• • 
 
 AMI 
 
THE LIBRARY OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA 
 
 THE COLLECTION OF 
 
 NORTH CAROLINIANA 
 
 FROM THE LIBRARY OF 
 
 Archibald Henderson 
 
 CB 
 B72Uf9 
 
UNIVERSITY OF N.C. AT CHAPEL HILL 
 
 00032193643 
 
 This book must not 
 be taken from the 
 Library building. 
 
 Form No. 471 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
 
MAKERS AND DEFENDERS 
 
 OF 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 BY 
 ANNA ELIZABETH FOOTE 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY, TRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS 
 JAMAICA, NEW YORK 
 
 AND 
 AVERY WARNER SKINNER 
 
 STATE INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS, EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 
 ALBANY, NEW YORK 
 
 NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
Copyright, 1910, by 
 ANNA ELIZABETH FOOTE and AVERY W. SKINNER 
 
 MAKERS ANB DEFENDERS OF AMERICA 
 E-P 4 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This volume is the second of a series of two books, intended 
 to present in a simple manner the history of America by means 
 of the biographies of the men who found and made it. Each 
 volume, however, is entirely independent, so that the books 
 can be used separately where desired. The first book, "Ex- 
 plorers and Founders of America," traced our history from its 
 beginnings, in the travels of Marco Polo and the voyages of 
 the Northmen, through the period of exploration and settlement 
 to the end of the French and Indian War. It told the stories 
 of the Spanish adventurers who, in their lust for gold, conquered 
 empires, only to lose them again through misuse of power; of 
 the hardy French voyageurs who sought to plant the cross of 
 Christ and the lilies of France in a New World and who, in the 
 fulfillment of their purpose, explored the great river systems of 
 the middle West; of the sturdy Dutch farmers who laid well 
 the foundations of the Empire State; and of our English ances- 
 tors who found broad acres and fertile fields awaiting them in 
 their new home across the sea. Some of them were men of action, 
 brave and sometimes cruel, who sought fresh fields of adventure; 
 others were colony builders, who strove to establish settlements 
 where they might worship God untrammeled by the faiths of 
 the Old World. 
 
 The second volume continues the series of historical biog- 
 raphies begun in "Explorers and Founders of America." It 
 commences, where that book ended, with the close of the French 
 and Indian War, and treats characters typical of a movement or 
 of a period up to the present time. It traces the growth of our 
 nation through the lives of its great leaders, men of thought, 
 
 ^whose ideas shaped the policies and established the present 
 
 ^ 5 
 
O PREFACE 
 
 prosperity of our country. While in the main the emphasis is 
 placed on the personal element, some narrative of events has 
 seemed advisable. In this way a continuous story is made 
 possible without losing the idea of personality which attracts 
 the youthful mind. The sketches include not only the lives of 
 great statesmen and of military heroes, but also biographies of 
 some of the men and women whose philanthropy has made our 
 country happier or whose inventive genius has advanced its 
 civilization and, with it, the civilization of the world. It is 
 hoped that these triumphs of peace and of constructive states- 
 manship, as well as the stirring days and brave deeds of war, will 
 appeal to growing boys and girls. If the lives of these men and 
 the records of the past arouse a love of country, teach the value 
 of courage and of self-denial, and mold character, this little 
 book will justify its existence. The authors desire to acknowl- 
 edge the courtesy of Mr. Thomas A. Edison, of Mr. Andrew 
 Carnegie, and of Admiral George B. Dewey in revising the 
 sketches relating to them. We are also under obligation to 
 Miss Clara Barton for the principal facts in the story of her life. 
 
 It may be noted that, while this book is fitted for use in any 
 grammar grade, it conforms fully to the requirements for the 
 sixth grade work in history as outlined in the syllabus for ele- 
 mentary schools, issued by the Education Department of the 
 State of New York. It also covers the sixth grade work for the 
 schools of the city of New York. 
 
 We have striven to create the historical atmosphere. We 
 have used the material necessary to weave a story concrete 
 enough for children to share the experience and participate in 
 the events narrated. Our aim has been to make the characters 
 real to the child, for by doing so we shall lay a foundation and 
 arouse a love for the further study of history. 
 
 Anna Elizabeth Foote, 
 Avery Warner Skinner. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Navy 
 
 Causes of the Revolution . 
 
 Patrick Henry 
 
 Samuel Adams 
 
 War Begins — Lexington and Concord 
 Battle of Bunker Hill 
 
 George Washington, the Young Virginian 
 
 George Washington, Soldier and Statesman 
 
 Schuyler and Saratoga— 1777 . 
 
 General Nathanael Green 
 
 Nathan Hale — The Martyr Spy 
 
 John Paul Jones — Founder of the American 
 
 The Critical Period 
 
 Thomas Jefferson 
 
 Alexander Hamilton 
 
 Daniel Boone and Western Settlements . 
 
 The War of 1812 
 
 Naval Heroes of the War of 181 2 — Oliver Hazard 
 
 Perry and Battle of Lake Erie 
 Macdonough and the Battle of Lake Champlain 
 Lafayette — A Loyal Friend to the United States 
 Andrew Jackson — War Hero and President 
 Henry Clay, the Great Peacemaker 
 Daniel Webster, the Defender of the Constitution 
 
 Inventions and Inventors 
 
 Eli Whitney and the Cotton Gin 
 
 Elias Howe 
 
 7 
 
 PAGE 
 9 
 
 20 
 30 
 
 34 
 33 
 5i 
 74 
 89 
 98 
 
 103 
 in 
 117 
 129 
 141 
 149 
 
 152 
 
 156 
 
 162 
 
 168^ 
 
 178 
 
 191 
 
 205 
 
 205 
 
 209 
 
8 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Commerce and Travel 
 
 Robert Fulton and the Steamboat 
 The Erie Canal — Clinton's Great Work 
 George Stephenson and the Steam Railway 
 
 Abraham Lincoln 
 
 Grant, The Silent Leader 
 
 Robert E. Lee, The Captain of the Boys in Gray 
 
 Admiral Farragut and the Work of the Navy 
 Other Naval Exploits .... 
 Captain Winslow and the Alabama 
 Lieutenant Cushing and the Albemarle 
 
 Clara Barton and the Rld Cross Society 
 
 The Period of Transition and Development 
 Cyrus Hall McCormick and the Reaper 
 
 Morse and the Electric Telegraph . 
 
 Edison and the Electric Light . 
 
 Admiral Dewey and the Spanish War 
 
 Andrew Carnegie — the Philanthropist . 
 
 The Declaration of Independence 
 Constitution of the United States 
 Index 
 
 P/>.GE 
 213 
 213 
 219 
 223 
 230 
 
 258 
 274 
 288 
 2Q4 
 
 295 
 296 
 298 
 302 
 305 
 309 
 317 
 323 
 330 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 17 
 
MAKERS AND DEFENDERS OF 
 AMERICA 
 
 CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 We sometimes forget, in our enjoyment of free schools, 
 free churches, and a free press, that there was a time in the 
 history of our country when personal liberty existed only in 
 a limited degree. Less than a hundred and fifty years ago 
 we had no separate, independent government, but were Brit- 
 ish subjects. There was no United States and no President, 
 but, instead, thirteen separate colonies ruled by governors 
 sent over by George III, the king of Great Britain, or king 
 of England, as he is more often called. As most of the 
 colonists were English, either by birth or by descent, they 
 were loyal to the mother country and regarded their king 
 with affection and respect. At banquets a toast was always 
 drunk to the health of the king, statues were erected in his 
 honor, and the bands played " God save the King" as to-day 
 they play "America," or "The Star Spangled Banner." 
 
 How the colonists gradually lost their love for their king, 
 and how the spirit of liberty gradually grew among them, is 
 an interesting and sometimes a sad story. Let us consider 
 some of the causes which led the Americans to cast off their 
 allegiance to England and to establish an independent nation. 
 By the treaty of 1763 which closed the French and Indian 
 War, England gained from France, Canada and the land 
 
 9 
 
IO JAMES OTIS 
 
 claimed by her east of the Mississippi River. England knew 
 that this territory must be protected or the French in time 
 would reconquer it. Money was needed for the 10,000 
 soldiers that were sent to America for that purpose. Eng- 
 land was in debt and this debt was due largely to the war 
 that had concerned the colonies. She reasoned, also, that 
 the presence of the soldiers would be a protection to the 
 colonists, hence they should contribute to the support of 
 them. 
 
 To help raise the money, the English government, then 
 under the influence of King George and the ministers he 
 appointed, revived old navigation laws, one of which, called 
 the Sugar and Molasses Act, led to much trouble. This law 
 placed a tax on all sugar and molasses that came from any 
 place but the British West Indies. The people of New Eng- 
 land had long carried on a flourishing trade with the French 
 West Indies, exchanging almost worthless salt fish for sugar 
 and molasses which they distilled into rum. This rum they 
 took to the African coasts and exchanged for negroes whom 
 they brought back and sold as slaves in the South. As the 
 profits from this traffic would be greatly reduced by the tax, 
 they tried to evade it by smuggling. 
 
 The English officers were almost powerless to enforce the 
 law. Therefore they made use of general search warrants 
 called Writs of Assistance. These writs differed from the reg- 
 ular search warrants in that they contained neither the name 
 of the informer nor the description of the property to be 
 searched. A man having such a writ could search any 
 man's property at any time. The people of New England 
 bitterly resented this practice. James Otis, a young lawyer, 
 then holding an office under the government, resigned his 
 position in order to plead the cause of the people. He 
 
CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 II 
 
 James Otis 
 
 declared that the use of Writs of Assistance was an act of 
 
 tyranny similar to the abuse of power that had cost one 
 
 king of England his head and another his throne. He also 
 
 claimed that such writs violated the 
 
 rights that Englishmen had enjoyed 
 
 for more than five hundred years. 
 
 The speeches of James Otis were very 
 
 bold, and are considered by some as 
 
 being the first step of the American 
 Revolution. 
 
 Many men accused of smuggling 
 were tried in courts without a jury. 
 This was another serious grievance, 
 for the colonists claimed that as Eng- 
 lishmen they should not be punished 
 except by the judgment of their equals. 
 
 By 1765 the English Parliament 1 saw that the trade laws 
 had not only failed to bring in the necessary money, but had 
 stirred up a rebellious spirit among the colonists. The 
 Stamp Act was then passed as a substitute. This act pro- 
 vided that every legal document, deed, pamphlet, almanac, 
 or newspaper must be written or printed on stamped paper. 
 The prices of the stamps varied from half a cent to fifty 
 
 dollars. 
 
 s The Stamp Act was passed in March and was to go into 
 effect the first of November, 1765. When the news reached 
 America, the disapproval was more widespread than that 
 caused by the trade laws. Whereas those laws had affected 
 principally merchants and shippers in the seaport towns, 
 
 1 Parliament is the lawmaking body of England, as Congress is of the 
 United States. It consists of a hereditary House of Lords and a House of 
 Commons elected by the people. 
 
12 
 
 CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 the Stamp Act would affect all classes of business men, in- 
 cluding those in the interior towns and cities. Indeed, every 
 man who bought a newspaper would be reminded that he 
 was taxed by a government outside of America. James Otis 
 spoke and wrote against this law and aroused people through- 
 out New England; but the work of Patrick Henry of Vir- 
 ginia is more important. 
 
 a®* 
 
 8j* 
 
 43 
 
 Stamps used in 1765 
 
 Penny) 
 
 't 
 
PATRICK HENRY 
 
 Patrick Henry was the son of a Scotch lawyer, and was 
 born in Virginia in 1736. As a boy he cared little for study, 
 and, although he was tutored and sent to school, he made 
 little progress. He loved out-of-door life. He took long 
 solitary tramps in the woods. He spent many summer days 
 fishing and became a boon companion of the trappers in his 
 neighborhood. All of this freedom had its influence on the 
 growing boy. Through it he gained robust health and a 
 frank, independent way of looking at life. 
 
 When Patrick was fifteen, his father put him in a country 
 store. Remaining here a year, he then began business for him- 
 self. This, however, was not to his taste, and after a year 
 and a half he gave it up as a failure. For the next six years 
 he tried various lines of employment, but found nothing that 
 appealed to him. He had become a great reader and was 
 especially fond of history. He had a fine musical voice, and 
 was regarded as a good speaker and a clever reasoner. At 
 twenty-three, he began to study law, and after a very short 
 time he was admitted to the bar. At last he had found his 
 vocation. He may have moved juries more by his manner of 
 speaking than by his knowledge of law, but he certainly won 
 cases, and as a result his business grew rapidly. 
 
 In May, 1765, after the passage of the Stamp Act, Patrick 
 Henry, then twenty-nine years of age, became a member of 
 the House of Burgesses at Williamsburg, which was then the 
 capital of Virginia. The historian Cooke says he was "tali 
 
 13 
 
14 
 
 PATRICK HENRY 
 
 in figure but stooping, with a grim expression, small blue 
 eyes which had a peculiar twinkle, and wore a brown wig 
 without powder, a peach-blossom coat and yarn stockings." 
 
 House of Burgesses at Williamsburg, Virginia 
 
 At this time the Stamp Act was the most absorbing topic 
 in men's minds. It was objectionable to all people, but what 
 could be done about it? There were in the House of Bur- 
 gesses many wealthy planters who considered it less obnox- 
 ious than the trade laws. Others saw in the law a violation 
 of the rights of the colonists. Among that number was the 
 recently elected young lawyer, Patrick Henry. He was 
 eager that Virginia should place herself at once on record as 
 decidedly opposed to the law. 
 
 Finally, after three weeks of much talk and no action, 
 impatient over the attitude of the leaders, Patrick Henry 
 hastily wrote on the blank leaf of an old law book some 
 resolutions, then sprang to his feet and offered them to the 
 House. These resolutions stated that by the charters granted 
 
CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 15 
 
 ■ 
 
 r 
 
 t - 
 
 to the colonists, they were 
 to enjoy the rights of Eng- 
 lish subjects. One cher- 
 ished right of Englishmen 
 was to be taxed only by 
 their representatives. As 
 the colonists were not rep- 
 resented in Parliament, 
 they could be taxed only by 
 the colonial legislatures. 
 
 A hot debate followed, 
 during which Patrick 
 Henry made a most re- 
 markable speech. He 
 closed with the words: 
 "Caesar had his Brutus, 
 Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third — " 
 "Treason!" * "Treason!" was shouted through the room. 
 The young orator paused a moment and glanced at the angry 
 
 1 In the United States, treason consists in taking up arms against tbt> 
 United States or in giving aid to the enemy in time of war; and its punishment 
 is death. In the days of Patrick Henry, many lesser offenses were regarded 
 as treason. 
 
 Patrick Henry's Speech 
 
1 6 PATRICK HENRY 
 
 and excited Burgesses, then continued — " George the Third 
 may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the 
 most of it." The resolutions were passed. 
 
 The fearless but inexperienced young man had won a 
 great victory. Couriers and newspapers carried to every 
 part of the colonies news of Patrick Henry's speech and the 
 action of the Virginia House of Burgesses. The spirit of 
 resistance to the Stamp Act grew. In October, a Congress 
 was called in New York which passed formal resolutions 
 declaring the rights of the colonists as Englishmen and stat- 
 ing how those rights had been violated. These resolutions 
 were sent to the king and to Parliament. 
 
 The Stamp Act was to go into effect on November first. 
 That day was observed as a day of mourning in all the cities. 
 Funeral processions paraded the streets, bells tolled, and 
 flags floated at half-mast. Newspapers were printed with 
 black borders, and all business was suspended for the day, 
 because liberty was dead. By this time merchants had 
 agreed to import no more goods from England. The natural 
 result of this was an injury to English trade with the colonies, 
 and English merchants joined with the colonists in petition- 
 ing Parliament to repeal the law. It was at this time that 
 Benjamin Franklin appeared before the House of Com- 
 mons and pleaded for fair treatment of the Americans. 
 Finally, Parliament yielded in March of the following year 
 and repealed the Stamp Act, but at the same time asserted 
 England's right to tax the colonies whenever she wished. 
 
 Patrick Henry's work was not yet done. Ten years later, 
 when the tea tax and other objectionable measures had been 
 passed by Parliament, and when 3000 soldiers had been sent 
 to compel the people of Massachusetts to obey them, the First 
 Continental Congress was called. Patrick Henry was a dele- 
 
CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 17 
 
 gate from Virginia and made the opening speech, in which 
 he said, "I am not a Virginian, but an American." This 
 Congress drew up some formal petitions to the king and 
 Parliament in which they stated plainly their objections to 
 recent acts and in most dignified language asked for fair 
 treatment. The Congress then adjourned to meet again the 
 next year. 
 
 About this time, the royal governor of Virginia had dis- 
 missed the House of Burgesses because they had expressed 
 sympathy for Massachusetts. This 
 aroused bitter feeling, and a conven- 
 tion of leading men was called at 
 Richmond. Here again was Patrick 
 Henry a leader. Some men favored 
 immediate steps to protect life, lib- 
 erty, and property. Others advised 
 waiting, believing that the English 
 government would never harm her 
 colonies. Patrick Henry believed 
 that war was sure to come and that 
 
 ... . . Patrick Henry 
 
 Virginia must prepare at once to 
 
 defend herself. He saw that the harsh measures of King 
 George III in dealing with Massachusetts and in punishing 
 Boston, which the king regarded as the hotbed of the revo- 
 lutionary spirit, were a menace to the liberties of the other 
 colonies. After listening to the endless talk of his colleagues, 
 he arose and spoke as if inspired. At the first sound of his 
 voice, men turned and listened with breathless attention as 
 he said: 
 
 "We must fight! I repeat it, sir, we must fight! An 
 appeal to arms and to the God of Hosts is all that is left 
 us! There is no retreat but in submission and slavery! 
 
 MAE. & DEF. — 2 
 
1 8 PATRICK HENRY 
 
 ♦ 
 
 Our chains are forged! Their clanking may be heard on the 
 plains of Boston! The war is inevitable, and let it come! 
 I repeat it, sir, let it come! 
 
 " Gentlemen may cry peace, peace — but there is no 
 peace. The war is actually begun! The next gale that 
 sweeps from the north will bring to our ears the clash of 
 resounding arms! Our brethren are already on the field! 
 Why stand we here idle? What is it that gentlemen wish? 
 What would they have? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, 
 as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery ? For- 
 bid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may 
 take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!" 
 
 This speech moved men to action not only in Virginia but 
 all through the colonies, just as they had been moved ten 
 years before. Three weeks later, Lexington and Concord 
 had been fought, and the Revolutionary War had begun. 
 Patrick Henry was made commander of Virginia's forces, but 
 he was needed more in the councils of men than on the field 
 of battle. 
 
 He served as the first governor of Virginia and occupied 
 many other prominent positions in his state. It is interest- 
 ing to note that he refused positions of honor and power 
 under the new federal government because he did not believe 
 in it. Neither money nor honors could tempt Patrick Henry 
 to support any measure of which he disapproved. At the 
 same time nothing could hinder him from speaking out 
 fearlessly against illegal acts and unnecessary oppression. 
 He died at the age of sixty-three, enjoying the gratitude of 
 all Americans for his courage in demanding the rights of 
 free men. 
 
 Topical Outline. — England sent 10,000 soldiers to hold the land ac- 
 quired from France. Money to help pay these soldiers raised by taxes. 
 
CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 19 
 
 (a) Sugar and Molasses Tax; (b) Stamp Tax. Colonists complained of 
 (a) Writs of Assistance; (b) Trial without jury; (c) Taxation without 
 representation. Patrick Henry's resolutions. 
 
 For Written Work. — Write from memory Patrick Henry's war 
 speech before the convention at Richmond. 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Williamsburg and Richmond (p. 92). 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 History. — Cooke, "Stories of the Old Dominion," pp. 159-180. 
 Biography. — Brooks, "Century Book of Famous Americans," 
 pp. 92-112; Patrick Henry, "The War Inevitable." 
 
 Lantern used at Celebration 
 of the Repeal of the Stamp Act 
 
SAMUEL ADAMS 
 
 While Patrick Henry was urging the people of Virginia 
 to protect their rights as Englishmen, there were men in New 
 England working just as earnestly for the same cause. One 
 of these men was Samuel Adams, who was born in 1722, 
 fourteen years earlier than Patrick Henry. Although these 
 two men had much the same ideas about government and 
 showed the same unselfish spirit in their efforts to improve it, 
 they were very different in habit and training. 
 
 We find Samuel Adams as a little boy showing great fond- 
 ness for his books. His father was a prosperous gentleman 
 of Boston, living in a fine house and able to give his son the 
 best school advantages. The boy accepted them and used 
 them well. There is a story that he was so punctual in 
 going to school that people set their clocks and men reg- 
 ulated their work, by him, saying: "Sam Adams has gone 
 to school, it's time for business." This may be only an 
 idle tale, but undoubtedly there is some good reason for its 
 being told. Samuel Adams loved books and study. He was 
 diligent, silent, and thoughtful long before he became a man. 
 All his life he was fond of quoting Greek and Latin, and his 
 quotations showed wide reading in those languages. He was 
 graduated from Harvard College when he was eighteen, but 
 he remained three years longer and continued his studies for 
 a master's degree. 
 
 His family wished him to study for the ministry, but he 
 
 preferred law. As his parents obiected to his becoming a 
 
 20 
 
CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 21 
 
 lawyer, he went into business with his father. He had little 
 taste for a business life, and undoubtedly an excellent lawyer 
 was lost to the world when Samuel Adams was compelled to 
 share his father's work. His reading and study continued 
 
 alons: lines of his- 
 
 — _ -* — — '-?« 
 
 tory, politics, and 
 law, and his busi- 
 ness was neglected. 
 Samuel Adams 
 was a prominent 
 figure in the town 
 meetings from the 
 time he was a very 
 young man. He 
 came into special 
 notice when he pro- 
 tested against the 
 Stamp Act. Like 
 Patrick Henry, he 
 spoke and wrote 
 against the injustice 
 of this tax. He 
 boldly declared that 
 if the king and Par- Samuel Adams e oing to Sch ° o1 
 
 liament could levy such a tax they would soon assert the right 
 to tax everything that the colonies possessed. Not content 
 with words he helped to organize the " Sons of Liberty," a soci- 
 ety banded together to destroy the stamped paper as soon as it 
 arrived. This organization soon spread to the other colonies. 
 It is claimed that Samuel Adams first proposed the Stamp 
 Act Congress, which issued a Declaration of Rights and sent 
 to the king and to the House of Commons a protest, couched 
 
22 SAMUEL ADAMS 
 
 in respectful language, against the hated measure. He organ- 
 ized Committees of Correspondence with the other colonies 
 to get united action against the tyranny of Parliament. 
 
 How the opposition to the Stamp Act, not only in the col- 
 onies but also in England, soon brought about its repeal has 
 been told in the story of Patrick Henry. But England did 
 not give up the right to tax the colonies. Other measures were 
 passed by Parliament, chief among which was a tax on tea, 
 glass, paper, and painters' colors imported into the colonies. 
 This measure was equally hateful to the colonists, and the 
 spirit of resistance became so great that in 1769 two regi- 
 ments of English soldiers were sent to Boston to overawe 
 the people. The royal Governor Hutchinson was very glad 
 to have them to help him enforce the laws. These soldiers 
 should have been stationed in the empty barracks at Castle 
 William in the harbor, but instead quarters were hired for 
 them in the city. The people were naturally indignant, and 
 very soon let the soldiers know how unwelcome they were. 
 Even schoolboys would use the "redcoat" as a target for 
 snowballs and bean shooters. On the other hand, the sol- 
 diers raced horses on Sunday through the streets of Boston 
 and played and sang all sorts of improper songs before the 
 church doors at the time of Sunday services. There were 
 frequent encounters between citizens and soldiers. About 
 this time, James Otis, the man who opposed the Writs of 
 Assistance, was attacked and cut on the head during a dis- 
 pute, with a customs officer. The injury was so great that 
 he suffered from it for the rest of his long life. People did 
 not easily forget such things. 
 
 One day in March, 1770, serious trouble grew out of a 
 trifling incident. A rope maker and a soldier got into a quar- 
 rel on the street, and an excited crowd soon collected and 
 
CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 23 
 
 hurled stones, sticks, snowballs, and chunks of ice at the sol- 
 diers who came to their comrade's assistance. The soldiers 
 fired; three citizens were killed and eight were wounded. 
 This is called the Boston Massacre. 
 
 A town meeting was held the next day in Faneuil Hall, and 
 
 The Boston Massacre 
 
 Samuel Adams was appointed to demand the withdrawal 
 of the troops. He went to Governor Hutchinson, who said 
 he would withdraw one regiment. Adams replied, "If you 
 have power to remove one regiment you have power to remove 
 two, and nothing less will satisfy the people." Both regi- 
 ments were at once removed to Castle William, where they 
 should have been stationed seventeen months before. This 
 was regarded as a most decided victory for the patriots. 
 
 It was clearly understood by this time that the colonists 
 did not object so much to paying taxes as to the principle of 
 being taxed by the English Parliament in which they were 
 not represented. The king and Parliament believed that 
 
24 SAMUEL ADAMS 
 
 they had a right to tax the colonists, and they wanted to 
 maintain that right. As the colonists refused to buy the 
 things taxed by Parliament, the tax was now dropped on 
 everything except tea. For the king often said, " There must 
 be one tax to keep the right to tax." 
 
 In the fall of 1773 a rumor reached America that several 
 cargoes of tea were soon to be forced on the colonies. The 
 Committees of Correspondence, under the direction of Sam- 
 uel Adams, wrote to all the cities to refuse the tea. Societies 
 were formed of men and women who pledged themselves to 
 use no tea so long as it was taxed, although the tax was very 
 small. 
 
 One tea ship reached Boston, November 28, 1773. A town 
 meeting of 5000 people was at once held, which voted to send 
 the tea back to England. A guard of twenty-five citizens 
 went on board the vessel to prevent the landing. Armed men 
 watched the wharf, sentinels were stationed in church bel- 
 fries, postriders were chosen with horses saddled and bridled, 
 ready to give the signal if the officers attempted to land the 
 tea. The ship could not return to England without clear- 
 ance papers, and the royal governor would not give them. 
 
