U. a DEPARTMevfT OF LABOR 
 
 W. B. WILSON, Secrelaiy 
 
 THE NEGRO AT WORK 
 
 DURING THE WORLD WAR 
 
 AND F URING RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 STATISTICS, PROBLEMS, AiN'D POLICIES RELATING TO 
 
 THE GREATER INCLUSION OF NEGRO WAGE EARNERS 
 
 IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND AGRICULTURE 
 
 DIVISION OF NECRO ECONOMICS 
 
 GEORGE E. HAYNES. Ph. D., Ditectof 
 
 SECOND STUDY ON NEGRO LABOR 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
 
 1921 
 
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 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR 
 
 W. B. WILSON. Secretary 
 
 THE NEGRO AT WORK 
 
 DURING THE WORLD WAR 
 
 \ND DURING RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 STATISTICS, PROBLEMS, AND POLICIES RELATING TO 
 
 THE GREATER INCLUSION OF NEGRO WAGE EARNERS 
 
 IN AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND AGRICULTURE 
 
 DIVISION OF NEGRO ECONOMICS 
 
 GEORGE E. HAYNES. Ph. D.. Director 
 
 SECOND STUDY ON NEGRO LABOR 
 
 
 r 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
 
 1921 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Letter of transmittal 5 
 
 Introduction 7 
 
 Chapter I. Migration, its causes and volume 10 
 
 II. Creation of office, Director of Negro Economics 12 
 
 III. Early results of Negro Economics Ser\ice 19 
 
 JProblems of Negro Labor 20 
 
 IV. Cooperation within the department 22 
 
 V. Negro labor and racial relationships at Chicago 26 
 
 VI. White and Negro workers in basic industries 32 
 
 VII. Statistics on the meat-packing and steel industries 52 
 
 VIII. Negro labor in the United States shipyards 58 
 
 Record-breaking Negro workers 62 
 
 IX. Report of work in Florida and Georgia 64 
 
 X. Report of work in Illinois ! 68 
 
 XI. Report of work in Michigan. 77 
 
 XII. Report of work in Mississippi 82 
 
 XIII. Report of work in New Jersey 88 
 
 XIV. Report of work in New York. 95 
 
 XV. Report of work in North Carolina 97 
 
 XVI. Report of work in Ohio 105 
 
 XVII. Report of work in Pennsylvania 116 
 
 XVIII. Report of work in Virginia 119 
 
 XIX. Negro women in industry 124 
 
 XX. Recommendations on scope of departmental authority 134 
 
 TABLES. 
 
 Table I. Unskilled white and Negro male workers in selected tj^pical war 
 
 industries 34 
 
 II. Average hours of work and average earnings 45 
 
 III. Opinions of 38 employers of Negro labor 50 
 
 IV. Meat-packing employees 53 
 
 V. Meat-packing employees (with graphs) 54 
 
 VI. Negro employees m eight principal shipyard districts 60 
 
 APPENDIXES. 
 
 Appendix I. "Labor and Victory " 137 
 
 II. Constitution, North Carolina State Committee 139 
 
 III. Constitution, Ohio State Committee , . 141 
 
 IV. Constitution, Kentucky State Committee 143 
 
 3 
 
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 o 
 
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 
 
 United States Department of Labor, 
 
 Division of Negro Economics, 
 
 Washington, D. C, April 1, 1920. 
 
 Sir: I have the honor of transmittm^ herewith a bulletin cover- 
 ing, in brief, some of the work of the Division of Negro Economics, 
 established by you on May 1,1918, and functioning through your imme- 
 diate office smce that time, together with some valuable data giving 
 the actual experiences of Negroes in industrial occupations, 1918- 
 1919. The publication was planned, m part, by my assistant, Karl 
 F, Phillips, who also constructed the statistical and other tables 
 contained m the report and who from the beginnmg and throughout 
 the continuation of the work has given a most competent and highly 
 efficient service to the department and to the public. 
 
 You will note that the bulletin contains summarized statements of 
 the policies and plans which you approved for this special service to 
 Negro wage earners, their employers, and associates, and that concise 
 statistical reports and data have been included. The graphs amplify- 
 ing one of the larger tables were prepared by the Bureau of Labor 
 Statistics. I may say that the files of the Division of Negro Eco- 
 nomics contam a mass of similar material, but that owing to lack of 
 funds and clerical help it was not practicable to endeavor to prepare 
 any more material than that which appears in the report. 
 
 In transmitting this bulletin I desire to thank the public-spirited 
 citizens, white and colored, in organizations and as individuals, who 
 gave prompt and voluntary assistance of untold value m promoting 
 the work throughout the States and localities in which it was conduct- 
 ed. I desire to thank, also, the Federal, State, and private agencies 
 for their unlimited cooperation and advice at all times. Withm the 
 department itself I am grateful to you, to the chiefs and heads of the 
 various divisions and bureaus, and especially to the office of the 
 Assistant Secretary and of the Solicitor for unfailing interest and 
 assistance. 
 
 The office and field staff of the division deserves special commenda- 
 tion for untiring zeal and close application in carrying forward the 
 many delicate and difficult tasks growling out of the work almost daily. 
 
 I desire agam to call your attention to the recommendations cited 
 on pages 134-136 of thia bulletin, which, you will recall, were mcluded 
 in my memorandum report to you on the racial situation in Chicago. 
 Respectfully, 
 
 George E. Haynes, 
 Director of Negro Econontiics. 
 
 Hon. W. B. Wilson, 
 
 Secretary of Labor. 
 
 5 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR AND 
 DURING RECONSTRUCTION. 
 
 mXRODUCTION. 
 
 The entrance of Negroes into industries, particularly in the North 
 during the great war led to niany questions: What particular indus- 
 tries did they enter ? In what kinds of occupations were they most 
 generally employed? Were they unskilled, semiskilled, or skilled? 
 How did they measure up to the average number of working hours 
 and average earnings as compared with the white workmen? What 
 was the estimate and opinion of employers who tried them? How 
 did they compare with white workmen in the same establishments 
 and on the same jobs as to absenteeism, turn-over, quality of work 
 produced, and speed in turning out quantity ? 
 
 Some of the chapters of this bulletin bring together the best 
 available data in an attempt to answer some of these questions with 
 the facts. Obviously, the data is very limited in scope and neces- 
 sarily fragmentary. It would, therefore, be unwise and unscientific 
 to make any large generalizations based upon so limited an amount of 
 data. What is presented, however, has been carefully gathered and 
 collated, and, therefore, gives some definite indications and informa- 
 tion where information has been heretofore very limited. Whatever 
 analysis and comment have been made upon the tables and figures 
 may be readily weighed in the light of the accompanying data them- 
 selves. 
 
 Facts and figures, however, are only bases of information upon 
 which to build programs and plans of action. Negro workers are 
 employed for the most part by white employers and work in the 
 same industries and often on the same jobs with white workers. 
 Their relations with these emplayers and other workers frequently 
 assume racial as well as labor aspects. In such adjustments as were 
 required during the war, when industries were calling as never before 
 for all kinds of workers, activities which proved successful and 
 valuable in promoting the welfare of these wage-earners and in im- 
 proving their relations to employers and other workers were exceed- 
 ingly important parts of the machinery of organized production. 
 
 The plans and activities of the Department of Labor for dealing 
 with these matters are experiences of permanent and instructive 
 value, especially because of the hearty and successful response re- 
 ceived from white and Negro citizens in many States and localities. 
 A part of this bulletin, therefore, gives a summary of these plans and 
 activities of the Division of Negro Economics in the office of the 
 Secretary of Labor. The account shows the general program, the 
 
8 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 facts and principles upon which it was based, and how it was carried 
 out in the several States with the hearty indorsement and coopera- 
 tion of governors and other State and local officials and of white and- 
 colored citizens, both in organizations and as individuals. 
 
 The first table of figures of Chapter VI gives clear indications of 
 the distribution in 26 States of 129,708 white men and 62,340 Negro 
 men in unskilled occupations of 292 different firms engaged in various 
 war industries in 1918. Table II of the same chapter gives full details 
 of the classification of occupations as skilled, semiskilled, and un- 
 skilled, the average number of hours worked per week, and the 
 average earnings per week and per hour of 4,260 white men and 
 2,722 Negro men m 194 occupations in 23 separate establishments 
 engaged m basic industrial operations of foundries (both iron and 
 steel), slaughtering and meat packing, automobile manufacture, 
 coke ovens, manufacture of iron and steel and their products, and 
 in glass manufacture. This table is accompanied by some comment, 
 analyzing the comparison of white and Negro workmen on the points 
 covered m each of the three general occupational classes. A sup- 
 plementary part of this table gives similar figures for 153 white women 
 and 83 Negro women in slaughtering and meat packing. Table III 
 of this chapter gives in tabular form the opinions of 38 employers of 
 Negro workers as to the attitude of their firms toward Negro labor, 
 the opportunities for promotion, and their opinion on the compara- 
 tive behavior of white and Negro employees. The 38 firms repre- 
 sented were employing at that time 108,215 white workers and 6,757 
 Negro workers. These opinions, therefore, are fairly representative 
 of the state of mind of northern emploj^ers in 1918-19. 
 
 Slaughtering and meat packing and iron and steel were such im- 
 portant industries and employed such large numbers of Negroes 
 during the war that special reports were secured througli courtesy 
 of plants carrving on these two industries. Chapter \n;i gives in 
 considerable detail the tables and analyses of white and Negro 
 workers for the first of these industries and adds additional dis- 
 cussion to that of Chapter VI on the iron and steel establishments. 
 
 Tables IV and V of this chapter give the number and per cent of 
 distribution of the white and Negro employees, male and female, of 
 two slaughtering and meat-packing plants for 30 weeks beginning 
 July 13, 1918, and 159 weeks beginning January, 1916, respectively. 
 On the basis of these tables two diagrams have been made and are 
 included in the chapter, making these figures of the total numbers 
 and percentages readily perceptible to the casual reader. There was 
 no more important nor interesting work than that in the shipyards 
 during the war. "Ships, ships, and more ships" was the call from 
 Europe. It has not been feasible to get all the figures for aU the 
 shipyards where Negroes were employed during the war, but a full 
 record of the Negi-o employees at shipbuilding plants under the juris- 
 diction of the United States Shipping Board, Emergency Fleet Cor- 
 poration, were secured through courtesy of that board. This activity 
 of Negro wage-earners assumed such important proportions that the 
 material justifies a separate chapter — Chapter VIII. Table VI of 
 this chapter gives these figures for occupations of 24,648 Negro men 
 during tne war and 14,075 after the war and imtil September, 1919. 
 They are classified both as a whole into skilled and Unskilled and by 
 epecific occupations for each of the eight shipyard districts under the 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 9 
 
 Emergency Fleet Corporation. Some analysis of the figures given 
 in this chapter indicates their significance. 
 
 Unfortmiately this study of Negro wage-earners does not include 
 data of their labor on the railroads, in the mines, in agriculture, and 
 in domestic service, except as some of these are included in some of 
 the figures given in the several tables below, and in the State reports 
 of activities of the State supervisors of Ne^ro Economics, notably 
 in Chapter XVI on Ohio, in Chapter X on Illmois, in Chapter XII on 
 Mississippi, and in Chapter XV on North Carolina. 
 
 The original plan for this bulletin contemplated the inclusion of 
 these groups. The activities of the department embraced measures 
 to promote their welfare, their efficiency, and to improve their rela- 
 tions and opportunities. During this study efforts were made with- 
 out satisfactory results to get comprehensive figures and facts from 
 the United States Railroad Administration on this subject because their 
 figures were not compiled separately. Figures for the other groups 
 also could not be obtained from any available sources. There were 
 not funds at hand for the Department of Labor to study these occu- 
 pational groups with a staff of its own. It was deemed best, therefore, 
 to await further provision for such study rather than attempt to 
 include uncertain statements and insuflficient and inexact data. The 
 experience of the department in touching these fields demonstrates 
 their importance and justifies this postponement until they can be 
 properly studied. 
 
 Special note should be made of the sincere and effective cooperation 
 of Mr. Ethelbert Stewart, Director of the Investigation and Inspection 
 Service, whose staff workers were directed so effectively in the col- 
 lection of a considerable amount of the statistical data included in 
 several of the chapters. 
 
 The Women's Bureau (formerly the Woman in Industry Service), 
 first under Miss Mary Van Kleeck as director and now under Miss 
 Mary Anderson as director, has given effective attention to the ques- 
 tions affecting Negro women workers in industry and their relations 
 to white women workers. During the war Mrs. Helen B. Irvin, as 
 special agent of the Woman in Industry Service, assisted a part of the 
 time by Mrs. Elizabeth R. Haynes as a doUar-a-year worker, made 
 visits and inspections of a number of establishments that were em- 
 ploying Negro women. A summary of Mrs. Irvin's reports about 
 firms employing approximately 21,547 Ne^o women and girls is 
 given in Chapter XIX. This discussion gives the general kind of 
 industrial and other work in which these women were employed, 
 indicates some of the problems arising out of their entrance in large 
 number* into such work, and describes some of the typical condi- 
 tions under which they labored. 
 
 The records of the activities of the State supervisors of Negro 
 Economics speak for themselves in Chapters IX to XVTII. The 
 men in the field who followed the series of conferences and supervised 
 on the ground the formation of State and local Negro worKers' ad- * 
 visory committees in the coimties, towns, and cities of 11 States, 
 with the necessary local routine to make effective the cooperation of 
 white and colored citizens in meeting their many difficult and deh- 
 cate racial labor problems, deserve high commendation as volunteer 
 officers in the third fine of defense in industry and agriculture which 
 labored to make the world safe for democracy. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 MIGRATION. 
 
 Shortage of labor in northern industries was the direct cause of 
 the increased Negro migration during the war period. This direct 
 cause was, of course, augmented by other causes, among which were 
 the increased dissatisfaction •v^'ith conditions in the South — the 
 ravages of the boll weevil, floods, change of crop system, low wages, 
 and poor houses and schools. 
 
 A previous bulletin of the department summed up the causes as 
 follows: 
 
 Other causes assigned at the southern end are numerous: General dissatisfaction 
 with conditions, ravages of boll weevil, floods, change of crop system, low wages, 
 poor houses on plantations, poor school facilities, unsatisfactory crop settlements, 
 rough treatment, lynching, desire for travel, labor agents, the Negro press, letters from 
 friends in the North, and finally advice of white friends in the South where crops had 
 failed. 
 
 The Department of Labor estimates the Negro migration in figures 
 of from 400,000 to 500,000. Other estimates, ranging from 300,000 to 
 800,000, have been made by individual experts and by private bureaus. 
 Such a variation of figures goes to show the wide scope of the migi-ation. 
 Prior to the war period the Negro worker had been sparsely located in 
 the North, but the laws of self-preservation of the industrial and agri- 
 cultural assets of our coimtry and the law of demand and supply turned 
 almost overnight both into war and private industries hundreds of 
 thousands of Negro workers, among whom there were laborers, mold- 
 ers, carpenters, blacksmiths, painters, janitors, chauffeurs, machinist 
 laborers, and a mass of other workers, comprising, probably, nearly 
 every type of skilled, semiskilled, and imskilled labor. 
 
 The most marked effects of the migration were easily determinable. 
 First, the agricultural regions of the Southern States, particularly 
 Mississippi and Louisiana, began to suffer for want of the Negro 
 worker who had so long tilled the soil of those regions. On the other 
 hand, the Negro workers who had been turned into the plants of the 
 North faced the necessity of performing efficient work in the mini- 
 mum amount of time, of adjusting themselves to northern condi- 
 tions and of becoming fixtures in their particular line of employ- 
 ment, or becoming "floaters." 
 
 It is interesting to review for a moment some of the wage scales 
 in Southern States. In 1917 about $12 a month was being paid for 
 farm labor m many sections. In other sections 75 cents and $1 a 
 day were considered equitable wages. During the harvesting of 
 rice in the "grinding season" the amoimt was usually increased to 
 $1.25 and $1.75 per day, with a possible average of $1.50. Cotton 
 was always considered a cheap-labor crop, about which one man has 
 said: 
 
 The world has gone on thinking that the farm labor in the South should work for 
 75 cents or $1 a day when all other labor is getting $1.50 and $2 per day. 
 
 10 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 11 
 
 The States which contributed most largely to the masses of mi- 
 grants were North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, 
 Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Temiessee. The m.i- 
 grants from those States rapidly supplemented the Negro workers 
 already sparsely employed in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Michigan, 
 Illinois, and West Virginia.^ 
 
 1 See Negro Migration in 1916-17, Department of Labor bulletin. Government Printing Office. 1919. 
 
CHAPTER TT. 
 
 CREATION OF THE OFFICE OF DIRECTOR OF NEGRO 
 ECONOMICS. 
 
 In view of the perplexing questions \^dth regard to Negroes in in- 
 dustry and agriculture and the migration of Negroes from the South 
 to the North during 1916, 1917, and 1918, upon representations of 
 white and Negro citizens and several influential organizations dealing 
 particularly with Negro life and race relations, the Secretary of Lahor, 
 Hon. William B. Wilson, after consideration and favorable recommen- 
 dation by his Advisory Council on the war organization of the Depart- 
 ment of Labor, decided to create the position of adviser on Negro 
 labor in his immediate office, with the title of Director of Negro 
 Economics. The function of this official was to advise the Secretary 
 and the directors and chiefs of the several bureaus and divisions of 
 the department on matters relating to Negro wage earners, and to 
 outline and promote plans for greater cooperation between Negro wage 
 earners, white employers, and white workers in agriculture and 
 industry. 
 
 In starting this work the Secretary stated that as Negroes con- 
 stitute about one-tenth of the total population of the country and 
 about one-seventh of the working population, it was reasonable and 
 right that they should have representation at the council table when 
 matters affecting them were being considered and decided. In de- 
 fining the function of the office of the Director of Negro Economics 
 the Secretary decided that the advice of the director should be secured 
 before any work dealing with Negro wage earners was undertaken and 
 that he be kept advised of the progress of such work so that the 
 Department might have, at all times, the benefit of his judgment in 
 all matters affecting Negroes. 
 
 Accordingly, on May 1, 1918, the Secretary of Labor called to that 
 position Dr. George E. Haynes, professor of sociology and economics at 
 Fisk University and one of the secretaries of the National League on 
 LTrban Conditions among Negroes. Dr. HajTies was strongly recom- 
 mended by many individuals and organizations, among them being 
 the Commercial Club of Nashville, Tenn., his home city. 
 
 The Secretary of Labor, -with, the advice of the Director of Ne^ra 
 Economics, early in May, 1918, considered and approved plans out- 
 linmg three types of activities for dealing vrith. problems of Negro 
 workers in their relations to white workers and white employers, as 
 follows : 
 
 1. The organization of cooperative committees of white and colored citizens in the 
 States and localities where problems of Negro labor arise, due to large numbers of Negro 
 workers. 
 
 2. The development of a publicity or educational campaign to create good feeling 
 between the races and to have both white and Negro citizens understand and cooperate 
 with the purpose and plans of the department. 
 
 12 
 
THE NEGRO AT WOEK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 13 
 
 3. The appointment of Negro staff workers in the States and localities to develop 
 this organization of committees, to conduct this work of better racial labor relations, 
 and to assist the several divisions and services of the department in mobilizing and 
 stabilizing Negro labor for winning the war. 
 
 In undertaking to carry out the three parts of this plan, the office 
 of the Secretary recognized two main difficulties : 
 
 1. The difficulty of forestalling a strong feeling of suspicion on the part of the colored 
 people, growing out of their past experiences in racial and labor matters. 
 
 2. The difficulty of forestalling a wrong impression among white people, especially 
 those in the South, about the efforts of the department, and of having them understand 
 that the department wishes to help them in local labor problems by means of its plans. 
 
 Tliese cardinal facts were also given due consideration: 
 
 1. The two races are thrown together in their daily work, the majority of the em- 
 ployers and a large number of the employees having relations with Negro employees 
 being white persons. These conditions give rise to misunderstandings, prejudices, 
 antagonisms, fears, and suspicions. These facts must be recognized and dealt with in 
 a statesmanlike manner. 
 
 2. The problems are local in character, arising, as they do, between local employers 
 and local employees. The people, however, in local communities, need the vision of 
 national policies, plans, and standards to apply to their local situations. 
 
 3. Any plan or program should be based upon the desire and need of cooperation 
 between white employers and representatives of Negro wage earners, and, wherever 
 possible, white wage earners. 
 
 FIELD ORGANIZATION— CONFERENCES AND COMMITTEES. 
 
 The first step in setting up the field organization was a preliminary 
 trip of the Director of Negro Economics to strategic centers in a 
 number of States where Negro workers' problems were of pressing 
 importance. Through preliminary correspondence, informal con- 
 ferences and interviews were held with representative white and 
 Negro citizens from different parts of each State visited. These 
 interviews and conferences established the first points of sympathetic 
 contact for cooperation in subsequent efforts to improve labor condi- 
 tions and race relations. 
 
 These preliminary visits laid the foundation for subsequent work. 
 For instance, the North Carolina conference, called by Hon. T. W. 
 Bickett, Governor of the State and described below, which set the 
 model for other Southern States, grew out of such a preliminary 
 visit. The creation of the Negro workers' committees of Virginia 
 and the cooperation of the Negro Organization Society of that State 
 grew out of a similar visit on the trip. Similar results followed the 
 connections made in other States. 
 
 Upon the visit to a State, officials of State and private schools for 
 Negroes, of the State councils of defense, representatives of the 
 chambers of commerce, of the United States Employment Service, 
 and of white and Negro colleges promised cooperation and assistance 
 in the efforts of the department to stimulate Negro wage earners by 
 improving their condition m such a way as to increase their efficiency 
 for maximum production to win the war. 
 
 L The first of a series of State conferences of representative white and 
 Negro citizens was called on June 19, 1918, by Hon. T. W. Bickett, 
 Governor of North Carolina, at his office in the State capitol at 
 Raleigh. There were present at this conference 17 of the most sub- 
 stantial Negroes from all parts of the State and five white citizens, 
 
14 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 including the governor, who presided throughout the conference and 
 took an active part in the proceedings. .^ 
 
 The plans of the Department of Labor for increasing the morale 
 and efficiency of Negro workers were outlined by the Director of 
 Negro Economics and freely discussed. At the close of the meeting 
 the governor appointed a temporary' committee which drafted a 
 constitution providing for a State Negro Workers' Advisory Com- 
 mittee and for the organization of local county and city committees. 
 This plan of organization, with slight modifications and readjust- 
 ments, later served as a model for other States in the development of 
 a voluntary field organization which was set up in the course of the 
 next six months in fom* other southern States, and six northern 
 States. Gov. Bickett was so highly pleased with the result of the 
 conference that he issued a statement to the public press saying that 
 this meeting was one of the most patriotic and helpful conferences he 
 had ever attended. 
 
 A State meeting of white and colored citizens was held by the 
 Southern Sociological Congress at Gulf port, Miss., July 12, 1918. 
 The congress extended an invitation to the Director of Negro Eco- 
 nomics to address the meeting. About 200 white citizens, business 
 men and planters, and about 75 Negro citizens of the State were in 
 attendance^ The department took advantage of this State gathering to 
 call together those who were especially interested in the adjustment of 
 Negro labor problems. The address of the Director of Negro Eco- 
 , nomics before the congress received a hearty response from both 
 whites and Negroes present, and as a result several of the white citi- 
 zens took an active part in the conference, which worked out a plan 
 of State-wide organization similar to the one adopted by North 
 Carolina. 
 v-^ On the basis of the precedent set by Gov. Bickett and the success 
 at the Gulf port meeting of the Southern Sociological Congress, Hon. 
 Sidney Catts, Governor of Florida, called a conference of white and 
 Negro citizens at Jacksonville, on July 16, 1918. After full discussion 
 of plans and procedure this conference adopted a program and formed 
 a State Negro Workers' Advisory Committee composed of representa- 
 tive white and colored citizens under the auspices of the State Council 
 of National Defense and the United States Employment Service. •■ A 
 program of activities was worked out, having as its object the "pro- 
 motion of better conditions and a better understanding of employ- 
 ment matters relating to the Negroes of Florida in order that greater 
 production of food and war supplies might be the result. So great 
 was the enthusiasm on the day of the conference that the citizens of 
 Jacksonville, white and colored, held a monster mass meeting, at 
 which the governor, the Director of Negro Economics, and other 
 officials spoke. 
 
 In the meantime, through the help of the Negro Organization 
 Society of Virginia, the Negro Workers' Advisory Committee of that 
 State was organized and the first supervisor of Negro economics, a 
 Negro citizen of training and experience, T. C. Erwin, was appointed 
 and undertook the direction of advisory work in the State. 
 
 The next step was to get the work and organization launched in 
 northern territory. Ohio was selected for the initial effort, and on 
 August 5, 1918, a conference was called by the department with the 
 hearty help of the Federal Director of the United States Employment 
 
\ 
 
 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 15 
 
 Service and Hon. James M. Cox, governor of Ohio. This conference 
 met at the State Capitol at Columbus and was notable for the num- 
 ber in attendance, and the enthusiasm and readiness with which they 
 worked out a plan of State-wide organization. There were present 
 about 125 persons — white employers, Negro wage earners, and rep- 
 resentatives of white wage earners. The afternoon session was closed 
 with a splendid address by the governor. The conference adopted 
 the usual plan of State organization and Charles E. Hall, the second 
 supervisor of Negro economics, was assigned to the State to develop 
 the organization and to supervise the work, under the auspices of 
 the United States Employment Service office. 
 
 C One other conference, that held in Louisville, Ky., August 6, 1918, 
 needs to be described as showing one other slight variation in the 
 far-reaching significance of the cooperative plan of organization. 
 This conference was unique in that the plan of organization adopted 
 was that of a united war-work committee made up jointly by those 
 representing the State Council of Defense, United States Food Ad- 
 ministration, United States Department of Agriculture, and the 
 United States Department of Labor, white and colored citizens being 
 the persons representing these various interests. The conference 
 was noted for its enthusiasm. Hon. A. O. Stanley, governor of Ken- 
 tucky, made an enthusiastic address to the conference and a large 
 mass meeting followed in the evening. 
 
 By the time of the Kentucky conference, three months after the first 
 plans were outlined, the influence of the State conferences and their 
 feasibility were so well proved as a means of starting a State move- 
 ment and creating good will and favorable sentiment that other con- 
 ferences followed as a matter of course in setting up the State work. 
 Additional conferences in 1918 were held in Georgia, Missouri, Illinois, 
 Michigan, and New Jersey. 
 
 A national informal conference was called by the Secretary of 
 Labor and met in Washington, D. C, February 17-18, 1919. This 
 conference included men and women representing welfare and social 
 service organizations, both North and South, of both Negroes and 
 white people, in order that the views and interests of all sections 
 and of both races might be ascertained,' The kejmote of the confer- 
 ence was sounded by the Secretary of Labor in welcoming the repre- 
 sentatives. He said: 
 
 Congress in defining the duties of the Department of Labor made no distinction 
 either as to sex or race, and, I may add, as to previous condition of servitude. We 
 were authorized to promote the welfare of wage earners, whether men or women or 
 children, whether they were white or colored, whether they were native born or aUen 
 residents; and in the undertaking to promote the welfare of the wage workers we have 
 not assumed that it was our duty to promote the welfare of the wageworker at the 
 expense of the plans of the commimity but to promote the welfare of the wageworker, 
 ha\dng due respect to the rights of all other portions of oiu* population. 
 
 The Assistant Secretary of Labor, Louis F. Post, in addressing the 
 conference said: 
 
 It is the function of the Department of Labor to look after the interests of all wage 
 earners of any race, any age, or either sex. 
 
 Special subjects were discussed, as follows: 
 
 Lines of work which should be undertaken for improving race relations and con- 
 ditions of Negro workers. 
 
16 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Conduct and toleration as necessary for cooperation and good will between Negro 
 
 and white workers. 
 Special problems of women in industry'. 
 
 The Ne^o land tenants and farm laborers and what agencies may do to help them. 
 Education and Negro workers. 
 
 On the second day the informal conference gave most of its time 
 to the general topic: "Unity of action in local commmiities to secm"e 
 efficiency and cooperation of welfare agencies and methods, by 
 which the Department of Labor and other governmental agencies 
 can best cooperate with private agencies and organizations." 
 
 In a set of resolutions adopted and recommended to the Secretary 
 of Labor the following important points are set forth : 
 
 RESOLUTION ON PLAN OF COOPERATIVE ORGANIZATION ADOPTED AT INFORMAL CON- 
 FERENCE ON NEGRO LABOR PROBLEMS, FEBRUARY 17 AND 18. 1919, AS APPROVED 
 BY THE SECRETARY OF LABOR. 
 
 Whereas the improvement of conditions of Negro wage earners and the improvement 
 
 of relations of white employers, of white wage earners and of Negro wage earners are 
 
 (juestions of great importance for the advancement of the welfare of all wage earners 
 
 in America; and 
 Whereas the several organizations and agencies specifically interested in promoting 
 
 the better adjustment of Negro wage earners to American life need to work in closer 
 
 cooperation : 
 
 Therefore, It behooves representatives of such boards, agencies and organizations 
 interested in such questions to adopt measures of cooperative organization, of action, 
 and of policy that will foster constructive work along these lines. 
 
 We, therefore, the representatives of such organizations, inA^ted to an informal con- 
 ference in Washington by the Secretary of Labor, do hereby recommend and ask the 
 Secretary to use his good offices in laying before the organizations represented, and 
 any other organizations that may be interested, a plan of cooperative organization and 
 effort on the following general lines: 
 
 1. That local efforts to influence employers of Negro workers to provide welfare 
 facilities be undertaken, jointly, by all the agencies attempting to do such work in a 
 community; and that the local representatives of the Department of Labor be used as 
 far as practicable as a channel through which the experiences and methods of the sev- 
 eral agencies shall seek exchange in these local efforts. 
 
 Where there is no such local governmental organization or representative of the 
 Department of Labor, and several agencies desire to act, that they request the Depart- 
 ment of Labor to assist them in getting such a neutral channel of cooperation. 
 
 2. That our several agencies, boards and organizations, which undertake the organi- 
 zation of any work or the expenditure of any funds for improving the living and neigh- 
 borhood conditions of Negro workers in local communities seek to become informed of 
 similar plans of other agencies, boards and organizations before deciding on plans or 
 taking action. 
 
 3. That the Department of Labor be asked to furnish such information and to 
 provide such facilities as are necessary for keeping the agencies, boards and organiza- 
 tions informed of such plans, efforts, or proposed undertakings or steps that have been . 
 undertaken by the several agencies, boards and organizations interested. 
 
 4. That each agency, board or organization here represented, or any other agency, 
 board or organization that may hereafter be concerned shall, as soon as practicable, 
 make available to the Department of Labor such parts of its records, facilities and 
 opportunities as are necessary in order that the Department may have available the 
 information needed for using its good offices in furthering the cooperation of such agen- 
 cies, boards, or organizations. That such agencies, boards, or organizations detail for 
 service in this connection such personnel ser\'ices of its staff as may be needed for 
 carrying out the part of any effort in which said agency, board, or organization may be 
 involved. 
 
 5. The Department of Labor is also asked to call a second conference, at the time 
 that seems best, of representatives of the organizations that have been invited to this 
 conference; also representatives of such other organizations that may be interested or 
 concerned for futher discussion of the questions involved in connection with Negro 
 economics, in, order that further exchange of experiences and plans of unity and co- 
 operation may be discussed. • ' » 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 17 
 
 The following resolution was adopted by the conference as an addi- 
 tion to the report of the committee: 
 
 6. That it is the consensus of this body that the representatives of national organi- 
 zations attending this conference request their local representatives in various States 
 to cooperate immediately with the representatives of the Director of Negro Economics 
 of the United States Department of Labor in all matters affecting the interests of the 
 Negro workers. 
 
 A program of national work was also adopted and recommended to 
 the Secretary covering the following matters : 
 
 1. Survey of Negro labor conditions. 
 
 2. The getting of Negro workers into industry. 
 
 3. Holding Negro workers in industry, including the impro\ing of living and 
 
 working conditions in both agriculture and industry. 
 
 4. Training the next generation of workers. 
 
 5. The general advancement of Negro wage earners in the United States. 
 
 The following are some of the organizations signing, and the names 
 of their representatives : 
 
 Name. 
 
 Organization or agency represented. 
 
 Dr. Jesse E. Moorland (chairman) 
 
 (Miss) Nannie Burroughs 
 
 International Committee, Y. M. C. A. 
 The National Training School. 
 
 (Mi^«) Mfiry C. .Tanlr'^nn, . 
 
 War Work Council, Y. W. C. A. (National Board). 
 
 John R. Sh'illady 
 
 1 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. 
 
 War Camp Community Service. 
 
 National League on Urban Conditions among Negroes. 
 
 Phelp-Stokes Fund. 
 
 National War Work Council, Y. M. C. A. 
 
 (Vice) Walter F. White 
 
 T. S. Settle 
 
 F.iigpnp. Kincklfi Tnnps 
 
 
 C. H. Tobias .' 
 
 .Tohn T, F.mlpn, 
 
 Armstrong Association of Philadelphia. 
 
 Dr. Rodney W. Roundy 
 
 American Missionary Association. 
 
 Dr. R. R. Moton 
 
 Rev. Harnld M. King<?lpy. . 
 
 Joint Committee, War Production Committees. 
 
 Rev. E. W. Moore: ."...". 
 
 Baptist Home Mission Society. 
 
 Circle 'for Negro War Relief (Inc.). 
 
 Women's Home Mission Council — Methodist Publishing Board. 
 
 (Mrs.) Etnah R. Bouttee 
 
 (Miss) F.stpUe Ha.sldn 
 
 John J. Kagan ... 
 
 Commission on Training Camp Activities. 
 Jeanes-Slater Funds. 
 
 Dr. James H. Dillard 
 
 
 
 In carrying out the plans for a publicity and educational campaign 
 to create a better feeling between the races and to have both white 
 and colored citizens understand and cooperate with the purposes and 
 plans of the department, the office of the Director of Negro Eco- 
 nomics received the hearty help and cooperation of the Information 
 and Education Service of the department during the war and until 
 that service was discontinued July 1, 1919. 
 
 A regular newspaper release was given to both the white press and 
 Negro press which can not be too highly commended for their co- 
 operation. Special mention should be made of the support given 
 by the Negro newspapers of the country, more than 250 in number, 
 who gave without compensation large sections of news columns and 
 advertising space. As an illustration, a news release on that part of 
 the Secretary's annual report relating to Negro workers was sent out 
 from the office of the Director of Negro Economics through the Infor- 
 mation and Education Service. CHppings from white newspapers 
 showed that the release was used by them as far north as Maine, as 
 far west as California, and as far south as Louisiana. Nearly all the 
 Negro newspapers, north and south, carried the release — some of them 
 in full. 
 
 1989"— 2X 2 
 
18 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Special addresses for use at patriotic and lioliday celebrations were 
 prepared and sent out to the Negro workers tiirough the advisory 
 committees in the territories where they were organized. On the 
 Fourth of July, 1918, more than 2,000 copies of an address entitled 
 "Labor and Victory" were used in county and city patriotic cele- 
 brations in more than 150 counties and about 12 States. (For copy, 
 see Appendix I.) 
 
 Statements were prepared for Avriters of special articles in news- 
 papers and magazines and for the Four Minute Bulletin of the Com- 
 mittee on Public Information. Similar material was sent to hun- 
 dreds of speakei*s in different parts of the country. Magazine articles 
 deaUng with the problems of Negro labor during the war and recon- 
 struction and the work of the Division of Negro Economics were pre- 
 pared and appeared in such magazines as The American Review of 
 Reviews, The Crisis, The Pubhc, and The Survey. 
 
 The United States Public Health Service in its effort to combat 
 venereal diseases inaugurated a special effort to reach all Negroes. 
 This office cooperated with the Public Health Service by helping that 
 service to get in tbuch with Negro workers through our field organi- 
 zation in order that they might become acquainted with the facts 
 relative to disease as it affected health and efficiency. 
 
 The Negro workers' advisory committees organized and held 
 many public meetings, attended by both white and colored citizens, 
 to discuss the problems of labor and the war. Speakers were sent to 
 hundrt^ds of otlier meetings. We estimate that each month no less 
 than a million Negro workers and hundreds of employers were reached 
 and influenced in this way. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 EARLY RESULTS OF NEGRO ECONOMICS SERVICE. 
 
 LAt the end of the first six months of the work, Negro workers' 
 advisory committees, by States, counties, and cities, had been wholly 
 or partly formed in 11 States, and by the time the armistice was 
 signed steps had been taken to establish committees in three other 
 States. ~^i 
 
 Nearly all of these committees, both State and local, had white ^ 
 and Negro members or had cooperating white members representing 
 organizations of white employee and white workers. In aU, 11 
 State committees and about 225 local county and city committees, 
 with a membership numbering more than 1,000, were appointed. One 
 of the most remarkable facts is that out of the invitations and accept- 
 ances for service of all of these white and colored persons on these 
 committees, so far as we have any record, there was only one case of 
 a member of one committee whose relationship on the committee 
 caused friction and made necessary a request for his resignation. 
 There was the heartiest response from citizens of both races every- 
 where. Many of them used large amounts of time, gave their serv- 
 ices, and often spent then* own money to further the departmental 
 program. It was the expressed opinion of many citizens of well- 
 knoA\Ti competence that the holding of these conferences and the 
 voluntary cooperation of hundreds of white and Negro citizens on "T 
 these committees, both north and south, were in themselves sufficient 
 to justify aU the effort put forth by the department. Even more 
 significant were the many written statements of commendation from 
 citizens in aU parts of the country and from organizations that 
 cooperated and helped in the movement. 
 
 SELECTION AND TRAINING OF A STAFF. 
 
 The selection and training of a staff for such work ordinarily would 
 hardly be considered as one of the results of a departmental or organi- 
 zation effort. However, it should be borne in mind that there is 
 usually serious doubt about the expert efficiency of Negroes in offi- 
 cial positions which call for high standards of character and abiUty. 
 Often criticism has been specially lodged against Negroes in public 
 office. Therefore, the successful and effective selection and organiza- 
 tion of a staff of Negro officials and employees, with the necessary 
 general training, expert knowledge, and experience to carry out the 
 program of work and to achieve the results as shown in the succeeding 
 pages, was in itself an achievement. 
 
 This work of mediation between white workers, white employers, 
 and Negro workers called for exceptional qualities of mind and charac- 
 ter in addition to technical knowledge and efficiency. The spirit of 
 concihation and cooperation, the ability to see both sides of any issue, 
 and the combination of initiative and self-control necessary to act 
 
 19 
 
20 THE NEGKO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 eflFectively when action is called for and to wait with patience when 
 action is not strategic required persons far above the average in both 
 character and ability. The office of the Director of Negro Economics 
 may modestly claim this success as a part of the achievement of the 
 work, as it demonstrates that such a staff can be built up in the 
 public service. 
 
 The department had previouslv used the services of three Negro 
 experts from the Department of Commerce. These men were re- 
 tained and their duties readjusted so that throughout the period of 
 the war and for nearly eight months of reconstruction they gave 
 effective service — Charles E. Hall as supervisor of Negro economics 
 for Ohio, William Jennifer as supervisor of Negro economics for 
 Michigan, and Harry E. Arnold as an examiner and special agent in 
 the United States Employment Service in Pennsylvania. As the 
 organization grew, the following men were added: T. C. Erwin, 
 supervisor of Negro economics for Virginia; Dr. A. M. Moore, super- 
 visor of Negro economics for North Carolina, who served as a doUar-a- 
 year man, with R. McCants Andrews as assistant ; WiUiam M. Ashby, 
 supervisor of Negro economics for New Jersey ; W, O. Arm wood, super- 
 visor of Negro economics for Florida ; Lemuel L. Foster, supervisor of 
 Negro economics for Mississippi, who succeeded J. C. Olden, resigned 
 for other work after doing valuable service; H. A. Hunt, supervisor 
 of Negro economics for Georgia ; and Forrester B. Washington, super- 
 visor of Negro economics for Illinois. In addition, the qualifications 
 and recommendations of a number of Negro examiners in the United 
 States Employment Service, as well as stenographers and clerical 
 assistants, were investigated and passed upon by the office of the 
 Director of Negro Economics. 
 
 In the office of the Director of Negro Economics at Washington 
 headquarters, Karl F. Phillips, as assistant to the director, ably 
 managed the office and closely associated with the director in the 
 fuU supervision of the work. A competent staff of clerical employees 
 was added as the growth of the work made it necessary. 
 
 These Federal officials performed their duties with enthusiasm, 
 efficiency, and success unaer the many trying circumstances which 
 arose during the strenuous months of the war labor program and the 
 first months of reconstruction. Their services as a part of this experi- 
 ment in the Federal Government's relation to Negro wage earners 
 has been a contribution to the experience with Negroes in important 
 administrative positions. 
 
 The facts about each State supervisor of Negro economics follow 
 in sections describing the activities and results of the work in each 
 State. 
 
 PROBLEMS OF NEGRO LABOR. 
 
 Before entering the detailed discussion of migration and the ex- 
 periences in 11 States, a summarized statement of the problems of 
 Negro labor during the war and reconstruction period, extracted 
 from reports of the Director of Negro Economics to the Secretary of 
 Labor, follows: 
 
 I, During the war period. ' 
 
 1, The movement of large numbers of Negro "workers from the South to the 
 
 North, 
 g, The inevitable maladjustment in living gonditiona confronting t^** n.©^"' 
 
 comers in the I^ort.h, 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 21 
 
 3. The delicate questions of relations of Negro workers and white workers in 
 
 northern industries into which Negroes were for the first time entering in 
 large numbers. 
 
 4. The difficulties and readjustments in southern agricultural regions, due to 
 
 the sudden departure of thousands of tenants and farm laborers, as well 
 as the readjustments in industrial operations in the South, due to the same 
 causes. 
 
 5. The attraction to centers of war industries and construction camps and can- 
 
 tonments, both north and south, due to the wages offered, which were 
 higher than those prevailing in post-war industry and agriculture. 
 
 6. The serious labor shortage, both north and south, white and colored, due to 
 
 the drafting of millions of men into the Army. 
 
 n. During the reconstruction period. 
 
 1. The thousands of Negro workers in war industries who had to be shifted back 
 
 to post war industries along with the other workers called for special at- 
 tention similar to the period when they were being shifted into war 
 industries. 
 
 2. Probably between 400,000 and 500,000 workers migrated from the South to 
 
 northern industries. The difficulties of cooperative adjustment of white 
 wage earners and Negro wage earners in the industrial communities where 
 they must find community life in contact with each other were increased. 
 
 3. Special problems connected with the entrance of colored women into indus- 
 
 try and special problems in domestic and personal ser\-ice. 
 
 4. The problems of improving the conditions, increasing the efficiency, and 
 
 encouraging the thrift of Negro workers were probably greater during the 
 war and still remain as reconstruction problems. 
 
 5. In the South the common interests of white employers who want to engage 
 
 the services which the Negro wage earner has to offer and the desire of the 
 worker for wages in return make the adjustment of the Negro labor situa- 
 tion one of the most far-reaching factors in bringing about just and ami- 
 cable race relations. The migration and war restlessness of the two races 
 creates problems which the labor nexus may be very effective in settling. 
 
 6. The adjustment of farm tenantry and of the labor situation in the South 
 
 is very largely a problem of Negro labor. 
 
 7. For the first 12 months following the armistice the problem of demobiliza- 
 
 tion of thousands of Negro soldiers called for cooperative action, and 
 more tact and judgment than were probably needed during the period 
 when they were being drafted out of production into the Army. The 
 return of the Negro soldier to civil life, with the obligations of the Nation 
 to him, has been one of the most delicate and difficult labor questions con- 
 fronting the Nation, north and south. 
 
 8. The improvement of living and working conditions, including such ques- 
 
 tions as housing, sanitation, and recreation of Negro wage earners, should 
 receive more attention during this period of reconstruction and peace 
 time than they did before or during the Great War period. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 COOPERATION WITH THE SEVERAL BUREAUS AND DIVISIONS 
 OF THE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Where matters which manifestly or directly affected Negro wage 
 earners came under the immediate administrative guidance of the 
 several divisions and bureaus of the department, it was the plan of 
 the Secretary that the heads or chiefs of such divisions or bureaus 
 should call upon the Director of Negro Economics for advice. 
 
 The United States Employment Service, which was dealing with 
 the recruiting and placmg of Negro labor in the United States, 
 naturally received the largest amount of such cooperation, advice, and 
 planning. For instance, questions came up relating to private agencies 
 and their handling of Negi'o labor on ana after August 1, 1918, when 
 the Employment Service was given the responsibility of recruiting and 
 placing the common labor in war industries employing 100 or more 
 workers. The Director of Negro Economics gathered the facts and 
 proposed a plan and policy for dealing with this matter. Such plan 
 and policy were later adopted and put into operation by the Director 
 General of the United States Employment Service. 
 
 The members of the Negro workers' advisory committees in many 
 localities assisted as volunteers during this war-labor recruiting and 
 placing. Eight of the State supervisiors of Ncoto economics had 
 their offices either with the Federal directors of the Employment 
 Service or in close comiection with them. All of the Federal directors 
 in these States turned to these State supervisors for advice and assist- 
 ance on practically all matters relating to the handling of Negro 
 labor in their States. The question of location of offices to serve 
 Negro neighborhoods, the formation of policies and plans of the Em- 
 ployment Service to serve them more effectively, the selection of 
 competent Negro examiners, and a number of other questions were 
 from time to time presented and handled for the Employment 
 Service. The following excerpts from statements of some of the 
 Federal directors of the Employment Service show their apprecia- 
 tion of this service given by representatives of the Division of Negro 
 Economics: 
 
 Umted States Employment Service. 
 
 74 East Gay Street, Columbus, Ohio, April 9, 1919. 
 Mr. Ethelbert Stewart, 
 
 Director of Investigation and Inspection Service, 
 
 Office of the Secretary, Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. 
 
 My Dear Mr. Stewart: Mr. Charles E. Hall, who has been supervisor of Negro 
 economics in Ohio, handed me a copy of your letter of March 27 with reference to his 
 reports bein? made through the office of the Federal director for Ohio. 
 
 Mr. Hall has been located in the office of the Federal director for the past several 
 months and we are very glad to advise that the relationship is very pleasant. We 
 feel that Mr. Hall is a very competent man and especially fitted for the line of work 
 to which he is assigned. 
 
 This letter is written as an acknowledgment of the receipt of instructions contained 
 in your letter of above date. ' 
 
 Very truly, yours, 
 
 (Signed) C. H. Mayhugh, 
 
 Acting Federal Director for Ohio. I 
 
 22 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 23 
 
 1423 Newton Street, Washington, D. C, July 9, 1919. 
 Dr. George E. Haynes, 
 
 Director of Negro Economics, Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. 
 My Dear Dr. Haynes: I very much regret to learn that failure of appropriation 
 has made it necessary to discontinue the work wMch has 1)een carried on by ^Ir. 
 Charles E. Hall, 8uper^•isor of Negro economics for Ohio. 
 
 Mr. Hall assisted the Employment Ser\"ice in every possil^le way in recruiting labor 
 during the war and in the readjustment of labor after the signing of the armistice. 
 
 The big task before Mm at this time is to assist in crystallizing the best thought and 
 carrjing out the best possible plans for impro^'ing housing conditions and aiding the 
 Negroes to become satisfactorily adjusted to the new industrial condition which con- 
 fronts them. His work, I believe, has been a real factor in preventing the develop- 
 ment of radical unrest among the Negroes in Ohio. 
 
 My knowledge of Mr. Hall's work was gained through contact as Federal. Director 
 of EmplojTQent for Ohio, from which position I resigned March 15, 1919. 
 Very truly, yours, 
 
 (Signed) Fred C. Croxton. 
 
 United States Employment Service, 
 
 Meridian, Miss., January 29, 1919. 
 From: Federal director. 
 To: Director General. 
 Subject: Negro Economics Di\Tsion. 
 
 1. In rephdng to letter from Assistant Director General, dated January 23, in ref- 
 erence to I)i\ision of Negro Economics. 
 
 2. In this connection the writer wishes to state that this ser\dce is providing an 
 office on the same floor as the office of the Federal director for the supervisor of Negro 
 economics. The present supervisor, L. L. Foster, a young Negro of energj% is con- 
 ferring almost daily with the Federal director in reference to his work. 
 
 3. The writer attended the meeting of the Negro State ad\isory board in Jackson, 
 Monday, January 27, at which meeting plans were perfected for the organization of 
 the Negro boys between the ages of 16 and 21 in Mississippi in the Boys' Working 
 Reserve. Cooperation has been obtained from the State agriculture college, and they 
 have agreed to supply instructors wherever necessary to instruct these Negro boys in 
 a short coiu'se prepared by the Reserve. Arrangements were made for visiting and 
 organizing reserves in approximately twenty industrial Negro schools in the State 
 for the gi\ing of this course in connection with these schools in the early spring. This 
 Ser\ice will then undertake to place these students in active farm work as soon as 
 school is closed. 
 
 4. The Negro workers' advisory committee in the State of Mississippi is well or- 
 ganized and the work is prospering very satisfactorily. 
 
 (Signed) H. H. Weir, 
 
 Federal Director. 
 
 Detroit, Mich, July 2, 1919. 
 From: Federal director. 
 
 To: Director General, United States Employment Service, Washington, D. C. 
 Subject: Supervisor of Negro Economics for Michigan. 
 
 1. On Thursday of last week ]Mr. William Jennifer, who for the past nine months 
 has been acting as supervisor of Negro economics for Michigan, advised me that he 
 was in receipt of communication from Washington directing him to report there im- 
 mediately. He left here on Friday morning, and at the time of his leaving stated that 
 he was somewhat worried in regards to the work, which he had been carrying on here 
 in Michigan, being continued. 
 
 2. At the time Mr. Jennifer came to Michigan he at once proceeded to develop the 
 State, and within a, short time after his arrival a conference was held here in Detroit, 
 and there was in attendance representatives from 19 different cities in Michigan. An 
 organization was perfected at that time, and great good has come from the results of 
 that meeting. The writer attended this conference and had an opportunity to meet 
 with these representatives, who consisted of ministers, doctors, lawyers, welfare 
 workers, and workingmen. These people went back to their respective localities 
 and proceeded to enlighten the colored people of their community regarding the efforts 
 being made by the Government to assist them in caring for the interests of the Negroes 
 who are rapidly moving here from the Southern States. 
 
24 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 3. It would appear to the -nriter that there is no -work of greater importance which 
 the Government might be interested in at this time than that or assisting the colored 
 people to bring about better conditions for their race. 
 
 4. Since coming to Michigan, Mr. Jennifer haa worked hard and given to the duties 
 assigned to him all his time and efforts. He is a splendid gentleman and his heart is 
 in his work. He thoroughly understands the Kegro problem. In the mind of the 
 writer, he is an exception to the average person, and we should very much like to see 
 him return to Michigan to carry on this good work which he haa been doing, and 
 desire to urge upon you the importance of this department being continued. 
 
 (Signed) J. V. Ounxinqham, 
 
 Federal Director. 
 
 United States Employment Service, 
 9 Franklin Street, Newark, N. J., April 2, 1919. 
 Prof. George E. Haynes, 
 
 Director of A'egro Economics, Washington, D. C. 
 My Dear Dr. Haynes: It is my understanding that you desire an expression of 
 opinion as to the work of the Bureau of Negro Economics. 
 
