be padded or wrapped with straw so that noise is prevented and the chances of injury lessened. It appears in some cases that the noise produced is a stimulus to repetition and if deadened, animals occasionally stop. Bunches of furze or other prickly plants may be hung in such a position that they are struck during the kick, when the pain caused either stops the habit or increases it ; and the plan therefore requires careful watching. Kicking boards may be slung from the bails. These should be thick, heavy boards, extending at least half-way up the stall from the rear stall post, reaching within a couple of inches of the ground, and hinged to the bail so that they swing when hit. They may be padded with sacking loosely filled with peat mo^s to deaden the sound. Although they do not cure the evil they are one of the best palliatives. Kicking blocks of wood or rubber may be made to fit closely into the hollow of the heel, and being fastened there by a strap which passes through the body of the block, they prevent the heel being bent or the leg raised : these, however, must fit very accurately, for if they slip from the heel they are useless and may even increase the trouble. Another variety of kicking block is a shackle with a few links of heavy chain attached to which is sometimes added a smooth wooden ball, when the horse kicks, the chain or block hits him on the leg and in some cases stops the habit. Attaching heavy weights to the legs by means of shackles, e.g.^ bags of sand, or hanging these behind the animal so that they swing back when struck, are harmless and sometimes quite efficacious expedients, and the legs may be shackled together if other means fail. It will be noted that some of the methods given above are likely to cause considerable damage to the animal if the kicking is persisted in, and they should all be carefully supervised when employed ; horses which are not cured of the habit by one method, will sometimes yield to another, and none should be persisted in if they do not at once check it. Gnawing Gnawing the walls and eating their own droppings are instances ol the walls depraved appetite occasionally observed in horses'. The former is and eating usually ascribed to a craving for lime salts, but it is by no means proved STABLE MANAGEMENT. 83 that it is anything but a bad habit, and the presence of a lump of rock their own salt in the manger will suffice to distract the attention till it is forgotten, droppings. If the habit continues, that portion of the wall within reach may be covered with tar varnish (tar i part, naphtha 3 parts). Eating dung is a dirty habit, which, once acquired, seems to be very difficult to stop. The animal will even try to slip its head collar in order to get at its own fieces, although it does not attempt to eat those of other animals. As indigestion may be a possible cause, in both the above cases, a careful veterinary examination of the animal, and an equally thorough over- hauling of the food should be undertaken. Daily Routine of Stable Duties. The usual hours for stables at Home are : — Morning 6 to 7 in Hours, summer, 6.30 to 7.30 in winter ; mid-day on return from work or exercise ; evening 5 to 5.30 p.m. The stable to be cleaned out, the bedding placed in windrows and the Morning stable aired. Every horse should then be quartered, the feet picked out, stables. and manes and tails brushed down. When the horses have been watered the saddle or harness may be put on, the girths being left loose and the horse racked up and left to feed while the men have breakfast. Immediately on return from work, after watering their horses, the Mid-day men should take off the bridles, put on the stable head collars, remove stables, the arms from the saddles, dry the throat, rack up the horses, and give them a little hay to pick at. Harness and saddle may be left on with loosened girths whilst the men change into fatigue dress ; as soon as this is done " Stables " should sound, when every man should be with his horse, and all officers and non-commissioned officers of the unit present. The saddle or harness should be removed, the numnah being put outside to dry and the horse carefully examined for possible galls or other injuries, the feet picked or washed out, and the horse should be thoroughly dried if not already so, and groomed. Any injuries or loose shoes should be reported to the non-commissioned officer in charge of the stable. After grooming the horse is taken outside to be inspected by the officer or non-commissioned officer in charge of the stable, who is to carefully examine every part of him, paying special attention to the tail, mane, throat, ears, knees, belly, and insides of the thighs and hocks. If the horse is perfectly clean he is to be taken to water and fed. When the quantity of litter permits, horses should be bedded down before leaving stables. (b 10948) F 2 84 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. Encourage quick grooming. Evening stables. Duties of N.C.O.'s. Duties of O.C. Duty of stable guard. Smoking and liij;lUs. No horse is well groomed unless he is groomed quickly. As quick grooming is to be encouraged horses should always be inspected as soon as they are groomed and the men allowed to go on with their saddlery. The stable head collar