 On the nineteenth day after the arrival of the tea ship, 
 another great mass meeting was held in the Old South 
 Church. A man had been sent to the royal governor to urge 
 him to order the ship back to England. When the messenger 
 returned and reported to the meeting that the governor 
 refused, Samuel Adams rose and said, "This meeting can 
 do no more to save the country." 
 
 Arrangements had been made to save the country in 
 another way if the governor refused to do as the people 
 requested. On the signal from Samuel Adams, men, dressed 
 like Indians, gathered from all parts of Boston and rushed to 
 
CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 25 
 
 the wharf. What they did is simply told by the captain of 
 the tea ship in his journal. " Between six and seven o'clock 
 this evening came down to the wharf a body of about a 
 thousand people; among them were a number dressed and 
 whooping like Indians. They came on board ship, and after 
 
 Throwing the Tea Overboard 
 
 warning myself and the custom-house officer to get out of the 
 way, they went down the hold where were the chests of tea 
 which they hoisted up on deck, and cut the chests to pieces 
 and hove the tea all overboard, where it was damaged and 
 lost." Two other tea ships that had arrived in the mean- 
 while were treated in the same way. 
 
 Before nine o'clock that night, 342 chests of tea had been 
 cut open, and tea had been made with salt water on a large 
 scale. It was an orderly band of " Indians" that did this work. 
 One spectator said that an Indian blanket slipped down 
 and showed the crimson velvet sleeve and point lace ruffles 
 
26 SAMUEL ADAMS 
 
 of John Hancock's regular costume. We are told that, "Not 
 a person was harmed; no other property was injured; and 
 the vast crowd, looking upon the scene from the wharf in the 
 clear frosty moonlight, was so still that the click of the 
 1 Indians" hatchets could be distinctly heard." 
 
 The next morning, Samuel Adams wrote a formal account 
 of the work of the night before, and postriders were sent to 
 the other colonies with it. His cousin John Adams wrote in 
 his diary, " Last night three cargoes of tea were emptied into 
 the sea. This morning a man-of-war sails. This is the 
 most magnificent move of all. There is a dignity, a majesty, 
 a sublimity in this last effort of the patriots that I greatly 
 admire. The people should never rise without doing some- 
 thing to be remembered — something notable and striking. 
 This destruction of the tea is so bold, so daring, so firm, so 
 intrepid, and inflexible, and it must have so important conse- 
 quences, and so lasting, that I cannot but consider it an epoch 
 in history." 
 
 When the report of this "tea party" reached England, the 
 government was most indignant. Parliament passed a bill 
 closing the port of Boston to all vessels. The royal governor 
 was recalled, and General Gage, the commander of the Eng- 
 lish troops in America, was ordered to Boston as military 
 governor. 
 
 Samuel Adams then drew up an appeal to the colonies, 
 saying: "They have ordered our port to be entirely shut 
 up, leaving us barely so much as to keep us from perishing 
 with cold and hunger. . . . The act fills the inhabit- 
 ants with indignation. This attack though made immedi- 
 ately upon us, is doubtless designed for every other colony 
 who shall not surrender their sacred rights and liberties. 
 Now, therefore, is the time when all should be united in 
 
CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 2 7 
 
 opposition to this violation of the liberties of all." Replies 
 came from all the colonies, heartily approving the conduct of 
 Boston. Money and food supplies were sent to the people 
 in and around the city. Such generosity might prevent the 
 people from suffering through want, but it could not diminish 
 the bitterness felt against England for passing such a law. 
 Through the Committees of Correspondence Samuel Adams 
 urged the meeting of a Continental Congress in the fall of 
 1774. It was a remark- 
 ably self-controlled, well- 
 bred body of men. They 
 opposed any hasty con- 
 duct that might bring on 
 war with the mother coun- 
 try, but they believed that 
 war must come and it was 
 better to be prepared for 
 it. First, however, they 
 would petition the Eng- 
 lish government for better 
 treatment. In the mean- 
 time they recommended 
 the collection of arms and 
 supplies at convenient 
 places for self-defense. 
 
 They also approved of Statue of Minuternan at Concord 
 
 the trainbands of minutemen and urged that more be or- 
 ganized. 
 
 These minutemen were farmers and villagers, men and 
 boys, organized in companies that "exercised" after the day's 
 work was over. They were pledged to be ready on a minute's 
 notice. Massachusetts had about 1800 of them early in 1775. 
 
28 SAMUEL ADAMS 
 
 The following extracts are from the diary of a young minute- 
 man: 
 
 "Jan. ii, 1775 — We went to the training field near Rev. 
 Barnes' meeting-house. There were three companies of 
 minute men. We were marched into the meeting-house. 
 A prayer was made, the scripture was read and a lecture 
 delivered to us by the Rev. Barnes. We then were marched 
 out and exercised some more on the green. 
 
 "Jan. 17. — We exercised in a new way today called the 
 64th. 
 
 "Feb. 8. — I wrought on cartridge boxes all day. In the 
 evening I cast bullets in the sand. 
 
 "Feb. 13. — In the forenoon I made my sword belt and 
 bayonet belt. In the afternoon I made cartridge boxes and 
 went to training early. 
 
 "March 21. — I spent the whole morning scowering and 
 cleaning my gun and fixing her. After I had cleaned and 
 oyled the lock, I put in a good flint and tried to burn three 
 corns of powder. I cocked her and snapped and she burnt 
 them." 
 
 In this First Continental Congress, as well as later Con- 
 gresses, Samuel Adams was an important figure. The king 
 and Parliament, recognizing how powerful was his influence 
 throughout New England, had urged the governor to win 
 him over to the side of the royalists. Adams was known to 
 be a poor man, so positions carrying large salaries were offered 
 him from time to time, but he always recognized the offer as 
 a bribe and scorned it. 
 
 Finally, in 1775, the king wanted to be rid of such powerful 
 enemies as Adams and John Hancock, so he ordered General 
 Gage to have them arrested and sent to England for trial. 
 But this was found impossible, for neither man had over- 
 
CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 29 
 
 stepped the law. The king then ordered their capture, dead 
 or alive; but this order was not carried out, as we shall learn 
 from the Battle of Lexington. 
 
 War came, and, like Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams had 
 to serve in the council room instead of on the battlefield. 
 From the first of the trouble with England he had urged 
 independence, and prob- 
 ably no man in the Sec- 
 ond Continental Con- 
 gress felt happier than he 
 over the work of July 4, 
 1776. After the war he 
 was governor of Massa- 
 chusetts several terms, 
 and in 1796 he received 
 a few votes for the presi- 
 dency. He retired from 
 public life at seventy-five 
 and died at eighty-two. 
 
 The following tells how 
 he looked at seventy: a He 
 always walked with his 
 family to and from church 
 
 until his failing strength prevented. His stature was a little 
 above medium height. He wore a tie-wig, cocked hat, buckled 
 shoes, knee breeches and a red cloak, and held himself very 
 erect, with.the ease and address of a polite gentleman. . . . 
 He never wore glasses in public, except when engaged in his 
 official duties at the state house. His complexion was florid 
 and his eyes dark blue. The eyebrows were heavy, almost 
 to bushiness, and contrasted remarkably with the clear fore- 
 head, which at the age of 70 had few wrinkles. He had a 
 
 Samuel Adams 
 
3° 
 
 SAMUEL ADAMS 
 
 kind but careworn expression blended with native dignity of 
 countenance, which never failed to impress strangers." 
 
 Although Samuel Adams was connected with political life 
 and held the highest offices of his state, he remained a poor 
 man all his life. Truly it can be said of him that his interest 
 in politics was for the good of the people. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Boyhood of Samuel Adams. Opposition to the 
 tax law. "Boston Massacre." "The Tea Party." The Port Bill 
 passed to punish Boston. Adams's correspondence with the other col- 
 onies. First Continental Congress. War. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Compare Patrick Henry's boyhood with 
 that of Samuel Adams. II. Imagine you were one of the "Indians" 
 and describe the tea party as you shared in it. III. As a schoolboy 
 tell why you pelted the soldiers with snowballs. 
 
 ■ ■/■-, 
 
 > 
 
 ■!•: bSi.-l.3SS. &OiSi"Mi^£iv: i.-ir^zctXi: u±>} .-iiic:.. 
 
 ■ a»83IB3aoSaU jus (JBttSffi .xmnsis WM& B &t^ 
 
 , '55a aeinaj.'EJSai ; :• ± .. 
 
 - — 't^---!-^ ' . . ' T 
 
 The " Tea Party " Tablet on Long Wharf, 
 Boston 
 
WAR BEGINS — LEXINGTON AND CONCORD 
 
 The military supplies of Massachusetts had been collected 
 in an old barn near a bridge at Concord. Knowledge of this 
 had reached General Gage, and he decided to destroy the 
 supplies and, if possible, to capture Samuel Adams and John 
 Hancock, who were at Lexington. Accordingly, on the night 
 of the 18th of April, 1775, he sent for this purpose a force of 
 troops under the command of Major Pitcairn from the British 
 encampment in Boston. This action had been expected by 
 
 Country axound Boston 
 
 the patriots, and sentinels ' were always ready to spread the 
 alarm if the soldiers in the city made any attempt to leave 
 town. 
 
 One of these sentinels, Paul Revere, watching from the 
 Charlestown side of the Charles River, saw the signal lights 
 
 1 Read " Paul Revere's Ride." 
 31 
 
3 2 
 
 THE REVOLUTION 
 
 flash out from the tower of Old North Church. Mounting 
 a swift horse, he rode through the night toward Lexington, 
 arousing the countryside. When he reached the village, he 
 found militiamen guarding the house in which Adams and 
 Hancock were asleep. They warned him not to make a 
 
 Paul Revere at the House of Hancock and Adams 
 
 noise. "Noise!" cried Revere, "You'll soon have noise 
 enough. The regulars are coming." 
 
 When Pitcairn and his 800 regulars reached Lexington 
 about daylight, April 19th, they were surprised to find about 
 150 minutemen facing them on the green in front of the 
 church. They were also surprised to learn that the two men 
 they wished to capture had escaped during the night, warned 
 in time by the midnight message of Paul Revere. 
 
 Captain Parker of the minutemen, while waiting for the 
 English, said to his men: "Stand your ground. Don't fire 
 
LEXINGTON AND CONCORD 
 
 33 
 
 unless fired upon. But if they mean to have war, let it begin 
 here." Major Pitcairn and his red-coated soldiers marched 
 up and haughtily faced the minutemen. The major shouted : 
 " Disperse, ye villains, ye rebels, disperse! Lay down your 
 arms! Why don't ye lay down your arms?" The patriots 
 
 The Fight at Lexington 
 
 moved not an inch. A shot was fired by some one. Pit- 
 cairn swore he did not order his men to fire, but they fired 
 and eight patriots were killed. In the confusion, no one 
 apparently waited for orders. One hundred and fifty men 
 knew they could not long hold eight hundred in check, so 
 they fell back, and the English soldiers moved on toward 
 Concord. 
 
 Meanwhile minutemen " from every Middlesex village and 
 farm" had been pouring into Concord and had removed all 
 the supplies they could to a place of safety. Early in the 
 afternoon the English appeared and, after burning the town- 
 hall, pushed on to the outskirts of the village. Here at Con- 
 
 MAK. & DEF. — 1 
 
34 THE REVOLUTION 
 
 cord Bridge another skirmish was fought with the minutemen. 
 Little damage had been done to the supplies, and few men had 
 been killed, when the English began their retreat toward 
 Boston. But, as Emerson says, the " embattled farmers" 
 here had " fired a shot heard round the world." 
 
 The return trip to Boston was a sad experience to the Brit- 
 ish soldiers. The day was very hot for early spring. They 
 had been up all night and had had little chance to eat any- 
 thing during the day. Besides this, they were continually 
 fired on by minutemen hurrying toward the Concord road 
 from all directions. For ten miles the road was strewn with 
 wounded "redcoats," and it was a demoralized company of 
 soldiers that was met by reinforcements later that afternoon. 
 
 Battle of Bunker Hill 
 
 After the battles of Lexington and Concord, the patriot 
 army, made up of nearly 20,000 minutemen, gathered about 
 Boston and besieged it. The patriots occupied a semicir- 
 cular position, cutting off all communication between the 
 English army in the city and the interior of the state. The 
 Second Continental Congress, then sitting in Philadelphia, 
 appointed George Washington commander of the army, and 
 sent troops from other colonies to Massachusetts. 
 
 Before Washington reached Cambridge in July, the men of 
 Massachusetts had fought another battle. During May and 
 the first two weeks in June, the patriot army was busy col- 
 lecting supplies, drilling, making themselves familiar with 
 the situation, and studying methods of defense and attack. 
 It was decided to take Bunker Hill, back of Charlestown, as 
 soon as possible, for this would command the city of Boston. 
 By placing their cannon on this hill, they might be able to 
 
BATTLE OE BUNKER HILL 
 
 35 
 
 drive the English out of the city. It is interesting to know 
 that the English had also planned to fortify this hill, but did 
 not begin to do it in time. 
 
 On the night of June 16, 1775, a force of 600 men were put 
 at work building a redoubt about eight rods square on the 
 
 The Battle of Bunker Hill 
 
 top of the hill. On one 
 side of the hill breastworks 
 were thrown up, while a 
 rail fence on the other side 
 was filled with sods and 
 brush. The men had to 
 work very quickly and quietly, for sentinels were watching 
 on English ships in the harbor, but a few rods away; and in 
 the silent night air the click of a shovel might betray to them 
 what the patriots were doing. 
 
 The work was nearly completed when, just at daybreak, 
 Captain Linzer of an English vessel noticed a stir on the 
 hill and opened fire. Other vessels then began firing and 
 
36 THE REVOLUTION 
 
 continued during the forenoon, but without doing much dam- 
 age. General Gage, in command of the English troops, saw 
 that if the patriots should succeed in planting siege guns on 
 the hill they might force him to give up the city, so he planned 
 a general attack upon the patriots' position. 
 
 It was, however, about noon before the English army, 
 2500 strong, began this attack. They advanced up the hill 
 in three divisions. The patriots were sheltered behind their 
 defenses, and when the enemy came within range of their 
 guns, they fired, cutting down a row of men in the front 
 rank, including officers. The English fell back, but twice 
 they were rallied and led again to the assault. Soon after 
 they began their third attack, the firing from the redoubt 
 ceased. The Americans' ammunition was gone. The Eng- 
 lish then eagerly pressed on into the breastworks, where there 
 was a hand-to-hand contest. As the patriots had no bayonets, 
 they were unequal to the task, and about nightfall were 
 obliged to retreat. 
 
 The English lost many officers and a much larger number 
 of men than the Americans, but the latter were obliged to 
 give up their position on the hill. It is called, of course, an 
 English victory, but it was one dearly bought. A few days 
 later, General Gage wrote to the English government as 
 follows: 
 
 "The success, of which I send your lordships an account 
 by the present opportunity, was very necessary in our present 
 situation; and I wish most sincerely it had not cost so dear. 
 The number of killed and wounded is greater than our force 
 can afford to lose. The officers who were obliged to exert 
 themselves have suffered very much; and we have lost some 
 extremely good officers. The trials we have had show the 
 rebels are not the despicable rabble too many have supposed 
 
BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL 37 
 
 them to be; and I find it owing to a military spirit encouraged 
 among them for a few years past, joined with an uncommon 
 degree of zeal and enthusiasm, that they are otherwise." 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Boston, Lexington, Concord, Charlestown. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 History. — Brooks, "Stories of the Old Bay State," pp. 118, 135; 
 Dawes, "Colonial Massachusetts," pp. 42-72; Brooks, "Century Book 
 of the American Revolution," pp. 1-68. 
 
 Poetry. — Longfellow, "Paul Revere's Ride"; Emerson, "Concord 
 Hymn"; Pierpont, "Warren's Address "; Stevenson, " Poems of Ameri- 
 can History." 
 
 Fiction. — Cooper, "Lionel Lincoln"; Butterworth, "The Patriot 
 Schoolmaster"; Adams, "Watchfires of '76." 
 
 Drum used at Bunker 
 Hill 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON, THE YOUNG VIRGINIAN 
 
 As we have read about the beginnings of the Revolution, 
 we have met the name of a man who was to play the most 
 important part in our struggle for independence. It is now 
 necessary to turn back in our story in order to see how this 
 young Virginia planter, George Washington, was fitted for 
 the great work he had to do. 
 
 About the middle of the sixteenth century, two brothers 
 emigrated from England to America. They were of the 
 sturdy middle class of Old England, good stock for coloniz- 
 ing a new world. These brothers purchased land in Vir- 
 ginia between the Potomac and Rappahannock Rivers, and 
 one of them, Colonel John Washington, as he was known in 
 his new home, became a man of influence in the community. 
 His grandson, Augustine, was born in 1694 and grew to be a 
 man of unusual physical power and of strong character. 
 Like his father and grandfather, Augustine Washington was 
 a planter, one of the large landowners of Virginia, and was 
 considered wealthy for those times. He was twice married, 
 and his second wife, Mary Ball, was a woman of beauty and 
 of sound common sense. 
 
 To them, at the old homestead in Westmoreland County, 
 was born on February 22, 1732, a son whom they named 
 George. While he was a little boy, the family moved to a 
 plantation near Fredericksburg, and there most of his boyhood 
 days were spent. This boy had back of him good blood and 
 good breeding, and he proved worthy of them. His father, 
 
 38 
 
EARLY LIFE 39 
 
 although rich in land, had little ready money, and so was 
 unable to give all of his large family the advantages of a 
 thorough education. There were few good schools in the 
 colonies at that time, so Lawrence, the eldest son, was sent 
 to England to finish his training, while George was learning 
 the simple rudiments of a common school education at home. 
 This school was taught by the sexton of the parish, and it was 
 not long before the active boy had learned all the village 
 schoolmaster could teach him. 
 
 George was at this time a sturdy, well-built little fellow, 
 with a strongly knit frame, giving promise of the muscular 
 man to come. When he was about eight years old his brother 
 Lawrence returned from England, and a strong affection 
 sprang up between the young man just out of college and the 
 
 little boy. 
 
 Lawrence served for a time in the West Indies in the war 
 between England and Spain, and probably was regarded by 
 his small brother as a great military hero. So George, at 
 home, organized among the schoolboys companies of sol- 
 diers and played at war. Without doubt, he formed some- 
 thing of a taste for adventure at this early age. He even at 
 one time wished to become a sailor and had obtained a 
 midshipman's berth through his brother Lawrence's influence, 
 but gave it up to please his mother. 
 
 In 1743, Augustine Washington died, and his large landed 
 property was divided among his children. To Lawrence was 
 given the estate on the Potomac, which he afterward named 
 Mount Vernon in honor of the Admiral Vernon, under whom 
 he had served in the Spanish wars. The old homestead 
 in Westmoreland County was given to Augustine, another 
 brother, while George, when he became of age, was to have 
 the lands on the Rappahannock. 
 
40 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 In order that George might have better school advantages 
 he was now sent to live with his brother Augustine. Here 
 he attended an academy kept by the Rev. James May re, a 
 French emigrant, who gave him a practical business educa- 
 tion. He was good in mathematics, especially in geometry 
 and in surveying. His fondness for these studies, together 
 with his love of an outdoor life, had much to do with his 
 choice of a profession; for he soon began to fit himself to 
 become a surveyor. 
 
 George was a serious-minded boy, somewhat shy and 
 diffident, and large for his age. His schoolmates looked upon 
 him with affection and with so much respect that their boyish 
 disputes were usually referred to him for settlement. Many of 
 his schoolbooks and exercises have been preserved, and they 
 show that he was already forming those careful and methodi- 
 cal habits that were so marked in his later life. A copy 
 book which he made about 1745 is most interesting. In it 
 were copied, in a neat and painstaking hand, bonds, receipts, 
 and other business forms. When he was tired, he would 
 stop, like most boys, and draw in the margin pictures of birds 
 or of his schoolmates. 
 
 But the best parts of this copy book are the "Rules of 
 Civility." The master thought that his boys should be 
 taught good manners and good conduct as well as arith- 
 metic, so George copied and studied these rules faithfully. 
 Without doubt, they had a great influence in forming his 
 habits and character. 
 
 It would be well if the boys and girls of to-day could study 
 these quaint rules of conduct as faithfully as did Washington. 
 Here are some of them: 
 
 " Let your countenance be pleasant, but in serious matters 
 somewhat grave. 
 
EARLY LIFE 
 
 41 
 
 "Show not yourself glad at the misfortune of another, 
 though he were your enemy. 
 
 "Talk not with meat in your mouth. 
 
 "Speak not evil of the absent, for it is unjust. 
 
 "Labour to keep alive in your breast that little Spark of 
 Celestial fire called Conscience." 
 
 But we must not think that the thoughtful, studious boy 
 was wholly devoted to his books. He was also unusually 
 fond of the free out-of-door life so commonly followed in 
 colonial Virginia. In the fields and in the forests he learned 
 much that is not taught in books, and his courage, his self- 
 reliance, and his rugged strength came largely from contact 
 with nature. He learned to shoot straight, to ride well, and 
 to hold his own in swimming, in wrestling, in pitching quoits, 
 and in other boyish sports. 
 
 A story is told of him that shows his skill as a rider and his 
 strong sense of honor. 
 Sorrel, the finest colt 
 on his mother's farm, 
 was high-spirited and 
 difficult to manage. 
 One morning when 
 the boys were in the 
 pasture, George tried 
 to ride this colt. He 
 had nearly succeeded 
 in mastering the ani- 
 mal, when Sorrel, 
 leaping and plunging 
 
 Washington tries to ride the Colt 
 
 around the lot in an effort to unseat the boy, burst a blood 
 vessel and soon died. The boys were of course afraid to tell 
 Mrs. Washington what had happened. When they came in 
 
42 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 to breakfast, she asked how they found the horses, and George 
 honestly told the story of the accident. For a moment she 
 was angry, for she was fond of the splendid animal, but she 
 soon said that she was proud of her boy for telling the truth 
 at once and not trying to shield himself. 
 
 In 1747, George's school days ended and he went to live 
 with his brother Lawrence at Mount Vernon. Here he soon 
 put to practical use his knowledge of surveying, and busied 
 himself in running lines and in measuring his brother's 
 estate. Here, too, he had an opportunity to test those rules 
 of conduct by which he was shaping his character. 
 
 On an estate adjoining Mount Vernon, lived Lord Fair- 
 fax, a courtly, white-haired English gentlemen who owned 
 immense tracts of land in Virginia. This nobleman soon 
 noticed the modest, well-bred boy, and a strong friendship 
 sprang up between them. Washington was a welcome vis- 
 itor at Belvoir, Lord Fairfax's home. They rode together, 
 they went fox hunting together, and the boy must have 
 absorbed from the man of the world something of the culture 
 and of the sound, mellow civilization of which the fine old 
 English gentleman was so good a type. 
 
 It was Lord Fairfax who gave Washington his first employ- 
 ment as a surveyor. He saw that the boy who showed such 
 energy and accuracy in surveying his brother's lands, was 
 worthy of a larger trial. Fairfax had a great tract of land in 
 the Shenandoah valley extending over the Blue Ridge into 
 what is now West Virginia. This property, in 1748, he sent 
 Washington to survey. It was a task which would test the 
 mettle of most men, but the sixteen-year-old boy proved 
 equal to the trust. In company with George Fairfax and a 
 few assistants, he started for the Shenandoah. Their life in 
 the wilderness for the next few weeks was crowded with hard 
 
SURVEYOR 43 
 
 work and with adventure. They usually slept in the open 
 air or in tents, and for food they depended largely on hunting. 
 
 At one time, they fell in with a party of Indians, and at 
 night, around the camp fire, they watched the weird dances 
 of the red men. For food, they had the trout which they 
 caught in the mountain brooks and the game with which 
 the forest abounded. What a charm this woods life had for 
 them, only boys who have tasted the joys of camping out can 
 fully realize. Washington, in after years, referred to these 
 experiences as the happiest moments in his life. When the 
 little expedition returned to civilization, Lord Fairfax was 
 so well pleased with the skillful manner in which Washing- 
 ton had done his work that he obtained for him an appoint- 
 ment as public surveyor of Culpeper County. 
 
 The next three years were passed in the practice of his 
 profession. His home was now at Mount Vernon, but much 
 
 
 * 
 
 .?**•*- 
 
 i r 
 
 Greenway Court 
 
44 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 of his time was spent with his friend Lord Fairfax at Green- 
 way Court. This was a wilderness home which the noble- 
 man, charmed with the beauty of the country which Wash- 
 ington surveyed, had built in the Shenandoah valley, near 
 where Winchester now stands. 
 
 During this time, Lawrence Washington's health failed, and 
 with the hope that a sea voyage would prove beneficial, he 
 took George, his favorite brother, on a trip to the West Indies. 
 The voyage, however, proved of no avail, and in 1752 Law- 
 rence died, leaving his daughter in charge of George as her 
 guardian. She lived only a short time after, and George, by 
 a provision of his brother's will, became the owner of the great 
 plantation at Mount Vernon. 
 
 He might now have settled down to a life of ease, but the 
 country was on the verge of a great war jn which he was 
 destined to be a conspicuous figure. 
 
 For over a century the settlements of the English in 
 America had been confined to a narrow strip along the 
 Atlantic seaboard, extending back less than two hundred 
 miles. The French in Canada had occupied the St. Law- 
 rence valley, and their priests and traders had boldly explored 
 the western country. There they had established forts and 
 trading posts along the Great Lakes and down the Mississippi 
 River. 
 
 Both peoples were attracted by the reports of the fertil- 
 ity and beauty of the Ohio valley. Virginia laid claim to 
 this country under the provisions of its royal charter, and 
 a company of Virginia gentlemen, under the name of the 
 Ohio Company, was formed to make settlements in this 
 valley. But the French, also realizing its value, were pre- 
 paring to take and hold possession by the establishment of a 
 chain of forts extending from Lake Erie to the Mississippi 
 
MISSION TO OHIO VALLEY 
 
 45 
 
 River. Three of these forts were already built: one at 
 Presque Isle, now Erie, Pennsylvania, another called Fort 
 Le Bceuf, where Waterford, 
 Pennsylvania, is now situ- 
 ated; and an outpost at 
 Venango, now the site of 
 Franklin, Pennsylvania. It 
 was seen at once by the Vir- 
 ginians that decisive steps 
 must be taken to enforce 
 their claim to the Ohio val- 
 ley. Some one must be sent 
 there to find out what the 
 plans of the French were, 
 and to win the friendship 
 of the Indians. The man 
 chosen must be fearless, 
 tactful, and an expert 
 woodsman. So it is not 
 strange that Washington, 
 then only twenty-one years 
 of age, was chosen for this 
 difficult and dangerous un- 
 dertaking. 
 