 I am glad to inform you that it is our understanding that Negro advisorj^ committees 
 have been organized in the principal industrial centers throughout the State. Those 
 committees hold regular meetings at which Mr. Ashby (supervisor of Negro economics 
 for New Jersey) is often present and he addresses these groups on matters relative to 
 the situation pertaining to Negro labor in the State and adxTses them as to how they 
 can make the best of their opportunities. Committees of this character have been 
 helpful in the offices in the matter of opportunities for colored men and women, and 
 also in molding sentiment in favor of colored workers. 
 
 The Camden (N. J.) committee is doing an especially fine piece of work in the 
 interest of the returning colored soldiers. Mr. Ashby personally attends the meetings 
 of the welfare organizations wherever it is possible in the State, giving specific atten- 
 tion to the benefits that may accrue to the colored workers. 
 
 Personally, I can only speak in the highest terms of the work which he has been 
 enabled to accomplish for the benefit of the Negro workers of New Jersey. I feel quite 
 satisfied that, responsive to the energetic work which he has performed, various 
 colored organizations throughout the State found it advisable for their best interests 
 to send telegrams to the various Washington representatives asking for continuation 
 of the United States Employment Service. 
 Very truly, yours, 
 
 (Signed) J. Spitz, 
 
 Assistant Federal Director of Employment for New Jersey. 
 
 Also, in Virginia and Alabama service of cooperation was ^iven to 
 the Boys' Working Reserve in assisting its representatives m those 
 States to secure helpful contacts with Negro boys. 
 
 When the Women's Bureau was established in the department, it 
 was natural that its scope of activities should include attention to 
 conditions affectmg colored women workers and that this bureau 
 should comisel and work closely with the office of the Director of 
 Negro Economics, which gave assistance not only in findmg and 
 selectmg ^Irs. Helen B. Irvin as industrial agent for the work among 
 colored women, and m secm'ing Mrs. Elizabeth Ross Haynes (as a 
 dollar-a-year employee) for the direction of the same work, but also 
 in makuig surveys of Negro women m industrial establishments and 
 m taking other steps for improvement of working conditions and 
 relations of Negro women in industry, carried out in joint cooperation 
 with that service. (For full summary of reports see section on 
 "Negro Women in industry," pp. 124-133.) 
 
 These experts entered upon their duties in November, 1918. They 
 performed miportant field service of a varied character, and the data 
 collected by them, together with their recommendations, after receiv- 
 mg the counsel and advice of the Director of Negro Economics, 
 formed the basis of concrete labor policies which the Women's Bureau 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 25 
 
 is now putting into effect in behalf of female Negro workers. Some 
 of the facts gathered are published in another section of this bulletin. 
 
 The Investigation and Inspection Service not only made a number 
 of investigations of plants of various kinds involved m the depart- 
 ment relating to Negro wage earners but this service took upon 
 itself the employment of a competent Negro, Byron K. Armstrong, 
 who was also associated with the office of the Director of Negro 
 Economics. The field mvestigations for the data m Chapters VIII 
 and X, which deal with Negroes m the seven basic industries in 
 northern centers were made by him. and other representatives of 
 that service in an effort to ascertain the conditions and relations ob- 
 taming between Negro workmen who had entered northern industries 
 and white workers. 
 
 Special mention should be made of the cooperation received from 
 the Council of National Defense in startmg and developing a program 
 for Negro workers in the South. The national office of the comicil, 
 at Washington, D. C, which dealt with the State comicils, gave our 
 plans indorsement, together with full information and advice, and 
 furnished letters of mtroduction. The officials of State comicils in 
 Virgmia, Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Kentucky extensively 
 promoted the cooperative plan of organization. In Virgmia, Ken- 
 tucky, and Florida the executive secretary of the State Comicil of 
 National Defense arranged for an appomtment of white cooperating 
 members of the Negro Workers' Advisory Committees. The Georgia 
 council gave its advice to our State committee, the governor of 
 Georgia, Hon. Hugh M. Dorsey, as chairman of the comicil, having 
 issued the invitation for the State conference. The Alabama Council 
 of National Defense appomted a Negro auxiliary to assist with the 
 work. The Kentucky Comicil of National Defense was the main 
 organization m promoting the formation of Negro Workers' Advisory 
 Committees in its State. 
 
 The cooperation of private organizations and agencies, both local 
 and national, was so hearty and widespread that it is practically 
 impossible to name a list of the organizations that gave such coopera- 
 tive service. 
 
• ' CHAPTER V. 
 
 NEGRO LABOR AND RACIAL RELATIONSfflPS AT CfflCAGO. 
 
 [Extract from report of the Director of Negro Economics to the Secretary of Labor, through the Assist- 
 ant Secretary on the subject of Negro labor situation in Chicago, III., and other localities, following 
 race disturbances at Chicago.] 
 
 August 27, 1919. 
 Reports having; been received at the office of the Secretary about 
 disturbance at the stockyards in Chicago and other places of employ- 
 ment where Negroes have ordinarily been engaged, follow-ing the race 
 riots in that city, after departmental conference, I was instructed 
 by the Assistant Secretary to proceed to Chicago, St. Louis, Detroit, 
 Cleveland, and near-by pvoints in the territor}^ to ascertain, first hand, 
 the change, if any, in the labor situation. This report covers the 
 results of a rapid survey of Chicago, of inquiries during a day at St. 
 Louis, Mo., during brief visits to Detroit and Flint, Mich., and some 
 statements secured on a stop-over in Cleveland on the return trip. 
 I have also included tlie substance of reports from reliable Negroes, 
 residents of several other cities. 
 
 THE CHICAGO SITUATION. 
 
 The disturbance in Cliicago seems to have grown out of complex 
 fundamental conditions, mainly economic. Some of the factoi-s are 
 not altogether Inhor factors but are largely the results of the labor 
 and other economic conditions. From the testimony secured from 
 locaUties other than Cliicago, I am convinced, also, that the Chicago 
 situation is partly typical, so far as the underlying factors in labor 
 and other economic conditions are concerned. 
 
 Therefore, in giving full attention to it, we view conditions that are 
 typical of many industrial centers. The demand for labor during 
 the past five years drew large numbers of Negroes from the South. 
 They have become almost putty in the hands of three more or less 
 conflicting interests: (a) The employers, (b) white workmen, very 
 largely organized, and (c) politicians. 
 
 1. Taking, first, the labor situation: In the early years of the stock- 
 yards development the labor supply was mainly American, German, 
 and Irish that lived near the stockyards. When the stockyards were 
 moved to their present location — at that time far removed from the 
 residential and business districts of the city — Irish and German ele- 
 ments settled around the yards. With the coming of the Poles and 
 other nationahties, following the great strike of 1904, the Irish were 
 pushed across Halstead Street and beyond Tliirty-ninth Street. The 
 German element occupies neighborhoods on the other side of the yards 
 and out toward Englewood. 
 
 With the growth of employment of Negroes in the stockyards, there 
 has been continuous effort on the part of white workers to draw them 
 into their unions. This has been only partially successful. Some 
 dissatisfaction has resulted, and the union workers charged that the 
 
 26 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 27 
 
 packers have used Negro leaders to prevent unionizing Negroes. The 
 packers have denied any interference with the effort to unionize 
 Negroes. It can not be told how much friction and feeling between 
 the races this has caused. Testimony goes to show, however, that 
 there has developed some friction between Negro workers and the 
 Irish element at the yards. This did not seem to have any connec- 
 tion with the union situation but with individual contacts. 
 
 Whether this friction had any direct connection with the rioting 
 is not fuUy established. AU the testimony, however, shows that the 
 point of greatest friction was where the Negro neighborhood touched 
 the Irish neighborhood on the South Side. There was considerable 
 mention in tlie testimony of an Irish athletic association, known as 
 Regan's Colts. This was started as a sort of political and athletic 
 association, but now has a reputation for considerable rowdyism. 
 
 2. The housing situation is another economic element. Many of 
 those famihar with the conditions preceding the riots claim, however, 
 that there is little relation between the feehng aroused about the 
 housing and the riots. However that may be, it is certain that a 
 large influx of Negroes (about doubhng the Negro population of Chicago 
 within five yeai-s) has created an acute housing situation on the South 
 Side. This population has flowed out of the area previously occupied 
 by Negroes and on into the areas occupied by whites, pressing upon 
 the districts known as Englewood and Kenwood. The white resi- 
 dents have organized an association of residents. Rehable testi- 
 mony, gained confidentially from some of their meetings, establishes 
 the fact that there was considerable agitation, even suggestions of 
 violence, to keep Negroes from renting and buying in the white dis- 
 trict. Popular gossip connects the bombing of Negro residences with 
 this agitation. 
 
 3. The poUtical situation is a third factor of importance. These 
 underlying forces of the attraction during the last five years of 
 large numbers of Negro workers of the unskilled type, the friction 
 over the housing congestion and the tension over pohtical affairs were 
 continually^ played upon and inflamed by agitation. 
 
 Some agitation arose from the persons highly active and prejudiced 
 against Negroes. There were various clashes of individuals here and 
 there. There were repeated attempts to frighten Negroes from resi- 
 dences by bombing their houses. There was quite a bit of newspaper 
 publicity during the period of months preceding the riots. 
 
 All these incidents prepared the way for the underlying labor, 
 housing, and pohtical fires of friction to burst into the flames of riot 
 and death. The occasion for the outbreak on Sunday, July 27, when 
 white bathers stoned a Negro youth, knocking him from a raft and 
 causing him to drown, was only the match which lighted the blaze. 
 
 4. The situation which developed at the stockyards, resulting in a 
 walkout of many of the union employees, was only indirectly the 
 result of the race riot. Some of the leadere of the Amalgamated 
 Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen of North America say that no 
 strike was authorized, but that it is a code of the unions not to work 
 in any place where police and miUtary guards are over them. 
 
 Apparently the emploj^ers at the stockyards, fearing trouble when 
 the Negroes returned to work on the Thursday following the riots, 
 took the precaution of having extra poUce guards and details of 
 mihtia. The union workmen interpreted the presence of these guards- 
 
28 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 men as a move against them. Inmiediately many of the union work- 
 ers, among them some of the Negro union men, protested by leaving 
 their work and by sending a committee of protest to pubhc officials. 
 Colored union men were on this committee. By Monday of the 
 follo-wnng week, however, the militia had been i-emoved and the 
 resentment of the union men apparently quieted down. 
 
 Both the employees and the management of the stockyards testi- 
 fied that there was no friction within the 3^ards when the men re- 
 turned to work. Many evidences of good feeling and cooperation 
 between white and colored workers were manifested. The occasion 
 was one, of course, when both the leaders of the unions and repre- 
 sentatives of the packers were disclaiming any responsibility for the 
 situation. 
 
 With this underlying condition confronting the community there 
 was very limited contact between the more thoughtful and liberal- 
 minded, social-minded citizens of the two races. Barring the few- 
 leaders of the labor unions and a few representatives of philanthropic 
 organizations there were few contacts through which there might be 
 mutual understanding between the races. The facts also seem to 
 show that the large number of Negro unskilled workers directly from 
 the South, both in their competition for work and in their needs 
 for decent houses in good smToundings, were being used and ex- 
 ploited. The forces to help them, and thus to benefit the commu- 
 nity, were few and comparatively weak. 
 
 It was also clear that the fuU sentiment of the employers, the 
 largest of whom are the packers, favors the retention of the Negroes 
 in Chicago. On the other hand, the white union workers fear this 
 competition of Negro workers miless they can induce them to enter 
 the unions. 
 
 During the course of the riot the Association of Commerce called a 
 conference of the representatives of 47 business and philanthropic 
 organizations of the city at the Union League Club. The outcome 
 of this meeting was a resolution requesting the governor to appoint 
 a committee "to study the psychological, sociological, and econom- 
 ical causes underlying conditions resulting in the present race riot 
 and to make such recommendation as will tend to prevent a recur- 
 rence of such conditions in the future." 
 
 Gov. Lowden told me he had decided to appoint a local com- 
 mission for Chicago only. This wiU be composed of six white and six 
 colored citizens of the highest standing * * *. 
 
 5. liYom the nation-wide point of view another factor enters to 
 make the Chicago situation complicated and of importance. It is 
 of special concern to this department in its relation to the whole 
 matter of migration of Negro workers and the adjustment of their 
 relations to white workers and white employers both north and south. 
 
 Immediately following the riots Chicago newspapers began to pub- 
 lish dispatches, lettei-s, and news items from southern territory invit- 
 ing southern Negroes to return to the South for good treatment, 
 peace, and employment. 
 
 During the week of my visit representatives of three different plafit- 
 ing interests of Mississippi were m the citv, and it was reported that 
 a delegation was on its way to Chicago from the Chamber of Com- 
 merce in New Orleans with a colored man in the party to "pick the 
 right type of Negroes." * * *. 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 29 
 
 It is uncertain just how far such an effort to induce Negroes to 
 return to the South will be successful, but the effort has ah-eady 
 aroused considerable opposition and discussion against it among Ne- 
 groes, both in their newspapers and other channels. Of course 
 immediately the ministers and newspapers are being accused of being 
 paid by the packers, who want to hold the Negroes in Chicago. 
 While there are no avaDable facts to support such allegations, it is 
 true that the employers of Chicago generally, according to testimony 
 of the chairman of the Association of Commerce and other employers 
 in touch with the situation, do not look with favor upon efforts made 
 to take Negroes out of Chicago. * * * 
 
 The week of my visit, of course, was too soon to tell exactly how 
 far the attitude of employers about employing Negroes had been 
 affected by race riots. The examination of calls for Negro labor at 
 two employment offices showed, however, that beginning with August 
 5, just after the close of the riots, there had been a gradual increase 
 both in the number of calls for Negro help wanted, those referred, and 
 those placed. Information could be secured for a few cases only 
 where Negroes had been dropped during the days of the riots and 
 had not been replaced when the situation quieted down. The facts 
 so far obtainable indicate that in those employments where Negroes 
 were used formerly there would probably not be any material change 
 in the use of Negro workers. 
 
 Before summarizing the impressions gained in St. Louis, Mo., 
 Detroit, Mch., and Cleveland, Ohio, it may be well to point out two 
 other significant factore influencing the racial situation in Chicago 
 as weU as in other parts of the country. In the first place, there was a 
 very widespread dissatisfaction, bordering on bitterness, among many 
 Negroes, due to the reports they have received from the returning 
 soldiers about their harsh treatment in the Army, both at home and 
 in France. In many conversations and in pubhc gatherings of 
 Negroes some of these stories are rehearsed and commented upon. 
 * * * 
 
 In the second pJace, there is a general feehng among aU classes of 
 Negroes that the Federal Government should do something to remedy 
 their condition. This takes two forms: First, the abolition of evils. 
 There is a very mdespread and strong feeling that mobs and lynch- 
 ing and other abuses now affecting Negroes should be taken in hand 
 by the Federal Government. Second, Negroes are looking to the 
 Federal Government to take some constructive steps for their benefit. 
 The great popularity of the action of the Department of Labor 
 through the Division of Negro Economics for giving attention to 
 working conditions of Negroes and their relation to white workers 
 and white employers is largely due to this feehng of the Negroes that 
 something should be done for them through the Federal Government. 
 The Pubhc Health Service of the Treasury Department is meeting 
 with similar response. * * * 
 
 There is a frequent comment among Negroes on this point and 
 questions are asked repeatedly why something in a large way is 
 not done at this time. Larger efforts by Federal departments to 
 improve living and working conditions among Negroes will receive 
 hearty response from them. 
 
30 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 TESTEMOXY AND OPINIONS FROM ST. LOUIS, MO., DETROIT AND FLINT, 
 MICH., CLEVELAND, OHIO, AND OTHER POINTS. 
 
 In St. Louis a committee of colored citizens went to the chief of 
 police during the days of the Washington-Chicago riots. They 
 pledged him their support and made certain suggestions. He and 
 the mayor immediately took steps to forestall any possible outbreaks. 
 This, I was informed, led to special instructions to the patrolmen. 
 Some newspaper publicity of a helpful kind was also obtained. 
 Although several individual clashes were reported, the sentiment 
 seems to be for (|uiet. It was reported, however, to me on good testi- 
 mony that large numbers of Negroes have firearms and ammunition 
 preparatory to protecting themselves and their homes in case of 
 disturbances. 
 
 Detroit, ^Mich., has had a very large influx again during the past 
 summer, the estimate being about 3,000 newcomers cniring the 
 month of June alone. These newcomers comprise men, women, 
 and children. While there is considerable congestion in one dis- 
 trict there has, however, been considerable distribution of this 
 Negro population in other sections of the city. 
 
 The race friction here has seemed to be small, probably due to the 
 fact that the demand for labor is greater than the supply. Every- 
 body is employed at high wages and so busy that there is hardly 
 time for the frictions that go with unemployment. In some of the 
 industrial plants employing large numbers of Negroes, the superin- 
 tendents did take precaution during the days when the newspapers 
 were reporting the riots in Washington and Chicago to prevent any 
 possible friction between white and colored workers in their plants. 
 For instance, one of the automobile accessories companies separated 
 the white and colored workers in the lunch rooms as a precaution. 
 The testimony indicates that this tended to cause friction rather than 
 to prevent it, as it is reported that the colored workmen refused to 
 share the lunch room with this new arrangement. 
 
 It was reported here also that Negroes have provided themselves 
 with considerable firearms and ammunition lest trouble arise. One 
 factor in the situation in Detroit making for harmony is the fact that 
 the largest Negro neighborhood is bordered on one side by Jews, 
 largely Kussian, and on the other side by ItaHans. Cases of friction 
 resulted only in individual clashes that had no group significance. 
 During the days of the Washington-Chicago riots leading colored 
 citizens conferred with the mayor and other officials about precau- 
 tionary steps to prevent any possible outbreak. 
 
 In Cleveland, Ohio, there was some fear during the days of the riots 
 elsewhere les^t there might be some friction. An editorial in one of 
 the colored newspapers, warning Negroes to arm themselves, drew 
 forth an article from one of the white newspapers claiming that the 
 chief of police had called this editor to task, tlireatening to arrest him 
 for murder if anj riot occurred and any one was killed. This was 
 denied by the chief of poHce and the incident closed. 
 
 The colored editor, however, did receive some threatening letters 
 and there was a report of an attack upon a Ne^o soldier by some 
 white men in a high-powered automobile which ran into a Negro 
 neighborhood. Both of these" incidents caused some excitement 
 among some of the colored people. There was, however, a feeling 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 31 
 
 among some of the influential white and colored citizens that no race 
 disturbance should take place in Cleveland. 
 
 Responsible citizens I interviewed, said however, that the city- 
 would welcome any cooperative effort to study the labor and other 
 economic conditions looking toward measures that would prevent 
 racial friction in the future. 
 
 From testimony of conditions which nearly resulted in riots in 
 Sumter, S. C, Columbia, S. C, Birmingham, Ala., and from appre- 
 hension expressed and testimony as to preparations made by white 
 and colored people in New York City, Jacksonville, Fla., and Mont- 
 gomery, Ala.,- 1 am led to believe that the racial tension is so wide- 
 spread as to be in fact a matter of national concern, calling for some 
 attention from the National Government. 
 
 Respectfully submitted. " 
 
 (Signed) George E. Haynes, 
 
 Director of Negro Economics. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 WHITE AND NEGRO WORKERS IN BASIC INDUSTRIES. 
 
 The distribution of Negro workers in industries both as to States 
 and the types of industries in which they were engaged in comparison 
 with other workers in industries in the same vStates gives a good 
 impression of their general part in war production and of the wide- 
 spread contact of the racial labor relations. The facts are set forth 
 in the tables of this chapter. 
 
 The first table (Table I) gives a general view of the white and Negro 
 men engaged in industrial unskilled occupations in establishments 
 in 1918 or at the height of our drive for war production. These fig- 
 ures were reported from the responsible employers themselves to the 
 United States Employment Service when that service by Executive 
 order took over the work of recruiting and placement of unskilled 
 labor in all industries employing 100 or more men. 
 
 The data about establishments selected for this table were taken 
 at random from the records of the hundreds that reported. The 
 basis of selection was those employing 25 or more Negro workers. 
 As many States as practicable were represented, so as to show the 
 wide distribution of employment of Negroes, but those included are 
 only a small part of the total number reporting. The estimate of 
 the percentage of war work each establishment was doing, the num- 
 ber of hours per day, and the rate of wages are exactly as reported 
 by each firm itself. 
 
 Unfortunately for the present purpose the reports did not show 
 occupational distribution of these employees. The column showing 
 the kind of industrial operation carried, on by the firm could be 
 classified only in the ver^ general way here given, because of the 
 brevity of description given in the reports. Tlie classifications, 
 however, give some general notion of the type of each plant or enter- 
 prise which was employing these men. A number of firms were 
 omitted because the descriptions would not allow of even this general 
 classification. 
 
 Table I, wliich follows below, shows enterprises in 26 States and 
 the District of Columbia, which were, in 1918, employing 129,708 
 white men and 62,340 Negro men. TSvelve Southern States and 14 
 isi orthem States are listed. If Ohio and Pennsylvania seem to have 
 an undue number of firms listed in comparison with other States, 
 especially in the South, it may be attributed to the large entrance of 
 Negro migrants into their many industries, to the comparatively lim- 
 ited industrial development iri the South, which is largely agricul- 
 tural, and to the necessary exclusion of many firms in other States 
 either because of their employment of less than 25 Negroes or because 
 of insufficient information in their reports. 
 
 The percentage of war work upon wliich these enterprises were 
 engaged shows the large part these men had in winning the war. Out 
 of a total of 292 firms which gave information on this point only 23 
 
 32 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 33 
 
 reported less than 50 per cent war work and only 11 of these reported 
 25 per cent or less war work; 99 firms reported from 50 to 99 per 
 cent war work and 151 firms reported 100 per cent war work. There 
 might have been some bias in some cases, inasmuch as those firms 
 having the greatest percentage of war work might have expected 
 some priority in securing laborers. 
 
 The wage rates are also very interesting and indicate some con- 
 trasts for the same kind of industry in the different sections of the 
 United States. For instance, unskilled workers in foundries were 
 employed at the rate of $2.50 per 10-hour day in Alabama; from 
 $3.50 per 10-hour day (one firm) to $4.25 per 9-hour day (one firm) 
 in Illinois; $3.20 per 10-houi' day (one plant, calculated from straight 
 hourly rate) in Indiana; $2.50 per 10-hour day in Tennessee (only 
 one firm) and $3.50 to $4 per 10-hour day (calculated from straight 
 hourly rate) in Virginia. 
 
 Unskilled workers in iron and steel plants were employed at the 
 rate of $2.50 to $3 per 10-hour day (one firm 9 to 12 hours with wages 
 $2.25 to $3.79 per day, one firm 10 to 12 hours) in Alabama; from 
 $3 to $4 per 10-hour day (calculated from straight hourly rate) in 
 Illinois; from $2.75 to $3.60 (8, 9, 10, and 12 hour day differently in 
 four plants) per day in Indiana; $3 per 10-hour day in Kentucky; 
 from $2.88 to $4.95 per 9-hour day (calculated from straight hourly 
 rate) in New York; from $3.40 to $4 per 10-hour day (calculated on 
 straight hourly rate) in Ohio; from $3.20 to $6 (one plant reported 
 60 cents per hour) per 10-hour day (calculated from straight hourly 
 rate) in Pennsylvania; from $2.40 to $3.20 per 8-hour day (calcu- 
 lated from the straight hourly rate) and $2.50 to $3 (one plant) per 
 10-hour day in Tennessee; and $2.75 per 12-hour day (one plant) in 
 Virginia. It shoidd be borne in mind constantly that during the 
 stress of war production probably most plants ran longer than the 
 regular hours and many of their employees worked overtime, the 
 usual rule being to pay time and a half for overtime, and in some 
 cases double time. TTierefore no calculation of the actual average 
 earnings of the workmen can be made from these rates of pay. 
 
 The ^'uU text of Table I with details by States f oUows, showmg un- 
 skilled white and Negro male workers m selected typical war indus- 
 tries by States in 1918: 
 1989°— 21 3 
 
34 
 
 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Table I. — Unskilled white and Negro male workers in selected typical war industries 
 employing 25 or more Negroes, with reported percentage of war work of each enterprise, 
 hours, arid wage rate, by States, 1918. 
 
 ALABAMA. 
 
 Kind of industry of individual 
 enterprise. 
 
 Number of un- 
 skilled workers. 
 
 "SMiite. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Percent- 
 age of 
 war work 
 in which 
 workers 
 
 were 
 engaged 
 at plant. 
 
 Number 
 of hours 
 
 in 
 
 working 
 
 day. 
 
 Rate of wages. 
 
 Per hour. 
 
 Ammunition... 
 Army ordnance 
 
 Cement 
 
 Chemicals 
 
 Coal and iron... 
 
 Fertilizer 
 
 Foimdry 
 
 Do 
 
 ■ Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Iron and steel.. 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Lumber 
 
 Sawmill 
 
 DO 
 
 Shipbuilding... 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Steel wire 
 
 Railroad 
 
 Do 
 
 Radiators 
 
 46 
 45 
 
 102 
 41 
 14 
 .3 
 
 50 
 22 
 
 ) 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 IR 
 
 :'.50 
 
 100 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 150 
 
 5 
 
 750 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 73 
 
 1 
 
 58 
 
 200 
 
 88 
 
 122 
 
 84 
 
 25 
 
 75 
 
 178 
 
 110 
 
 317 
 
 25 
 
 75 
 
 136 
 
 171 
 
 600 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 37 
 
 100 
 
 189 
 
 500 
 
 211 
 
 300 
 
 1,420 
 
 25 
 
 ('). 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 25 
 
 93 
 
 95 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 98 
 
 90 
 
 30 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9-12 
 
 10-12 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 $0.30 
 
 .31 
 0. 30-. 33 
 
 .25 
 
 .30-. 40 
 .40 
 
 . 30-. 40 
 .30 
 .34 
 .34 
 .35 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 Ammunition 
 
 Iron 
 
 Metal 
 
 Shells 
 
 200 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 
 400 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 $0.40 
 
 1,800 
 
 45 
 
 90 
 
 0) 
 
 .33 
 
 219 
 
 59 
 
 100 
 
 11 
 
 .40 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 
 Powder 
 
 Do 
 
 Pyrites 
 
 Shells 
 
 Steel castings 
 War supplies. 
 
 45 
 
 30 
 
 100 
 
 8 
 
 SO. 40 
 
 60 
 
 44 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 .40 
 
 29 
 
 67 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 .40 
 
 120 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 .40 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 100 
 
 9 
 
 0. 37-. 40 
 
 89 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 9J 
 
 .36 
 
 1 
 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 30 
 
 51 
 52 
 
 100 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 $0.40 
 .35 
 
 
 Paper 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 FLORIDA. 
 
 Lumber 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Naval stores 
 
 232 
 50 
 20 
 
 150 
 11 
 
 217 
 226 
 465 
 350 
 324 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 90 
 80 
 
 $0.25 
 
 1 No figures available. 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 35 
 
 Table I. — Unskilled ivhite and Negro male workers in selected typical war industries 
 employing 25 or more Negroes, with reported percentage of war tvork of each enterprise, 
 hours, and ivage rate, by States, 19 IS — Continued. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 
 Number of un- 
 skilled workers. 
 
 Percent- 
 age of 
 war work 
 in which 
 workers 
 
 were 
 engaged 
 at plant. 
 
 Number 
 of hours 
 
 in 
 WT-king 
 
 da)\ 
 
 Rate of wages. 
 
 Kind of industry of individual 
 enterprise. 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Per hour. 
 
 Per day. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 
 134 
 '■'75 
 
 m 
 
 169 
 
 147 
 225 
 300 
 
 12 
 
 80 
 100 
 80 
 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 SO. 30 
 
 
 Iron 
 
 $2.00 
 
 
 
 2.00 
 
 
 0. 25-. 35 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
 Aluminum... 
 
 Canning 
 
 Castings 
 
 Cork 
 
 Foundry 
 
 Do." 
 
 Iron 
 
 Lumber 
 
 Meat 
 
 Meat packing 
 
 Paint 
 
 Shells 
 
 Steel 
 
 Stockyards... 
 
 Do 
 
 Zinc 
 
 1,000 
 
 2,921 
 
 1,450 
 
 1,658 
 
 300 
 
 268 
 
 350 
 
 175 
 
 4,110 
 
 3,714 
 
 1,300 
 
 836 
 
 250 
 
 1,151 
 
 3,250 
 
 350 
 
 500 
 
 410 
 
 225 
 
 281 
 
 75 
 
 162 
 
 150 
 
 126 
 
 3,244 
 
 2,375 
 
 50 
 
 417 
 
 250 
 
 604 
 
 1,087 
 
 50 
 
 90 
 80 
 70 
 35 
 95 
 77 
 40 
 75 
 21 
 80 
 80 
 100 
 100 
 25 
 75 
 100 
 
 8 
 10 
 10 
 9 
 10 
 9 
 10 
 10 
 8 
 8 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 8 
 8 
 8 
 
 
 $0.40 
 .36 
 .35 
 
 
 .40 
 
 .40 
 
 .40 
 
 0. 35-. 40 
 
 .:i0-.38 
 .40 
 .40 
 
 
 $3.10 
 
 3.50 
 3. 50^. 25 
 
 2.25-2.75 
 
 3.50 
 
 3.00-3.90 
 
 INDIANA. 
 
 Foundry 
 
 Gas 
 
 Iron 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Iron and steel 
 Picric acid . . . 
 
 Plates 
 
 Steel 
 
 75 
 
 150 
 
 70 
 
 470 
 
 156 
 
 100 
 
 (1) 
 
 34 
 
 90 
 
 81 
 
 112 
 
 95 
 
 30 
 
 120 
 
 100 
 
 154 
 
 98 
 
 75 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 1,350 
 
 .500 
 
 100 
 
 550 
 
 50 
 
 (') 
 
 10 
 
 $0.32 
 
 8 
 
 .35 
 
 10 
 
 
 9 
 
 .35 
 
 12 
 
 
 8 
 
 .30 
 
 10 
 
 .40 
 
 10 
 
 .42 
 
 10 
 
 .33 
 
 $2.75-3.00 
 
 3.60 
 
 
 IOWA. 
 
 
 
 
 Building 
 
 152 
 800 
 860 
 
 101 
 25 
 101 
 
 47 
 30 
 85 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 
 $4.05 
 
 Foodstuffs 
 
 $0. 37-. 42 
 .40 
 
 
 Meat 
 
 
 
 
 KANSAS. 
 
 Meat packing 
 
 375 
 
 2,062 
 
 125 
 
 75 
 746 
 25 
 
 90 
 40 
 50 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 $0.37 
 .40 
 .41 
 
 
 Do 
 
 
 Mining 
 
 
 
 
 I No figures available. 
 
36 
 
 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Table I. — Unskilled white and Negro male workers in selected typical vmr industries 
 employing 25 or more Negroes, tvith reported percentage of war work of each enterprise, 
 hours, arid wage rate, by States, 1918 — Continued. 
 
 KENTUCKY. 
 
 
 Number of un- 
 skilled workers. 
 
 Percent- 
 age of 
 war work 
 in which 
 workers 
 
 were 
 engaged 
 at plant. 
 
 Number 
 of hours 
 
 in 
 
 working 
 
 day. 
 
 Rate of wages. 
 
 Kind of industry of individual 
 enterprise. 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Per hour. 
 
 Per day. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 Boilers 
 
 137 1 ,55 
 438 ' 7.5 
 
 (') 
 
 100 
 40 
 
 100 
 (') 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 91 
 10 
 
 9i 
 
 1?* 
 
 to. 27-. 40 
 
 
 Boxes 
 
 $1 75 
 
 Iron 
 
 140 
 
 994 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 153 
 
 225 
 
 50 
 
 73 
 
 
 3.00 
 
 Do 
 
 .30 
 .30 
 
 
 Leather ? 
 
 
 
 2.50 
 
 Signal corps 
 
 27 .5fi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LOUISIANA. 
 
 Lumber 
 
 Do 
 
 Shipbuilding 
 Do 
 
 45 
 
 1,000 
 
 50 
 
 90 
 
 175 
 
 2,000 
 
 150 
 
 304 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 80.30 
 .30-.40 
 
 $2. 75-3. 00 
 2. 00-2. 50 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 
 703 
 2,300 
 
 600 
 200 
 
 100 
 100 
 
 8 1 
 
 $3.00 
 
 Copper 
 
 8 j 
 
 .^. sn 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Electrical work . 
 Steel castings . . . 
 Sugar 
 
 1,200 
 
 50 
 50 
 90 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 9 
 9 
 9 
 
 SO. 28-. 30 
 .37J 
 .37 
 
 150 
 
 410 
 
 
 MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 Sawmill .• 
 
 1 
 
 38 
 100 
 
 125 
 310 
 900 
 
 100 
 100 
 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 
 $1.50-2.50 
 
 Do 
 
 
 1.75 
 
 Wood products 
 
 
 2. 75-3. 25 
 
 
 
 
 NEBRASKA. 
 
 Meat 
 
 140 45 
 400 100 
 
 100 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 SO. 40 
 
 
 Metal 
 
 $3.20 
 
 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 Shells 
 
 Tubes 
 
 Shrapnel loading 
 
 244 
 
 200 
 
 100 
 
 8 
 
 SO. 35 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 100 
 
 (') 
 
 .22-.40 
 
 350 
 
 325 
 
 100 
 
 9 
 
 .40 
 
 'No figures ftvaJlftWe , 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORL,D WAR. 
 
 37 
 
 Table I . — Unskilled white and Negro male workers in selected typical war industries 
 employing 25 or more Negroes, with reported percentage of war work of each enterprise, 
 hours, and wage rate, by States, 1918 — Continued. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 
 Number of un- 
 skilled workers. 
 
 Percent- 
 age of 
 war work 
 in which 
 workers 
 
 were 
 engaged 
 at plant. 
 
 Number 
 of hours 
 
 in 
 
 working 
 
 day. 
 
 Rate of wages. 
 
 Kind of industry of indi^'idual 
 enterprise. 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Per hour. 
 
 Per day. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 f. 
 
 
 
 
 750 
 2,700 
 1,000 
 470 
 500 
 851 
 146 
 550 
 395 
 600 
 
 50 
 400 
 75 
 30 
 40 
 98 
 32 
 50 
 98 
 57 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 90 
 100 
 100 
 
 98 
 100 
 
 80 
 100 
 
 8-10 
 8 
 9 
 8 
 
 10 
 10 
 9 
 9 
 9 
 10 
 
 $0.34-.40 
 
 
 Do 
 
 $3.50 
 
 Chemicals 
 
 
 3.25 
 
 Elevators 
 
 .35 
 
 
 Glass 
 
 
 Machinery 
 
 .35 
 
 .36 
 
 .32-. 55 
 
 .37-. 40 
 
 .35-. 38 
 
 
 Valves 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 
 Do : 
 
 
 Sugar 
 
 
 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 Aluminum. . . 
 Cotton towels 
 Lumber 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Shipbuilding. 
 Sewerage 
 
 704 
 14 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 
 200 
 
 (') 
 
 200 
 280 
 300 
 50 
 180 
 
 100 
 48 
 80 
 
 80 
 100 
 100 
 
 8 
 10 
 11 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 
 £0.15 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 §2.50 
 
 2.00-2.75 
 1. 00-2. 50 
 2. 25-3. 00 
 
 OHIO. 
 
 Aluminum 
 
 125 
 
 4.500 
 
 350 
 
 30 
 
 80 
 
 103 
 
 143 
 
 3 
 
 55 
 
 425 
 
 225 
 
 200 
 
 580 
 
 24 
 
 240 
 
 58 
 
 27 
 
 1,300 
 
 220 
 
 300' 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 46 
 
 82 
 
 142 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 175 
 
 150 
 
 100 
 
 525 
 
 117 
 
 25 
 
 62 
 
 26 
 
 400 
 
 90 
 
 15 
 
 40 
 
 70 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 85 
 
 85 
 
 98 
 
 100 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 100 
 
 75 
 
 90 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 8-10 
 
 8- 9 
 
 9-12 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 81 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 $0.38 
 035-.37i 
 
 
 Automobiles 
 
 
 Bottles 
 
 •'2. 75-3. 50 
 
 Bronze 
 
 .40-. 45 
 
 
 Cast ings 
 
 3. 25-3. 75 
 
 Chain 
 
 .30 
 
 
 Do 
 
 3.00 
 
 Chemicals 
 
 .35 
 
 
 Fertilizer 
 
 3.50-3.85 
 
 Foundry 
 
 
 3 75 
 
 Do 
 
 .40 
 .35 
 .32^ 
 .35-.45 
 
 
 Fuses 
 
 
 Guns 
 
 
 Heaters 
 
 
 Tnlr . . 
 
 3.50^3 85 
 
 Rolling mill 
 
 .34 
 .37* 
 .38-. 40" 
 
 
 Shells 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 
 
 
 OKLAHOMA. 
 
 Meatpacking. 
 Petroleimi 
 
 843 
 77 
 
 376 
 35 
 
 80 
 100 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 $0.37 
 
 
 $3.00 
 
 » No figures available. 
 
38 
 
 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Table I. — Unskilled white and Negro male workers in selected typical war industries 
 employing 25 or more Negroes, with reported percentage of war work of each enterprise, 
 hours, and wage rate, by States, 1918 — Continued. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Kind of industry of individual 
 enterprise. 
 
 Number of un- 
 skilled workers. 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Percent- 
 age of 
 war work 
 in which 
 workers 
 
 were 
 engaged 
 at plant. 
 
 Number 
 of hours 
 
 in 
 
 working 
 
 dav. 
 
 Rate of wages. 
 
 Per hour. 
 
 Acids 
 
 Aeroengines 
 
 Air brakes 
 
 Aliimmum 
 
 Ammunition 
 
 Benzol 
 
 Boilers 
 
 Bolts 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Boxes 
 
 Bricks 
 
 Do 
 
 Bronze 
 
 Building 
 
 Cars 
 
 Castings 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Cement 
 
 Chemicals 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Coal 
 
 Coal tar 
 
 Do 
 
 Construction 
 
 Cork 
 
 Dredges 
 
 Electric supplies . 
 
 Electric work 
 
 Engines 
 
 Explosives 
 
 Fertilizer 
 
 Gasoline 
 
 Gas engines 
 
 Glass 
 
 Do 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 Houses 
 
 Iron 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Iron and steel 
 
 Iron bars 
 
 Do 
 
 Leather 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Lime 
 
 Limiber 
 
 Machines 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Do 
 
 Metal 
 
 Molding 
 
 Munitions 
 
 Nuts 
 
 Oils 
 
 Optical glass 
 
 100 
 
 346 
 
 722 
 
 1,300 
 
 1,500 
 
 25 
 
 1,071 
 
 80 
 
 350 
 
 485 
 
 262 
 
 50 
 
 195 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 475 
 
 15 
 
 70 
 
 200 
 
 250 
 
 307 
 
 430 
 
 60 
 
 119 
 
 150 
 
 113 
 
 150 
 
 240 
 
 10 
 
 120 
 
 175 
 
 503 
 
 150 
 
 100 
 
 1,701 
 
 235 
 
 1,413 
 
 910 
 
 250 
 
 589 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 90 
 
 93 
 
 100 
 
 425 
 
 600 
 
 729 
 
 2,200 
 
 75 
 
 190 
 
 21 
 
 74 
 
 53 
 
 180 
 
 40 
 
 65 
 
 55 
 
 120 
 
 62 
 
 468 
 
 2,600 
 
 80 
 
 6,000 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 110 
 67 
 
 100 
 
 300 
 33 
 
 120 
 30 
 
 100 
 35 
 29 
 60 
 35 
 20 
 86 
 25 
 75 
 45 
 
 100 
 80 
 
 120 
 40 
 40 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 159 
 75 
 33 
 50 
 27 
 25 
 
 152 
 57 
 25 
 
 175 
 
 109 
 
 359 
 29 
 50 
 
 280 
 68 
 
 200 
 30 
 92 
 25 
 25 
 
 150 
 
 2.58 
 1,808 
 35 
 55 
 54 
 36 
 
 106 
 60 
 90 
 75 
 30 
 70 
 40 
 32 
 1,900 
 40 
 
 250 
 85 
 
 100 
 
 95 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 95 
 
 0) 
 
 94 
 
 65 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 95 
 
 70 
 
 100 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 99 
 
 98 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 (0 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 95 
 
 71 
 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 0) 
 
 100 
 
 97 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 70 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 70 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 68 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 85 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 85 
 
 100 
 
 92 
 
 90 
 
 79 
 
 100 
 
 75 
 
 9i 
 
 9i 
 
 9-10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 lOi 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10-12 
 
 10 
 
 11-15 
 
 10 
 
 95 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 9-10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9^ 
 
 10-12 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9-10 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 8-10 
 
 324 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 0) 
 
 10| 
 
 lOi 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 9i 
 
 lOi 
 
 10 
 
 $0.40 
 
 .42 
 
 .42 
 
 .34-. 41 
 
 .37i 
 .38 
 .37i 
 
 .34i 
 .35-. 45 
 
 .32i 
 
 .40 
 
 . 34-. 39 
 
 .38-. 45 
 
 . 38-. 41 
 .38-. 45 
 
 .41-. 46 
 .32 
 
 .40 
 '.'35' 
 
 .41 
 .38 
 .40 
 .37i 
 .35 
 .38 
 .32 
 .35-.45 
 
 . 35-. 45 
 
 .28-. 30 
 
 .35 
 
 .35 
 
 2.29 
 
 .35 
 
 .28 
 
 .39 
 
 .28-. 35 
 
 .40-.4S 
 
 ' No figures available. 
 
 2 Plus bonus. 
 
 ' Probably more than one shift. 
 
 * Week. 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 39 
 
 Table I. — Unskilled white and Negro male ivorkers in selected typical war industries 
 employing 25 or more Negroes, with reported percentage of war work of each enterprise, 
 hours, and wage rate, by States, 1918 — Continued. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA— Continued. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 
 Number of un- 
 skilled workers. 
 
 Percent- 
 age of 
 war work 
 in which 
 workers 
 
 were 
 engaged 
 at plant. 
 
 Number 
 of hours 
 
 in 
 
 working 
 
 day. 
 
 Rate of wages. 
 
 Kind of industry of indi\'idual 
 enterprise. 
 
 AVhite. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Per hour 
 
 Per day. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 3,000 
 
 29 
 
 85 
 
 300 
 
 1,000 
 
 200 
 
 150 
 
 1,008 
 
 84 
 
 349 
 
 497 
 
 500 
 
 107 
 
 50 
 
 200 
 
 950 
 
 150 
 
 319 
 
 171 
 
 7 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 50 
 
 76 
 
 100 
 
 130 
 
 150 
 
 334 
 
 340 
 
 470 
 
 500 
 
 940 
 
 701 
 
 1,242 
 
 3,000 
 
 8 
 
 70 
 
 350 
 
 600 
 
 257 
 
 7,750 
 
 710 
 
 725 
 
 500 
 
 400 
 
 650 
 
 1,000 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 
 200 
 
 600 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 65 
 
 86 
 
 61 
 
 56 
 
 1,500 
 
 58 
 
 50 
 
 90 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 78 
 
 81 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 114 
 
 30 
 
 75 
 
 50 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 425 
 
 150 
 
 77 
 
 344 
 
 543 
 
 400 
 
 32 
 
 45 
 
 31 
 
 165 
 
 296 
 
 850 
 
 220 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 325 
 
 25 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 60 
 95 
 33J 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 95 
 100 
 100 
 97 
 100 
 100 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 95 
 100 
 100 
 
 85 
 
 SO 
 100 
 
 98 
 100 
 100 
 
 90 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 75 
 100 
 100 
 
 87 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 75 
 
 10-12 
 10-11 
 
 10 
 10-12 
 10-12 
 
 10 
 
 10-11 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 lU 
 
 10' 
 
 10 
 
 10^ 
 
 10" 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 9 
 
 10 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 8 . 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 lOi 
 
 10" 
 
 101 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 f 
 
 lOi 
 
 11* 
 
 10" 
 
 10 
 
 S-10 
 
 10 
 
 \n 
 
 8' 
 10 
 
 S0.33-.50 
 
 
 Pig iron 
 
 S3. 97-4. 20 
 
 Do . 
 
 
 4.55 
 
 Do 
 
 
 3.15 
 
 Do 
 
 .38 
 .33 
 
 
 Pipe fittings ... 
 
 
 Plate glass 
 
 3.25 
 
 Powder . . 
 
 .38-. 45 
 
 .37i 
 
 .38 
 
 .30-. 32 
 
 . 35-. 37.1 
 
 
 
 
 Plate tin . . 
 
 
 Refrigerators 
 
 
 Rifles... 
 
 
 Rivets and nails 
 
 .35 
 .42 
 .37i 
 .35 
 
 
 
 Shells 
 
 
 Do 
 
 
 Do 
 
 
 Sheet copper 
 
 3.45 
 
 
 
 3.50 
 
 Soap r 
 
 
 2.80 
 
 Steel 
 
 .30 
 
 
 Do 
 
 3. 45-3. 90 
 
 Do... 
 
 .60 
 
 .40 
 
 
 Do 
 
 
 Do 
 
 4. 50 
 
 Do 
 
 4.00 
 
 Do 
 
 .35-. 48 
 
 
 Do ; 
 
 4.40 
 
 Do 
 
 .38 
 .38 
 .40 
 .38 
 
 
 Do 
 
 
 Do 
 
 
 Do . . 
 
 
 Do 
 
 4.14 
 
 Do 
 
 .38 
 
 ."38" 
 
 .34-. 40 
 
 
 Do 
 
 3.45 
 
 Do 
 
 
 Steel castings 
 
 
 Do 
 
 3.15 
 
 Steel goods 
 
 .38 
 .38 
 
 
 Steel hooks 
 
 
 Steel Dlates 
 
 3. 20-3. 84 
 
 Do 
 
 .35 
 
 
 Sugar 
 
 3. 28-3. 80 
 
 Tires 
 
 
 3.50 
 
 Tools 
 
 
 4.37 
 
 Warehouses . . 
 
 .35 
 .38 
 
 
 Wire 
 
 
 
 
 Linters. 
 
 92 
 
 196 100 
 
 8 
 
 $0.32 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 
 55 
 10 
 29 
 
 190 
 125 
 218 
 
 3 
 
 45 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 
 $2. 00-2. 50 
 
 Do 
 
 $0.25-.30 
 
 
 Do 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' No figures available. 
 
40 
 
 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Table I. — Unskilled white and Negro male workers in selected typical tvar indiiatries 
 employing 25 or more Negroes, with reported percentage of war work of each enterprise, 
 hours, and wage rate, by States, 1918 — Continued. 
 
 TENNESSEE. 
 
 
 Number of un- 
 skilled workers. 
 
 Percent- 
 age of 
 war work 
 in which 
 workers 
 
 were 
 engaged 
 at plant. 
 
 Number 
 of hours 
 
 in 
 
 working 
 
 day. 
 
 Rate of wages. 
 
 Kind of industry of individual 
 enterprise. 
 
 ^^^lite. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Per hour. 
 
 Per day. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 2S7 
 187 
 4 
 154 
 10 
 130 
 375 
 52.5 
 900 
 143 
 550 
 
 263 
 188 
 154 
 120 
 100 
 120 
 100 
 375 
 600 
 69 
 250 
 
 100 
 75 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 85 
 100 
 98 
 95 
 100 
 
 10 
 11 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 
 S2. 25-2. 50 
 
 
 
 >1.75 
 
 Brake shoes . 
 
 
 2.40-3.00 
 
 
 $0.25 
 
 
 
 (') 
 
 
 2. SO 
 
 
 .30-. 38 
 
 
 Do 
 
 2.50-3.00 
 
 Do 
 
 .30-. 40 
 
 
 
 2. .50 
 
 Shells." 
 
 .30-. 40 
 
 
 
 
 TEXAS. 
 
 
 300 
 6 
 75 
 40 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 70 
 120 
 80 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 10 
 9 
 10 
 10 
 11 
 
 $0.30-.40 
 .30-.33J 
 
 
 
 
 
 $2. ,50-6. 00 
 
 Do 
 
 
 2.75 
 
 
 .30 
 
 
 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 Ammunition boxes. . . . 
 
 Cement 
 
 Chains 
 
 Chemicals 
 
 Do 
 
 Commissary contractor. 
 
 Creosoted material 
 
 Fertilizer 
 
 Do 
 
 Foundry 
 
 Do 
 
 Guncotton 
 
 Houses 
 
 Land and gravel 
 
 Lime 
 
 Lumber 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Paving 
 
 Pig iron 
 
 Pipe 
 
 Shell loading 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 With board. 
 
 25 
 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 250 
 
 150 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 1,158 
 
 80 
 
 10 
 
 57 
 
 116 
 
 200 
 
 (?) 
 
 5 
 70 
 870 
 475 
 
 125 
 50 
 40 
 75 
 30 
 
 150 
 65 
 53 
 30 
 58 
 54 
 .5,233 
 
 204 
 40 
 35 
 49 
 75 
 30 
 
 250 
 
 85 
 
 75 
 
 1,336 
 
 275 
 
 100 
 70 
 100 
 100 
 
 100 
 90 
 
 100 
 90 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 95 
 78 
 75 
 50 
 100 
 100 
 70 
 100 
 25 
 
 $0.35 
 .35 
 
 .35-. 40 
 .38J 
 
 .35-. 40 
 
 .35 
 
 .35-. 44 
 
 .35-. 40 
 
 .35 
 
 2 No figures available. 
 
 S3. 85 
 3.50-5.00 
 
 4.00 
 2.50 
 
 4.00 
 3.75 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 3. 25-4. 25 
 
 3.00-4.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.85 
 
 2.75 
 
 2. 00-5! 00 
 
 3.84 
 
 To ascertain more definitely and more in detail facts needed in 
 understanding the problems involved in the Negro's new relation to 
 industry, the Inspection and Investigation Service undertook an in- 
 tensive study of several basic industries employing Negroes in 1918- 
 19. Mr. Byron K. Armstrong and two other investigators were sent 
 to visit establishments that were employing perhaps large numbers 
 of Negroes. The study had to be discontinued before completion 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 41 
 
 because the service under which it was being made was abolished 
 after failure of appropriations. The data, therefore, cover only a 
 few plants in Illinois, Ohio, and Pennsylvania and does not include 
 other States as originally planned. The conclusions that might 
 have been drawn, therefore, will necessarily be deferred until further 
 data is available. 
 
 The facts and figures that were secured, however, are illuminating 
 and instructive. The table which follows below (Table II) gives the 
 details as to kinds of occupations, the average number of hours 
 worked per week, the average earnings per week, and the average 
 earnings per hour of 4,260 white men and 2,722 Negro men in 194 
 occupations in 23 establishments, for six basic industries — foundries, 
 slaughtering and meat packing, automobiles, coke ovens, iron and 
 steel and their products, and glass manufacturing. A supplement 
 to this table (Table II) gives similar figures for 153 white and 83 
 Negro women in slaughtering and meat packing. 
 
 The occupations shown in these two tables have been classified as 
 skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled. This classification, to be sure, is 
 uncertain and open to serious question but is the best designation 
 feasible under our present lack of occupational analysis. 
 
