. R ii¢iONGER : ER& LC. i"i"» ' éljy 5?‘ it RTY aft; 3- NOV 16 1989 i j " R L} B ‘4a;:y=:hina§‘30n University .- -V -« i Mini Brief CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH R SERVICE ~ m 6 gg§gg;§SF IJ|llliiiflWflm@fl[[ibEj@i[[iyfl[i1i[flIl UTITHIII EDUCATION: CHALLENGES IN THE l98OS MINI BRIEF NUMBER MB79263 AUTHOR: Jordan, K. Forbis Education and Public Welfare Division THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE MAJOR ISSUES SYSTEM DATE ORIGINATED 10/ll/79 DATE UPDATED Ol/l3/83 FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CALL 287-5700 Oll3 CRS- l MB79263 UPDATE-Ol/13/83 TSSUE DEFINITION During the l980s, various issues are likely to emerge concerning public and Federal interest in education. These issues include the extent of education to be provided at public expense; the relative share of the education fiscal burden to be borne by local, State, and Federal revenue sources; public funding for nonpublic schools; equal access to education for all students; bilingual education; national performance standards; parental review of educational programs and materials; focus of Federal programs; declining rate of growth in resources; and competition for funds among various social service programs. BACKGROUND ISSUES The national interest in education in the United States is somewhat different from_that for other governmental services and programs. Under the governance system in the United States, education is a State responsibility, a local function, and a Federal concern. State governments typically have an intermediate responsibility in delivery of Federal education programs. with few exceptions, Federal efforts in elementary and secondary education must rely upon State and local agencies to implement programs and deliver services, and funds must be used for specific programs and services. In postsecondary education, the usual arrangement is a direct relationship F :ween the institutions and the administering agency for the Federal program except for grant and loan payments to individual students. Extent of Publicly Supported Education The aging of the population, the increasing proportion of families in which both spouses are employed, population mobility, reentry into the labor market at midlife, decline in the rate of economic growth, technological and industrial needs, and pressures for support of other governmental services -- these are among the social and economic forces that will affect public attitudes toward education and the quantity and quality of education that will be provided from public funds. Rather than being an activity engaged in by the young, education will likely become more accepted as a life—long endeavor. The promise of a high school equivalency certificate may encourage adults who were unable to complete their high school education to return to school. In an earlier era, these persons would not have sought additional formal education, but the employment market of the 19805 will require from virtually everyone not only competency in the basic skills but also attention to job-related skills that enable employees to adapt to changing employment patterns and job opportunities.‘ Society's interest in supporting these activities may increase as attention is given to problems of the underemployed and the urfimployed. Another change that appears to be occuring in the educational m.fket place is exemplified in those youth who are exercising the option of leaving and then reentering the educational system. By dropping out and later dropping in, they intend to make more mature educational choices CRS- 2 MB79263 UPDATE-Ol/l3/83 concerning future career options. Interest in preschool programs may be traced to the working mother's desire for adequate child care; this interest is reinforced by the growing »cognition of the importance of intellectual and social development during a child's early years to assure that maximum benefit is gained from schooling. At the other end of the age spectrum, interest will likely increase in various post high school noncollegiate eprograms as individuals require supplementary education related to career changes or have greater opportunities to pursue avocational interests because of increased leisure time and early retirement. ' Issues are related to whether Federal programs should be initiated to encourage educational institutions to expand programs for non-traditional age groups, to provide retraining programs for persons who must change careers because of changing employment opportunities, to serve out-of-school youth who could benefit from additional education, and to address the educational needs of preschool children with working mothers. Funding Public Education Funding for education can be viewed fron two perspectives. First, the rate of economic growth has slowed at the same time that school enrollments have begun to decline. Second, taxpayers have begun to protest against increasing governmental expenditures. The property‘ tax revolt is often perceived as an anti—education effort, but such may not be the case. For example, this is one tax which local citizens often have a direct opportunity F reject at the ballot box. Another factor is that the combination of inflationary growth in values of real property and improved administration of the tax have contributed to significant increases in property tax bills. The revolt has impacted heavily on education because of the high usage of the tax as a local revenue source for education. F Taxpayer resistance to the property tax in some jurisdictions has dictated either that reductions be made in the level of funding for local schools or that fiscal resources for education have a reduced rate of growth. The public reaction against further increases in revenues from the local property tax and the demand for expanded social services other than education have resulted in less money for education than was the case during the‘ l950s and l960s. Demographic, social, economic, and