 20 30 40 50 
 
 - 
 
 Early Forts in the Ohio Valley 
 
 In October of 1753, armed with a letter from Governor 
 Dinwiddie of Virginia to the French commander at Fort Le 
 Bceuf, he started on his ^mission. With him were his old 
 fencing master, Jacob Van Braam, and Christopher Gist, a 
 famous frontier guide. They had also four Indian traders 
 and servants. The journey of 500 miles over the mountains 
 and through the trackless forests was attended with many 
 dangers, but at last the little company reached the French 
 
4 6 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 fort. The officers received them cordially, but frankly said 
 to Washington that they could not abandon the country 
 which the Virginians claimed. 
 
 After a few days' rest, Washington and his companions 
 started on their return journey. Winter had already set 
 in, and the rivers were swollen with ice. In his eagerness to 
 
 reach home, Wash- 
 ington left the others 
 to follow more slow- 
 ly, and, with Gist, 
 pushed on ahead. In 
 the diary which he 
 kept, he tells of the 
 difficulties they met. 
 One day an Indian, 
 who seemed to be 
 friendly, suddenly 
 shot at the two 
 men, but fortunately 
 missed, so they dis- 
 armed him and let 
 him go. Coming to 
 one river which they 
 could not ford, Wash- 
 ington says, "There 
 was no way of getting over but on a Raft which we set about 
 with but one poor hatchet and finished just after Sunsetting. 
 Before we were half way over we were jammed in the Ice. 
 The Rapidity of the Stream jerked me out into ten feet of 
 Water but I saved myself by catching hold of one of the logs." 
 The current was so strong that they could not bring the raft to 
 shore but were obliged to abandon it and swim to an island. 
 
 Washington thrown from the Raft 
 
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 
 
 47 
 
 Here they stayed all night, suffering greatly from the intense 
 cold. The next morning the river had frozen over so that 
 they walked to the other shore. After many clays of hard- 
 ship and danger and treachery, they came safely home to 
 Virginia, and on the 16th of January, 1754, Washington 
 reported the result of his mission to Governor Dinwiddie. 
 
 Immediately Vir- 
 ginia prepared for 
 war. Troops were 
 mustered, and a 
 company of men was 
 sent forward to build 
 a fort at the point 
 where the Mononga- 
 hela and Allegheny 
 Rivers meet and form 
 the Ohio. Washing- 
 ton followed soon 
 after with two com- 
 panies, and in a skir- 
 mish near a place 
 known as Great 
 Meadows, surprised 
 and defeated a small 
 force of French. 
 
 Leaving a few men Washington as a Young Man 
 
 at Great Meadows, he then pushed forward to a settlement 
 which had been made by his old guide Christopher Gist, cut- 
 ting a wagon road through the woods as he went. But the 
 French, in the meantime, had driven off the English at the 
 headwaters of the Ohio and had built there a fort which 
 they named Fort Duquesne. Washington, hearing that the 
 
48 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 French were advancing from this fort, fell back to Great 
 Meadows, and hastily threw up a rough stockade which he 
 called Fort Necessity. Here he was attacked by a force 
 greatly outnumbering his own, and, after a brave fight lasting 
 nine hours, was forced to surrender. With all the honors 
 of war, the Virginia troops were allowed to march out of the 
 fort and to return to their homes. Washington, in writing to 
 his brother about one of these skirmishes, said, " I heard the 
 bullets whistle, and believe me, there is something charming 
 in the sound." The English king, George II, upon hearing 
 this remark, laughed and said that Washington would not 
 have said so if he had been used to hearing many. 
 
 The war, known in history as the French and Indian War, 
 which was to decide whether the French or the English were 
 to have America, now began in bitter earnest. The English 
 government was roused to action and sent over regiments of 
 regular troops to assist the colonies. There were five strong- 
 holds of the French in America which the English wished to 
 take. One of these was Fort Duquesne, and against it, in 
 the early summer of 1755, marched General Braddock in 
 command of 2000 colonial troops and regulars. 
 
 Braddock was a gallant soldier, but his training had been 
 on European battlefields, and he had contempt for the colo- 
 nial militia. Colonel Washington, who was a member of his 
 staff of officers, warned him that warfare in the forests and 
 against the French and their Indian allies was very different 
 from what he had experienced, but he stubbornly refused to 
 listen to the young man. The little army had nearly reached 
 Fort Duquesne and was marching with banners gayly flying 
 and with fife and drum playing, when the French and Indians 
 suddenly fell upon them. The colonial troops, used to this 
 kind of warfare, immediately sprang behind trees, but the 
 
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 
 
 49 
 
 regulars, drawn up in battle line, fired helplessly at an 
 unseen foe. Braddock, storming up and down the line, 
 tried to rally his disordered troops, but failed and was mor- 
 tally wounded. Washington seemed to bear a charmed life; 
 two horses were shot under him and four bullets tore through 
 his coat, but he escaped unharmed and, with his militia, 
 covered the retreat of the army. 
 
 After this disastrous defeat, Washington was placed in 
 
 Fort Duquesne 
 
 command of the Virginia troops, and in 1758 took part in 
 another expedition against Fort Duquesne. This time the 
 fortunes of war were with the English, for the tide had turned 
 against the French in all parts of the country. Before the 
 English reached Duquesne, the French abandoned and burned 
 the defenses. On its ruins the English rebuilt the fort and 
 named it Pitt in honor of the great Prime Minister of Eng- 
 land. At that place is now the great manufacturing and 
 commercial city of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. 
 
 As the war was now practically over, Washington returned 
 
 MAK. & DEF.- 
 
50 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 to Mount Vernon and resumed the life of a Virginia planter 
 and gentleman. In the summer of 1758 he had met and won 
 Martha Custis, a beautiful and wealthy young widow, and 
 on January 6, 1759, they were married. Their spacious 
 home on the Potomac, under the direction of its charming 
 mistress, soon became a center in the social life of the neigh- 
 borhood. For the next few years its generous hospitality and 
 its quiet comfort made it famous. Here Washington lived 
 until his country's need called him again into public service. 
 
 Topical Outline. — George Washington: boyhood and youth. Life at 
 Mount Vernon; friends and occupations. The French in the Ohio val- 
 ley. Washington's journey to the French forts. His share in the French 
 and Indian War. His marriage. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Write a paragraph on each of the following 
 topics: George Washington's school days, his friendship with Lord 
 Fairfax, his games and sports. II. Imagine yourself a companion of 
 Washington on the trip to the French forts. Tell the story of your ad- 
 ventures on the journey. III. Write from memory some of Washing- 
 ton's rules of conduct. IV. What were the causes of the French and 
 Indian War. Tell why the possession of Fort Duquesne was important. 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Fredericksburg, Mount Vernon (p. 60), Alle- 
 gheny and Monongahela Rivers, Presque Isle, Fort Le Bceuf, Venango, 
 Fort Duquesne, Fort Necessity. 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON — SOLDIER AND 
 STATESMAN 
 
 ■ >v ••' 
 
 ,:'a '•:?. ; ; „ 
 
 
 Mount Vernon 
 
 In colonial Virginia there were no large cities. Its great 
 rivers had no falls to develop water power for the mills 
 around which villages might cluster. Its lands were fertile, 
 and the colonists were, for the most part, busied with the 
 raising of grain and tobacco. So great estates grew up along 
 the shores of broad tidal rivers like the James, the York, and 
 the Potomac. Each of these estates had its owner's mansion, 
 built of wood or brick, with broad halls and wide verandas, 
 its quarters for the servants and slaves, its workshops and 
 its barns, so that each plantation was a little village in itself. 
 
 5i 
 
52 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 To one of these fine old Virginia homes, in 1759, Wash- 
 ington brought his young bride. Most of us have seen 
 pictures of Mount Vernon, but they cannot do justice to the 
 beauty of its location. Situated on the summit of a small 
 hill, with its green lawns gently sloping to the river, it com- 
 manded a fine view of the Potomac. Stretching away on 
 either side were the broad acres and the forests of the estate, 
 a scene of contentment and of comfort to gladden the heart 
 of the young man fresh from the hardships of Indian wars. 
 
 Washington loved 
 his home and its 
 quiet country life, 
 and here he now had 
 his first chance for 
 rest and retirement 
 since his early boy- 
 hood days. The es- 
 tate and the consider- 
 able property which 
 his wife had brought 
 him, required careful 
 supervision. Rising 
 early, he would visit 
 his farms on horse- 
 back, directing his 
 overseers where fields 
 were to be plowed or 
 cultivated, and where 
 „ . w .. , forests were to be 
 
 Martha Washington 
 
 cleared. Often, in 
 the afternoon, he would join his neighbors in fox hunting 
 or in shooting canvasback ducks on the Potomac, and the 
 
CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 53 
 
 sport would frequently end with a hunt supper at one of the 
 homes. 
 
 He was one of the wealthy men of the colony, and his 
 intimate friends were among its leaders. These he would 
 entertain with gracious hospitality at Mount Vernon, and he 
 would return their visits by trips to their estates. We can see 
 him now as he starts out with his wife for these visits of 
 state — Mrs. Washington in her coach and four, with the 
 driver and servants in livery, while her husband rode on 
 horseback at the side of the coach. 
 
 So the quiet years passed, broken only by an occasional visit 
 to the colonial capital, to perform his duties as a member of the 
 House of Burgesses. These years were years of growth of 
 character and of strict attention to his business. He became 
 the most successful planter in the colony. He kept his own 
 account books and personally directed the planting and the 
 harvesting of his crops. It is said that the quality of the 
 tobacco and flour which was shipped abroad bearing the 
 brand "George Washington, Mount Vernon" was so well 
 known that the customs inspectors passed it without exami- 
 nation. Although he held slaves, he treated them kindly and 
 never sold them. 
 
 During the years when Washington was quietly living at 
 Mount Vernon, the troubles between England and her Ameri- 
 can colonies were rapidly reaching a crisis. What these un- 
 just demands and exactions of the mother country were, you 
 have already learned in your study of the lives of Samuel 
 Adams and of Patrick Henry. A congress of the colonies 
 was held in Philadelphia in 1774, and Washington was sent 
 to it as a delegate from Virginia. Patrick Henry, who was 
 also a member of the congress, when asked who was the 
 greatest man there, said: "If you speak of eloquence, Mr. 
 
54 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 Rutledge is by far the greatest orator; but if you speak of 
 solid information and sound judgment, Colonel Washington 
 is undoubtedly the greatest man on that floor." 
 
 When the Second Continental Congress met, May 10, 1775, 
 also in Philadelphia, the time for a peaceful settlement of the 
 issues between England and the colonies had passed. The 
 battle of Lexington had been fought and American blood 
 shed. Washington was again a delegate from Virginia to 
 this Congress, and was at once chosen commander in chief of 
 all the Continental forces. Perhaps he was the only man on 
 whom Congress could unanimously agree, for, since the 
 French and Indian War, he was undoubtedly the greatest 
 military leader in America. Notwithstanding his fitness for 
 the place, he modestly questioned his own worth. In his 
 reply to the appointment, Washington said: "Though I am 
 truly sensitive of the high honor done me in this appointment, 
 yet I feel great distress from a consciousness that my abilities 
 may not be equal to the trust." As a condition of acceptance, 
 he refused to receive any pay for his services except for his 
 personal expenses, of which he kept an exact account and 
 for which he was afterwards repaid. This, it may be noted, 
 was all he asked in after years when he became Presi- 
 dent. 
 
 The little army which General Washington was to com- 
 mand was stationed around Boston, so he at once set out 
 from Philadelphia for that city. While he was on the journey, 
 news was brought of the battle of Bunker Hill. Washington, 
 upon hearing the story of that gallant fight, and learning that 
 the militia had repulsed the attacks of the British regulars, 
 until their powder and shot were gone, exclaimed: "Thank 
 God, the liberties of the country are safe." On July 2, 1775, he 
 reached Cambridge, just outside of Boston, and took com- 
 
THE REVOLUTION 
 
 55 
 
 mand of the colonial troops. The elm tree under which he 
 reviewed the army on the next day is still standing, and is 
 called the Washington Elm. He established his headquar- 
 ters in the Craigie homestead, a fine old colonial mansion 
 afterwards occupied by the poet Longfellow. 
 
 It was a poorly equipped body of men that Washington 
 
 Washington takes Command of the Continental Army 
 
 had to command. Most of them were without uniforms, and 
 many had no guns. They were unused to discipline, and 
 were enlisted for short terms. Supplies were low, and there 
 was constant danger of attack from the British, who were 
 encamped across the river in the city of Boston. His first 
 task was to make a disciplined army out of these raw recruits. 
 So the summer and fall were spent in drilling the men and 
 in gathering supplies. 
 
56 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 The material most needed was powder and cannon. For- 
 tunately Ethan Allen and his band of " Green Mountain 
 boys," had, in the early summer, by a bold stroke, captured 
 the English forts at Crown Point and Ticonderoga. These 
 forts were well stored with arms and ammunition, and at the 
 beginning of winter their cannon and other needed supplies 
 were drawn on ox sleds to Washington's camp. 
 
 With his men armed, equipped, and trained, Washington 
 was now ready to begin active warfare. Planting his cannon 
 behind breastworks on the heights about Boston, he soon made 
 the British position in that city difficult to hold, and on 
 March 17, 1776, the enemy were forced to abandon the city. 
 In their haste, the English left behind much valuable material 
 of war with which Washington was better able to equip his 
 army. The British troops sailed away to Halifax, but King 
 George III and his advisers were already planning to attack 
 New York. Suspecting this, Washington withdrew his troops 
 to that city to prepare for its defense. 
 
 Meanwhile the breach between England and America 
 rapidly widened. Petitions to the king and protests to 
 Parliament having failed, all hope of reconciliation seemed 
 to vanish. So the Continental Congress took a decisive step, 
 and in June, 1776, appointed a committee to draft a state- 
 ment of the colonists' wrongs and a declaration of their 
 liberties. This committee, of which Thomas Jefferson was 
 chairman, reported to Congress, and on July 4, 1776, the 
 delegates adopted the Declaration of Independence. 
 
 THE CAMPAIGN IN NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 
 
 At the very time when the Congress was proclaiming the 
 colonies to be a free and independent nation, the English 
 
CAMPAIGN IN NEW YORK 
 
 57 
 
 -Route of American Army 
 - " " British Army 
 
 sou or MILES 
 
 — ? — ' — ' 
 
 forces under General Howe were gathering on Staten Island 
 ready to attack New York. 
 
 Washington had less than 18,000 men with which to pro- 
 tect the city. If you 
 will look at a map of 
 the city and the coun- 
 try surrounding it, you 
 will see that the Eng- 
 lish from their location 
 on Staten Island could 
 strike a decisive blow 
 at any one spot of the 
 American line of de- 
 fenses before Wash- 
 ington could mass 
 enough troops to 
 strengthen it. 
 
 Long Island was de- 
 fended by three forts 
 on the "Heights," 
 nearest Manhattan, 
 and by the "Line of 
 Defense " from the 
 Wallabout to Gowan- 
 
 Vicinity of New York 
 
 us. This line was a mile and a quarter long, and in it was 
 the star-shaped fort located where the Martyrs' Monument 
 now is in Fort Greene Park. Part of the Patriot forces held 
 these defenses, while Washington and the main army re- 
 mained on Manhattan. But Howe did not, as was expected, 
 attack New York directly. Instead, with considerable de- 
 liberation, he began on August 22 to land troops on Long 
 Island near Bath Beach. When word reached the Ameri- 
 
58 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 cans to this effect, reinforcements were brought over from 
 Manhattan, and men were sent out beyond the defenses to 
 guard the three great highways crossing the ridge. The 
 Flatbush Pass was the only one defended by fieldworks; at 
 East New York, about where Jamaica Avenue now passes 
 the entrance to Evergreen Cemetery, only five young men 
 were stationed. 
 
 As the British landed, they spread rapidly over the plains 
 from New Utrecht and Gravesend to Flatbush. On Au- 
 gust 27 simultaneous attacks were ordered by the British on 
 the Americans at Flatbush Pass and on the Coast Road to 
 the west, while other troops were sent around to East New 
 York, and after capturing the outpost stationed on the Ja- 
 maica Road, came around on the American rear. There is a 
 bit of humor in the fact that Cornwallis, Clinton, Percy, and 
 several other less famous officers with at least eight hun- 
 dred men, captured those five boys stationed at the Jamaica 
 Pass. 
 
 Some of the most terrible fighting of the war was on the 
 field stretching from Battle Pass, now in Greenwood Ceme- 
 tery, to Battle Hill, now in Prospect Park. Both places are 
 appropriately marked, but at Battle Hill is a fine monument 
 to the memory of the Maryland troops that fell there on 
 August 28. The next day was hot and rainy, and neither 
 side attempted to renew the battle. The capture of the 
 entire Long Island division of the American army now seemed 
 certain, but General Howe had a habit of putting off things, 
 and failed to follow up the victory he had won. While he 
 waited, Washington seized all the boats on the Brooklyn 
 side of the East River, and on the night of the 29th, aided 
 by a dense fog which concealed the movements of the army, 
 he safely carried across to Manhattan nearly 10,000 men. By 
 
CAMPAIGN IN NEW YORK 
 
 59 
 
 this masterly retreat, Washington saved his army. Although 
 he had been forty-eight hours with scarcely time for food or for 
 rest, he directed that retreat in person, and when in the gray 
 
 Retreating from Brooklyn 
 
 dawn he embarked with the last boat load of soldiers, he must 
 have breathed a sigh of relief at so shrewdly outwitting the 
 British. 
 
 Two weeks later, on September 15, the British crossed the 
 East River and landed at Kip's Bay, at what is now the foot of 
 East Thirty-sixth Street, with little opposition. They moved 
 north and attacked Washington's position at Harlem Heights. 
 Although the Patriots pushed the British line back, they knew 
 that they could not long hold their position, for tin- British 
 boats could enter the Harlem River and land troops in their 
 rear. So it was decided to cross over into Westchester County. 
 For the next two months Washington slowly retreated north- 
 
il 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 Norfol 
 
 Vj,JjDORTHER> T COIOMES 
 
 DURING THE 
 
 REVOLUTION 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 Longitude 
 
 25 
 
 *L 
 
 West 
 
 50 75 100 
 
 L.t.P0*TeS, ENGfl., N.Y. 
 
 71 
 
 ^t"! iflh ?« 
 
 10 
 
 Wpehav ken •f^y v ^ r r? a _^o 
 
 r4 /Tot-, I Nei-York Q 
 .**/«' C >" ; 'Brooklyn ^ 
 
 38 
 
 from 
 
 Greenwich 
 
CAMPAIGN IN NEW JERSEY 6 1 
 
 ward, never risking a general engagement because of the 
 superior strength of the enemy, but forcing them to fight for 
 every foot of ground they took. At White Plains, the two 
 armies again met. Soon after, with part of his army, Wash- 
 ington crossed the Hudson River and retired into New 
 Jersey. 
 
 The Patriots had fortified two positions on either side of 
 the Hudson above the city of New York, in order to pre- 
 vent the English fleet from passing up the river. Fort 
 Washington on the eastern bank was captured by General 
 Howe, and the Patriots were forced soon after to abandon 
 Fort Lee on the western shore. Then followed Washington's 
 memorable retreat across New Jersey. 
 
 The English, under the command of Lord Cornwallis, 
 pressed so closely upon the Americans that at times the 
 armies were in sight of each other. Washington, however, 
 by burning bridges and by blocking the roads, managed to 
 keep out of reach of the pursuing enemy. At last, reaching 
 the Delaware River and collecting all the boats in the vicinity, 
 he crossed over into Pennsylvania. A few hours later, the 
 British came marching down to the river, but, having no 
 boats, were forced to encamp and wait until the river had 
 frozen. Cornwallis was so certain that he now had Wash- 
 ington at his mercy that, leaving his army in camp, he 
 returned to New York for the Christmas holidays. 
 
 The affairs of the Americans were at a low ebb. During 
 the retreat across New Jersey, Washington had lost thousands 
 of men by desertion and by the ending of their terms of enlist- 
 ment. Seemingly, the whole country was discouraged, but 
 its great-hearted leader never gave up hope. He knew that 
 if he could strike a successful blow at the British, faith in him 
 and in his army would be restored. The opportunity soon 
 
62 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 came, for the English, careless and confident of victory, were 
 loosely guarding their lines. 
 
 At Trenton a detachment of Hessians were stationed. 
 These Hessians were German soldiers whom King George 
 had hired to fight for him, and they were especially hated by 
 the Americans. So Washington determined if possible to 
 capture them. Plans for the attack were carefully made, and 
 
 
 
 
 /* 
 
 
 i$M 
 
 
 
 gBggSatesns^ 
 
 E ^PM 
 
 "'P^^gg 
 
 
 )Linp ■ - ■ . ^f 
 
 
 ^■H^H WKK--' ' ■ 
 
 - ^Mi 
 
 
 Wmk*-,'- ^"-- 
 
 5> 
 
 
 
 
 
 *l^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 ^Hr .%>- v 
 v^J 
 
 Washington crossing the Delaware 
 
 on Christmas night, with a body of picked men, he crossed 
 the Delaware. 
 
 The river was full of floating ice, the current was strong, 
 and the weather was bitterly cold, but the brave general was 
 fortunate in having, in the force he had selected, a regiment 
 of New England fishermen used to handling boats, so the 
 crossing was safely made. As the men started on their march 
 toward Trenton, nine miles away, the storm increased in 
 fury. Sleet and snow were driven in the faces of the weary 
 
CAMPAIGN IN NEW JERSEY 63 
 
 soldiers as they advanced, and two men were frozen to death 
 by the bitter cold. It was after daybreak when they reached 
 the enemy's camp, but the surprise was complete, and Wash- 
 ington captured a thousand Hessians. 
 
 This victory, and Washington's further operations in New 
 Jersey, aroused Cornwallis to action. He again took the 
 field, determined, as he said, "to finish the business up." 
 Leaving three regiments at Princeton, with the rest of his 
 army he drove Washington back to the Delaware. "At 
 last we have the old Fox bagged," said the British general, 
 but Washington was not to be so easily caught. During the 
 night, leaving his camp fires brightly burning and sentinels 
 on guard to deceive the enemy, Washington slipped around 
 the British lines, and by sunrise fell upon and defeated the 
 troops stationed at Princeton. This second victory, follow- 
 ing so closely upon the one at Trenton, greatly encouraged 
 the Americans. Active campaigning now ceased, and Wash- 
 ington went into winter quarters on the heights above Morris- 
 town, where his position was so strongly fortified as to be 
 secure from attack. 
 
 Of this campaign, a great German general has said that 
 no finer military movement was ever executed than the re- 
 treat through New Jersey and the return across the Dela- 
 ware with its victories at Trenton and at Princeton. 
 
 Wc must not close our story of this part of the war, however, 
 without mentioning the name of Robert Morris, a patriot 
 banker of Philadelphia. He pledged his own fortune and 
 induced his Quaker friends to give money for the support of 
 the army. The timely receipt of these funds made it pos- 
 sible for Washington to reenlist the soldiers whose terms of 
 service were about to expire. Without these soldiers victory 
 would have been impossible. 
 
64 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 THE CAMPAIGN IN PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 The English king and his advisers now saw that their war 
 with the despised colonists was more serious than they had at 
 first expected. Plans were made in London early in 1777 
 for a threefold movement of the British troops. The colony 
 of New York was to be the center of attack. The king 
 thought that by getting possession of the Hudson valley he 
 could separate the rebellious New Englanders from the rest 
 of the colonies. In this way, by dividing the American 
 strength, he could more readily crush the rebellion. Accord- 
 ingly General Burgoyne was to come south along the Cham- 
 plain route from Canada; St. Leger, from Oswego, was to 
 advance eastward through the Mohawk valley, and join 
 Burgoyne at Albany; while Howe was to send reinforcements 
 up the Hudson to meet the united armies. It was a beautiful 
 scheme on paper; how poorly Burgoyne's and St. Leger's 
 parts in it worked out, we shall read in another chapter. Here 
 we are interested in knowing about Washington's share in 
 checkmating the British game. 
 
 Washington saw that it was absolutely necessary to keep 
 Howe so busy that no troops could be sent north. In order 
 to do this, he pretended to strike at New York, then in the 
 hands of the English. Howe retaliated by beginning opera- 
 tions against Philadelphia. He at first tried to march his 
 army across New Jersey, but Washington blocked the way 
 so effectually that he returned to New York. Leaving a 
 garrison to guard that city, Howe with his fleet and 18,000 men 
 then set sail for Chesapeake Bay. The Continental army 
 at once marched southward to check the British advance. 
 
 It was while they were passing through Philadelphia, that 
 Washington first met the Marquis de Lafayette. This 
 
CAMPAIGN IN PENNSYLVANIA 65 
 
 young French nobleman was an ardent lover of liberty, who 
 had fitted out a vessel at his own expense and had sailed to 
 America to offer his services. His Life and his fortune he 
 freely risked to aid the colonists. Congress made him a 
 major general, and Washington, when he came to know 
 Lafayette's fine nature, loved and trusted him as a son. 
 
 It was late in August, when Howe landed his troops at the 
 head of Chesapeake Bay. Between him and Philadelphia 
 lay Washington with n,ooo men ready to contest every 
 foot of the way. On the nth of September, the two armies 
 met at Chads Ford on Brandywine Creek, and Washington 
 was driven back. He fought and marched so skillfully, how- 
 ever, that it took Howe two weeks to advance the remaining 
 twenty-six miles and capture Philadelphia. Another battle 
 in October, at Germantown, a suburb of the city, nearly 
 resulted in a victory for the Americans. But a dense fog 
 concealed the movements of the troops, and in the confusion 
 the Americans fired on one another and the day was lost. 
 