 The Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor, says in its 
 introductory statement to the first report on its "Description of 
 Occupations": 
 
 These descriptions of occupations are based on investigations, including private 
 interviews and correspondence, extending over practically the entire United States. 
 The one outstanding fact coming from this investigation is that there are no standards 
 or generally accepted occupational names or definitions. 
 
 The classification in the tables given below, however, were made 
 as carefully as possible, with the assistance of the employment ex- 
 perts of the plants visited, upon the basis of descriptions of -the 
 actual processes the worker performed. They are not presented 
 as conclusive, but only as indicative of the standards in proficiency 
 required and pay received for such work. Some occupations, " car- 
 penters" for mstance, have been classed as unskilled or semiskilled 
 that on further consideration might be otherwise listed. This has 
 been done in line with the classification of work into grades and plac- 
 ing the work done in a particular establishment in the class that seems 
 most indicative of its grade. 
 
 Two comparisons from Table II — the average hourly earnings of 
 Negro workers and the average number of hours worked per week — 
 call for comment. There were 85 occupations in which 5 or more 
 Negro men and 5 or more white men each were engaged in the 23 
 plants. Of these occupations 8 were classified as skilled, 25 were 
 classified as semiskilled, and 52 were classified as unskilled. 
 
 For purposes of these comparisons on the average hours worked 
 per week and average hourly earnings some cases of the same occupa- 
 tions in which five or more Negro workers and five or more white 
 workers were employed in different plants were reckoned as a differ- 
 ent unit of comparison of hours and of wages. The average number 
 of hours worked per week and the average weekly earnmgs are based 
 upon figures taken from the official records of each establishment. 
 
 The foundries were the only plants that employed any considerable 
 number of Negroes in skilled occupations. In 6 foundries there were 
 6 imits of comparison in skilled occupations on the basis here de- 
 
42 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 scribed; meat packing and slaughtering establishments reported only 
 
 1 such unit of comparison in skilled occupations; 5 automobile estab- 
 lishments reported no skilled occupations in which 5 or more Negroes 
 were employed ; coke ovens (1 establishment) and glass manufacturing 
 (1 establishment) had no skilled occupations in which 5 or more 
 Negroes were employed and only 1 out of 8 iron and steel plants re- 
 ported 1 skilled occupation which had a basis for such unit of com- 
 parison. 
 
 The fact that foundries have such a large representation of Negroes 
 in skilled occupations may be explained partly because Negroes have 
 probably had longer industrial experience in this industry than the 
 other occupations listed, except possibly coke ovens. In the table, 
 only 1 coke oven establishment is included, so a comparison can not 
 be made. In the South, for more than a generation foundries have 
 employed Negroes as molders and in other skilled and semiskilled 
 work. When Negro workers migrated North, this was the line in 
 which many of them had good skill and long experience. Their non- 
 appearance in skilled occupations in iron and steel plants may be 
 partly because their entrance in large numbers into these plants 
 was to replace immigrant and foreign-born laborers who were doing 
 mainly semiskilled and unskilled work, partly because of the smaQ 
 proportion of skilled work in the industry, partly because some 
 organized crafts in the industry were opposed to the employment of 
 Negroes in their trade, and partly because not a great many Negroes 
 possessed necessary training and experience to qualify for skilled work 
 in this field. 
 
 Taking such comparisons of skilled units in the foundries which 
 were studied, Negro workers showed a higher average number of 
 hours worked per w^eek than white workers in 3 units and a higher 
 average earnings per hour in 1 unit. In 3 units Negro workers 
 showed a lower average number of hours worked per week than white 
 workers and in 5 units a lower average of earnings per hour than 
 white workers. 
 
 In the one unit of comparison of skilled occupations in slaughtering 
 and meat-packing establishments Negro workers showed a higher aver- 
 age number of hours worked per week and a higher average of earnings 
 per hour than white workers. In the one unit of comparison of skilled 
 occupations in the iron and steel industry the Negro workers showed 
 a lower average number of hours worked per week and lower average 
 earnings per hour than w^hite workers. 
 
 Turning to units of comparison for occupations classed as semi- 
 skilled, in 5 foundries Negro workers showed a higher average num- 
 ber of hours worked per week than white workers in 3 units and a 
 higher average earnings per hour in 3 units. Negro workers made a 
 lower average number of hours worked than white workers in 
 
 2 units and a lower average earnings per hour in 2 units. In 
 slaughtering and meat packing, in 1 unit of comparison of semi- 
 skilled occupations, Negro workers made a higher average number of 
 hours worked and a higher average earnings per hour than white 
 workers. 
 
 In automobile establishments in 6 units of comparison of semi- 
 skilled occupations, Negro workers showed the same average nuniber 
 of hours worked as white workmen and the same average earnings 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAK. 43 
 
 per hour. In the coke ovens establishment, Negro workers showed 
 a higher average number of hours than white workers in 1 unit and 
 a higher average earnings per hour in 1 unit; a lower average num- 
 ber of hours worked than white workers in 1 unit and a lower average 
 earnings per hour in 2 units. In iron and steel plants Negro workers 
 showed a higher average number of hours worked than white 
 workers in 3 units of semiskilled occupations and a higher average 
 earnings per hour in 2 units; a lower average number of hours than 
 white workers in 1 unit and a lower average earnings per hour in 
 1 unit. Negro workers showed the same average number of hours 
 worked per week as white workers in 6 units and the same average 
 earnings per Aveek in 7 units. In glass manufacture Negro workers 
 showed a lower average number of hours worked in 1 unit of semi- 
 skilled occupations and a lower average hourly earnings in 1 unit. 
 
 Taking the semiskilled group as a whole for all establishments em- 
 ploying 5 or more Negro workers and 5 or more white workers, there are 
 25 units of comparison. These show that Negro workers had a higher 
 average number of hours worked per week than white workers in 8 
 units and a higher average earnings per hour in 8 units, about 
 one-third in each. Negro workers showed a lower average number of 
 hours worked per week than white workers in 5 units and a lower 
 average earnings per hour in 5 units, about one-fourth in each. Negro 
 workers showed the same average number of hours worked per week 
 as white workers in 12 units and the same average earnings per hour 
 in 12 units. 
 
 The occupations classed as unskilled furnish the largest number of 
 units of comparison — 52 in aU. In the foundries Negro workers 
 showed a higher average number of hours worked per week than 
 white workers in six units and a higher average earnings per hour in 
 five units. They showed a lower average number of hours worked 
 per week than white workers in two units, a lower average earnings 
 per hour in four miits, and the same average number of hours worked 
 per week as white workei-s in one unit. In slaughtering and meat 
 packing Negro workers made a higher average number of hours 
 worked per week than white workers in four units of unskilled occu- 
 pations and a higher average earnings per hour in two units. They 
 showed a lower average number of hours worked than white workers 
 in four units and lower average earnings per hour in six units. 
 
 In automobile establishments Negro workers showed the same 
 average number of hours worked as white workers and the same 
 average earnings per week in seven units of unskilled occupations. 
 At the coke ovens plant Negro workers showed a higher average 
 number of hours worked per week than white workers in seven 
 units and a higher average earnings per hour in five units. They 
 showed a lower average number of hours worked per week than 
 white workers in four units and lower average earnings per hour 
 than white workers in six units. 
 
 In the iron and steel industries Negro workers made a higher 
 average number of hours worked per week than white workers in tour 
 units and a higher average earnings per hour in six units of unskilled 
 occupations. They showed a lower average number of hours worked 
 per week than white workers in six units and lower average earn- 
 mgs per week than white workers in four units. They showed the 
 same average number of hours worked per week as white workers in 
 
44 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 five units and the same average earnings p>er week as white workers 
 in five units. In the glass manufacturing estabhshment Negro 
 workers showed a higher average number of hours worked per week 
 than white workers and a lower average earnings per week than 
 white workers in two units of comparison of unsfilled occupations. 
 
 Taking the 52 units of comparison of unskilled occupations as a 
 whole, Negro workers showed a higher average number of hoHrs 
 worked per week than white workers in 23 units, nearly one-haK of 
 the total, and a higher average earnings per week in 18 units, a little 
 more than one-third of the total number. They showed a lower 
 average number of hours worked per week than white workers in 16 
 units, or a little less than one-third of the total number, and a lower 
 average earnings per hour in 22 units or about two-fifths of the 
 total number. Negro workers showed the same average number of 
 hours worked per week as white workers in 13 units, or about one- 
 fourth of the total number, and the same average earnings per week 
 week as white workers in 12 units of unskilled occupations, or less 
 than one-fourth of the total number. 
 
 To sum up the comparison of unskilled units, Negro workers 
 showed a higher average number of hours than white workers in 
 nearly one-half of the total number of units of comparison, a lower 
 average number of hours worked per week in a little less than one- 
 third of the total number, and the same average number of hours 
 worked per week in about one-fourth of the total number of units. 
 The Negro workers showed a higher average earnings per week than 
 white workers in a little more than one-third of the total number of 
 units; a lower average weekly earnings in about two-fifths of the 
 total number of units, and the same average earnings per week as 
 white workers in less than one-fourth of the total number of units of 
 white and Negro workers compared in unskilled occupations. 
 
 Taking the total 85 units of comparison for the three classifications 
 of skilled, semiskilled, and imskdlled occupations in all the establish- 
 ments, the Negro workers showed a higher average number of hours 
 worked per week than white workers in 35 miits, or considerably 
 more than one-third of the total number of imits; a lower average 
 number of hours worked per week in 25 units, or less than one-third, 
 and the same average number of hours worked per week as white 
 workers in 25 units, or less than one-third of the total units of com- 
 parison. 
 
 Negro workers showed higher average earnings per hour than 
 white workers in 28 units, or about one- third of the total number of 
 units of comparison in the three classes of occupations; they showed 
 lower average earnings per week in 33 units, or considerably more 
 than one- third of the total; and the same average earnings per week 
 in 24 units, or somewhat less than one-third of the total number of 
 units of comparison in all the occupations listed. 
 
 The figures in detail of Table II, showing classification of occu- 
 pations, the number of white and Negro employees, and the average 
 number of hours of work per week and the average earnings per week 
 and per hour of white and Negro workers in the specified occupations 
 follows: 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 45 
 
 Table II. — Comparative table of "average hours of work'' and "average earnings" of 
 male white and Negro employees engaged in specified occupations of six basic indus- 
 tries— 1918-19. 
 
 [S, skilled; S-S, semiskilled; Un-S, unskilled.] 
 
 Occupation. 
 
 FOUNDRY (iron AND 
 
 steel). 
 
 Carpenters 
 
 Furnace men 
 
 Grinders 
 
 Laborers 
 
 MillwTights 
 
 Holders 
 
 Core makers 
 
 Chippers 
 
 Electric welders 
 
 Grinders 
 
 Laborers 
 
 do 
 
 Holders 
 
 Core makers 
 
 Holders' 
 
 do.i 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Holders 
 
 Carpenters 
 
 Casting chippers . . . . 
 
 Casting cleaners 
 
 Core-room helpers.. . 
 
 Craters 
 
 Cupola helpers 
 
 Floor molders 
 
 Foundry helpers 
 
 Helpers 
 
 Janitors 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Oven tenders 
 
 Sweepers 
 
 Yardmen 
 
 Chippers 
 
 Cub molders 
 
 Cupola men 
 
 Japanners 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Holders 
 
 Holders' apprentices 
 
 Holders' helpers 
 
 Shake-out men 
 
 SLAUGHTERING AND 
 MEAT PACKING. 
 
 Backers 
 
 Brinze trimmers . . . 
 
 Caul pullers 
 
 Droppers (hoist).. . 
 
 Fell beaters 
 
 Gutters 
 
 Headers 
 
 Knockers 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Leg breakers 
 
 Pritchers-up 
 
 Rumpers 
 
 Rump sawyers 
 
 Splitters 
 
 Switchers-on rail . . . 
 
 Truckers 
 
 Beef casings: 
 
 Gut runners 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Hachinemen . . . 
 
 Strippers 
 
 Kind 
 of occu- 
 pation 
 
 S-S.. 
 S-S.. 
 S-S.. 
 Un-S 
 
 S 
 
 S-S.. 
 
 s 
 
 S-S.. 
 
 S 
 
 S-S.. 
 Un-S 
 Un-S 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 Un-S 
 s 
 
 s-s.. 
 
 S-S.. 
 Un-S 
 S-S.. 
 S-S.. 
 S-S.. 
 
 s 
 
 S-S.. 
 Un-S 
 Un-S 
 Un-S 
 S-S.. 
 Un-S 
 Un-S 
 S-S.. 
 S-S.. 
 S-S.. 
 S-S.. 
 Un-S 
 
 s 
 
 Un-S 
 S-S.. 
 S-S.. 
 
 s 
 
 Un-S 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 Un-S 
 
 S 
 
 Un-S. 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 Un-S 
 S-S.. 
 
 S 
 
 Un-S 
 S-S.. 
 S 
 
 Number of em- 
 ployees. 
 
 White. Negro, 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 
 78 
 
 233 
 
 1 
 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 59 
 
 42 
 
 35 
 
 140 
 
 38 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 62 
 
 69 
 
 33 
 
 35 
 
 45 
 
 2 
 
 ."> 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 40 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 37 
 
 7 
 
 .54 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Average num- 
 ber of hours 
 worked per 
 week. 
 
 White. Negro, 
 
 59.00 
 67.75 
 40.65 
 48.55 
 58.75 
 52.75 
 54.30 
 43.30 
 57.30 
 48.50 
 58.30 
 68.20 
 51.50 
 47.70 
 49.20 
 50.80 
 48.40 
 47.90 
 50.40 
 38.10 
 40.30 
 35.30 
 42. 50 
 35.20 
 40.80 
 31.00 
 42.70 
 50.00 
 43.00 
 43.10 
 45.50 
 51.00 
 2 60.25 
 58.50 
 65.00 
 2 58. .50 
 2 56. 30 
 2 50. 50 
 2 62.50 
 2 64.80 
 2 37.50 
 
 68.20 
 67.50 
 64.50 
 67.50 
 74.00 
 67.50 
 51.20 
 68.50 
 68.90 
 67.50 
 64.00 
 67.90 
 67.50 
 67.50 
 79.50 
 55.50 
 
 70.90 
 64.20 
 74.60 
 67.50 
 
 38.00 
 62.00 
 45.40 
 46.95 
 58. 25 
 48.15 
 56.00 
 53.00 
 57.00 
 44.90 
 58.70 
 68.65 
 47.20 
 55.60 
 53.30 
 50.85 
 43.30 
 45.40 
 48.10 
 48.40 
 50.60 
 40.00 
 28.50 
 52.90 
 37.60 
 41.90 
 52.20 
 44.80 
 43.00 
 51.50 
 55. 90 
 51.00 
 2 65.00 
 56.80 
 62.60 
 2 58. 50 
 2 63. 05 
 2 39. 65 
 2 55. 40 
 2 54.25 
 2 33.35 
 
 71.50 
 67.50 
 54.80 
 65.50 
 74.00 
 67.70 
 59.80 
 68.50 
 70.60 
 62.90 
 67.50 
 69.80 
 68.00 
 67.50 
 69.00 
 63.90 
 
 67.50 
 71.50 
 67.50 
 69.50 
 
 Average earn- 
 ings per week. 
 
 White. Negro 
 
 $23.60 
 28.79 
 15.49 
 17.41 
 26.44 
 30.22 
 28.44 
 22.98 
 38.63 
 27.39 
 24.70 
 23.96 
 25.23 
 31.12 
 28.53 
 28.71 
 24.91 
 28.47 
 26.29 
 14.97 
 15.21 
 12.05 
 17.56 
 13.83 
 25.38 
 11.78 
 17.27 
 18.24 
 17.74 
 20.39 
 14.50 
 16.95 
 2 31. 85 
 27.19 
 31.00 
 2 32. 74 
 2 23. 18 
 2 35. 89 
 2 25.00 
 2 29.12 
 2 37. 21 
 
 49.44 
 30. 04 
 31.92 
 29.03 
 32.93 
 33.75 
 29.17 
 32.54 
 27.57 
 32.07 
 27.52 
 45.18 
 33.75 
 53.67 
 34.19 
 23.87 
 
 36.85 
 25.68 
 32.08 
 30.72 
 
 $15.20 
 26.47 
 17.71 
 19.08 
 24.76 
 24.88 
 30.38 
 25.18 
 39.90 
 24.08 
 24.54 
 23.56 
 22.09 
 29.24 
 30.99 
 27.78 
 21.79 
 24.35 
 23.71 
 19.10 
 20.82 
 14.87 
 9.23 
 22.77 
 21.54 
 15.76 
 20.43 
 15.33 
 18. 75 
 20.07 
 19.02 
 12.67 
 2 47. 50 
 28.34 
 27.71 
 2 32. 85 
 2 25. 98 
 2 29. 19 
 2 26. 88 
 2 26. 31 
 2 34.63 
 
 51.84 
 30.04 
 27.10 
 28.18 
 32.93 
 33.88 
 34.06 
 31.85 
 28.24 
 29.88 
 29.03 
 35.93 
 34.00 
 53.67 
 30.95 
 27.48 
 
 35.10 
 28.59 
 29.03 
 31.63 
 
 Average earn- 
 ings per hour. 
 
 White. Negro, 
 
 0.4000 
 .4249 
 .3811 
 .3585 
 .4500 
 .5728 
 .5237 
 .5307 
 .6742 
 .5647 
 .4237 
 .3513 
 .4899 
 .6524 
 .5799 
 .5652 
 .5147 
 .5944 
 .5216 
 .3929 
 .3774 
 .3414 
 .4132 
 .3929 
 .6221 
 .3800 
 .4044 
 .36^8 
 .4126 
 .4731 
 .3187 
 .3324 
 .5287 
 .4648 
 .4769 
 .5597 
 .4117 
 .7107 
 .4000 
 .4494 
 .9922 
 
 .7249 
 .4450 
 .4949 
 .4301 
 .4450 
 .5000 
 .5697 
 .4750 
 .4001 
 .4751 
 4300 
 .6654 
 .5000 
 .7951 
 .4301 
 .4301 
 
 .5197 
 .4000 
 .4300 
 .4551 
 
 » PJfferwt types of molders, 
 
 SO. 4000 
 .4269 
 .3900 
 .4063 
 .4250 
 .5167 
 .5425 
 . 4751 
 .7000 
 .5363 
 .4181 
 .3432 
 .4680 
 .5259 
 .5814 
 .5463 
 .5032 
 .5363 
 .4929 
 .3946 
 .4115 
 .3717 
 .3239 
 .4304 
 .5729 
 .3761 
 .3914 
 .3422 
 .4360 
 .3897 
 .3403 
 .2484 
 .7308 
 .4990 
 .4427 
 .5615 
 .4121 
 .7362 
 .4851 
 .48-50 
 1.0383 
 
 .7264 
 .4450 
 .4945 
 .4302 
 .4450 
 .5004 
 .5696 
 .4650 
 .4000 
 . 4827 
 . 4301 
 .5148 
 .5000 
 .7951 
 .4485 
 .4300 
 
 .5200 
 .3999 
 .4301 
 ,4551 
 
 i Compiled on a piecework basis, 
 
46 
 
 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Table II. — Comparative table of "average hours of loork'" and "average earnings" of 
 male ivhite and Negro employees engaged in specified occupations of six basic indus- 
 tries — 1918-19 — Continued. 
 
 [S, skilled; S-S, semiskUled; Un-S, unskilled.] 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average num- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of em- 
 
 ber of hours 
 
 Average earn- 
 
 Average earn- 
 
 Estab- 
 lish- 
 ment 
 
 
 Kind 
 
 plo> 
 
 ees. 
 
 worked per 
 
 ings per week. 
 
 ings per hour. 
 
 Occupation. 
 
 of occu- 
 pation. 
 
 
 
 week. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 
 SLAUGHTERING AND 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MEAT PACKING — COn. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Dry salt: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dippers 
 
 S-S... 
 S-S... 
 Un-S. 
 Un-S. 
 Un-S. 
 Un-S . 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 5 
 5 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 5 
 5 
 
 66.50 
 70.90 
 56. 30 
 52.20 
 62.90 
 64.70 
 
 46. 30 
 51.30 
 67.00 
 58. 30 
 63.90 
 .59. 90 
 
 $28.60 
 33.05 
 23.37 
 22.70 
 27.02 
 26.85 
 
 $19.88 
 22.02 
 28.81 
 25.05 
 27.09 
 24.83 
 
 $0. 4301 
 .4298 
 .4151 
 .4349 
 .4296 
 .4150 
 
 $0.4294 
 
 
 Graders . 
 
 .4292 
 
 
 
 .4300 
 
 
 Packers 
 
 .4297 
 
 
 Pilers 
 
 .4239 
 
 
 Rubbers 
 
 .4145 
 
 
 Truckers 
 
 Un-S . 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 65.50 
 
 61.30 
 
 2*1.20 
 
 24.53 
 
 .4000 
 
 .4002 
 
 
 Hog heads: 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Un-S . 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 57.20 
 
 68.00 
 
 22.87 
 
 27.20 
 
 .3998 
 
 .4000 
 
 
 Skinheads 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 61.10 
 
 61.10 
 
 27.20 
 
 27.20 
 
 .4452 
 
 . 4452 
 
 
 Hog killing: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Un-S. 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 72.30 
 
 f)2. 30 
 
 28.94 
 
 24.92 
 
 .4003 
 
 .4000 
 
 
 Shave sides 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 57.40 
 
 57.40 
 
 26.10 
 
 26.10 
 
 . 4547 
 
 .4547 
 
 
 Snatchers 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 97.00 
 
 97.00 
 
 44.59 
 
 44.72 
 
 .4597 
 
 . 46ia 
 
 
 Sausage-making: •" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Un-S. 
 
 3ii 
 
 9 
 
 47.80 
 
 69.20 
 
 19.12 
 
 27.67 
 
 .4000 
 
 .3999 
 
 7 
 
 Beef killing: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Backers 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 66.00 
 66. 00 
 
 66.00 
 ()6.00 
 
 52.20 
 31. (« 
 
 52.20 
 31.68 
 
 .7909 
 .4800 
 
 .7909 
 
 
 Fell beaters 
 
 .4800 
 
 
 Fell cutters 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 59.80 
 
 66.00 
 
 33.60 
 
 .37.08 
 
 .5619 
 
 ..5618 
 
 
 Foot skinners . . . 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 62.30 
 
 43.00 
 
 30. 26 
 
 20.68 
 
 .4857 
 
 .4809 
 
 
 Gullet raisers 
 
 S-S... 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 .53. 50 
 
 65.80 
 
 24.54 
 
 31.18 
 
 .4587 
 
 .4739 
 
 
 Gutters 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 
 2 
 6 
 2 
 
 66.00 
 65.00 
 66.00 
 
 64.50 
 64.20 
 66.00 
 
 36.00 
 40.18 
 33.48 
 
 35.00 
 39.76 
 33.48 
 
 . 5455 
 .6181 
 .50/3 
 
 .5426 
 
 
 Headers . 
 
 .6193 
 
 
 Knockers 
 
 .5073 
 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Un-S . 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 56.20 
 
 .54.80 
 
 24.43 
 
 23.83 
 
 .4347 
 
 .4349 
 
 
 Leg breakers 
 
 S 
 
 4 
 
 fi 
 
 46.40 
 
 62. 50 
 
 24.10 
 
 32.48 
 
 .5194 
 
 .5»7 
 
 
 Rimip sawyers. . 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 47.30 
 
 65. 80 
 
 25.75 
 
 35.89 
 
 .5444 
 
 .5454 
 
 
 Splitters 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 66.00 
 
 66.00 
 
 57.24 
 
 57.24 
 
 .8673 
 
 .8673 
 
 
 Repair department: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Steamfltters.. .'. . 
 
 s 
 
 52 
 
 13 
 
 65.70 
 
 72.60 
 
 37.68 
 
 41.76 
 
 .5735 
 
 .5752 
 
 8 
 
 Canning department 
 (bacon): 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Butchers 
 
 S-S... 
 
 3 
 
 U 
 
 57.70 
 
 56.90 
 
 25.89 
 
 25.83 
 
 .4487 
 
 .4540 
 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Un-S. 
 
 100 
 
 84 
 
 58.40 
 
 59.10 
 
 25.21 
 
 25.45 
 
 .4317 
 
 .4306 
 
 
 Nailers 
 
 S-S... 
 
 41 
 
 2 
 
 56.30 
 
 51.50 
 
 24.85 
 
 22.80 
 
 .4414 
 
 .4427 
 
 9 
 
 Beef coolers: 
 
 
 
 Knifemen 
 
 S-S... 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 64.80 
 
 67.80 
 
 27.33 
 
 29.11 
 
 .4218 
 
 .4294 
 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Un-S. 
 
 20 
 
 34 
 
 58.70 
 
 59.90 
 
 23.41 
 
 23.88 
 
 .3988 
 
 .3987 
 
 
 Pieceworkers 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 61.30 
 
 47.90 
 
 48.00 
 
 30.83 
 
 .7830 
 
 .6436 
 
 
 AUTOMOBILES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Boiler room 
 
 S-S... 
 S-S... 
 
 6 
 25 
 
 4 
 1 
 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 
 22.57 
 30.00 
 
 22.57 
 22.80 
 
 .4514 
 .6000 
 
 .4514 
 
 
 Connecting rod de- 
 
 .4560 
 
 
 partment. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Enamel rubbers 
 
 S-S... 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 50.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 35. 75 
 
 24.75 
 
 .7150 
 
 .49.50 
 
 
 Lathe department . . 
 
 S-S . . . 
 
 60 
 
 1 
 
 50.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 .6000 
 
 .6000 
 
 
 Machine shop 
 
 S-S... 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 50.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 .6000 
 
 .6000 
 
 
 Motor assembling . . . 
 
 S-S... 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 50.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 38.75 
 
 38.75 
 
 .7750 
 
 .7750 
 
 
 Piston department. . 
 
 S-S... 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 50.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 .6000 
 
 .6000 
 
 
 Sand-blast room 
 
 I'n-S . 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 50.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 33.00 
 
 33.00 
 
 .6600 
 
 .6600 
 
 
 Stock tracers 
 
 Un-S. 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 50.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 20.79 
 
 20.79 
 
 .4158 
 
 .4158 
 
 11 
 
 Core makers 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 55.00 
 
 55.00 
 
 33. 55 
 
 33.55 
 
 .6100 
 
 .6100 
 
 
 do 
 
 S-S... 
 S-S... 
 Un-S. 
 
 25 
 22 
 
 128 
 
 25 
 45 
 136 
 
 55.00 
 55.00 
 55.00 
 
 55.00 
 55.00 
 55.00 
 
 28. 60 
 26.40 
 24.20 
 
 28.60 
 26.40 
 24.20 
 
 .5200 
 .4800 
 .4400 
 
 .5200 
 
 
 
 .4800 
 
 
 Inside laborers 
 
 .4400 
 
 
 
 Un-S. 
 Un-S. 
 
 20 
 73 
 
 109 
 14 
 
 55.00 
 55.00 
 
 55.00 
 55.00 
 
 23.10 
 26.40 
 
 23.10 
 26.40 
 
 .4200 
 .4800 
 
 .4200 
 
 
 Stock handlers 
 
 .4800 
 
 
 Truck drivers 
 
 S-S-. 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 55.00 
 
 55.00 
 
 26.40 
 
 26.40 
 
 .4800 
 
 .4800 
 
 
 Truckers 
 
 S-S.. 
 Un-S 
 S-S.. 
 
 24 
 8 
 54 
 
 134 
 12 
 15 
 
 55.00 
 55.00 
 55.00 
 
 55.00 
 55.00 
 55.00 
 
 23.10 
 26.40 
 33.00 
 
 23.10 
 26.40 
 33.00 
 
 .4200 
 .4800 
 .6000 
 
 .4200 
 
 12 
 
 
 .4800 
 
 
 Machine molders 
 
 .6000 
 
 
 
 Un-S . 
 S-S.. 
 
 10 
 25 
 
 4 
 25 
 
 55.00 
 55.00 
 
 55.00 
 55.00 
 
 26.40 
 33.00 
 
 26.40 
 33.00 
 
 .4800 
 .6000 
 
 .4800 
 
 
 Mold rammers 
 
 .6000 
 
 
 Molders 
 
 s 
 
 Un-S . 
 Un-S . 
 Un-S . 
 S-S... 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 80 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 40 
 65 
 60 
 
 55.00 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 50,00 
 
 55.00 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 
 44.00 
 22.50 
 22.50 
 22.50 
 22.50 
 
 44.00 
 22.50 
 22.50 
 22.50 
 22.50 
 
 .8000 
 .4500 
 .4500 
 .4500 
 .4500 
 
 .8000 
 
 13 
 
 Janitors 
 
 .4500 
 
 
 Laborers 
 
 .4500 
 
 
 Sweepers 
 
 .4500 
 
 
 Truckers 
 
 .4500 
 
THE ISTEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 47 
 
 Table II. — Comparative table of '^average hours of ivork" and ''average earnings" of 
 male tvkite and Negro employee* engaged in specified occupations of six basic indus- 
 tries— 191S-19~Contimied. 
 
 [S, skilled; S-S, semiskilled; Un-S, unskilled.] 
 
 Occupation. 
 
 Kind 
 of occu- 
 pation. 
 
 Number of em- 
 ployees. 
 
 White. Negro 
 
 Average num- 
 ber of hours 
 worked per 
 week. 
 
 White. Negro 
 
 Average earn- 
 ings per week. 
 
 White. Negro, 
 
 Average earn- 
 ings per hour. 
 
 White. Negro 
 
 COKE OVENS.3 
 
 Battery-door hoisters 
 Battery-house labor- 
 ers. 
 
 Battery laborers 
 
 By-product labor 
 
 Coal unloaders 
 
 Coke loaders 
 
 Crane engineers 
 
 Door cleaners 
 
 Dryermen 
 
 Firemen 
 
 Foremen 
 
 Gas tenders 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Larr3mien 
 
 Lidsmen 
 
 Luttermen 
 
 Batchers 
 
 Pencilmen 
 
 Pushers 
 
 Salt wheelers 
 
 Standpipe men 
 
 Sulphate laborers . . . 
 Water tenders 
 
 IKON AND STEEL AND 
 THEIR PRODUCTS. 
 
 Transportation: 
 
 Switchmen 
 
 Pfate mill: 
 
 Ctndersnappers . 
 
 Hookers 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Pushers 
 
 Scrapmen 
 
 Shear helpers . . . 
 Blast furnace: 
 
 Cinder laborers.. 
 
 First helpers 
 
 Handymen 
 
 Keepers, furnace 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Larrycar helper. 
 
 Larrycar opera^ 
 tors. 
 
 Stockhouse la- 
 borers. 
 
 Gas makers 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Car checkers .... 
 
 Furnacemen 
 
 Inspectors 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Machine opera- 
 tors. 
 
 Spring formers.. 
 
 Assemblers 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Machine hands. . 
 
 Maintenance 
 
 Picklers and 
 sharers. 
 
 Piercers 
 
 S-S.. 
 Un-S, 
 
 Un-S, 
 Un-S, 
 Un-S , 
 Un-S, 
 
 S 
 
 Un-S, 
 Un-S, 
 Un-S, 
 
 S 
 
 Un-S. 
 Un-S, 
 S-S.. 
 Un-S , 
 Un-S , 
 Un-S , 
 Un-S , 
 S-S... 
 Un-S. 
 Un-S . 
 Un-S . 
 S-S . . , 
 
 Un-S. 
 Un-S. 
 Un-S. 
 Un-S . 
 Un-S . 
 Un-S. 
 
 Un-S . 
 S-S... 
 Un-S. 
 S 
 
 Un-S. 
 Un-S. 
 
 S-S... 
 
 Un-S. 
 
 S-S... 
 Un-S . 
 Un-S . 
 S-S... 
 Un-S . 
 Un-S , 
 S-S... 
 Un-S , 
 S-S... 
 
 S-S... 
 S-S... 
 Un-S. 
 
 S 
 
 S-S... 
 S-S... 
 
 S-S... 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 149 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 2 
 17 
 5 
 12 
 22 
 
 36 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 121 
 35 
 22 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 212 
 
 53 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 74 
 19 
 145 
 55 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 146 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 11 
 
 2 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 1 
 20 
 1 
 20 
 13 
 
 3 144.90 
 3 161.K) 
 
 3 150.30 
 3 139.60 
 3 163.20 
 3 142.60 
 3 1.56.00 
 3 165.90 
 3 151.70 
 3 180.00 
 3 156.00 
 3 15.S.10 
 3 149.80 
 3 108.50 
 3 160.70 
 3 1,52.20 
 3 148.00 
 3 142.50 
 3 1.58..30 
 3 133.30 
 3 160.70 
 3 140.90 
 3 175.00 
 
 74.35 
 
 78.00 
 66.00 
 67.85 
 73. 40 
 74.20 
 77.55 
 
 72.35 
 69.75 
 78.00 
 73.75 
 61.50 
 73.10 
 62.60 
 
 54.00 
 
 67.00 
 44.60 
 81.55 
 85.85 
 62.25 
 67.70 
 61.40 
 60.95 
 55.65 
 
 63.05 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 3 131.30 
 3 150.00 
 
 3 156.50 
 3 149.50 
 
 163.80 
 3 167.50 
 3 155.00 
 
 143.00 
 3 161.70 
 3 1.52.70 
 3 168.00 
 3 153.20 
 3 143.00 
 3 155.20 
 3 1.56.20 
 3 1.57.60 
 3 144.00 
 3 1.54.90 
 3 167..50 
 3 134.00 
 3 144.60 
 3 164.00 
 3 180.00 
 
 72. 40 
 
 60.00 
 68.00 
 70.00 
 75.80 
 74.45 
 71.05 
 
 64.00 
 61.90 
 73.80 
 75.00 
 62.65 
 62.00 
 63.00 
 
 69.70 
 46.50 
 69.55 
 91.70 
 50.00 
 62.75 
 61.40 
 61.50 
 48.40 
 
 37.55 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 3$71.12 
 3 77. 25 
 
 3 65. 73 
 3 SO. 32 
 3 68. 62 
 3 96. 30 
 3 78. 38 
 3 73.01 
 3 87. 50 
 3 98. 58 
 3 80.10 
 3 76. 55 
 3 .53. 17 
 3 77.36 
 3 73. 44 
 3 69.81 
 '3 66. 35 
 3 77. 70 
 3 63. 29 
 3 77.21 
 3 66.30 
 3 94. 27 
 
 41.56 
 
 39.06 
 31.44 
 31.51 
 51.72 
 51.99 
 52.00 
 
 35.52 
 34.14 
 45.05 
 40.73 
 30.04 
 35. 75 
 34.78 
 
 48.85 1 25.91 
 
 24.74 
 ■18.18 
 33.99 
 43.51 
 29.13 
 33.86 
 30.71 
 2.5.62 
 35.35 
 
 54.19 
 22.50 
 20.00 
 35.00 
 22.50 
 22.50 
 
 22.50 
 
 3$64.17 
 3 70. 76 
 
 3 73. 04 
 3 70. 70 
 3 75.58 
 3 85. 52 
 3 92. 75 
 3 67.72 
 3 77. 03 
 3 74.24 
 3 104.43 
 3 77.41 
 3 79. 08 
 3 76.08 
 3 75. 07 
 3 75. 90 
 3 68. 04 
 3 72.92 
 3 82. 16 
 3 72.18 
 3 69. 92 
 3 77.24 
 3 97.12 
 
 40.47 
 
 30.04 
 32.16 
 30.13 
 51.68 
 51.33 
 50.47 
 
 31.42 
 30.31 
 42.25 
 41.20 
 29.43 
 30.41 
 33.08 
 
 22.85 
 
 25.59 
 16.38 
 35.57 
 45.29 
 19. 95 
 31.60 
 32.69 
 26.83 
 25.40 
 
 33.00 
 22.50 
 20.00 
 35.00 
 22.50 
 22.50 
 
 22.50 
 
 $0. 4908 
 .4777 
 
 .4582 
 .4708 
 .4922 
 .4812 
 .6173 
 .4638 
 .4813 
 .4861 
 .6319 
 .5066 
 .5110 
 .4900 
 .4814 
 . 4825 
 .4717 
 .4656 
 .4908 
 .4748 
 .4807 
 .4736 
 .5387 
 
 .5590 
 
 .5007 
 .4764 
 .4644 
 .7046 
 .7007 
 .6705 
 
 .4909 
 .4895 
 .5775 
 .5523 
 .4657 
 .4890 
 .5555 
 
 .4798 
 
 .3693 
 .4076 
 .4168 
 .5068 
 .4680 
 .5001 
 .5002 
 .4203 
 .6352 
 
 .8595 
 .4500 
 .4000 
 .7000 
 .4500 
 .4500 
 
 .4500 
 
 . 4887 
 .4717 
 
 . 4668 ■ 
 
 .4729 
 
 .4614 
 
 .5106 
 
 .5984 
 
 .4736 
 
 .4764 
 
 .4862 
 
 .6216 
 
 .5053 
 
 .5530 
 
 .4902 
 
 .4806 
 
 .4816 
 
 .4725 
 
 .4708 
 
 .4905 
 
 .5387 
 
 .4835 
 
 .4710 
 
 .5396 
 
 .5589 
 
 .5057 
 .4726 
 .4304 
 .6811 
 .6894 
 .7103 
 
 .4909 
 .4896 
 .5725 
 .5493 
 .4697 
 . 4905 
 .5250 
 
 .4678 
 
 .3671 
 .3523 
 .5114 
 .4939 
 .3990 
 .5036 
 .5324 
 .4363 
 .5248 
 
 .4500 
 .4000 
 .7000 
 .4500 
 .4500 
 
 .4500 
 
 3 Average number of hours and average earnings under this coke-oven schedule were available only for a 
 period of 13 days, and it was impracticable, therefore, to try to estimate the weekly hours and earnings. 
 
48 
 
 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Table II. — Comparative table of ^'average hours of work" and ^'average earnings" of 
 male white and Negro employees engaged in specified occupations of six basic indus- 
 tries — 1918-19 — Continued. 
 
 [S, skilled; S-S, semiskilled; Un-S, unskilled.] 
 
 Estab- 
 
 
 Kind 
 
 Number of em- 
 ployees. 
 
 Average niun- 
 ber of hours 
 worked per 
 
 Average earn- 
 ings per week. 
 
 Average earn- 
 ings per hour. 
 
 lish- 
 ment 
 
 Occupation. 
 
 of occu- 
 pation. 
 
 
 
 week. 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 White. 
 
 Ne^o. 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 
 IRON AND STEEL AND 
 THEIR PRODUCTS— 
 
 continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 Blast furnace— Con. 
 Punch press 
 
 hands. 
 Punch press 
 
 helpers. 
 Stock handlers.. 
 Hammerm e n's 
 
 helpers. 
 Laborers (raw 
 
 material). 
 
 Sweepers 
 
 Truckers 
 
 Yardmen 
 
 Nutmakers 
 
 Do 
 
 S-S... 
 Un-S. 
 
 16 
 
 46 
 
 1 
 17 
 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 
 50.00 
 50.00 
 
 $22.50 
 20.00 
 
 $22.50 
 20.00 
 
 $0. 4.500 
 .4000 
 
 $0.4500 
 .4000 
 
 19 
 
 Un-S . 
 
 S-S... 
 
 13 
 113 
 
 8 
 14 
 
 50.00 
 41.05 
 
 50.00 
 41.15 
 
 20.00 
 21.35 
 
 20.00 
 21.72 
 
 .4000 
 .5201 
 
 .4000 
 .5278 
 
 
 Un-S. 
 
 57 
 
 23 
 
 52.60 
 
 49.25 
 
 21.33 
 
 19.93 
 
 .4055 
 
 .4047 
 
 20 
 21 
 
 Un-S. 
 
 S-S... 
 Un-S . 
 S-S... 
 Un-S. 
 S-S... 
 S-S... 
 S-S... 
 Un-S. 
 S-S... 
 S-S... 
 Un-S. 
 
 2 
 5 
 6 
 3 
 1 
 7 
 8 
 29 
 47 
 77 
 15 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 47 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 28 
 
 13 
 
 IS 
 
 7 
 
 47.00 
 49.25 
 55.30 
 53.50 
 53.50 
 53. 50 
 53. .50 
 53.00 
 53.00 
 .53, 00 
 53.00 
 53.00 
 
 53.60 
 50.00 
 62.45 
 53.50 
 48. .50 
 53. ,50 
 35.00 
 .53.00 
 53.00 
 .53.00 
 .53. 00 
 53.00 
 
 15.82 
 15.95 
 17.98 
 25.47 
 24.08 
 24.08 
 19.32 
 22.79 
 22.79 
 22.79 
 22.79 
 22.79 
 
 16.84 
 17.08 
 19.39 
 25.47 
 18.68 
 24.08 
 20.63 
 22.79 
 22.79 
 22.79 
 22.79 
 22.79 
 
 .3367 
 .3238 
 .3251 
 . 4750 
 .4500 
 .4500 
 .3611 
 .4300 
 .4300 
 .4300 
 .4300 
 .4300 
 
 .3142 
 .3416 
 .3105 
 .4750 
 .3852 
 
 
 
 .4500 
 
 22 
 
 Trimmers 
 
 Coring 
 
 .,5894 
 .4300 
 
 
 
 .4300 
 
 
 Furnace 
 
 .4300 
 .4300 
 
 
 Stock room 
 
 .4300 
 
 
 MANUFACTURING 
 GLASS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 Un-S. 
 S-S... 
 S-S... 
 Un-S. 
 
 30 
 27 
 10 
 36 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 48.80 
 53.20 
 56.70 
 60.10 
 
 49.60 
 60.70 
 60.60 
 69.40 
 
 14.75 
 16.72 
 22.65 
 18.52 
 
 14.09 
 15.08 
 21.00 
 20.21 
 
 .3023 
 .3143 
 .399» 
 .3082 
 
 .2841 
 
 
 
 .2974 
 
 
 Producermen 
 
 Yard laborers 
 
 .3465 
 .2912 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 49 
 
 Comparative table of "average hours of work" and "average earnings" of female white 
 and Negro employees engaged in specified occupations in the slaughtering and meat- 
 packing industry . 
 
 Occupation. 
 
 Kind 
 
 of 
 occu- 
 pation. 
 
 Number of 
 employees. 
 
 Average 
 
 number of 
 
 tiours worked 
 
 per week.i 
 
 Average 
 earnings 
 per week. 
 
 Average 
 earnings 
 per hour. 
 
 Total "regu- 
 lar" hours 
 per week. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 White. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 HOG-HEAD PREPA- 
 RATION. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Washers and trim- 
 mers. 
 
 Un-S . 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 57.4 
 
 57.4 
 
 $19. 50 
 
 $19. 50 
 
 $0. 3397 
 
 $0.3397 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 SAUSAGE MANUFAC- 
 TURING. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Casings workers 
 
 Sausage-tying 
 
 workers. 
 Stuffing-room 
 
 workers. 
 
 Un-S . 
 Un-S . 
 
 Un-S. 
 
 9 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 48.8 
 47.8 
 
 50.5 
 
 49.1 
 46.6 
 
 46.7 
 
 15.09 
 14.48 
 
 16.87 
 
 14.96 
 14.22 
 
 ' 16. 04 
 
 .3092 
 .3029 
 
 .3341 
 
 .3047 
 .3052 
 
 .3436 
 
 48 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 CANNING DEPART- 
 MENT (BACON). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bacon wipers 
 
 Can oilers 
 
 Un-S . 
 Un-S . 
 Un-S . 
 Un-S. 
 Un-S . 
 Un-S . 
 Un-S . 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 36 
 
 22 
 
 2? 
 
 8 
 2 
 2 
 
 19 
 4 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 56.0 
 57.1 
 52.3 
 53.0 
 55.2 
 50.6 
 51.2 
 
 55.1 
 59.5 
 36.0 
 57.3 
 51.5 
 56.2 
 56.5 
 
 17.69 
 18.11 
 34.11 
 16.78 
 19.41 
 16.09 
 16.20 
 
 17.41 
 
 18.87 
 22.36 
 18.16 
 17.65 
 17.80 
 17.86 
 
 .3159 
 .3172 
 .6522 
 .3166 
 .3516 
 .3180 
 .3164 
 
 .3160 
 .3171 
 .6211 
 .3169 
 .3427 
 .3167 
 3161 
 
 48 
 48 
 48 
 48 
 48 
 48 
 48 
 
 48 
 48 
 48 
 48 
 
 Can painters 
 
 Can wipers 
 
 Scalers 
 
 48 
 
 Solder droppers 
 
 Wrappers 
 
 48 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 
 I The number of hours in excess of 48 should be regarded as ' ' overtime. 
 1989°— 21 4 
 
50 
 
 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 
 ■^5 
 
 s? 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 ?? 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 ta. 
 
 ii. 
 
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 •w 
 
 
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 ■s 
 
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 c ic 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 fi. MM E-i[/;H e H 
 
 5 n 
 
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 -HM « Tr«5 
 
 t^ 09 0» o ^ c*^ CO -^irscot^oo OS 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 51 
 
 »-<or*r* N 
 
 S8S5 
 
 o o ^H r^ -^j* o 
 
 c-jsoo o-H 
 
 .rtt^ ^< 
 
 oS5 S 
 
 r^ F-t 
 
 CO "-CH -H 
 
 o o o o 
 2 iziziz; 
 
 9; 
 
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 w^; 
 
 2; :^ WQ :<2;: 
 
 o o o 
 
 222 
 
 2 1=1 I 
 
 O O O 
 
 222 
 
 " fl o 
 o Oj3 
 
 22tH 
 
 5§i 
 
 2 :S 
 
 £0° 
 
 
 3 ;3 3 
 ^ . ^ u 
 
 £2 2 MM 2 
 
 
 : 21=1 
 ■ ?"3 
 
 
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 >^>H 2 
 
 So^ 
 
 00000 000 00 000 Ofl-3g 00 
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 22 
 
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 sa 
 
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 t2oo2wmw2 
 
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 giftftSsgt^ao 
 
 Q.b£OO»3-wtl£lS"60 
 
 a » >^«!03o2o« 
 ^WW2m2tMH2 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 STATISTICS ON THE MEAT-PACKING AND STEEL INDUSTRIES. 
 
 One of the evidences of the growing importance of Negroes in 
 northern industries is shown by the increasing percentage of Negroes 
 employed in one or two of the large meat-packing establishments in 
 Chicago diu-ing 1916, 1917, and 1918, and a steel company of Indiana 
 Harbor for all the months of 1918. 
 
 In the first meat-packing company, beginning July 13, 1918, and 
 running through to I^ebruary 28, 1919, it is sho^vn that at the begin- 
 ning of this period there were 4,734 white employees, or 81.89 per 
 cent, and 1,047 Negro employees, or 18.11 per cent of the labor force. 
 There were 796 white women, or 87.19 per cent, and 117 Negro 
 women, or 12.81 per cent. At the close of the period there were 4,925 
 white employees, or 83.38 per cent, and 982 Negro employees, or 16.62 
 per cent of the total number, while there were 821 white women con- 
 stituting 89.24 per cenit, and 99 Negro women, or 10.76 per cent of 
 the total number of employees. These figures indicate the importance 
 in numbers and percentage of Negro workers in the slaughtering 
 and meat-packing industry, for the total number of white em- 
 ployees at the beginning of the period was 81.89 per cent and 
 at the close 83.38 per cent and the number of Negro employees at the 
 beginnmg of the period was 18.11 per cent and at the close 16.62 per 
 cent. This shows that there was a slight reduction in the percentage of 
 Negro employees, both male and female, during the period, but that 
 the reduction was very light, being slightly more than 1.5 per cent 
 for Negro men and 2 per cent for Negro women. 
 
 The table following shows the details of the variation by weeks : 
 
 52 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAJl. 
 
 53 
 
 i-HC0»OQ'^OO'^C0'^t^Ci0Ci0.-lc0C0aif0C0Oi0C000^Oh-i0Tt«Oi;D 
 
 1— irH— noo»ooor-r^':oeoc»ic^icoc^-^to ■^■^cocccococococ^rHOsos 
 
 
 00 00 00 00 00 00 GO 00 
 
 OCOOOWt^OOC>»OOOOt-i— iQiiOOOi-HOOO't^OiOC^ 
 »0 ci -^ CO '^ rp -i 
 
 — GO 00 00 C 
 
 or^o»oot— r-t^t'-t-"r-'Xir^oO'-<oi 
 
 :i 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 CO OO 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 
 
 o^HCDcooooO'-tior^^oO'^r^oooi-HcoO'^ioc^utigs^-OTt^oot^^^ 
 
 _ sr^Tjt__., 
 
 - ^OioOOiOiOiOiOiOOOSOS 
 
 _ _ - C^ Oi Oi CO ■«*< C 
 
 OOOJOlOaOOiOiOOO^QOoOOOOOC 
 
 ■^OiOi-H^HtNCOOOOC 
 
 C0OOr^C0Tt<C<)Tt<<:D0S^H0i-^cqTt<CQr>.00OiO00Or*':0i-(»000C0I>-O 
 
 ^-H^-l^QOocoor--a3t-^tpQoco^*c^O':ptooocoT-HOcc(^^oo■■-ocsc^ 
 
 OSOOOiOiOO'-HOOi— (OOOOOSO'-tOO'-HOOOOOOaiOiOOS 
 
 OCT)OOlOOCOTj<MCO»OC^r-t>.OOC^05COO'-lCiOOO';OOJu7iOiOi-( 
 
 i-HOi-HOiC^oOiO'-^csfocOfCCiOfO'— i-^ioaioooooooc^»"^t--i>i-Tj<csi>- 
 oioioiaioiccoJoicio6r>^QOt-^o6o6o6o6o6o6oiccfiaic^o6ooi^ 
 
 OCOcOOCO^lMOt^O'-lt^aiCO.-lCOCSOiOOOTHC^Oii-HO'rj^ooOCO 
 COcOC^t-^-^C^1iOfOCqoO"^00»OiO<NC^000050005»OOiOOOOiO'^fOCiO 
 OlOJOJOiOiOiOiOiaJOOOOOOoOoOOOOOOOOOOOOiOiOOOOiOOiOlCSOO 
 
 O»-HTt*r-iO'*t>-Ot^r^»000C0M-*^O00.-Hr^O0ai-«(N'rt<Tj<.-(i0^HO0i 
 
 O>-^00O00i-i-ct<c0t~*OC0OOClO0i»O'^OC^05i-Hi— it^iOWfN^OOON 
 
 00 00 GO 00 00 00 00 0000 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 CO 00 00 OOt^OO 00 OCOOOO 00 0000 00 
 
 00C0OC00ii>)(N00C0O'*O^00Oi000":)-*O<-lC<Ii-tO'^05OC0»0Tj< 
 COiOOOOO--C'MOOiCVlC^iOC^OtOC^'— iiOCOr^COCCGO'^CC-^CSO.— lO 
 O^OiCiOOOiasOiCiOOOiCiaaCiOCOt^GOOOGOOiOiC^C^-'J^CCCO-^-^C^i— t 
 
 oococqfoc^|^tl"<^^^oolOcoO'— i<--(ooo»oaiOf^co(>:ia5*o»0'*o^coi>» 
 -■".■i-<coiOi--<Gor*oc^oO'^ooc^ir---»**QOcc6i»or»oO'i<o^i--tior^o»ooo 
 
 GOClOOOOCiGOOOOJC 
 
 ^Tj<-'^-^Tj«'^rr'^-^Tf'Tt<TftTt'-^-Tj<Tj*''^-^Tj<TjiT}<»otO»OtC*rSiO»0»0'^ 
 
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54 
 
 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 The figures of the second meat-packing company give a very 
 large showing of the increasing use of Negro employees in this plant, 
 one of the largest in the industry. At the beginning of the period 
 (January, 1916, to January, 1919, or a period of 159 weeks), the 
 plant was employing a total of 8,361 employees. Of these, 8,050, or 
 96.28 per cent, were white and 311, or 3.72 per cent, were colored. 
 The full figures cover the period just preceding the entrance of the 
 United States into the war, the entire period during which our 
 country was at war, and approximately the three months following 
 the signing of the armistice. The total number of employees of this 
 firm gradually increased imtil it reached the mark of 16,989 em- 
 ployees during the last week in November, 1918, and 17,434 during 
 the third week of December, 1918. The number of colored em- 
 ployees, however, .increased more rapidly in proportion than the 
 number of white employees, reaching a maximum of 24.09 per cent 
 of the total in March, 1918, and ranging from that time on between 
 17 and 21 per cent of the total. At the close of the period, Feb- 
 ruary, 1919, the firm was employing 13,928 workers, of whom 11,123, 
 or 79.86 per cent, were white employees and 2,805, or 20.14 per cent, 
 were colored employees. This shows a proportionate increase, nearly 
 fivefold, in the number of Negro employees. 
 
