Q}. A M LC '4'» ' % NO LQN{§E_ ; A}? 7 r§?_' P R 5’ E P L N ., .,,., ‘ A .. . V ‘I7...-r $~L Jaw! £4 it n ' . ’l/..shsngt(m Hn:vs4rg;:+g _$ ,_ _A_A__ , W mi mi 010-103861019 NGRESSIONAL SEARCH % SERVICE 4 ~ LIBRA YOF» R |||||l||| [/ of Mi souri niversit umbia % i b ) i ! Iufl CONGRESS 4 AGRICULTURE: IMPACTS OF AIR POLLUTION ISSUE BRIEF NUMBER IB77052 AUTHOR: Biniek, Joseph P. Environment and Natural Resources Policy Division THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE HAJOR ISSUES SYSTEH DATE ORIGINATED DATE UPDATED K":~&’ l%"I:| FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CALL 287-5700 0813 CRS- 1 IB77052 UPDATE-08/13/80 ;s§uE Dnrrurrrgg Almost unnoticed in the controversy and concern over the growing pressure of world population on world food supplies and energy, are the signs of a first faltering in the long-accustomed pattern of expansion of U.S. agricultural production. Damage directly linked to fallout of industrial and municipal pollution across the U.S. continent, extending many miles beyond the sources of emission, has already reduced yields of some forests and other crops. Estimates suggest that crop yields may be reduced by as much as 1 to 2% nationwide. However, some localities experience greater damage; for example, research studies at Riverside, Calif., indicate that local ambient air guality can reduce certain crop yields by as much as 75%. In the absence of new and stringent pollution controls, expanded use of fossil energy could spread and accelerate this phenonmenon. At issue is whether the Clean Air Act as presently enforced can provide adequate protection for the Nation's agricultural pursuits and still sustain a viable industrial economy. BACKGROUND AND POLICY ANALYSIS For decades Americans have been blessed with ample food and even plagued with surplus. As a Nation, we have assumed an ever-increasing output of agricultural products at reasonable prices. This complacency was shaken, however, by events in 1972 and 1973, when surpluses disappeared and shortages appeared. In the view of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS), "There are clouds ; the horizon that should be noted. Our subsidized land reserves have already disappeared with the first faltering in the national food supplies." The 60 million acres reserved through subsidies in 1972 have been returned to production (NAS, Agricultural Production Efficiency, 1975, p. 3).. Furthermore, NAS considers air pollution as "an unwitting constraint on agricultural production efficiency" (gpig, p. 101). Crops are affected by pollution in many parts of the Nation. In the past, readily noticeable plant growth daaage occurred in areas surrounding certain industrial activities such as smelting, but now, according to HAS, the area of influence has enlarged and crops near cities are suffering. "A classic example is the abandonment of the Zinfandel grape in parts of California because of damage from air pollutants. Similarly, air pollution has forced the abandonment of varieties of cigar tobacco in the Connecticut vally. Spinach is disappearing from vegetable farms near cities, presumbaly for the same reason. The yields of potatoes per acre in the Connecticut valley, where pollution is high, has been slowly falling since 1960. Legumes, the high-protein crops, are particularly vulnerable to injury from pollutants, especially sulfur dioxide." (Ibid, p. 101) In addition to the direct effects of pollutants, crops and forests are affected by pollution—induced acid rain. A number of studies in Scandinavia suggest a progressive adverse effect.of acid precipitation on the growth of CRS- 2 ' IB77052 UPDATE-08/13/30 coniferous forest trees. The reduction in growth has been estimated at 0.3% per year in Sweden to as much as 1% in Norway (Air Quality and Stationary Source Emission Control, HAS, 1975). Studies in the northeastern United States indicate that rain and snow is far more acid than the pH of 5.7 produced by normal rainfall. The annua mean pH readings in New England are already down to 4.0, with an observation just above a pH of 1.0 (Washington Star, Aug. 27, 1979: A3). [Since the pH scale is logarithmic, the latter reading is about 10,000 times more acidic than normal rainfall.) A study of a hardwood forest in New Hampshire showed an "abrupt and striking“ decrease in volume growth and productivity had taken place about 1960. The change (an 18% decrease) was unprecedented in the history of wood volume growth in the forest (Air Quality and Stationary Source Emission Control, NAS, 1975). The Administration's proposal for converting oil-fired electric powerplants to coal is an unknown dinension. some estimates suggest that sulfur dioxide, particulates, and nitrogen oxides could increase by 26%, 83%, and 38% respectively, in the Northeastern United States if the program is implemented and new source performance standards are not imposed on the converted plants. No estimates are available on the potential impact of these increases on acid rain. some scientists argue that the buffering capacity of the soil is adequate to offset acid deposition. Studies at North Carolina indicate that: artificial "rain" adjusted to pH 3.1 with sulfuric acid: (1) caused a 73 percent inhibition of nodulation of kidney beans and a 67 percent inhibition with soybeans; (2) a decrease in rate of an apparent nitrogen fixation per plant; and (3) an inhibition of modulation of kidney beans in three