 It was now too late for Howe to send aid to Burgoyne, so he 
 established his army in Philadelphia, while Washington went 
 into winter quarters at Valley Forge, heavy wooded heights 
 on the Schuylkill River twenty miles away. Meanwhile, in 
 the north, St. Leger had been driven back at Oriskany, and 
 Burgoyne had surrendered at Saratoga. These American 
 victories more than compensated for the loss of Philadelphia, 
 for they won for the colonies the friendship and support of 
 France. Washington's campaigns during the summer and 
 fall of 1777 had, in a great measure, made the victory at 
 Saratoga possible, for by keeping Howe busy he had pre- 
 vented the union of the British armies. If Howe had sent 
 strong reinforcements up the Hudson, it is hardly probable 
 that the British campaign in the north would have failed. 
 
66 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 While the British were comfortably occupying Philadelphia 
 during the winter of 1 777-1 778, Washington's ragged troops 
 were bravely enduring fearful hardships in their winter camp 
 at Valley Forge. They lived in log huts which were fairly 
 warm, but they were ill-clothed and poorly fed. Thousands 
 of them were without shoes, and when they gathered fire- 
 wood or served on sentry duty, the soldiers' tracks in the snow 
 
 A Scene in Camp at Valley Forge 
 
 were sometimes covered with blood. Although Washington's 
 great heart ached for the sufferings of his men in this dreadful 
 winter, he never lost faith. A Prussian officer, Baron Steu- 
 ben, * who had learned the art of war from Frederick the 
 
 1 After the Revolutionary War was over, Baron Steuben was given, as a 
 reward for his services, a large tract of land in central New York, north of 
 the Mohawk River at Utica. He is buried near the village of Remsen in 
 Oneida County. 
 
LATER CAMPAIGNS 67 
 
 Great, now joined the Americans. His services to the army 
 were great, for he was a master of military tactics. lie 
 taught the soldiers that their bayonets were good for some- 
 thing more than to toast meat over the tires, and he thor- 
 oughly drilled and disciplined the men. 
 
 LATER CAMPAIGNS 
 
 At last the long winter came to an end and Washington 
 was again ready to take the field. General Howe had been 
 recalled to England, and General Henry Clinton sent over to 
 take command of the British forces. He withdrew his troops 
 from Philadelphia and started for New York. Washington 
 followed, and a battle was fought on the 28th of June at 
 Monmouth, New Jersey. The Americans might have won 
 a victory here if it had not been for the treachery of General 
 Charles Lee. 
 
 Lee was an English soldier of fortune who had joined the 
 Continental army at the beginning of the war. He had been 
 rapidly advanced until he was second in command in the 
 patriot army. He thought he ought to be first, and he had 
 more than once disregarded or disobeyed Washington's orders. 
 Finally he began to treat secretly with the enemy. At Mon- 
 mouth he was in command of the leading division of the 
 American army, and ordered a retreat before the battle had 
 fairly commenced. Washington, riding up in a white-hot 
 temper, dismissed Lee from the command and rallied his 
 disordered troops. But the harm had already been done, 
 and the British safely escaped to New York. 
 
 There was among the Americans another traitor whose 
 black deed of dishonor is the darkest spot in the history of the 
 Revolution. His name was Benedict Arnold, and he had a 
 record of honorable service in the earlier part of the war. 
 
 MAK. & DEF. — 5 
 
68 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 Having been wounded in battle, he was given command of 
 Philadelphia after Clinton left that city. Here he incurred 
 heavy debts, and was by order of Congress publicly re- 
 buked. But Washington still trusted him implicitly and 
 
 placed him in com- 
 mand of West Point, 
 a strongly fortified 
 position on the Hud- 
 son. This fortress he 
 secretly planned to 
 surrender to the Brit- 
 ish, but the plot was 
 discovered through 
 the capture of Andre, 
 a British officer who 
 came within the 
 American lines to ar- 
 range the plan for 
 carrying out the sur- 
 render of the fort. 
 Arnold escaped and 
 joined the enemy. 
 Washington was 
 deeply hurt at Ar- 
 nold's treason. He 
 hardly knew whom to trust, when the man he loved had 
 failed him so utterly. 
 
 There were no more great campaigns in the North, for the 
 British now made their chief attacks on the Southern colonies. 
 In the Carolinas, a few scattered patriot bands under the able 
 leadership of Morgan and Marion, "the Swamp Fox," had 
 carried on a kind of border warfare. Gates was sent there to 
 
 Arnold and Andre 
 
YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN 69 
 
 lead the American forces, but he failed to accomplish any- 
 thing. So Nathanael Greene, next to Washington the greatest 
 general in the Continental army, was placed in command. He 
 succeeded in inflicting great losses on Cornwallis's army, so 
 that Cornwallis decided to abandon the Carolinas and to 
 march northward into Virginia. There, after failing to bring 
 on a battle with Lafayette, he fortified himself at Yorktown, 
 in August, 1 781. 
 
 Washington saw that the time had come to make a supreme 
 effort to end the war. A powerful fleet under the command of 
 Count de Grasse, sent from France to aid us, was on its way 
 to the Chesapeake. Lafayette with a small army of Amer- 
 icans was facing Cornwallis in Virginia. Washington with 
 his main force was encamped on the Hudson. He deter- 
 mined to move his army secretly and rapidly from New York 
 to Virginia, a distance of 400 miles, and crush the British 
 at Yorktown. 
 
 In anticipation of such a campaign, a French army sta- 
 tioned in Rhode Island joined Washington's forces on the 
 Hudson, in July, 1781. The British general in New York 
 supposed these troops were being gathered to attack his posi- 
 tion in that city. In order to strengthen this impression, Wash- 
 ington left West Point well garrisoned, while he moved his 
 main army into New Jersey as if intending to attack Staten 
 Island as the first step in a campaign directed against New 
 York. Only the French general knew the real purpose in 
 Washington's mind. So secretly and so rapidly did the army 
 move that its French and American soldiers did not realize 
 until they had actually reached Philadelphia that the object 
 of this general movement of troops was to unite with the land 
 forces under Lafayette and the naval forces under De Grasse 
 5n an effort to crush Cornwallis. This brilliant scheme 
 
7° 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 worked famously. The troops had marched halfway across 
 New Jersey before the British in New York realized they had 
 gone. By this skillful union of his forces, Washington securely 
 hemmed in Cornwallis both by sea and by land. The British 
 general made several gallant efforts to break through the 
 surrounding lines, but soon found that he must surrender to 
 superior forces. So on the 19th of October, 1781, the Brit- 
 ish army marched out of its fortifications to the humiliating 
 notes of a quaint old English tune, "The World Turned Up- 
 side Down," and laid down its arms. This was the crown- 
 ing event in the career of Washington as a great military 
 leader. 
 
 This victory practically ended the war, although peace 
 was not declared until 1783. No one rejoiced more at its 
 close than did Washington. He had grown gray in his 
 country's service. He had become the first soldier of his 
 
 Washington taking Leave of his Officers and Friends 
 
PRESIDENT 71 
 
 time, and now he longed for the peace and comfort of Mount 
 Vernon. On the 4U1 of December, 1783, at Fraunce's tavern 
 in New York city, he met his generals and dearest friends to 
 bid them farewell. After taking an affectionate leave of 
 his comrades he returned to the home from which he had 
 been separated for so many years. Here with his flocks and 
 herds, among the familiar scenes he loved so well, he hoped 
 to pass the rest of his days. 
 
 PRESIDENT WASHINGTON 
 
 Washington was not permitted to live in retirement for 
 many years on his Virginia estate. The times that tried men's 
 souls were not yet passed. The wisest statesmen in the coun- 
 try saw that if the liberty that had been won at such a cost 
 was to be kept, a stronger form of government must be made. 
 So a convention in Philadelphia in 1787 drafted the Consti- 
 tution under which we are now a united nation. As a result 
 of the new form of government, Washington was elected the 
 first President of the United States. He brought to the duties 
 of this high office the same sound judgment, the same grasp 
 of detail, and the same huge energy that had marked his 
 career as a general in the war of the Revolution. 
 
 For eight years he served his country faithfully and without 
 pay. Declining election for a third term, he again sought 
 retirement at Mount Vernon. Here he occupied himself 
 with the cares of his estate; with the planting, the harvesting, 
 and the other duties of a prosperous farmer. 
 
 Occasionally his friends would visit him, and public men 
 would come from all parts of the country to pay their respects 
 to the great soldier and statesman. His strict attention to 
 business and the importance he attached to small things are 
 shown by the fact that after his death there were found in his 
 
72 GEORGE WASHINGTON 
 
 diary complete plans for a succession of crops on his farms 
 for the next four years. But Washington was not long spared 
 as an example of industry and of dignity in private as well as 
 in public life. On December 12, 1799, after a hard day in 
 the saddle riding about his farms in a rain storm, he returned 
 home. That night he was taken with a severe chill, and two 
 days later died. 
 
 The news of his death was received with the deepest sor- 
 row by the whole world, for he was everywhere recognized 
 as one of the greatest figures of history. 
 
 Many years after, the English novelist Thackerav drew a 
 fine picture of him in the novel. "The Virginians." With 
 Thackeray's words about Washington we must close this 
 sketch: "To endure is greater than to dare; to tire out 
 hostile fortune; to be daunted by no difficulties; to keep 
 heart when all have lost it; to go through intrigue spotless; 
 and to forego even ambition when the end is gained — who 
 can say this is not greatness, or show the other Englishman 
 who has achieved so much?" 
 
 Topical Outline. — Life in colonial Virginia; Mount Vernon and its 
 master. The colonial Congresses and Washington's influence in them. 
 The Patriot army about Boston. Preparations for active warfare. 
 Congress takes the final step of separation. The campaigns in New York, 
 New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Washington's share in the victory at 
 Saratoga. Hardships of the winter camp at Valley Forge. Military 
 movements leading to the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. End 
 of the war. Washington as President and in private life. The death 
 of Washington. Thackeray's opinion of the great Virginian. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Write a story of not less than 100 words on 
 the topic, ''Life in Virginia in Olden Times." II. Tell why you think 
 Washington was chosen to command the Continental Army. What 
 training and experience and what qualities of mind and body had he 
 which fitted him for this position? III. W 7 hy was the possession of 
 
PRESIDENT 73 
 
 the Hudson River deemed important by both sides? IV. Trace on 
 your map the movements of Washington's army in the latter part of the 
 year 1776. V. Show how Washington's campaigns in 1777 were really 
 a great aid to the American army in the North and made it possible to 
 defeat Burgoyne at Saratoga. VI. W T rite the names of as many of 
 Washington's friends as you can. VII. Imagine yourself one of Wash- 
 ington's soldiers. Tell your experiences in the Continental Army and 
 especially why you respected and loved Washington. 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Boston, Brooklyn, New York, the Delaware 
 River, Trenton, Princeton, West Point, Brandywine Creek, Philadel- 
 phia, Germantown, Valley Forge, White Plains, Yorktown. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 History. — Hart and Hill, "Camps and Firesides of the Revolution," 
 pp. 261-266; Cooke, "Stories of the Old Dominion," pp. 94-139. 
 
 Biography. — Scudder, "Life of Washington"; Mitchell, "Youth 
 of Washington"; Brooks, "True Story of Washington"; Hapgood, 
 "George Washington." 
 
 Poetry. — Bryant, "Song of Marion's Men." 
 
 Fiction. — Mitchell, "Hugh Wynne"; Stevenson, "A Soldier of Vir- 
 ginia"; Hoppus, "The Great Treason"; Lossing, "Two Spies"; But- 
 terworth, "Knights of Liberty"; Butterworth, "Boys of Greenway 
 Court"; Stoddard, "The Red Patriot"; Seawell, "A Virginia Cava- 
 lier " ; Tomlinson, " Washington's Young Aids." 
 
 Washington's Sword 
 
SCHUYLER AND SARATOGA— 1777 
 
 The English wanted to weaken the colonies by cutting off 
 New England from the rest. This could be done if New 
 York were taken, because the colonists had few ships, and 
 the English fleet could prevent communication by sea. As 
 we know, New York city and Long Island had fallen into 
 
 the possession of the English. It 
 now remained to take the rest of 
 the colony. This looked an easy 
 matter in the war office in England; 
 for Canada, an English possession, 
 extended all along the northern 
 boundary; a great number of the 
 people in New York were Tories, or 
 people loyal to the king, and the 
 Iroquois Indians, too, with the ex- 
 ception of the Oneidas, were 
 friendly to the English. 
 The plan was to invade the state from three points. Bur- 
 goyne was to enter along Lake Champ] ain, Howe was to 
 send an army up the Hudson, and St. Leger with Indian 
 allies was to enter at Oswego. Each army was to move 
 toward Albany. The success of the undertaking, of course, 
 depended upon each man's carrying out perfectly his instruc- 
 tions. Its danger to the Patriots lay in the fact that if the 
 British forces could move swiftly and could cooperate with 
 each other the Americans would be caught between hostile 
 forces and easily crushed. But, as you will see by glancing 
 
 74 
 
 General Burgoyne 
 
BURGOYNE S INVASION 75 
 
 at the map, the British generals could not communicate 
 with one another; for the unexplored wilderness of the Adi- 
 rondack^ lay between Burgo) ne and St. Leger, and the thickly 
 settled country of the Patriots lay between Burgoyne and the 
 English in New York city. On the other hand, the Ameri- 
 can generals were constantly informed of the action of the 
 enemy. General Schuyler at Albany, General Putnam on 
 the lower Hudson, and General Washington at Morristown, 
 had their messengers going back and forth with reports and 
 orders. 
 
 Early in June, 1777, General Burgoyne with an army of 
 about 8000, consisting of English regulars, German troops 
 whom King George had hired, Canadians, and Indians, 
 entered the Champlain valley. On July 1, they were before 
 Ticonderoga, where a garrison of 3000 Americans was sta- 
 tioned. This place was well fortified and was regarded as 
 practically impregnable, but a serious oversight made it in 
 reality weak. Less than a mile away is a crag 600 feet high, 
 jutting out into the lake. An English general noted this 
 and determined to plant guns there. It was steep and 
 rocky, but the general said, "Where a goat can go, a man 
 can go; and where a man can go, he can haul a gun." 
 
 On the morning of July 5, the garrison in Ticonderoga 
 were amazed to see "redcoats" and brass cannon decorat- 
 ing the top of this crag, which the English called Mouni: 
 Defiance. A council of war was at once held, and the Ameri- 
 cans, knowing that the fort could easily be demolished by the 
 English guns at that elevation, decided to escape. Therefore, 
 that night, the garrison safely crossed the lake and went to 
 Castleton in the Green Mountains. The supplies were sent 
 to Fort Edward, so when the English took possession of 
 Ticonderoga they found but an empty fortress. 
 
7 6 
 
 SCHUYLER AND SARATOGA 
 
 The Remains of Fort Ticonderoga 
 
 The taking of this fort was at first regarded by the English 
 government as practically finishing the war, but we shall see 
 that it meant little. Indeed, it served to weaken Burgoyne, 
 for he felt obliged to leave iooo of his men to hold it, and he 
 could ill afford to spare so many men. From this time on, 
 his great enemy was General Philip Schuyler. 
 
 Philip Schuyler was a descendant of one of the early Dutch 
 patroons. Although he had inherited great wealth, he spent 
 the best years of his life enduring the hardships of a soldier 
 on the frontier. He served throughout the French and 
 Indian War, and was made a general at the outbreak of the 
 Revolution. He had remarkable influence with the Indians, 
 but aroused the dislike and jealousy of the New England 
 troops. His wisdom won for him the title of "the eye of 
 the northern army." After a while he proved to be the good 
 
) , 
 
 BURGOYNE S INVASION 
 
 77 
 
 right arm of the whole army. lie was fortunate in having 
 under his command able men and officers, like General 
 Herkimer and Benedict Arnold, ! who were willing to work 
 and to fight. 
 
 When Burgoyne entered the state, Schuyler commanded 
 the American army stationed near Albany. After the fall 
 of Ticonderoga, he moved his 
 base to Fort Edward, while Bur- 
 goyne reached Whitehall with 
 little difficulty. Schuyler did not 
 have enough men to engage the 
 enemy in open battle, but he de- 
 termined to make their advance 
 into the state as difficult as pos- 
 sible. 
 
 The roads were few and bad at 
 best. Schuyler and his men made 
 them worse. They cut down 
 great trees and let them fall 
 across the roads. They blocked 
 up streams with stones and 
 stumps. They burned bridges 
 and destroyed fences so that the 
 English would have no material 
 of which to build new ones. 
 Schuyler finally decided that he 
 could not hold Fort Edward, so he ordered his army to fall 
 back to Stillwater, 30 miles above Albany. 
 
 Burgoyne and his troops started from Whitehall, and the 
 difficulties of marching and hauling their guns and supplies 
 
 1 This was while Arnold was still a Patriot — three years before he 
 turned traitor. 
 
 General Schuyler 
 
78 SCHUYLER AND SARATOGA 
 
 were so great that they made on an average but a mile a day. 
 It is said that Schuyler's work had been so well done that 
 Burgoyne's men had to build forty bridges, besides getting 
 out the timbers for them. This delay was a serious thing- 
 for Burgoyne's food supply was nearly gone and his men found 
 foraging difficult. He had expected to find the farmers 
 largely Tories, but they proved to be Patriots instead. 
 
 About this time occurred the sad death of Jane McCrea, 
 a beautiful American girl, who was captured and murdered 
 by Indian allies of Burgoyne. It was one of the influences 
 that contributed to the defeat of the English, for it thor- 
 oughly aroused the people of the state to fight against the 
 enemy. 
 
 Burgoyne now heard that the people of New England had 
 been collecting stores of food, horses, and military supplies 
 at Bennington, Vermont. If this place could be captured, it 
 would furnish him what he sorely needed, and would also 
 cripple the Americans. So in the middle of August he sent 
 600 men to seize the stores or take the town. But the New 
 Englanders did not leave a place like Bennington unprotected. 
 Every man and boy for miles around considered it his per- 
 sonal duty to see that those supplies were safe. 
 
 Colonel John Stark, a man who had served in the French 
 and Indian War, and had fought at Bunker Hill, Trenton, 
 and Princeton, was at his home in New Hampshire. A 
 message came to him that an English army had started toward 
 Bennington. Without waiting for orders, he collected 800 
 armed men and boys and hurried away. He reached Ben- 
 nington and, not finding the enemy near, pushed out on the 
 road and met them six miles away, near the village of Hoosick 
 Falls in New York. The English were warned and took up 
 a strong position for defense.. It had rained for two or three 
 
ST. leger's invasion 70 
 
 days. It still rained, so Colonel Stark waited in sight but 
 out of reach. Green Mountain boys, Berkshire militia, and 
 New England farmers kept coming to join Stark's army. 
 They were a queer looking crowd, having no uniforms, and no 
 bayonets, but armed with all kinds of muskets and shot guns. 
 
 The morning of August 16th was bright and hot. Stark 
 made ready to attack the English. He had been sending men 
 in groups of ten or a dozen to the rear of the fortified position 
 of the English. If they were seen, they aroused no suspicion, 
 for they looked little like soldiers. Finally, about noon 
 Stark ordered an attack. The first firing in front was to be 
 the signal for the men in the rear also to fire. The English 
 were amazed to find almost as large an army back of them 
 as in front. In less than two hours the English commander 
 was wounded and his army captured. Just then a fresh band 
 of 500 came up as reinforcements, but strangely enough an 
 equal number of fresh American troops appeared and again 
 surrounded the invaders, who were soon captured or scat- 
 tered. In this battle near Bennington, Burgoyne lost icoo 
 men, of whom 700 were taken prisoners. The effect upon 
 the English was most depressing, while, of course, the Amer- 
 icans were jubilant. 
 
 We recall that St. Lcger was to enter the state at Oswego 
 and move along the Mohawk valley. Fort Stanwix, — also 
 called Fort Schuyler, — on the site of the city of Rome, 
 commanded the entrance to the valley from the west. St. 
 Leger reached there early in August. General Herkimer, 1 
 in command of the militia in the Mohawk valley, hear- 
 ing of his approach, had hurried forward to relieve the 
 
 1 Herkimei-'s home, a quaint old colonial mansion, built of red brick, is 
 still standing on the south bank of the Mohawk River two miles east of 
 the city of Little Falls, N. Y. 
 
8o 
 
 SCHUYLER AND SARATOGA 
 
 fort. He reached Oriskany, and planned that, at a given 
 signal, the garrison from the fort should rush out and 
 attack St. Leger, while Herkimer and his men should at- 
 tack him from the rear. But a mistake was made, and 
 Herkimer's men, becoming impatient because they did not 
 hear the signal guns, wanted to push forward. The Indian 
 scouts had warned St. Leger of their approach, and his 
 
 The Battle of Oriskany 
 
 Indian allies hurried out to a place where the road crossed a 
 swampy ravine. Here an ambush was formed, and when 
 Herkimer and his men in a long line of march entered this 
 ravine, they were attacked from all sides. The fighting was 
 horrible, but Herkimer's men held their ground for hours. 
 Late in the afternoon, to add to the horror, a terrible thunder- 
 storm broke on them. The superstitious Indians gave way 
 and fled, and the remnant of the English were also glad to 
 
ST. LEGER S INVASION 
 
 8l 
 
 ; 
 
 leave. The Patriots held the held, but their commander 
 Herkimer was mortally wounded. 1 
 
 When the fight was over, they heard the signal guns from 
 the fort, telling them that the garrison was starting out. By 
 this time St. Leger's men were badly scattered and the Indian 
 allies had become unmanageable, so the fresh soldiers from 
 the fort easily routed them. They captured from St. Leger's 
 camp, besides blankets, food, and ammunition, five English 
 flags. 
 
 When the garrison returned to the fort they hoisted these 
 English flags upside down, and 
 high above them a new flag of 
 red, white, and blue. Con- 
 gress had recently adopted this 
 style of flag, but the armies had 
 not been supplied with them. 
 The flag at Fort Stanwix had 
 been hurriedly made of pieces 
 of flannel and cotton that were 
 at hand, and it claims the honor 
 of being the first American 
 stars and stripes flung to the breeze. This was August 6, 
 
 1777- 
 
 St. Leger had to fall back to a place of safety where he 
 could repair his losses and win over the sullen Indian allies, 
 who were deserting him. Word of this battle at Oriskany 
 was hurriedly sent to Schuyler, and a call for help was made. 
 Schuyler saw the need and was ready to send help; but his 
 officers objected, for it would weaken the army that must 
 face Burgoyne. He was, however, determined to relieve 
 
 1 A beautiful monument fittingly marks the spot where this battle was 
 fought. 
 
 The First American Stars and 
 Stripes 
 
82 SCHUYLER AND SARATOGA 
 
 Fort Stanwix, and was willing to assume the sole responsi- 
 bility for it. Finally he cried out: "Where is the brigadier 
 who will go?" Benedict Arnold replied, "Here he is! 
 Washington sent me here to make myself useful; I will go." 
 Very soon 1200 Massachusetts men had volunteered to go 
 with him. 
 
 They started immediately, but the roads were so poor and 
 marching was so slow, that after a week they were still 
 twenty miles from Fort Stanwix. One day, two brothers were 
 captured as Tory spies. They were first sentenced to death. 
 Then an idea came to Arnold, and he agreed to spare their 
 lives if the younger, Yan Yost, a half-witted youth, would 
 run on ahead to spread alarm among St. Leger's men. The 
 elder brother was kept as a hostage. 
 
 St. Leger's scouts had heard that an American army was 
 coming up the Mohawk valley, and while the matter was 
 being discussed in camp, Yan Yost came running in with 
 bullet holes in his clothes. With a frightened manner he 
 said that he had had a narrow escape from the American 
 army. They asked him how large the approaching army 
 was, and he declared the soldiers were as numerous as the 
 leaves on the trees. Very likely Arnold's army did seem 
 very large to him when he was under sentence of death as a 
 spy. He was recognized as a Tory and his story was believed. 
 The Indians deserted. The camp became panic-stricken, 
 and by noon the next day, August 22, St. Leger's army had 
 melted away. The few who clung to the general were set 
 upon by unfriendly Indians before they reached Oswego; 
 so it was but a handful of soldiers who sailed with St. Leger 
 for Montreal a few days later. 
 
 The battle of Oriskany, unimportant in itself, and the 
 failure of St. Leger's expedition, were nevertheless of the 
 
BURGOYNE S INVASION 
 
 83 
 
 greatest importance in their effect upon the fortunes of the 
 war for independence. The heroic frontiersmen who de- 
 fended the outpost at Fort Stanwix, the rash bravery of 
 Herkimer and his men, and the shrewdness and courage of 
 Arnold checked St. Lcger and his allies, and prevented their 
 sweeping through the Mohawk val- 
 ley and cooperating with Burgoyne. 
 This made possible the American vic- 
 tory at Saratoga, of which we are next 
 to read. 
 
 We know that General Howe, in- 
 stead of coming up the Hudson to ful- 
 fill his part of the plan, had gone to 
 Philadelphia, where Washington was 
 keeping him occupied. Burgoyne's 
 position north of Albany was becom- 
 ing critical. He had been deprived 
 of the help of the other two armies, 
 and had lost heavily at Bennington. 
 The farmers about him were hostile, 
 and food was very difficult to get. 
 
 At just this time, when the prospect 
 of driving Burgoyne out of the state 
 was very good, some of Schuyler's 
 enemies succeeded in getting Congress to take the command 
 away from him. General Gates, who had never been known 
 to do much but boast, was appointed to take his place and 
 reap the fruits of Schuyler's hard work. Schuyler's fine, 
 manly character showed itself at this time. He courte- 
 ously handed over the authority to Gates and assured him 
 that he would be glad to aid him in any way he could. 
 Gates showed his baseness by not even asking General 
 
 General Gates 
 
 MAK. & DEF. 
 
8 4 
 
 SCHUYLER AND SARATOGA 
 
 Schuyler to his first council of officers. This change of com- 
 manders would have been disastrous had it not been for the 
 presence of the fighting General Arnold, who, as we shall 
 see, was responsible for the victories at Bemis Heights or 
 Stillwater. 
 
 On September 13, Burgoyne crossed to the west bank of 
 the Hudson and moved toward "Albany, fifty miles south. 
 