 Table V. — Number of employees of the second meat-packing company, distributed by 
 color, for a period of 159 successive weeks, January, 1916, to January, 1919. (See 
 graphs follouing.) 
 
 
 Total 
 number 
 of em- 
 ployees, 
 white 
 and Ne- 
 gro, 
 male 
 and fe- 
 male. 
 
 Total number of employees, 
 distributed bj' color. 
 
 Week 
 No. 
 
 Total 
 number 
 of em- 
 ployees, 
 white 
 and Ne- 
 gro, 
 male 
 and fe- 
 male. 
 
 Total number of employees, 
 distributed by color. 
 
 Week 
 No. 
 
 White. 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 White. 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 3.. 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 3« 
 
 8,361 
 7,989 
 8,008 
 7,941 
 7,824 
 7,904 
 7,889 
 8,084 
 8,037 
 8,213 
 8,330 
 8,141 
 8,123 
 7,971 
 7,982 
 7,766 
 7,414 
 7,158 
 7,479 
 7,449 
 7,399 
 7,421 
 7,705 
 7,696 
 7,811 
 7,937 
 8,062 
 8,306 
 8,081 
 8,123 
 8,514 
 8,681 
 8,884 
 8,959 
 8,737 
 9,134 
 
 8,050 
 7,683 
 7,699 
 7,569 
 7,470 
 7,527 
 7,476 
 7,673 
 7,637 
 7,824 
 7,938 
 7,795 
 7,766 
 7,632 
 7,591 
 7,363 
 6,941 
 6,604 
 6,947 
 6,935 
 6,900 
 6,907 
 7,121 
 7,101 
 7,184 
 7,270 
 7,329 
 7,532 
 7,309 
 7,312 
 7,495 
 7,657 
 7,831 
 7,837 
 7,654 
 7,830 
 
 %.28 
 %.17 
 96.14 
 95.32 
 95.48 
 95.23 
 94.76 
 94.92 
 95.02 
 95.26 
 95.29 
 95.75 
 95.61 
 95.75 
 95.10 
 94.81 
 93.62 
 92.26 
 92.89 
 93.10 
 93.26 
 93.07 
 92.42 
 92.27 
 91.97 
 91.60 
 90.91 
 90.68 
 90.45 
 90.02 
 88.03 
 88.20 
 88.15 
 87.48 
 87.60 
 85.72 
 
 311 
 306 
 309 
 372 
 354 
 377 
 413 
 411 
 400 
 389 
 392 
 346 
 357 
 339 
 391 
 403 
 473 
 554 
 532 
 514 
 499 
 514 
 584 
 595 
 627 
 667 
 733 
 774 
 772 
 811 
 1,019 
 1,024 
 1,053 
 1,122 
 1,0S3 
 1,304 
 
 3.72 
 3.83 
 3.86 
 4.68 
 4.52 
 4.77 
 5.24 
 5.08 
 4.98 
 4.74 
 4.71 
 4.25 
 4.39 
 4.25 
 4.90 
 5.19 
 6.38 
 7.74 
 7.11 
 6.90 
 6.74 
 6.93 
 7.58 
 7.73 
 8.03 
 8.40 
 9.09 
 9.32 
 9.55 
 9.98 
 11.97 
 11.80 
 11.85 
 12.52 
 12.40 
 14.28 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 65 
 
 66 
 
 67 
 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 70 
 
 71 
 
 72 
 
 9,316 
 9,180 
 9,425 
 9, 620' 
 9,872 
 10,084 
 10, 129 
 10,229 
 10,394 
 10,630 
 10, 749 
 10,980 
 10,582 
 10, 135 
 10,284 
 10, 173 
 10,255 
 10,428 
 10,473 
 10,188 
 10, 175 
 10,075 
 10, 102 
 10, 155 
 10, 145 
 10,036 
 10, 142 
 10,223 
 10, 115 
 10, 264 
 10,533 
 10,646 
 10,640 
 10,416 
 10,452 
 10,181 
 
 8,007 
 7,927 
 8,101 
 8,240 
 8,344 
 8,637 
 8,673 
 8,686 
 8,830 
 8,977 
 9,057 
 9,070 
 8,802 
 8,450 
 8,579 
 8,495 
 8,598 
 8,700 
 8,746 
 8,614 
 8,525 
 8,423 
 8,469 
 8,503 
 8,510 
 8,372 
 8,464 
 8,512 
 8,243 
 8,384 
 8,673 
 8,697 
 8,722 
 8,442 
 8,504 
 8,199 
 
 85.95 
 86.35 
 85.95 
 85.65 
 84.52 
 85.65 
 85.63 
 84.92 
 84.95 
 84.45 
 84.26 
 82.60 
 83.18 
 83.37 
 83.42 
 83.51 
 83.84 
 83.43 
 83.51 
 84.55 
 83.78 
 83.60 
 83.83 
 83.73 
 83.88 
 83.41 
 83.45 
 83.26 
 81.49 
 81.68 
 82.34 
 81.69 
 81.97 
 81.05 
 81.36 
 80.53 
 
 1,309 
 1,253 
 1,324 
 1,380 
 1,528 
 1,447 
 1,456 
 1,543 
 1,564 
 1,653 
 1,692 
 1,910 
 1,780 
 1,685 
 1,705 
 1,678 
 1,657 
 1,728 
 1,727 
 1,574 
 1,650 
 1,652 
 1,633 
 1,652 
 1,635 
 1,664 
 1,678 
 1,711 
 1,872 
 1,880 
 1,860 
 1,949 
 1,918 
 1,974 
 1,948 
 1,982 
 
 14.05 
 13.65 
 14.05 
 14.35 
 15.48 
 14.35 
 14.37 
 15.08 
 15.05 
 15. 55 
 15.74 
 17.40 
 16.82 
 16.63 
 16.58 
 16.49 
 16.16 
 16.57 
 16.49 
 15.45 
 16.22 
 16.40 
 16.17 
 16.27 
 16.12 
 16.59 
 16.55 
 16.74 
 18.51 
 18.32 
 17.66 
 18.31 
 18.03 
 18.95 
 18.64 
 19.47 
 
THE NEGEO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR, 
 
 55 
 
 Table Y .^Number of employees of the second meat-packing company, distributed by 
 color, for a period of 159 successive weeks, Jamcary, 1916, to January, 1919. (See 
 graphs following) — ^Continued. 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Total numbe 
 
 r of employes. 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Total number 
 
 of employees. 
 
 
 number 
 
 distributed by color. 
 
 
 number 
 
 distributed by color. 
 
 
 of em- 
 ployees, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of em- 
 ployees, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Week 
 
 white 
 
 
 
 
 
 Week 
 
 white 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 and Ne- 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 and Ne- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 gro, 
 male 
 
 White. 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 
 gro, 
 male 
 
 White. 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 Negro. 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 
 and fe- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and fe- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 male. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 male. 
 
 
 
 
 
 7? 
 
 10,385 
 
 8,312 
 
 80.04 
 
 2,073 
 
 19.96 
 
 117 
 
 12,885 
 
 10,395 
 
 80.68 
 
 2,490 
 
 19.32 
 
 74 
 
 10, 353 
 
 8,295 
 
 80.12 
 
 2,058 
 
 19.88 
 
 118 
 
 13, 359 
 
 10, 628 
 
 79.56 
 
 2,731 
 
 20.44 
 
 75 
 
 10, 360 
 
 8,402 
 
 81.10 
 
 1,958 
 
 18.90 
 
 119 
 
 13, 498 
 
 11,002 
 
 81.51 
 
 2,496 
 
 18.49 
 
 76 
 
 10, 534 
 
 8,442 
 
 80. 14 
 
 2,092 
 
 19.86 
 
 120 
 
 14, 134 
 
 11,200 
 
 79.24 
 
 2,934 
 
 20.76 
 
 77 
 
 10, 465 
 
 8,2S9 
 
 79. 21 
 
 2,176 
 
 20.79 
 
 121 
 
 14,672 
 
 11, 765 
 
 80.19 
 
 2,907 
 
 19.81 
 
 78 
 
 10, 705 
 
 8,498 
 
 79.38 
 
 2,207 
 
 20.62 
 
 122 
 
 14,688 
 
 11,719 
 
 79.79 
 
 2,969 
 
 ' 20.21 
 
 79 
 
 10, 679 
 
 8,401 
 
 78.67 
 
 2,278 
 
 21.33 
 
 123 
 
 14,420 
 
 11,717 
 
 81.26 
 
 2,703 
 
 18.74 
 
 80 
 
 10, 522 
 
 8,170 
 
 77.65 
 
 2,352 
 
 22.35 
 
 124 
 
 14,519 
 
 11,706 
 
 80.63 
 
 2,813 
 
 19.37 
 
 81 
 
 10, 653 
 
 8,460 
 
 79.41 
 
 2,193 
 
 20.59 
 
 125 
 
 14, 657 
 
 11,719 
 
 79.95 
 
 2,938 
 
 20.05 
 
 82 
 
 10, 653 
 
 8,535 
 
 80.12 
 
 2,118 
 
 19.88 
 
 126 
 
 14,905 
 
 12,064 
 
 80.94 
 
 2,841 
 
 19.06 
 
 83 
 
 10, 648 
 
 8,436 
 
 79.23 
 
 2,212 
 
 20.77 
 
 127 
 
 15,040 
 
 12,376 
 
 82.29 
 
 2,664 
 
 17.71 
 
 84 
 
 10, 821 
 
 8,546 
 
 78.98 
 
 2,275 
 
 21.02 
 
 128 
 
 15, 201 
 
 12, 155 
 
 79.96 
 
 3,046 
 
 20.04 
 
 85 
 
 10,748 
 
 8,491 
 
 79.00 
 
 2,257 
 
 21.00 
 
 129 
 
 15,045 
 
 11,951 
 
 79.44 
 
 3,094 
 
 20.56 
 
 86 
 
 10,745 
 
 8,387 
 
 78.05 
 
 2,358 
 
 21.95 
 
 130 
 
 15, 533 
 
 12,668 
 
 81.56 
 
 2,865 
 
 18.44 
 
 87 
 
 11,375 
 
 8,825 
 
 77.58 
 
 2,550 
 
 22.42 
 
 131 
 
 15,711 
 
 12,936 
 
 82.34 
 
 2,775 
 
 17.66 
 
 88 
 
 11,462 
 
 8,961 
 
 78.18 
 
 2,501 
 
 21.82 
 
 132 
 
 15, 336 
 
 12,513 
 
 81.59 
 
 2,823 
 
 18.41 
 
 89 
 
 11,633 
 
 8,902 
 
 76.52 
 
 2,731 
 
 23.48 
 
 133 
 
 15, 249 
 
 12,215 
 
 80.10 
 
 3,034 
 
 19.90 
 
 90 
 
 11,842 
 
 9,280 
 
 78.36 
 
 2,562 
 
 21.64 
 
 134 
 
 15, 326 
 
 12,416 
 
 81.01 
 
 2,910 
 
 18.99 
 
 91 
 
 11,856 
 
 9,409 
 
 79.36 
 
 2,447 
 
 20.64 
 
 135 
 
 15, 606 
 
 12, 895 
 
 82.63 
 
 2,711 
 
 17.37 
 
 92 
 
 11,S69 
 
 9,384 
 
 79.06 
 
 2,485 
 
 20.94 
 
 136 
 
 15,247 
 
 12,312 
 
 80.75 
 
 2,935 
 
 19.25 
 
 93 
 
 12, 203 
 
 9,794 
 
 80.26 
 
 2,409 
 
 19.74 
 
 137 
 
 14,695 
 
 12,042 
 
 81.95 
 
 2,653 
 
 18.05 
 
 94 
 
 12, 638 
 
 10,117 
 
 80. 05 
 
 2,521 
 
 19.95 
 
 138 
 
 15,063 
 
 11,920 
 
 79.13 
 
 3,143 
 
 20.87 
 
 95 
 
 12,846 
 
 10,338 
 
 80. 48 
 
 2,508 
 
 19.52 
 
 139 
 
 15, 481 
 
 12, 666 
 
 81.82 
 
 2,815 
 
 18.18 
 
 96 
 
 13,019 
 
 10,611 
 
 81. 50 
 
 2,408 
 
 18.50 
 
 140 
 
 15, 628 
 
 12,842 
 
 82.17 
 
 2,786 
 
 17.83 
 
 97 
 
 12, 889 
 
 10, 380 
 
 80.53 
 
 2,509 
 
 19.47 
 
 141 
 
 15, 554 
 
 12, 768 
 
 82.09 
 
 2,786 
 
 17.91 
 
 98 
 
 13, 305 
 
 10, 903 
 
 81.95 
 
 2,402 
 
 18.05 
 
 142 
 
 15, 181 
 
 12,194 
 
 80.32 
 
 2,987 
 
 19.68 
 
 99 
 
 13, 778 
 
 11, 157 
 
 80.98 
 
 2,621 
 
 19.02 
 
 143 
 
 14,494 
 
 11,652 
 
 80.39 
 
 2,842 
 
 19.61 
 
 100 
 
 13, 726 
 
 11,118 
 
 81.00 
 
 2, 608 
 
 19.00 
 
 144 
 
 14, 598 
 
 11,601 
 
 79.47 
 
 2,997 
 
 20.53 
 
 101 
 
 14,064 
 
 11,129 
 
 79.13 
 
 2,935 
 
 20.87 
 
 145 
 
 15, 530 
 
 12, 352 
 
 79.54 
 
 3,178 
 
 20.46 
 
 102 
 
 13, 259 
 
 10, 185 
 
 76.82 
 
 3,fl74 
 
 23.18 
 
 146 
 
 15,940 
 
 12,765 
 
 80.08 
 
 3,175 
 
 19.92 
 
 103 
 
 13,654 
 
 10, 787 
 
 79.00 
 
 2,867 
 
 21.00 
 
 147 
 
 16,346 
 
 13, 145 
 
 80. 42 
 
 3,201 
 
 19.58 
 
 104 
 
 14,018 
 
 11,043 
 
 78.78 
 
 2,975 
 
 21.22 
 
 148 
 
 16, 730 
 
 13,568 
 
 81.10 
 
 3,162 
 
 18.90 
 
 105 
 
 13, 492 
 
 10,748 
 
 79.66 
 
 2,744 
 
 20.34 
 
 149 
 
 16, 989 
 
 13,779 
 
 81.11 
 
 3,210 
 
 18.89 
 
 106 
 
 13, 878 
 
 10, 809 
 
 77.89 
 
 3,069 
 
 22.11 
 
 150 
 
 17, 148 
 
 13, 740 
 
 80.13 
 
 3,408 
 
 19.87 
 
 107 
 
 13, 665 
 
 10,681 
 
 78.16 
 
 2,984 
 
 21. 84 
 
 151 
 
 17, 222 
 
 13,851 
 
 80.45 
 
 3,371 
 
 19.55 
 
 108 
 
 13, 624 
 
 10, 700 
 
 78.54 
 
 2,924 
 
 21.46 
 
 152 
 
 17, 434 
 
 13, 813 
 
 79.23 
 
 3,621 
 
 20.77 
 
 109 
 
 13, 858 
 
 11, 109 
 
 80.16 
 
 2,749 
 
 19.84 
 
 153 
 
 15,297 
 
 12,386 
 
 80.97 
 
 2,911 
 
 19.03 
 
 110 
 
 13,958 
 
 11,367 
 
 81.44 
 
 2,591 
 
 18.56 
 
 154 
 
 15, 353 
 
 12,325 
 
 80.28 
 
 3,028 
 
 19.72 
 
 Ill 
 
 13, 865 
 
 10,525 
 
 75.91 
 
 3,340 
 
 24.09 
 
 155 
 
 15, 168 
 
 11,883 
 
 78.34 
 
 3,285 
 
 21.66 
 
 112 
 
 14,086 
 
 11,499 
 
 81.63 
 
 2,587 
 
 18.37 
 
 156 
 
 15, 145 
 
 11,747 
 
 77.56 
 
 3,398 
 
 22.44 
 
 113 
 
 14,054 
 
 11,026 
 
 78.45 
 
 3,028 
 
 21.55 
 
 157 
 
 15, 155 
 
 11,851 
 
 78.20 
 
 3,304 
 
 21.80 
 
 114 
 
 13,758 
 
 10,924 
 
 79.40 
 
 2,834 
 
 20.60 
 
 158 
 
 14,565 
 
 11,506 
 
 79.00 
 
 3,059 
 
 21.00 
 
 115 
 
 12,916 
 
 10,351 
 
 80.14 
 
 2,565 
 
 19.86 
 
 159 
 
 13,928 
 
 11,123 
 
 79.86 
 
 2,805 
 
 20.14 
 
 116 
 
 13,397 
 
 10,875 
 
 81.17 
 
 2,522 
 
 18.83 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
56 
 
 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 
 The accompanying diagrams show, graphicaih', the percentage of 
 distribution by color of the total number of employees of this com- 
 pany by weeks, from January, 1916, to January, 1919, and the per- 
 centage of white and colored employees by weeks during this same 
 period. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 30 
 40 
 
 to 
 
 ft 
 
 "] 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . /7». 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ly-r- 
 
 kw^i'^^P'^^r^: T'*--T-vv,:75^^--^^^;r^^ 
 
 w 
 
 mM 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 u ' u X 10 so u » to so m 110 lu >io hi ise a 
 JAN AF/i JULY OCT ,JM APfi JULY OCT ^AN APR JULY OCT ^M 
 
 
 1^16 I9i7 /m an 
 
 COMPARATIVE INCREASE IN PERCENTAGE AMONG WHITE AND COLORED EM- 
 PLOYEES IN ONE MEAT-PACKING PLANT DURING A PERIOD OF 159 WEEKS. 
 
 The third piece of evidence came from a steel company at Indiana 
 Harbor, Ind., and shows the total number and per cent of w^hite and 
 colored employees from January, 1918, through December of the same 
 year. This shows a total, at the begmning of the period, of 2,020 
 employees, of which 1,736, or 85.94 per cent, werciwhite, and 284, or 
 14.06 per cent, were colored. At the close of the period the firm was 
 employmg ^ total of 2,171 emplo3^ees, of which 1,681, or 77.43 per 
 cent, were white, and 490, or 22.57 per cent, were colored. The 
 number of colored employees showed a steady increase over the 
 original number, runnmg as high as 538 m October, 1918, to the 
 closing number at the end of December, which number showed a 
 considerable increase m total colored employees and a corresponding 
 increased percentage of the total number of employees. Other dis- 
 cussions of workers in iron and steel have been given in Chapter VI. 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
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CHAPTER VIII. 
 NEGRO LABOR IN THE UNITED STATES SHIPYARDS. 
 
 The widespread demand for ships to "beat" the unlawful submarine 
 warfare of the Germans led the Nation to see that ships were needed 
 to win the war. The buildino; of ships called for labor of all kinds, 
 skilled, semiskilled, and miskilled, and those who responded to build 
 ships were serving the cause no less than those who responded for 
 service in the Army. Durins: the war the Negroes showed their 
 patriotism in this particular fulty as they did in others. In the ship- 
 yards under the jurisdiction of the United States Shipping Board — 
 Emergency Fleet Corporation — covering four shipbuilding districts 
 on the Atlantic coast, one on the Gulf coast, two on the Pacific coast, 
 and one in the Great Lakes district, there were 24,648 Negroes em- 
 ployed during the war and 14,075 employed up to September, 1919, 
 following the signing of the armistice. In the southern district during 
 the war there were 11,991 and for the period after the war 5,504; in 
 the middle Atlantic district there were 4,506 and 5,223, respectively; 
 in the Delaware River district, 5,165 and 2,230, respectively; in the 
 northern Atlantic district, 371 and 297, respectively: in the Gulf dis- 
 trict, 1,830 and 309, respectively; in the southern Pacific district, 582 
 and 399, respectively; ni the northern Pacific district, 176 and 96, 
 respectively; and in the Great Lakes district, 27 and 17, respectively. 
 Both the numbers involved and the distribution of the numbers, both 
 during the war and the months following the signing of the armistice, 
 give ample evidence that Negroes played a large part in the building 
 of the ships. Unfortunately, it has not been feasible to secure the 
 figures of the white workmen under the United States vShipping 
 Board for these districts. 
 
 We do have, however, a full record of the occupations in which 
 Negro workmen were engaged. During the war 4,963, or about 20.7 
 per cent, were engaged in occupations which may be classed as skilled 
 occupations, leaving 19,685, or about 80 per cent, in unskilled occu- 
 pations, some of which could probably be classed as semisKilled occu- 
 pations. After the war 3,872, or 27.47 per cent, were in skilled occu- 
 pations and 10,203, or 72.53 per cent, in unskilled occupations, some 
 of which may be classed as semiskilled. It is significant that the 
 largest number of Negroes in skilled occupations both in steel and 
 wooden ship construction was in the southern district, both during 
 and after the war. The second largest during the war was in the 
 Delaware River district and after the war in the middle Atlantic 
 district. 
 
 Negroes participated in 46 of the 55 separate shipbuilding occu- 
 pations listed during the war period, and in 49 such occupations 
 after the war. In addition, dm-ing the war 21 occupations had less 
 than 10 Negroes employed and after the war 17 occupations had less 
 than 10 Negroes emploj'ed in them. This "leaves 25 occupations 
 with 10 or more Negroes during the war and 22 occupations with 10 
 or more Negroes employed after the war. 
 
 58 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 59 
 
 The details are given in full in the accompanying table, but some 
 illuminating comparisons may be made here. Durmg the war there 
 were 1,464 Negro carpenters, 225 calkers, 21 chippers and calkers, 631 
 fasteners, 11 olacksmiths, 102 blacksmiths' helpers, 36 riggers, 38 
 riveters, 22 foremen, 240 drillers and reamers, 399 bolters. These 
 all are important skilled or semiskilled occupations in the building 
 of ships. After the war there were only 74 carpenters, 59 calkers, 36 
 chippers and calkers, 143 fasteners, 7 blacksmiths, 45 blacksmiths' 
 helpers, and 191 reamers and drillers. There were, however, 49 rivet- 
 ers and 1,116 bolters, these occupations showing increases. 
 
 The analysis of these figm'es indicates that in the more highly 
 skilled and therefore the more highly paid occupations there has been 
 a greater decrease in the number of Negroes in the shipyards than in 
 the less skilled or semiskilled occupations, but taking the skilled and 
 semiskilled occupations together, Negro workers held their numbers 
 and showed less decrease after the war than they did in the unskilled 
 occupations, altogether, after the war. The total decrease after the 
 war of Negroes in all skilled or semiskilled occupations was only 20.7 
 per cent, while the total decrease after the war of Negro workers in 
 the unskilled occupations was about 48 per cent, or nearly one-half. 
 While these figures show a very decided decrease in the more highly 
 skilled occupations, on the whole they make a favorable showing for 
 Negro workmen m the shipbuilding industry, both during and after 
 the war. 
 
 Not only did Negroes enter the skilled and semiskilled occupations 
 during the war in large numbers but they remamed in these occupa- 
 tions in larger proportions than in the unskilled occupations. 
 
 The following table shows in detail the number of Negro employees 
 working in skilled and unskilled occupations at shipbuilding plants 
 under the jurisdiction of the United States Shipping Board — Emer- 
 gency Fleet Corporation — during and after the war in the eight 
 principal shipyard districts, durmg 1918 and 1919. The skilled and 
 semiskilled workers were not classified separately in the available 
 record. The full details showing number of Negroes employed in the 
 eight principal shipyard districts m specified occupations during and 
 after the war are given in the following table : 
 
60 
 
 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 
 
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THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
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62 THE KEGRO AT WOEK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 RECORD-BREAKING NEGRO WORKERS. 
 
 How a Negro pile-driver gained the worid's pile-driving record is 
 told, partially in his own language, as follows: 
 
 world's pile-driving RECORD SMASHED. 
 
 Edward Burwell, the Negro pile-driving captain whose Negro j 
 crew of 11 men broke the world's record in dnving piles on ship- i 
 way No. 46 (Philadelphia, Pa.), was asked how he came to break the • 
 standing record. Burwell smiled and pointed to a placard nailed on 
 the pile-driving machine. The placard read: "If at first you don't 
 succeed, try, try, again." 
 
 The record prior to BurweU's wonderful drive was 165 piles in 9 
 hours. Burwell and his crew drove 220 65-foot piles in 9 hours and 5 
 minutes, and a good part of the time the crew worked in a terrific 
 downpour of rain. Since coming on the job in January, 1918, Bur- 
 well's crew has driven 4,141 piles with a total of 241,573 linear feet. 
 The crew under Burwell is employed by the Arthur McMullen Co. 
 This company had the contract to drive 21,434 piles. Burwell and 
 his crew drove about 20 per cent of this number. 
 
 "I went into the pile-driving business 15 years ago," Burwell said in 
 speaking of his new record. "I was never on a job as large as this one 
 before. It was due to rivalry between another Negro foreman and 
 myself that I made up my mind to go after the record of 165 piles held 
 by another company. 
 
 ''The sign filled our crew with enthusiasm. We decided, one night, 
 that a new world's record would be made on the morrow, and it was. 
 Of course, we had our little mechanical troubles, and instead of fretting 
 and fuming, the men just glanced at the sign and started in Avith re- 
 newed vigor and the record was smashed." 
 
 Capt. BunveU then produced the log of the crew on the day the 
 world's record was made. It is rather interesting reading and is 
 printed below: 
 
 Piles driven. 
 
 7 a. m. to 8 a. m 27 
 
 8 a. m. to 9 a. m 23 
 
 (Delay 4^ minutes due to broken steam line; raining very hard 
 
 from 8.15 to 10 a. m.) 
 
 9 a. m. to 10 a. m 28 
 
 10 a. m. to 11 a. m 22 
 
 (Delav 8 minutes due to pile fall breaking. ) 
 
 11a. m."^tol2a. m 27 
 
 12 noon to 12.30 p. m. (lunch). 
 
 12.30 p. m. to 1.30 p. m 25 
 
 (Heavy rain \\'ith electric showers from 1 .25 to 2.50 p. m. . and from 
 
 1.25 to 1.40 p. m. air pressiu'e dropped considerably, which held 
 
 up hammer. ) 
 
 1.30 p. m. to 2.30 p. m. 23 
 
 2.30 p. m. to 3.30 p. m 23 
 
 3.30 p. m. to 4.35 p. m 22 
 
 Total, 9 hours and 5 minutes 220 
 
 Note. — Total linear feet of piles, 14,260. Previous world's record, 165 piles ia 9 
 hours and 15 minutes. 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 63 
 
 Of no less interest is the performance of a gang of Negro riveters 
 working at Sparrows Point, Md., in the plant of the Bethlehem Steel 
 Corporation, in breaking the world's* record for driving rivets. One 
 of t&e gang, Charles Knight, drove 4,875 three-quarter-inch rivets in a 
 9-hour day. The previous highest record was 4,442, made by a 
 workman in a Scottish shipyard. Mr. Knight is a highly respectable 
 and industrious citizen of JBaltimore, Md., and a native of Virginia. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 REPORT OF WORK IN FLORIDA AND GEORGIA. 
 
 FLORIDA. 
 
 On July 16, 1918, Hon. Sidney J. Catts, governor of Florida, called 
 together representatives of Negro citizens from all parts of the State at 
 Jacksonville, who, with about 1 5 of Florida 's most representative white 
 employers, met for a dsij 's conference on the labor situation in the 
 State. After a thorough discussion the governor authorized the con- 
 ference to work out plans with the representatives of the Depart- 
 ment of Labor for the organization of the State, county, and city 
 Negro w^orkers' advisory committees. The governor, as chairman 
 of the State council of defense, accepted the honorary chairmanship 
 of the committee, and with the executive secretary of the council a 
 plan was worked out so that the colored members appointed on the 
 Negro workers' advisor}^ committees had white members from the 
 county councils of defense to act on these committees as cooperating 
 members. In this way, in a short time there were developed these 
 cooperative relationships between white and colored representatives 
 through the Negro workers' advisory^ committees in 26 counties in 
 the State, including the important city centers such as Jacksonville, 
 Tampa, Miami, and Pensacola. 
 
 The following letters show the spirit and action of the council of 
 defense, the governor, and other interested parties : 
 
 State of Florida, 
 
 Executive Chamber, 
 
 Tallahassee, July 31, 1918. 
 Dr. Geo. E. Hatnes, 
 
 Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. 
 Dear Sir: I haxe your letter inclosing list of colored citizens nominated at a con- 
 ference held in Jacksonville, and also copy of their constitution. 
 
 I thank you for the same and will give it my attention. I am willing to cooperate 
 with your race in exery way possible. 
 With best wishes, I am 
 Yours, very truly, 
 
 (Signed) Sidney J. Catts, Governor. 
 
 State Council of Defense, 
 Tallahassee, Fla., October 29, 1918. 
 Dr. Geo. E. Haynes, 
 
 Director of Negro Economics, Washington, D. C. 
 Dear Sir: Yours of the 21st instant, addressed to his excellency Gov. Sidney J. 
 Catts, relative to the work of your ad\'isory committee, together with your request for 
 the cooperation of county councils of defense has been referred to me for reply. 
 
 Replying, beg to advise that at the meeting of our advisory committee October 25, 
 inst., this matter was brought before the committee, and it was agreed to give your 
 committee the assistance in the capacity requested. 
 Yours, very truly, 
 
 (Signed) H. S. Howard. 
 
 ' Executive Secretary. 
 
 04 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 65 
 
 Following the State conference and the appointment of the State 
 Negro workers' advisory committee, upon the recommendation of a 
 number of white and colored citizens, W. A. Armwood, of Tampa. 
 Fla., a graduate of the State college, who had been a successful 
 carpenter and contractor and at that time was principal of the 
 colored public school at Tampa and successfully conducting a 
 drug business of his own, was chosen as supervisor of Negro economics 
 for Florida. He had known many workmen in all parts of the State 
 and very soon was in touch with them in various districts. It was 
 due to his untiring effort that many of the activities of the State 
 were developed. 
 
 One of 'the first steps taken following the organization of commit- 
 tees was to give Negro workers wholesome advice about the necessity 
 of continued and systematic work during the period of the war for 
 the production of such commodities as were necessary to win it. Two 
 methods were used for such advice : First, circular letters and bulle- 
 tins were sent out to the members of the county and city committees 
 toucliing upon various points for stimulating the morale and effi- 
 ciency of workers in the different localities of the State. Second, 
 a series of mass meetings of white and colored citizens was planned 
 and carried out in the early fall, following the conference. The Di- 
 rector of Negro Economics was present at a number of these meetings 
 and both white and colored citizens attended in large numbers. 
 There were usually white and colored speakers before the audience 
 on the same platform. 
 
 One significant service rendered by the State Negro workers'^ 
 advisory committee was to correct a misapprehension and feeling 
 that was growing due to the spread of rumor among employers that 
 Negro women workers in large numbers were receiving governmental 
 allotments from male relatives in the Army and were taking advan- 
 tage of this money to refuse to engage in any useful occupation. 
 The committee made a careful State-wide investigation of the facts 
 and found that the rumor was groundless. Wide publicity was 
 given to the actual facts of the patriotic work being done by colored 
 women throughout the State, and this served to allay feeling and 
 friction. 
 
 Following is a summary of the other work carried out by the com- 
 mittee : 
 
 1. Educational campaigns were carried out in the 26 counties, 
 in various cities of the State, at mass meetings and at the regular 
 gatherings of Negro churches, lodges, and other organizations to 
 inform, Negro workers of the necessity of steady and reliable service 
 to keep up production for winning the war, to promote prosperity, 
 and to improve the relations between the races. 
 
 2. Cooperation was given to the United States Employment Serv- 
 ice in the securing and placement of thousands of Negro workers and 
 in the placement of returning soldiers. 
 
 3. Misunderstandings were adjusted through advisory conferences 
 of employers and employees and county officials. This work was 
 carried on in the case of both individual workers and employers as 
 well as organizations, and in this way the stoppage of work was pre- 
 vented. 
 
 1989°— 21 5 
 
66 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 4. By conferences with State and county officials and cooperation 
 with the State council of defense, local ofncials were induced to use 
 the good offices of the Negro worke^rs' advisory committees in per- 
 suading Negro workers to work steachly and with enthusiasm. Tliis 
 method was found more effective than the application of compulsory 
 labor regulations advocated by many. 
 
 5. Working conditions were improved in many plants voluntarily 
 by employers after conferences and suggestions either from the 
 Supervisor of Negro Economics or from members of the advisory 
 committees. In most cases these conferences were sought in the 
 first instance by the employers. 
 
 6. The health conditions of Negro workers were improved, through 
 the advice to both employers and workers on methods of protecting 
 their health. Advertising material and literature along these lines 
 were given out. 
 
 7. Besides the cooperation of the State council of defense and the 
 governor of the State, as shown by the preceding correspondence, 
 the following organizations and agencies gave full support to the 
 work in the State: State Amcultural and Mechanical College for 
 Negroes; State Federation of Colored Women's Clubs; local organ- 
 izations of the Negro National Business League; local lodges; and 
 churches of the several denominations. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 On August 9, 1918, a conference of about 75 representative colored 
 men met in Atlanta, Ga., in response to an official invitation issued by 
 Hon. Hugh M. Dorsey, governor of the State, that they assemble to 
 confer with representatives of the Department of Labor and of the 
 State commission of labor on matters relating to Negro labor. After 
 an all-day session, Judge Price Gilbert, .of the Supreme Court and 
 of the State council of defense, met the conference representing the 
 governor and the council of defense. In the course of an interesting 
 aU-day session going over the situation of the State and the plans of 
 the Department of Labor, the conference recommended and adopted 
 an outline of an organization of the State, county, and city Negro 
 workers' advisory committees along lines of those set up in other 
 States. The report adopted by the special committee contained 
 the following recommendations: 
 
 We, your committee on plans and work, beg leave to render the follo\nng report: 
 
 First, we recommend that a chairman be designated for each county by this body 
 and that said chairman appoint a committee of nine from different sections of said 
 county to work with him in coordinating the work of his county. 
 
 Second, that a series of public meetings be held in prominent places, such as churches, 
 lodge rooms, etc., in said counties, under the supervision of said committees and that 
 said committees be requested to in\ite some of the leading white citizens of their 
 respecti^"e communities to participate in said meetings. 
 
 Thii'd, we recommend plans for labor demonstrations and parades to be made for 
 January 1, 1919. 
 
 Fourth, that said county committee get in touch with a number of open minded, 
 patriotic white citizens in their respective communities to the end that through them 
 the general public may be informed about the doings of the State Negro workers' 
 advisory committee. 
 
 Fifth, as a means of recruiting labor in the various communities in our State, we 
 recommend (1) that laborers be guaranteed protection as citizens; (2) that better 
 housing and samtation conditions be pro Aided ; (3) ample school facilities with compe- 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 67 
 
 tent and well-paid teachers; (4) pay commensurate with services rendered for laborers; 
 (5) better transportation and equal accommodations on the railroads; in short, make 
 labor satisfied and labor will remain. 
 Respectfully, 
 
 E. P. Johnson, G. B. Burney 
 
 H. A. RucKER, H. R. Butler, 
 
 J. P. Davis, J. Q. Gasset, 
 
 E. J. Turner, Mrs. Londie Andrews. 
 
 , C. E. Williams. 
 
 After the meeting of the State Conference of Georgia, Prof. H. A. 
 Hunt, principal of the Fort Valley High and Industrial School, was 
 appointed as supervisor of Negro economics of the State. Associated 
 with liim as examiner in the United States Employment Service for 
 activity over the State was Mr. Rufus P. Bennett, who assisted the 
 Federal Director of the United States Employment Service and 
 Prof. Hunt in many of the difficult problems relating mainly to 
 agricultural labor in this large State, 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 REPORT OF WORK IN ILLINOIS. 
 
 In the early development of the plans of the department for the 
 Division of Negro Economics it seemed feasible that one man should 
 advise on policies and plans for one district comprising Michigan and 
 Illinois. As the work developed this district was divided into the 
 two States, Michigan and Illinois. 
 
 At the beginning in June, 1918, Mr, Forrester B. Washington, of 
 Detroit, Mich., was appointed as supervisor of Negro economics in 
 the district comprising Michigan and Illinois. It had been estimated 
 by the department that about 30,000 Negro migrants had moved into 
 Detroit and that probably 50,000 had come into the Chicago district 
 within the period during 1917 and 1918. Mr. Washington, trained 
 at Tufts College and the New York School of Philantliropy, had had 
 tliree years' experience and unusual success as executive secretary' of 
 the Detroit Urban League in cooperation with the Employers' Asso- 
 ciation of Detroit in handling the industrial problems growing out of 
 the influx of the thousands of Negro newcomers. 
 
 During July and August, he veiy successfully dealt with these 
 problems of his district, which centered mainly at Detroit and Chi- 
 cago. About September 1, Michigan and Illinois were made sepa- 
 rate districts and Mr. Washington was transferred to Chicago and 
 began the intensive development of the work in Illinois. He began 
 with a study of the communities of the State where large numbers of 
 Negroes resided and arranged for a State conference, which was held 
 Monday, September 30, 1918, at Springfield, in the old historic San- 
 gamon County courthouse, so well known in relation to the revered 
 memory of Abraham Lincoln. Delegates representing Negro work- 
 ers, whiite employers, and white workers were present from 14 points 
 in the State. They spent a day in discussing general conditions and 
 adopted the form of organization of a State advisory committee with 
 local committees. In the weeks that followed the conference, Negro 
 workers' advisory committees were formed in 17 counties and 9 cities 
 throughout the State to deal with the many delicate and difhcult 
 labor problems. Some of the results of the activity under the super- 
 vision of Mr. Washington are outlined in the following pages. 
 
 Dming sessions of the conference several committees were ap- 
 pointed and made reports, among them the committee on general 
 conditions, which gave such a concrete review of the relationships 
 between Negro workers and white workers and white employers that 
 a greater part of the report is included as follows: 
 
 We, your committee on general conditions as to labor and general war work relating 
 to Negroes in the State of Illinois, beg leave to submit the following report: 
 
 First. We find that the city of Chicago is the greatest center of Negro influx on 
 accoimt of the conditions produced by the war of any community in the State of 
 Illinois; and that the cities of East St. Louis, Cairo, Springfield, and Peoria follow 
 in their order. The city of Decatur does not have the same condition as does the 
 cities above named, neither does the city of Danville, nor Quincy, as they a,re gov- 
 
 68 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 69 
 
 emed in some degree by local conditions which have to do with only their ovra par- 
 ticular vicinities. 
 
 We find that in the mining districts in southern Illinois, composing the counties of 
 St. Clair, Perry, Jackson, Franklin, and Williamson and adjacent counties, the con- 
 ditions of the colored miners as to housing and economic conditions are on par with 
 those of the white miners. In fact, all mining districts of the State are guided by the 
 mineis' imion, and the purpose of the leaders of the miners, and of the mine owners as 
 well in those districts, seems to have been directed to the task of winning the war by 
 doing and giving effective service and every effort has been lent to neutralizing the 
 opposing forces that both white and colored workers may understand and help each 
 other and in this way work for a common piu-pose. 
 
 OTHER LABOR. 
 
 In Chicago, at the stockyards, we find that conditions are much improved and 
 better relations created by organization. The colored men and workers and the 
 white brother in toil ha\e been brought together. 
 
 In the other parts of Illinois we find that the Negi'o as a laborer is not understood. 
 The white men have been led to believe that the Negro was his common industrial 
 enemy and as a result some very grave distm-bances have taken place, such as the 
 recent one at East St. Louis. 
 
 In many instances ill feelings have resulted in the employers suffering from short- 
 ages of effective workers and the propagandists of German connection have, no doubt, 
 seized upon this spirit of unrest to further their wicked ends and many instances of 
 this spirit have fallen within the knowledge of some of the members of your committee. 
 Some employers have misunderstood, in that they had been led to believe that Negroes 
 were not faithful nor yet effective workers, but that notion has been pushed into the 
 discard and now, thanks to the work of the Department of Labor and the leaders of 
 the various organizations having these matters at heart, Negroes are entering all the 
 avenues of endeavor. 
 
 Some of the cities above mentioned are not cursed with the bad conditions above 
 complained of. We are pleased to refer to the city of Decatur as a city where the best 
 of relations exist between white and colored people and in the large factories of that 
 city. They work side by side in harmony, and general helpfulness results from that 
 condition. 
 
 In the capital city of Illinois (Springfield) for many years colored workers have not 
 been given employment in many of the factories; but, owing to conditions brought 
 about by the war, a sign of betterment is seen. Now some of the steam laundries are 
 finding colored workers a decided success. A watch factory has increased its quota of 
 colored workers, but we find that in many of the factories the closed door stands be- 
 tween the colored worker and employment. Your committee is driven to the con- 
 clusion that in many instances the lack of efficiency on the part of the workers who 
 apply, the lack of attention to duty, the lack of thrift and energetic effort is proving 
 the undoing of the colored workers. 
 
 We recommend that steps be taken to educate both the colored and white toiler to 
 the fact that the interest of both the white and. colored toiler and of then- employers 
 as well is finally centralized only in the finished products of their toil when it is ready 
 for the markets of the world. We further recommend that an effort be made to bring 
 the Negro workers of the country into a closer relationship with the employers of 
 labor of the State of Illinois and at the same time with the various labor organizations 
 of this State in order that the interests of all parties, namely, white workers, colored 
 workers, and employers of labor, and the trade-union as a medium of conciliation and 
 arbitration, may all be conserved, remembering at all times that the supreme and 
 centralizing efforts of every American citizen should be, and is, winning the war. 
 
 Respectfully submitted by your committee. 
 
 Geo. W. Ford, Chairman. 
 Hugh Singleton. 
 
 J. B. OSBY. 
 
 Geo. W. Buckner. 
 A. K. FooTE. 
 Chas. S. Gibes. 
 
70 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURIKG THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 The situation in southwestern Illinois, particularly the East St. 
 Louis situation, was so vital with the whole question of Negro labor 
 and war production in this territory that the department soon found 
 it necessary to have the supervisor of Negro economics give attention 
 to St. Louis and to territory in the State of Missouri in further work 
 to adjust relations of Ncoto workers and white workers. Accordinglv, 
 at the request of the Federal director for Missouri of the United States 
 Employment Service, the department called a conference of Negro 
 workers, white employers, and white workers, which was held at St. 
 Louis, Mo., December 18, 1918. An interesting incident in connec- 
 tion with this conference was that it was held in the Poro Building, 
 a new structure just completed by a Negro corporation of unusual 
 success. The conference was attended by select delegates from 
 about 12 centers throughout the State and its significance is shown 
 by the program of work attached. 
 
 PROGRAM OF WORK ADOPTED BY THE MISSOURI CONFERENCE ON PROBLEMS OF NEGRO 
 
 LABOR, DECEMBER 18, 1918. 
 
 1. Race relations. 
 
 a. This committee should take steps to n;et white and colored labor together in 
 order to better understand the ideals and ambitions of each. 
 
 1. Negro labor leaders shall be urged to teach their people that their 
 
 interests are common Avith those of white labor. 
 
 2. \Miite labor leaders shall be urged to teach their people that their 
 
 interests are common with those of colored labor and also instruct 
 them regarding the high standard of living of Negroes. 
 
 2. Release of Negro labor. 
 
 a. Steps should be taken to prevent wholesale discharge of Negroes in order not 
 to cause race friction. 
 
 1. Visits should be made by representatives of the local committee to 
 
 factories where they seem to be discharging Negroes wholesale. 
 
 2. Visits should be made by representatives of the committee to factories 
 
 where large numbers of Negroes are employed, urging that the latter 
 be discharged only in the same proportion and for the same reason that 
 employees of other races are discharged. 
 
 3. Housing. 
 
 a. This committee vshould make plans to house returning colored soldiers. 
 
 1. By establishing a room registry for colored soldiers in the various 
 
 communities. 
 
 2. The Government shall be urged to grant land to those returning colored 
 
 soldiers who desire to settle in the agricultural districts. 
 h. The local committee will urge employers that they pro^•ide their colored 
 employees with housing that is sanitary. 
 
 4. Make plans to create openings for Negroes. 
 
 a. By investigating every public construction program and ascertaining whether 
 
 or not Negroes are to be used. 
 h. By encouraging Negroes to go into business for themselves. 
 
 5. Distribution of labor. 
 
 a. Prevent unequal distribution of Negroes through exchange of information re 
 shortage or surplus of colored labor by committeemen from various localities. 
 6. Cooperate with the nearest United States EmplojTnent Ser^ice office. 
 
 6. Act as agency representing the Negro in soldiers' bureaus — about to be established 
 
 by the United States Government. 
 
 7. Cooperation of agencies. 
 
 This committee shall seek to develop cooperation in the carrying out of its program 
 from — 
 
 a. Labor union. 
 
 h. Philanthropic agencies. 
 
 c. Churches. 
 
 d. Lodges. 
 
 e. Employers' organizations. 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Yl 
 
 8. Education. 
 
 a. Negro. 
 
 1. Shop talks on efficiency. 
 
 2. Lectures in colored churches and fraternal organizations on efficiency. 
 
 3. Neighborhood visits on better living. 
 
 4. Special attention shall be paid to the encouragement of thrift. 
 
 b. White employer. 
 
 1. Employers should be furnished \vith information re Negro's efficiency. 
 
 It may be added that local committees were set up in this State in 
 only four places, as the ' restriction of activities developed in this 
 direction commenced a few weeks after this conference. It should be 
 added, however, that Missouri offers in many places one of the most 
 important fields where Negro labor may be more efficient and where 
 there is a necessity for developing better miderstanding between 
 white workers, white employers, and Negro workers. A large part 
 of the unskilled labor in the industrial districts in St. Louis and some 
 mining and coal districts make this matter of interest to all, both 
 employees and employers in this city. 
 
 The supervisor of Negro ecomomics for Illinois, following the State 
 conference at Springfield, quickly lined up his work with the private 
 agencies and organizations in various parts of the State. Conse- 
 quently each city and county Negro workers' advisory committee 
 was able to bring to its assistance the cooperation of many white and 
 colored citizens; so that despite subsequent racial disturbances in'Chi- 
 cago it may justly be said that much friction, both in Chicago and 
 elsewhere, was removed by this cordial effort of advisory committees 
 and local organizations. In fact, in three places — one of them East 
 St. Louis — acute racial situations were met and adjusted through 
 this means. One of the first pieces of work was to ascertain the 
 firms employing colored workers, so as to give some substantial idea 
 of the extent to which they were employed. The list included some 
 of the largest firms in Illinois, the number of firms in each locality 
 being as follows: 
 
 Abingdon . . . 
 
 Alton 
 
 Aurora 
 
 Bata\da 
 
 Bioomington . 
 
 Cairo 
 
 Canton 
 
 Herrin 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Chicago 89 
 
 Chicago Heights 5 
 
 Dan\'alle 2 
 
 Decatur 1 
 
 Dixon 1 
 
 East Moline 2 
 
 East St. Louis 12 
 
 Freeport 4 
 
 Granite City 3 
 
 St. Louis 2 
 
 Hammond 1 
 
 Harvey 6 
 
 West Harvey 1 
 
 The tables and discussion found elsewhere — giving experience of 
 Negro workers in industrial plants, showing wages, conditions, and 
 other pertinent facts — include some of these firms in Illinois. 
 
 Hoopston 1 
 
 Indiana Harbor 1 
 
 Madison 1 
 
 Moline 4 
 
 Morris 1 
 
 Murphysboro 1 
 
 Onarga 1 
 
 Paris 1 
 
 Peoria 6 
 
 Quincy 4 
 
 Rochelle 1 
 
 Rock Island 3 
 
 Rockford 8 
 
 Rockdale 1 
 
 Granite City 1 
 
 East St. Louis 
 
 Springfield 
 
 Sycamore 
 
 Waukegan 
 
 North Chicago 
 
72 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Of particular significance was the work in Illinois of assisting in the 
 placement in civilian occupations the returning Negro soldiers and 
 sailors. General cooperation in Illinois in the matter of caring for 
 these returning men was well organized. Such organizations as the 
 Red Cross, the Y. M. C. A., the Knights of Columbus, the Jewish 
 Welfare Board, the Chicago Urban League, and many other agencies 
 cooperated effectively and closely with the United States Employ- 
 ment Service, the supervisor of Negro economics, and the State 
 employment office. The State employment service and the United 
 States Employment Service, immediately following the signing of the 
 armistice, adopted the plans of the Federal service for meeting needs 
 of the returning soldiers by the establishment of placement bureaus 
 with the cooperation of private organizations, some of which are 
 named above. In addition to the returning soldiers, many workers 
 had been released from war industries. This complicated the labor 
 situation in Chicago and other j)oints in lUinois in the months follow- 
 ing the signing of the armistice, and required the most delicate 
 handling in the most sympathetic manner. With the hearty coopera- 
 tion of the Washington office the plans went forward rapidly, and 
 the work was undertaken in the placement of the 10,000 Negro 
 soldiers who returned to Chicago. In addition to the central office, 
 a special bureau was opened on the South Side of Chicago, in the 
 main district containing large numbers of Negro residents in profes- 
 sions and profitable enterprises. 
 
 In conducting this special office, however, no restriction was made 
 limiting it to the use oi colored soldiers. Its sole purpose was to put 
 the placement facilities within the easiest reach of those whom it was 
 designed to serve. An appeal letter signed by a central committee 
 representing a number of welfare agencies and the Federal Govern- 
 m.ent was sent to over 5,000 employers in Chicago ur^in^especially 
 that they give attention to employment of members of the Eighth Illi- 
 nois Regiment just returned from service overseas. This letter was 
 approved by the State Advisory Board of the Employment Service, 
 the executive committee of the Soldiers' and Sailors' Bureau, and the 
 Federal director, United States Employment Service. In addition, a 
 sort of flying scjuadron of returning soldiers in uniform "was sent 
 throughout tlie city to solicit opportunities for these men. The suc- 
 cess of this effort as a part of the general response may be judged from 
 the fact that, although there was rather an acute unemployment 
 situation in Chicago at the time, it was not many weeks before the 
 situation had been cleared up aitd the supervisor reported that it was 
 possible to say that a job could be found for every man that really 
 wanted work. As an example of the activities in the placement of 
 returning Negro soldiers, the following figures for one week are given: 
 Attendance, 468; registrations, 198; help wanted, 152; referred, 156; 
 reported placed, 114; transferred, 26. 
 