should be cleaned before the horse is passed. At evening stables the horses are to be watered, wisped, bedded down and fed. For this half an hour is sufficient. Non-commissioned officers in charge of horses must watch during stables that above routine is carried out, that every man gets to work on his horse at once and continues at it until his horse is passed as clean. They must give advice and assistance to young soldiers, and get them into the habit of handling brush and comb correctly. Should any injuries be reported they must inform the officer commanding the troop or section. The officer in command should satisfy himself that the forage and bedding are up to standard quality, and that no horses are passed unless they are thoroughly clean and have been examined to see that they are uninjured and their shoes are in good order. Before horses are fed he should ensure that all gutters are swept clean, barrows emptied, utensils conveniently placed, buckets filled with clean water, and the ventilation suitably arranged. Officers should make a point of occasionally visiting their stables at various times of the day. Horses' habits and peculiarities may be much better studied when the men are away than when grooming is going on. It will frequently happen that the horses do not return from work until or after the men's dinner hour. In this case the saddles may be removed, but the numnahs left on, being kept in place by the surcingles ; the horses should be watered, their throats dried, and they should then be fed, care being taken that they are not left in a draught. " Stables " should sound one hour after return from work. It is important that horses should be taken off the short rack chains as soon as they have finished feeding. A stable guard should invariably be posted while the men are away from stables. The stable man is not to leave the stable : it is his duty to unrack the horses when all have finished their feeds, tie up any horses that may get loose and remove the droppings. He is responsible for the safety of the saddlery and utensils, and that the ventilation is not interfered with. A horse that lies down in the day should not be disturbed unless saddlery or arms are in danger of injury. On no account is an officer, non-commissioned officer, or man, to smoke or strike a light in the stables or near any forage. STABLE MANAGEMENT. 85 Should the stalls be slippery, sand or litter is to be sprinkled on the flooring. Horses should never be hurried in turning round in their stalls. No man is on any account to strike a horse in the stable. A statement that the horse kicked or bit at the man cannot be taken as an excuse. Horses are particularly terrified by fire, and should a fire occur in the stables they must be led, backed, or ridden out of the stable. If they are unwilling a coat or cloth should be thrown over their eyes. Care should be taken that they do not break back to their stables. (86) CHAPTER V. FOODS, FEEDING AND WATERING. The constituents of all foods may on analysis be resolved into five groups, each having certain special qualities and existing in definite percentages. The groups are as follows : — 1. Flesh-making. 2. Fat-heat -energy producing. 3. Bone-making. 4. Fibrous and woody materials. 5. Water. Strictly speaking they are not so sharply divided as shown in the above classification and may occasionally overlap, e.g. the flesh-making group can sometimes produce fat or supply energy, and the elements of the bone-making group may be found in other tissues besides bones ; but as a practical division, which gives a clear view of the functions of the various elements in food, the grouping may be accepted as correct. I. The flesh-making elements are chiefly concerned with the building up of the body tissues, the muscles, the various organs and the skin, and maintaining them both in amount and quality. If a slight excess of such materials is contained in the food given, it may be stored up in the body as fat, which can be used on occasion to produce heat and work (energy) ; but this is not the essential function of the flesh-making elements, and a properly constituted food should only contain them in such proportion as can be properly digested and will keep the muscles and other organs at their best ; beyond this amount the digestion is disturbed by their presence, and foods which contain them in very large percentage are popularly called " heating," from the effects which they produce on the skin and digestion when consumed in excess — a familiar example being beans. Fat group. 2. The fat-heat-energy producing elements include the natural fats in the food and all the starches and sugars. Their uses are— to produce the necessary heat for maintaining the body temperature ; to provide sufli- FOODS AND FEEDING. 