different types of soil--with or without the addition of 1,575 pounds of lime per acre to neutralize the applied sulfuric acid. (SOURCE: U.S. Congress. House Committee on Science and Technology. Research and development related to sulphates in the atmosphere. Hearings, 94th Congress 1st session. June 1975: 432-033.) Growing plants are particularly susceptible to pollution, with reductions ‘in photosynthesis and growth occurring before visible symptoms of injury are noted. The impact of air pollutants on crop productivity is becoming increasingly apparent- Crops exposed to pollution in ambient air, according to findings of a field experiment at Riverside, Calif., had significantly lower yields than crops grown under controlled conditions. For example, the yield of alfalfa was reduced by 38%, blackeyed beans by 12%, sweet corn by 72%, and radishes, 38%, when compared with control groups grown under clean,h filtered air. Another study in the San Bernardino mountains of California compared the yield of merchantable volume of wood during 1910-1940 (comparatively unpolluted years) with yields during 19uu-197a. The results showed that nerchantable volume was 20 board feet in the 1910-1900 period and only 5 board feet in the 1944-197a period after removing variability for climate (Dr. 0.C. Taylor, testimony before the House Committee on Science and Technology, Effects of Exposure to Low-Level Pollutants in the Environment, p. 054). Another experiment at Riverside indicates that polluted air reduced the yield of grapes by as much as 60%, navel organges by 50%, and lemons by 30%. CRS- 3 IB77052 UPDATE-08/13/80 Similar studies at the Agricultural Station at Beltsville (Hd.) show that air pollution acts as a growth—suppressant and reduces leaf yield by roughly 20 to 40% (Wall Street Journal, 1972). Recent studies by the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, at llnkers, N.Y., showed that photochemical oxidants reduced alfalfa and sweet corn yields by 15%, bean yields by 25%, and tomatoes by 33%. Translating the yield reduction into economic loss per acre, bean losses were estimated at approximately $385; tomato losses ranged from $1,000 to $4,500 per acre, sweet corn losses approximated $90 per acre, and alfalfa losses were about $20 per acre (EPA, 1976). In 1972, the National Academy of Sciences cautioned: "The increasing amount of air pollution is also a potential hazard to productivity of wheat in some areas. Generally speaking, wheat is more resistant to air pollutants than some other crop plants; however, it is known that wheat varieties vary in their sensitivity to air pollutants and thus are genetically vulnerability to damage by them." (NAS, Genetic Vulnerability of major Crops, 1972, p. 103) Fortunately, the dramatic losses reflected at Riverside and Yonkers do not portray the current physical conditions in major agricultural producing areas. Nonetheless, these studies have special significance in that they identify the consequence of deteriorated air quality. The Clean Air Act Amendment of 1970 (P.L. 91-600) required the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to establish primary air quality : indards to protect human health, and secondary air quality standards to protect welfare. The Act defines welfare in this manner: "All language referring to effects on welfare includes, but is not limited to, effects on soils, water, crops, vegetation, man-made materials, animals, wildlife, weather, visibility, and climate, to damage to and deterioration of property, and hazards to transportation, as well as effects on economic values and on personal comfort and well-being." (Section 101 (2) (1)) Despite this requirement, recent EPA surveys have shown that a large number of Air Quality Control Regions (ACQR) still violate primary ambient air standards. It is often argued that if present regulations remain unchanged, the areas having difficulty in attaining primary standards are likely to suffer economic and social hardship because of the need to suspend further industrial expansion and development. On the other hand, failure to attain and maintain primary air quality standards precludes the attainment of more stringent secondary air quality standards that are so important to another industry—-agriculture. Thus, arguments for limiting the Clean Air Act to accommodate industrial expansion in these areas may be g§_ fagtg arguments for greater loss of agricultural production. Some argue that industry should be allowed to relocate to those areas of t 4 country where air quality is cleaner than required by EPA's secondary standards; however, others stress the compelling reasons for preventing significant deterioration of air quality. The resolution of wthis issue is CRS- 4 IB77052 UPDATE—08/13/80 iaportant. Although agronomic and other cultivated species would not be acutely impaired if future oxidant and sulfur dioxide levels remain as they are today, the impact on agriculture could be significant if pollutant levels are allowed to increase. According to a senior researcher in the 0.3. Department of Agriculture: “The potential effect of an increase in oxidant and/or sulfur dioxide concentration is difficult to forecast. At some level the genetic resistance within a species is not sufficient to cope with a pollution insult. This level varies for both native and cultivated species. Once a given pollution level is reached, the effect may increase rapidly