 Although the following figures were included in the report of the 
 United States Employment Service the following report of the South 
 Side office during the month of May, 1918, is given, as it had more 
 placements than any other office in Chicago for that month: 
 
 Men. — Attendance, 1,430; registration, 795; help wanted, 824; 
 referred, 637; reported placed, 570; transferred, 3. 
 
 In all this work special mention should be made of the assistance 
 given by private organizations, especially the Chicago Urban League, 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 73 
 
 which maintained an employment office in cooperation with the 
 United States Employment Service and the State employment service 
 throughout the period of the United States Employment Service work 
 in the city of Chicago. 
 
 One of the special forms of the work in Illinois was to assist in the 
 improvement of depressing housing conditions in the State. When 
 the plans of the United States Homes Registration Service had devel- 
 opea to the point that a field worker was needed in this territory, the 
 supervisor of Negro economics canvassed urban localities in Illinois. 
 Chicago, East St. Louis, Springfield, Quincy, Alton, Cairo, Peoria, 
 Bloomington, Centralia, Decatur, Danville, Jacksonville, and Mon- 
 mouth were covered by the Negro workers' advisory committees at 
 each point. Thi-ough the assistance of these committees, the field 
 agent of the Homes Registration Service and the Illinois supervisor 
 of Negro economics formulated plans for a campaign on housing. 
 These plans suffered curtailment due to a change in plans of the hous- 
 ing bureau. 
 
 As a means of developing stability of labor and thrift among 
 Negro workers, a study was made of cooperative store enter- 
 prises, and the laws governing same. There alter plans of organiza- 
 tion were outlined giving details as to incorporation, stock values, share 
 and loan of capital, stock holders' meetings, duties of boards of direc- 
 tors, management, buying of goods, bookkeeping auditing of accounts, 
 dividends and surplus earnings, and similar details. The results of 
 this study were issued in mimeographed form and put into the hands of 
 Negro workers' advisory committeemen for State-wide distribution. 
 So valuable does this outline seem that it is given in full as follows : 
 
 116 North Dearborn Street, 
 
 Chicago, III., June 17, 1919. 
 
 [From the supervisor of Negro economics in Illinois to the Negro Workers Advisory Committee on the 
 
 subject of cooperative stores.] 
 
 One of the lines along which the Director of Negro Economics is laying great em- 
 phasis is that of the development of business enterprises among our people. Because 
 of the small number of Negroes who handle any large amount of capital the most suc- 
 cessful business enterprises among colored people must necessarily be cooperative. 
 
 I am sending you to-day a brief outline of the method of starting and carrying on a 
 cooperative store. 
 
 Cooperative stores have been very successful in a great many places in this country 
 and enormously successful in Europe. 
 
 Already a cooperative store conducted by Negroes is on foot in Illinois. It is being 
 promoted by the members of Butcher Workmen's Local 651 of Chicago. 
 
 It seems to me that there are enough colored people in your community to support 
 such a store. 
 
 Too mucn ot the money that is being earned by the colored group at present remains 
 in their hands only for a short time; then goes to the hands of others, usually foreign 
 born of short residence in this country. 
 
 A cooperative store planned and carried on l^y Negroes will mean that a large portion 
 of the money earned by Negroes will be kept within the group. 
 
 Further information can be obtained l)y writing to the Supervisor of Negro Econo- 
 mics in Illinois or to the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for Bulletin 
 394 on cooperative stores price 10 cents, or to Mr. Duncan McDonald, secretary- 
 treasurer, Central States Cooperative Society, Springfield, 111., who has issued some 
 i^ery interesting pamphlets on this subject at a small cost of not over 5 cents. 
 Very truly, yours, 
 
 Forrester B. WASHmoTON, 
 Supervisor of Negro Economics in Illinois. 
 
74 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WiiR. 
 
 HOW TO ESTABLISH AND CONDUCT A COOPERATIVE STORE. 
 
 Hoit] to start. — A store should not be started unless at least 100 members can be 
 secured . 
 
 If sufficient interest is displayed, call a meeting to select a committee of five or seven 
 to solicit subscribers, but accept no money until you have amount pledged sufficient 
 to insure success. 
 
 Amount and value of stock. — According to the laws of Illinois no person can own and 
 control more than five shares of the capital stock of such association. The shares of 
 stock shall be not less than five dollars nor more than one hundred dollars a share. 
 On account of the prevailing high prices, it has been found advisable to make the 
 shares of stock not less than $10 a share. Not less than 50 per cent of the amount sub- 
 scribed should be paid in at the time the organization of the store is completed. 
 
 Details. — As soon as a sufficient amount has been subscribed (not less than $2,500) 
 call a meeting of all the subscribers and have them elect a board of directors for differ- 
 ent periods of time, so that at least some will hold over. Do not elect anyone simply 
 because he is a good fellow. Require whoever handles the funds to furnish a good 
 bond. 
 
 No member should be allowed more than one vote, no matter what his shares or 
 purchases. 
 
 Share and loan capital. — If a sufficient amount of share capital is not purchased, a 
 store may secure loan capital from members interested in the success of the institution, 
 whose share capital is paid in full, or the accumulated profits or earnings, usually called 
 dividends to help finance the store after the share capital subscribed if fully paid. 
 
 Meeting of stockholders. — A meeting of stockholders should be held every three 
 months. Special meetings may be called by the board of directors or by petition of 
 the members. 
 
 Duties of board of directors. — The board of directors should meet once a week, pass 
 upon and pay all bills, if correct, receive the report of the manager, and transact 
 such other business that comes within their scope. 
 
 Location. — A good location is essential to success. A good building, not necessarily 
 large, but in a good location, is much to be preferred, even at a higher rental. 
 
 Business management. — Stores should be conducted on a cash basis. Extending 
 credit will ruin a store and the necessity of cash business should be impressed on the 
 minds of all members. 
 
 Managers. — Next to the loyalty of the members, a good competent rnanager, an 
 honest man, is the most important asset to a store. A technical education is not neces- 
 sary, but a knowledge of business cooperation is. The manager should be given a 
 great deal of discretion in the general supervision of the store. He should turn over 
 to the treasurer or other authorized officer, at the close of each day's business, the 
 day's receipts and a statement showing the amount of business for that day. 
 
 Employees. — So far as possible no immediate relative of the manager or a niember 
 of the board of directors should be employed in any capacity, as it creates jealousy 
 and bad feeling. 
 
 Managers and clerks should be paid good wages as an incentive to do good work. 
 
 Buying a stock of goods. — Do not allow anyone to load your store up with an immense 
 stock of goods that can not be turned over readily, as they will become shopworn and 
 have to be sold later on at a loss. Goods should be turned over as often as possible, 
 as the turnover is an essentially important feature in making money. All bills should 
 be discounted and paid promptly. By no means should prices be cut and no man- 
 ager should be allowed to undersell the surrounding stores. To do so invites trouble 
 not only with your competitors, but wholesale houses as well. 
 
 Bookkeeping. — Lack of a good bookkeeping system has been the rock upon which 
 many a cooperative store has been wrecked. 
 
 Banking.— All money taken in should be banked every day except the small amount 
 that is kept on hand to take care of the cash business. All goods bought should be 
 paid for by check. Care should be exercised not to have an overdraft at the bank. 
 
 Incorporation. — All stores should incorporate as a matter of protection. 
 
 Auditing accounts. — One of the most important features of a successful cooperative 
 enterprise is a correct auditing system. The books and accounts of every store should 
 be audited very carefully every three months, and wherever possible by an expert 
 accountant. 
 
 Dividends. — Dividends in a cooperative store are paid, not on the investment as in 
 a privately owned concern, but on the amount of purchases made by the shareholder. 
 
 At quarterly or semiannual periods, as may be determined on, a complete invoice 
 should be taken, the profits ascertained, and after setting aside a substantial amount 
 for a reserve fund (anywhere from 25 to 50 per cent of the profits) the balance should 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 75 
 
 be paid in diAddends on the basis of purchases during the period, or credited to them 
 on their account, 
 
 Surplus earnings. — The term " di\T.dends " as herein used is merely the accumulated 
 sa^'ings or the surplus earnings of each member, which the society is under obligations 
 to repay to the individual at a future date and should be distinguished from dividends 
 as applied in the usual commercial transaction and in the future the cooperative 
 movement should use the term "surplus earnings" instead of "dividends." 
 
 Further information. — Further information concerning the establishment and main- 
 tenance of cooperative stores can be obtained by ^.vTiting to the Supervisor of Negro 
 Economics for Illinois, 116 North Dearborn Street, Chicago, or to the Department of 
 Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for Bulletin 394 on Cooperative Stores, price 10 cents, 
 or to Duncan McDonald, secretary-treasurer, Central States Cooperative Society, 
 Springfield, 111,, who has issued a very interesting pamphlet on the subject, price 
 5 cents Butcher Workmen's Local 651, 4300 State Street, Chicago, has launched a 
 cooperative store \vith all colored officers. They would be glad to give you the benefit 
 of their experiences. 
 
 Although there were a number of activities in the State, the depart- 
 ment was kept fully informed as to racial feeling in various localities 
 in the State. Preceding the Chicago riots in July, 1919, regular 
 information had been received through official channels concerning 
 existing conditions. The riots brought sharply to the attention of 
 the country an acute racial situation, the intensity of which had long 
 been observed as developing in this district. Prior to July there had 
 been sporadic clashes in one or two Illinois localities and the State 
 supervisor had officially reported these outbursts. The Chicago 
 Race Commission, as an outcome of this disturbance, gives strong 
 promise of some constructive effort for preventing such difficulties 
 in the future. 
 
 We may, then, summarize the activities and results in Illinois as 
 follows: 
 
 1. Conferences. — State conferences in Illinois and Missouri resulting in exchange 
 of facts and better understanding between representatives of Negro workers, white 
 workers and white employers from a number of localities in the State, and the adoption 
 of a plan of organization and program of work by means of which definite activities 
 were undertaken throughout the territory. These activities resulted in better under- 
 standing and adjustment of relations between these three labor interests. 
 
 2. (a) Surveys and information on Negro labor conditions. — Surveys were made of 
 500 firms employing 50 or more Negi-oes, showing that approximately OA^er 50 per 
 cent reported their intention for retaining Negro help. The remaining 50 per cent 
 were noncommittal; (6) The reports from 14 chairmen during the period of activity 
 in Illinois. June, 1918, to July 1, 1919, indicated a growing scarcity of jobs for Negroes, 
 with conditions most acute in Chicago. 
 
 3. Board of managements. — Constant ad\dce and counsel were given to the United 
 States Employment Service and the State employment service, and assistance was 
 given to the board of management of the Soldiers and Sailors' Bureau and its branches. 
 
 4. Publicity.— {a) Fifteen articles in daily newspapers of Illinois for the purpose 
 of stimulating interest in and employment of Negro workers; (b) 14 special articles 
 for Negro press; (c) 10 addresses in public meetings; id) magazine discussions of 
 unemployment situation among colored women. 
 
 5. Placements. — Besides from the usual hundreds of placements shown in work of 
 offices, a number of special opportunities were secured for specially qualified Negroes. 
 These are cited on account of the usual difficulty in such instances. 
 
 6. Volunteer work. — (a) One thousand solicitations of firms over the telephone in 
 the interest of retiirning colored soldiers; (6) 5,000 appeal letters to Chicago employ- 
 ers, 3 personal visits to Chicago employers; (r) organization and direction of "flying 
 squadron " of retiu-ned soldiers to solicit positions for comrades. 
 
 7. Returning colored soldiers. — (a) Formation of board of management; (6) appoint- 
 ment of special solicitor; (c) shop addresses to a total of 17,000 Chicago employees on 
 fair play in jobs for returning soldiers. 
 
 8. Special investigations. — (a) There were three special investigations invohing 
 unions, race relations, and discrimination matters; (6) investigation of industrial oppor- 
 tunities offered in other States, especially the southern States. 
 
76 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 9. Special conferences. — (a) President Chicago Federation of Labor; (b) men of pub- 
 lic works in Chicago; (c) State Advisory Board. United States Dopartment of Labor, 
 executive committee Soldiers' Bureau, Assistant Federal Director L'nited States 
 Employment Service, superintendent Soldiers and Sailors' Bureau, chairman of 
 board of management, representatives of churches, lodges, women's organizations. 
 
 10. Cooperation. — Cooperation was had tliroiigh the superA-isor of Negro economics 
 and through local Negro workers' achnsory committees "with, the following, organiza- 
 tions: Y. M. C. A.. Y. W. C. A., Chicago Urban League. Federation of Colored Wom- 
 en's Clubs, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, American 
 Federation of Labor. Chambers of Commerce, mayor of Cairo, aldermen of Chicago, 
 superintendent of public schools, Springfield; city attorney of Cairo. State auditor 
 of Jacksonville, and many other organizations and public officials. 
 
 11. Misrellancous. — (a) Addres.ses to colored workers in industrial plants, empha- 
 sizing regularity, punctuality, and efficiency, etc.; (b) op])ortunities for colored col- 
 lege women; (c) opportunities for colored women in domestic work; {d) establishment 
 of homes registration service. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 REPORT OF WORK IN MICHIGAN. 
 
 Detroit, of course, is the great industrial center of Michigan, and 
 to this pomt alone it was estimated that in the two years 1916-17 
 between 25,000 and 30,000 Negro migrants came. The department 
 further estimated that these Detroit migrants came mamly from 
 Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and Tennessee. Reasonable proportion 
 of migrants m accordance with the calls of industry were, of course, 
 distributed among other Michigan industrial cities, such as Kala- 
 mazoo, Benton Harbor, Flint, Grand Rapids, Saginaw, Port Huron, 
 and other cities of equal or lesser importance in the industrial fabric 
 of Michigan. The automobile mdustry made Detroit, necessarily, 
 a most unportant point of destination for the Negro migrants. 
 
 The United States census recorded 5,741 Negro inhabitants of 
 Detroit in 1910, while conservative estimates at the close of the war 
 period placed the number at 35,000. Such an increase in Detroit 
 and correspondingly in other Michigan cities created far-reaching 
 problems of economics and made the State of Michigan essentially 
 one where prompt endeavor on the part of the Department of Labor 
 ought to be made. The Negro residential district of Detroit had 
 become crowded, and as the Negro population spread it became 
 difficult to secure houses m the various localities. Naturally, then, 
 there came a tendency toward neighborhood segregation and a result- 
 ing sharp division between newcomers and the older residents. 
 These conditions called for consideration and sympathy on the part 
 of every agency, public or private, and m the mmd of every person. 
 
 The pressmg need of Michigan enterprises for laborers caused her 
 industrial captains to make theretofore miheard-of wage conditions. 
 Aside from the Negro laborer, thousands of workmen from all other 
 parts of the country and from European cities soon found location 
 in Michigan. Therefore the department sent a Negro expert to 
 supervise and handle, cooperatively, the many problems growing out 
 of the presence of an unusual number of Negro workers — skilled, 
 semiskilled, and miskilled. 
 
 It seems pertment to make a brief mention of some of the agencies 
 which were fmictionmg in economic and civic matters m Michigan 
 cities prior to the establishment of the Division of Negro Economics. 
 
 The Michigan State labor department has always been well organ- 
 ized and had been givmg its usual attention to purely local matters. 
 The United States Employment Service of the Department of Labor 
 had been well established m Michigan, and was growing rapidly in 
 its power and capability to take the proper initiative m fostermg and 
 promotmg the welfare of workers whenever such workers came under 
 the supei^ision of the Government, particularly in regard to the war- 
 labor program which included, in certain mstances, begmning August 
 1, 1918, the recruitmg and placmg of large numbers of workers. 
 
 77 
 
78 
 
 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 No arrangements had been made, however, by the United States 
 Emplo3^ment Service for handling the unusual problems which grew 
 out of the presence of 30,000 or more Negro newcomers. Among 
 the private agencies which had been doing laudable work in the 
 Detroit. district there may be mentioned the Detroit Urban League, 
 which had been successfully active and competent in handling the 
 problems of Negro labor. In this connection it is interestmg to note 
 some early experience which the Detroit Urban League had. 
 
 Number of male and female workers requested by employers through the joint employment 
 office and the Detroit Urban League July 2 to Dec. 23, 1917.^ 
 
 Laborers 846 
 
 Laborers (outside) 778 
 
 Truckers (automobile) 336 
 
 Janitors 225 
 
 Molders 160 
 
 Machinists (unspecified) 109 
 
 Porters (unspecified) 102 
 
 Laborers' helpers. 
 
 Yardmen 
 
 Kitchen men and dishwashers. 
 
 Fiu'nace tenders 
 
 Mechanics 
 
 Core makers 
 
 Housemen and bell boys 
 
 Chauffeurs and crankmen 
 
 Elevator men 
 
 Coal passers (laborers) 
 
 69 
 67 
 54 
 70 
 48 
 45 
 28 
 10 
 26 
 24 
 
 Metal carriers 
 
 Tool makers 
 
 Repair vacuum cleaners 
 
 Riveters 
 
 Metal (unspecified) 
 
 Cutters ( unspecified ) 
 
 Watchmen 
 
 Assembly men (automobile). 
 
 Assembly men's helpers 
 
 Farm (unspecified) 
 
 Block testers 
 
 Pipe layers 
 
 Rivet buckers 
 
 Paper hangers. 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Miscellaneous (unspecified) 2, 431 
 
 Total 5,542 
 
 Laimdry (day) 123 
 
 Maids 45 
 
 Factory (garment) 32 
 
 Dishwashers 24 
 
 General housework 25 
 
 Lashers (theater) 19 
 
 Factory (cigar). 
 
 Cook 
 
 Office 
 
 Miscellaneous. . 
 
 18 
 15 
 
 2 
 14 
 
 Total. 
 
 317 
 
 Number of Negro ivorkmen employed on Apr. 27, 1917, by firms ivith ivhich Detroit Urban 
 
 League had touch. 
 
 Packard Motor Car Co. (May 18)... 1, 100 
 
 Buhl Malleable Iron Co 280 
 
 Ford Motor Car Co 200 
 
 Continental Motor Car Co 200 
 
 Aluminum Castings Co 150 
 
 Michigan Steel Castings Co 170 
 
 Michigan Copper & Brass Co 125 
 
 Michigan Central Railroad Co 100 
 
 Micliigan Malleable Iron Co 100 
 
 General Aluminum & Brass Co 65 
 
 Chalmers Motor Car Co 62 
 
 Detroit Pressed Steel Co 
 
 Hudson Motor Car Co 
 
 Detroit Stove Works 
 
 Paige Detroit Motor Car Co 
 
 Saxon Motor Car Co 
 
 Hupp Motor Car Co 
 
 Detroit Seamless Tubes Co 
 
 Monarch Foundry 
 
 Michigan Smelting & Refining Co. 
 
 50 
 50 
 27 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 15 
 100 
 
 Total 2,874 
 
 These data were compiled early in 1917 and therefore do not indi- 
 cate the increase and pressing demand for Negro labor which existed 
 at the climax of the war period. They show, however, how the 
 demand began to grow and how the inclusion of the Negro worker, 
 in larger numbers than ever before, secured his economic standing 
 in the great industry of Michigan. 
 
 1 Reprinted from "Negro Newcomers of Detroit, Mich.," by George E. Haynes, Ph. D., published by 
 Home Missions Covmcil, New York City. 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 79 
 
 Such well-organized machinery for handling economic problems 
 as was found in Michigan, lightaned the plans of the department and 
 called for a slightly different program from that which was to be fol- 
 lowed in other States. 
 
 Forrester B. Washington, who, as is observed in the Illinois report, 
 had been first appointed by the department as supervisor of Negro 
 economics for Michigan, later, in June, 1918, began work, with 
 headquarters at Detroit. Mr. Washington had been executive 
 secretary of the Detroit Urban League and had handled personally 
 more than 8,000 Negro workers during his earlier work in Detroit. 
 In the following months of July, August, and September Mr. Wash- 
 ington formulated the early plans for the work of the Division of 
 Negro Economics in Michigan. He made a number of surveys of labor 
 in Michigan cities and, under the immediate supervision of the 
 United States Employment vService, gave specific advice with regard 
 to, and handled personally, a great number of Negro labor problems, 
 particularly in the matter of recruiting. The early Michigan plans 
 called for Negro workers advisory committee formations in the 
 industrial district with a supervising State committee of white and 
 colored persons. 
 
 Consequently the Michigan program was well formulated when, on 
 October 1, 1918, Mr. Washington was transferred to Illinois, being 
 succeeded in Michigan by Dr. William Jennifer, formerly special agent 
 and examiner under the United States Employment Service with 
 official station at Washington, D. C. Dr. Jennifer entered upon the 
 work with a background of years of experience in matters relating 
 to Negroes in the United States Bureau of the Census, where he had 
 assisted m compiling the bulletin known as Negro Population in the 
 United States 1790 to 1910. Dr. Jennifer took his post under the 
 Michigan Federal director in October, taking up the plan as started 
 by Mr. Washington. 
 
 Dr. Jennifer at once continued the seeking out of representatives 
 of the industrial ranks, professional men, educators, and churchmen 
 for increased cooperation in Michigan. His itinerary on this mission 
 included Ypsilanti, Aim Arbor, Jackson, Battle Creek, Kalamazoo, 
 Benton Harbor, Niles, Cassopolis, Grand Rapids, Saginaw, Bay 
 City, Flint, Lansing, Port Huron, and Pontiac. Later, similar 
 itineraries made possible his planning of the State conference for 
 December 14, 1918. At that conference, which was presided over by 
 the Federal director of the United States Employment Service, the 
 committees on organization, plans of work, and women's work made 
 their reports and an open discussion, in which all were invited to 
 take a part, was had regarding the peculiar local problems of Michigan 
 points. It was mteresting to note that several special experiments 
 were being made in Michigan respecting the efficiency of Negro 
 women workers. This group of workers — ^in industry and in per- 
 sonal and domestic service — was of rather large proportions, hence 
 the committee on women's work at the Michigan conference made a 
 special report which follows. 
 
 EXTRACT OF REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON WOMEN'S WORK. 
 
 Plans devised for changing industries from a war basis to a peace basis, the main 
 point*being to bring about this change without throwing many out of employment. 
 1. See that tHe work is the proper sort of work for a woman or girl. 
 
80 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 2. See that conditions are suitable — 
 
 (a) From the hygienic standpoint. 
 (6) From the moral standpoint. 
 
 3. Standards: Work to secure the following: 
 
 (a) Eight-hour day. 
 
 (b) Forty-five minutes lunch hour. 
 
 (c) Ten minutes rest in the morning and 10 minutes in the afternoon. 
 
 (d) No work between 10 p. m. and (J a. m. 
 
 (e) No sweatshop work. , 
 
 4. Sanitary conditions (ventilation, lighting, temperature, cleanliness): 
 
 (rt) Such as affect washrooms, lunch rooms, lockers, toilets. 
 
 5. Minimize hazards connected with the work: 
 
 («) Such as result from fumes, dust, chemicals, dampness, and lack of 
 proper ventilation. 
 
 (b) Good en\'ironment. 
 
 (c) Lifting not exceeding 25 pounds. 
 
 (d) Wages — a living wage. 
 
 (e) Age limit. (Conformation to child-labor laws.) (Education-compulsory 
 
 laws.) 
 
 6. To further promote our plans, we must have a list of industries in which colored 
 
 women are employed : 
 
 (a) Investigate to find out cause where only white women are employed aiid 
 strive to secure the employment also of colored women where such 
 discrimination exists. 
 
 7. Efficiency should be striven for in several different ways: 
 
 (a) Such as number of hours service given weekly. 
 
 (b) Quality of service given. 
 
 (c) Geniality of temperament, pleasing personality. 
 
 8. See if there be segregation in the rest rooms, and in the wages. If so, seek remedy: 
 
 (a) See that in the training schools the colored girl gets the same advantage 
 
 as the white girl. 
 (6) See if there be a chance for promotion of colored girls in the factory or 
 
 work-place under consideration. 
 
 (c) Study the class of workers to which we make appeal. 
 
 (d) Find out the attitude of the employer and employee each to the other . 
 
 Strive for amicable adjustment of differences. 
 
 (e) Study how the employer can be best appealed to and reached. 
 
 The undersigned committee accepts this outline as a basis for work and will organize 
 to put it into operation in accordance Avith the needs of the individual localities. 
 
 Mrs. Helen B. Irvin, Temporary Chairman. 
 
 Mrs. E. 0. Haskell, Secretary. 
 
 Mrs. Maud Henderson. 
 
 Mrs. E. L. Johnson. 
 
 Mrs. Mary E. McCoy. 
 
 Mrs. A. C. Hafford. 
 
 Mrs. Mattie O. Reed. 
 
 Mrs. Mattie L. Johnson. 
 
 Mrs. Mrs. Lucy L. Berry. 
 
 Mrs. Helen B. Brown. 
 
 Miss Ethel Hensley. 
 
 Miss O. L. Williams. 
 
 Mr. John M. Ragland. 
 
 Inasmuch as there already existed in the Department of Labor a 
 women's bureau which was handling, on a broad basis, policies 
 respecting the ideals and accomplishments of women workers, the 
 plans of this early Negro workers' conference were shaped to include 
 the needs and conditions of women workers throughout the State. 
 Out of the conference there grew a State Negro Workers' Advisory 
 Committee, which was the overhead organization for the following 
 county and city committees: Bay, Berrien, Genesee, Ingham, Jack- 
 son, Kalamazoo, Kent, Muskegon, Oakland, Saginaw, St. Clair, 
 Washtenaw, Wayne, and Calhoun. 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 81 
 
 As illustative of the kind of cooperation which the department was 
 able to secure in Michigan, the interests represented at the conference 
 and on the State Negro Workers' Advisory Committee are cited as 
 follows: The Y. W. C. A., the Y. M. C. A., the State Federation of 
 Labor, the State Missionary Society, union and nonunion labor, 
 merchants and business men, professional classes, the press, private 
 and social welfare agencies and governmental agencies. All these 
 units gave freely of their influence in the matter of shaping plans 
 and policies for the welfare of Negro workers. Where there was such 
 a community of interest industrial conditions and needs in the matter 
 of racial adjustments were remedied with comparative ease, for 
 reaching into any plan of solidarity of such a nature there come poten- 
 tial forces from every unit in the commimity and State and the ulti- 
 mate successful results may be anticipated from the very beginning. 
 
 At later dates the Michigan supervisor visited practically every 
 important point where Negro labor was involved throughout the 
 State and the various county and city committees were given author- 
 ity to carry for^vard concrete plans in labor matters. One or two 
 strikes were investigated. The usual efforts in seeking and securing 
 placements for Negro soldiers were made. Groups of laborers who 
 were perhaps on the verge of striking were visited and conferred with, 
 and theu' employers, where practicable, were given departmental 
 advice. Congested housing conditions in Detroit and other cities 
 were given such practical attention as were possible. Extraordinary 
 efforts were made in seeking placements at plants for Negro women. 
 A number of mass meetings for creating better sentiment and high 
 morale were held at strategic points. In pressing cases of placements, 
 telephone inquiries were made direct with Michigan factories and 
 employment blanks and notices were given to men for filling out and 
 filing. On Sundays it was possible to have read in Michigan churches 
 notices of unusual interests to colored labor. 
 
 In Michigan, as in other States, there were found employers 
 who had not employed colored workmen. Such employers were 
 visited personally by the supervisor and were impressed with a state- 
 ment of the efficiency, conduct, and work of many Negro workers in 
 Michigan and elsewhere. 
 
 In all it would be difficult to tabulate specifically the many and 
 varied steps which were taken in Michigan. Such steps, however, 
 were based upon the complete plan of the Secretary of Labor and 
 included the same policies that the Department of Labor was charged 
 to cany out in the interests of all workers of the United States, 
 white and colored, male or female. 
 
 The Federal director of the LTnited States Employment Service com- 
 mented with great favor upon the work of Dr. Jennifer, the Michigan 
 supervisor of Negro economics. (See letter quoted on p. 23.) 
 1989°— 21 6 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 REPORT OF WORK IN MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 Mississippi, with its great farm land and cotton areas, its tremen- 
 dously active lumber interests, its thousands of Negro workers who 
 were performing the greater part of labor in connection with those 
 industries, offered many complex problems for the Department of 
 Labor in carrying into this State the work of the Division of Negro 
 Economics. From the strict standpoint of economics the output 
 from the above industries had been jeopardized throughout the war 
 period by the tremendously large migration northward by Negroes 
 from the agricultural districts of Mississippi. It was difficult to esti- 
 mate, as has been done in the other Southern States, the exact num- 
 ber of Negroes leaving Mississippi points, for the reason that a great 
 many of them were drawn from between southern and northern Mis- 
 sissippi, while many others migrated to Arkansas regions and returned 
 to Mississippi. 
 
 However, of the four to six hundred thousand Negroes who did in 
 fact come from Southern States to the North during the war it is 
 safe to say that Mississippi contributed a larger proportion than any 
 other State in the South. On the part of workers it had long been 
 alleged that Mississippi wages were low. SawTuill wages were quoted 
 in 1916 as $1.10 a day, while ordinary hand labor in the agricultural dis- 
 tricts, it is said, was paid for at rates as low as 60 and 75 cents a day. 
 Four dollars a week was said to be a fair wage for domestic and per- 
 sonal service, and even though wages were reported to have increased 
 durmg the period 1916-1918 from 10 to 25 per cent, northern industries 
 drew from IVIississippi thousands and thousands of its Negro workers, 
 male and female. Being an agricultural State, producing cotton, 
 foodstuffs, and the like, and Negro workers performing the bulk of 
 labor in connection with agriculture, Mississippi labor shortage soon 
 became a very serious matter to productivity of this State. 
 
 When the United States Emplo^Tnent Service with headquarters 
 at Meridian, Miss., arranged to supervise the State work, of the 
 Division of Negro Economics, the racial consciousness of Negroes 
 was so strongly developed and interracial relations became so cordial 
 that it was possible at once to bring about an immediate cooperation 
 of State, private, and Federal agencies which was not surpassed by 
 that of any other State or locality. The State board of education, 
 the Mississippi Welfare League, chambers of commerce throughout 
 the State, the United States Department of Agricultm'e, the Missis- 
 sippi Association of Teachers in Colored Schools, the Negro banks, 
 colleges, and various other private organizations promptly pledged 
 their full suj^port to the work of Negro economics. 
 
 Consequently, followmg a preliminar}^ trip through Mississippi of 
 
 the Director of Negro Economics and following a meeting of the 
 
 Southern Sociological Congress on July 12, 1918, the service of Negro 
 
 economics was established under the immediate supervision of the 
 
 82 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 83 
 
 United States Employment Service, and Rev. J. C. Olden, who was 
 well known and respected by citizens of Mississippi, was appointed 
 as supervisor of Negro economics for that State. Prior to that time 
 Mr. Olden had been assisting the United States Employment Service 
 district superintendent in Mississippi and Alabama points in fiu-ther- 
 ing the aims of the Employment Service and in stimulating the senti- 
 ment and desires of Negro workers. As a result, he had built up a 
 strong cham of support, particularly in the churches and schools. 
 
 Among the early concrete results of the Negro workers' advisory 
 committee there may be cited the three following : 
 
 1. Cooperation among the railroad shop workers of Meridian. 
 
 2. Discriminatory practices in connection with the "work card " system in Meridian 
 were brought before the proper authorities and the entire scheme abolished. 
 
 3. The Federal director requisitioned the entire forces of our advisory committees 
 and delegated to them the big responsibility of direct assistance in the placing of 
 Negro soldiers. 
 
 It is apparent that these results were made possible through the 
 new consciousness of the Negro wage earner as to his worth as a pro- 
 ducing agent and as to his having a higher regard for his employer. 
 
 In November, 1918, the supervisor formulated a pubhcity program 
 which was furthered throughout the State in January, 1919. The 
 principal purposes of that program are given below, and it may be 
 noted that through the county Ime-up of Negro workers' advisory com- 
 mittees in the State it was possible to reach every public and private 
 school and coUege in the State as well as the public in general : 
 
 1. Members of advisory committee to present the work of the department before 
 all schools in their respective districts where no travel is necessary. 
 
 2. Supervisor Negro economics to present the work before all schools and colleges 
 not covered in this allotment. Allotments to be made and specific dates set at the 
 meeting of State committee (December). 
 
 3. Each school and college will be asked to join the ranks and support the work and 
 give a written indorsement of the same. 
 
 4. From time to time (afterwards) the schools will be kept in constant touch with 
 our work by means of literature and personal visits. 
 
 5. The State department of education will be asked to indorse our program and re- 
 lease copies of their indorsement to all white superintendents and colored supervisors. 
 
 6. Assistant State supervisor of Negro schools will be asked to assist in allotting 
 schools to committee members. 
 
 7. Members of the State committee will be urged to present our work before every 
 public gathering — fraternal, business, religious — ^possible in their various districts. 
 
 8. All white organizations of influence that believe in the uplift of the Negro will be 
 asked to indorse oui" program and lend every influence toward its accomplishment. 
 
 9. If possible the ministry of the State will be asked to prepare special sermons, 
 bearing on our work, for the second Sunday in January. 
 
 10. Members of the State committee will be asked to see that in all emancipation 
 celebrations for January 1 our work shall be presented. 
 
 As being concretely indicative of the record for the departmental 
 work in Mississippi there may be mentioned the following typical 
 commendations of two large Mississippi firms, which said : 
 
 1. We trust that you will remain in Meridian as long as you possibly can and make 
 as many talks as it is possible for you to make to other employees as well as to ours. 
 
 2. We wish to write this testimonial unsolicited by you as to the beneficial results of 
 your inspiring talks to our employees. We were very much impressed with your 
 talks and found that our white employees seemed to enjoy them and profit by them 
 as much as our numerous colored workmen. 
 
 The State Negro workers' advisory committee was effectively 
 organized with a membership of 29 and having representation at the 
 beginning from 25 counties of the State. Prompt steps were taken 
 
84 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 for the formation in the counties of subcommittees. Prof. R. S. 
 Grossley, assistant supervisor of Negro schools, later field organizer 
 for the United States Employment Service, made a survey of the 
 northern portion of the State and outlined the organization of the 
 county committees. The State committee decided that its plan of 
 organization and work should be released to representatives of various 
 welfare organizations of the State and that, as far as possible, the 
 work should be outlined before local societies, such as the Red 
 Cross, insurance companies, and the like. Letters stating the pur- 
 pose and plans of the committee of organization were released tlii-ough 
 the United States Employment Service to its subsidiary officials 
 throughout the State. Oi interestmg importance in the way of co- 
 operation there should be mentioned the attitude of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Conference of the State of Mississippi, which indorsed 
 completely the departmental program. This conference had pre- 
 viously carried on a campaign m the interest of efficiency of Negro 
 wage earners, and was quick to recognize the facility to be gained 
 through official functions. 
 
 In January, 1919, the supervisor visited a number of Mississippi 
 counties and cities, among which were McComb, Pike, Amite, Walthall, 
 Lincoln, Marion, and Crystal Springs. At these points county teachers' 
 meetings were attended and full cooperation of the teaching forces 
 secured. Prof. Grossley, representmg the State board of education, 
 was present at these meetmgs and his subsequent work calls for the 
 sincere thanks of the department to him and to the Mississippi 
 State educational department for their constant help, Mr. Grossley 
 having served throughout the work as a dollar-a-year man. 
 
 The domestic help problem mentioned previously in this report 
 gained particular significance by March, 1919, and in line ^vith the 
 policies of the United States Employment Service to assist in reliev- 
 ing this problem a survey was made by the supervisor, from which 
 the foUowing facts were adduced: 
 
 1. Conditions. — (a) Unrest among domestic help; (?>) constant shifting of domestic 
 help; (c) lack of interest in work and efficiency among domestic help; (d) absolute 
 refusal to work on part of domestic help. 
 
 2. Apparent causes. — («) Low wages; (b) lack of sympathetic cooperation between 
 women employers and women employees. 
 
 Concerning (c) and (d) imder the conditions we find the following 
 very human attitudes expressed in this simple manner : 
 
 What's the use of doing good work when we get poor pay? It is better to do 
 nothing "for nothing" than to work " for nothing." 
 
 In the way of suggestions for relief the supervisor recommended 
 that a vigorous campaign of conferences with women workers be 
 begun, together with added assistance from the colored ministry to 
 the end that cooperation of the women workers and women employers 
 might bring forth some concession on the part of employers to the 
 efficient women workere in the matter of wages. These coiiferences 
 were had and, in many instances, the problem was much relieved. 
 
 The program of work of Negro workei-s' advisory committees varied 
 to some extent in accordance with the peculiar conditions of each 
 State. The program of work which was outlined for Mssissippi is 
 given below as showing the most stable means of accomplishing the 
 objects of the work in this State. 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 85 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS OF THE NEGRO WORKERS' ADVISORY COM- 
 MITTEES FOR FIRST STEPS IN LOCAL ORGANIZATION. 
 
 1. Calling together colored representatives. — It will probably be well to call together 
 four or fiA-e most responsible colored citizens (at least one of them should be a woman) 
 in voiir countv, towi, or city and go over Avith them in detail, the plans and pm-pose 
 of the State Negi-o workers'" advisory committee. In calling together these persons 
 all possible factionalism should be aA-oided. The men and women called together 
 should be the leaders of Aarious organizations and the various occupations of the 
 commiuiity. 
 
 2. Get in touch uith vhite employers.— The Federal Director of the United States 
 Employment SerAice of yom- State, or the Supervisor of Negro Economics vdW give 
 you, if you vnite him, the names of some white citizens of your community whom 
 these officials depend upon for local matters. You also know some of the most re- 
 sponsible and trusted white employers of yom- locality. It will be w^ell to go to them 
 for information and advice about cooperation of white people in your efforts on labor 
 questions affecting the colored people. In case you do not know the name and address 
 of the State official, wiite for the information to the chairman of your State Negro 
 workers' adA-isory committee or to Dr. George E. Haynes, Director of Negi'o Eco- 
 nomics, Department of Labor. Washington, D. 0. 
 
 3. Explain to vhite citizens the organization of_ the State committee. — The representa- 
 t\\e white men in vour community should be interested. Get in touch with two or 
 three of them, as suggested under No. 2, and tell them about the organization of the 
 State Negi-o workers' ad^isoiy committee. Explain to them that this committee has 
 cooperative white members; explain further the plan to have a county and neighbor- 
 hood Negi-o advisoiy committee with white cooperati\e members. It is w^ell to ask 
 their help in securing white citizens as permanent cooperating members of the county 
 and local advisory committees. As soon as you decide on representative colored 
 men for members of your local committee, and white men wiio may be recommended 
 for cooperating members, send those names, with comments about the persons, their 
 occupations and other connections, to the chairman of your State advisory committee. 
 
 4. Reaching the colored population. — The large numbers of colored people may be 
 reached through the chiuches and the lodges. A personal visit made by you or some 
 other responsible person to talk to those attending each chm'ch and each lodge is 
 necessary. They need to be informed about the relation of their productive labor 
 to agiicultm-e and industry. It will help also to secure white citizens to talk to 
 Negi-o audiences. The facts about the purpose of th e Department of Labor in organiz- 
 ing these Negro workers' advisory committees should be stated (see Article II of the 
 constitution of the committee). Explain the present labor oisis and the important 
 part Negroes are plaving and can play in getting one hundred per cent production. 
 The Department of Labor desires to "get these constructive plans before your com- 
 mimity v^ery soon by your help and the help of others on the State Comrnittee. As 
 soon as you'are in apposition to put further plans in operation, please signify that by 
 writing "the chairman of your State Advisory Committee or to the Supervisor of Negro 
 Economics, Department of Labor, Meridian, Miss. 
 
 5. Cooperation in adjustiiig conditions. — If there is anything in your community 
 which is causing restlessness and dissatisfaction among the colored people and you 
 think these should be brought to the attention of wliite employers go to two or three 
 white citizens whom you can trust or the cooperating membersof your committee 
 and ask them to help you get the facts relating to such dissatisfaction before the 
 members of local authorities or employers. 
 
 Please bear in mind, however, especially in giving complaints, by all means to have 
 some constructive plans and suggestions to correct and satisfy the complaints of the 
 colored people. As you will agree, it is not sufficient and it is poor policy to go for- 
 ward at any time with complaints and not have positive plans for remedying them. 
 Some practical, constructive suggestions and plans which can be proposed to remedy 
 causes are by all means essential. 
 
 Fmthermore, we should not always expect to have our plans to remedy those con- 
 ditions adopted. Other citizens may have better plans. The aim of the Negro 
 workers' advisory committees is to help with constructive plans and programs to assist 
 our country in getting the largest production in agriculture and industry and at the 
 same time to help secure improved conditions among Negi-o wage earners. Both 
 these ends can best be reached by constructive plans and pro.grams. 
 
 C. There is being organized, now, by the United States Employment Service what 
 are known as community labor boards, made up of representatives of the employers, 
 of the employees, and of the United States Employment Service. You should get 
 in touch with the white men who are on youi" local community labor board. If there 
 
86 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 is no local board, you should endeavor to obtain, through the Super\isor of Negro 
 Economics, the names of white citizens with whom you should get in touch on em- 
 ployment matters. 
 
 In case you do not know who the local members of your community labor board 
 are, you should write to the Federal Director of the United States Flmployment 
 Service of yoiu- State, to your State Supervisor of Negro Economics, or to the Depart- 
 ment of Labor, Washington, D. C. 
 
 7. Some of the types of u'ork tchich you can begin. — (a) Holding public mass meet- 
 ings to inform the people about the need for systematic labor; (/;) Discussions at regu- 
 lar church and lodge meetings and other gatherings; (c) Bringing to the attention oi 
 the United States Employment SerAice any misunderstandings among the colored 
 people about the use of that serAice by them. 
 
 Further suggestions will be furnished you upon request. 
 
 Any other thdngs which it seems to you it would be well to do in your community 
 you may take up with the chairman of your State Ad\Tsory Committee or with tht 
 Super\isor of Negro Economics of your State, if one has been appointed. 
 
 George E. Haynes, 
 Director of Negro Economics. 
 
 October, 1918. 
 
 January, 1919, found the work in Mississippi well under way. The 
 program of work had been presented at the Meridian Emancipation 
 celebration exercises. The introductory card made up by the super- 
 visor and approved by the Federal director to be used in connection 
 with the recruiting had been sent out and a subsequent State corn- 
 mittee meeting, as the work developed, had been planned. This 
 meeting was held on January 27, 1919, in the Board of Trade Build- 
 ing of Jackson, Miss., and the following points were discussed: 
 
 1. Organization. 
 
 2. Efficiency of Negro labor. 
 
 3. Better conditions for farm labor. 
 
 4. Bo3"S Working Reserve. 
 
 5. Plantation life in the Delta. 
 
 The Federal Director of the United States Employment Service 
 was present and emphasized the need for a readjustment between 
 men, races, and nations, and the common basis of understanding of 
 right and justice. A cordial spirit of good will and hearty coopera- 
 tion existed throughout the meeting and eveiy interest was more 
 strongly linked up than ever before in the purpose of furthering the 
 plans of the Department of Labor. The organization of the Boys 
 Working Reserve, an organization of 3'outhful members to substi- 
 tute for men who were in the Army in planting and harvesting the 
 agricultural crops, was taken up. Later on the Boys Working Re- 
 serve Organization among Negro youth of Mississippi became effi- 
 cient and helpful. At the close of January the plans as applicable 
 to Mississippi were well established for returning soldiers. In Fe- 
 ruary 1919 the Supervisor visited Yazoo City, Greenwood, Indianola, 
 Greenville and Vicksburg. He reported "^increased thrift among 
 Negro men and women and full time labor in the cotton fields. He 
 reported, however, that in regions where conditions were particu- 
 larly bad there were miles and miles of fields of unpicked cotton. 
 
 In December, 1918, Supervisor Olden, who returned to liis ministry, 
 was succeeded by Lemuel L. Foster, who took over the duties as 
 supervisor of Negro economics for Mississippi. Mr. Foster had been 
 tramed at Fisk University, had done considerable welfare and social 
 work in the South, and for one month prior to his appointment, had 
 given voluntary assistance to the United States Employment Service 
 in furthering its work. Mr. Foster took up with vigor the program 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 87 
 
 begun by bis predecessor and supervised tbe work until its close, June 
 30, 1918. Among the surveys he made a special report on two of 
 the large lumber companies of Mississippi, which had realized the 
 need of uniformly good working conditions and recreational facilities 
 for its workers. He reported in these two instances a contented and 
 efficient working force and a lack of turnover. These surveys were 
 considered of sufficient importance for a departmental release and 
 the facts were given wide publicity in order to stimulate other 
 employers and other employees, respectively, to establish and to 
 hope to receive the same treatment. 
 
 The membership on the advisory committee of white and colored 
 citizens included the former mayor of Meridian, the vice president 
 of the Citizens' National Bank, the clerk of the chancery court, 
 and a prominent business man, all of whom were representative 
 white citizens, shows again the type of cooperation which the depart- 
 ment was able to secure. (For letter commending the work, see 
 p. 23.) 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 REPORT OF WORK IN NEW JERSEY. 
 
 Prior to the war, Negro workers had been employed here and there 
 in industrial and agricultural pursuits in New Jersey. A fairly good 
 wage was paid to the Negro workers in the occupations to whicli they 
 were admitted. With the increased demands of the war, industries 
 in New Jersey quite naturally became attractive locations for thou- 
 sands of Negroes who came north. It is estimated that at least 25,000 
 Negro migrants located in the cities of New Jersey during the period 
 of 1916-17. The probable distribution of these ne^vcomers, on the 
 estimated basis, is indicated in the following table: 
 
 New York Central cami), Weehawken 500 
 
 Erie camps: 
 
 Weehawken 300 
 
 Jersey City , 100 
 
 Philadelphia & Reading, Pennsylvania R. R., etc., camps 1, 300 
 
 Jersey City 3, 000 
 
 Newark 7, 000 
 
 Carneys Point 3, 500 
 
 Trenton 3, 000 
 
 Camden 2. 000 
 
 Bayonne, Paterson, and Perth Amboy 4, 000 
 
 Wrightstown and South Jersey 3. 000 
 
 Orange, Montclair, Paterson 3, 000 
 
 Total 30 700 
 
 Various agencies, Federal, State, and private, were keeping in touch 
 with conditions affecting the labor situation of New Jersey for some 
 time prior to the establisliment of the Division of Negro Elconomics. j 
 Among the more important agencies giving special attention to Negro 1 
 affairs were the Associated Charities of Newark, the Urban League 
 of Newark, and the State Bureau of Negro Migrants of the State De- 
 partment of Labor, under the direction of Col. Lewis Bryant. This 
 work caused increased attention to be given to matters pertaining 
 to Negro workers. Correlating the efforts of these organizations, the 
 United States Employment Service had carried forward the employ- 
 ment policies and developed the recruiting and placement facilities 
 in every field of labor, including Negro labor. It was quite natural, 
 then, that the Department of Labor, having established a special 
 Negro economics service, should turn to these agencies in the begin- 
 ning for advice and assistance in putting into effect its special plans 
 for improving conditions and relations of Negro workei^. 
 
 A hasty preliminary survey was undertaken in Newark, N. J., by 
 William M. Ashby, at that time executive secretary of the Urban 
 League, at Newark, N. J., and later supervisor of Negro economics 
 for New Jersey. The city of Newark was the largest industrial cen- 
 ter in the State and was a pivotal point from which departmental 
 activities affecting Negro workers might be weU directed. 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 89 
 
 The Negro population in Newark in 1910 was approximately 10,000. 
 B}- 1918 there had been an addition of from 8,000 to 10,000 and at 
 the close of 19 18 this number had been increased. The mean number 
 of deaths for 1917 was about 550, or probably 20.23 per cent per 
 1,000, a rather large number, probably on account of the newcomers 
 from the South who were subjected to very unfavorable housing and 
 living conditions under the severe New Jersey climate, and who were 
 not advised as to proper clothing. These figures were corroborated 
 by prominent insurance companies. 
 
 Unlike most cities, in Newark there had been previously no distinct 
 Negro quarters. With the influx of newcomers, however, Negro dis- 
 tricts formed and from a few families large neighborhoods developed. 
 The general trend of living conditions indicated a merging together 
 of the older residents and the newer Negro population. Housing 
 conditions were poor and rents were high. In a number of cases 10 
 and 12 persons lived in two or three rooms. The high purchase 
 prices of properties and excessive rents, which increased in keeping 
 with the law of demand and supply, and the restricted area where 
 colored people could purchase, often keep the newcomei-s from secur- 
 ing suitable quarters. 
 
 Negroes were engaged, principally, in the unskilled work in chemical 
 plants, transportation, trucking, smpyard work, leather factories, iron 
 molding, foundries, construction, and team driving. In Newark 
 the Negro construction workers and iron shipbuilding workers formed 
 a union which did not win the recognition of the secretary of the State 
 Federation of Labor because he said the Negroes wanted to choose a 
 name that was already in use by another union. A smeltermen's union 
 was organized in Trenton among the Negroes. Their delegate sits 
 in the Federated Union CouncU of the city. A hod carriere' union, 
 Local No. 1, elected a Negro as delegate. This union has about 
 1,200 members, about 50 per cent of whom are white. The team- 
 sters' union of whites and Negroes has a Negro delegate. 
 
 It is estimated that 6,000 male and 1,000 female workers were em- 
 ployed in the several industries in Newark alone. The Negro female 
 workers found employment in toy factories, shirt factories, clothing 
 factories, and glue factories, at an average wage of about $8 a week. 
 In the shell-loading plants the pay was much higher. This is true 
 of pieceworkers in other occupations, too. Negro women were also 
 at work in garment factories, tobacco factories, toy factories, shell- 
 loading plants, celluloid manufacturing, food production, leather-bag 
 making and trunk making, as well as m assorting cores in foundries. 
 
 Negro women became reluctant to take positions as domestic 
 servants on account of increasing demands for their services in in- 
 dustrial plants. Occasionally, a machinist, a carpenter, a millwright 
 found employment as a skilled worker, and hundreds of riveters were 
 employ ea in the Federal shipbuilding agencies and districts, not to 
 speak of private concerns. Calkers and shipfitters were also in 
 demand. Anglesmiths, boiler makers, packers, molders, steel chip- 
 pers, and stationary firemen found ample employment. 
 
 As a hopeful sign there may be pointed out the small amount of 
 friction between male workers of the two races; race relations were 
 scarcely ever other than harmonious. Difficulties were more fre- 
 quent among females. There were difficulties, also, when Negro 
 skilled workers were first put on any job. Also, there were occa- 
 
90 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 sional difficulties where white and colored workers were engaged in 
 the same plant. 
 
 The Negro church is the most effective agency for dealing with 
 Negro workers, and through their church life a larger connection 
 can be made than in any other way, but, unfortunately, it was only 
 the individual ministers who took the Negro's industrial advantage 
 seriously and tried to point out to him the industrial virtues. The 
 church situation, therefore, is always an important factor to under- 
 stand in any community. Newark is predominantly a Negro Bap- 
 tist community. In some cases, migrants from the South brought 
 pastors of their own denominations with them and they reestab- 
 lished their congregations in the new home. The department found 
 a great need for handling social and industrial problems and began 
 cautiously to develop a program of work for the entire State. 
 