87 cient energy to enable work to be done without the muscles wasting ; and to store up in the body a certain quantity of fat as a reserve to draw on at need. The flesh-forming and fat-producing groups overlap to some Uses of extent and too sharp a line cannot be drawn between them, but their fesh and essential functions are : the former to build up and maintain the organs ^^^ groups and muscles of the body so that they can carry out the process of digestion and make use of its results — the latter to provide the heat and energy required for the muscles and organs to work with. 3. Bone-making elements. These are mineral elements usually Bone- termed " salts," compounds of lime, soda and potash, and are particularly making essential for young, growing animals. Such elements are found in the group, blood and other tissues of the body as well as bone, and there is a very intimate connection between their presence in the food and the quality of stock produced. They are particularly abundant in grass and hay produced on limestone soils. 4. Fibrous and woody elements. These comparatively indigestible Fibrous materials exist in varying proportions in all vegetable foods. Whilst their group, actual digestion may not be carried out to a very great extent, they are nevertheless found to be necessary as providing the bulk so essential to the rations of herbivorous animals. They also act as a mechanical aid during digestion in helping to split up the other parts of the food so that they may be readily absorbed by the body, as well as being to some extent digested themselves. The proportion in which they exist may vary from about 2 per cent, in maize to 40 per cent, in straw. 5. Water forms a considerable portion of all foods, even those which Water, are usually considered dry, the percentage varying from about 10 percent, propor- or 12 per cent, in grain to 90 per cent, in roots. ^^°" A good food for a working animal should contain the above constituents Require- in such proportions that the greatest possible percentage of nourishment ments of a can be extracted from it, and a sufficient amount and bulk can be good food, consumed to satisfy all requirements, namely : — maintain the body temperature — appease the appetite — -and produce the required work, without upsetting the digestion or occasioning loss of flesh. If no one food will answer all these demands then the ration should be arranged so that its several components will do so in the aggregate, and such foods are usually described as " well-balanced." From a well-balanced ration the animal can extract the largest possible amount of nutriment, though from no food, however suitable, is it possible for the total quantity of its goodness to be absorbed by digestion. A table of the percentages of the various constituents of a large number Per of foods is appended, and, while no precise conclusions should be drawn centages 88 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. of con- from analysis alone, reference to it will be found instructive when stituents considering^ the foods mentioned, of foods. Fat-hea -energy group. Flesh- mnking Bone- making Woody fibre. Foods. Water. group. Starch elements. and Fat. sugar. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. Oats • 11*3 57'3 5*4 3-0 lO'O 13-0 Maize ■ IO-3 70-4 5'0 1-5 2*2 IO-6 Barley io'6 65-5 2* I 2-5 5*2 14-3 Wheat II-7 69-3 2'0 1-8 1-8 13-4 Rye • ii'S 69-5 1-7 2*0 1-9 i3'4 Millets .. io'4 71-5 3*3 2-0 i'5 11*5 Rice . 7-3 78-3 0-6 o'6 •4 12-8 Beans • 25-4 48-5 1-5 3.2 7-1 14-3 Peas .. 22-5 53'7 1-6 2-8 5-4 14-0 Gram • 19-5 53-8 4-6 3'i 7-8 11*2 Kulthi 22*5 56-0 1-9 3-2 5-4 II"0 Moth 23-8 56-6 0-6 3.6 4'2 II-2 Urad and Mung . 22-7 55-8 2*2 4*4 4-8 lO- I Linseed . 20-5 19-6 37'o 3*4 7-2 12-3 Bran 14-1 56-0 3*7 5-8 7*2 13-2 Meadow hay 9-2 42-9 2-5 6-5 25-2 13-7 Clover hay . 13-6 36-2 2-6 6-3 25-0 16-3 Oat hay • 9*3 39-0 2-3 5-2 29-2 15-0 Wheat straw 3'3 39-4 i'3 5*3 37-1 13-6 Oat straw 4'o 37-0 2'0 57 i 36-8 I4'5 Barley straw 3*5 39-1 1-5 I 36-0 14-2 Bean straw I2-0 31-8 1*3 6-3 i 30-6 17-2 Pea straw 7-5 29-3 2-1 4-13 42-4 14-2 Green grass ... 4-0 "•5 0-9 2-4 1 5-9 75-3 Lucerne 4-5 9'2 0-8 2'0 1 9*5 74-0 Carrots 1-2 9-3 0'2 i-o 1 1-3 87-0 Potatoes 2-1 20-7 0-2 0-9 i"i 75-0 foods and feeding. 89 Oats. Experience has shown that oats are generally speaking the best of all Oats as grains for horses. They combine all the elements necessary for nutrition ^"o<^' in such proportions that the animal is able to consume a large amount without upsetting the digestion, and to extract the greatest possible amount of nourishment from it ; and although many other grains are successfully used as horse food, wherever oats can be obtained they are universally acknowledged to be the best, provided the question of cost does not enter into consideration. In England they are the staple feed, though usually mixed with cheaper grains in commercial stables, and in addition to the home grown supply, large quantities are obtained from abroad, Russia, Canada, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Turkey, and Germany all exporting to this country. Characteristics of Oats. Good oats should be plump and short, of good colour, hard to the feel, quite dry, rattling when allowed to fall on a solid surface, without smell, breaking sharply across when bitten, tasting like good oatmeal, and, in a good sample, practically all the same size. On looking closely it will be Judging seen that there is a split down the under side of the husk ; a good oat oats, should be so plump that the kernel bulges through this split, making a double line down the grain. A plump oat is a heavy oat, it has little or no shape of beard, consequently lies closer together and therefore weighs heavier than oats, a longer, thinner, more bearded