 Arnold in a Charge at the Second Battle of Freeman's Farm 
 
 The American army under Gates was intrenched on a ridge 
 known as Bemis Heights. The right wing covered the road 
 to Albany, the center was protected by dense woods, and the 
 left under Arnold lay a little in advance in the open fields. 
 On September 18, the English army camped two miles from 
 this position. The next morning, Arnold with about 3000 
 men was sent to check the advance of the enemy, and a hard 
 battle was fought on Freeman's farm, while the main part 
 
GATES IN COMMAND 85 
 
 of the American army was idle on Bemis Heights. Long 
 after dark, Arnold drew his men back to the intrenchments, 
 and the English slept on the field. 
 
 The two armies remained opposite each other until Octo- 
 ber 7, when Burgoyne invited battle, apparently to cover the 
 work of a foraging party. This battle also was fought on 
 Freeman's farm, and Arnold was again a hero. These two 
 battles have been called by various names, as Bemis Heights 
 Stillwater, and Freeman's Farm; and to-day the place is 
 known as Schuylerville. 
 
 General Burgoyne now led the remnant of his army in 
 retreat to Saratoga, stopping on the way to burn the beautiful 
 summer home of General Schuyler. He soon found, to his 
 surprise, that his little army was actually surrounded by at 
 least 20,000 men, hostile and armed, if not all regularly 
 enlisted soldiers. Burgoyne saw it was hopeless to resist, and 
 sent to Gates, asking what terms of surrender would be 
 accepted. 
 
 It was agreed that the English should break camp, stack 
 their arms, march through Massachusetts to Boston, and sail 
 at once for Europe with the understanding that none of them 
 should serve again during the war in America. 
 
 We can picture to ourselves the army of gallant English 
 soldiers and German veterans under Burgoyne's command 
 as they marched out of camp, October 17, 1777. They piled 
 their guns, swords, and cartridge belts in a corner of the field 
 near the river. Then they formed in line and marched past 
 the American troops. An English officer afterward said: 
 "I did not observe the least disrespect or even a taunting 
 look, but all was mute astonishment and pity." Burgoyne 
 stepped forward and handed his sword to General Gates, 
 saying, "The fortunes of war have made me your prisoner." 
 
86 
 
 SCHUYLER AND SARATOGA 
 
 The American general returned the sword, saying, "I shall 
 always be ready to testify that it has not been through any 
 fault of your Excellency." 
 
 *- 1 J** • i 
 
 The Surrender of Burgoyne 
 
 The wife and children of one of the officers were brought 
 into camp just after the surrender, and in the following pas- 
 sage she has told how she was received. "As I approached 
 the tents a noble-looking gentleman came toward me, took 
 the children out of the wagon, and embraced and kissed them; 
 and then with tears in his eyes, helped me to alight. Pres- 
 ently he said, 'It may be embarrassing to you to dine with 
 so many gentlemen. If you will come with your children to 
 my tent, I will give you a frugal meal, but one seasoned with 
 good wishes.'" This man was General Schuyler. 
 
 Schuyler showed in many other ways his generous spirit. 
 
burgoyne's surrender 87 
 
 When, a few days later, Burgoyne expressed to him regret 
 that the English soldiers had burned his beautiful country 
 home at Saratoga, Schuyler urged the English general to 
 think no more about it, saying that, according to the rules of 
 war, it was justifiable. When Burgoyne started for Albany, 
 Schuyler furnished an escort who took the English general 
 to Schuyler's city home, where Burgoyne was cordially 
 received by Mrs. Schuyler and entertained for several clays. 
 The surrender of Burgoyne near Saratoga in October, 1777, 
 is regarded as the turning point in the Revolutionary War. 
 It not only saved New York state and disposed of a whole 
 army, but it influenced France to send aid to the colonies, 
 thus enlisting that powerful nation on our side in the struggle 
 with England. 
 
 Topical Outline. — England planned to cut off New England by tak- 
 ing New York. Burgoyne was to enter by Lake Champlain, Howe by the 
 Hudson River and St. Lcger at Oswego, each to move toward Albany. 
 Fall of Ticonderoga. Schuyler blocked up Burgoyne's roads. A mile a 
 day. English defeated at Bennington. Battle at Oriskany. Herkimer 
 killed. Stars and Stripes raised over Fort Stanwix. Burgoyne sur- 
 rounded; surrendered October 17, 1777. Chief result, aid from France. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Indicate on outline map the routes taken 
 by English armies and places where battles were fought. II. Write 
 a story, from imagination or memory, of the making of the flag at Fort 
 Stanwix. III. What were the weak points in the English plan of in- 
 vading New York ? IV. Write a paragraph to show that Washington 
 helped in bringing about Burgoyne's surrender. 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Montreal, Lake Champlain, Lake George, 
 Ticonderoga, Whitehall, Bennington, Fort Edward, Bcmis Heights, 
 Stillwater, Oswego, Fort Stanwix (Fort Schuyler), Oriskany. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 History. — Prentice, "History of New York State," pp. 262-275; 
 Williams, "Stories from Early New York History," pp. 182-199; Brooks, 
 
88 
 
 SCHUYLER AND SARATOGA 
 
 "Century Book of the American Revolution," pp. 159-173; Hart and 
 Hill, "Camps and Firesides of the Revolution," pp. 253-265; 272-279. 
 
 Biography. — Tuckerman, "Philip Schuyler." 
 
 Fiction. — Frederic, "In the Valley"; Altsheler, "The Sun of Sara- 
 toga"; Thompson, "The Green Mountain Boys"; Otis, "Boys of Fort 
 Schuyler" ; Tomlinson, " Two Young Patriots." 
 
 Note. — Those desiring to refer to a somewhat similar campaign 
 in the Champlain valley during the French and Indian War will find 
 the material in Foote and Skinner's "Explorers and Founders of 
 America," pp. 300-302. 
 
 Cannon used in the Revolution 
 
GENERAL NATHANAEL GREENE 
 
 Nathanael Greene was a descendant of John Greene, 
 who with Roger Williams settled in Rhode Island in 1636. 
 He was born in 1742. His father was a rich man, owning a 
 forge, a sawmill, a gristmill, and a general store, besides many 
 acres of land. 
 
 Nathanael was the fifth of nine children. He was a 
 sturdy boy of happy disposition and 
 very bright mind. His father, how- 
 ever, did not believe in much educa- 
 tion. He had his children learn to 
 read and write, but he believed that 
 the Bible was the only book worthy 
 of study. The boy wanted to go to 
 school, and when he was fourteen he 
 met a college boy who told of his 
 work. Nathanael then teased his 
 father until he gained permission to study Latin and geom- 
 etry for a time with a tutor. 
 
 Although the father was a rich man, he did not allow the 
 boy much spending money. Nathanael, knowing his father's 
 prejudice against books, did not ask for money to buy them. 
 Instead he watched the men at the forge until he was able to 
 make some toy anchors, which he took to Newport and sold. 
 With the money he went to a bookstore and said that he 
 wanted to buy a book. When asked what book, he really 
 did not know. A man standing near heard the boy, and 
 
 89 
 
 General Greene 
 
90 NATHANAEL GREENE 
 
 not only helped him to select a book, but told him of others 
 good to read. This first visit to a bookstore was made when 
 Nathanael was fifteen. It was often repeated until, when he 
 became a man, he had a well-selected library. 
 
 We know that Quakers do not believe 'in war. Although 
 Nathanael had been brought up a Quaker, in 1773 he believed 
 it was the duty of all people to resist the English oppression 
 and defend the rights of the colonists. He began to attend 
 military parades and to talk about organizing a company. 
 Such conduct could not be excused, so he was expelled from 
 the Quaker Meeting. This same thing happened with many 
 other young men brought up in the Quaker belief. 
 
 Greene helped to organize what was known as the " Kentish 
 Guards," a company of young men who secured a good drill 
 master and trained so faithfully that during the war they 
 furnished to the army thirty-two officers of distinction. 
 When word came of the battles of Lexington and Concord, 
 Greene started at once for Concord. A few weeks later, 
 Rhode Island had raised three regiments, and Greene was 
 appointed their commander. They joined the army near 
 Boston. W T hen Washington took command in July, 1775, 
 Greene, although but thirty-three years of age, was selected 
 as one of the eight brigadiers general. This was the begin- 
 ning of a close personal friendship between the two men, which 
 lasted until General Greene's death. 
 
 We recall that Washington, having succeeded in driving 
 the English from Boston in March, 1776, then hurried to hold 
 New York. Greene was placed in command of the troops 
 on Long Island. He made himself perfectly familiar with 
 all the roads, hills, and places of landing on the island: His 
 troops were under good discipline, and work was going on 
 nicely, when he was taken sick with fever just five days before 
 
WAR IN THE NORTH 9 1 
 
 the battle of Long Island. This was most unfortunate, 
 and General Greene for months afterward could not get over 
 the bitter disappointment that he was not able to command 
 his men at so critical a time. From this time until 1780 he 
 was in every battle'f ought by Washington, save that at White 
 Plains. 
 
 Every year since the war began, the English had mack- 
 attempts to get possession of the southern states, but not until 
 December, 1779, did they make extensive plans to do so. 
 Then Clinton and Cornwallis with 8000 men sailed for 
 Savannah, which they took with little difficulty. They then 
 moved north, and after a siege of two months took Charleston. 
 
 General Gates was sent south in June, 1780, to check the 
 progress of the English. In August, Gates was defeated and 
 his army destroyed by Cornwallis at Camden, S. C. A few 7 
 weeks later Cornwallis sent a band of 1200 men back into 
 the mountains of South Carolina to enlist Tories. There 
 proved to be few r er in the region than they supposed; and the 
 backwoodsmen, hearing of the approach of the English, began 
 to swarm on their trail. These hardy mountaineers were 
 good shots and knew every inch of the country. They were 
 used to exposure and the difficulties of wilderness fighting. 
 When the English leader realized the hostility of these men, 
 he took up a position on Kings Mountain, where he thought 
 he could easily defeat them. The Americans knew the 
 mountain better than he, and they charged up the steep sides 
 in three divisions. Desperate fighting followed, but the Eng- 
 lish were utterly defeated. The Americans captured 1500 
 stands of arms, which they sorely needed. This victory 
 in October served to offset the crushing defeat of Gates in 
 August. 
 
 Meanwhile Greene was on his way south, not only to take 
 
REVOLUTION IN THE SOUTH 93 
 
 command but to create an army in the southern states and 
 to drive out the English. Washington gave Greene full 
 authority to do whatever in his judgment seemed best under 
 the circumstances. It was probably the most important com- 
 mission granted to any general during the war. General 
 Greene was unacquainted with the character of the country 
 and with the resources at his command. He was not the man 
 to hesitate, however, when Washington asked him to do any- 
 thing. So without even bidding his wife and children good-by, 
 he hurried off to South Carolina. 
 
 Cornwallis and Greene had met on many battlefields, and 
 they had great respect for each other's ability. Cornwallis 
 once wrote, "Greene is as dangerous as Washington; he is 
 vigilant, enterprising, and full of resources. With but little 
 hope of gaining an advantage over him, I never feel secure 
 when encamped in his neighborhood." General Greene was 
 thirty-eight and Cornwallis four years older. Both men had 
 small armies under command, and the field of operation was 
 immense. "The game was played with the greatest skill 
 on both sides, and no campaign in American history has illus- 
 trated the art of war in its highest branches more fully than 
 the campaign of 1781," says one writer. 
 
 General Greene made friends of the sharpshooters and 
 the unorganized backwoodsmen who had won the victory at 
 Kings Mountain. He learned from these men the lay of 
 the land and the positions of the English troops. Unlike 
 General Gates, he saw the value of cavalry troops, and he was 
 fortunate in having Colonel William Washington and Major 
 Henry Lee (Light Horse Harry) as cavalry leaders. 
 
 We must remember that the English were holding Charles- 
 ton on the coast, and Augusta, Fort Ninety-six, and other 
 points in the interior from which to draw army supplies. 
 
94 
 
 NATHANAEL GREENE 
 
 These places are arranged in crescent shape, with one point 
 on the coast, and the other in the mountains of South Caro- 
 lina. Greene decided to divide his army, keeping one division 
 in the east at Cheraw to threaten the right wing on the coast, 
 and sending the other division under General Morgan to 
 threaten the interior points held by the English. Each divi- 
 sion was made up of militia, regulars, cavalry, and sharp- 
 shooters. This action of Greene's compelled Cornwallis also 
 to divide his army. For, if he attacked Greene in the east, 
 Morgan would take the places in the west; while, if he started 
 toward Morgan, Greene would take the coast towns and cut 
 off his base on the sea. 
 
 Cornwallis was now in a serious dilemma, but he did 
 the best he could. He sent a brave young leader with half 
 his force to check Morgan in the west, while he pushed into 
 
 The Battle of Cowpens 
 
REVOLUTION IN THE SOUTH 95 
 
 North Carolina, hoping to draw Greene after him. On the 
 approach of the English, Morgan was near Kings Mountain. 
 He chose a cattle-grazing ground, known as Cowpens, for his 
 position, and arranged his men with care. He placed his 
 militia in front; back of them hidden by trees were the regular 
 troops, while Colonel Washington's cavalry were behind them 
 near the river. The English made their attack. The militia, 
 after firing a few volleys, swung around as if to retreat. The 
 English closed ranks to follow them and came up in front of the 
 regulars, then the cavalry rode around the ends of the battle 
 line and hemmed in the English. A short fight followed, and 
 the English were overwhelmingly defeated. In this battle 
 at Cowpens, Cornwallis lost over one third of his forces in 
 the South, besides iooo stands of arms. 
 
 Morgan immediately moved northeast to join Greene. 
 Cornwallis tried to intercept him, but failed. Then General 
 Greene determined to draw Cornwalljs north, far away from 
 his base of supplies, and compel him to fight. Cornwallis 
 did not understand the trick, and as Greene rapidly retreated 
 through North Carolina, Cornwallis followed. 
 
 Thirty miles from the Virginia border Greene took up his 
 position at Guilford Courthouse. Cornwallis was eager for 
 battle, and for five hours on March 15 the two armies fought 
 desperately. At nightfall General Greene retired, leaving 
 Lord Cornwallis in possession of the field, but with an army 
 too badly whipped to move. Cornwallis could claim the 
 victory at Guilford, but it was meaningless, for he was left in 
 a hostile country two hundred miles from his base of supplies 
 with a small remnant of 1 600 men. He dared not try to march 
 back to South Carolina, but he could not stay where he was, 
 so he hurried to Wilmington. He remained there but two 
 weeks; then he marched to Petersburg, Virginia, to join 
 
96 NATHANAEL GREENE 
 
 other English troops and move on toward Yorktown, where 
 in the fall he was obliged to surrender. 
 
 After the battle at Guilford, General Greene returned south, 
 and with Major Henry Lee, Morgan, and Colonel Washington 
 succeeded by March, 1782, in retaking all the places held by 
 the English in the Carolinas and Georgia. Fiske says of 
 the work of Greene: "So consummate had been his strategy 
 that, whether victorious or defeated on the field, he had, in 
 every instance, gained the object for which the campaign was 
 made." 
 
 General Greene remained in the South until July, 1783, 
 when he started north on horseback. In fifteen weeks he 
 rode a thousand miles, passing through towns and cities where 
 he was always welcomed as a great war hero. The winter of 
 1 783-1 784 he spent in Newport with his wife and four chil- 
 dren, whom he had not seen together for nine years. The fol- 
 lowing summer, he returned to Georgia to make his future 
 home. 
 
 He had a large, comfortable house, with plenty of books in 
 the library and horses in the stable. His wife and children 
 were with him, and he had apparently everything he wished 
 for. In a letter written to a friend in April, 1786, he says: 
 "We are planting. We have got upwards of 60 acres of corn 
 planted and expect to plant 130 acres of rice. The garden 
 is delightful. . . . We have in the same orchard apples, 
 pears, peaches, apricots, nectarines, plums, figs, pomegranates 
 and oranges. And we have strawberries that measure three 
 inches around." After eight years of the soldier's life, he 
 found the life of a country gentleman very attractive. 
 
 On June 13, 1786, he was out in the rice fields several 
 hours in the middle of the day and suffered a sunstroke, 
 from which he died three days later, at the age of forty-four. 
 
REVOLUTION IN THE SOUTH 97 
 
 General Wayne (Mad Anthony), who was with him, wrote 
 to a friend: "He was a great soldier, greater as a citizen, 
 immaculate as a friend. . . . Pardon this scrawl; my 
 feelings are too much affected, because I have seen a great 
 and good man die." 
 
 "The patient, brave, enduring, often defeated but never 
 conquered man, the hard fighting soldier, the keen strategist 
 had gone to his reward at last. His work was done and well 
 done," says Senator Lodge. 
 
 Topical Outline. — ■ General Greene's boyhood and character. Early 
 career as a soldier. English invasion of the South. Greene sent — his 
 army and methods. Cowpcns. Greene's retreat to Guilford Court- 
 house. Cornwallis outgeneraled, goes to Virginia. Greene retakes 
 the Carolinas and Georgia. Greene as a man. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. On an outline map trace routes taken by 
 both English and American armies. Mark battlefields. II. In a para- 
 graph explain how a commander may be defeated in battle and really 
 win a victory. 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Savannah, Charleston, Camden, Kings Moun- 
 tain, Cowpens, Guilford Courthouse, Wilmington, N. C, Yorktown. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 Biography. — Greene, "General Greene." 
 Fiction. — Frost, "The Swamp Fox." 
 
NATHAN HALE — THE MARTYR SPY 
 
 After the battle of Long Island, Washington placed his 
 army in the best positions for holding Manhattan Island. 
 Expecting the enemy to follow him at once, he held himself 
 ready for defense at any time. Days went by, and the Eng- 
 lish did not come. Washington could not understand their 
 delay. He feared that they were planning another move, and 
 he wanted to find out what. If their positions on Long 
 Island were exposed, he might turn around and strike them. 
 Good generalship demanded that he know how things stood 
 within the enemy's lines. He asked for a volunteer to go as 
 a spy. Nathan Hale, a young captain, offered to go. 
 
 Nathan Hale was born in Coventry, Connecticut, June 6, 
 1755. His parents were people of means and refinement. 
 As a child, he was delicate and was very tenderly reared. 
 When he grew up, he became fond of outdoor life and sports 
 and developed into a fine, strong young man. His father 
 wished him to become a minister, so he was prepared for col- 
 lege by the Rev. Joseph Huntington. His mind was quick, 
 and he readily responded to books and instruction. He was 
 graduated from Yale at eighteen. His commencement 
 speech was an argument in favor of giving girls the same 
 educational privileges as boys. 
 
 Nathan Hale is described at this time as being "almost 
 
 six feet in height, perfectly proportioned, and in figure and 
 
 development . . . the most manly man I have ever 
 
 seen. His chest was broad; his muscles were firm; his face 
 
 98 
 
THE MARTYR SPY 99 
 
 wore a most benign expression; his complexion was fresh; 
 his eyes were light blue and beamed with intelligence; his 
 hair was soft and light brown in color, and his speech was 
 rather low, sweet and musical. His personal beauty and 
 grace of manner were most charming. In dress he was 
 always neat; he was quick to lend a helping hand to a being 
 in distress, brute or human; he was overflowing with good 
 humor and was loved by all who knew him." 
 
 He taught school most successfully for nearly two years, 
 until word came of the battle of Lexington. Then in a 
 public speech he urged men to action. He said, "Let us 
 march immediately, and never lay down our arms until we 
 have obtained our independence." 
 
 He at once enlisted and was made lieutenant. In Sep- 
 tember, his regiment was ordered to Cambridge, where he 
 shared in the siege of Boston. In January, 1776, he was 
 made captain, and after the English were driven out of Boston 
 he went with Washington to New York. During the summer, 
 he served in building fortifications on Manhattan Island. 
 He was not in the battle of Long Island, but a few days later, 
 with a small band of picked men, he captured at midnight a 
 supply boat that was anchored under the guns of an English 
 war -ship. It was a daring feat and neatly done, without any 
 loss save a little time. The food was distributed among the 
 hungry soldiers in the patriot army. 
 
 When Washington called for a volunteer to enter the 
 enemy's lines, Hale offered to go.. He knew perfectly well 
 what he was doing. He knew the work was the work of a 
 spy. He knew that if he were recognized by the English, it 
 would be death for him. He also knew that such information 
 as he could get would be of great value to Washington. It 
 might possibly save the country. If so, it was worth his life. 
 
IOO NATHAN HALE 
 
 In any case, Washington wanted to know the plans of the 
 enemy: that of itself was enough. When he entered the army 
 he entered for service. He was a subordinate officer. His 
 commander said, "Who will undertake this work?" "I 
 will," was the cheerful reply of Captain Hale. 
 
 He disguised himself as a traveling schoolmaster and 
 crossed the Sound from Connecticut to Long Island. He 
 got a pass into the lines. Wlierever he went he talked as a 
 Tory, showing a friendly feeling for the English. He went 
 about freely, visited all the places indicated in his orders, such 
 as Brooklyn, Flatbush, and the great English camps from 
 Bushwick to Jamaica. He made note of the fortifications; 
 few of those built by the Americans had been repaired. He 
 had done his work well and was about to return, when he was 
 recognized by a Tory relative, who reported the matter to 
 General Howe. 
 
 Hale had planned to cross the Sound to Connecticut from 
 Huntington on the north shore of Long Island. Just as he 
 was stepping into his boat, he was arrested and taken to 
 Howe's headquarters. When charged with being a spy, he 
 denied nothing. He gave his name and rank in the American 
 army, and surrendered his notes and papers. He was then 
 condemned to death. 
 
 He asked for writing materials; one of his keepers gave 
 them, and he wrote a few notes of farewell to the members of 
 his family and to friends. Then he asked that a clergyman 
 might come to him, but this was denied. He asked that he 
 might have a Bible to read during the few hours left for him 
 to live; that, too, was denied him. 
 
 The officer who led him out to the scaffold on the evening 
 of September 22, 1776, tauntingly said, "This is a fine death 
 for a soldier to die." Captain Hale replied, "If I had ten 
 
THE MARTYR SPY 
 
 IOI 
 
 thousand lives to live, I would lay them down in defense of 
 
 my injured and bleeding country." Another officer stepped 
 
 forward, holding the letters that Hale had written the night 
 
 before, and tore them 
 
 up before the eyes of 
 
 the young hero. But 
 
 even that did not 
 
 cause him to flinch, 
 
 and his last words 
 
 were, "I only regret 
 
 that I have but one 
 
 life to give for my 
 
 country." 
 
 There is always 
 some one who is sym- 
 pathetic at such a 
 time. Hale probably 
 thought no one stood 
 by who would report 
 to his friends how he 
 met that last trial. 
 But men were there 
 who were fired with 
 admiration for him 
 and told of his death 
 in spite of the fact 
 that the English of- 
 ficers said, "The rebels shall never know that they had a man 
 who could die with such firmness." 
 
 Near Huntington, at Halesite, where he was arrested, is 
 a large bowlder with a bronze tablet to the memory of this 
 brave young man. And in City Hall Park, New York, is the 
 
 MAK. &. DEF — 7 
 
 Statue of Nathan Hale, New York 
 
102 
 
 NATHAN HALE 
 
 beautiful bronze statue of the boyish figure as he stood bound 
 for execution. It is a daily reminder to the thousands hurry- 
 ing by, that our independence was bought by some of the 
 best blood of the land. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Washington's army on Manhattan Island. Eng- 
 lish army on Long Island. Washington needed to know of the plans of 
 the English. Captain Hale offered to enter the enemy's lines. His 
 life's work. His manly death. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Why do you like Nathan Hale ? II. If Hale 
 had returned safe, show how his work might have helped Washington. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 Poetry. — Francis M. Finch, "Nathan Hale." 
 
 Hale Monument at Huntington 
 
JOHN PAUL JONES — FOUNDER OF THE 
 AMERICAN NAVY 
 
 When the Revolutionary War broke out, England was 
 mistress of the seas. Her navy was the largest and best in 
 Europe: she had at least one thousand well-armed ships. 
 America had practically none. The need for war ships was 
 greatly felt by Washington, and efforts were made to build 
 and man vessels for service. The first undertakings did not 
 amount to much, but after 1777 
 the American navy did some good 
 work, largely through the splen- 
 did efforts of John Paul Jones. 
 
 John Paul was born in Scot- 
 land in the summer of 1747. His 
 father was a gardener, a man of 
 quiet manner and humble tastes. 
 His mother was of Highland 
 birth. Probably the boy inher- 
 ited much of his love of adven- 
 ture and daring spirit from his 
 Highland ancestors. His child- 
 hood was brief. His school days were few, for at the age 
 of twelve John Paul had learned to manage a fishing boat 
 in very rough weather off the Scottish coasts — an exercise 
 that certainly could not be called child's play. 
 
 John Paul's eldest brother, William, had some years 
 before been adopted by a distant relative, William Jones, 
 
 103 
 
 John Paul Jones 
 
104 JOHN PAUL JONES 
 
 a Virginia planter, and had taken the name of William 
 Paul Jones. When John Paul was thirteen he was bound 
 as shipmaster's apprentice to James Younger, owner of the 
 Friendship. His first long sea voyage was to Virginia in 
 1760 for a cargo of tobacco. On this trip he met for the first 
 time his brother William. The old planter, William Jones, 
 took a fancy to the thirteen-year-old lad and wanted to adopt 
 him, but the boy preferred the sailor's life. He remained with 
 Mr. Younger four years, and made several voyages to the 
 West Indies and to the coasts of Africa. Before he was 
 twenty, he was made captain. The most profitable form of 
 traffic was that in negroes taken from Africa and sold as 
 slaves in the South. Our young captain disliked this so that 
 early in his career he absolutely refused to have anything to 
 do with such business. 
 
 During these years, John Paul visited many cities and met 
 many merchants and bankers. His business sense was keen, 
 and as his grasp of foreign languages was also quick, he 
 became an excellent student of French. In fact, he knew it 
 so well that he wrote in it quite as readily as in English. It 
 is interesting that our knowledge of him to-day is largely 
 gained from his French papers. 
 
 In 1773 his brother in Virginia died, and he then went to 
 settle the estate. The life of the planter appealed to him, so 
 he remained and became a genuine American. Soon after 
 this, William Jones, the old gentleman who had adopted his 
 brother, died and left his property to John Paul, provided 
 he took the name of Jones. From this time he was known as 
 John Paul Jones and as such became famous. 
 