political indicators suggest that‘ this trend will continue in the l980s. The number of people in the traditional school age cohort is declining. Some demographic data suggest that the decline may be reversed in the mid l980s, but there are no predictions for dramatic growth like that of the l950s and l960s. During those two decades, the schools for the first time sought to provide a high school education for all pupils and have had mixed success. with this evidence, the crisis of confidence in the schools continues. Seeing that the schools have not always served their different clienteles with equal effectiveness, the public has begun to raise serious questions about the efficacy of the public schools in general. ,Of all educational levels, demographic changes may have the greatest i pact on higher education. The traditional age group will be smaller, but the demand for higher education may not diminish as women entering the labor force at midlife, retirees, and persons seeking retraining, desire different CRS— 3 MB79263 UPDATE-Ol/l3/83 kinds of education. The research of economists and sociologists on the educational process has focused attention on the manner in which educational expenditures (inputs) . [ect student performance (outputs). Research findings have been somewhat mixed concerning the impact that additional expenditures and other types of inputs for education have had on student performance. These research findings have not aided the efforts of education advocates to secure more funds, and advocates of increased funding have been thwarted further by the decline in the level of public confidence in education and the reduced rate of economic growth throughout the l970s. The education community finds itself competing for funds with various other governmental’ services whose funding requirements are driven by inflation or an expanding clientele. Thus, in a political environment characterized by shifting power blocs and a shrinking clientele, the relative power of advocates for increased education funds also appears to have declined. State level education policymakers confront two major issues in the 19805 -- the level of funding to be provided from State and local sources for elementary and secondary education and the degree of discretion that will be retained by local school officials if current trends in school finance continue with a decreasing percent of funds for education being provided from local sources. Public Funds for Nonpublic Schools Concern over the quality of the public schools, pressures for 6 segregation, and the quest for an alternative to the public schools are among the factors related to a continuing interest in aiding nonpublic elementary and secondary schools either through the direct use of tax funds for grants to nonpublic schools or nonpublic school students, or through adjustments to Federal income tax schedules to provide tax relief to parents of children attending nonpublic schools. Efforts to change State constitutions so that States could make voucher payments to nonpublic school students have not been successful in Michigan and California, and the tax credit proposals have not been successful at the Federal level. A few States have enacted programs to provide limited funds for the education of children attending nonpublic schools. From the standpoint of equity, ‘some of the voucher (direct payment) proposals have been deficient because the amounts did not suffice to pay the full cost. An additional problem is that the voucher proposals often have not included payment adjustments based on differences in the financial ability of the parents. without some adjustments based on the different levels of need among parents or an agreement that participating private schools will not charge tuition beyond the voucher amount, some observers fear that the governmental subsidy may benefit only the parents financially able to pay the difference for the private alternative. One concern is that the student body in each private school will be homogeneous in economic, religious, racial or ethnic characteristics, and the public schools will be left with the students who cannot afford private schools. The arguments in favor of either vouchers or tax credits are (1) that oyportunities for an alternative education could be extended to a larger proportion of the population; (2) that competition could be promoted between public and private schools, and that such competition would improve the CRS- 4 MB79263 UPDATE-O1/l3/83 educational services offered by both; (3) that competition and public choice would be consistent with traditional American values; and (4) that it is in the public interest to maintain a dual system of public and private schools. (The arguments in opposition to either vouchers or tuition tax credits are (i) that the use of public funds or the granting of a tax credit for tuition paid to church-related schools has the effect of aiding a religion and would be contrary to the separation of church and State provisions of the United States Constitution; (2) that the level of support or the amount of the tuition tax credit will be insufficient to provide meaningful assistance to low income families and will aid only the rich; (3) that the Federal aid will lead to Federal control of private schools; and (4) that some type of monitoring of private schools will be in the public's interest to ensure that the schools do not practice discrimination, have equitable tuition refund practices, meet minimal health and safety standards, provide minimal supervision for students, and offer curricular programs consistent with American ideals. The interest of the Administration and members of the Congress in tuition tax credits for parents making tuition payments to private schools poses an interesting possibility in view of proposed reductions in funding for education grant programs at all levels. If tuition tax credits should be enacted at the same time that a reduction is made in