variety. The size and plumpness of the grain should be due, not to an increase in the husk but to the size of the kernel, and consequently some thin skinned varieties may be smaller and meaner in appearance than thick, heavy husked though inferior samples. Colour of The colour of oats varies considerably ; some varieties being a deep brown, oats. others black and others again almost white. Whatever the colour it should be good of its sort, any unusual discoloration showing that the grain has suffered from damp or has been tampered with to improve its appearance. Practice alone is the only way of learning to successfully judge these points, and to tell by feel whether oats are in good condition or not. If a handful be firmly grasped it should not be possible to Feel of further close the hand by increasing the pressure, for this would show oats, either that the grain was soft or that it was light and heavily bearded so that the individual grains did not lie as close together as they might. Thorough dryness is very important when oats have to be kept long in Dryness of bulk, and they should shell out of the husk with ease when nipped at one oats, end. In well conditioned samples some grains may be found which have 90 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. already escaped from the shell and this is a good indication of keeping condition. To roughly test the proportion of kernel to husk a small quantity may be crushed beneath the boot on the floor when the whiteness of the contained flour should be quite apparent. A few grains chewed in the mouth should leave no bitter flavour, but taste only of oatmeal, bitterness being indicative of dampness and subsequent kiln drying. New oats may smell a little earthy but an old sample should have practically no odour. New oats are heavier and softer than old owing to the extra percentage of moisture they contain and they are considered to be indigestible. The weight of Oats. Oats vary enormously in weight, some samples being as little as 25 pounds to the bushel, while others scale over 50. What may be considered a good oat in one country, may if judged by weight only be a very poor sample in another, but it may nevertheless be a very excellent and nutritious feed. In England good oats may be said to weigh not less than 38 to 40 pounds a bushel and 36 to 38 may be taken as the weight of the oats which are fed by the large horse-owning companies. In the Service the contract weight is 38 pounds and at certain stations 40. The best oats may run to as much as 48 or 50 pounds, and oats of this weight are some- times home-grown or imported from New Zealand, Australia and Russia though infrequently. Weighi7ig Oats. To ascertain the natural weight per bushel the grain should be run through a shoot or poured quickly from a sack until the measure overflows, and the surplus immediately struck from the top with a thick, round stick, which should be long enough to afford a firm grasp at each end, and so enable the striker to level the grain with the edge of the measure at one stroke. By pouring the grain slowly or from a height ; by shaking or striking the measure during the process ; or by allowing the oats to settle before they are struck, the weight may be increased by as much as four pounds per bushel, and care should be taken when weighing simples that none of these things are permitted. Varieties of Oats. English. — Both white and black English oats are equally good feed, although some prejudice exists in favour of the white, which it must be admitted are generally produced on richer soils ; weight for weight, FOODS AND FEEDING. 9I however, there does not seem to be any practical difference in their nutritive qualities. "Winter" or "tawny" is the name given to those oats which are sown in the autumn. Generally speaking, English oats are plump, short and contain a large proportion of kernel, but are on the other hand often of a poor colour and soft to the feel, owing to their having been harvested under unfavourable, damp conditions. Russian. — There appear to be two distinct classes of Russian oats, Russian one small, smooth and silky, with a very fine, yellow husk, and the other oats, somewhat larger, rough to the feel, and thicker in the husk. Compared with English grain both are small, narrow and mean looking, but they lie close, weigh heavy, are generally in good hard condition and of excellent feeding value. Mixed with them there is generally to be seen a small quantity of minute black seeds which detract considerably from their appearance ; the proportion is, however, exceedingly small, and although these seeds are rejected by horses they do not seem to exert any harmful influence on the quality of the feed generally. In judging Russian oats one should remember that the thin, silky-skinned varieties are naturally of a brighter yellow colour than is usual in others. Ccmadiaii a?id U?iited States. — The imports from Canada and U.S.A. Canadian are generally of medium quality and weight, with rather more beard ^"d and length than is seen in the home grown article ; but if in good United condition the best samples are excellent feeding and have a very large „^fg^^ market. Genua?!. — The best German oats resemble the rough variety of German Russian, while others again are not