 In the summer of 1775 the Continental Congress deter- 
 mined to create a naval force and sent for Captain John 
 Paul Jones to tell them what kind of ships were best and 
 
THE NAVY IN THE REVOLUTION 
 
 I05 
 
 what qualities were necessary for a naval commander. They 
 also asked his aid in purchasing ships. Although he was but 
 twenty-eight, his judgment was sound on these questions and 
 was followed by Congress so far as their money would allow. 
 By December, Congress had succeeded in getting five 
 vessels, and Jones was made 
 first lieutenant of one called 
 Alfred. It was on this ship the 
 following November (1776), 
 that Jones with his own hands 
 raised the first American na- 
 val flag. This flag consisted 
 of thirteen stripes, and instead 
 of stars there was a pine tree, 
 at the base of which was 
 coiled a snake with the words: 
 
 " Don't tread On me." Two The First Naval Flag 
 
 years later his ship received from a French commander the 
 first salute ever given to an American flag by a foreign man- 
 of-war. 
 
 Congress, for political reasons, put Commodore Hopkins, 
 a man of less experience, in command of the first fleet. In 
 February, 1776, the little fleet went to Nassau on the island of 
 New Providence in the Bahama group (about 200 miles from 
 the coast of southern Florida), where was collected a large 
 amount of military stores. The town was poorly defended, 
 and was captured with little trouble. The Americans secured 
 88 cannon, 15 large mortars, 11,000 rounds of shot, and 20 
 casks of powder, and sailed home with their precious cargo. 
 After this cruise Captain Jones was given an independent 
 command, and whatever he undertook always had a dash and 
 daring which made it most thrilling. 
 
:o6 
 
 JOHN PAUL JONES 
 
 American Sea- 
 man 
 
 One of the first expeditions was against the Cape Breton 
 fisheries. He found three English schooners in a harbor. 
 He sank one and burned another, after trans- 
 ferring the cargo to the third. When this was 
 done, he learned that nine other English boats 
 were on the other side of the bay. The daunt- 
 less captain cornered these boats and told the 
 crews that if they would help him fit out such 
 of the vessels as he wished for his use, he would 
 let them return to England in safety. They 
 set to work and helped him, and then he sent 
 the crews off to England in three small vessels 
 that he did not care for. In six weeks, without 
 bloodshed, he had broken up the Cape Breton 
 fishing, had captured valuable cargoes, and had taken sixteen 
 vessels, eight of which he destroyed while the others were 
 refitted and added to the American service. 
 
 Captain Jones was a shrewd and skillful 
 sailor. He knew that his ships were not armed 
 heavily enough to engage the English ships in 
 battle, so he confined his work to intercepting 
 supply boats in or near the harbors. Once 
 finding a provision boat aground at the en- 
 trance to a harbor, he stole up and burned it. 
 At another time he captured a boat loaded with 
 clothing and ammunition for the English army. 
 These supplies were turned over to Washing- 
 ton's soldiers, who greatly needed them. He 
 seized vessels loaded with coal and towed them to his own 
 stations. All of these enterprises were on a small scale, but 
 they served steadily to cripple the English and to add a little 
 to the resources of the Americans. 
 
 American Marine 
 
THE NAVY IN THE REVOLUTION 107 
 
 After the surrender of Burgoyne in October, 1777, France 
 became an ally of America. So in 1778, when Jones was 
 sent to prowl around the British coast, he used that country 
 as the base from which to make his raids. His ships were 
 small and swift. England never dreamed that an American 
 ship would have the audacity to venture near her shore, so at 
 first she was off her guard. One day Jones met a ship with 
 a cargo of flax crossing the English Channel. He took it, sent 
 the crew to France, and sank the ship. If he overhauled a 
 ship having a valuable cargo, it was placed under proper com- 
 mand and sent to France, while he hurried on his way. At 
 one time, while in command of the Ranger, he slipped into the 
 harbor of Whitehaven, on the northwest coast of England, 
 set fire to the shipping there, and was out and far on his way 
 before the fire was discovered. 
 
 At another time he landed, seized a nobleman, and took 
 him on board ship, without injury or discourtesy, to hold in 
 exchange for some prisoner. In all these activities, Jones 
 was never known to show cruel treatment to anyone, not 
 even to the crews of captured vessels. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin, minister to France, had supervision 
 of all the naval affairs of the colonies. Through his influ- 
 ence, several excellent ships of French build were secured. 
 One of these in 1779 was assigned to Captain Jones. He at 
 once renamed it Bon Homme Richard as a compliment to 
 Franklin, the author of "Poor Richard's Almanac." It was 
 this ship that w r on the famous battle with the Serapis. 
 
 On September 17, 1779, Jones with his little squadron of 
 four ships attempted to enter the harbor of Leith, Scotland, 
 but a heavy gale prevented. Scott, who was a boy at the 
 time, has described the event in "Waverley." He says, "A 
 steady and powerful west wind settled the matter by sweep- 
 
io8 
 
 JOHN PAUL JONES 
 
 ing Paul Jones and his vessels out of the Firth." A few days 
 later, Captain Jones destroyed several vessels in the Humber 
 River. On September 23, he caught sight of a fleet of forty 
 merchant vessels protected by the Serapis off Flamborough 
 Head, on the northeast coast of England. Captain Jones 
 ordered his vessels to give chase. The merchant vessels 
 hurried out of the way, but the Serapis accepted his chal- 
 lenge. 
 The fight began at half past seven in the evening, and lasted 
 
 The Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis 
 
 four hours. The Serapis had heavier guns, and to nullify 
 their terrible work Captain Jones grappled her and lashed 
 the two ships together side by side. The firing was furious 
 and deadly. When the Richard began to leak Jones released 
 over a hundred prisoners and made them work at the pumps. 
 The firing was so incessant that the men were almost crazed. 
 The powder boys on board the Serapis, whose duty it was 
 to bring up the cartridges for the gunners, became so fright- 
 
THE NAVY IN THE REVOLUTION IO9 
 
 ened that they flung some cartridges on deck and fled to cover. 
 A hand grenade thrown from the Richard set fire to them, 
 and the explosion was awful. Both ships were on fire, but 
 fire could be checked more easily than the terrible rents in 
 the hulls could be mended. 
 
 Finally, about midnight, the brave commander of the 
 Scrapis saw that all was lost for him, and with his own hands 
 he struck his flag. Captain Jones then took possession of the 
 Serapis, for the Richard had three feet of water in the hold. 
 
 The rest of the night was spent in getting the wounded 
 removed to safety and in trying to keep the Richard afloat. 
 The next day she had to be abandoned. Captain Jones 
 wrote: "A little after ten o'clock I saw, with inexpressible 
 grief, the last glimpse of the Bon Homme Richard. No lives 
 were lost as the boat went down." Captain Jones tried to 
 reach a French port with the Serapis and his 500 prisoners, 
 but the crippled condition of the captive ship made a stop in 
 Holland necessary. 
 
 This victory was a marvel to all Europe. Respect for 
 America grew. Captain Jones was the hero of the day. The 
 king of France made him a Knight of the Order of Merit, and 
 gave him a gold sword. The captain tried to exchange his 
 prisoners, including the commander of the Serapis, for the 
 Americans kept in English dungeons, but for months the 
 offer was rejected. It is estimated that he had taken or 
 destroyed a hundred English vessels during his three years on 
 the sea. 
 
 Early in 1781 Captain John Paul Jones returned to America, 
 where Congress and the people in many ways showed their 
 gratitude for his faithful work. 
 
 In 1787, the Revolutionary War being over, he entered the 
 service of Russia as rear admiral and won a great victory 
 
HO JOHN PAUL JONES 
 
 over the Turks. Shortly afterward, he returned to America 
 and took up the life of a planter. Although he had never 
 married, his home was made beautiful and hospitable, but 
 he did not remain long in it. He was appointed consul to 
 Algiers in 1792, but died in Paris, on his way thither, at the 
 age of forty-five. He was given a stately funeral and was 
 buried in Paris. In the summer of 1905, one hundred and 
 thirteen years later, his body was brought to America and 
 placed in a tomb at Annapolis, Maryland, the seat of Amer- 
 ica's Naval Academy. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Acquainted with the sea as a young boy. Served 
 four years a shipmaster's apprentice. In 1773 went to Virginia, was 
 made William Jones's heir, and became John Paul Jones. Entered 
 naval sen-ice of the colonies. Captured many English vessels. Bon 
 Homme Richard and Serapis. America's debt to him. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Imagine you are a member of the crew on 
 the Bon Homme Richard; describe your experiences. II. Write a para- 
 graph stating why the capture of merchant vessels is good warfare. 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Nassau, Whitehaven, Flamborough Head. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 History. — Abbott, "Blue Jackets of '76," pp. 83-154; Beebe, "Four 
 American Naval Heroes," pp. 17-68. 
 
 Biography. — Abbott, "Paul Jones"; Brady, "Paul Jones"; Sewell, 
 "Paul Jones"; Hapgood, "Paul Jones." 
 
 Fiction. — Cooper, "The Pilot." 
 
THE CRITICAL PERIOD 
 
 When the colonies resolved to resist the tyranny of the 
 mother country, they saw that there must be some central 
 authority to direct this resistance. Their delegates had met 
 in conventions to consider plans of union, and from these 
 conventions had issued protests to the king and appeals to 
 the colonists. How this growing spirit of freedom resulted 
 in the Declaration of Independence, severing the ties which 
 bound us to England, will be told in the life of Jefferson. 
 
 We ought now to study the form of government under 
 which the war for independence was fought. The directing 
 power was the Continental Congress, consisting of delegates 
 from each of the colonies. This was merely an advisory 
 body, whom the people trusted and generally obeyed as long 
 as there was an enemy to fight. So this Congress raised 
 armies, elected commanding generals, and waged war, by 
 common consent. 
 
 It also sought to form a loose union of the colonies, and so 
 drafted, in 1777, an agreement known as the Articles of 
 Confederation. By this instrument, a general government 
 was created, consisting only of a lawmaking department with 
 such powers as the Congress was already exercising, but with 
 no executive officers to enforce its laws and with no system of 
 courts to interpret them. The Articles of Confederation were 
 finally adopted in 1781 by the consent of all the colonies, 
 which were now states, since all of them had formed inde- 
 pendent governments. It must be kept clearly in mind that 
 
 in 
 
112 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 
 
 none of these states surrendered any of their sovereign powers 
 when they entered the Confederation. They simply joined 
 together in a league of friendship for common defense. Dur- 
 ing the actual progress of the war the people did not fully 
 realize how weak and inadequate was this form of government. 
 After its close, the need of united action was less apparent, 
 though none the less real. The Articles of Confederation 
 gave Congress the power to regulate commerce and to collect 
 revenue through port duties. It could issue paper money, and 
 it did so as fast as the printing presses could turn the currency 
 out, but the actual value of the money so issued became smaller 
 and smaller each year. When it needed funds for its main- 
 tenance, Congress could levy upon each state its share of 
 the expenses, but it had no power to enforce the collection 
 of these levies. It had great difficulty in persuading them to 
 give money, and it had practically no other way to get funds. 
 So the general government came to be more and more 
 distrusted, while the state governments increased in power 
 and influence. This led to serious disputes between states 
 in matters of trade and commerce. Each state, exercising 
 the right to levy such duties as it saw fit, built up a system 
 of revenue duties for its own benefit, at the expense of its 
 neighbors. Thus, New York taxed firewood brought within 
 its borders from Connecticut and dairy products from New 
 Jersey, and the latter state in retaliation imposed a tax of 
 $1800 upon a lighthouse belonging to New York but situated 
 on the Jersey shore. The spirit of unity, which had drawn 
 the people together, was fast disappearing. The war had 
 exhausted the resources of the people, taxes were heavy, and 
 the purchase of manufactured goods from abroad had drained 
 the country of its hard money, for foreign nations demanded 
 gold and silver in payment for the goods they sold us. 
 
ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 
 
 IJ 3 
 
 It was a critical period. Men began to feel that the liberty, 
 for which they had fought and had sacrificed so much, would 
 be lost. Thomas Paine, a famous writer of the Revolution, 
 in the last number of his paper, "The Crisis," issued when 
 the war was ended, had said that the times that tried men's 
 souls had passed — little realizing that there still remained for 
 the American people a 
 task fully as great as 
 that of winning their in- 
 dependence. 
 
 But before we tell 
 the story of how nobly 
 this was accomplished 
 through the wisdom of 
 our fathers in framing 
 our Constitution, let us 
 consider the greatest 
 legislative act passed by 
 Congress under the Ar- 
 ticles of Confederation. 
 By the treaty of 1783, 
 all that rich and fertile 
 country north of the 
 Ohio, east of the Mis- 
 sissippi, and south of the Great Lakes had been surrendered 
 by England to the states. Four of these states claimed a 
 portion of this vast territory; Massachusetts and Connecti- 
 cut b'sing their claims upon the provisions of their charters, 
 New V'ork upon a treaty with the Iroquois Indians, and Vir- 
 ginia upon its original charter of 1609 and upon the military 
 expedition of George Rogers Clark in the Revolution. It was 
 felt, however, that inasmuch as this region was one of the fruits 
 
 The Famous Liberty Bell 
 
 (Hung in the Pennsylvania State House, 
 
 Philadelphia) 
 
114 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 
 
 of our victory over England, all of the states had an interest in 
 it. Finally, the states claiming ownership by virtue of charter 
 rights or otherwise, consented to cede their claims to the gen- 
 eral government, and in 1787 the Northwest Territory was 
 formed. The act organizing a territorial form of government 
 was called the Ordinance of 1787 and has been a model for 
 the governments of almost all of the territories created since 
 that time. It provided for freedom of religion, for civil lib- 
 erty, for the encouragement of education, and forbade the 
 establishment of slavery within its borders. This wise leg- 
 islation is one of the greatest acts in American history. 
 
 We come now to the story of the peaceful struggle through 
 which the dangers of this critical period were averted and a 
 stronger government was formed. 
 
 It was a contest of ideas and not of arms, and the men who 
 waged it successfully are entitled to the respect of all true 
 Americans. The weakness of the confederated government 
 led to the calling of a convention to remedy its defects. This 
 convention met in Philadelphia in 1787, and among its mem- 
 bers were many leaders of the people, men who had become fa- 
 mous during the Revolution. Among these were Washington, 
 Franklin, Hamilton, and Madison. Not all the great men 
 of the nation were present. John Adams and Jefferson were 
 representing us abroad. John Jay was our Secretary for 
 Foreign Affairs, and Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry were 
 not in sympathy with the purpose for which the convention 
 was called. Nevertheless, twelve of the states sent to the 
 convention their ablest available men. 
 
 Its meetings were held in Philadelphia with Washington 
 as the presiding officer, and the members soon decided to 
 cast aside the Articles of Confederation and to strike directly 
 at the root of the difficulty by drafting a new Constitution. 
 
THE CONSTITUTION 115 
 
 Difficulties quickly arose among the members of the con- 
 vention. There were disagreements about many things, 
 but these were gradually smoothed over. Let us see 
 how the Constitution as finally agreed upon remedied the 
 defective government which existed under the Articles of 
 Confederation. First: It provided for three departments of 
 government, a legislative or lawmaking division, an execu- 
 tive or law enforcing power, and a judicial or law interpreting 
 department. 
 
 Second: It gave to the new government the power to 
 regulate commerce, to coin money, to levy and collect taxes, 
 to wage war, and to provide for the common defense. 
 
 Third: Such powers as w r ere expressly granted it were 
 denied to the states, thus making it, and not the states, 
 supreme. 
 
 Fourth: It operated upon individuals and not upon states. 
 Henceforth a man's first duty was to the nation and not to 
 the state in which he lived. This did not mean that the 
 states had no authority: within their own borders they were 
 supreme, subject only to the laws of the nation. 
 
 Thus by this Constitution, which Gladstone has called 
 "the most wonderful document ever struck off at a given 
 time by the brain and purpose of man," a new nation w r as 
 created by the inseparable union of sovereign states, each 
 giving up for the common good those powers of government 
 which affected all. 
 
 The work of the constitutional convention was submitted 
 to conventions in each of the states and was in time ratified 
 by all. As soon as nine of the states had so ratified it, steps 
 were taken to organize the new government. Washington 
 was elected President, and John Adams Vice President. We 
 have told, in the life of the former, the story of his inaugura- 
 
n6 
 
 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 
 
 tion at New York; and in the lives of Jefferson and Hamilton 
 we shall see how the difficulties which confronted the new 
 government were met. 
 
 Washington selected as members of his cabinet — or advis- 
 ory board — wise and 
 patriotic men. Be- 
 sides Jefferson, who 
 was made Secretary 
 of State, and Hamil- 
 ton, who was made 
 Secretary of the 
 Treasury, Washing- 
 ton chose Edmund 
 Randolph of Virginia 
 as Attorney-General, 
 and Henry Knox, a 
 brave revolutionary 
 general, as Secretary 
 of War. 
 
 A judicial depart- 
 ment was also created 
 at once, and the man 
 chosen as its Chief 
 Justice was John Jay, one of New York's most distinguished 
 citizens, a man of spotless integrity and of lofty ideals. 
 
 With these men of ability and of patriotic spirit as leaders, 
 the government of the United States began its work. Let us 
 turn now to the lives of Jefferson and of Hamilton in order 
 that we may see how the young Republic took its place in the 
 world, winning the respect of other nations and the confidence 
 and affection of its own people. 
 
 Members of the First Cabinet 
 
THOMAS JEFFERSON 
 
 In the early days of Virginia there came to that colony, 
 from Wales, a family named Jefferson. 
 
 The most famous descendant of this family was the great 
 statesman, Thomas Jefferson. He was born at Shadwell, 
 near Charlottesville, Virginia, April 13, 1743. His father 
 was a prosperous planter, owning an estate of 2000 acres, 
 and his mother was a member of the famous Randolph 
 family. The little boy was carefully trained by his parents. 
 Although books were not plentiful in the colony, they had a 
 good library, and Thomas soon learned to enjoy it. Like 
 Washington, young Jefferson also was fond of outdoor 
 sports. He was a keen hunter and a skillful horseman. 
 When nine years of age, he was sent to board with a minister 
 in the neighborhood, where he studied Greek, Latin, and 
 French. His father guided his education and saw that he 
 was also thoroughly taught arithmetic and bookkeeping. 
 Thomas was fond of music and became a good violin player. 
 For several years, it is said, he used to practice three hours a 
 day. His father died when his son was but fourteen, leaving 
 to Thomas the family estate at Shadwell. Young Jefferson 
 was ready for college at seventeen, and entered William and 
 Mary College in Williamsburg in 1760. 
 
 He was a thin, slender boy, somewhat tall for his age, but 
 his mind had grown as rapidly as his body, and he soon became 
 a leader in his classes. Doubtless his studious nature, his 
 habits of industry, and his fondness for good books, ail of 
 
 MAK. & DEF. — 8 117 
 
Il8 THOMAS JEFFERSON 
 
 which had marked him as an unusual child, had as much to 
 do with his attaining high rank in college as did the natural 
 keenness of intellect which he possessed. One of the profes- 
 sors was especially attracted to the brilliant young student 
 and took great pride in guiding his work. Thomas found 
 time also to enter into the social life of the little college town, 
 and found many helpful acquaintances among the leading 
 families there. After two years of college life, he began, in 
 1763, the study of law. The next year he became of age, and 
 to celebrate that event he planted a beautiful avenue of trees 
 near his home. Some of these trees are still standing. 
 
 Among his friends at this time w r as a young lawyer named 
 Patrick Henry. Their holidays were often spent together, 
 and they were close companions. In 1765, Henry was elected 
 to the House of Burgesses then meeting at Williamsburg, and 
 Jefferson heard his friend make before that body the famous 
 speech against the Stamp Act. You have read in the life 
 of Patrick Henry the story of this wonderful appeal for jus- 
 tice. 
 
 Soon after this, Jefferson commenced the practice of law, 
 and was successful in his profession. In 1769 he became 
 a member of the House of Burgesses, and served almost 
 continuously until the Revolution. At this period of his 
 life, he found time to look after the affairs of his es- 
 tate, and was quite as proud of being a prosperous farmer 
 as he was of being a successful professional man. He culti- 
 vated his farms carefully, and experimented in raising all the 
 trees and shrubs that would stand the Virginia climate. He 
 rebuilt the old homestead and called it Monticello. Here in 
 the winter of 1772 Jefferson brought his young bride, and 
 here, whenever freed from the cares of public life, he retired 
 for rest and recreation. The memories of many happy 
 
EARLY LIFE 
 
 ug 
 
 days cluster around the home life of Jefferson at Monti 
 cello. 
 
 In 1775 a convention was held in Richmond to elect 
 delegates to the Continental Congress. Jefferson and Henry 
 were both members of this convention, and again the formei 
 had an opportunity to hear his friend plead for the cause ol 
 freedom in the stir- 
 ring speech which 
 closed with the words, 
 "I know not what 
 course others may 
 take, but as for me, 
 give me liberty or give 
 me death." 
 
 It was not long be- 
 fore Jefferson was 
 called to serve his 
 country in a wider 
 field. When Washington was made commander in chief of 
 the army, his place in the Continental Congress was taken by 
 Jefferson, who became at once a prominent and useful mem- 
 ber of that body. 
 
 The Americans were beginning to realize that the war upon 
 which they had entered, was brought about largely through 
 the stubbornness of King George III. Their appeals to him 
 had been treated with contempt. He had shown in every 
 way possible that he intended to rule the colonies selfishly 
 and absolutely. Jefferson expressed the sentiment of the 
 American people forcibly when he said, "It is an immense 
 misfortune to the whole empire to have such a king at such a 
 time. We are told, and everything proves it true, that he is 
 the bitterest enemy we have." It is not strange, therefore, 
 
 " Monticello," the Home of Jefferson 
 
120 
 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON 
 
 that Congress now determined to state to the world the rea- 
 sons why the colonies thought it right to declare themselves 
 independent. For this purpose, a committee was appointed 
 in June of the year 1776. Although Jefferson was at that 
 time one of the youngest members of Congress, his associates 
 
 had such confidence 
 in his ability that they 
 made him chairman 
 of this committee. 
 The other members 
 were Benjamin 
 Franklin of Pennsyl- 
 vania, John Adams of 
 Massachusetts, Roger 
 Sherman of Connect- 
 icut, and Robert R. 
 Livingston of New 
 York. At their re- 
 quest, Jefferson pre- 
 pared a statement of 
 their views regarding 
 the harsh measures of 
 the English king and 
 his Parliament. So it 
 was that he had the 
 honor of writing the Declaration of Independence. The 
 original draft, in his handwriting, was presented to the com- 
 mittee, and some slight changes in its wording were made by 
 Franklin and Adams. It was then ready for consideration 
 by Congress. 
 
 The meetings of that body were held in Philadelphia in 
 the Pennsylvania State House, a plain brick building stand- 
 
 Committee to draw up the Declaration of 
 Independence 
 
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 121 
 
 ing on Chestnut Street. Here, during the first days of July, 
 the proposed Declaration was warmly discussed. Not all 
 the members were sure that the time had come to break the 
 ties which bound them to the mother country. Finally, on the 
 2nd, a majority was convinced and a resolution was adopted 
 briefly declaring the independence of the colonies. For two 
 days more, Congress considered the form of Jefferson's 
 Declaration. It modified the wording of some of the sentences 
 and struck out his bitter denunciation of the king's attitude 
 toward the slave trade. When these changes had been made, 
 
 Congress took finar action, 
 and on the evening of 
 July 4, 1776, this Declara- 
 tion of Independence was 
 adopted by the unanimous 
 consent of twelve of the 
 colonies (p. 337). The 
 weather was sultry, and 
 through the open windows 
 came a swarm of flies. 
 
 Announcing the Declaration of Independence 
 
122 THOMAS JEFFERSON 
 
 The gentlemen of that day dressed in knee breeches and silk 
 stockings, and the flies must have annoyed them as they sat 
 through the long debates. Possibly this may have hastened 
 the decision of some of the delegates who had hesitated to 
 take the final step. 
 
 At once measures were taken to spread the glad news. 
 Postriders were dispatched in haste to carry the news to all 
 the colonies. The Declaration was read from the pulpits and 
 to the army, and was everywhere received with great joy. 
 In New York, the people in their enthusiasm pulled down a 
 leaden statue of George III, which stood in Bowling Green 
 Park, and melted it into bullets for the army. So, amid the 
 ringing of bells, the cheers of the people, and the boom of 
 cannon, a new nation was born. We celebrate its birthday 
 each year on the 4th of July, for that is the day when Congress 
 formally adopted the Declaration of Independence. The 
 original copy was signed by John Hancock, the president of 
 Congress, and by its Secretary. It then had to be engrossed 
 on parchment, and when that was done all the members of 
 Congress signed the great document. As Hancock wrote 
 his name in a fine, large hand, he said, "There, John Bull 
 may read my name without spectacles." 
 
 Jefferson declined a reelection to Congress in the fall of 
 1776, partly because of the illness of his wife and partly 
 because his large estate in Virginia needed his personal care. 
 He consented, however, to sit again in the Virginia legisla- 
 ture, because he was greatly interested in the repeal of some 
 laws that he believed unjust. The Virginia colony, more 
 than any of the other colonies, followed the customs and 
 laws of England. Like the mother country, she had an Es- 
 tablished Church which was supported by general taxation. 
 Jefferson thought this was wrong, and secured the passage 
 
IN VIRGINIA 
 
 123 
 
 of a law giving the people the right to worship in churches 
 not supported by state or by local taxation. 
 
 At that time, also, by the laws of inheritance, a man's 
 property at his death was given to his eldest son. This 
 law was unfair to the other members of the family, and, 
 largely through Jefferson's efforts, was repealed. 
 
 Throughout an active life he was greatly interested in the 
 cause of education. While a member of the Virginia legis- 
 lature, he advocated a system of general education by which 
 
 Library of the University of Virginia at Charlottesville 
 
 the people could understand and use rightly the blessings of 
 the liberty for which they were fighting. Many years later, 
 he outlined a plan for common schools, academies, and, to 
 crown the system, a State University to be supported for the 
 main part by the people. Although he did not succeed in 
 getting Virginia to adopt the whole of the scheme, he suc- 
 ceeded in inducing the legislature to accept the gift of Central 
 College, and so became the founder in 181 8 of the University 
 of Virginia, at Charlottesville. 
 
