I r“ '57 NO Min-:GER /9 /5"» 3 5/K» -' Paovszzzfy -»——-”-w .a » A mi cam 1- 50 OZ. 2 75.3% f?~R.;’%.Zé1i"af Vvashingion Ur:§vars§ty O V‘ .1. , ‘D L":-“;~ :7 ».T,j"-‘."."'~, NOV 16 1989 .r'.‘~ - . . L‘ "€‘;.a‘r Q S £~n.;a‘—*:r.; *- rm» "’-“.““’ r. 31 0 i‘£"“¢u}. CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE 0 ia ll saw '*""““ll11T_IVZZZW fli Ill! ACID PRECIPITATION: A SERIOUS AND GROWING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM ISSUE BRIEF NUEER IBBOOZZ AUTHOR: Trumbule, Robert Environment and Natural Resources Policy Division THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CONGRESSIONAL REEARCH SERVICE MAJOR ISSUES SYSTEM DME ORIGINATED g_2_g1y_4§9_ DATE UPDATED 9__5_4Qg4§_Q FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CALL 287-5700 CBS’ 1 IB80022 UPDATE-05/O9/80 ;L§§!1§...12.1‘.3.1?.l1il1£9.!'. Acid precipitation may be one of the most significant environmental problems of the new decade. Its potential for damage to crops, forests, soil fertility, lakes and fish populations, and manmade materials is appears great. Acid precipitation results from oxides of sulfur and nitrogen reacting with water vapor in the atmosphere. These pollutants are produced primarily by the combustion of fossil fuels in powerplants and automobiles, and in smelting processes. Acid precipitation is expected to increase with greater coal use. The presently observed increased acidity of rainfall in the 13.5. has occurred during a period (1950-1977) in which coal use expanded by 30%. Now, with President Carter calling for nearly doubling our use of coal, the problem will most likely become significantly worse, especially in view of the planned conversion to coal of existing oil-fired powerplants. These converted plants may not be held subject to stringent new-source performance standards. Rather, they could be much less tightly controlled under State Implementation Plans . At least partial control of pollutants causing acid precipitation is possible but at considerable cost. Scrubbers can be installed on powerplants . remove 90% of the effluent sulfur oxides. Nitrogen oxides control is less well developed but control techniques such as fluidized-bed mmbustion for powerplants and 3-way catalysts for automobiles are promising and well along the way toward development. The potentially severe environmental impacts of fossil-fuel burning, especially those associated with acid rain, have serious implications for national energy policy. In view of the country's need to reduce its dependence on foreign oil, it appears necessary to use much greater quantities of coal in the near- and intermediate-term. If this is so, to what degree should pollution controls be required? more specifically, is it necessary to impose stringent Federally mandated emission standards on existing (and converting) coal-fired powerplants similar to those already in plance for new sources? If so, what will this cost and how should these costs be borne? If these costs are too prohibitive or if the technology ‘proves to be unavailable, what other resources are available? Does the nuclear option need reexamination? Are we moving sufficiently rapidly toward development of maximum use of renewable resources? §A§F.<§§Q1l!{P...§.HQ_£QLl..¥.-A!IALY..._5 § Rainfall and snowfall more acidic than normal is considered "acid precipitation." Normally rainfall is somewhat acidic due to the reaction of atmospheric moisture and carbon dioxide. ‘mus, normall rainfall has a pH of L 5. pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance. On a scale of 0 to 111 pure water has a pH of 7.0. The lower the number the mores acid a substance is; for example, ilemon juice and vinegar have pH's of between 2 and 3. At the opposite end of the scale, ammonia and lye, two strong bases, have pH's in the 12 and 13 range. It is important to realize that the pH scale is logarithmic -- that is, each number on the scale differs CBS- 2 IB80022 UPDATE-05/09/80 by a factor of 10 from its neighboring number. Thus, a pH of 6 is 10 times more acid than pure water, while a pH of 5 is 100 times more acidic, a pH of is 1000 times more acidic, 3 -- 10,000 times, and 2 - 100,000 times more acidic. How acidic is acid rain? Rainfall in the eastern United States, eastern Canada, and most of scandanavia is routinely in the 4 to 5 range, often falls between 3 to Q, and twice has been recorded as low as 2.u. Rainfall in the western United States is usually "normal," but in some areas, particularly near Los Angeles, San Francisco, the Seattle-Takoma area, and in the newly developing megalopolis area along the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains (Colorado Springs—Denver—Boulder-Fort Collins) the pH has been measured in the a.o range. Recent reports also indicate that the Boundary waters Canoe Area near the U.S./Canadian border is suffering from increased levels of acidity in precipitation. 