unlike Canadian of moderate quality, o^ts. They do not as a rule weigh heavily, but are generally imported in good condition. Turkish. — Are usually of a nut brown colour, said to be due to the Turkish soil on which they are grown. They are remarkable in possessing un- oats. usually thick, tough husks, which gives them a bold appearance not borne out by their weight. Coming as they do from a dry, hot climate, they are generally in very good hard condition. Australia}! and Neiv Zealand. — Resemble our own, from which Austra- indeed they have been produced, and they are often of the very highest 1'^" ^"d quality and weight. Some Australian oats grown from Turkish seed ^^^ , have the characteristics of these latter and are said to be especially ^^^^ useful for sowing in extremely dry districts. Indian. — The oats now grown in India (originally from English seed), Indian are, compared with our own, extremely poor in appearance ; small ; light oats. and heavily bearded, with a large proportion of husk ; and although judged by our standard they could only be considered inferior, experience 92 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. shows that in the climate which produces them they are even more suitable and yield better feeding results than heavier, richer, imported sorts. I?tferior Oats, From whatever source they may spring, poor qualities of oats always have the same characteristics. The worse they are the longer, thinner, more abundantly bearded and lighter do they become, and although such a sample may be hard and dry, when a handful is squeezed tightly it will feel soft and compressible owing to the excess of beard which prevents the seeds lying close. Defects, Clipped Clipped Oats. — By passing oats rapidly over a revolving wire oats. brush, or by shaking them violently, it has been found possible to remove any excess of beard without damaging the grain ; this is called " clipping," and results in producing a shorter, plumper looking, more attractive article. " Clipping " may not be regarded perhaps as an actual defect since it really results in the buyer obtaining a heavier weight per sack than he otherwise would, but the fact of the process having been thought advisable shows that the sample was not a very high class one originally. " Clipping " may be detected both by the appearance of the altered oat, which has a square-cut end, and by plunging the hand some depth into the sack, when large quantities of the removed beards will be found adhering to it on removal. Foxy oats. Foxy Oats, — When oats are stored in large quantities before they are sufficiently dried, notably for instance in grain ships, they become "heated," in some cases to such an extent as to be actually steaming ; at the same time their colour alters to a deeper yellow than before and they acquire a peculiar acrid smell. Such oats are termed foxy. This defect, like all others, may vary considerably in degree, but when it exists to any extent, particularly in newly imported shipments, it is readily detected. Kiln dried Kiln Dried Oats.— Kiln drying in itself is not a defect, and if the oats. process is adopted only to make sure that the oats are dry enough to keep m bulk, it does not of course affect their quality, but generally speaking, oats are only kiln dried because they were previously damp or foxy, and the fact that the process has been carried out is generally therefore an indication of damaged quality. Kiln drying gets rid of the foxy odour, restores the hardness, but further deepens the colour, so that grains originally a pale yellow become quite brown. To restore the FOODS AND FEEDING. 93 pale colour ot the kiln dried article recourse is had to " bleaching," Bleached which is effected by exposing the grain to the fumes of sulphur. To o^ts. detect this if it has been well done may be a matter of some difficulty, but if a small quantity is rubbed rapidly between the palms and quickly held near the nose the odour of sulphur may be detected. Chewing a few grains \\n\\ leave a sulphurous or bitter aftertaste in the mouth, and a careful scrutiny of the suspected sample should also be made, as some grains may have escaped the bleaching process and remain quite brown from the kiln drying, while others again may be so excessively de-colourised as to be almost, if not quite white. Mustiness a?td Mouldiness.—V>oi\\i\-\ese conditions are the result in Mustiness different degrees of the grain having been damped by rain during the and harvest or accidentally after storing. When the growth of the mould is mouldi- so great as to be noticeable a simple inspection is sufficient to detect it, "^^^* but the defect can be detected by the musty smell before it becomes visible, and the condition is frequently accompanied by a soft and spongy feel, varying with the Smount of damp present. Sprouting Oats are those which have already germinated, and in Sprouting which the sprouts are visible ; their quality is, of course, so much affected oats, as to render them unfit for consumption under ordinary circumstances, and unlikely to be tendered for sale. Rat-tainted Oats. — The presence of large numbers of rats in a barn Rat- will sometimes cause the grain to become so tainted that horses will tainted refuse it. The condition may be detected by the presence of nibbled oats oats, and the characteristic odour and droppings of the animals. Dirty Oats. — In many foreign samples of oats which are threshed in Dirty oats, the open field a certain quantity of earth and small stones may be found, and in addition such samples may contain small nails with flat heads, which are used for the purpose of tacking canvas to the ship's side to protect the cargo during the voyage. The screening of foreign oats in order to clear them of all such particles is a matter, therefore, which should receive close attention, as their inclusion is likely to produce digestive troubles. Measures by which Oats are sold.