 Accordingly, William M. Ashby, mentioned above, a graduate of 
 Lincoln and Yale Universities and a man of unusual experience in 
 industrial and social work, was released by his organization to the 
 Department of Labor to be supervisor of Negro economics for New 
 Jersey. Mr. Ashby at once made a brief investigation of certain 
 New Jersey firms, visiting the cities of Elizabeth, Jersey City, Bay- 
 onne, Garwood, Mays Landing, Camden, Paterson, Camp Dix, 
 Camp Merritt, Atlantic City, Carneys Point, and other strategic 
 points. Prominent firms in these cities, engaged in fulfilling both 
 Government contracts and contracts for private firms and individ- 
 uals, expressed their desire for the assistance of the Department of 
 Labor. 
 
 To three large firms in Camden the supervisor suggested the 
 placement of a Negro foreman, in order to handle with the greatest 
 satisfaction gangs of Negro workers. This suggestion was adopted 
 in each case. At Amatol, a shell-loading plant was approached by 
 the supervisor on the matter of the diversion of a large number of 
 colored women workers from Atlantic City. Three hundred and 
 eighty-five such workers were secured in a few days. 
 
 A large plant at Paulsboro, which was running only one-fourth of 
 its capacity on account of the labor shortage, was assisted by re- 
 cruiting workers from Camden. This firm was engaged in rnaking 
 French shells. At Camden, a shipbuilding company^ received a 
 supply of Negro workers through the employment activity of the 
 supervisor. 
 
 For a firm in Garwood, which was making steel and brass rods for 
 the United States Nav;\-, men were recruited from Newark. To a 
 Jersey City firm with a Government contract to supply meat for 
 overseas, the supervisor brought, within five days, about 45 Negro 
 w^orkers. At Pompton Lakes, a plant running onh' to about 60 per 
 cent of its capacity because of labor shortage was assisted in securing 
 about 25 colored men. This plant had feared racial friction; but 
 under the advice of the supervisor, no racial trouble came as a result 
 of bringing these colored men. 
 
 In Grasseli, Newark, Edgev/ater, Kearney, Lakehm-st, Freehold, 
 Chrome, and Bound Brook, at later dates, the supervisor gave similar 
 assistance, placing in all over 250 Negro workers in the com^e of 
 about three weeks. 
 
 On another itinerary, the supervisor visited Paterson, Elizabeth, 
 Orange, Plainfield, Bayonne, Trenton, Atlantic City, Asbur\- Park, 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 91 
 
 Perth Amboy, Dover, and Roebling, making observations of labor 
 shortages and assisting in recruiting and placing Negro workers to 
 supply the needs. 
 
 As samples of such observations and practical action which fol- 
 lowed, there are cited below five brief investigations conducted by 
 the New Jersey supervisor in November, 1918: 
 
 1. A female employee of the — — Co., being an operator on a night shift, was 
 overheard by me to complain of unjust treatment on a threat of ejection in the middle 
 of the night from the plant of the aforesaid company, by one of its assistant foremen. 
 Fearing that her story, though harmlessly told, would create an erroneous impression 
 and prol:)ably thereby menace the opportunity of other operatives, I interrupted her 
 and asked her to repeat it to me. Upon hearing it in full, I took her to the representa- 
 tive of the company in this office and with her assistance an interview with the em- 
 ployment manager and general manager was secm-ed. The statement of her case in 
 this interview — at which also was the assistant foreman against whom the complaint 
 was made — was thoroughly considered and satisfactorily settled. Thus, the suspi- 
 cions of other Ne.gi'o workers who were sought for this plant were met and dispelled. 
 
 2. In an attempt to produce greater efficiency among the colored women operatives 
 
 of the Co., I had a lady of our department, along with the lady in charge of a 
 
 colored social settlement, interview the superintendent of the women's department 
 of the company. The superintendent of the above-mentioned company reports that, 
 as against 12 colored women, the number with which they started three months ago, 
 there are now 122 colored women, and that their work is very creditable under the 
 direction of a matron who is colored. Efficiency clubs will be organized in this shop. 
 
 3. A female employee of the Co. complained of discrimination received at 
 
 the plant for which she worked. The supervisor of Negro economics had the matter 
 investigated and received report that this company had ceased operation on account 
 of cancellation of contract. Case can not be carried further. 
 
 4. A general cii'cular form was sent to 55 employers of Negro labor throughout the 
 State of New Jersey, to ascertain the quality of the work which is being given by 
 such labor. The replies are varied, the general tone being very commendable. 
 
 5. The investigation at the — plant revealed that there are now about 60 col- 
 ored women operatives whose work is commendable as against the unit of 10 which we 
 started there when the opportunity was opened. 
 
 In keeping with the plans of the department, the New Jersey con- 
 ference, drawn along the lines of prior conferences in other States, 
 was called and held on Friday, November 22, 1918. Representative 
 citizens, white and colored, from all over the State were present. The 
 folio wmg program was carried out : 
 
 The constitution of the Negro workers' advisory committee was 
 adopted, and shortly thereafter the formation of committees was 
 begun. On account of the location of persons and problems in the 
 cities of New Jersey, it was more practicable to begin at first the 
 formation of the city committees than to follow the plans of other 
 States and form, first, the State and county committees. Accord- 
 ingly Negro workers' advisory committees were soon formed in Pat- 
 erson, Newark, Camden, Trenton, Atlantic City, and several other. 
 New Jersey points. These committees functioned under the direction 
 of the State supervisor of Negro economics and in close cooperation 
 with the United States Employment Service and other public and 
 private organizations'. 
 
 As a sample of other activities in this State, the following extracts 
 are given. The following concerns the peculiar condition which the 
 New Jersey supervisor f oimd at Camp Dix, N. J. : 
 
92 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORED WAR, ' 
 
 REPORT ON SITUATION AMONG COLORED SOLDIERS AT CAMP DIX, N. J., WHO ARE TO 
 
 BE DEMOBILIZED SOON. 
 
 On Friday, January 3, 1919, I went to Camp Dix. Immediately on my arrival I 
 went to Y. M. C. A. Hut No. 7, which is used by Negro soldiers. Mr. Shelby DaAid- 
 son, secretary, and Mr. C. T. Greene, assistant secretary, were interviewed.' In the 
 course of inter\dew the point of most significance was the fact that there wa.') a decided 
 aversion on the part of all the men attaching their names to anything which sjjelled 
 United States, as most of them believed it meant reenlistment. This corroborated th'' 
 statement made by Mr. WilUam Banks, of the Employment Service, now in the camp. 
 The secretary mentioned also the fact that men from the United States Employment 
 Ser^ice had "talked to the colored men to enlist their interest, but few had gone over. 
 
 I then went to Building 928, where I met Col. Casper H. Cole, the commandant, 
 and Mr. William Banks, who is in charge of the United States Employment SerA-ice 
 in the camp. I inquired whether colored men came into the office in great nembers. 
 The answer was negative. The reason for this was, I believe, due to what was said 
 above, that men are afraid to sign their names to Government matters. I asked if 
 the command that all soldiers in the camp be marched to the employment office be- 
 fore their demobilization applied to colored as well as white men. The answer was 
 affirmative. 
 
 After their supper I spoke to about 300 colored men in the Y. M. C. A. and explained 
 the situation more clearly relative to the Government's position in interest of getting 
 men work as soon as they are discharged. 
 
 My suggestion on the situation as applicable to all men in the camp, white and col- 
 ored alike, is that in speaking of railroad opportunities men say "Pennsylvania Rail- 
 road," "Reading Railroad," or "Santa Fe," etc., instead of saying United States Rail- 
 road Administration, and also that in speaking of shipyards they say "Submarine,"' 
 "Newport News," "Bristol," ■"Tampa," etc., instead of United States Shipping 
 Board. This would eliminate from the minds of men the idea of a connection between 
 the idea of a job and the Government. 
 
 William M. Ashby, 
 Supervisor of Negro Economics for New Jersey. 
 
 The following letter shows the type of effort maugurated duruig 
 the reconstruction period to give first-hand assistance through the 
 United States Employment Service to returning soldiers: 
 
 Circular letter of advice. 
 
 March 27, 1919. 
 From: The Director of Negro Economics. 
 To: The Supervisors of Negro Economics. 
 Subject: Cooperation with War Camp Community Service. 
 
 1. I find that the W^ar Camp Community Service has a number of camps for Negro 
 soldiers and sailors, and I am informed that it is coojjerating with the United States 
 Employment Ser\'ice. I have talked ■\\ith some of the representatives about their 
 colored work and have also taken up the matter with the Director General, United 
 States Employment SerAice, and the National Director of the Bureau for Placing Re- 
 turning Soldiers and Sailors. It is agreeable to the national director for you to take 
 up with the Federal director of the employment ser\dce of yoiu- State the question of 
 utilizing such of these war camps as seem suitable for assisting in placing Negro soldiers 
 and sailors. 
 
 2. You will find inclosed a Kst of the communities where there are acti^dties for 
 colored soldiers, together with the names of the workers. I ad\ise that you take this 
 up with the Federal director and assist him in getting in touch with such of these 
 
 . people as he wishes to. 
 Respectfully, ■ 
 
 George E. Haynes, 
 Director of Negro Economics. 
 Approved: 
 
 Edward Easton, Jr., 
 
 National Superintendent, 
 
 Bureau for Returning Soldiers and Sailors. 
 Wade H. Skinner, 
 
 Acting Director, Organization Division, 
 
 U. S. Employment Service. 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 93 
 
 Some sample replies to letters of the New Jersey Supervisor contain 
 statements regarding the employment of Negro workers. These 
 responses were in reply to a questionnaire the object of which was to 
 secure the information : 
 
 With reference to the questionnaire received from you, we are pleased to advise 
 that we are using Negro workers as porters, elevator operators, matrons, dishwashers, 
 and for other miscellaneous positions in the restaurant. 
 
 During the war we engaged quite a number of colored women to act as elevator 
 operators. In all branches of the work, we have found Negro workers entirely satis- 
 factory. 
 
 Answering your favor of recent date with reference to the Negro workers in our 
 plant, I beg to state that we are well pleased with their work and I find them to be 
 good and willing workers under the supervision of our white foremen, whom we have 
 instructed to give every colored man or woman applj-ing for work to this company 
 the most cordial treatment, not the variety that will antagonize and drive them away 
 from the job. 
 
 My personal dealings in the past as Employment and Welfare Manager, with the 
 white and Negro workers have proven successful, as I have found that through kind- 
 ness and friendly treatment, eliminating all profanity and personal insults, the major- 
 ity of the Negro workers will do the work assigned to them thoroughly and to any 
 company's satisfaction. 
 
 At present we have in our employ several hundred Negroes employed as gener^J 
 factory helpers only, but in the near future I hope to be successful in inducing my 
 company to employ Negro mechanics. * * * 
 
 Answermg your inquiry of the 4th inst., would advise that about 40 per cent of our 
 labor is Negro. We do not find them to be as steady workers as the whites, although, 
 in some instances, they have proven to be very faithful. 
 
 We use them largely on work where muscular strength and endurance are of prime 
 importance and in this they work out quite well. 
 
 In a very few instances we have them operating machines, and, although we con- 
 sider these workers above the average, their work is very satisfactory. 
 
 Your letter, requesting information regarding our colored employees, was received 
 We have, altogether, about 1,250 colored men and 6 women. Of the latter, 4 are 
 in our main restaurant as dishwashers, and two in oiir administration buildings, who 
 keep the ladies' room in order. As a general rule our Negro workers give satisfaction. 
 Almost all of them are employed on the ships. They seem to make very good riveters 
 bolters-up and chippers and caulkers. Those who recently came from the South 
 seem to feel the cold weather, but the others who are acclimated, are as strong and 
 hardy as the white men. 
 
 Among the number we have there are about 75 or 100 West Indian Negroes There 
 are no colored men domg clerical work here at all. There are some working as laborers 
 and as far as I know none are in the machine shops. ' 
 
 The following statements of Mr. Ashby, the New Jersey supervisor 
 of Negro economics, give a very full insight into certain of his activities. 
 These reports cover various periods following the signing of the 
 armistice and show the complete turning over of departmental 
 machinery to meet peace-time demands in the industrial life of the 
 State : 
 
 I am very pleased to report a slight change for the better on the New Jersey con- 
 ditions of Negro labor this week. At the opening of the past week the offices found 
 themselves unable to make opportunities but later in the week new developments 
 occurred. This was true, particularly, of Newark where about 125 men were referred 
 during the week, at least 90 per cent of whom were placed. These openings were 
 made possible largely because of personal solicitation upon two industries. * * * 
 
94 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 The unemployment situation is particularly acute in Jersey City now. The same i 
 
 is true of Camden. In the former it is temporary, due to the strike of the Marine | 
 workers in and about the port of New York. Many Negroes are stevedores on both 
 
 the New York and New Jersey sides and due to the fact that transportation ia tied i 
 
 up their work is made impossible. In Camden, however, the lack of plants running j 
 
 on full time and also the crowding in of applicants from Philadelphia make it difficult i 
 
 to do much placing. i 
 
 The great problem with which I am most concerned at the present, is that of the 
 returning soldiers. Many commissioned officers and also many men who distin- 
 guished themselves in the Fifteenth and Buffalo regiments are New Jersey men. 
 An appreciable number of these fellows are especially well prepared. I mention 
 two or three — an illustrator and pen and pencil etcher, really talented; a tractor 
 operator, graduate of the Scientific Course at Kutgers College; an auditor, near com- 
 pletion of his course in the New York School of Finance. For the tractor operator, I 
 have made, I believe, a position; but the remaining two are unemployed and it is 
 rather criminal to offer to such men the most ordinary opportunities we have. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 REPORT OF WORK IN NEW YORK. 
 
 Owing to special complications in the New York situation no State 
 conference was held. There was such delay in getting the situation 
 in hand that the supervisor of Negro economics, Mr. Jesse O. Thomas, 
 did not enter upon duty until September, 1918, just two months be- 
 fore the signing of the armistice, and his services were discontinued 
 because of lack of funds after the end of that fiscal year. A New 
 York Negro Workers' Advisory Committee was proposed in coopera- 
 tion with the United States Employment Service and the New York 
 City Employment Service and with the supervising commissioner of 
 the New York State Industrial Commission, but this committee did 
 not get fully to work before the readjustment came in the finance 
 and plans of the United States Emplo}Tiient Service, under which the 
 activities were carried on. A branch office of the United States Em- 
 ployment Service was opened in the Harlem district jointly with the 
 State bureau of employment of the State industrial commission, under 
 Supt. Prince L. Edwards, and supervision given to this from Oc- 
 tober, 1918, to March, 1919, and much work was done in meeting 
 the difficult problems of placing semiskilled and skilled Negro workers 
 in industrial establishmentc m New York City and vicinity. A 
 large number of these men where returned Negro soldiers. The 
 Submarine Boat Corporation may be mentioned, particularly, as hav-. 
 ing taken into employment a number of men of technical training 
 and experience. Large numbers of the returning Negro soldiers, both 
 New York residents and those from other places, called for special 
 service from the placement agencies developed by the Federal Gov- 
 ernment and the State employment department. The supervisor of 
 Negro economics for New York gave special help in the development 
 of this work. A survey was made of labor conditions in Buffalo, 
 N. Y., in April, 1919, showing considerable unemployment because of 
 the closing dowm of munition plants and because oi the military de- 
 mobilization returning many men from overseas. Unskilled Negro 
 labor, however, could be placed without very much difficulty, but 
 semiskilled and skilled Negro workmen here, as in other places in the 
 State, found great difficulty in finding employment. Very few in- 
 dustrial plants in the city employed colored women. Some of the 
 firms, although employing thousands of workers, employed no colored 
 or only a few, and these only m the menial occupations such as maids 
 porters, janitors, or unskilled laborers. Similar surveys were made 
 m Rochester, Albany, and New York City and environs. Both in 
 New York City, Buffalo, and other parts oi the State the Negro serv- 
 ice of the department was heartily received by both white and col- 
 ored citizens, but only got well started before curtailment of appro- 
 priations made it necessary to discontinue its preparations. 
 
 95 
 
96 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Investigations were made of charges of discrimination against col- 
 ored workers and steps taken, in each case where the facts warranted, 
 to remove the handicap. When the housing situation began to be 
 acute the supervisor made a survey of important cities of the State 
 to ascertain the exact condition as it related to the Negro wage 
 earners with the view to assisting the United States Homes Regis- 
 tration Service in developing home-finding facilities, if thought ad- 
 visable. 
 
 Among the many organizations giving active cooperation special 
 mention should be made of the National Association of Colored 
 Women and its president, Mi's. Talbert, whose particular activity was 
 in the field at Buffalo, N. Y., and Mi's. Annette W. Erdmann, of the 
 industrial committee of the New York City Urban League, whose un- 
 tiring effort and hearty zeal were largely responsible for getting such 
 results as were possible under the complicated difficulties and con- 
 ditions. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 REPORT OF WORK IN NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 North Carolina was selected as the State in which the initial effort 
 of the Department of Labor should be made, and its program estab- 
 lished for promoting and fostering the welfare of Negro wage earners 
 through the special ser^ace of Negro economics. Consequently, fol- 
 lowing an official trip of the Director of Negto Economics into impor- 
 tant points in the State a conference of representative white and 
 colored citizens was called by Hon. T. W. Bickett, governor of North 
 Carolina, on June 19, 1918. There were present at this conference, 
 which was held in the office of the governor, 17 of the most sub- 
 stantial Negro citizens from all parts of the State and five white 
 citizens, as described in Chapter II. At the close of the meeting the 
 governor appomted a temporary committee which drafted a consti- 
 tution provided for the Negro Workers Advisory Committee, and for 
 an organization of local county and city committees. The w^orking 
 plan of organization, with slight modifications and adjustments, which 
 served as a model for the development of voluntary field organiza- 
 tions in other States, has been previously explamed in the descrip- 
 tion of activities in other States. 
 
 Before discussing the subsequent steps of organization and activity 
 in North Carolina, brief attention is here given to a few general and 
 specific mdustrial and agricultural situations which obtamed m North 
 Carolina. 
 
 These situations are cited for the purpose of showmg the wide 
 scope of the field of Negro work into which the policies and plans of 
 the Division of Negro Economics were to be carried. 
 
 The chief occupations of Negro women were m the field of agri- 
 culture, laundry work, domestic service, some work m spuming mills 
 (and some in hosiery and underwear), and work m tobacco factories. 
 There was a scarcity of female labor and on that account a number 
 of silk mills had been closed. The cotton-mill season extends from 
 May to September, and the tobacco season from September to April. 
 In many instances the homes of workers were of a poor t}^e; the 
 streets and sidewalks fronting such homes were unpaved and poorly 
 lighted. Surface drainage existed and general sanitation was inade- 
 quate in some cases. On the other hand, there were large numbers 
 of well-cared-for homes in communities of intelligent and progressive 
 Negroes. 
 
 In one North Carolma city it was reported that a Negi'o union had 
 been organized to which the white workers objected. At New Bern, 
 lumber mdustries emploj^mg large numbers of Negroes were re- 
 ported as havmg "working conditions which were mipleasant." 
 At Wilmmgton Negroes were employed m the shipyards, but only 
 in the miskilled occupations. At various other points in North 
 Carolina Negroes foimd employment in tanneries, hosiery mills, 
 guano plants, box factories, and the like. Throughout the State 
 1989°— 21 7 97 
 
98 THE NEGRO AT AVORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 there were found a number of physicians, dentists, druggists, and a 
 more than usual ownership of store and office buildings. At Kingston 
 5,000 Negro women and children were reported working in tobacco 
 factories. At Wajiiesville there were found mill girls, garment work- 
 ers, and a few clerks, organized and unorganized. As a general 
 situation throughout the State, Negro labor was much in demand 
 and was affected by the usual factors — (a) the union, (b) low wages, 
 (c) housing conditions, (d) health, (e) opportunity for advance- 
 ment, (/) the general competition between white and colored workers. 
 
 Follo\\dng the conference the plan for cooperation, and for the sub- 
 sequent formation and activity of a State committee and subsidiary 
 county and city committees was perfected. Among the early agen- 
 cies of cooperation may be mentioned the United States Public 
 Reserve, the State department of education, the rank and file of 
 Negro colleges and universities in North Carolina, chambers of com- 
 merce and the Negro private organizations, including the church. 
 An initial State committee of 29 substantial Negro citizens from 
 various sections of the State was formed. The membership of the 
 State committee and its executive board represent the following 
 cities: Wmston-Salem, Wadesboro, Winton, Oxford, Charlotte, Hen- 
 derson, Raleigh, Greensboro, Rocky Mount, Tarboro, Salisbury, 
 Chadbourn, New Bern, Lumberton, Bricks, Lexington, Durham, 
 Method, Goldsboro, Wilmmgton, Wilson, and Asheyille, thus bring- 
 ing into play the influence and forces of the best citizens throughout 
 the State. This committee was supplemented by interested white 
 citizens, who became cooperating members. 
 
 This State committee and the subsidiary county committee, after 
 adopting the constitution, started out hi their activities under the 
 supervision of Dr. A. M. Moore, who was appointed Supervisor of 
 Negro Economics and special agent of the United States Employ- 
 ment Service. It should be stated that Dr. Moore served the depart- 
 ment tliroughout the entire period of the war and the following seven 
 months as a dollar-a-year man. 
 
 The early formation of county and city committees included the 
 following counties : Guilford, Craven,Vance, Rockmgham, Buncombe, 
 Granville, Forsyth, Beaufort, Durham, Hertford, Alamance, and 
 Edgecombe, Halifax, and Nash combined. Wlien the work was 
 closed on June 30, 1919, names had been submitted covering prac- 
 tically every county in the State. 
 
 Inasmuch as the Division of Negro Economics was in the imme- 
 diate office of the Secretary of Labor, who was also chief adminis- 
 trative ofliicer for the United States Employment Service as well as 
 all the other departmental bureaus and divisions, it was practicable 
 that the North Carolma Negro work, as did the work in other States, 
 should have a close relationship to the L^nited States Emplo>Tnent 
 Service in that State. Consequently under the plan of organization 
 for the State, the Federal Du-ector of the United States Emplo^mient 
 Service became an advisory member of the State Negro Workers.' 
 Advisorv Committee. Also a close relationship with the governor, 
 the chairman of the State Council of Defense, and other white men 
 acting as advisers to other committees, was perfected and the follow- 
 ing initial recommendation for North Carolma was gradually worked 
 out and approved: 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 99 
 
 1. Workers appointed for special activities among Negro wage earners will work 
 under the authority of the United States Employment Service to give them official 
 standing, \\'ith cooperation and supervision of the Federal State director. 
 
 2. The work shall be undertaken with the advice of the Director of Negro Economics. 
 
 3. Matters calling for the expenditure of funds shall be submitted with the approval 
 of the Federal director and with the advice of the Director of Negro Economics. 
 
 4. All work carried on which relates to the Employment Service shall be under- 
 taken with the approval of the Federal State director. 
 
 These plans of course were ''overhead" plans, but they covered the 
 many details which became properly applicable to local committees 
 in the State as they were found. In order to bring the plans to the 
 attention of the public the special agent succeeded in getting in close 
 touch with the white and Negro members throughout the State, 
 and in making arrangements for a publicity service which would not 
 conflict with the Information and Education Service of the depart- 
 ment. 
 
 Among some of the earlier problems were found (1) that many 
 North Carolina laborers had oeen recruited through employment 
 agencies and in an indiscriminating way many of the "shiitless" 
 and "unstable" had been imported into North Carolina cities; (2) no 
 particular opportunity had been offered to thrifty, dependable work- 
 men to buy homes and to become permanent residents of the State. 
 In subsequent plans of publicity and contact these two problems 
 were dealt with by the North Carolina special agent and the close of 
 the work found at each particular point but a few scattered persons 
 who might be designated ''shiftless." 
 
 The Supervisor of Negro Economics, having business interests of 
 his own, soon found it necessary to have an assistant who could 
 actively canvass cities throughout the State. Mr. R. McCants 
 Andrews was subsequently detailed for such assistance work. 
 Of the early problems which he faced there came report of race 
 friction in a city of eastern North Carolina at a point in which there 
 were members of the Negro workers' advisory committees. An 
 investigation was made as to the nature of such race friction 
 and valuable advice was given both to the employing class and 
 to the working class, which resulted in removal of racial fric- 
 tion. In this connection valuable assistance in the matter of 
 sentiment was given by a leading North Carolina paper, to 
 the attention of which was called the value of mediation between 
 white workers, white employers and Negro workei-s followed by 
 a spirit of conciliation and cooperation and the abilty to see 
 both sides of any issue. It was pointed out also that the com- 
 mon interest of the white employer who wants to engage the service 
 which the Negro wage earner has to offer will make the adjustment of 
 the labor situation a most important one. This paper gave publicity 
 not only to the comment above quoted but also to subsequent 
 comment and advice tending to create a better feeling among the 
 employing and working classes of North Carolina. 
 
 In carrying out the plan of work of the North Carolina committee, 
 one of the first steps was for the supervisor to inaugurate an educa- 
 tional campaign wherever practical among Negro workers at the 
 various points in the State. Short itineraries were arranged and the 
 supervisor was given permission to address groups of workers at 
 man}^ large plants, with specific health questions, ideals of efficiency 
 and recreational activities, in order to preserve the morale and com- 
 
-A 
 
 100 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Eetcncy of Negro workers. Although in many instances employers 
 ad been slow to put on foot similar programs and thereby to bring 
 about a contented group of workers, there were many leading plants 
 in the State which had, from the beginning, recognized the need of 
 such an institution as would make their workers contented. A superin- 
 tendent of one of the large North Carolina phmts had under liis su- 
 pervision about 800 Negro employees, who, in fact, practically made 
 up one of the small villages of the State. In the early formation of one 
 01 the county committees this superintendent saw a splendid oppor- 
 tunity presented in being able to link up his plans with the program of 
 work oi the committee. It is of particular interest, in this connection, 
 to point out some of the early steps which his plant had taken in an 
 endeavor to preserve contentment among the workere. It was esti- 
 mated that the average worker at this plant in the eight-hour day 
 was earning $100 a month. The work was not exhausting, physi- 
 cally, and overtime pay was allowed to good workers. The plant 
 in question was equipped with steel lockers, porcelain washbowls, 
 shower baths, and other facilities necessary to the comfort and clean- 
 liness of its workers, white and colored. Within the viUage row after 
 row of new houses had been erected. These houses were modem 
 and sanitary, with running water, sewerage, and electric lights. 
 They were rented to workers at an extremely low price and many 
 had been purchased on a ten-year plan which the company had ar- 
 ranged in order to increase the desire for permanent residence. The 
 company also paid for a nine-months school for the childi'en of 
 workere. In the viUage itself Negroes were engaged in business 
 enterprises which were largely patronized by workers of this plant. 
 A modern hospital was in the course of erection and two churches 
 had been planned. 
 
 The local Negro workers' advisory committee, under the direction 
 of the supervisor, assisted this plant in a further educational cam- 
 paign to promote efficiency and thrift among the Negro workers. 
 Intelligent and self-respecting workers were solicited and the even- 
 tual outcome of assistance given by the local committee resulted in 
 the company's retaining a permanent social worker who has charge 
 of a program in behalf of the welfare of these workers. 
 
 As the work of the supervisor of Negro economics and the Negro 
 workers' advisory committee increased in scope and understanding, 
 various firms called upon the supervisor and his assistant for advice in 
 the formation of plans for the higher economic status of their workers. 
 One exceptionally large plant invited the supervisor and the director of 
 Negro economics to outline a complete program of welfare for its 
 Negro employees. Such a plan was made up and submitted, and it 
 received the commendation and adoption of the officials of the firm. 
 In his itineraries the assistant supervisor of Negro economics car- 
 ried the program of the department int» the following cities: Durham, 
 Badin, Oxford, Henderson, Bricks, Tarboro, Dover, New Bern, Bur- 
 lington, Lexington, Spencer, Charlotte, Statesville, Hickory, Morgan- 
 ton, Marion, AsheviUe, Wmston-Salem, Sahsbury, Raleigh, and High 
 Point. At various other points the supervisor and his assistant visited 
 Negro schools, making addresses and increasing the desire of workers 
 for greater efficiency and of employers for greater consideration of 
 their workers. 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 101 
 
 So pleased were the governor and other State officials with the 
 work of the Division of Negro Economics that the governor called, 
 for June 14, 1919, the annual meeting of the Negro workers' advisory , 
 committee, at which time the State supervisor submitted his recom- 
 mendations concerning the work. Inasmuch as that report received 
 the universal commendation of persons throughout the State, it is 
 given in full: 
 
 [U. S. Department of Labor, Office of Supervisor of Negro Economics for North Carolina, Durham, N. C] 
 
 HOW TO KEEP NEGRO LABOR. 
 
 New methods. — How to keep the Negro workers and make them satisfied with their 
 lot is the problem now presented to the South. It ought not be difficult of solution. 
 It is not natural for the Negroes to leave their old homes in this wholesale fashion; and 
 they really do not want to go. Some planters and industrial establishments are already 
 dernonstrating by means of better pay and greater care for their employees what such 
 considerations will do in keeping the Negroes loyally at work in the South; and the 
 more efficient Negro schools have for years been pointing the way. 
 
 Constructive possibilities.— The improvement of race relations is a matter of time, 
 and rests largely on the satisfactory solution of the economic problems of farm life. 
 Several noteworthy tendencies were, however, noticeably strengthened by the loss of 
 Negro labor. The first of these was the tendency of the leaders of the two races to draw 
 closer together. Several State-wide and county meetings were held to discuss the 
 migration and the grievances of the Negro. Until more interest is taken in theee 
 meetings by the white leaders, and until they are followed by constructive programs 
 for betiter law enforcement and education they can not measurably influence the 
 tendency of the Negro to move. 
 
 Holding Negro labor on the farm. — There is a general agreement that friendly personal 
 interest, absolute!}^ fair dealing in all business transactions, clear understanding of the 
 terms of the contract at the outset, itemized statements of indebtedness, good housing, 
 and encouragement of the Negroes to raise their foodstuffs as far as possible, taken 
 together, will attract and hold labor on farms. 
 
 Majority of Negroes are workers. — Since the great majority of Negroes are in the working 
 class, their permanent interests are as laborers, and these interests are in the mainte- 
 nance of li\dng Avages and of good working conditions. 
 
 The Negro's value to North Carolina. — There is no question as to the value of the Negro 
 to the South; but circumstances are bringing other sections to an appreciation of his 
 value also and the Negro, too, is coming to uderstand something of his worth to the 
 community. If North Carolina would keep the Negro and have him satisfied she 
 must give more constructive thought than has been her custom to the Negro and his 
 welfare. 
 
 The outline of facts stated above should help us to approach our local problems with 
 greater understanding, greater sympathy, and a great Avillingness to cooperate in their 
 satisfactory adjustment. With this understanding and sympathy we are better able 
 to appreciate the statesmanlike policy of the Department of Labor in creating and 
 maintaining the work of Negro economics. 
 
 On May 1, 1918, the Secretary of Labor, Hon. William B. Wilson, realizing that the , 
 Negro constitutes about one-seventh of the total working population of the country, > 
 appointed a Negro, Dr. George E. Haynes, as adAdsory to the Secretary with the title 
 Director of Negi'o Economics. This was done in ordei that the Negro might have a 
 representative in council whenever matters affecting his welfare were being consi- 
 dered ; and that more extensiAO plans migh t be developed for improving his efficiency 
 and production in agiiculture and industry. 
 
 There were appointed in four Southern States and five Northern States superAdsors 
 of Negro economics who have established cooperative committees of representative 
 white and colored citizens to work out together the local labor problems. These 
 Negro workers' adA'isory committees, as they are called, have a program of work which 
 is carried on by the colored members, the whites serving as cooperating members. So 
 successful has the work of the committees proved that the Division of Negro Economics 
 ■ have been continued for the important work of reconstruction. This work is not /_ 
 separate from the other work of the department, but is carried on as an integral 
 part. The superA-isors are under the authority of the Federal directors of the 
 United States Employment Service. 
 
102 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAE. 
 
 NortJf Carolina led the way.— On June 19, 1918, Gov. T. W. Bickett, called a con- 
 ference in his office which was attended by 17 of the most substantial Negjo citizens 
 from all parts of the State and 5 white citizens. Out of this meetinp; came the plan 
 of Negro workers' ad\'i8ory committees, which is now operating; in nine States. A 
 State Negro workers' committee of leading Negro men and women of North Carolina 
 was appointed and plans were formed for the creation of county and city committees, 
 .^^here were on April 1 of the present year 25 of these committees actively at work in 
 our State. 
 
 The fv per visor's report. — The 8uper^d8or of Negro Economics for North Carolina and 
 the assistant supervisor have \-isited 23 counties since their organization, holding 
 conferences with leading white and colored citizens which have V)een most helpful. 
 On the basis of this personal investigation thionghout the State, the supervisor \nshe9 
 to present imder separate headings, t summary of conditions as foimd: 
 
 White employers awl liherol vhtte citizens. — There is the greatest cordiality and \nll- 
 K ingness to cooperate upon the part of these persons. In many instances they rivaled 
 the colored citizens in spirit and enthusiasm. They spoke freely as well as the Ne- 
 groes, and are asking on eveiy hand to be called upon for cooperation. Some of them 
 came from the rural districts and from near-by towTis to attend the conferences. 
 
 Many employers are already offering special inducements to their Negro workers. 
 For example, a cotton oil company is giA'ing fi'ee life insm-ance for S500 to all who 
 remain in its employ for six months; many older employees have been giA-en fi'ee 
 insurance for .?1.000. Knitting mill companies are carefully selecting colored girla 
 for their plants and are giving employment at good wages throughout the year. Lum- 
 ber companies are giving bonuses to men who go to the lumber camps. 
 
 The labor situation in North Carolimi. — Broadly speaking there is a scarcity of Negro 
 bbor in the State. All the industries are feeling this at present. But a greater 
 suffering wiU be felt in the fall when it is time for crop gathering. The farmers are 
 suffering most. Cotton is standing in the fields in all parts of the State from last year. 
 
 It is highly desirable that leaders of white workmen cooperate with our committees. 
 
 SPECIAL PROBLEMS INVOLVING NEGRO LABOR. 
 
 1. Tobacco, guano, and cotton-oil industries. Tobacco work is seasonal; the wage 
 are high and no great intelligence is required for much of the work. When the gre^ 
 warehouses open, crowds of workers leave year-round industries, often demoralizing 
 the latter. The work of the industries here mentioned is dirty and does not invite 
 workers of any particular skill. It is hard to promote cleaniness, efficiency, and thrift 
 among workers whose lives are haphazard, who come and go through the streets in 
 their working clothes and who are not generally considered as advanced workers. 
 
 2. Many of the seasonal plants rim 12-hoiu- shifts, often doubling the work day of 
 the most faithful employees. This leads to the workers "lajdng off" on Saturdays 
 and Mondays. In one 12-hom' plant visited the colored workers had "struck" for 
 Saturdays off. 
 
 3. Lumber camps: In some instances the quarters provided for logging and mill 
 camps have not attracted respectable workers and their families. "Floaters" and 
 crap-shooters were mainly the classes who were \villing to go to such camps. Their 
 
 ^work has, of course, not been satisfactory. On the other hand, one concern Aisited 
 had made its location a real commimity and stimulated local pride in it. The manager 
 of this concern spoke of his success in getting and holding labor of a splendid class in 
 his little toAATi. 
 
 4. Hosiery mills: The plants visited are clean and sanitary, well-lighted, and safe 
 They pay good wages and run all the year. The ownei-s are trying to select their 
 workers carefully and to encoiu-age the development of character. But Aery few of 
 them have been highly successful in getting an adequate force; and most of the girls 
 leave as soon as the tobacco work opens. Some of these plants haA-e never been able 
 to increase their output; and one of them is still compelled to close on Saturdays 
 because of a general shortage of girls. 
 
 HOW OUR NEGRO WORKERS* ADVISORY COMMITTEES CAN MEET THESE PROBLEMS. 
 
 In line wdth our official program of work our committees should — 
 
 (1) Promote the efficiency of colored workers in order to overcome the loss from 
 shortage of labor. 
 
 (2) Encourage the use of farm machinery to increase farm production and to create 
 a surplus of farm labor for use in the harA-est time. 
 
 (3) PrcA^ail upon white leaders as well as white employers to cooperate with our 
 committees. 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 103 
 
 (4) Encoxirage white employers in the tobacco", guano, and cotton oil industries to 
 make the work as clean and as pleasing as possible. The instiiUation of clothes lockers 
 and waslirooms \\i\\ impress the workers with the advantage of coming and going from 
 vork in clean clothes. 
 
 (.')) Advise Asith employers whose plants are rimning long hom-s as to whether 
 shorter hoiu-s will not mean gi-eater efiiciency and greater regularity. Many workers 
 are now averaging only four days a week; the proportion of "laying off" on Satur- 
 days and Mondays is distressingly large. y 
 
 (6) Pay close attention to seasonal plants, following especially shortage and sm-plus, 7>. 
 and endeavoring to assist in transfer of workers to new jobs as these plants close. The 
 United States Employment Service shoiUd be aided in recruiting Negi-o workers so 
 
 ^s not to draw away workers from "year-roimd" industries. Reports as to shortage 
 and surplus should be made regularly by the committeemen to the office of the super- 
 visor so that colored workers may secm-e jobs without going gi-eat distances. 
 
 (7) Suggest to employers of lumber concerns the development of commimity life 
 in their camps, with better housing and family settlements. 
 
 (8) Call to the attention of steady and capable yomig women in the community 
 who are not employed the excellent sanitary condition of the knitting mills and 
 opportunity for steady employment in them. 
 
 It is wgeutly hoped that all public spirited citizens of both races who have at heart 
 the agricultural and industrial expansion of om- State, and who realize that such ex- ^f 
 pansion and development can only come through the improvement of Negro labor 
 \vi\\ sustain this far-sighted effort of the Department of Laboi and will give active 
 support to the program of work of the Division of Negro Economics, and to the under- 
 signed, 
 
 A. M. Moore, M. D., 
 Special Agent and Supervisor 
 of Negro Economics for North Carolina, 
 
 Durham, N. C. 
 June, 1919. 
 
 It is deemed to be in place to quote commendations from Hon. T. W. 
 Bickett, governor of North Carolina, regarding the Negro economics 
 work in his State: 
 
 There is the greatest cordiality and willingness on the part of the white employers 
 and Liberal white citizens to cooperate mth the Negroes. In many instances they 
 rival the colored citizens in spirit and enthusiasm. They speak freely and are askino- 
 on every hand to be called into cooperation. * * * ° 
 
 This re])ort sets out that in many industries and on the farms intelligent efforts are 
 being made to improve Li\ing conditions of the Negro and to afford him every incentive 
 to put forth his very best efforts. In one plant the committee devised a plan to pub- 
 lish an honor roll containing the names of all Negroes who worked steadily six days 
 in the week. Under this system the loafing list was decreased 57 per cent and there 
 was a corresponding increase in the number of steady workers. * * * 
 
 If ever>' man, black and white, in the United States, could read and digest this V 
 report, it would go a great way toward solving all oiu- questions. I shall keep and use 
 this report as a basis for my futiure work. * * * 
 
 The Chief Justice of the State, the Federal Director of the United 
 States employment Service and a number of employers all expressed 
 themselves as profoundly impressed with the scope and character 
 of the work done by the committee. 
 
 The North Carolina Farmers' Conference on Labor Problems, held 
 at Bricks, N. C, April 21, 1919, brought to the attention of the 
 department its report and recommendations made to the State Negro 
 workers' advisory committee concerning farm labor questions as they 
 affected Negroes in the State. This report and its recommendations 
 are deemed to be of sufficient importance to justify its inclusion in 
 this report, and attention is therefore called to the specific conditions 
 and recommendations of the farmers' conference. 
 
104 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 1. Greater use of farm machinery: 
 
 (a) This committee should encourage greater use of farm machinery as a means 
 of creating a surplus of farm la})or. 
 
 1. The State and Federal governments should be urged to aid the farmers 
 
 in securing farm tractors, ditchers, tobacco setters, potato planters, 
 and other needed implements. 
 
 2. The owners of adjoining farms should be encouraged to purchase ma- 
 
 chinery jointly. 
 
 2. Cooperative undertakings: 
 
 (a) Progressive farmers are running cooperative cotton gins, sawmills, and 
 warehouses and are purchasing guano and fertilizer together. Such 
 efforts are not only meritorious as business enterprises; they often help 
 the farmer to market his products quickly, obtain a money surplus, and 
 improve his farm. 
 
 (5) Cooperative harvesting should be encouraged in order to save the crops. 
 
 This practice already exists in some communities. 
 
 3. Improvement farm life: 
 
 (a) Every possible encouragement should be given to the improvement of farm 
 life. 
 
 1. This committee shall cooperate with organizations forwarding "after- 
 
 the-war" programs to render rural life more pleasant and profitable. 
 
 2. Plantation owners and farmers who employ Negro enants hould be 
 
 urged to prox'ide them with good homes. 
 
 3. Full information concerning Government Farm Loans should be 
 
 secured and given to the farmers. 
 
 4. Athletics and outdoor sports and all forms of regulated amusements 
 
 should be encouraged, as well as indoor entertainments at schools 
 and churches for ^vinter evenings. 
 
 4. Student farm labor: 
 
 (a) It should be the aim of this committee to divert such student labor from the 
 cities, for the summer vacations, as can be more profitably employed 
 on the farms. 
 
 1. Many students are now realizing from $300 to $500 on two (2) acres of 
 
 tobacco, haA^ing sufficient time left to do general farm work also. 
 
 2. Children of farm owners or tenants farming on their own account should 
 
 be encouraged to remain at home, and parents and employers who 
 receive the services of students should make such settlements with 
 them as will adequately provide for the next year's schooling. 
 
 5. Distribution of labor: 
 
 (a) Efforts should be made to recruit workers for the farms when seasonal indus- 
 
 tries close in the cities. 
 
 (b) Cooperate with the nearest United States EmplovTnent Service office. 
 
 6. Education: 
 
 (a) White farmer and employer: 
 
 1. White farmers and employers of Negro farm labor should be urged to 
 cooperate with Negro fanners in promoting the common interests of 
 the rural communities. 
 
 (b) Negro farmer and farm laborer: 
 
 1. Negro farmers and farm laborers should be urged to cooperate with 
 
 white farmers and employers in promoting the common interests of 
 the rural communities. 
 
 2. Lectures in colored churches and lodges on modem farm methods, use 
 
 of farm machinery, improvement of farm life, race pride, industry 
 and thrift, etc. 
 
 3. Farmers' conferences. 
 
 4. " Buy-a-farm " movement. 
 
 7. Farm demonstrators: 
 
 (a) City and county officials should be urged to provide funds for the appoint- 
 ment of Negro farm demonstrators. 
 
 (6) The breeding of registered live stock should be extended under the direction 
 
 of the county farm demonstrators. 
 
 (c) Siu-veys should be made as to shortage and surplus of labor before planting 
 
 and harvesting crops so that acreage might be reduced or extended and 
 crops saved. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 REPORT OF WORK IN OHIO. 
 
 The number of Negro migrants who settled in the principal indus- 
 trial centers of Ohio were large. Estimates secured upon visits to those 
 centers by investigators of the Department of Labor in 1917 give some 
 definite notion of these numbers. The followm^ figm'es, of course, 
 are largely general estimates and probably should be double, and, 
 m some cases, increased to a large extent as of September 1, 1919. 
 
 Cleveland 10, 000 
 
 Cincinnati 6, 000 
 
 Columbus 3, 000 
 
 Dayton 3,000 
 
 Toledo 3, 000 
 
 Canton 3, 000 
 
 Akron 3, 000 
 
 Middletown ' 1, 000 
 
 Camp Sherman, Chillicothe 2, 000 
 
 Portsmouth 300 
 
 Baltimore & Oliio camps : 400 
 
 Pennsylvania Railroad camps 800 
 
 Contractors 1 , 000 
 
 Traction companies 1, 000 
 
 Total 137, 500 
 
 It will be noticed that Alliance, Bellaire, Hamilton, Ironton, Lima, 
 Springfield, Steubenville, Youngstown, and Zanesville were not 
 included m this survey. These pomts, as well as other cities, 
 contained a large number of iron, steel, coal, coke, and other 
 industries which called for the kind of labor which Negroes were 
 readily able to supply. As the figures mdicate, lar^e numbers 
 of Negroes migrated mto Ohio and were distributed over it generally. 
 Therefore, this State received early consideration m the program of 
 the Department of Labor, 
 
 Organization — Supervisor of Negro economics. — The departmental 
 State supervisor of Ne^ro economics, Charles E. Hall, was appointed 
 with the view of general efficiency to the department and to the State 
 of Ohio. For more than 18 years Mr. Hall had been an employee of 
 the Bureau of the Census in the United States Department of Com- 
 merce, and had had considerable experience in field work. He had 
 supervised the gathermg and preparation of statistical material relat- 
 mg to the manuf acturmg mterests and to the Negro population m the 
 United States. He had received special commendation from the 
 Department of Commerce for this work. During 1916, the early 
 period of Negro migration to the North, Mr. Hall had been detailed 
 to the Department of Labor for field investigations. His valuable 
 work m a report of more than ordmary worth, served as a basis for 
 first steps by the Department of Labor. 
 
 1 Negro Migration in 1916-1917, Appendix to report of Francis E. Tyson. Government Printing 
 OfBce, Washmgton. 
 
 105 
 
106 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Being a native of the Middle West, Mr. Hall enjoyed a wide con- 
 tact with public officials and representative citizen, through whom 
 it was believed the fullest cooperation could be obtained. He took 
 the field in Ohio on June 17, 1918, just preceding the State conference. 
 The later success of his work gave substantial mdorsement to the 
 judgment of the department in assignmg him to Ohio. 
 
 Conference on Negro labor. — FoUowmg the assignment of Super- 
 visor Hall to the State, under the auspices of the United States 
 Employment Service, ])lans for the Ohio conference on Negro labor 
 were started with the hearty cooperation of both State and Federal 
 officials, the State Council of National Defejise and a number of 
 private citizens and agencies. Special mention should be made of the 
 personal interest and attention of Gov. James M. Cox and Mr. Fred D. 
 Croxton, chairman of the State Council of National Defense. 
 
 The conference was called by the Department of Labor to get 
 action upon those things that needed to be done m Ohio to pro- 
 mote the welfare of wage erners, and to stimulate the ])roduction for 
 winning the war. Dr. F. L. Hagerty, professor of sociology, Ohio 
 State University, presided. After considerable discussion and a num- 
 ber of addresses the body of the work of the conference was done, 
 through committees, reports from which were adopted for the further 
 guidance of the department's work in the State. 
 
 Some of the committees' recommendations were as follows; 
 
 1. Investigation into the difficulties arising from discrimination against Negroes 
 by local labor unions. 
 
 2. Efforts to stabilize labor by giving new opportunities for promotion, by standardiz- 
 ing wages, by reclassifying work, by the employment of colored foremen, and by, 
 educational work among the working classes with the view of making them satisfied 
 with their occupations. 
 
 3. An endeavor to employ the Negro worker in full accordance with his fitness. 
 
 4. The opening of new places of employment in keeping with the fitness of Negro 
 wage-earners. 
 
 5. The conducting of welfare work in plants and factories. 
 
 6. The setting up of facilities for community recreation. ^ 
 
 7. Increased attention to rooms, lockers, ventilation, and adequate space for em- | 
 ployees. 
 
 8. Special attention to health problems. 
 
 The committee on industrial conditions reported to the conference 
 that there was sufficient work to be secured in the State for Negro 
 laborers in industry doing Government and other work and that the 
 Negro laborers were generally reliable. It also reported that in some 
 industries there was discrimination as to the kinds of work and con- j 
 ditions under which the work was done with reference to Negro 
 laborers. The committee stated that the demand for labor was more 
 than the supply and in order that the Government might get the 
 greatest return out of the amount of the actual and potential energy 
 of the Negro workmen it was recommended that where skilled Negro 
 laborers were doing unskilled work because of their inability to secure 
 work at the skilled trades on account of color that the Government 
 adopt rules for governmental contracts and make a special effort to 
 see that every such man be given the opportunity to do that for 
 which he was best fitted. The final recommendation of this com- 
 mittee closed with the averment that "race or color should be no bar 
 to advancement." 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 107 
 
 The committee on organization adopted with modifications to meet 
 local conditions for use in Ohio the form of constitution for the Negro 
 workers' advisory committee which the department had developed. 
 
 The committee on Negro women in industry submitted a report on 
 this subject of such special importance for future procedure that it 
 is reproduced here in full : 
 
 1. We, as a committee, recommend that a Negro woman be placed on the State 
 committee of women in industry, recently named by the Ohio Branch, Council of 
 National Defense. 
 
 2. We, as a committee, recommend that the United States Employment Service 
 place Negro placement secretaries in any employment office where numbers of colored 
 women seek employment, to be determined by the State director. 
 
 3. We, as a committee, recommend that we indorse the standard which the women's 
 committee, Ohio Branch, Council of National Defense, have drawn up through the 
 committee on women in industry. 
 
 4. We recommend that this committee bring to the attention of the national com- 
 mittee on housing any housing conditions as they affect Negro women. 
 
 5. We recommend that a pamphlet be drawn up stating the necessity of loyalty to 
 duty and efficiency on the part of the worker, and the financial loss entailed through 
 the neglect of such, upon the part of the employer and community, be given each 
 worker thi'ough the employment office. 
 
 6. We, as a committee, recommend that a woman be placed on the committee of 
 hygiene and sanitation, if the committee appointed this morning is a standing com- 
 mittee. 
 
 7. We recommend that no worker shall be permitted to leave her present employ- 
 ment without giving a week or more notice before l^eing accepted by another employer. 
 
 8. We recommend and ui-ge that a Negro welfare worker be placed in industries 
 over Negi'o women as a solution to the employers' problem of adjustment. 
 
 9. We recommend the encom-agement of an adequate system of training within 
 plants which recognizes the difference between showing and teaching for all new 
 employees. 
 
 Respectfully submitted. 
 
 Miss Jennie D. Porter, 
 
 Chairman, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
 Miss Elsie Mountain, 
 
 Secretary, Columbus, Ohio. 
 
 Hon. James M. Cox, governor of Ohio, was present at the confer- 
 ence and made the closing address, which included the following 
 remarks : 
 
 I have no disposition to interfere with your deliberations, but upon the statement 
 of Dr. Haynes, with whom I have had a brief but delightful conference with reference 
 to the earnestness of this meeting and the fact that it seems to be the most serious, if 
 not the most successful, meeting that has l)een held in any of the States, I felt that we 
 would l3e derelict in our responsibility to the duties that come and go each day, as 
 governor of this State, if I did not come here and express my appreciation of your 
 coming. 
 
 First, we need your people and need them badly in the war. We, likewise, need 
 yom- people and need them badly in the industrial life of this country. 
 
 Last winter I had the privilege of visiting Tuskegee Institute. I had a long visit 
 with that splendid type of yom* race. Dr. Moton. The opportimity was mine of making 
 a sui'vey of what was being done at this institute. I took pains to make considerable 
 inquiry with reference to national and industrial conditions in the State of Alabama, 
 and I am prepared to say, in the candor of my own judgment, at least, that you, as 
 representatives of the race, are just now coming into your own. Even in the Southern 
 States, when the great flow started northward, the southern people found they could 
 not get along without the colored people. 
 