0 gaggeg. Sources are not completely identified but apparently about 60% is in the form of acid sulfates, 30% acid nitrates, and 10% acid chlorides and others. Acid sulfates are thought to be transformation products of sulfur oxides coming from industrial sources such as electric powerplants, smelters, coking ovens, and others- Similarly, acid nitrates are believed to be transformation products of nitrogen oxides which originate not only in stationary sources such as electric utility powerplants, but also in mobile sources such as automobiles, and possibly from agricultural fertilizers. In each case, the sulfur or nitrogen oxide pollutants rise into the atmosphere and travel with prevailing winds for distances possibly extending ~ thousands of kilometers, all the while reacting with water vapor and changing into acid sulfates and nitrates and eventually coming back to earth in the form of acid precipitation. Although much of the pollution emitted by powerplants and other industrial and mobile sources undergoes this long-range transport and transformation, about one—half may return to earth within 30 to 50 kilometers of the source. Therefore the acid deposition problem is also one of local concern. 1 §§§ggt§_9§_Agi§_ggggipitgtigg. Acid rainfall and snowfall can cause a number of serious~ environmental problems including damage to crops and forests, decreased soil.fertility, sterility of certain.lakes, and corrosio wto mannade materials. j Certain particularly susceptible lakes, found primarily in the Adirondack Mountain region of the United States, in eastern Canada, and in southern Sweden, have become devoid of all fish life. These lakes are located in geological areas where there is a lack of natural neutralizing minerals, for example, limestone. Thus, the lakes continue to get a heavy dose of acid, particularly during the spring run-off from melting snow, and have no means of recovering naturally. ' Adirondack lakes have gone from an average pH of about 6.8 in the 1930s to about 4.8 in 1975. Apparently as a result of this, at least 90 are now devoid of fish. Canada estimates that in the next 20 years as many as u8,000 kes in Ontario will undergo a similar fate. The species of fish in these lakes siaply cannot reproduce at pH's below about 5.0. There is also considerable evidence that, under conditions of increased acidity, certain elements, normally locked into minerals in the soil and lake bottom sediments, are mobilized. Aluminum is one of these and it appears CBS- 3 IB80022 UPDATE-05/09/80 that the sudden increase in the concentatio of aluminum in a lake during the spring melt of the snowpack is a major cause of damage to fish populations. Hobilization of mercury from lake bottom sediments is another potentially:‘ rious problem. This mobilization of heavy elements could have serious implications for drinking water supplies. In addition, the human health effects of metals leaching from pipes in drinking water delivery systems is a potential but little discussed problem. Plant growth is also affected by acid precipitation. In addition to reduction in yields due to leaching of nutrients from the soil, direct damage to leaves from acid deposition and increased predisposition of plants to infection by bacterial and fungal pathogens have been verified. Because of effects such as these, Sweden estimates:a 2 - 7% reduction in forest growth between 1950 and 1965. Recent studies from Norway, however, indicate no decrease in forest growth due to acid rain. In fact, a few laboratory studies, including one which was EPA sponsored, have reported an increase in growth for certain plants due to additions of artificial "acid rain." These results are believed to be due to the addition of sulfu and nitrogen. It is generally recognized, however, that adding sulfur and nitrogen in the form of an acid rain is not the best way to obtain the necessary plant nutrients, and that potential damages far exceed potential benefits. Damage to manmade materials also can be considerable. No firm estimates of damage are available, but damage to automobile paint in the Los Angeles area, and continued, accelerating corrosion-erosion of the world's buildings and monuments have been reported. Notable among those receiving attention e the Acropolis and Parthenon in Greece and Cleopatra's Needle in New York Lity. These, and other treasures from antiquity have been degraded more in the last 50 years than they were in theepreceeding 2000. At least part of this degradation is believed to be due to acidic air pollution. Agtigng. Because it is a global problem, considerable discussion of the acid precipitation problem has occurred in international forums- For example, in November 1979 at the International Convention on Transbondary Air Pollution in Geneva, 33«countries including the United States, Canada, Soviet Bloc countries, and those in the United Nations’ Economic Commission for Europe, pledged to "limit, reduce, and prevent all forms of air pollution." They singled out transfrontier hazardous emissions and acid rain for special attention. Although this agreement calls for cooperative research, establishment of a monitoring network, and exchange of information, it contains no control.strategies and, therefore, has no real authority. The United States and Canada are striving to develop a bilateral agreement on transboundary pollution that will focus on acid precipitation. On July 26, 1979, the two governments issued a joint statement in which they declared their intention to move forward formal negotiations aimed at reaching an agreement. However, such an agreement is probably at least 18 months away. Reasons for delay in reaching such an agreement include differing air quality standards, monitoring techniques, and governmental. structures. Meanwhile, the United States is attempting unilaterally to do something about the problem. In