— \x\. bulk, oats are sold by the Measures quirter of 304 and 320 pounds according to their quality ; these weights by which are known as "trade weights " and are merely approximate, denoting the ^^'^'^ ^'"^ comparatively good or poor quality of the sample. In smaller quantities ^°^^' they are dealt in by the bushel, or, when purchased by weight, at so much per 40 lbs., which is generally accepted as a fair trade weight for a bushel of good oats. A "quartern" = a quarter of a gallon, or quart, 4 gallons = a bushel, 4 bushels = a sack, 2 sacks = a quarter. 94 ANIMAL xMANAGEMENT. Feeding Oats. Oats are the easiest grain to feed to horses ; they thrive on them in the best possible manner, and are able to consume and digest a larger quantity of them than any other grain, without special prepara- tion, and without their digestion becoming upset. With horses Amount to in strong work the amount which they may be given is practically as be given, much as the animal cares to consume, and provided that a suitable quantity of other forage is included in the ration, this will usually vary from 12 to 16 lbs. per day. For animals in moderate work an average of 10 lbs. per day suffices, and working horses when rested for a length of time may be given 4 to 6 lbs. daily. Whilst oats may be given whole it Advantage is a decided advantage to have them bruised previously, not because the of crush- horse is unable to grind them with his teeth, but to ensure that the husk ing oats, of each individual grain is split so that any which do escape mastication may be readily acted upon by the gastric and other fluids during the process of digestion. Animals which eat hurriedly, either from natural greediness or for fear that their neighbours may rob them, are naturally inclined to swallow their grain ration without due mastication, and especially is this the case in large bodies of horses fed in open stables. How to The grain should not be crushed flat, but merely have the husk split ; it crush. is indeed a fault to crush it too nmch, as the cont:\ined flour may be thereby lost. Crushing is especially useful with the small, hard, foreign varieties, which are even more liable to be swallowed whole than the Steamed larger, plumper, and somewhat softer British oats. Oats can be steamed oats. or boiled, but as a general rule this is not to be advocated, such methods being usually more suitable to the needs of the hospital than the troop stable. Maize. 'Mealies." Known as " mealies" in South Africa, and in most parts of North and South America as " corn," maize is in those countries the staple horse grain. It is used, though not extensively, in India, and its introduction into this country is of comparatively recent date. Containing as it does a very small percentage of mineral sorts, it is admittedly, even where it is in general use, an unsuitable food for the rearing of young stock ; but experience has thoroughly proved that it produces excellent results in all classes of working horses when it is judiciously fed. FOODS AND FEEDING. 95 Characteristics of Maize. It should be perfectly dry, of bright colour, not at all brown,' quite hard, and free from dirt ; when bitten it should taste sweet and have no distinct smell. Maize is bought by the quarter, and should weigh 60 lbs. to the bushel. Varieties. There are three chief varieties, North American, South American, Flat or and small round. North American maize, also known as "flat" or " horse- " horse tooth," is large, flat and roughly triangular, and is the variety tooth ^ most appreciated as a horse food in England. In colour the grains of a '^^'"^^ 3" single sample may vary very considerably, ranging from a deep red to practically colourless seeds. South American maize, imported chiefly from the River Plate, and sometimes called "Plate Maize," is of a "Plate" brilliant yellow colour, which is fairly uniform in the sample ; it is flat maize, but is rounder in outline and not so large as the previously mentioned variety. Small round maize is grown in many countries, and varies in shade from bright yellow to colourless, though the colour of any particular sample should be uniform ; its feeding value is considered slightly inferior to the other sorts. Defects Maize travels very badly in bulk once it is shelled from the cob, and Heated is extremely liable to get "heated " during the voyage unless it starts in maize, the most perfect condition. The individual grains then become darker in colour, softer to the feel, and acquire a peculiarly pungent odour, while in recent samples an increase of their temperature may be actually felt. It may also suffer from