with only slight increases in pollution. An educated guess suggests that a doubling of present pollution concentrations on the East Coast could, under otherwise favorable environmental conditions, produce from 25 to 100% loss of many agronomic and horticultural crops and severe injury to many native species. Several growing seasons at these higher pollution levels could result in the temporary or permanent loss of native species and major changes in many ecosystems. We are not far from pollution levels which could cause precipitous effects on agricultural production in the more humid areas of the United States." (Heck, in Air Pollution Damage to Vegetation, 1973, p. 128) This view appears to be shared by Dr. 0.C. Taylor of the Statewide Air Pollution Research Center, University of California (Riverside). He stresses that the threat of pollution to the agroecosystem is potentially great in view of the large areas devoted to a single crop and often to a single variety of a species of the crop. Thus, a single pollution espisode can be catastrophic and related espisodes during a growing season can assul tremendous losses, according to Dr. Taylor. On Feb. 8, 1979, EPA promulgated revisions to the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Photochemical oxidants (nu FR 8202). The final rulemaking raised the primary and secondary air quality standards to 0.12 ppm from the earlier level of 0.08 ppm. The new regulation also changes the measure of oxidants to a measure of ozone. Since ambient ozone concentrations can range from 65% to 100% of the total photochemical oxidant concentration, a question arises whether these changes could allow oxidant levels to reach 0.18 ppm. The Clean Air Act Amendments, P.L. 95-95, enacted Aug. 7, 1977, provide some degree of protection for agricultural production by reguiring actions to prevent deterioration of air quality in those areas where the air is cleaner than national standards. The 1977 Act was the first to include explicit provisions for PSD and required a three-tiered area classification.scheme for all areas with air cleaner than national ambient air quality standards, with maximum allowable increases in pollutant concentrations of TSP and 502. All major emitting sources must secure pre—construction permits in PSD areas and the owner must demonstrate that the construction and operation will not contribute to air pollution in excess of any allowable increment P‘ allowable concentration or the national ambient air quality standard. A_, new sources must utilize "best available control technogy" (BACT). CRS- 5 IB77052 UPDATE-08/13/80 The dependence of the Nation on agriculture cannot be denied; similarly, the need for a sound industrial economy is beyond dispute. At issue is whether the current enforcement of the Clean Air Act is adequate to accommodate both. Is current monitoring of air pollution adequate to assess e threat of air pollution to agriculture and to provide an early "warning system" of worsening conditions? Is additional pollution control R8D needed to assist industry in meeting standards? LEGISLATION H.R. 576% (LaFalce et al.) Determines the causes and effects of acid precipitation throughout the United States and develops and implements solutions to this problem. Introduced Oct. 31, 1979; referred jointly to Committees on Interstate and Foreign Commerce and on Science and Technology. 5. 175a (Hoynihan) Acid Precipitation Act of 1979. Determines the causes and effects of acid precipitation throughout the United States and develops and implements solutions to this problem. Introduced Sept. 1a, 1979; referred to Committee on Environment and Public Works. Also introduced as an amendment to S. 932 and enacted as P.L. 96-294, Defense Production Act Extension, on June 30, 1980. §§A.1ill§§. 0.5. Congress. House. Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. Subcommittee on Energy and Power. Middle-and long-term energy policies and alternatives. Hearings, 94th Congress, 2d session. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1976. Part 4. "Energy choices facing the Nation and their long-range implications: industry's airborne assault on agriculture.“ "Serial no. 9M-67" 0.5. Congress- House. Committee on Science and Technology. Subcommittee on the Environment and the Atmosphere. The costs and effects of chronic exposure to low-level pollutants in the environment. Hearings, 94th Congress, 1st session. Washington, 0.5. Govt. Print. Off., 1975. ----Research and development related to sulfates in the atmosphere. Hearings, 94th Congress, 1st session. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1975. 0.5. Congress. House. Committee on Science and Technology; subcommittee on Natural Resources and Environment; and Committee on Agriculture, Subcommittees on Conservation and Credit. Agricultural productivity and environmental quality. Joint hearings, 96th Congress, 1st session. Bashington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1980. R EPORTS U.S. 0.5. ----Research and development relating cns- 6 1577052 UPDATE-O8/13/80 £s.!P.-§Q§§§§§§lQ11A.L-DQSQL€§l1I§ Congress. Conference Committee, 1977. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1977. (95th Congress, 1st session. House. Report no. 95-564) Congress. House. Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. Clean Air Amendments of 1977; report to accompany H.B. 6161, together with additional, separate, and supplemental views. may 12, 1977. [Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off.) 1977. (95th Congress, 1st session. House. Report no. 95—29u) 1 Congress. House. Committee on Science and Technology. Subcomnittee on Natural Resources and Environment Committee on Agriculture. Subcommittee on Conservation and Credit. Agricultural and environmental relationships: issues and priorities. June 1979. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1979. At head of title: Joint committee print. Congress. House. Committee on Science and Technology. Subcommittee on Environnent and the Atmosphere. Effects of chronic exposure to low-level pollutants in the environment. Washington, 0.5. Govt. Print. Off., 1975. At head of title: Committee print. "Serial 0'' 9uth Congress, 1st session. Report on the costs and effects of chronic exposure to low-level pollution in the environment. Washington, 0.5. Govt. Print. Off., 1976. At head of title: 9uth Congress, Committee print. “Serial GG' 2d session. to sulfates in the atmosphere. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1975. At head of title: 9uth Congress, 1st session. Committee print. "Serial F" ---—-Summary of hearings on research and development related 11.5. to sulfate in the environment. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Gff., 1975. At head of title: Committee print. °°Serial L” 9uth Congress, 1st sessio. Congress. Senate. Committee on Environment and Public Works. Clean Air Amendments of 1977; report together with additional views to accompany S. 252. Bay 10, 1977. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1977. (95th Congress, 1st session. CRS— 7 IB77052 UPDATE-O8/13/80 Senate. Report no. 95-127) U.$. Congress. Senate. Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. Land use and energy: a study of interrelationships. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1976. At head of title: 94th Congress, 2d session. Committee print. 0.3. Congress. Senate. Committee on Public Works. Air quality and stationary source emission control. A report by the National Academy of Sciences. Washington, 0.5. Govt. Print. Off., 1975. At head of title: 94th Congress, 1st session. Committee print. Q§BQ§QLQ§X-QE_§!§!$§ O7/25/79 - 07/26/79 -- Joint hearings on agricultural productivity and environmental quality held before the House Committee on Agriculture, Conservation and Credit Subcommittee; and the House Committee on Science and Technology, Subcommittee on Natural Resources and Environment. O2/08/79 -- EPA promulgated new primary and secondary air quality standards for oxidants (HHFR 8202). 12/15/77 4- H.J.Res. 678 introduced by Congressmen Jeffords and Nolan. 08/07/77 -— H.R. 6161 signed into law (P.L. 95-95). AQQlIlQ!AL-B§§§§§!§.-§QEBQE5 Air pollution damage to vegetation. John A. Naegele, ed. American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1973. Agricultural production efficiency. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1975. .Effects of air pollutants on plants. T.A. Mansfield, ed. Cambridge University press, Cambridge, 1976. Canada Centre for Inland Waters. Burlington, Ontario, Canada. Sulfur in the environment. Part II: ecological impacts. John Wiley 8 Sons, New York, 1978. H82 p. Genetic vulnerability of major crops. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1972. Hill, G. Christian. Better harvest: air-pollution damage to crops increases; experts disagree on what -- if anything -- to do about it. The Wall Street journal, July 19, 1972, p. 30. Morgan, J.J. and 3.3. Liljestrand. Measurement and interpretation of acid rainfall in the Los Angeles Basin. W.H. Keck Laboratory CRS- 8 IB77052 UPDATE-08/13/80 of Environmental Engineering Science. Division of Engineering and Applied Science. California Institute of Technology. February 1980. Report no. AC-2-80. National Academy of Sciences. Committee on Medical and Biological Effects of Environmental Pollutants. Nitrogen oxides. Washington, D.C., 1977. 333 p. ---- Ozone and other photochemical oxidants. Washington, D.C., 1977. 719 p. Nev York State Assembly. Committee on Environmental Conservation. The Adirondack Park Agency. Scientific papers from the public meeting on acid precipitation. nay H-5, 1978. Lake Placid, New York. March 1979. Responses of plants to air pollution. J. Brian Mudd and T.T. Kozlouski, eds. Academic press, New York, 1975. 0.5. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA crop damage research may increase farm earnings. Environmental news, Hay H, 1976. ----- The effects of oxidant air pollutants on soybeans, snapbeans, and potatoes. Ecological Research Series. EPA 600/ 3-77-128, November 1977. ----- Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. Revisions to the national ambient air quality standards for photochemical oxidants. January 1979. ---- Office of Research and Development. Air quality criteria for ozone and other photochemical oxidants, volumes I and II. April 1978. (EPA-600/8-78-OOH. ----- Strategies and Air Standards Division. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. Assessment of welfare effects and the secondary air quality standard for ozone. June 1978. % Evaluation of alternative secondary ozone air quality standards._ January 1979. (OAQPS-78-8-IV-A-3) ---- Susceptibility of woody plants to sulfur dioxide and photochemical oxidants. Ecological Research Series. EPA 600/3-76-102, September 1976. 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