general, the 1977'Clean Air Act.Amendments provide for attainment of primary air quality standards designed to protect human health by 1982. However, there is no fixed date for attaining the secondary air quality standards which are set at levels to protect plants, animals, materials, and cns- u IB80022 UPDATE-05/09/30 aesthetics from effects of air pollutitn. Effects from acid precipitaion generally fall into this category. Also, under the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977, EPA has adopted emission standards for new coal-fired powerplants. These standards, established yto implement the policy of requiring the best available control technology on all new coal-burning plants, will reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide from new plants by 55%, nitrogen oxides by 20%, and particulates by 70% compared to current standards. For sulfur, these standards will require removal of at least 70% of the sulfur from all coal, regardless of its sulfur content, and 90% from high-sulfur coal. 1 Unfortunately, it will be many years before this policy will pay dividends. Most of the pollution will continue to come from older, largely uncontrolled plants. In March 1979, only 8% of all coal-fired electricity in the United States came from powerplants with scrubbers. Even in 1995, plants now in existence will account for 73% of sulfur oxide emissions. Because of the continued existence of older, uncontrolled plants, and due to the new push to dramatically increase the use of coal, EPA predicts that sulfur . dioxide levels will continue at present levels while nitrogen oxides emissions will rise by about 50% over the next 20 years. The increase in nitrogen oxides is due primarily to th inadequate state of the art in,’ stationary source nitrogen oxide control at present. President Carter has also attempted to address the problem of acid rain. In his August 2 message on envirtnmental priorities and programs he established a 10-year comprehensive Federal acid rain program to be planned and managed by Acid Rain Coordination Committee. EPA and USDA co-chair this mmittee with CEQ acting as executive secretary. other members include the National Science Foundation, the White House Office of Science and Technology, and the Departments of State, Interior, Commerce, and Energy. The committee is to develop an assessment program to include basic and applied research on acid rain effects, trends monitoring, and control measures. Also, it is to establish links with industry to promote cooperative research wherever possible. In its first full year of operation, the program is to have $10 million in reprogrammed research funds, double the current amount. CEQ was to have produced a report by early 1980 outlining this assessment program. The electric utility industry also recognizes the seriousness of the acid rain issue. Through the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), the industry has provided over $5 million for acid rain research during the past three years and anticipates spending another $10-15 million during the next five. While recognizing that acid rain is falling and that it can cause serious ecological damage, the utility industry maintains that both the extent of ecological damage and industry's contribution to the toverall problem are largely unknown. The baseszfor these tstatements are primarily scarce and sometimes conflicting data. : To resolve the issue, the electric utility industry supports continuing and increased research.into: (1) the magnitude of ecological damage; (2) the geographical extent of acid.precipitation; (3) the role played by long—range transport of pollutants; and (H) the chemistry of formation of acid rain. gggiglatigg. Congress has also taken some steps. First, on the Housed” side Hr. Ambro introduced on June 22, 1979, an amendment to the HUD-Independent Agencies appropriations bill which would have increased‘ funding for EPA's acid rain research program. The amendment was defeated. CRS- 5 IB80022 UPDATE-OS/09/80 More recently, on Oct. 31, 1979, Congressmen Lafalce, Oberstar, and Vento introduced a bill (H.R. 5764) to establish a comprehensive approach to deal with the acid rain problem. The bill would. establish an interagency task” arce to study the problem and to recomend solutions. It would work closely with international, State, academic, and private organizations in seeking to do its job. In the Senate, Senator Moynihan has introduced similiar legislation. Initially in the form of S. 1754, but later submitted as an amendment to the now-passed synfuels hill, 5. 932, the Energy Security Act, Moynihan's legislation would authorize a comprehensive $68 million program. An interagency coordinating body, the Acid.Precipitation Task Force, would be created. It.would have:representation from eight Federal agencies, Q members representing all regions of the country, an optional advisory members from Canada and Mexico. It is to formulate a 10-year comprehensive plan for analyzing and alleviating the acid rain.problem. Funding at the $68 million level would cover the first 6 years of its operation. 5. 932 has passed the Senate and is now in conference with House-passed synfuels legislation which had no corresponding acid rain provisions. LIBRARY " OF WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY ST. LOUIS - MC. V Fyv —c_—-,.»4rr__-A-..—.»A-s_; r -~ v-~ 1