mustiness or mouldiness, and in all cases where the quality is under suspicion the points of the seeds should be closely examined, as this is the spot where damage is most easily detected. Feeding Maize. Where its use is general and it is fed as the entire grain ration. How to it is often customary to give it on the cob or stalk, and this is feed maize said to increase its feeding value and digestibility. If horses are accustomed to it they may and do consume it whole without ill effects, but whenever possible it should be crushed, as it is hard, difiicult to masticate and takes a comparatively long time to digest. However it is given, it is important to bear in mind that owing to this slowness of digestion animals should not be watered until a considerable time has 96 ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. Soaking maize. Maize in mixtures. Addition of chaff. elapsed after feeding. When it is impossible to crush and the animal is unaccustomed to it the grain may be soaked until it is soft or preferably boiled. It is not however advisable, at any rate in a temperate climate, to feed horses required for fast work on cooked rations, although this means of preparation may be occasionally taken advantage of to tempt the appetite of the delicate feeder and such as may be suffering from overwork or are convalescent from disease. In England maize is usually and most advantageously fed in mixtures which contain varying proportions of oats and beans or peas in addition, but some large horse- owning companies feed on maize only and find it satisfactory. The admixture of chaff" is particularly called for in such rations owing to the paramount necessity for thorough mastication. When fed as a whole ration the same quantity as of oats may be given. Barley. A general Though not generally used in England barley is a very good horse food in the food and is in very general use, both in and out of the Service, everywhere east of Gibraltar, constituting in many places the majority of, and in some, the entire grain ration. Characteristics of Barley. The grain should be plump and short, quite hard, with a thin wrinkled skin and small fine but not shrunken ends ; its colour should generally be a pale golden and it should be free from any distinctive odour. Specimens grown in hot countries are generally somewhat smaller than those from temperate climates. Barley is sold by the quarter and should weigh about 54 pounds per bushel. Feeding Barley. In the East this grain is a very general horse food and is some- times given without crushing or other preparation, in which state, however, the toughness and indigestibility of its husk is such, that it can only be consumed with impunity by animals native to the country and not always even by them. For all others it must be prepared by crushing, parching or boiling, or it rapidly gives rise to indigestion and colic. When suitably prepared, however, it may be fed as a whole ration if necessary, and it forms a large proportion of the Service issues in the Mediterranean, north of India, China, Egypt and other eastern stations. Crushing barley is a matter which requires some care, for the husk is so extremely tough that it will successfully resist the pressure of a roller East. Appear- ance. Weight. Digesti- biUty of barley. Crushing barley. FOODS AND FEEDING. 97 which would squeeze an oat flat. When the hand mill {chuckle) which is commonly used in India, has to be employed for this purpose an extra weight should be placed on the top of the upper stone in order to increase its power. Pa.rchi}ig Barley. — This is a very favourite method of preparation Parching wherever barley is fed. When properly carried out the result is that the barley, husk is just split and the contents become softer and of a floury consistence. The method usually adopted is as follows — a small quantity of sand is made, and kept, almost red hot on the fire, a little of this and a handful of barley are thrown together in a flat pan which is also kept hot and the two are stirred together until it is seen that each individual grain shows a white line down its centre where the husk is split ; sand and grain are then transferred to a small sieve through which the sand runs and is placed in another receptacle to be re-heated. The grain may subsequently be ground if desired, but unless the means are to hand it will be found perfectly digestible without this being done. Brewers' grains, " draff," the refuse of malt after brewing, which may Brewers' be obtained either fresh or desiccated, is occasionally given to horses and f,'"^^"?' „ much relished by them ; as a change of diet, or as an occasional addition "draff. to tempt the appetite they may be recommended, but as a general ration for army horses liable to be called upon to perform severe fast work they are unsuitable. They should be quite fresh, and given without delay, as they rapidly get sour. Rye. Rye forms a large portion of the ration of many animals in Denmark, Rye. Belgium and Sweden ; in Russia rye flour is given horses as a corn ration, and is fed to horses in America in smaller proportion. It is A poor inferior to oats, and in countries where it is fed as a general ration it is horse stated to be given coarsely ground or cooked and mixed with chaff. In foo