 In 1779, Jefferson was elected governor of Virginia, and 
 
124 THOMAS JEFFERSON 
 
 served for two years while that state was the seat of active 
 warfare between the British and the Continental forces. 
 
 In the autumn of 1782 a great sorrow came to him. His 
 wife, whom he loved devotedly, died; and Jefferson was 
 heartbroken. He had several times been offered an appoint- 
 ment to represent the colonies at the court of France, but had 
 refused because of his wife's delicate health. He was now 
 willing to go, for he thought that in the change of scene his 
 grief might be lessened. So, when appointed for a fourth time 
 to a foreign mission, he accepted, and with his daughter Mar- 
 tha, whom he wished to have educated abroad, he set sail for 
 Europe. There he was to aid Franklin and Adams in making 
 treaties of commerce with the European nations. In 1785, 
 he was appointed minister to France, succeeding Franklin. 
 For four years he lived in Paris in a fine residence. He 
 learned to love the French people, and was able, through his 
 cordial relations with them, to render his country great serv- 
 ice. He used to send to the American schools and colleges 
 all the new books of Europe, and he interested himself in the 
 arts and sciences in order that he might aid America. In 
 1789, while home on a visit, Jefferson was asked by President 
 Washington to be Secretary of State of the government just es- 
 tablished under the Constitution. Jefferson consented, and for 
 the next few years was occupied with the affairs of that office. 
 
 He and Hamilton, who was Secretary of the Treasury, did 
 not agree very well, and it required all of the President's 
 patience and tact to keep peace in his official family. Ham- 
 ilton was an aristocrat by birth and education. He con- 
 stantly strove to strengthen the powers of the general gov- 
 ernment at the expense of the states. Jefferson, on the other 
 hand, although equally well born, was democratic in his 
 tastes. He trusted the people and believed in state rights. 
 
PRESIDENT 
 
 125 
 
 He thought that a strong central government was too much 
 like a monarchy. Consequently, the measures that Hamilton 
 proposed and which we now know were necessary in order 
 to establish firmly the credit of the United States at home 
 and abroad, were opposed by Jefferson. But his long resi- 
 dence in Europe, his liberal education, and his ability as a 
 statesman made him a valuable member of Washington's 
 cabinet. He served for four years, and then returned to his 
 home, Monticello. 
 
 In 1796 he was elected Vice President, and in 1800, 
 President of the United States. His election to the latter 
 office was the result of an exciting campaign. There was a 
 tie between the leading candidates, Jefferson and Burr, so 
 the choice was left to the lower house of Congress. Fortu- 
 nately for the welfare of the country, Jefferson was chosen, 
 and for eight years he made a most efficient President. The 
 capital of the nation had been removed to Washington, and 
 here he was quietly inaugurated. He disliked all pomp and 
 ceremony, and conducted the affairs of his high office with 
 the utmost simplicity. He dressed plainly, and allowed the 
 people to show him no honor as President that they would 
 not show him as a private citizen. 
 
 The most important event of his administration was the 
 purchase of Louisiana, a vast territory lying between the 
 Mississippi River on the east and the Rocky Mountains on 
 the west, and extending from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada. 
 This great domain belonged to France, and the French Em- 
 peror Napoleon had some thought of establishing a great sea- 
 port at New Orleans. Such a step Jefferson clearly saw would 
 close the Mississippi to American commerce. Napoleon was, 
 however, on the verge of a war with England and needed 
 money. He offered to sell Louisiana to the United States, 
 
126 
 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON 
 
 and the offer was at once accepted. The purchase price was 
 $15,000,000, a little less than three cents an acre. Thus "at 
 one stroke of the pen," as Jefferson said, the area of the 
 United States was more than doubled. 
 
 The new territory was almost an unknown land, so, in 
 1804, the President sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark 
 
 The Lewis and Clark Expedition 
 
 to explore it as well as the Oregon country. Starting from 
 the log village of St. Louis, they ascended the Missouri 
 River to its source, spent the summer of 1805 in the Rocky 
 Mountains, discovered the rivers which bear their names, and 
 sailed down the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. After 
 being away about three years, they returned to civilization 
 and reported the results of their journey to Jefferson. This 
 daring and romantic expedition gave us a broader concep- 
 tion of the vastness of our new possessions, and helped to 
 establish our claims, in later days, to the Oregon country. 
 
PRESIDENT I27 
 
 After he had finished his second term as President, Jeffer- 
 son retired to his home in Virginia. For over forty years he 
 had served his country almost constantly, and he hoped now 
 to pass the declining years of his life in peace and quiet. 
 His beautiful estate at Monticello was the center of generous 
 hospitality. He had built up the finest private library in 
 America, and here, among his books and surrounded by his 
 friends, he was enabled to enjoy a well-earned rest. In his 
 private life and in his habits he was a fine example of Amer- 
 ican manhood. His grandchildren, who lived with him, 
 regarded him with love and veneration. After his retire- 
 ment, many of his former political enemies, charmed by his 
 hospitality, his great courtesy, and his sense of justice, became 
 his warmest friends. For fifteen years longer the "Sage of 
 Monticello," as he came to be called, lived, honored by a 
 grateful nation. On the 4th of July, 1826, the fiftieth anni- 
 versary of the Declaration of Independence, he died, mourned 
 by the whole country. In his desk after his death was found 
 a paper on which he had written the words he wished engraved 
 on his monument. They were simply : 
 
 u Here was Buried 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON, 
 
 Author of 
 
 The Declaration of 
 
 American Independence, 
 
 of 
 
 the Statute of Virginia for 
 
 Religious Freedom; 
 
 and 
 
 Father of the 
 
 University of Virginia." 
 
128 THOMAS JEFFERSON 
 
 For these acts, and not for the high offices he had held with 
 such honor, he wished to be remembered. The idea of free- 
 dom is the central thought of all three. By the first he aided 
 in founding a new nation; by the second he gave to the 
 people of Virginia the right to worship as they pleased; and 
 by the third he opened the way for the youth of the land to 
 obtain the greatest gift of freedom — a good education. 
 
 Free government, free faith, free thought, these were the 
 noblest products of Jefferson's mind, and for these he will 
 be longest remembered by mankind. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Early life and education of Jefferson. His mar- 
 riage and home life at Monticello. Writing the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence; its adoption. Jefferson's public services for Virginia. His 
 career as a statesman and as President. Jefferson as a private citizen. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. How did Jefferson's early training fit him for 
 a useful public life? IT. What influence do you think Patrick Henry's 
 speeches had upon his friend Jefferson? III. Tell the story of the mak- 
 ing and signing of the Declaration of Independence. IV. In what ways 
 did Jefferson show his interest in education? V. Write a paragraph 
 about Jefferson's life abroad. VI. Draw a map showing the Louisiana 
 purchase, and on it trace Lewis and Clark's journey. VII. Why was 
 the purchase important? VIII. Describe the home life of Jefferson. 
 
 Map Work. '■ — Locate Charlottesville, Williamsburg (p. 92); the ap- 
 proximate boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase (p. 304). 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 History. — Cooke, "Stories of the Old Dominion," pp. 180-187; 
 Hart and Hill, "Camps and Firesides of the Revolution," pp. 172-175. 
 
 Biography. — Brooks, "Century Book of Famous Americans," 
 pp. 117-135; Merwin, "Thomas Jefferson." 
 
 Fiction. — Butterworth, "In the Days of Jefferson"; Johnston, 
 "Lewis Rand"; Churchill, "The Crossing." 
 
ALEXANDER HAMILTON 
 
 Washington is known in American history as the Father 
 of his Country, and Alexander Hamilton may, with equal 
 truth, be called the savior of its credit, for in his fertile brain 
 originated the policies 
 which placed the finances 
 of the new nation upon a 
 sound basis. 
 
 Hamilton's birthplace 
 was on the island of Nevis, 
 one of the West Indies. 
 The date of his birth is 
 commonly given as Janu- 
 ary ii, 1757, although 
 writers of history are not 
 agreed upon this point. 
 From his father, a young 
 Scotch merchant of the 
 island, he inherited studi- 
 ous habits and an unusual 
 capacity for hard work; 
 while from his mother, 
 an attractive and high- 
 spirited French woman, came a vigorous and brilliant mind. 
 By the death of his parents, Hamilton was, at an early age, 
 left to the care of relatives. He was fortunate in having as 
 his tutor and friend a Presbyterian minister named Hugh 
 
 129 
 
 Alexander Hamilton 
 
130 ALEXANDER HAMILTON 
 
 Knox. This gifted man took great pride in guiding the 
 alert mind of the boy. Hamilton had already learned from 
 his mother to speak French readily, and with his tutor he 
 studied Latin and the sciences, and read all the books he 
 could get. The orphan boy's proud spirit chafed at the 
 thought of being dependent upon others for support, and we 
 next find him in the counting house of Mr. Nicholas Cruger, 
 a wealthy merchant of one of the neighboring islands. Here 
 he applied himself with such energy and intelligence to his 
 duties, that it was not long before Mr. Cruger, when absent 
 from the island, trusted him with complete control of the 
 business. But the boy was not content with this life. He 
 loved books passionately and was determined, at all costs, 
 to get an education. Finally, friends yielded to his pleadings 
 and arranged to send him to school in the American colonies. 
 
 The dearest desires of Hamilton's boyhood were realized 
 when he entered a school at Elizabethtown, New Jersey, to 
 fit himself for college. He had intended to enter Princeton, 
 but its rules would not permit him to advance as rapidly as 
 he wished, so in the latter part of the year 1773 he went 
 instead to Kings College in the city of New York. 
 
 The spirit of resistance to the unjust demands of the mother 
 country had already spread through the colonies. In New 
 York, as elsewhere, the Patriots had formed military com- 
 panies which they called Sons of Liberty. Public meetings 
 were held in the parks, and liberty poles erected. One of 
 these poles in New York had been cut down in 1770 by the 
 British soldiers on guard in the city, and this led to a fight 
 between the soldiers and the people. It has been called the 
 battle of Golden Hill, but it was hardly a battle, since no one 
 was killed and the excitement soon died down. 
 
 But the spirit of the colonists was again aroused when, in 
 
CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 13I 
 
 1774, England tried to force them to buy taxed tea. In 
 Boston, a party of Patriots disguised as Indians emptied the 
 tea into the harbor; and in New York the captain of the 
 British ship Nancy was not allowed to land his cargo, but he 
 and his ship were sent back to England. 
 
 While these stirring events were happening in the city, 
 Hamilton was busily engaged trying to do five years of col- 
 lege work in two. But a young man of his impetuous nature 
 could not long remain neutral. He began to study the causes 
 of the trouble between England and her American colonies. 
 The more he read and heard about taxation without rep- 
 resentation, and the other unjust laws England was trying 
 to force the colonies to accept, the more certain he became 
 that the Americans w r ere justified in their resistance. He 
 began to write letters to the papers, and pamphlets in which 
 he clearly and forcefully defended the attitude of the colonies. 
 These essays w r ere so remarkable that people could scarcely 
 believe they were written by a mere boy of eighteen. On one 
 occasion, when a great mass meeting was held in the " Fields," 
 now the City Hall Park, to arouse interest in the American 
 cause, Hamilton was present. The speakers seemed to be 
 afraid to express their feelings boldly, and there was little 
 enthusiasm until the young college student pushed his way 
 to the front and, mounting the platform, gave an eloquent and 
 patriotic speech in behalf of liberty. From this time on, 
 Hamilton was firmly committed to the cause of freedom. 
 
 He organized among the college students a military com- 
 pany called the "Hearts of Oak." The members of the 
 company wore green uniforms, and on each leathern cap was 
 inscribed the motto, "Freedom or Death." 
 
 We may be sure that this patriotic activity on the part of 
 the boys was not at all pleasing to Dr. Cooper, the President 
 
132 
 
 ALEXANDER HAMILTON 
 
 of Kings College, who was strongly English in his sympa- 
 thies. 
 
 It was not long before the "Hearts of Oak" had an oppor- 
 tunity to do something more than to drill and to parade. 
 They were ordered to remove some cannon that were 
 placed at the Battery. While they were doing this, a boat- 
 load of soldiers landed from the Brit- 
 ish warship Asia, which was anchored 
 in the harbor. A fight between them 
 and the militia followed, and immedi- 
 ately the Asia fired upon the Patriots. 
 
 As a result of this attack, the whole 
 
 city was aroused. The 
 Sons of Liberty marched 
 through the streets, and 
 burned in effigy some of the 
 loyalists, or Tories, as they 
 were called. 
 
 By nighttime, the crowd, having increased to a mob, sud- 
 denly determined to capture Dr. Cooper, who was one of the 
 most hated among the loyalists. Marching to the college 
 
 Hamilton speaks to the Mob 
 
THE REVOLUTION 133 
 
 buildings, they were about to force an entrance when Hamil- 
 ton, appearing on the steps above them, spoke to the angry 
 men until Dr. Cooper had escaped over a back fence and was 
 safely on his way to the Asia. 
 
 A company of artillery was now formed in New York city, 
 and Hamilton, then only nineteen years of age, was given its 
 command. With eager enthusiasm he gathered recruits and 
 spent all his money on equipping his company. He soon had' 
 a body of men so well trained and disciplined that it attracted 
 the attention of General Greene, and was immediately put 
 at work. In the battle of Brooklyn Heights and at White 
 Plains, Hamilton's artillery took part. The company also 
 aided in protecting Washington's retreat through New Jersey, 
 and did gallant service at Trenton and at Princeton. 
 
 During these dark days Washington came to know and 
 trust the young artillery captain so well that he gave him an* 
 appointment as aid-de-camp on his staff. Hamilton now 
 became Washington's private secretary. 
 
 In his new office, he had to carry messages to the Continen- 
 tal Congress, attend to the exchange of prisoners, and prepare 
 Washington's written orders to the army. A warm friend- 
 ship sprang up at this time between Hamilton and Lafayette. 
 Both spoke French readily, and they passed many hours 
 together during the dreary winter at Valley Forge. Hamilton 
 was already known among the men of the army as the 
 "little lion," but he must have been prouder of the affec- 
 tionate way in which Washington often spoke of him as "my 
 boy." On account of some slight misunderstanding, in 
 which Hamilton was at fault, he resigned as Washington's 
 secretary. But he did not retire from the army, for at York- 
 town he commanded a corps of infantry and took part in the 
 movements that led to Cornwallis's surrender there. In 
 
 MAK. & DEF. — O 
 
134 
 
 ALEXANDER HAMILTON 
 
 1780 Hamilton had married Elizabeth Schuyler, the daughter 
 of General Philip Schuyler, and when the war ended, he 
 went to Albany, New York, with his family, and studied law. 
 He was soon admitted to the bar, and commenced the prac- 
 tice of his profession. 
 
 There was plenty for a young lawyer to do. Times were 
 bad after the war, the country was 
 heavily in debt, many had lost 
 
 their property, and business had |pp## ^°-A<f(9f^/J^ 
 
 ONE 'THIRlu of 
 a DOLLAR, ^ 
 
 According 
 
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 Continental Currency 
 
 to be built up anew. To meet war expenses, Congress had 
 issued paper money which was simply the government's prom- 
 ise to pay and was good only so long as the government's 
 credit was good. This paper money became worth less and 
 less until it was almost valueless. The phrase " not worth a 
 Continental" originated then and showed what the people 
 thought of the Continental currency. About the only " hard 
 money," as gold and silver were called, in the country were 
 foreign coins, and these were so worn and mutilated that their 
 value was uncertain. The different states also issued paper 
 money which was good only in the state in which it was 
 issued. In fact, there were almost as many different kinds 
 
THE CONSTITUTION 135 
 
 of money as there were different states. But the chief cause 
 of the trouble was, as many wise men clearly saw, that the 
 states were too loosely banded together. 
 
 In the convention which met in Philadelphia in 1787, 
 Hamilton was a delegate from New York and took an 
 active part in the debates. At last, after a long sum- 
 mer's work, a Constitution providing for a stronger cen- 
 tral government was drafted, and the labors of the con- 
 vention were ended. It now became necessary to get 
 the states to adopt the Constitution. Many people feared 
 the proposed new form of government more than they did 
 the weaknesses of the old. Nowhere was the opposition 
 stronger than in New York. Hamilton worked night and day 
 to win over this opposition. He made speeches and wrote 
 letters to the papers explaining the different features of the 
 Constitution. These letters, together with a few written by 
 Madison and John Jay, are called the "Federalist" papers 
 and are among the finest essays on the science of government 
 ever written. At last the people were convinced, largely 
 through Hamilton's able efforts, and New York became a 
 member of the Union. 
 
 So the United States was formed, and the first President 
 chosen was George Washington — the man whom the whole 
 nation loved and honored. The capital of the new nation 
 was located temporarily in the city of New York, and here 
 for the first time the new Congress met. Washington had 
 already been notified by special messengers of his election 
 and had started from Mount Vernon. His journey to New 
 York was marked by many expressions of respect. In Phila- 
 delphia the governor and state officials met him at the state 
 line and escorted him into the city; at Trenton, girls strewed 
 flowers in the path before him; and at Elizabethtown, where 
 
136 
 
 ALEXANDER HAMILTON 
 
 he embarked, thirteen master pilots, dressed to represent the 
 states, rowed him across to New York. The 30th of April, 
 1789, was the greatest day the old city had yet known. The 
 buildings were decorated in honor of the coming of the 
 nation's hero; the streets were filled with people in holi- 
 
 Washington taking the Oath of Office as President 
 
 day attire. In the forenoon, services were held in all the 
 churches, and prayers were offered for the success of the new 
 government. At noon, on the steps of Federal Hall, at the 
 corner of Wall and Nassau Streets, in the presence of Con- 
 gress and a vast crowd of citizens, Washington took an oath 
 to "faithfully execute the office of the President of the 
 United States" and to defend the Constitution. 
 
SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY 137 
 
 So amid the cheers and the prayers of the people the new 
 government started. The most necessary thing to do now 
 was to establish its good name and credit, at home and 
 abroad. To accomplish this, Washington chose Alexander 
 Hamilton as his first Secretary of the Treasury. Hamilton 
 had no easy task before him. The country was heavily in 
 debt, and there was no money in the Treasury. During the 
 war, we had borrowed large sums of gold from France and 
 Holland. Many of the Revolutionary soldiers were still 
 unpaid, and we owed, also, for supplies furnished the army. 
 These were honest debts, and must be paid if the new govern- 
 ment expected to win the confidence of the world. 
 
 Hamilton began his duties with the same energy and the 
 same keen intelligence that he had always shown in public 
 affairs. He believed that the foreign and domestic debt 
 should be paid in full, and that the money which the states 
 had advanced during the Revolution should be returned to 
 them. In order to do this, he succeeded in having Congress 
 place a tariff on goods imported into the United States, and a 
 tax on alcoholic liquors. These laws produced enough rev- 
 enue to meet the expenses of the government and to pay in 
 time our national debt. 
 
 He also established a banking system closely associated 
 with the government. Now that the power to coin money 
 had been taken from the states and given to the federal 
 government, Congress, at Jefferson's suggestion, created a 
 decimal system of currency, and Hamilton established a 
 United States Mint where gold and silver and copper bullion 
 could be coined into money. 
 
 The great orator, Daniel Webster, eloquently said of Ham- 
 ilton's great public service as Secretary of the Treasury, that 
 " He smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant 
 
138 
 
 ALEXANDER HAMILTON 
 
 streams of revenue burst forth. He touched the dead corpse 
 of public credit, and it sprang upon its feet." 
 
 In 1795, Hamilton retired from office and resumed the 
 practice of law in the city of New York. He became the 
 foremost lawyer in the city, and was the leading man of the 
 Federalist party in the state, if not in the nation. His activ- 
 ity in his profession and in politics brought him into conflict 
 
 Hamilton mortally wounded by Burr 
 
 with the leaders of the opposite political party, the Repub- 
 licans. One of the men whose enmity he aroused was Aaron 
 Burr. Burr was prominent in public life, and held the office 
 of Vice President in Jefferson's administration. He was an 
 able man, but without a high sense of honor, so that people 
 began to distrust him. In 1804, he was a candidate for the 
 governorship of New York. Hamilton believed him to be 
 unworthy of that high office, and worked against him so 
 effectually that he was defeated. Smarting under this defeat, 
 he determined to have revenge upon Hamilton, who he 
 
DUEL WITH BURR 139 
 
 thought was responsible for it. So he challenged Hamilton 
 to a duel. The custom of dueling still existed to some extent, 
 and Hamilton accepted, although he did not feel that such a 
 method of settling quarrels was right. Hamilton could have 
 refused to enter into this duel with Burr, but a false sense of 
 honor and a fear that he would be regarded as a coward led 
 him to accept the challenge. 
 
 They met at Weehawken, just across' the river from New 
 York, on the morning of July n, 1804. Hamilton did not 
 fire at his rival, but was mortally wounded at Burr's first shot. 
 He died the next day, and a whole nation mourned the loss 
 of its most brilliant statesman. Burr fled from the country, 
 and a short time later was concerned in a treasonable plot 
 against the United States. He was tried, acquitted, and lived 
 to an old age, but he had forever lost the respect and con- 
 fidence of his countrymen. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Hamilton's early life in the West Indies. School 
 and college days in New York. Becomes interested in the American 
 cause. Services in the army. Hamilton as a statesman and financier. 
 Weaknesses of the confederation. His share in the adoption of a Con- 
 stitution. His work in establishing the credit of the new nation. The 
 duel between Hamilton and Burr. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Write a brief sketch of the early life of Ham- 
 ilton. II. Describe the meeting in the "Fields." III. What were 
 Hamilton's most important services during the Revolution? IV. What 
 were the weaknesses of the government under the Continental Congress, 
 and how were they remedied? V. Who were the authors of the 
 Federalist papers? VI. Tell the story of Washington's election and 
 inauguration. VII. Are credit and a reputation for honesty any less nec- 
 essary to a nation than to a business man? VIII. What was Hamil- 
 ton's policy? IX. What were the traits of Hamilton's character you 
 most admire? X. Was Hamilton or Jefferson the greater statesman? 
 Give reasons for your answer. 
 
140 
 
 ALEXANDER HAMILTON 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 History. — Blaisdell and Ball, "Hero Stories from American His- 
 tory," pp. 138-155- 
 
 Biography. — Brooks, "Century Book of Famous Americans," 
 pp. 49-63; Burton, "Four American Patriots," pp. 71-130; Sparks, 
 "The Men Who Made the Nation," pp. 151- 180. 
 
 Fiction. — Atherton, "The Conqueror"; Ogden, "Loyal Little Red 
 Coat." 
 
 Hamilton's Tomb, New York City 
 
DANIEL BOONE AND WESTERN 
 SETTLEMENTS 
 
 The Allegheny Mountains were a barrier to settlements 
 during the colonial days, so we find the Europeans scattered 
 along the coast from Maine to Florida. But into the moun- 
 tain regions of western Virginia and the Carolinas a hardy 
 Scotch-Irish people had crept, and by the middle of the 
 eighteenth century these people had become interested in the 
 lands to the west. Occasionally, hunters and trappers told 
 of the rich country, and some daring spirit started out to 
 explore it. 
 
 One of the most interesting of these pioneer men of the 
 west was Daniel Boone. He was born in Pennsylvania in 
 1734, but while he was still a boy his parents moved to the 
 headwaters of the Yadkin River in North Carolina. In both 
 states his home was in the frontier settlements and he had 
 little opportunity for schooling. The life was so hard that 
 boys had to go to work early, and few of them had time or 
 opportunity to learn more than to read and write. When 
 they grew older they learned the elements of surveying, for 
 nearly every man at some time was called upon t' use this 
 knowledge. 
 
 Daniel Boone was an active boy and loved the woods. He 
 soon came to know the haunts of the best game, and was a sure 
 marksman. The bold, wild freedom of life in the wilderness 
 tended to make these men very independent. As a settle- 
 ment grew in size, the people were eager to push back into 
 
 the new and unsettled regions. 
 
 141 
 
142 
 
 DANIEL BOONE 
 
 Boone married at twenty, and, going some distance from 
 his father's home, built his log house and cleared the land. 
 He soon realized that the quiet life of a farmer did not 
 satisfy him. He loved hunting and trapping much better. 
 
 Every trip into the 
 mountains made him 
 wish to keep on going 
 instead of returning 
 home. Some of these 
 were long trips, for in 
 the valley of Boone's 
 creek (a branch of 
 the Watauga River in 
 eastern Tennessee) a 
 birch tree is still 
 standing that bears 
 the inscription: U D. 
 Boone cilled a bar in 
 this tree in the year 
 1760." This is prob- 
 ably a fair example of 
 his spelling. 
 
 In May, 1769, with 
 four other men, 
 Boone started on his 
 first exploring trip to 
 Kentucky. This was known by the Indians as " No-Man's 
 Land," for no one tribe of Indians claimed it, but it was 
 the hunting range of several bands of both northern and 
 southern tribes. 
 
 For five weeks these men toiled through the mountains. 
 They had to blaze a trail, cut down trees and brush, and ford 
 
 Daniel Boone, the Hunter 
 
WESTERN SETTLEMENTS 1 43 
 
 streams, besides shooting game necessary for food. Early 
 in June they reached the last slope on the Kentucky side of 
 the mountains, and found a beautiful and fertile land full of 
 game. The buffalo, bison, deer, bear, and elk, besides many 
 smaller animals, were abundant. They selected a good place 
 and built a camp; then they made exploring trips round 
 about. 
 
 In December, while Boone and another man were on one 
 of these expeditions, they were captured by the Indians. For 
 a week they were carefully guarded, but one night after a 
 great feast, Boone watched his chance, and, when the Indians 
 were asleep, he and his friend escaped. When they reached 
 their camp their three friends were not there, and they never 
 knew what became of them. 
 
 About this time, Daniel Boone's brother came from home. 
 He was not a very good hunter, so after a few weeks he returned 
 to the settlements for food supplies and ammunition. During 
 his three months' absence, Daniel Boone remained at the 
 camp all alone, for his friend Stewart had already been killed. 
 