 The war gives you a great opportimity. I can say with pride, now, and reiterate 
 it all tlirough the corridor of time, that not a single member of your race is following 
 the standard of the Kaiser. I have had the opportunity of reviewing colored troops, 
 and I hope you will not feel that I am speaking flippantly when I recall the circum- 
 stances of re\iewing the troops at Camp Sherman. Capt. Talbott, with Gen. Glenn's 
 staff, came over to the reviewing stand and said: "I have just left the colored regi- 
 ment, and they are so full of pep that if they do not dance the Cakewalk when they 
 
108 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 come by, I will be surprised." They presented the best line of the day — it was 
 generally conceded to 1)e the best line of the day by the general, the persons in the 
 reviewing stand, and the thousands of white people who were a.ssemV)led there. I 
 hope that when the war is over we can then join together members of our race and 
 yours in helping to work out in Ohio what they have in Alabama. 
 
 The colored man is here, and here to stay, and since that is true we not only want 
 to improve the educational opportunities that come to him but we also want to give 
 attention to vocational training. * * * 1 want you to cany home to those you 
 represent the assuiance that whatever help this State can render, either to the people 
 in your State or to the soldiers at the front, needs but an e\idence of yom- desire. 
 
 The Department of Labor takes this special opportunity to thank 
 every agency and every individual who helped to make successful the 
 Oliio conference August 5, 1919. 
 
 Negroes workers' advisory comraittees. — Immediately after the confer- 
 ence, Supervisor Hall, with the assistance of public-spirited citizens 
 of Ohio, recommended to the department a number of the strongest 
 persons for appointment to service on the State Negro workers' ad- 
 visory committee, and to local, county, and city committees of 25 
 important centers of the State where Negro workers in considerable 
 numbers resided. The complete personnel of the State committee 
 follows : 
 
 Edward Berry, Athens; Leroy W. Bobbins and Chas. C. Cowgill, 
 IMiddletowTi; Chas. L. Johnson and Chas. P. Dunn, Springfield; Rob- 
 ert K. Hodges, D. R. Williams, Alexander H. Martin, and (Miss) 
 Hazel Mountain, Cleveland; Chas. W. Bryant, Harry B. Alexander, 
 J. H. Hendrick,- and (Mrs.) E. W. Moore, Columbus; J. E. Ormes, 
 Wilberforce; R. E. Holmes, Xenia; F. D. Patterson, Greenfield; 
 Joseph L. Jones, H. S. Dunbar, Fred. A. Geier, and (Miss) Anna Laws, 
 Cincmnati; B. M. Ward, B. H. Fisher, and (Mrs.) Minnie Scott, 
 Toledo; Rev. W. O. Harper, and T. E. MiUiken, Youngstown; H. T. 
 Elliott, Dayton; Rev. A. M. Thomas, Zanesville; (]Mrs.) Stephen Bates, 
 ChiUicothe; James French, Sandusky; T. E. Greene, Akron. 
 
 Pereons serving on these committees did so at the special request 
 of the Secretary of Labor, and, in but one or two instances, %\-here 
 the appointees were confronted with extreme pressure of business, 
 were the invitations declined. Throughout the work the patriotism 
 and spirit of service of the citizenship of Ohio made possible the suc- 
 cessful carrying out of virtually every plan which the department 
 launched, and the Ohio committee, like similar committees • in 10 
 other States, assisted in the handling of industrial problems with a 
 maximum degree of satisfaction. 
 
 Surveys of labor conditions. — The general industrial conditions in 
 Ohio were investigated either by the supervisor directly or by the 
 committee members, who reported to the supervisor on a form of 
 blank, of which the following is a copy: 
 
 NEGRO WAGE EARNERS IN OHIO. 
 
 Information for supervisor of Negro economics. 
 
 To members of county and city committees of Negro workers' advisory committee. 
 Please fill out blank and return. 
 
 1. Are there many out of work in your city or county? . 
 
 2. Have many been released during the past 30 days? . 
 
 3. If so, were they absorbed by other occupations? . 
 
 4. Have any new avenues of employment been opened? . 
 
 5.. If so, state the kind of work. . 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 109 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 (Under "Remarks " please furnish the supervisor with any other information which 
 you think should be brought to his attention.) 
 
 Information furnished by 
 
 Address: 
 
 Date: 
 
 The first general survey developed the following facts : 
 
 The Negro workers had not been greatly disturbed because of the 
 many industrial readjustments and temporary suspensions of the 
 manufacturing enterprises not essential to winning the war, during 
 the war a^nd preceding the signing of the armistice. 
 
 The counties of Hamilton, Lucas, and Montgomery, whose principal 
 cities are Cincinnati, Toledo, and Dayton, respectively, were largely 
 engaged on war contracts. In Toledo the opportunities for employ- 
 ment were steadily improving. Local industries in Cleveland, Co- 
 lumbus, Youngstown, Akron, Canton, Lima, Delaware, Greenville, 
 Steubenville, ZanesviUe, Chillicothe, Sandusky, Portsmouth, Mari- 
 etta, and other centers were employing large numbers of Ne^ro work- 
 ers. In Butler County, the American Rolling Mills were giving em- 
 ployment to hundreds of workers. In Lima, the Swift Packing Co. was 
 giving employment to Negro men and women, who were making good. 
 In Youngstown, Mahoning County, an increasing number of elevator 
 girls and male truck drivers were given employment. 
 
 In Dayton a large firm was making calls for considerable numbers 
 of Negro laborers. This company was able to guarantee prospective 
 workers housing facilities of the better type. Columbus reported a 
 garm-ent manufacturer who was unable to get a suflficient number of 
 Negro women who could operate power machines. Youngstown re- 
 ported insufficient wages ($9 and $1 a week) for girls. Dayton reported 
 an industry using from 1 5 to 30 colored women, sorting rags on a piece- 
 work basis, at $15 per week. 
 
 Job selling. — Among the special conditions found in Ohio was one 
 which related to job selling in industrial establishments; and there is 
 incorporated herein a full report of the Ohio supervisor respecting 
 this condition, evidences of which were very apparent. Tliis report 
 was approved by the Director of Negro Economics and sent to ad- 
 visory committeemen in all parts of the State. 
 
 JOB SELLING IN INDUSTRIAL ESTABLISHMENTS TO NEGROES. 
 
 To prevent job selling; by foremen, assistant foremen, "straw bosses" and "go- 
 betweens" a very comprehensive bill was enacted by the last General Assembly 
 upon the recommendation of the Industrial Commission of Ohio, the penalty being 
 as follows: 
 
 "Section 2. Whoever violates any provision of this act shall be fined for the first 
 offense not less than one hundred dollars nor more than five hundred dollars and the 
 costs of prosecution; and for the second or any subsequent offense not less than two 
 hundred dollars nor more than one thousand dollars and the costs of prosecution." 
 _ "Section 6. The Industrial (.'ommission of Ohio shall have full power, jurisdic- 
 tion, and authority to administer the provisions of tliis act." 
 
 Before the migration of Nesri-oes from the South had reached a considerable vol- 
 ume, the foreign-born wage earners were the ones who were the victims of this per- 
 nicious system and the Department of Investigation and Statistics secured definite 
 information that the collection of fees for jobs, or assessments of various lands by 
 foremen was a well-established custom in many of the industrial establishments 
 through the State. It was found at the time the investigation was made that the 
 price paid to foremen was generally $15, $20, or $25 for a job paying approximately 25 
 cents per hour, and that the custom appeared to have become so well established that 
 
110 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 no demand for payment needed to be made as the applicant understood that he must 
 make a payment of money before he got the work. 
 
 Definite information was secured by the department to the effect that the shrewd 
 foreman seldom received the money directly from the applicant, but usually had a 
 number of men who acted as ''go-betweens" and who were generally "straw bosses" 
 or workmen. 
 
 This system of petty gi-aft became so pronounced and the demands of the grafters 
 became so insistent that the investigators experienced no great dilficulty in securing 
 the e^idence upon wMch a number of indictments were made under the old law 
 relating to private employment agencies wliich was not broad enough in scope, how- 
 ever, to fit the entire situation. 
 
 The new law includes the acceptance of fees, gifts or gratuities, qr promises to pay 
 a fee or to make a gift under the agreement or with the understanding that the grafter 
 will undertake to secure or assist in securing work for the applicant, or with the under- 
 standing that he vriW advance or undertake to secure or assist in securing an advance 
 in pay or prevent or undertake to prevent or assist in preventing the discharge or 
 reduction in pay or position of the worker in the employ of the company. The law 
 which was enacted by the eighty-second general assembly covers all of these points 
 and carries with it the penalty indicated above. 
 
 There are indication that tliere has been a re^dv'■al of the practice of job selling, but 
 that instead of working on the foreigners, the grafters have turned their attention to 
 the helpless, ignorant, and destitute Negroes who are coming from the South to seek 
 opportunities to better their condition, and it is not unlikely that the system of job 
 selling in industrial establishments in Ohio will again be investigated as the practice 
 is not only unlawful and highly dishonorable but has a tendency to destroy the morale 
 of the workers and thereby seriously affect production. All such cases should be 
 reported. 
 
 Chaules E. Hall, 
 Supervisor of Negro Economics. 
 
 Approved. 
 
 , (Signed) George E. Haynes. 
 
 Director of Negro Economics. 
 
 Living conditions of Negro workers. — It was the experience of the 
 department that inifavorable living conditions, more than anything 
 else, made difficult the advancement of the Negro worker in effi- 
 ciency and increased contentment. At times the housing conditions 
 were due to lack of employment; at times the conditions were due to 
 lack of pride on the part of the worker; and at times the boarding- 
 house keeper of the low ty^e set up conditions which necessity forced 
 the working men to accept. 
 
 As to the latter class, in one instance Supervisor Hall reported as 
 fellows: 
 
 October 11, 1918. 
 Dr. George E. Haynes, 
 
 Director of Negro Economics, Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. 
 
 Dear Sir: On the evening of October 9, 1918, I visited the boarding and lodging 
 house conducted- by — , a colored man, for the ■ Co., — , Ohio. 
 
 This very dilapidated two-story frame building r-i located at Street, and 
 
 is known as . It is the most filthy boarding and lodging house that has 
 
 come under my observation. A foul-smelling closet adjoins the unclean dining 
 room. I noticed broken windows upstairs in the sleeping quarters, and in the 
 south wing even the skylights were without glass or other protection from the 
 elements. 
 
 There is no shower or bathroom for the 42 men who occupy this house, and it has 
 been found necessary to borrow a washtub from the neighbors to accommodate the 
 men who wdsh to take a bath. The place is heated by small stoves and natural gas 
 heaters and the building is lighted by electricity. The kitchen was fairlj^ clean but 
 the range had no hot-water boiler, wfdch greatly inconveniences the cooks and other 
 kitchen help as well as the boarders. 
 
 A number of the dirty sunken floors need jacking up and the rooms would not be 
 less attractive if they were painted or wlutewashed. Although there are a few new 
 bed mattresses, I found most of them alarmingly fUthy with bed coverings in the same 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. Ill 
 
 condition. Although there are plenty of rooms in the house, many of them are unfur- 
 nished. Upon in(iuiry I was informed that the men coming off the night shift are 
 obliged to occupy the rooms just vacated by the men going on the day shift. In 
 some instances four of five men sleep in a room about 10 by 1 2 at the same time. Some 
 of the bed springs are worn out, necessitating the sleeper to lie in most uncomfortable 
 positions, regardless of the fact that he has been working hard and that the efficiency 
 of his work depends largely upon comfortable repose. There is no assembly room, 
 music (except nickel-in-the-slot piano), pool, billiards, or books. 
 
 For these most inferior accommodations the men are charged $7.25 per week for 
 
 room and board as compared with $4.55 per week charged by the Co., 
 
 located in the same city and within a few blocks. The - — - — Co. maintains a large 
 
 boarding and lodging house, known as "The , " which is now being papered, 
 
 painted, and generally overhauled. 
 
 In my opinion, the — — is extremly insanitary and a disease breeder, a condition 
 which could not have escaped the attention of the local officials of the company, one 
 of whom visits the house daily for the purpose of checking up. 
 
 These conditions are doubtless the causes of the large turnover and inefficiency of 
 the colored workers of this company. 
 Respectfully, 
 
 Charles E. Hall, 
 Supervisor of Negro Economics, Ohio. 
 
 This report was approved Lv the Director of Negro Economics fo^ 
 submission to the general manager of the — - Company. Sub- 
 sequent action by the company m the renovation of this place and 
 change of these conditions followed the receipt of this report by him. 
 
 Critical housing conditions in Cleveland, together with other 
 economic problems, gave to that city a special need which the depart- 
 ment planned to give attention to through a local representative 
 member of the Negro workers' advisory committee. This plan, how- 
 ever, was delayed and finally given up because of necessary changes 
 in the policy of the department. 
 
 Acute housing conditions were found also at Akron, Cleveland, 
 Dayton, Lima, Portsmouth, Toledo, and Youngstown; and, subse- 
 quently, the Department of Labor, through the United States Housing 
 Corporation, had surveys made in several of these cities, but the sud- 
 den termination of the war, accompanied by a readjustment of the 
 industries to a peace-time basis, threw a great many persons out of 
 work and the housing condition was somewhat relieved through the 
 general exodus of Negro and white wage earners to other localities 
 within and without the State where there was a shortage of labor and 
 where adequate housing facilities obtained. One permanent result 
 in stimulating building and loan associations is fully described below. 
 
 The faiim'e of congressional appropriations for the furtherance of 
 the Negro economics work mif avorably affected the industrial progress 
 of this class of wage earners who had watched with increasing interest 
 the development of this new agency which was established to better 
 their industrial welfare and to act as a clearing house for industrial 
 opportunities. Men were no longer obliged to live in idleness, because 
 they were able at all times to learn thi'ough the supervisor where 
 work could be obtained, the rate of wages, the hom's oi labor, and the 
 attitude of the residents of any community toward Negro labor. 
 Negro professional men, skilled and unskilled workers, and others, 
 freel}" communicated with the Dnector of Negro Economics and with 
 the State supervisor for the pm'pose of secm'ing a location or an 
 opportunity in a community \\4iere conditions, were favorable to their 
 prosperity, and the failure of appropriations to provide for the 
 continuance of this field work was keenly felt. 
 
112 THE NEGEO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Discrimination in occupations on account of color was one of the 
 conditions which, in some instances, confronted the Ne^ro worker. 
 The Ohio Conference on Negro Labor made reconmaendations on this 
 point. Wliether such discriminations were approved by private or 
 public employers made a difference in the action which the depart- 
 ment could take. The private employer might hire whomsoever he 
 chose. Aside from an appeal for justice and fair play on his part, 
 the department was unable to take any specific action in such cases. 
 Where such discriminations, however, were alleged to exist within 
 the ranks of employers who because of war contracts or other rela- 
 tions came under the jurisdiction of the Federal Government, investi- 
 gations were made and definite steps taken to remove such discrimi- 
 nations. 
 
 Complaints. — Complaints, other than those noted above, were 
 generally of thi'ee types: 
 
 1. Discrimination in the matter of opportunities for the Negro 
 
 worker. 
 
 2. Unfair treatment of the Negro worker by employers. 
 
 3. Inefficiency of the Negro workers. 
 
 On the whole, there was a minimum amount of complaint in Ohio 
 either by employer or employee. The stamp of efficiency was often 
 placed upon the Negro worker, and the Negro worker often recog- 
 nized the effort on the part of employers assuring to him equal pay, 
 equal houi*s, recreation facilities, pleasant relations with white 
 workers, and decent living conditions. 
 
 Results. — Under the supervision of the United States Employment 
 Service, the State supervisor of Negro economics made direct reports 
 of placement of Negi-o workers to the Federal director. He assisted 
 the emplo}Tnent offices throughout the State with their problems of 
 
 g lacing Negro workers. Reports of the United States EmplojTnent 
 ervice give him the recognition for this help. Placements were 
 many and varied. Services were frequently rendered to firms which 
 had not formerly employed Negro workers. Following the signing 
 of the armistice and the resulting nonemployment situation the efforts 
 for the returning Negro soldiers and sailors were carried along side by 
 side with the efforts of the Federal and State machinery for the 
 employment of all persons. 
 
 An outstanding feature of the Ohio work was the project of fur- 
 thermg the organization of buildhig and loan associations among 
 Negroes of the State as one concrete means of remedying the housing 
 situation. In a letter dated May 8, 1919, which was given State- 
 wide publicity, Supervisor Hall made the following points : 
 
 1. Industrial opportunities m Ohio are ever opening. 
 
 2. The housing facilities offered to Negro workers are madequate. 
 
 3. Negro people themselves should make some of the financial 
 
 arrangements for meetmg the housing situation. 
 
 4. Overcrowded and msanitary housmg conditions destroy the 
 
 efficiency of the worker. 
 
 5. The home o^mer is ever a permanent workmg factor, con- 
 
 tributmg to the growth of the State and to its civic and 
 
 commercial progress. 
 Thereafter Supervisor Hall compiled, from the Laws of Ohio, a 
 skeleton outluie of the statutes regulatmg the organizing and con- 
 ducting of buildmg and loan associations. He also formed a plan i 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 113 
 
 and model constitution for such associations among colored people 
 of the several localities. This outlme of laws and plans was placed 
 in the hands of members of the Negro workers' advisory commit- 
 tees and of special groups in the cities and counties throughout the 
 State having a considerable Negro population. This was supplemented 
 by talks made by the supervisor to interested groups in various 
 places. Wilberforce University gave special courses of lectures on 
 building and loan matters in three centers of the State. So numerous 
 became the requests for additional information that the supervisor 
 f omid it necessary to prepare a model form of constitution and by-laws 
 for distribution. In rapid succession building and loan associations 
 were organized in several Ohio cities where they are greatly needed. 
 Requests for the "Ohio plan" were also made by persons living in 
 Colorado, District of Columbia, Georgia, Maryland, Michigan, and 
 New York, and several associations in these States have smce been 
 organized. All are reported to be doing good business financially 
 and are helping to alleviate the housing conditions. Companies in 
 other places are proposed and will doubtless be launched. 
 
 In carrying out the purpose with which it was charged by Congress, 
 the Department of Labor has steadfastly been a neutral adminis- 
 trator regarding union and nonunion workers, and has endeavored 
 to promote alike the interests of aU workers, white and colored, male 
 and female, union and nonunion. With this in view, the department 
 has sought to keep fuUy informed of the attitude of labor organiza- 
 tions toward Negroes in territories where the question is a vital one 
 for amicable relations of the two races in industry. 
 
 Consequently, statement of the change in the attitude of organized 
 labor in Ohio during this period is of special note. The copy of a 
 letter of Mr. Thomas J. Donnelly, secretary-treasurer, Ohio Federa- 
 tion of Labor, outlining the attitude of that organization in the 
 matter of unionizing Negro wage earners covers this important point: 
 
 Columbus, Ohio, January 22, 1919. 
 Mr. Chas. E. Hall, 
 
 Supervisor of Negro Economics, 
 
 Department of Labor, Columbus, Ohio. 
 
 Dear Mr. Hall: Supplementing our conversation recently upon the subject of 
 Negro labor and the unionizing of colored men in this section of the country, I am 
 writing you that at this time best results would be obtained, in my opinion, if efforts 
 should be made to bring into the union those colored men who were born and edu- 
 cated in the North, where through contact and association with the whites they have 
 formed the same \iewpoint on industrial affairs, see the same necessity for a sustained 
 effort, have the same "pep," and the same determination to protect their rights as 
 wage earners and as citizens. These men can be taken in by the organizations rep- 
 resenting both the skilled and unskilled branches of the labor unions, and I believe 
 that no great objection would be found, especially if in communities where there are 
 large numbers of both white and colored, distinct locals were organized; but where 
 there are only a few whites or a few colored men following the same trade it would be 
 adAisable for them to belong to the same local. A possible objection to a mixed local 
 in communities where there are large numbers of both races employed in the same 
 line of work is that both elements might vote along the color line upon questions of 
 organization and policies. This of course would have a tendency to destroy the 
 solidarity of the organization and to discount its work. I believe that once these 
 colored workers were fairly well organized they would be a valued aid in organizing 
 the illiterate ones who have migrated from the South and give them a clearer view of 
 northern ideals and the responsibilities accompanying citizenship. 
 
 While it has been my experience that colored men as a rule make good union men, 
 I do not think that the colored agricultural illiterates from the South are adaptable 
 to skilled industry and membership in unions of the skilled white workers. 
 
 1989°— 21 8 
 
114 THE NEGEO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Negroes reared in Ohio, ha^dng the advantage of the public schools in the State, 
 should be adaptable to skilled industry and no doubt could secure membership in the 
 unions of the skilled white workers or have separate organizations chartered by the 
 international trades-unions. Places could possibly be found for a number of southern 
 colored agricultural illiterates at common labor and in semiskilled trades. They 
 would then be eligible to membership in the unions of the workers in these lines of 
 industiy. 
 
 Improved machinery has gi-eatly lessened the demand for muscle, biit at the same 
 time has increased the demand for men who are trained to use their heads as well aa 
 their hands. 
 
 A great number of accidents in the Ohio factories and mills during the past few 
 years has largely been due to the employment of illiterate foreigners from southern 
 iEurope, who formerly followed agricultural pursuits, and the employment of large 
 numbers of Negroes of the same class from the South would result, no doubt, in a like 
 number of accidents. Until they become factory broken, more punctual and depend- 
 able in attendance, more intelligent, and more accustomed to the northern method 
 of li^dng they will not really constitute an asset of large value to skilled industr5\ 
 Yours, very truly, 
 
 Thos. J. Donnelly, 
 Secretary- Treasurer, Ohio State Federation of Labor. 
 
 In closing the work in Oliio, after the failure of a])propriations, 
 Supervisor Hall gave the following statement of concrete results of 
 his efforts: 
 
 1. The growth and stimulation of the opinion among colored workers that the Gov- 
 ernment has recognized them induslrially, that they now have a medium through 
 which to voice their complaints, and that because of the moral effect of such recog- 
 nition they will be less subject to exploitation. 
 
 2. A more helpful attitude on the part of employers and a less hostile one on the 
 part of white wage earners brought about through contact with colored members of j 
 committees. 
 
 3. The gradual elimination of racial objection at "the gate" or point of hiring, 
 through the cultivation of superintendents, managers, and directors of employment. 
 
 4. The announcement of the official attitude of the Ohio State Federation of Labor 
 concerning skilled and unskilled Negro labor. 
 
 5. The increase in efncienc>' and decrease in labor turnoA^er brought about through 
 the knowledge or belief that they would be given a "'square deal" industrially. 
 
 6. The awakening of Negi'oes, through the circulation of fi'equent State-wide re- 
 ports, to the industrial opportunities open to them. 
 
 7. The location, through questionnaires sent to county committees, of points where 
 a surplus or shortage of Negro labor obtained, and the adjustment of these conditions, 
 when possible, through the Clearance Dixdsion of the United States Employment 
 Service. 
 
 8. The placing of movable wooden racks on cold cement floors of shower baths in 
 several industrial plants in order to encourage a more frequent use of the bath. 
 
 9. The closing of several dilapidated, filthy, disease-breeding Negro boarding and 
 lodging houses maintained by large manufacturing companies. The personal in- 
 spection of other lodging houses, camps, etc. 
 
 10. The creation of a better understanding of the functions of the Department of 
 Labor, and a greater appreciation of governmental agencies brought about through 
 the efforts of the State and county Negro worker's advisory committees. 
 
 11. The development of cooperative groups through the encouragement and in- 
 formation given to committees in communities where the organization of a building 
 and loan association would be both practicable and advisable. 
 
 12. The appointment of several colored "labor scouts'' whose efficient work in 
 congested industrial centers was of great value to the service and to the Negro wage > 
 earners. 
 
 The opinions and attitude of white and colored citizens of Ohio ; 
 on the work of Negro economics in that State show some- j 
 thing of its effect. A few excerpts from the communications to the | 
 department are given below: ii 
 
 Yom- circular with reference to Negro economics in Ohio under date of December : 
 14th was received by us and read with Lively interest. Any further communication | 
 or publication you may have on this subject I am sure will be appreciated. We are \ 
 interested in this problem as you are, and desire to help in its solution so far as it is ! 
 possible for us to do so. i 
 
THE NEGRO AT WOEK DURING THE WORLD WAE. 115 
 
 I am glad to know that your work is progressiiii;; satisfactorily. 1 sincerely hope 
 that we will continue to hold our own industrially, and that the Government will 
 continue to cooperate with us and allow us representation in the Department of 
 Labor. 
 
 I shall be glad to cooperate with j'ou to the extent of my ability in trying to bring 
 about the conditions we both desire during readjustment. 
 
 I received your circular, and most heartily welcome its coming. Words are in- 
 adequate to express my appreciation. Please let the good thing continue to come 
 this way. 
 
 The work you are in calls for a first-class race man's efforts, and I believe that you 
 should be retained with the Government in the same capacity. I am pleased to 
 have met you, to have learned of your work, and to have been brought in touch with 
 it, and I believe you mil be successful. 
 
 I am glad you have completed your organization, and I assure you you have my 
 full support. 
 
 In returning your information blank, I would state that the Uruted States Employ- 
 ment Ser"\dce is filling a long-felt need among our people, and that your methods 
 meet my approval and will receive my earnest support. Let me hear from you at 
 any time. 
 
 Congratulations on your report. Keep it up. Just simply the information is a 
 tremendous factor in cementing the race, and that means ultimate solidarity and 
 success. 
 
 Your very concise and yet informative letter relative to labor and labor conditions 
 among the Negroes came to hand. It is a splendid document. You are to be con- 
 grautlated upon its production, for in it you have at your finger tips the best and most 
 information it has been my good fortune to receive relative to the Negro in this im- 
 portant field of endeavor in Ohio. I wish you continued success in all yoiu- efforts. 
 
 I thank you for the circular letter concerning the readjustment of Negro labor. 
 Keep me posted, and if T can serve you, call on me. 
 
 We have also got good service from the United States Employment Service, and 
 Mr. Hall, State supervisor, is doing a great work. 
 
 I wish to congratulate you upon the excellent work you are doing in Ohio for the 
 industrial advancement of our people. We all appreciate the opportunity to coop- 
 erate \\ith you and the Department of Labor. 
 
 Your letter with the inclosed statement marked' "Personal, not for publication" 
 has been received. We are grateful to }ou for your kindness in sending this infor- 
 mation . 
 
 I wish to advise you that as a result of your efforts here in Cincinnati to organize a 
 building and loan association managed by colored men, we have the Industrial Sav- 
 ings & Loan Co., incorporated for §300,000, which commenced doing business January 
 3L We will be prepared to make our first loan Avithin the next week or 10 days and 
 our prospects are very bright for a large and groAving company. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 REPORT OF WORK IN PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Pre war Conditions.— Negro labor can not be said to have enjoyed 
 any abnormal inclusion in Pennsylvania industries. The historical 
 and political development of Pennsylvania has not been such as to 
 attract a large Negro population. Pennsylvania labor was probably 
 formed, largely, by foreigners comprised of the so-called "Hunkie 
 laborer in the unsldlled and semiskilled occupations. The skilled 
 class was probably made up of American labor which developed in 
 Pennsylvania along with the development of industry and which 
 was supplemented, under the law of demand and supply, by skilled 
 artisans and mechanics who came into Pennsylvania from other 
 centers. Even the Negro mining class had been employed, previous 
 to the war, in fairly large proportions in Pennsylvania mining dis- 
 tricts of the southwestern section. In the JPittsburgh district, 
 more than in any other section, the Negro worker, before the war, 
 probably enjoyed a greater inclusion into all branches of labor than 
 he did at any other point in the State. 
 
 The Pittsburgh Negro had long since become a very desirable 
 citizen, a competent worker, and a thrifty individual. In the steel 
 mills at Pittsburgh, "rollers" and other types of workers were em- 
 ployed at salaries sometimes as large as S250 per month. These 
 persons maintained good homes and contributed to a high type of 
 civic life in Pittsburgh. Now and then a technical worker from 
 some of the best American universities was in a supervisory position 
 in a steel mill. 
 
 Industrial advances during the war. — With the stress of war the 
 gi'eat industries of Pennsylvania, thi'ough sheer necessity, became 
 objective centers of a tremendously large mass of workers. The 
 never-failing law of demand and supply was exercising great influ- 
 ence in drawing laborers. To the Negro worker, whether he came 
 from locations within the State of Pennsylvania or other Northern 
 States, or from the South, which was pouring into northern indus- 
 tries its thousands of Negro migrants, the influence of the law of 
 demand and supply was very effective. Consequently Negro labor 
 of every type was drawn into employment in Pennsylvania, from 
 Philadelphia to Pittsburgh. 
 
 When the Division of Negro Economics was established, the plans 
 of the Secretary of Labor called for the development of this work of 
 the Negro, choosing first the points of the greatest needs in different 
 sections of the country. For this reason the work of the division 
 was somewhat delayed in its beginnmg in Pennsylvania. 
 
 The machinery of the United States Emplo}Tnent Service had been 
 well established in Pennsylvania and as soon as plans for the Negro 
 work were perfected and a worker available, it was decided to es- 
 tablish a cooperating office, first, at Erie, Pa. A competent Negro 
 official, Harry E. Arnold, of the United States Employment Service, 
 was accordingly detailed to that city. 
 116 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 117 
 
 At that time Erie presented some very critical problems affecting 
 the relations of white and Negro workers. At the outset of the war 
 there was said to be about 300 Negroes residing in Erie. But on 
 November 18, 1918, this population had increased to 2,000 persons, 
 the majority of them newcomers, practically all of whom had come 
 from the South. Housing conditions most seriously affected the 
 Negroes in Erie. When the Negro economics activities first looked 
 in upon the situation, 200 Negro laborers were living in crowded bunk 
 houses and hastily erected camps. The larger portion of Negro fe- 
 male workers were employed in domestic and personal service. Con- 
 siderable complaint on the part of employees was directed against 
 "irregularity of service." Because of this and the housing condi- 
 tions, there was a large turnover of labor in Erie, male and female. 
 
 Organization of committees. — The Negro special agent, Harry E. 
 Arnold, following the above-described plan of the Secretary of Labor, 
 thi'ough the Director of Negro Economics, established a strong com- 
 mittee of colored and cooperating white members in Erie. The pur- 
 poses and functions of such a committee have been previously ex- 
 plained. A labor survey of Erie followed and thereafter, as soon as 
 the local situation had been well got in hand, similar plans were out- 
 hned for Meadville, Sharon, Pittsburgh, Washington, Connellsville, 
 Harrisburg, New Castle, Beaver Falls, Sewickley, Wilkinsburg, 
 Braddock, Homestead, Monongahela, Uniontown, Johnstown, Steel- 
 ton, Carlisle, Chambersburg, York, Gettysburg, Williamsport, Lan- 
 caster, Coatesville, Scranton, and other industrial centers. 
 
 The signing of the armistice, of course, made unnecessary a greater 
 development of plans for Negro labor in Pennsylvania, but during 
 December, 1918, and January, February, and March, 1919, the 
 Negro special agent had carried forward such plans in order to meet 
 the readjustments which would naturally be found in reconstruction 
 times. The beginning of April, 1919, found a surplus of 100 unem- 
 ployed Negroes in Erie. The special agent within a few weeks had 
 assisted in reducing this surplus to 48. In this effort it was neces- 
 sary for liim to seek opportunities and assistance from a number of 
 plants in the placement of Negro workers. Thirty-one representative 
 plants, principally in the iron and steel industries, gave ready atten- 
 tion to the employment of Neo;ro labor, and the following facts are 
 significant in connection with its greater inclusion in Pennsylvania 
 industries: Four hundred colored men, of which 50 per cent were 
 skilled workers, were employed in one of the railroad shops. Six of 
 these emplo5'ees were rated as "first-class mechanics" and were 
 ranked amon^ the most efficient in the shops. The officials of a metal 
 company and of a boiler company, both of which employed foundry 
 men and skilled workers, stated that their "Negro employees are as 
 efficient as the whites." 
 
 When it became necessary for these plants to reduce their forces 
 on account of the cancellation of contracts, preference was given, in 
 the matter of continuation, to the permanent residents of tfie local- 
 ities wherein these industries had their plants. The result was that 
 the permanent employees are old residents of that city. This, of 
 course, assists in stimulating the continuance of home ownership 
 and solidarity of civic life. The special agent reported 200 Negroes 
 in the employ of the Carnegie Steel Co. on May 7, 1918. Prior to the 
 signing of the armistice the number was probably from 600 to 800. 
 
118 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 In this instance, inadequate housing again retarded the inclusion of 
 skilled workers. Bunk houses and other unsatisfactory conditions 
 wliich the better type of laborer would be discontented with estopped 
 supply of the skilled Negro worker. The American Steel & Wire Co. 
 reported a regular force of 75 Negro workers, practically all of whom 
 were skilled employees. The Savage Arms Corporation reported 60 
 colored workers on Government contracts. Two machinists were 
 included in this number. 
 
 The above facts show to a small degree some of the practical work 
 accomplished by this division within a very short period of time. 
 The adjustments which followed the appointment of a departmental 
 representative in Pennsylvania indicate the neM of the continuation 
 of such a special service in Pennsylvania districts, in which the Negro 
 worker is strivmg for a permanent place in the industrial life. It 
 may well be said that the great opportunities in this great State will 
 at least, in some small degree, be more readih^ available to the com- 
 petent Negro worker of the future. 
 
 Cooperation. — The Division of Negro Economics is particularly 
 grateful to the private individuals and organizations in Pennsylvania, 
 as well as public officials, Federal, State, and city, who cooperated 
 wholeheartedly in the work. Of particular mention are the Pitts- 
 burgh Urban League, the Interstate Industrial Arts Association, and 
 the Armstrong Association of Philadelphia. These organizations, 
 with their wealth of material knowledge regarding Negro life, were 
 quick to come to the assistance of the department in this special 
 effort. The Negro Workers' Advisory Committee of Pliiladelphia, 
 comprised of strong white and colored citizens of that city, was 
 made possible through the activities and help of the two last-named 
 organizations. This committee, seated at Philadelphia, a point in 
 which Negro life is very important, would have done inestimable 
 work of value for the department had the future allowed a contin- 
 uance of the complete field work of the Negro Economics Service. 
 
 As this report goes to the press, a statement has come from Erie, 
 Pa., to the effect that the Negro workers' advisory committee of 
 that city is still holding regular meetings, in an advisory capacity, 
 with regard to the present labor problems of that vicinity. This is 
 of special significance in view of the fact that nearly a year has clasped 
 since the permanent work conducted by the department at Erie, 
 ceased to function. The statement referred to emphasizes a cordial 
 racial relationship at Erie and bespeaks a high respect on the part of 
 employers and employees, white and colored, for the results accom- 
 plished by the committee. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 REPORT OF WORK IN VIRGINIA. 
 
 The work of organization in this State was very easily launched 
 after conference with the executive committee of the Negro Organiza- 
 tion Society, which already had branch organizations in many 
 localities of the State, both rural and city. The executive secretary 
 of the State National Council of Defense very readily approved of 
 our plans and directed the chairmen of the county councils through- 
 out the State to appoint three white representatives for service as 
 cooperating members for our local Negro workers' advisory com- 
 mittees. We soon had, therefore, committees established in about 
 60 counties and 5 cities of the State and an office established at Rich- 
 mond with Mr. T. C. Erwin, formerly executive secretary of the Negro 
 Organization Society, in charge. 
 
 A series of local conferences betw.een white employers and Negro 
 workers for making out plans and adjustment of misunderstandings 
 were held in Richmond, Alexandria, Roanoke, Norfolk, Petersburg, 
 and Portsmouth. A special note may be given of the cooperative 
 action of the State Council of National Defense in dealing successfully 
 with a very critical situation of friction between white and colored 
 carpenters at Camp Lee. 
 
 One of the outstanding results of these conferences was the hand- 
 ling of an apparent labor shortage at Norfolk. The following is a 
 brief statement of facts: The chamber of commerce discovered that 
 many activities of the city on which Governmental projects depended 
 was suffering from lack of labor. At the same time there seemed to be 
 large numbers of able-bodied men in the city. The labor shortage 
 committee was appointed and an announcement made that there 
 would be a campaign of officers of the law to compel men to go to 
 work or to go to jail. As this affected Negro workers very largely, Mr. 
 P. B. Young, chairman of the Negro workers' advisory committee 
 took up the question with the labor shortage committee, pointing out 
 to them that such a plan would not serve to get workers but to drive 
 them from the city. A substitute plan was offered by the advisory 
 committee to carry on an educational campaign, laying before the 
 workere at mass meetings the labor shortage confronting the com- 
 munity and its meaning to the city and to uie Government, with an 
 appeal for volunteers. This plan was agreed to, and a series of street 
 addresses were made at night on the most popular street corners in 
 the districts frequented by Negroes. After a ten days' campaign of 
 this kind employment offices were overrun with volunteer workers 
 and there were more men than were needed on the jobs. 
 
 The office of the supervisor received regular reports from over the 
 State of the Negro labor situation and gave special assistance as a 
 result in meeting the farm labor shortage wherever possible. Special 
 educational campaigns were carried on throughout the State by 
 
 119 
 
120 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 means of bulletins giving information to the local committees on 
 war labor needs and furnishing material on employment, health, 
 housing, and recreation that might be passed to the congregations 
 within the territory of each committee. 
 
 The supervisor of Negro economics was also associated with the 
 director of the Boys' Working Reserve for the State of Virginia, and 
 directed the begimiing of that work among colored boys of the State 
 to assist in supplying the farm labor shortage during the farming 
 season of 1918 and the spring season of 1919. 
 
 When the Housing Bm-eau proposed the establishment of a model 
 community at Truxtun, the supervisor of Negro economics very early 
 was in touch with some of the strong colored citizens of Portsmouth, 
 near by. A Negro workers' advisory committee, with Mr. W. H. 
 Jennings as chairman, was formed. Through them there was devel- 
 oped contact with the officers of the navy, yards, and the Housing 
 Corporation was assisted in getting suitable residents for the houses 
 of the project when opened. 
 
 A few weeks after the first blocks of houses were occupied there 
 appeared need for continued assistance in getting these residents 
 adjusted to the new community and in securing cooperation among 
 the families. The supervisor of Negro economics for Virginia there- 
 fore gave considerable attention to this in cooperation with the local 
 advisory committee of Portsmouth for help in stimulating the pride 
 of the new residents in their community and in efforts to make 
 Truxtun a model in every respect by keeping the buildings in the 
 model condition they were when first occupied, and the lawns and 
 surrounding grounds in first-class condition. 
 
 After a few weeks it became evident that it was desirable to have 
 a Negro operating representative put in charge of the project. 
 The United States Housing Corporation appointed Mr. Fred D. 
 McCracken, who had been with the Housing Bureau for more than 
 a year, first as assistant to the chief of the United States Homes 
 Registration and Placement Service, in Washington, and later as a 
 traveling representative of the United States Housing Corporation. 
 Mr. McCracken took charge as operating representative of Truxtun 
 in July, 1919. 
 
 This Truxtun project consists of 254 family houses with modern 
 improvements, including electricity, hot and cold water, with garden 
 and lawn space for each house, all being either detached or semi- 
 detached residences. There are four stores and a modern brick 
 school with 10 rooms all on one floor. 
 
 Not only did the operating representative get the support of the 
 Negi'o Workers' Advisory Committee of Portsmouth, but he soon 
 formed an association of the householders of the community, divid- 
 ing the town into districts, with a captain over each district. These 
 captains formed a sort of town council for advice and help to the 
 manager in directing the affairs of the town. 
 
 The project, mider his management, has continued with marked 
 success, including the conduct of the public school as soon as the 
 fine school building was completed. Wlien the time came for selling 
 the homes to the householders the volunteer organization of captains 
 and householders was very helpful in inducing those who were then 
 renting the properties to become the purchasers. All of the houses 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 121 
 
 have been taken on an easy-payment purchase plan. The Housing 
 Corporation no longer fui'nisnes the funds for taking care of the 
 
 Eublic utilities, these now being supported out of taxes which the 
 ouseholders have levied upon themselves. 
 
 There was inaugurated a system of messages to be delivered by 
 representatives of the local advisory committees to Negro audiences 
 gathered on various occasions in different localities. These mes- 
 sages acquainted the people with the labor needs, opportunities and 
 conditions. At the time the service was discontinued a series of 
 economic surveys with special intensive survey of Norfolk, Va., 
 were being planned for several cities in cooperation with local offi- 
 cials and citizens. These surveys were to include living conditions 
 of Negro workers, such as housing surveys, sanitation, etc. 
 
 Tlie constitution of the Negro Workers' Advisory Committee of 
 Virginia is somewhat different from that of the other States, and 
 shows so concretely how effectively cooperative connections were 
 made with the State and local private organizations in existence 
 that it is incorporated herewith the account of the work of Virginia 
 instead of in an appendix: 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE NEGRO WORKERS' ADVISORY COMMITTEE OF 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 Article I. Name. — The name of this committee shall be the 
 Negro Workers' Advisory Committee of Virginia. 
 
 Art.. II. Purpose. — The purpose of this committee shall be to 
 study, plan, and advise in a cooperatit^e spirit and manner with 
 employers of Negro labor, with Negro workers and with the United 
 States Department of Labor in securing from Negro laborers greater 
 production in industry and agriculture for winning the war through 
 increasing regularity, application and efficiency, through increasing 
 the morale of Negro workers, and through improving their general 
 condition. 
 
 Art. III. MemhersMp. — ^The membership of this committee shall 
 be composed of not more than thirty persons — colored men and 
 women of Virginia. At least five members shall be women. Seven 
 members of this committee shall be chosen from the executive com- 
 mittee of the Negro Organization Society (Inc-.), who shaU be subject 
 to reelection on the same terms of election as other members. The 
 chairman of the Virginia Council of Defense, the Federal Director 
 of the United States Employment Service, the chairman of the War 
 Labor Board, and such other white citizens as may be appointed by 
 the L^nited States Department of Labor shall be cooperating members. 
 Governor Westmoreland Davis shall be Honorary Chairman. 
 
 Art. IV. Executive board. — There shall be an executive board of 
 nine chosen from the general committee. At least two members 
 of the executive board shall be women, and three members shall be 
 chosen from the central committee of the Negro Organization Society 
 (Inc.), subject to the same terms of election as other members. 
 
 Art. V. Appointments. — The members of the committee and of 
 the executive board shall upon recommendation be appointed by 
 the Secretary of Labor, who shall also designate the chairman and the 
 secretary. These officers shall serve for both the advisory committee 
 and the executive board. 
 
122 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAE. 
 
 Upon the first appointment, one-third of the members of both the 
 advisory committe and its executive board shall be appointed to 
 serve until January 1, 1919; one-tliird to serve until June 1, 1919; 
 and one-third to serve until January 1, 1920. Thereafter, one-tliird 
 of the membership of the committee and its executive board shall be 
 appointed every six months to serve for a term of six months. The 
 chairman and secretary shall serve for periods of six months each, 
 subject to reappointment. There shall be a treasurer appointed by 
 the executive board. He shall be under bond for the faithful per- 
 formance of such duties as the executive board may designate. 
 
 Art. VI. Meetings. — Section 1. The advisory committee shall 
 meet at least once every six months and at such other times as the 
 executive board may decide. Fifteen members shall constitute a 
 quorum. 
 
 Sec. 2. The executive board shall meet at least once every other 
 month and at such other times as the chairman and secretary shall 
 decide, unless otherwise ordered by the board. Six members shall 
 constitute a cjuorum. The chairman shall be required to call a meet- 
 ing of the executive board upon a written request of five members 
 of the advisory committee, of the board, or of both. 
 
 Sec. 3. The meeting place of the advisory committee and the 
 executive board shall be the State Capitol unless otherwise ordered 
 by the executive board and approved by the Department of Labor. 
 
 Art. VII. By-laws. — The executive board shall make such by- 
 laws and rules for the conduct of business as seem best, subject to 
 the approval of the advisory committee and the Department of 
 Labor. 
 
 Art. VIII. Powers of the executive hoard. — ^The executive board 
 shall transact all business, make plans, enter into agreements, and 
 perform such other acts as may be necessary for carrying out the pur- 
 pose of this committee. All such transactions, plans, agreements, 
 or acts shall be subject to revision by the advisory committee and 
 the United States Department of Labor, through its duly-authorized 
 representatives. 
 
 Art. IX. Count;/ committees. — The executive board shall nominate 
 for each county of the State having in their judgment a sufficient 
 Negro population a county Negro workers' advisory committee of 
 not more than eleven persons, at least two of whom must be women. 
 This committee shall consist of one member from each magisterial 
 district in the county and three members from the county at large, 
 provided, however, that no county advisory committee shall consist 
 of more than eleven members. Five members so nominated are to 
 be appointed by the Department of Labor upon recommendation of 
 the Negro Organization Societ}^ (Inc.), or its central committee. A 
 member of the respective county councils of defense and such other 
 white citizens as may be selected by the Governor of Virginia, or liis 
 duly authorized representative, shall be cooperating members of the 
 county advisory committee. 
 
 Art. X. City committee. — The executive board shall nominate for 
 each city of the State having in their judgment a sufficient Negro 
 population a city Negro workers' advisory committee of not more 
 than twenty-fivemembers, at least one-fifth of whom shah be women. 
 A majorit}^ of the city advisory committee shall constitute a quorum 
 for the transaction of business. Those nominated for tliis committee 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 123 
 
 shall be appointed by the Department of Labor upon recommend- 
 ation of the Negro Organization Society (Inc.), or its central com- 
 mittee. 
 
 Art. XI. Neigliborhood committees.— ^2ich district member of 
 the county Negro workers' advisory committee shall appoint in his 
 district a neighborhood committee consisting of one member for every 
 five to fifteen families in the district. The district member of the 
 county committee shall be chairman of this neighborhood commit- 
 tee and shall be held responsible for the work of the committee. 
 
 Art. XII. Finances. — -Neither this organization, its executive 
 board, nor the county or neighborhood committees, nor any of their 
 executive boards shall have power or authority to incur expenses or 
 make any financial agreements or contracts, wliich shall in any way 
 obligate the State of Virginia, the United States Department of 
 Labor, or the Negro Organization Society (Inc.) No debts shall be 
 incurred by this committee or its executive board or by any county 
 or neighborhood committees or their respective executive boards 
 unless previously provided for. The treasurer of this committee 
 shaU keep account of receipts and expenditures and he shall keep 
 any funds intrusted to liim deposited in such banks or trust companies 
 as the executive board shall decide. 
 
 Art. XIII. Amemlments. — ^Amendments may be made to this 
 constitution by two-tliirds vote at a regular and duly called meeting 
 of tills committee, provided such amendment shall have been pre- 
 viously approved by the governor of Virginia, or liis duly authorized 
 representative, and the United States Department of Labor and the 
 Negro Organization Society (Inc). 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY. 
 
 SUMMARY OF REPORTS MADE BY MRS. HELEN B. IRVIN, SPECIAL 
 AGENT OF THE WOMEN'S BUREAU IN 1918-19. 
 
 Desiring to give recognition to all major questions affecting women 
 in industry and keeping in mind the declared purpose of the United 
 States Department of Labor ''to foster, promote, and develop the 
 welfare of wage earners of the United States," the Women's Bureau, 
 early in its career as the Woman in Industry vService, made pro- 
 vision to include in its program a study of the problems of Negro 
 women in industry. The summary of data here given was secured 
 from several industrial centers where typical conditions were known 
 to prevail during visits made within the seven months begimiing 
 December 1, 1918, and ending Jmie 30, 1919. 
 
 This summary is by no means extensive. One hundred and fifty- 
 two plants, employing more than 21,000 Negi-o workers, were visited, 
 and the figures and statements here presented cover recent phases 
 and developments in this industrial situation. 
 
 The plants and industries visited were located in Illinois, Ohio, 
 and Missouri, and in portions of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and 
 Virginia. In a number of cases recommendations were made for 
 the improvement of conditions. Wherever subsequent information 
 could be obtained showing that action had followed these recom- 
 mendations and some instructive experience resulted a statement 
 has been included in this summary. 
 
 ESTDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR NEGRO WOMEN. 
 
 The total number of Negroes 10 years of age and over who were 
 gainfully employed in 1910 as reported by the Thirteenth Census 
 was 5,192,535; of these, 3,178,554 were male workers and 2,013,981 
 were female workers. Of the female workers, 1,051,137 were included 
 in agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry. Only 8,313 were 
 listed in trade and transportation occupations, and 67,967 in manu- 
 facturing and mechanical pursuits.' 
 
 While these figures include women in all sections of the country, 
 of wide range of training, and of aU ages above 10 yeai^, it is reported 
 that, on an average, Negro women in industry are between 16 and 
 30 years of age. With the great labor shortage during the war, 
 especially in northern industries, colored women had the opportunity 
 to enter industrial pursuits never opened to them before. For the 
 country as a whole there are at present no available figures to show 
 the full extent to which they embraced the opportunities. The 
 figures included below, however, are so typical as to give a good 
 indication for the territory covered. As a result of recent migration 
 in the North, these women were frequently new to urban life and to 
 the factory type of community. They were, therefore, largely in 
 process of adjustment to unaccustomed conditions, climatic, social, 
 occupational, and economic. 
 
 1 Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Negro Population 1790-1915. General Tables Nos. 
 17 and 19. 
 
 124 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 125 
 
 The great need for workers to replace men drafted for Army service 
 brought Avomen into occupations not heretofore considered within 
 the range of their possible activities, Negro women shared to some 
 extent these new fields. In response to the industrial demand, 
 large numbers dropped their accustomed tasks in the home and in 
 domestic service to take up the newer, more attractive work of 
 supplying the need of the fighting world for the products of industry. 
 
 In visits to 152 typical plants employing Negro women it was 
 found that they were working at many different processes and under 
 very different working conditions. Table VII which follows, gives 
 an outline of the kind of work done by the women and the industries 
 in which they were employed : 
 
 Table VII. — Industrial occupations of 21,547 Negro women in (approximately) 75 
 specific processes, at 152 plants, during the period Dec. 1, 1918, to June SO, 1919. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 plants in- 
 spected. 
 
 Product. 
 
 Bed springs 
 
 Brooms, brushes. 
 Canned foods 
 
 Clothing (men's and women's). 
 
 Cotton mills (cordage, waste, mops). 
 Department and other stores 
 
 Furniture. 
 Glassware. 
 Hardware . 
 
 Hosiery and knit goods. 
 Laundries 
 
 Leather goods 
 
 Meats and meat products (stockyards 
 abattoirs). 
 
 Munitions 
 
 Office work (Government work, mail- 
 order houses). 
 
 Rubber goods . 
 Tobacco 
 
 Transportation . 
 
 War apparatus (gas masks, aeroplane 
 sails, balloons). 
 
 Processes at which women were 
 employed. 
 
 Number of 
 women em- 
 ployed, each 
 specified 
 process. 
 
 Assembling, miscellaneous 
 
 Machine operating 
 
 • irading broom corn, binding bristles 
 Pitting, packing, crystaUizing, and 
 
 canningfruits and vegetables. 
 