current Federal programs and functions related to education, the action could be interpreted as indicating that the Federal policy is to encourage the development of private schools as an alternative to the public schools. Equal Access to an Adequate Education As an area of Federal interest, equal access to an adequate education for all members of society has become a major thrust and will likely continue for the indefinite future. Congressional actions such as the establishment of the Basic Education Opportunity Grant (BEOG) in higher education, P.L. 94-142 (Education of all Handicapped Children Act) in elementary and secondary schools, Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, a series of Federal judicial decisions beginning with Brown in l954, and related administrative actions have resulted in continuing Federal efforts being made to assure that each child and youth has access to an adequate or appropriate educational program. Activities include the Individualized Education Program for handicapped children, compensatory education programs, desegregation efforts, and affirmative action programs. The focus on equality of educational opportunity has resulted in the development of spending comparability standards, ranges for racial balance of faculties and pupils in school districts, and comprehensive educational plans for handicapped children. - In some instances, the Federal action has been supported with the funds necessary to carry out the mandate, but in others additional funds have not been provided to enable the local school district to implement the requirement. For example, local schools are not required to provide compensatory education programs in the gabsence of Federal funding, but current Federal regulations require programs for the handicapped irrespective of the level of Federal funding. During a period of a reduced rate of economic growth and increased demand for funds by other social service programs, Congress and the Federal CRS- 5 MB79263 UPDATE-Ol/13/83 bureaucracy may find themselves tempted to impose equal access mandates on local school districts because of the perceived equity involved in the action, but without providing a commensurate level of Federal assistance to meet the mandate. An additional issue is the special requirements being made 7 education of the handicapped children in elementary and secondary schools through the individualized education programs without similar requirements being made for other disadvantaged pupils or for all pupils. Bilingual Education Most of the attention in bilingual education has been given to the Hispanic population in the United States, but this is not the only group affected by the program. In addition to recent immigrants, and other groups that have maintained their cultures; Native American Indians are among those concerned about bilingual and bicultural educational issues. The problem is multi—faceted, for significant clusters of other ethnic groups may be found in various parts of the Nation (for example, French—speaking groups in Louisiana and Northern New England). Concerns about bilingual education needs are often dual and may not be complementary. The first is the need for youth to develop sufficient proficiency in English to be able to function in school and to cope in the American culture, and the second is the desire of a group to have public elementary and secondary education provide an organized program through which their culture will be maintained. To some extent the first concern has been addressed by the Federal courts in the gag case that required instruction in a student's native tongue when the child does not understand English. The V ierlying issue has existed since the formation of the Nation: Should national policy be to promote linguistic and cultural assimiliation, to provide support for the retention of pluralism in the culture, or to seek some middle position in which cultural values will be maintained but linguistic assimiliation will be facilitated? Current Federal efforts can be classified as demonstration programs with discretionary grants being made from the Federal level. Long—term resolution continues to be a matter of debate. The principal issue is whether or not it is in the national interest to provide Federal funds for support of programs that will enable non—English-speaking children to become sufficiently competent in English to function in the schools. The next issue is whether or not Federal funds should be used to support education programs designed to maintain cultural heritages. During a period of limited resources, an additional issue will be the number of cultures that the schools can seek to maintain. Unless equal treatment can be provided for youth from all cultures, a related issue will be to identify those programs that will be supported with public funds. This action has the possibility of being viewed as discriminatory by those persons for whom the public schools do not conduct cultural maintenance programs. Consensus does not appear to have been reached as to the appropriate policy, and the debate probably will be about the value and purposes of bilingual education, and the appropriate Federal role in this area. Nttional Performance Standards Concern over declining standardized test scores and general anxiety about CRS- 6 MB79263 UPDATE-Ol/13/83 student performance will probably continue into the l980s with various public figures continuing to advocate either a mandatory or voluntary national testing program. Support for standards is found among the staunch advocates for local control of schools as well as among those who would support -a lgher degree of centralization in the administration of the public schools in the United States. One potential difficulty with the concept is the concern that a national testing program might lead to a de facto national curriculum, resulting in a reduction of the diversity that has traditionally characterized American public education. Of