 Cutting 
 
 Draping 
 
 Hand finishing 
 
 Machine sewing 
 
 Feeding and tending machines 
 
 Sorting cotton , 
 
 Elevator operators 
 
 Saleswomen 
 
 Stock girls, maids 
 
 Wrappers , 
 
 Operating lathes 
 
 Pohshing desks, pianos . -. 
 
 Making blown glass 
 
 Matron , timekeeper 
 
 Miscellaneous machine operating 
 
 punch and drill presses soldering, 
 
 welding. 
 
 Finishing knitted garments 
 
 Operating knitting machines 
 
 Steam and dry cleaning — 
 
 Washing and ironing by power ma- 
 chinery. 
 Grading, cleaning and curing, tanning 
 
 hides. 
 
 Cleaning and curing offal 
 
 Preparing, curing, and canning meats. 
 
 Testing hides 
 
 Time keeping 
 
 Trimming and cleaning viscera 
 
 Loading shells 
 
 Billing macliines and addressograph 
 
 operators. 
 
 Card fiUng, clerking 
 
 Expert investigating 
 
 Packing and shipping goods 
 
 Sldlled field work (lectures, etc.) 
 
 S witchboa rd operatin g , . 
 
 Typists, stenographers, bookkeepers. . 
 M'aking and vulcanizing motor tires, 
 
 tubes, rubber toys, etc. 
 
 Making cigars 
 
 Preparing snuff and chewing tobacco. . 
 
 Stemming 
 
 Weighing and inspecting 
 
 Cleaning and repairing automobiles . . . 
 
 Flagging trains 
 
 Salvaging from railroad wreckage 
 
 Power-machine stitching 
 
 4 
 
 Ifi 
 190 
 311 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 11 
 632 
 190 
 100 
 110 
 
 3 
 
 228 
 
 37 
 
 7 
 25 
 102 
 
 2 
 360 
 
 3a 
 
 692 
 11 
 146 
 
 130 
 
 2,990 
 117 
 37 
 2 
 136 
 499 
 331 
 
 2,705 
 
 7 
 
 182 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 2,303 
 
 114 
 
 2,373 
 
 5,965 
 
 2 
 
 215 
 
 18 
 84 
 57 
 
 21,547 
 
126 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 It will be seen from a study of this table that the two industries 
 employing the greatest number of Negro women were the meat- 
 packing industry, where 3,282 were employed in the stockyards and 
 abattoirs, and the tobacco industry, wnere 5,965 were employed at 
 stemming tobacco, and 2,373 in the preparation of chewing tobacco 
 and of snuff. 
 
 Another very large group were doing office work, 5,538 being 
 employed in 16 offices. The other occupations ranged from the 
 simple work of sorting and packing to the operation of various 
 machines requiring skill and dexterity. Some of these occupations, 
 such as loading shells, operating lathes, cleaning and repairing auto- 
 mobiles, flagging trains, and salvaging from railroad wreckage, were 
 new to all women. On the greater immber of processes, however, 
 white women had been employed many years before Negro women 
 were taken on. 
 
 During the war the employment of large numbers of women at 
 new tasks in munitions plants and other war industries led to a 
 shortage of labor in the textile and garment factories, which had 
 long been great employers of women. As a result many textile 
 and garment manufacturers, being quite unable to secure the requi- 
 site number of white workers for their plants, accepted and even 
 appealed to Negro girls and women to relieve the situation. The 
 work of 1,670 girls and women in textile and garment trades was 
 carefully observed. Several thousand others were known to be 
 similarly employed. 
 
 In several arsenals and munition plants croups oi Negro women 
 were found mixing chemicals, loading shells, making gas masks, 
 stitching wings for aeroplanes, and engaging in similar processes 
 requiring great care, skillful fingers, patriotism, and courage. Most 
 of these industries were housed in modern fireproof buildmgs, well 
 ventilated to carry off the poisonous fumes, asbestos partitioned to 
 prevent the spread of flames, and well equipped with hose, fire 
 escapes, and first-aid apparatus for use in the occasional accidents 
 that appear to be unavoidable in such places. 
 
 The 499 munition makers were found to be giving satisfaction as a 
 whole, and in some instances were reported to respond more readily 
 than others for doing the heavy and dangerous portions of the work. 
 They were proud of their unusual tasks and of their uniforms, and 
 seem to have appreciated the working day shorter than household 
 hours in domestic and personal service. 
 
 In abattoirs, stockyards, and tanneries Negro women were en- 
 gaged at different times in all processes except the actual butchering 
 and inspecting of meats. They trimmed, sorted, and graded different 
 portions of the carcasses; separated and cleaned the viscera; prepared, 
 cured, and canned the meats; and graded, cleaned, cured, and tanned 
 the hides for making articles of leather. 
 
 In Government clothing factories and in private establishments on 
 Government contracts they made overalls, army shirts, and dungarees 
 in large numbers. In other factories they made bolts, nuts, rivets, 
 screws, motor accessories, and metal buckets. In rubber plants they 
 made automobile tires, tubes, parts of rubber boots, shoe heels, toys, 
 and hospital necessities, such as rubber gloves, pads, and hot-water 
 bottles. In transportation service they cleaned cars, acted as switch- 
 
127 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 127 
 
 men and flagmen, mended roadbeds, salvaged small parts of engines 
 and coaches from wreckage, painted and made simple repairs on 
 automobiles, and occasionally acted as chaufi'enrs. 
 
 Power-laundry work has furnished the opportunity for many 
 Negro girls and women to earn a livelihood. In considerable numbers 
 they have followed into the factory their former occupation of launder- 
 ing clothing. Under good factory conditions this permits of escape 
 from the more undesirable conditions of the household laundry 
 service. Because of the difficulties and dangers of the work, and 
 because of the traditional linking of Negro women to such tasks, there 
 has been in most places little objection to them or color discrimi- 
 nation against them in laundries. They have learned, consequently, 
 to operate all kinds of power-laundry machinery; to wash, u"on, 
 steam or dry clean garments of all sorts, as well as to do the hand 
 finishing that is still in considerable demand. 
 
 Many of these industries being essential in peace times, it is prob- 
 able that large numbers of the Negro women who were drawn into 
 them during the war emergency, and have made good, will find per- 
 manent occupations at more desirable work than heretofore. 
 
 In these industries Negro women usually fell heir to the less desir- 
 able occupations or processes. As a whole, however, they stuck to 
 these jobs and manj^ won advancement to higher places in that way. 
 Many are still to be found spinning coarse yarn; knitting gloves, 
 stockings, and underwear of cheap grades; making lingerie, fine 
 waists, silk and woolen dresses, coats, caps, overalls, and men's 
 shirts. 
 
 The 8,388 tobacco workers observed in the factories visited were 
 found chiefly in southern or border-line States, and, with the excep- 
 tion of two groups, are working under most objectionable, insanitary 
 conditions. Nearly 6,000 of these 3^oung, unskilled girls, work in 
 stemmeries, where they prepare the stemmed tobacco for chewing, 
 cigar making, snufl', and cigarettes. Ver}^ few Negro girls are found 
 at the more skilled processes, such as making cigars. For this work 
 one employment manager insisted upon hiring only pretty types, of 
 rather foreign appearance, "in order that they may be regarded by 
 patrons as Cuban, South American, or Spanish." Two women who 
 were employed as weighers or inspectors were found to be both 
 quick and accurate in their judgment, and are paving the way for 
 others. 
 
 In hotels many Negro women performed the services of cooks, 
 dishwashers, waitresses, maids, elevator operators, and even bell 
 girls. These latter were afterWL,rd quite generally replaced by boys 
 and men, the girls being unable to handle most of the luggage of 
 patrons. The wages of maids and waitresses were usually low, the 
 workers being largely dependent upon "'tips." 
 
 Elevator girls were operating both in hotels and in department 
 stores as well as in many office buildings. They worked on alter- 
 nate long and short "shifts," with brief rest periods, and carried 
 passengers or freight as required. However, they were not usually 
 compelled to lift packages into or out of their cars. Not only 
 have these girls succeeded as elevator operators, but also as maids, 
 stock girls, bundle wrappers, and even, where given the opportunity, 
 as saleswomen. Several employers expressed a marked preference 
 
128 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 for Negro stock girls, for reason that a greater variety of service 
 might be demanded of them. For instance, in some stores they came 
 to work 15 minutes before schedule time in order to polish mirrors 
 and display cases. 
 
 Careful observation showed that bundle wrappers working in 
 sight of customers of stores were often of types whose racial identity 
 was doubtful, while those behind the screens, as in packing and 
 shipping departments, were more distinctly negroid in complexion. 
 Three saleswomen of discernible Negro blood were of good appear- 
 ance and showed keen intelligence about their work. Three or four 
 quick and clever stock girls were found acting as sales assistants. 
 
 Excepting Government appointees, of whom varying numbers 
 have held positions under civil-service regulations since the period 
 of reconstruction following the Civil War, comparatively few Negro 
 women were employed at office work until 1917. The general spur 
 to industry consequent upon America's participation in the war, the 
 shifting of workers from home and farm to office, factory, and bat- 
 tlefield made opportunities for greater numbers at clerical tasks 
 than ever before. In this emergency several thousand Negro women 
 found opportunities to play their part. The total of 5,538 found 
 doing office work qualified in the offices of shops, of mail-order and 
 other business houses, as typists, stenographers, and bookkeepers, 
 2,303 were observed at this work. There were 2,705 filing clerks, 
 331 billing and addressograph operators, and 182 packing and ship- 
 ping clerks. These included, of course, forewomen and super risors 
 of the various groups of workers. Clerical work was being done for 
 the Government under civil-service and special classification. Also, 
 there were 15 special investigators and lecturers and 2 telephone 
 switchboard operators. 
 
 A majority of these clerical workers, both in general commercial 
 and industrial plants and in Government service, were given tem- 
 porary appointments under the war emergency. Many of them 
 were being released after the armistice to make way for discharged 
 soldiers or because need for their services no longer existed. Othei-s 
 were frankly told that such positions as remained available were 
 intended for white workers, and that they had been used merely 
 because no others could at that time be obtained. In known 
 instances, however, Negro girls and women acquitted themselves in 
 so satisfactory a manner that they have been retained, these having 
 made permanent places for themselves. Also, a number of instances 
 of individual success and achievement are known to have been 
 rewarded by promotion and by assurance of continuance during 
 satisfactory service. 
 
 The signing of the armistice, bringing about a gradual cessation 
 of war industries or a change in factory processes and products, 
 probably meant the permanent dismissal of many of these Negro 
 women industrial workers. Some have been provided for in the 
 new plans of their employers and others have returned to their 
 prewar occupations. Subsequent study is in progress to ascertain 
 to what extent these Negro women have found a permanent foothold 
 in these industrial occupations. 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 129 
 
 CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT. 
 
 In individual plants conditions were found to vary from the least 
 desirable to the most satisfactory, as judged by modern industrial 
 standards. Outstanding examples of these diftorences are to be 
 found particularly in types of factory work usually denoted as 
 "women's trades," such as textile, clothing, and tobacco industries. 
 On the whole, the working conditions where Negro women were 
 employed along with white women the conditions appeared to be 
 similar. A few typical cases will illustrate the situation. 
 
 In a hoisery mill employing Negro women no provision was made 
 for first aid, although slight accidents are frequent. Other facilities 
 for the comfort of the workers were at a minimum. The plant had 
 no lunchroom or lockers. There were but two toilets and two 
 sinks, and one separate faucet with a tin cup attached supplied the 
 drinking water for the entire group. There was neither soap nor 
 warm water for washing the hands, although the workers were 
 expected to keep the white hosiery quite free of any soiling. They 
 were taxed a few cents, for each soiled spot found by the inspector. 
 
 On the other hand, another establishment, manufacturing men's 
 shirts, offered thoroughly desirable working conditions with adequate 
 facilities for the comfort of its employees. Each unit, consisting of 
 140 to 200 girls, was furnished with an instructor for processes that 
 were new, whether carried on by hand or by power machine. The 
 shops were well lighted and heated and were fitted with modern 
 machinery that runs with little noise and gives to the operators pro- 
 tection from accident. A small dispensary and first-aid room, with a 
 nurse, were available. There was an excellent lunch room, with food 
 furnished at cost. There were lockers, clean and adequate toilets, 
 and sinks with soap and sanitary towels. All workers started with 
 the same basic wage, with increases to more highly paid piecework as 
 rapidly as their skill permitted. ^ 
 
 Good and bad conditions were found also among industries here- 
 tofore carried on entirely by men. For instance, a plant manufac- 
 turing buckets and other sheet-metal products was very poorly 
 heated, lighted, and ventilated. Its uneven cement floor held pools 
 of water that had overflowed from the cooling tanks. Generously 
 spilled paint and solder caused an uncertain footing in the dim aisles. 
 
 One room, about 9 by 12 feet, with a single toilet in the corner and 
 with hooks above two benches along the walls, furnished the only 
 arrangements for women to change street clothing and working 
 apparel and for the storage of coats and skirts of changed garments. 
 There being no lockers, garments of workers were frequently reported 
 as lost from the hooks. Two sinks just outside the door of this room 
 were supplied merely, with cold water, and only roller towels were 
 furnished. 
 
 Under these conditions two grouj)s of 35 Negro women each 
 worked on alternate day and night shifts. One group worked from 
 7 p.m. until 5 a, m., with a half hour at midnight for lunch. Because 
 of the extreme suburban location of this plant and the inconvenience 
 to cars these employees were obliged to walk about half mile across 
 an unpaved, poorly lighted, wind-swept area which was unpleasant 
 even on a clear winter midday, not to mention inclement weather. 
 
 1989^-21 9 
 
130 THE NEGKO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 A ^roup of young Negro women, selected and sent by the local 
 United States Employment office in response to an urgent appeal 
 from the woman proprietor, left this factory in a body on their first 
 day because of the abusive language of a foreman in response to their 
 protest against the conditions under which they were expected to 
 work. 
 
 In marked contrast to these conditions were those found in an 
 immense plant which was making bolts, nuts, small parts of motors, 
 and other machine-shop products. The several hundred women 
 employees were native-born white, Negro, and foreign-born of- 
 several nationalities. The workrooms of this factory were light 
 and clean, neither unduly noisy nor overcrowded. The punch and 
 drill presses were provided with guards to reduce the number of 
 accidents. The Negro women wore caps and overalls and were 
 directed by a Negro forewoman. The plant was adequately equipped 
 with toilets, washrooms, and lockers. There was a plain but clean 
 lunchroom, a dispensary, with first-aid and visiting-nurse service 
 without charge. There was also a company store where employees 
 could purchase uniforms, other plain clothing, and a few necessary 
 foodstufi's at wholesale rates. A training school ofi'ered certain 
 instruction during a limited number of hours each working week. 
 There was apparently no special arrangements made because of race, 
 except that the colored women worked in a group to themselves and 
 were superintended by a Negro forewoman. 
 
 Realizing that the opinion of their employers would seriously 
 aftect the future of Negro women in industry, an attempt was made 
 to secure the opinions of superintendents or other officials dealing 
 with Negro women in these plants. Of 34 employers who expressed 
 a definite opinion on this subject, 14 said that they found the work 
 of Negro women as satisfactory as other women workers, and 3 
 found their work better than that of the white women they were 
 worldng with or had displaced. Of the 17 employers who felt that 
 the work of Negro women did not compare satisfactorily with that of 
 the white women, 7 reported that irregularity of attendance was the 
 main cause for dissatisfaction, and 7 others felt that the output of 
 Negro women was less because they were slower workers. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. 
 
 The chief of the problems of industrial training is presented by the 
 very obvious need for a more cai'efully thought-out plan of education 
 for Negro women, who are comparatively new to industry and who 
 have no adequate standards upon which to base their estimate of 
 their own worth or the requirements of their occupations. 
 
 If private and public facilities were to be generally opened to Negro 
 women for their education there would not fail to be a very general 
 increase in the efficiency of Negro women in industry. This is not 
 education in the usually accepted sense, though an impartial enforce- 
 ment of the school attendance law will improve economic conditions 
 for future groups of workers. It is training for efficiency, with- its 
 contributing factors of personal hygiene, industrial sense, increasing 
 skill, and realization of contractual obligation. It is the development 
 of industrial consciousness through the fostering of pride in achieve- 
 ment, through increasing personal and family thrift and thi'ough 
 
THE NEGRO AT WOEK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 131 
 
 encouraging an attitude of constanc}' toward a given task or locality. 
 This type of education is essential in " training the worker on the 
 
 As is the case with any group new to a situation, Kegro women on 
 entering industry have need of patient, careful training in all proc- 
 esses required of them and in the use of all machiner}^ employed in 
 the specific work assio;ned to them. Such training plus the oppor- 
 tunity to advance individuall}^ or in groups, as their increasing skill 
 may warrant, has been found profitable by most of the employers 
 who are awake to the possil)ilities of Negro women as workers. 
 Eighty per cent of the employers interviewed who had given a trial 
 to the training-plus-opportunit}^ method reported little or no diffi- 
 culty with these workers, while 30 per cent expressed a preference for 
 Negro women because of their cheerfulness, willingness, and loyalty 
 in response to fair treatment. 
 
 One employer who had instituted these courses said: ''We are 
 getting all we hoped for and more." In this plant the gh'ls were 
 doing clerical work. Each girl was given three days' special training 
 before being put to work. Up to the time of the visit (1919) their 
 work was so satisfactory that a large number were employed. The 
 management said that it had found that Negro girls did just as good 
 clerical work as white girls as soon as the " breaking-in " training 
 had been given. 
 
 In another plant, where a "supermtendent of service" was de- 
 tailed to supermtend group and individual trainmg for work on small 
 machine products, it was reported that there was no difference be- 
 tween the work or attendance of the native-born white, Negro, and 
 and foreign -bom women workers. This plant showed in the kind of 
 women employed and the atmosphere of the workroom the excellent 
 results of the absolutely equal chance given to all workers. In other 
 plants training was more haphazard, being given by the forewoman 
 and sometimes by fellow workers. It was from such establishments 
 that the greater number of complaints of inefficiency and slowness 
 came. 
 
 In addition to courses of traming supplied by the employer within 
 his plant and which are limited to the actual processes in use in his 
 plant, there were found some opportunities for Negro women in the 
 public schools, through continuation classes or night schools. 
 
 In one locality a plan of cooperation for such extension work be- 
 tween the vocational bureau of the public schools and a privately 
 controlled industrial school was feasible. The school in question had 
 already launched several courses designed to interest the young work- 
 ing girls of that commmiity. The principal was quite willing to ex- 
 tend the opportunity to Negro women workers, making such course 
 as practically attractive as the school facilities would permit. At the 
 time this school was offering courses of interest to housemaids, cafe- 
 teria workers, butchers, core makers, motor mechanics, and various 
 sorts of garment workers, including makers of overalls, shirts, and 
 women's clothmg. 
 
 Possibilities for decent, sane, healthful recreation for the average 
 Negro working girl and woman bemg in many commmiities dis- 
 tressingly inadequate, this phase of educational activity is very es- 
 sential to efficiency. It appeared wise to attempt to arouse mterest 
 in this matter wherever tne situation seemed urgently to warrant it. 
 
132 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAE. 
 
 As an instance of what can be done, a community center organization 
 which had previously taken no heed of the 300 to 400 colored girls 
 at work in a local factory was persuaded to provide for them a weekly 
 meeting place and a leader of games and athletics. The principal 
 of a Negro school was induced to appeal to the school authorities 
 to include in their plan for a new building some provision for a joint 
 assembly room and gymnasium. Much to the principal's surprise 
 the appeal met a favorable reception, and the people of the little 
 community are now watching the erection of their building with this 
 addition. 
 
 Several recreational clubs of different sorts have been organized 
 in churches, and a certain war service has given excellent and valu- 
 able assistance in this respect, followmg most willingly any lead or 
 suggestion that might be given. 
 
 A very important part of the work which was done by the Women's 
 Bureau in connection with Negro women w^as the educational talks 
 explaining to various OToups interested in this subject the standards 
 and policies that should attain in establishments emploj^ing women 
 and girls. 
 
 In addition to the courses of training which could be made avail- 
 able for Negro workers in the private or public schools, there could 
 be a most valuable educational stimulus and training given in the 
 various leagues and clubs of industrial women workers which are 
 organized in different communities. 
 
 METHODS OF SUPERVISION. 
 
 If the Negro woman is to keep and increase her hold in industrial 
 activities of the country, in addition to special training to fit her for 
 the work, she will need the cooperation oi employers who understand 
 the special problems attending her employment, and who will make 
 adjustments and establish policies accordingly. Various methods 
 of shop management in plants employing Negro and white workers 
 together were noted during this survey, and on the basis of successful 
 experiments that were observed recommendations were made for the 
 improvement of conditions in other localities. 
 
 In one northern community which had recently been subjected to 
 a large influx of Negroes one well-known firm had already put into 
 operation a plan of work for them on equal pay and conditions as 
 other workers. The results were not only satisfactory but were 
 promising of most desirable further development. The workers were 
 making good in every department. Tlie largest numbers naturally 
 were found in sections where mainly manual operations were required. 
 Besides the many operators on punch and drill presses there were 
 several forewomen, five typists, two or three clerks, two messengers, 
 two elevator operators, a first-aid assistant, a postwoman, and a 
 woman chauffeur. With this particular fii-m as a successful examnle 
 three others were persuaded to give their Negro workers similar 
 opportunity. . 
 
 Negro women supervisors of units of workers of their o^^^l kind 
 were gi^'ing results. One very successful instance of such super- 
 vision can be used as an example of what might be accomplished 
 through the more general adoption of the plan. This unit of approx- 
 imately 200 girls in a large mail-order house had worked for about a 
 
THE NEGKO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 133 
 
 year under the supervision of an intelligent Negro woman. The 
 work of these girls consisted of all office processes, such as bookkeep- 
 ing, stenograpliic work, typewriting, and operating office appliances 
 as well as packing and preparing goods for shipment. 
 
 These workers were not only supervised but were also trained and 
 instructed by Negro forewomen. The unit had a slogan, "Make 
 good 100 per cent." So successful had been the work of this group 
 that shortly after their dismissal by a new, unsympathetic superin- 
 tendent, they were reinstated and their number augmented, because 
 their work was so satisfactory in relation to the larger work of the 
 entire plant. 
 
 Although there was a number of examples found of a carefully 
 thought out policy in the employment of Negro women, there were 
 complaints oi discrimination made by these women too serious and 
 frequent to be ignored. If a group of women persistently believes 
 that they are ^iven the lowest wages, the most disagreeable work, the 
 poorest material, and that they will be the first to be laid off, whether 
 or not the facts fully warrant their beliefs, they will hardy put their 
 best efforts into the improvement of their work. 
 
 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 
 
 From the foregoing account it would seem that the Negro women 
 have taken an increasingly important place in industrial activities, 
 largely as a result of labor shortage during the war. They increased 
 in numbers in meat packing, i!n the tobacco industry and power 
 laundries, and entered largely into textile and garment factories, 
 munitions plants, and into clerical positions. 
 
 The conditions of the places of work varied from excellent to very 
 poor, appearing to be similar to those surrounding white women 
 where the two were working together. The Negro women workers 
 need special attention to their industrial training and opportunities 
 for community adjustment. Where employers have tried to do this 
 they found it profitable. Special supervision, especially by persons of 
 their o\vq race, has proven effective. 
 
 So far as the situation may be regarded as peculiar to the Negro 
 woman it may be said that she has been accepted, in the main, as an 
 experiment; her admittance to a given occupation or plant has been 
 conditioned upon no other workers being available, and her continu- 
 ance frequently hinged upon the same. She was usually given the 
 less desirable jobs. The Negro woman worker being new to industry 
 has to learn its lessons of routine and regularity; the attitude both of 
 the employer and of other workers toward Negro women workers was 
 one of uncertainty. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 RECOMMENDATIONS ON SCOPE OF DEPARTMENTAL 
 
 AUTHORITY. 
 
 From time to time the Director of Negro Economics submitted 
 reports and memoranda to the Secretary of Labor showing the 
 propaganda which it was attempted to estabhsh among Negro wage 
 earners. Such a memorandum, with supporting documents and 
 newspaper chppings and exhibits, were submitted to the Secretary 
 about a month before the series of riots in Chicago, 111., Omaha, 
 Nebr., Washington, D. C, and other places in the summer of 1919. 
 In this memorandum there were analyzed the three schools of 
 opinion and activities in the adjustment of Negro life, namely, the 
 very radical I. W. W. group, the aggressive abohtionist group, and 
 the conciliatory group. In the course of this memorandum, dated 
 July 8, 1919, there occurred the following statements: 
 
 This state of oi>inion in the Negro world is especially important with reference 
 to the labor conditions in the States of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, 
 and points in New Jersey, Indiana, Nebraska, Iowa, and Kansas. To this terri- 
 tory thousands of Negroes have migrated and are still moving. They are coming 
 into employments very much moie highly paid than those they left in the South. 
 They ai"e badly housed in most cases, rather coolly received by the white workers 
 and populace, segregated into "ghettos" in the larger industrial centers. They are 
 little adjusted to the highly organized northern life into v.hich they haAe come fiom 
 more backward communities in the South. The white workers in many localities 
 in this temtory have looked with apprehension upon their settlement, at the present 
 time there being considerable friction in points like Toledo, Ohio, Chicago, 111., and 
 Omaha, Nebr. The occmTences at Philadelphia, East St. Louis, and Chester, Pa., 
 within the last two years are only indications of what may easily take place in other 
 places. The returning Negro soldiers are also going in large numbers to these centers. 
 
 ■x- * * 
 
 Their discontent, growing out of pre"\-ious conditions and present maladjustment 
 in theii- new sun-oimdings, their desire for American rights, their resentment against 
 imjust discrimination and other practices against them make them a -very ripe field 
 for critical de^■elopments of unrest, ftiction, and distm'bances — dangers not only to 
 the peace of labor conditions but also to the welfare of themselves, the community, 
 and the Nation. Suspicions of white workers at the present time in several places 
 make outbreaks easily possible. * * * 
 
 In all this temtory there is very little, if any, well-organized and well-directed 
 machinery for assisting Negi'oes in getting into touch with the employment offices 
 and in getting located and adjusted in their new environment. Thousands of them 
 are coming to places like Chicago and Detroit with no direction whatever. They 
 \viU listen to counsel and guidance from Federal agents as fi'om no others. 
 
 It has been clearly demonstrated that oiu* supenisors, working under the United 
 States Employment Service, mth the development of Negro workers' advisory com- 
 mittees in these places, can have the most far-reaching effect upon these workers. 
 
 During the trying days of the Chicago riots the Director of Negro 
 Economics went to Chicago and investigated the situation on the 
 ground and on August 27, 1919, he made a fuU report of the Chicago 
 situation to the Secretary of Labor, outlining the underlying labor 
 causes in relation to white employers, white workmen, Negro work- 
 men, housing, political, and other conditions. This report was sup- 
 
 134 
 
THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 135 
 
 ported with a mass of testimony, newspaper clippino;s, and other data. 
 The director also visited and reported upon the feeling between white 
 and colored workers in St. Louis, Mo., Detroit and Flint, Mich., 
 Cleveland, Ohio, and several other places. Testimony and evidence 
 were also gathered from Sumter and Columbia, S. C, Birmingham, 
 Ala., New York, N. Y., Jacksonville, Fla., and Montgomery, Ala., 
 and from this testimony the director said, as a preface to the following 
 recommendations (see pp. 26-31): 
 
 I am led to believe that the mcial tension is so ^vide^pread as to be, in fact, a matter 
 of national concern calling for some attention fi-om the National Government. 
 
 He therefore made the following recommendations which were 
 transmitted by the Assistant Secretary of Labor and approved by the 
 Secretar\^ of Labor September 29, 1919: 
 
 This report of racial friction, together with my pre^'ious memorandum on racial 
 unrest, submitted July 8, 1919, shows imperative need of some forward steps. When 
 the Secretary of Labor, furthering the effectiveness of his office, created the position 
 of Dii-ector of Negi'o Economics there was latently established a means of exchange of 
 information and of cooperation between this department and other departments of 
 government, both State and Federal, through which a large. National constructive 
 progi-am for bettering the li^dng and working conditions of Negro workers and im- 
 proAdng theii' relations with white workers and white employers may be outlined and 
 put into operation. The authority of the Secretary to establish "such cooperation 
 between this department and other departments is given in the organic act as follows: 
 
 "Said Secretary [of Labor] shall also have authority to call upon other departments 
 of the Government for statistical data and the results obtained by them; and said 
 Secretary of Labor may collate, arrange, and publish such statistical information 
 obtained in such manner as to him may seem wise. ' ' (See. 4 of the organic act creating 
 the Department of Labor. ) 
 
 Section 10 of the organic act dii-ected the Secretary to report to Congress a plan for 
 coordination of the activities, duties, and powers of his office ■nith those of other offices 
 so far as they relate to labor. January 9, 1917, the Secretary of Labor reported such 
 a plan to Congress with a bill to establish such cooperation and coordination of activi- 
 ties, powers, and duties. (See H. Doc. No. 1906, 64th Cong. 2d sess.) Apparently 
 this bill was never enacted into law. 
 
 However, the Dii-ector of Negro Economics has been acting under the authority of 
 the Secretary given in section 4 of the organic act quoted aboA'e so far as cooperation 
 could be obtained with other departments in obtaining and furnishing information 
 for the ad\"ice of the department. In addition to effective cooperation of an adAisory 
 natiu-e which has been established with the se^'eral bureaus and di^'isions of the 
 Department of Labor, special steps for cooperation with other branches of the Federal 
 Government and with seme of the State governments have been successfully under- 
 taken. SpecirJ mention may be made of such cooperative effort with the State 
 Councils of National Defense during the war, with the Ignited States Public Health 
 SerA-ice, and the War Risk Insurance Bm-eau of the Treasury Department, and with 
 Col. Woods's offi.ce (Special Assistant to the Secretary of War), and with some of the 
 demonstration agents of the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 Based upon this past experience and the authority and powers of the Secretary of 
 Labor for calling upon other branches of the Government for information affecting 
 wage earners, I respectfully recommend : 
 
 1. That the office of the Secretary of Labor, by \irtue of the aforesaid authority, 
 either through the Di^"ision of Negi'o Economics, or othenvise, as seems best, take 
 steps through the executive of each department, or chiefs of bureaus or commissions 
 or boards, (a) to develop cooperation for securing statistical data on labor matters from 
 other departments, such data to be collated, arranged, and published with reference 
 to Negro workers and their relations to white workers and white employers; (6) to 
 work out plans for practical cooperation of the office of the Secretary of Labor with 
 such other branches of the executive department of the Government as deals with 
 questions of labor, such plans to be similar to those already started with the Public 
 Health Ser\-ice, the Biu-eau of War Risk Insurance of the Treasury Department, and 
 the office of Col. Woods, of the War Department. 
 
 2. That the Negio Workers' Advisory Committees already established be utilized 
 for such cooperative service with other departments of the Government for such steps 
 as may be effective in removing the conditions now causing racial unrest and friction, 
 
136 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 as it seems to me that some of the causes can be effectively removed by cooperative 
 efforts of the agencies of the Federal Crovernment along the following lines: (a) Pub- 
 licity and educational campaigns on the training of Negro workers, both shop training 
 and uaskilled training; (6) improvement of the housing of Negro workers; (c) methods 
 of encouraging thrift; (d) improvement of farm labor conditions and methods of labor 
 management; (/) educational efficiency campaigns on promptness, regularity, full- 
 time work, etc., utilizing Negro newspapers, associations, agencies, and public 
 speakers; and (</) enlistment of active help of white employers and organizations of 
 white workers. 
 
 3. That through the cooperation of the other agencies of the Federal Government 
 some plan for the investigation of Negro affairs and race relations in as many localities 
 as possible be undertaken as a means of having information and advice to improve 
 conditions and race relations. 
 
 4. That steps be taken with appropriate departments of State governments similar 
 to those already established in North Carolina, Ohio, and Illinois. 
 
APPENDIX I. 
 LABOR AND VICTORY. 
 
 [An address prepared and sent out for use in Fourth of July celebrations, 191S. About 2,000 copies were 
 distributed and it is estimated that it was heard by more than 1,000,000 Negroes.] 
 
 This is a world struggle for democracy, and win it we must. 
 
 How can we win it? There is but one way. Everyone^— man, 
 woman, and child, be he a millionaire or a day laborer — must do his 
 level best at his work, wherever he may be, whether on the farm, at 
 the docks, in the machine shop, in the mill, at the White House in 
 Washington, in the kitchen, in the home, or in the trenches. Even 
 wealthy society women in our own comitry are giving up their luxu- 
 ries, children are giving up their candy, that the children of Europe 
 may have bread. 
 
 To win this war our soldiers must go to France and fight; but they 
 can not fight unless they have guns and ammunition. They can not 
 fight unless they have clothing and shoes, and tents, and plenty of 
 food. They can not have these things unless there are ships to carry 
 them to France. We must have ships and more ships. We must 
 build steel ships; we must build wooden ships; we must build con- 
 crete ships, to hurry our men and war supplies to the front. Thought- 
 ful men and women, how can our soldiers have clothing and shoes 
 and food ^ How can we have ships to carry our boys to France ? 
 There is but one way. Every man, and every child and woman, must 
 work and save, to furnish food, to make clothing and shoes, to make 
 guns and ammunition, and to build ships. And do not forget that 
 any person, black or white, who does not work hard, who lags in any 
 way, who fails to buy a Liberty bond, or a War Savings stamp if he 
 can, is against his country and is, therefore, our bitter enemy. 
 
 I am happy to say that the majority of our men and women are 
 working like all other good Americans to make their labor win the 
 war. Only a few weeks ago the world's record for driving rivets in 
 budding steel ships was broken by Charles Kjiight, a Negro workman 
 at Sparrows Point, Md. In one nine-hour day he drove 4,875 three- 
 quarter inch rivets in the hull of a steel ship. The newspapei-s of the 
 country have lauded him for his work. The British Government sent 
 him a prize of $125. Again, many of our men and women are making 
 records as workers in the steel mills, in the coal mines, on the rail- 
 roads, and on the farms. Our thoughtful, interested cooks and other 
 helpers in the kitchen are really doing service at the front, by saving 
 aU the food they can. The newspapers and journals of the country, 
 'managed and edited by thoughtful men and women, are creating 
 sentiment that will do much toward winning the war. For instance, 
 the Albany (Ga.) Herald, a newspaper edited by Southern white men, 
 advised and suggested to ladies of the city who offered to make and 
 present to the city a service flag, that a service flag for Albany would 
 not be complete unless there were placed in its field a star not* only 
 for every white soldier or sailor who has enlisted from Albany but a 
 
 137 
 
138 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURIXG THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 star for every Albanian, white or black. The first emploj^ee of this 
 newspaper to join the National Army was a Negro, and the first star 
 on the Herald's service fia» is his star. 
 
 Negroes are being asked in every city, town, and rural district to 
 join in 'this work of winning this war. We, like other folk, are hav- 
 ing an unusual chance to work and save our country. Let every one 
 of us be wide awake, and make the most of this opportunity. Let 
 him bear in mind that every time he makes good on his job, he helps 
 his country and the race. Let him also remember that every time 
 a Negro falls down on his job, he pulls dowTi his country and the 
 entire race, and thus makes winning the war less possible. 
 
 A few months ago a friend printed a card to help the Negro 
 workmen in factories and shops. The card read something like this: 
 
 WHY HE FAILED. 
 
 He did not report on time; 
 
 He watched the clock; 
 
 He loafed when the boss was not looking; 
 
 He stayed out with the boys all night; 
 
 He said, "I forgot;" 
 
 He did not show up on Monday, and 
 
 He wanted a holiday every Saturday; 
 
 He lied when asked for the truth. 
 
 There is still another thing we ought to think about, if we are to 
 make the most of these opportunities for saving our country. These 
 are times of great demands and great prosperity. Wages are high. 
 Everybody who will work can get work. Many who are working 
 now are making more money than they ever made. Many of our 
 families who have men in the Army are now getting from Uncle Sam 
 more cash money than they ever had at any one time before. What 
 then is the wise thing for us to do now ( In the words of the proverbs 
 of Solomon: "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways and 
 be wise. She layeth up her store in summer." Now is the time to 
 work every day we can. Now is the time to work every hour we 
 can. Now is the time to make and save every dollar we can. Now 
 is the time to buy every Liberty bond we can, and every War Savings 
 stamp that we can, in order that our country may have that liberty 
 for which she is fighting. The Negro has fought like a man in the 
 battles from Bunker Hill to San Juan Hill. He has died to keep the 
 American colors flying. Those left behind did their duty like soldiers, 
 and to-day there are hundreds of black boys at the front in France 
 laying down their very lives for their country, for you and for me. 
 Will you, because of your refusal to work six da^^s in every week, or 
 because of your failure to save as much food as you can, or because 
 of any lack of interest whatever on your part, have to answer to our 
 boys on their return, maimed in battle or even to men who never 
 return? We are our brothers' keepers; we, too, are soldiers on duty, 
 and in our hands rests the destiny of our country and our fellow men • 
 America needs, expects, and asks every man to do his duty. 
 
APPENDIX II. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE NEGRO WORKERS' ADVISORY COM- 
 MITTEE OF NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 Article I. Name. — The name of this committee shall be the 
 Negro Workers' Advisory Committee of North Carolina. 
 
 Art. II. Purpose. — The purpose of tills committee shall be to 
 stud}^, plan, and advise in a cooperative spirit and manner with 
 employees of Negro labor, with Negro workers, and with the United 
 States Department of Labor in securing from Negro laborers greater 
 production in industry and agi'icultm'e for winning the war tkrough 
 increasing regularity, application, and efficiency, tlu'ough increasing 
 the morale of Negro workers, and through improving their general 
 conditions. ' 
 
 Art. III. Memhe7'sTiip. — The membership of this committee shall 
 be composed of not more than 30 persons, colored men and women of 
 North Carolina. At least five members shall be women. The 
 chairman of the North Carolina Council of Defense, the Federal 
 director of the United States Employment Service, and the State 
 agent of rural schools shall be cooperating members. The governor 
 shall be honorary chah'man. 
 
 Art. IV. Executive hoard. — There shall be an executive board of 
 nine chosen from the general committee. At least two members of 
 the executive board shall be women. 
 
 Art. V. Appointments. — The members of the committee and of 
 the executive board shall, upon recommendation, be appointed by 
 the Secretary of Labor, who shall also designate the chairman and 
 the secretary. These officers shall serve for both the advisory com- 
 mittee and the executive board. 
 
 L^pon the first appointment one-tMrd of the members of both the 
 advisory committee and its executive board shall be appointed to 
 serve until January 1, 1919; one-thu'd to serve until June 1, 1919; 
 and one-thii'd to serve until January 1, 1920, Thereafter one-third 
 of the membersliip of the committee and its executive board shall be 
 appointed every six months to serve for a term of six months. The 
 chairman and secretary shall serve for periods of six months each, 
 subject to reappointment. 
 
 Art, VI. Meetings. — Section 1, The advisory conunittee shall 
 meet at least once every six months and at such other times as the 
 executive board may decide. Fifteen members shall constitute a 
 C{uorum. 
 
 Sec. 2. The executive board shall meet at least once every other 
 month and at such other times as the chairman and secretary shall 
 decide, unless otherwise ordered by the board. Six members shall 
 constitute a quorum. The chairman shall be required to call the 
 meeting of the executive board upon the ^n•itten request of five 
 members. 
 
 139 
 
140 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 Sec, 3. The meeting place of the advisory committee and the 
 executive board shall be the State Capitol, unless otherwise ordered 
 by the executive board and approved l)y the Department of Labor. 
 
 Art. VII. By-laws. — ^The executive board shall make such by- 
 laws and rules for the conduct of business as seem best, subject to 
 the approval of the advisory committee, and the Department of 
 Labor. 
 
 Art. VIII. Powers of the executive hoard.- — Tlie executive board 
 shall transact all business, make plans, enter into agreements, and 
 form such other acts as may be necessary for carrying out the purpose 
 of this committee. All such transactions, plans, agreements, or acts 
 shall be subject to revision by the advisory committee and the United 
 States Department of Labor, through its duly authorized repre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 Art. IX. County committees. — The executive board shall nominate 
 for each county oi the State having in their judgment a sufficient 
 Negro population a county Negro workers' advisory committee of 
 not more than 11 pei"sons. Tliese persons so nominated are to be 
 appointed by the Department of Labor upon recommendation of the 
 county council of defense of their respective counties. The chair- 
 men of the respective county councils of defense and such other 
 white citizens as may be selected by the Department of Labor shall 
 be cooperating members of the county advisory committee. 
 
 Art. X. District committees. — The county advisory committee 
 may be authorized by the State committee to form district advisory 
 committees for localities in their respective counties where the Negro 
 population and local labor problems justify such district advisory 
 committees. 
 
 Art. XI. Finances. — Neither' this organization, its executive board, 
 or the county and district advisory committees, or any of their execu- 
 tive boards shall have power or authority to incur expenses or make 
 any financial agreements or contracts which shall in any way obli- 
 gate the State of North Carolina or the United States Department 
 of Labor. No debts shall be incurred by this committee or its execu- 
 tive board or by any county or district committees or their respective 
 executive boards unless previously provided for. 
 
 Art. XII. Amendments. — Amendments may be made to this 
 constitution by two-tliirds vote at a regular and duly called meeting 
 of this committee, provided such amendment shall have been pre- 
 viously approved by the governor of North Carolina and the Umted 
 States Department of Labor. 
 
APPENDIX III. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE NEGRO WORKERS' ADVISORY COM- 
 MITTEE OF OHIO. 
 
 Article I. Name. — The name of this organization shall be the 
 Negro Workers' Advisory Committee of Ohio. 
 
 Art. II. Purpose. — The purpose of this committee shall be to 
 study, plan, and advise in a cooperative spirit and manner with 
 employers of labor, with Negro workers, and with the United States 
 Department of Labor for the securing of additional opportunity for 
 enaployment to Negro labor and greater production in industry and 
 agriculture for winning the war tlirough increasing regularity, appli- 
 cation, and efficiency, through improving the morale of Negro work- 
 ers, and through improving their general condition. 
 
 Art. III. Membership. — ^The membership of this organization shall 
 be composed of not more than 30 persons, men and women, of Ohio. 
 At least 5 members shall be women. The chairmen of the council 
 of defense, the Federal director of the United States Employment 
 Service, the Federal director of the Public Service Reserve shall be 
 ex officio members. The governor of Ohio shall be honorary chair- 
 man. 
 
 Art. IV. Executive hoard. — There shall be an executive board of 
 nine chosen from the general committee. At least two members of 
 the executive board shall be women. 
 
 Art. V. Appointments. — The members of the conmiittee and of 
 the executive board shall, upon the recommendation of the executive 
 board and the indorsement of the Federal State director of the 
 United States Employment Service for Ohio, be appointed by the 
 Secretary of Labor, who shall also designate the cnaii-man and the 
 secretary. These officers shall serve for both the advisory com- 
 mittee and the executive board. Thereafter, one-third of the mem- 
 bership of the committee and its executive board shall be appointed 
 every six months to serve for a term of 18 months. LTpon tne first 
 appointment one-third of the members of both the advisory com- 
 mittee and its executive board shall be appointed to serve until 
 January 1, 1919. The chairman and secretary shall serve for periods 
 of six months each, subject to reappointment. Membership on the 
 committee may be vacated on recommendation by a vote of two- 
 thirds of the committee. 
 
 Art. VI. Meetings. — Section 1 . The State advisory conlmittee shall 
 meet at least once every six months and at such other times as the 
 executive board may dfecide. Fifteen members shall constitute a 
 quorum. 
 
 Sec. 2. The executive board shall meet at least once in every two 
 months, and at such other times as the chairman and secretary shall 
 decide, unless otherwise ordered by the board. Five members shall 
 
 141 
 
142 THE NEGRO AT WORK DURING THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 constitute a quorum. The chairman shall he required to call the 
 meetings of the executive board upon the wTitten request of five 
 members of tlie board. 
 
 Sec. 3. The meeting place of the advisory committee and the exec- 
 utive board shall be the State capitol, unless otherwise ordered by 
 the executive board and approved by the Department of Labor. 
 
 Aet. VII. By-laws. — The executive board shall make such by-laws 
 and rules for the conduct of its business as seem best, not incon- 
 sistent with this constitution. 
 
 Art. VIII. Powers of the executive hoard.— The executive board 
 shall transact all business, make plans, enter into agreements, and 
 perform such other acts as may be necessary for carrying out the pur- 
 pose of this committee. All such transactions, plans, agreements, 
 or acts shall be subject to revision by the advisory committee and 
 the United States Department of Labor, through its duly authorized 
 representatives. 
 
 Art. IX. County committees. — ^The executive board shall nominate 
 for each of the counties in the State, having in their judgment a 
 sufficient Negro population, a county Negro workers' advisory com- 
 mittee of not more than 11 persons. These persons so nominated 
 are to be appointed by the Department of Labor upon recommenda- 
 tion of Federal State Director of the United States Employment 
 Service for Ohio. 
 
 Art. X. Community committees. — The State advisory committee 
 may form community advisory committees for localities in . their 
 respective communities where the Negro population and local labor 
 problems justify such community advisory committees. The com- 
 munity advisory committees shall cooperate in every practical and 
 honorable way with the county labor boards. 
 
 Art. XL Finances. — Neither this organization nor its executive 
 board, nor any county or community advisory coramittee, nor any of 
 their executive boards shall have power or authority to incur ex- 
 penses or make any financial agreements or contracts which shall in 
 anyway obligate the State of Ohio or the United States Department 
 of Labor. No debts shall be incurred by this committee or its execu- 
 tive board or by any county or community committee or their 
 respective executive boards unless previously authorized. 
 
 Art. XII. Amendments. — Amendments may be made to this con- 
 stitution by a two-thirds vote at a regular and duly called meeting of 
 the general committee, provided such amendment shall have been 
 previously approved by the executive board and the United States 
 Department of Labor. 
 
APPENDIX IV. 
 
 CONSTITUTION FOR THE NEGRO WAR WORK COMMITTEE 
 
 OF KENTUCKY. 
 
 Article I. Name. — The name of this committee shall be the Negro 
 War Work Committee of Kentucky. 
 
 Art. II. Purpose. — The purpose of this organization shaU be to 
 study, plan, and advise in a cooperative spirit and manner with 
 employei-s of Negro labor, with Negro workers, and with the United 
 States Department of Labor in securing from Negro laborers greater 
 production in industry and agriculture for winning the war through 
 securing wide opportunity for work, through increasing the morale 
 of Negro workers, and through improving their general efficiency 
 and condition; to promote the production and conservation of food in 
 conformity with the plans of the Food Administration and Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture; to promote the work of the Red Cross, Liberty 
 loans, and other war activities. 
 
 Art. III. Membership. — The membership of this committee shall 
 be composed of not more than 30 persons, colored men and women of 
 Kentucky. At least six members shall be women. The committee 
 on Negro organization of the Kentucky Council of Defense, the 
 Federal director of the United States Employment Service, the 
 Federal director of the Public Service Reserve, the Federal food 
 administrator of Kentucky, the director of farm extension in Ken- 
 tuck}^, the chairman of the American Red Cross, the executive 
 secretary of the War Camp Community Service, and representatives 
 of other war organizations shall be cooperating members. The 
 governor of Kentucky shall be honorary chairman. 
 
 Art. IV. Executive hoard. — There shall be an executive board of 
 nine, chosen from the general committee. At least three members of 
 the executive board shall be women. 
 
 Art.\V. Appointments. — The members of this committee and of 
 the executive board shall be appointed as follows: One-third of the 
 members of general committee and of the executive board shall bo 
 appointed by the Department of Labor; one- third by the Extension 
 Bureau, Department of Agriculture; and one-third by the Food 
 Administration. These members shall be designated also as the 
 committee of the Kentucky Council of Defense for the war work 
 among the colored people. The officers shall be a chairman and a 
 secretary, wtk) will be elected by the executive board. They shall 
 serve for both the general committee and the executive board. 
 
 Under the first appointment one-third of the members of both the 
 advisory committee and its executive board shall be appointed to 
 serve until January 1, 1919; one-third to serve until July 1, 1919: 
 and one-third to serve until January 1, 1920, Thereafter, one-third 
 of the membership of the committee and its executive board shall be 
 appointed every 6 months to serve for a term of 18 months. The 
 chairman and secretary shall serve for periods of six months each, 
 subject to reappointment. There shall be a treasurer appointed by 
 the executive board. He shaU be under bond for the faithful per- 
 formance of such duties as the executive board may designate. 
 
 143 
 
144 THE XEGKO AT WORK DUKIZSTG THE WORLD WAE. 
 
 Art. VI. Meetings. — Section 1. The general committee shall meet 
 at least once every six months and at such other times as the executive 
 board may decide. Fifteen members shall constitute a quorum. 
 
 Sec. 2. The executive board shall meet at least once every other 
 month and at such other times as the chairman and secretary shall 
 decide, imless otherwise ordered by the board. Five members shall 
 constitute a quorum. The chairman shall be required to call the 
 meeting of the executive board upon the written request of five 
 members of the advisory committee of the board or of both. The 
 calling «f the meetings of both the general committee and of the exec- 
 utive board shall first have the approval of the Negro organization 
 committee of the council of defense. 
 
 Sec. 3. The meeting place of the general committee and the execu- 
 tive board shall be Louisville unless otherwise ordered by the exec- 
 utive board and approved by the council of defense. 
 
 Art. VII. Bi/-laivs. ^The executive board shall make such by- 
 laws and rules for the conduct of business as may seem best and in 
 conformity with this constitution. 
 
 Art. VIII. Powers of the executive hoard. — The executive board 
 shall transact aU business, make plans, enter into agreements, and 
 perform such other acts as may be necessary for carrying out the 
 purpose of this committee. All such transactions, plans, agreements, 
 or acts shall be subject to revision by the general committee, the 
 departments of the Federal Government involved, and the Kentucky 
 Council of Defense. 
 
 Art. IX. County committees. — The executive board shaU nominate 
 for each county of the State having in their judgment a sufficient 
 Negro population a county Negro war-work committee of not more 
 than nine persons. The persons so nominated shall be appointed by 
 the Departments of Labor and Agriculture, the Food Admmistration, 
 and the council of defense in the same manner as the wState committee 
 and its executive board. 
 
 Art. X. Community committees. — The county war-work committee 
 may be authorized by the State committee to form community war- 
 work committees for locaUties in their respective counties where the 
 Negro population and local war-work problems justify such community 
 committees. This committee and its executive board and the county 
 and community committees shall cooperate with the community 
 labor boards of the Department of Labor. 
 
 Art. XL Finances. — Neither this organization, its executive 
 board, nor the county or community war- work committees, nor any 
 of their executive boards shall have power or authority to incur 
 expenses or make any financial agreements or contracts which shall 
 in any way obligate the State of Kentucky or the Lnited States 
 Government. No debts shall be incurred by this committee or its 
 executive board or any county or communit}^ committees or their 
 respective executive boards unless previously provided for. 
 
 Art. XIL Amendments. — ^Amendments may be made to this 
 constitution by two-thirds vote at a regular and duly called meeting 
 of this committee, provided each amendment shall have been pre- 
 viously approved by the executive board and the L^nited States 
 departments herein named and by the Kentucky Council of Defense. 
 
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UNIVERSITY OF N C AT CHAPEL 
 
 HILL