course, some observers of American education would counter that the current degree of uniformity ‘in textbook usage among the States actually has the effect of contributing to the development of a de facto national curriculum. The testing program movement will likely be accelerated by the States’ growing tendency to adopt minimum competency standards in the basic skills as a requirement for a high school diploma or as a continuing index of a student's progress. One concern relative to the development of minimum competency standards is that the minimums might become the maximums; another is that the emphasis on minimum competencies might result in a neglect of other areas that also appear to be critical for survival, e.g., human relations skills, promptness, coping skills, and problem solving. _ A matter of continuing interest will likely be the Federal role in education and the degree to which possible congressionally imposed national performance standards might represent an encroachment upon the responsibility that the individual States have for education. The Education Amendments of l978 authorized funds for grants to States and local school districts to provide assistance for development of their own proficiency standards for elementary and secondary~school students; however, no funds were appropriated *1 FY80 or requested in the FY81 budget for this program. The issue appears J be dormant at the moment, but the question continues as to whether Congress should encourage States to develop educational performance standards or have a single set developed for the entire Nation; however, the latter choice would likely be viewed as a significant threat to the traditions of American public education. This illustration provides an example of one emerging political conflict in the Federal system -- the balance of power between Federal, State, and local governmental responsibilities, and public pressures for a congressional response to a matter that is perceived to be a national problem even though the problem may not be viewed as a direct or traditional Federal responsibility. Parental Review of Educational Programs and Materials Citizen interest in educational programs and materials appears to be increasing. Concern is being expressed about the content of certain courses such as the appropriate balance between scientific and religious theories of evolution or the appropriateness of school sex education curricula. Questions are being raised about the content of textbooks and the resulting impact upon the beliefs and values of school children. Citizen groups are questioning the continued use of some texts, library books, and supplementary materials. These activities are contributing to various conflicts between citizens eh professional educators. Citizens are concerned about the educational experiences of their children, and professional educators view this citizen interest with mixed reactions. The citizen interest is welcomed, but the CRS- 7 MB79263 UPDATE-Ol/13/83 professional concern is related to the role of the professional educator in determining curricular content and materials after the State legislature, tate board of education, and local school board have made the broad policy decisions about what is to be taught. ‘ Focus of Federal Programs An issue of continuing interest will be whether Federal funds should be used for direct support of ongoing educational programs, support of programs for special populations or specific activities, maintenance of specific institutions or activities, or research and development activities that could be used as an impetus for the improvement of educational practices. A point of concern relative to Federal postsecondary education programs is the extent to which student loans and grants comprise the bulk of the funds and the potential impact of this pattern on postsecondary education opportunities. The fear is that the quality and breadth of postsecondary education may decline because of the neglect of certain academic areas for which there is low student demand even though the areas may be of vital importance to the social and economic well-being of the Nation. Funding experience with existing direct program support activities such as compensatory education programs under Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) and with research programs through the National Institute of Education (NIE) does not suggest Federal commitment to dramatic growth in funding for either activity in the future. ESEA Title I funds have barely kept pace with inflation over the past l5 years, and NIE funding has n’i kept pace with inflation. The Reagan Administration's interest in block grants for various Federal programs contributed to the inclusion of the Education Consolidation and Improvement Act of l98l in the FY82 budget reconciliation legislation (H.R. 3982) enacted by the Congress. Under chapter 2 of the Act which takes effect with the start of the l982-83 school year, 20 legislative appropriations are consolidated, and legislative authorizations are repealed for over 40 Federal education programs. Enactment of this legislation signals a significant shift in Federal education activities for elementary and secondary schools. Decisions about educational priorities and needs will be shifted to States and local school districts with the termination of the 40 Federal competitive discretionary or categorical aid programs. Not included in the block grant are major Federal aid programs for elementary and secondary children such as those for the educationally disadvantaged (ESEA, title I), handicapped children (P.L. 94-l42), bilingual education (ESEA, title VII), adult education, and vocational education. However, the program for the educationally disadvantaged is modified to permit greater State and local discretion under separate provisions of the Education Consolidation and Improvement Act of l98l. At the same time that the block grant funded through the Education Consolidation and Improvement Act of l98l is being implemented by States and localities, various interest groups and institutions are advocating new Federal initiatives to address problems related to student performance in math and science and the need for. better qualified teachers in the same ft ids. Proposals for Federal action include recognition of outstanding high school math and science scholars, loans for college students preparing to be math and science teachers, and tax credits for businesses that employ CRS- 8 . MB79263 UPDATE-O1/l3/83 teachers on a part—time basis, share employees with the schools, or donate scientific equipment to the schools. Proposals for State and local action include salary supplements for math and science teachers, changes in certification requirements, and increased offerings and requirements in condary schools. As consideration is given to the enactment of new Federal initiatives, several issues emerge. The first is whether or not funds for a new Federal program will reduce the dollars available for college student assistance to ensure equal access for poor students, for compensatory education programs, for vocational education, or for education of the handicapped. A second is whether or not members of the Administration or the Congress will have an interest in maintaining support for block grant programs which do not address specific national priorities. An additional issue is the degree to which the Federal Government should become involved in funding the operational cost of the regular or basic educational program. Interest in non—restricted Federal aid for elementary and secondary education may become greater if pressures continue for reduction in the local property tax burden, support increases for interstate equalization in educational funding, and litigation continues to require equal treatment of disadvantaged or handicapped pupils in educational funding. The broad based revenue generating power of the Federal Government may be an attractive target for those who seek to maintain or increase the level of funding for education. A counter position to this latter point is that Federal aid programs for education should be terminated because (l) education is~a State and local function, (2) Federal funding for education represents a relatively small proportion of the total expenditures for elementary and secondary education, yet carries with it a regulatory burden out of proportion with the expenditure level, (3) educational needs and priorities are dramatically different among the 50 States and l6,000 “cal school districts, and (4) participation in Federal programs is often _Junter-productive because of the excessive administration, planning, and paperwork burdens associated with participation in Federal education programs. Living in a World of Limits The changes in American life that occurred in the latter half of the l970s will probably continue into the 19805, perhaps beyond. Even though some economists suggest that the rising price of fossil fuels is not a major contributor to inflation, the impact is felt in the rising cost of utilities, transportation, industrial production, and other fuel-consuming activities. The net result may be that individuals will find it increasingly difficult to maintain current lifestyles. Schools may be asked to pay attention to student practices, values, and attitudes of conservation. It would constitute a significant challenge for the schools to foster this change in attitude and behavior in a culture long oriented to consumption, growth, and the assumption of abundant resources. An intriguing possibility is that the rising costs of energy, and the resulting impact on the American lifestyle, could be the catalysts that, in the 1980s, will bring about innovations in the American public schools that were sought (by some) but did not materialize during the l960s and l970s. argy consumption associated with school operation and transportation, and continuing developments in communications technology, -could well be the forces that change the manner in which schools are organized and conducted. CRS- 9 - MB79263 UPDATE-Ol/13/83 with appropriate support and leadership, the concept of education in the l980s could shift from the current emphasis on institutional "schooling" to an emphasis on learning and participation characterized by decentralized learning centers to which teachers move rather than students, a 3- or 4-day ak of formal instruction, work and service experience integrated into the planned educational program for students, and more extensive use of public television and video-recorders. Though suggesting numerous, inadequately explored problems, this combination of curricular and organization reform supported by greater use of technology could contribute to a renewed interest in and a higher level of public support for education. Balancing of Priorities In view of the developments of the l960s and l970s, one of the significant dilemmas confronting policymakers in the 1980s may be to place the requests of special interest groups in perspective as one of the considerations in addressing the totality of educational and social interests. A key question in the Federal decision process may be related to whether the Federal funds should be targeted on specific nationally identified priorities and activities or allocated to States and localities on a formula basis wit decisions as to priorities and use of funds being made at either the State or local level. In the field of education, as well as between education and other governmental services, various competing interests are likely to continue seeking support for special programs or constituencies, even to the detriment of others. The capacity of government to maintain a balanced perspective in addressing special as well as general societal needs may well be one of the great challenges of the l980s. _.r_..;._ H A LIBRARY OF WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY st. Lowts - M0;