 The brother returned early in the summer with several 
 hunters. Boone says that they brought with them a copy of 
 " Gulliver's Travels," and that they greatly enjoyed reading 
 aloud to each other after their day's tramping was over. 
 There are many streams and places in Kentucky to-day which 
 were named by these men from characters in this book. 
 After two years Boone knew the land well enough' to bring 
 settlers out, so in the spring of 1771 he returned to his home 
 in North Carolina. 
 
 He is described as being a tall, slender, muscular man, 
 with very keen eyes. He had a remarkable self-control and 
 patience, and he apparently knew neither fear nor weariness. 
 He understood men, and they naturally believed in him. 
 
144 
 
 DANIEL BOONE 
 
 Hence he was a leader among men, for they knew his judg- 
 ment was sound and his dealings fair. 
 
 In 1773 he sold his farm in North Carolina and took his 
 wife and children over the mountains into Kentucky. With 
 them went five other families and forty men. The men 
 walked, some going ahead to clear the way, others remaining 
 
 Early Western Settlements 
 
 behind with rifles loaded for protection. The women and 
 small children rode on horseback, while the larger children 
 drove the cows. They carried little with them save food, 
 cooking utensils, necessary clothing, and blankets. The road 
 they cut led through the Cumberland Gap, a narrow break 
 in the Allegheny Mountains. 
 
WESTERN SETTLEMENTS 1 45 
 
 When they finally reached Kentucky, they were obliged 
 not only to build their houses, but to make their furniture 
 and provide for defense against Indian attacks. They built 
 log cabins with huge outside chimneys, often made of the 
 cobblestones picked up in the fields. They had no stoves, 
 but the large fireplaces furnished warmth as well as a place 
 for cooking. Chairs and tables were made from slabs split 
 from logs. They had no iron nails nor hinges, but wooden 
 pegs and strips of leather were good substitutes. 
 
 Boone built on the Kentucky River, within about thirty 
 miles of the present site of Lexington, a remarkable fort 
 called Boonesborough (or Boonesboro). This was an in- 
 closure 250 feet long and 125 feet wide. At each corner 
 was a two-story blockhouse, and along the sides were several 
 log cabins. The gaps between the blockhouses and cabins 
 were filled with heavy timbers thrust into the ground close 
 together and bound tightly toward the top, thus completing 
 the inclosure. There were no openings in the outside walls 
 on the ground floor of the cabins and blockhouses, but above 
 were loop-holes for rifles to stick through. The trees were 
 cut down for a space of forty or fifty feet around the in- 
 closure. In case of a threatened attack on their settlement, 
 the people drove their cows and horses within the walled in- 
 closure, and took shelter in the cabins. 
 
 Life in the wilderness was interesting but very serious. 
 The Indians did not object to traders and casual visitors, but 
 they disliked to have the white people settle on their hunting 
 grounds. So they used all sorts of methods to break up the 
 settlements. They burned or destroyed the crops, and killed 
 the cows and horses. They would also imitate the call of 
 animals, like the hooting of an owl or the gobble of the wild 
 turkey, in order to lure the hunter farther into the woods 
 
146 
 
 DANIEL BOONE 
 
 and then shoot him. The settlers learned to be always on 
 their guard. 
 
 One day Boone's daughter and two other girls were cap- 
 tured by the Indians and carried off. Of course the girls were 
 badly frightened, but they were careful to break twigs on 
 the trees and bushes as they went along. The Indians 
 noticed this and forbade their doing it any more. Then the 
 girls slyly tore off little pieces of their dresses and dropped 
 them along the way. This was not noticed by the Indians 
 but served to guide Daniel Boone and seven other men a few 
 
 The Indians initiating Boone into their Tribe 
 
 hours later when they started out to find the girls. The 
 rescuing party did not overtake them till the second morn- 
 ing, while the Indians and their captives were having break- 
 fast. As soon as the Indians saw the white men they fled, 
 leaving the girls unharmed. 
 
WESTERN SETTLEMENTS 147 
 
 During the Revolutionary War the Indians in that part of 
 the country aided the English. Of course Boone and the 
 other settlers were Patriots. One day in 1778 Boone and 
 twenty-nine other men were captured and taken to the English 
 headquarters at Detroit. The English offered $500 for Boone, 
 but the Indians had taken such a fancy to him that they 
 refused the offer and carried him back to southern Illinois. 
 They adopted him into their tribe, and to make him look like 
 an Indian they pulled out his long hair, leaving a little tuft on 
 top, which they decorated with feathers. They made him bathe 
 in a stream to wash out the white blood, and then they painted 
 him with fancy colors to suit their tribe. Boone was careful 
 to do nothing to anger them. Although he submitted to 
 this performance with good nature, he was constantly on the 
 alert to find a chance to escape. 
 
 The Indians did not know that he understood their lan- 
 guage, so they talked over their plans in his presence. After 
 he had been with them two months, he heard them planning 
 to attack Boonesborough. He then determined to escape to 
 protect it and save his settlement and family. A morning 
 or so later, just before sunrise, he slipped away. He fled 
 straight through the woods toward home, and in four days he 
 had traveled 160 miles. He said he took but one meal on 
 the way. He immediately made the fort ready for attack, 
 but the Indians did not come until some weeks later. Then 
 three or four hundred besieged the fort for nine days, but 
 finally gave it up and left. This was the last serious attack 
 on the settlement. 
 
 Many old friends and neighbors of the pioneers from 
 Virginia and North Carolina came and made their homes in 
 Kentucky. Their sons and daughters married, and soon 
 the central part of the state was well filled with prosper- 
 
148 
 
 DANIEL BOONE 
 
 ous farmers. They organized and developed a good local 
 government, and in 1792 Kentucky was admitted as a 
 state. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Boyhood. Hard life on the frontier. First trip 
 of two years to Kentucky. Settlement made. Boonesborough. Re- 
 lations with the Indians. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Imagine you are Boone's daughter. Write 
 your experiences as a captive. II. Take the side of the Indian and 
 write your objections to the coming of the white men. III. Describe 
 the fort at Boonesborough. 
 
 Map Work. — Locate North Carolina, Kentucky, Cumberland Gap, 
 Boonesborough (Boonesboro), the Kentucky River, Lexington. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 Biography. — Thwaites, "Daniel Boone"; Lindslay, "Daniel 
 Boone"; Perry and Beebe, "Four American Pioneers," pp. 11-68; 
 Hart and Hill, "Camps and Firesides of the Revolution," pp. 102-116; 
 McMurray, " Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley." 
 
 Fiction. — Bogart, "A Border Boy." 
 
 A Blockhouse 
 
THE WAR OF 1812 
 
 For many years after the close of the American Revolu- 
 tion, England and France were at war. The United States 
 remained neutral, and at first enjoyed a profitable trade with 
 both countries. After a while, England declared a blockade 
 of French ports and France blockaded English ports. But 
 the merchants of the United States claimed that, as neutrals, 
 they had a right to trade with both countries. In one year 
 England seized 200 American ships on their way to French 
 ports, and France seized as many bound for England. The 
 people of the United States resented the conduct of England 
 more than that of France because there were other reasons 
 for bitterness. 
 
 Many English sailors, tired of war, deserted from the 
 navy and found work on American merchant vessels. The 
 English, claiming the right to look for deserters, often stopped 
 and searched American ships. Many English sailors were 
 found and compelled to return to service. More often, how- 
 ever, the searching officers could not tell an Englishman 
 from an American, and took some born in America and others 
 who had become naturalized citizens of the United States. 
 In one year 1000 American sailors were in this way forced 
 into the English navy. This became intolerable. One Amer- 
 ican ship not only refused to allow a search but fought the 
 English ship that demanded the right. 
 
 The English occupied until 1796 the forts on the Amer- 
 ican side of the Great Lakes which they had agreed to aban- 
 
 MAK. & DEF. IO 149 
 
IS© 
 
 WAR OF l8l2 
 
 don at the close of the Revolutionary War. The settlers on 
 the frontier also accused the English of stirring 'up the In- 
 dians against them. These troubles, and the impressment 
 of sailors, continued for many years. Finally, in 1812, the 
 United States, seeing that such difficulties and insults could 
 
 Impressment of American Sailors by the English 
 
 be settled in no other way, declared war against England. 
 This war was fought along the Canadian border, along the 
 Atlantic coast, and on the high seas. 
 
 The first plan outlined by the government was an invasion 
 of Canada from several points. Hull with an army was to 
 cross at Detroit and march east. Van Rensselaer was to 
 cross the Niagara River and with Hull move toward Mon- 
 treal. Dearborn was to enter Canada through the Cham- 
 
WAR OF l8l2 
 
 151 
 
 plain valley, and the three com- 
 bined armies would then take 
 Montreal and Quebec. 
 
 This plan failed. Hull sur- 
 rendered at Detroit. Van Rens- 
 selaer was defeated while at- 
 tacking Queenstown. Dearborn did not even get across the 
 boundary of Canada. But General William Henry Harri- 
 son, Commander of the Army of the West, saved the Ohio 
 country by many victories over Canadians and Indians. 
 
 The war, however, was principally a naval war. When it 
 began, England had available 1336 warships — 300 of the 
 first class. The United States had thirteen warships, with 
 only three of the first class. The English soldiers and marines 
 were veterans, the Americans were volunteers. England was 
 called "The Queen of the Northern Seas," because for two 
 hundred years she had stood without an equal. 
 
152 oliver hazard perry 
 
 Naval Heroes of the War of 181 2 — Oliver Hazard 
 Perry and Battle of Lake Erie 
 
 An English fleet was scattered along the Great Lakes to 
 prevent the invasion of Canada. The Americans saw the 
 need of getting boats on these lakes to break the power of the 
 English. Early in 1813, the government ordered Oliver 
 Hazard Perry to go to Lake Erie, build a fleet, and drive out 
 the English. It looked like a 'big order for a young man of 
 twenty-seven, but he did it. 
 
 Oliver Hazard Perry was born in South Kingston, R. I., 
 August 23, 1785. His father was a naval officer of some 
 prominence, and his mother was a woman of great ability and 
 excellent character. It is said that she fitted her son to com- 
 mand others by teaching him to obey. She directed the 
 boy's reading with great care. He went to the best private 
 schools, where he excelled in mathematics and history. Later 
 he was a private pupil of the famous Frenchman, Count 
 Rochambeau. 
 
 He grew up with little love for the English. His father 
 had served in the Revolution, had been taken prisoner, and 
 had spent three months on the old Jersey prison ship. Young 
 Oliver listened with keen interest to his father's experiences, 
 and with flashing eye and clenched fist declared that he 
 would some time punish the English. 
 
 At the age of fourteen, he entered the navy as a midship- 
 man, and two years later served in the war against the pirates 
 of the Barbary States. Several times he was on board ships 
 that were stopped and searched. This not only made him 
 wish to fight but made him familiar with methods of English 
 warfare. 
 
 In 181 1, Perry was put in command of the Newport flotilla 
 
WAR OF l8l2 153 
 
 of gunboats waiting for war. For years he had given careful 
 study to the best authorities on gunnery and naval tactics. 
 While waiting for orders, he trained his crews, giving per- 
 sonal attention to all details. He knew all about the con- 
 struction of ships as well as the arms and ammunition used 
 on board. He often divided his fleet into squadrons and 
 practiced sham battles. In these he applied and tested his 
 book knowledge and worked out experiments for new methods 
 of attack and defense. 
 
 When it was decided to build a fleet on Lake Erie he 
 offered his services. He received his orders on February 17, 
 1 813, and within twenty-four hours he had sent off fifty men. 
 A few days later he started with his young brother Alexander 
 and a hundred men. They had to drive in sleighs from 
 Rhode Island to Lake Erie, where they arrived March 27. 
 Ship carpenters were sent from Philadelphia, and a month 
 passed before they arrived at the lake. Meanwhile Perry 
 and his men had been cutting down trees and getting the 
 timbers ready. All of this work of shipbuilding was very 
 difficult because in that wilderness they had so few conven- 
 iences. They often had to make their own tools or wait 
 weeks to send east for them. 
 
 By early summer nine vessels were built, only two of 
 which could be called men-of-war. But all of them could 
 carry a few guns. As war ships in those days were sailing 
 vessels, the method of attack was to destroy the masts and 
 rigging of the enemy's fleet. This was most easily done by 
 firing shot, made of scraps of iron sewed up in leather bags. 
 Bits of bolts, bars, nails, and, in fact, any pieces of old iron 
 were collected and made up into these peculiar cartridges. 
 
 The English fleet consisted of six boats under the com- 
 mand of Captain Barclay, who had served with Nelson at 
 
154 OLIVER HAZARD PERRY 
 
 Trafalgar. The Americans had nine boats, but their com- 
 mander was little more than a boy. Although we must 
 acknowledge that the American force was stronger, it had 
 greater obstacles to overcome. 
 
 Perry collected his boats at Put-in-Bay, and in the evening 
 of September 9 he called his officers together and gave them 
 written orders. He showed them his battle flag, a blue square 
 with "Don't Give up the Ship" 1 in white letters, and said 
 to them, " When this flag shall be hoisted at the main yard 
 of the Lawrence, it shall be your signal for going into action." 
 
 At daylight the next morning, the English squadron was 
 sighted. Perry started toward them, his flagship, the Law- 
 rence, in the lead. The English boats lined up, with the 
 Detroit a little ahead. The battle began about noon. For 
 two hours it was principally a duel between the Lawrence 
 and the Detroit. By two o'clock the rigging of the Lawrence 
 was all shot away, her sails were cut to shreds, her spars 
 were splintered and guns dismounted. Only one mast 
 remained, and from it streamed the national flag and the blue 
 banner. Most men would have given up and struck their 
 flag, but not so with Perry. 
 
 His next best ship, the Niagara, was still unhurt. He took 
 his flags, lowered a boat, and, with his brother and a few 
 sailors, made for her. Captain Barclay, noting this, turned 
 big and little guns on the small boat to prevent Perry from 
 reaching the Niagara. Bullets whizzed about them; grape- 
 shot struck the water, spattering the men until they were 
 drenched; oars were shivered with cannonballs; but not a 
 man was hurt. In fifteen minutes Perry was on the Niagara. 
 
 1 The dying words of Captain Lawrence in the battle between the Chesa- 
 peake and the Shannon. This flag is to-day in the Naval Academy at Annap- 
 olis. 
 
WAR OF l8l2 
 
 155 
 
 Perry leaving his Flagship at the Battle of Lake Erie 
 
 He hoisted his flags and dashed through the enemy's line, 
 and at three o'clock Captain Barclay struck his colors. Four 
 English boats surrendered; two tried to escape, but were 
 chased and brought back. The first and the second in com- 
 mand on the English vessels were killed or wounded, a proof 
 of their desperate fighting. 
 
 This was the first time in England's history that she lost 
 an entire squadron in a naval battle. This victory on Lake 
 Erie gave the Americans command of the Great Lakes. 
 But quite as important was the confidence in our navy, 
 inspired by this success. Before the smoke had cleared 
 away Perry wrote his famous message to General Harrison, 
 who was in command of the army in Ohio near the lake — 
 "We have met the enemy and they are ours: two ships, two 
 brigs, one schooner, and one sloop. 
 
 " Yours with great respect and esteem, 
 
 "Oliver Hazard Perry." 
 
156 THOMAS MACDONOUGH 
 
 In recognition of his work Congress made him captain 
 and presented him with a medal struck in honor of this 
 victory. Captain Perry served on the lakes until the next 
 spring, when he was transferred to the defense of the Atlantic 
 coast. In 1 81 5 he commanded one of the ships of Decatur's 
 squadron in the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 In June, 1819, he was sent against the West Indian priva- 
 teers. While on this voyage he was stricken with yellow 
 fever, and died on his thirty-fourth birthday, August 23, 1819. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Causes of the War of 1812: (a) England inter- 
 fering with trade; (b) impressing American seamen. War declared. 
 Comparative strength of two nations. Fleet on the lakes. Pern- built 
 an American fleet. Battle of Lake Erie. Gained control of the lakes 
 by capturing the English fleet. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Write a paragraph to show the value to the 
 Americans of controlling the lakes. II. Imagine you were the young 
 brother, Alexander. Give your experiences during the battle. 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Lake Erie and Put-In-Bay. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 History. — Beebe, "Four American Naval Heroes," pp. 75-130; 
 Roosevelt, "Naval War of 1812," pp. 375-398. 
 
 Poetry. — Key, "Star Spangled Banner"; Holmes, "Old Ironsides"; 
 Stevenson, " Poems of American History." 
 
 Fiction. — Barnes, "The Hero of Lake Erie"; Otis, "With Perry 
 on Lake Erie." 
 
 Macdonough and the Battle of Lake Champlain 
 
 Another important battle on the Canadian frontier was 
 fought on Lake Champlain in September, 18 14. The hero 
 of this battle was a young man of twenty-eight, Macdonough 
 by name. The Champlain valley had been the scene of 
 many military engagements in the earlier wars. In the 
 
WAR OF l8l2 
 
 *57 
 
 French and Indian War both armies moved up and down that 
 valley. In the Revolution, Burgoyne invaded the country 
 by that route. Now, in the summer of 18 14, an English 
 army 11,000 strong under General Provost marched into the 
 state along the west side of Lake Champlain. He was 
 accompanied by an English fleet which had entered the 
 lake by the Sorel or Richelieu River. The United States 
 determined to destroy this fleet, knowing that Provost 
 would not dare to advance far without its aid. 
 
 Thomas Macdonough, the hero of Champlain, was born 
 in New Castle, Delaware, Decem- 
 ber 23, 1783. He entered the navy 
 as a midshipman at sixteen and soon 
 served with the Mediterranean fleet 
 in the war with Tripoli. He was 
 on board the Philadelphia when it 
 was captured, but succeeded in es- 
 caping. He then served on the En- 
 terprise under the great Commodore 
 Decatur. 
 
 Young Macdonough was bright 
 and quick-witted, picking up valu- 
 able knowledge with every experi- 
 ence. His good nature, his willingness to work, and his 
 promptness to obey made him a great favorite with both of- 
 ficers and men. He was enthusiastic but never rash. He 
 habitually made careful preparations before undertaking any 
 piece of work. It was such characteristics that made him 
 the choice for the important command on Lake Champlain. 
 
 The English entered New York state in August. An 
 American army of 2000 held Plattsburg, on a bay at the 
 mouth of the Saranac River. Macdonough got together a 
 
 Thcmas Macdonough 
 
158 THOMAS" MACDONOUGH 
 
 small squadron and took up a position just at the entrance 
 to the bay. The English fleet was stronger than the Ameri- 
 can, but was less fortunate in position during the battle, be- 
 cause of the prevailing winds on the lake. 
 
 At sunrise on September 11, the enemy came in sight. Mac- 
 donough at once called his officers about him, and, kneeling 
 upon the quarter-deck, they prayed for wisdom and guidance 
 in the work before them. Every man then went to his 
 place and awaited orders. The English boats advanced fear- 
 lessly, while the Americans quietly watched them from their 
 advantageous position at anchor. Suddenly, when the two 
 fleets were about four hundred yards apart, and but a shot 
 or two had been exchanged, a pet gamecock on Macdonough's 
 flagship flew upon a cannon, clapped his wings and crowed 
 lustily. The Americans cheered and went into the fight re- 
 garding this as a favorable omen. 
 
 The Saratoga and the English boat, Confiance, took the 
 lead, but shortly every boat in each fleet was firing away the 
 best it could. The Saratoga was so anchored that she could 
 swing around, thus increasing the effectiveness of her guns. 
 The English boats could not do this, but the Confiance had a 
 furnace for heating red hot the shot to be fired. The injury 
 from this hot shot was much lessened because the guns from 
 which it was fired became loosened and their muzzles were 
 so elevated that they often shot over the American boats, 
 and the balls dropped hissing into the water. 
 
 The captain of the Confiance was killed early in the engage- 
 ment. Macdonough worked like a common sailor, firing 
 a big gun, besides keeping perfect command of his fleet and 
 noting every act of the enemy. The battle lasted about two 
 hours, and four of the English ships were in almost a sinking 
 condition before the Confiance struck her flag. It was a 
 
WAR OF l8l2 
 
 159 
 
 most stubbornly fought battle. The destruction on both 
 sides was awful. The hull of the Confiance had 105 shot- 
 holes, while the Saratoga was injured beyond repair. 
 
 Finally, every English flag was pulled down, and the Amer- 
 icans took possession of the Confiance. Then the English 
 officers came to offer their swords to Macdonough, who 
 
 At Plattsburg, September n, 1814 
 
 courteously replied: "Gentlemen, your gallant conduct 
 makes you worthy to wear your weapons. Return them to 
 their scabbards." 
 
 The result of this victory was immediately felt. The Eng- 
 lish army that was moving on Plattsburg turned about and 
 hastily retreated to Canada. Thus the United States was 
 saved from further trouble in this section. 
 
 Roosevelt says in his "War of 1812": " Macdonough in 
 
l6o THOMAS MACDONOUGH 
 
 this battle won a higher fame than any other commander in 
 the war, British or American. He had a decidedly superior 
 force to contend against, the officers and men on both sides 
 being about on a par in every respect, and it was solely owing 
 to his foresight and resource that we won the victory." 
 
 This was the last of the great battles on the Canadian 
 frontier. The treaty of peace was signed the following 
 December. The war had lasted two years. Besides these 
 battles on the Canadian border, the city of Washington 
 had been burned by the English, and many individual 
 vessels had successfully engaged English war ships. The 
 American frigate Constitution won many victories in these 
 naval duels. 
 
 Throughout the war, the American navy did splendid work. 
 Although decidedly inferior at the beginning of the war, it 
 defeated the " Queen of the Northern Seas." Roosevelt 
 says this remarkable success was due to the fact that our 
 men were better marksman, that our boats were more easily 
 maneuvered and were not disturbed by the rough waters; 
 whether balancing on the top of a wave or plowing in a 
 trough, their shots took effect. And last of all the Americans 
 were fighting for their rights; they fought hard and they won. 
 
 This war greatly strengthened the spirit of union between 
 the states. The victorious navy belonged to the nation, not 
 to any state or section. Men who had opposed building war 
 ships could not help being proud of the naval victories. 
 
 It also won for the United States the respect of other 
 
 nations. After that, vessels floating the American flag could 
 
 * 
 
 sail the seas without interference. Thus the United States 
 is said to have won her commercial independence. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Macdonough's boyhood; service under Decatur 
 id Mediterranean. Champlain valley invaded by Burgoyne and again, 
 
WAR OF lSl2 
 
 161 
 
 in 1814, by an army and fleet. Macdonough skillfully defeats English. 
 Much credit due the navy. 
 
 For Written Work. — Compare the work of Perry with that of Mac- 
 donough. 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Richelieu (Sorcl) River, Lake Champlain, 
 Plattsburg, Saranac River. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 History. — Roosevelt, "Naval War of 1812," pp. 375-398; Williams, 
 " Stories from Early New York History," pp. 259-264. 
 
 Fiction. — Otis, "With Porter on the Essex"; Seawell, "Decatur 
 and Somers"; "Midshipman Paulding." 
 
 Cannon mounted for Navy 
 
LAFAYETTE — A LOYAL FRIEND TO THE 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 During the war for American independence several for- 
 eigners gave valuable aid to the colonies. Of these men 
 probably Lafayette is the most gratefully remembered. This 
 may be due to his rank and extreme youth when he came to 
 help us, and to his delightful visit many years later. 
 
 Lafayette was born September 6, 1757, in the old castle of 
 his family in central France. He belonged to the highest rank 
 of French nobility. At the age of thirteen he was left an or- 
 phan in full possession of valuable landed estates and with the 
 title of marquis. While at college in Paris, he was received 
 at the court of Louis XV. and became a great favorite with 
 the king. He also served as a page in the royal household, 
 and through the queen's influence received a military com- 
 mission at the age of fifteen. 
 
 The marquis was a tall boy, and more mature than most 
 of his age. His natural self-reliance was also fostered by his 
 training and experience. At sixteen he married, and was 
 stationed as captain of dragoons in the garrison at Metz, on 
 the German border. 
 
 At a grand dinner party soon after the Declaration of 
 
 Independence, Lafayette first heard of the struggle of the 
 
 American colonists. He at once became interested in their 
 
 cause and took opportunity to learn more about them. After 
 
 hearing of Washington's brilliant victories at Trenton and 
 
 Princeton, he decided to help the Americans in person. He 
 
 162 
 
REVOLUTIONARY WAR 1 63 
 
 fitted out a vessel at his own expense, and in April, 1777, with 
 Baron De Kalb and eleven other officers sailed for America. 
 
 On his arrival he formally offered his services to Congri 
 asking to serve as a volunteer and to pay his own expenses. 
 The high rank of the young man and his generous offer made 
 him very acceptable. The next day he was presented to 
 
 The First Meeting between Washington and Lafayette 
 
 Washington, who was so well pleased that he asked that this 
 French marquis, not yet twenty years of age, be made a major 
 general. From that time the two men were very warm 
 friends. 
 
 Some weeks later, Lafayette was wounded at the battle of 
 Brandywine. The following June he proved most helpful 
 at the battle of Monmouth. A French alliance had been 
 
164 
 
 LAFAYETTE 
 
 made in February, 1778, but it was not until Lafayette's 
 visit to France in 1779 that any help was sent. He then told 
 his people what the colonists most needed. As a result, 
 France loaned money, and later sent an army and a fleet to 
 be subject to Washington's orders at all times. 
 
 In 1780 Lafayette was given command of troops for the 
 defense of Virginia, and conducted a brilliant campaign 
 against Cornwallis, who invaded that state in the summer 
 
 
 k 
 
 ■ ''-'!.,. ; 
 
 
 
 [ -T 
 
 
 
 0Tj 
 
 
 
 
 <» *IV 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 VJOk 
 
 Surrender of Comwallis 
 
 of 1 781. At the siege of York town his men did splendid 
 work, and on the day of the capture of the town they 
 closely followed Hamilton's men over the defenses. 
 
 This young Frenchman had been brought up in luxury. 
 He had great wealth, a fine home, wife and children. He 
 enjoyed the friendship of the royal family and of people of 
 noble rank and culture. He had the best of prospects, but 
 he gave up all at the age of nineteen to help, without pay, an 
 
VISIT TO UNITED STATES IN 1 824 165 
 
 unknown people struggling against a powerful government. 
 For five years he shared the privations of the American 
 army. He even adopted the simple style of American dress, 
 laying aside the splendid French uniform that he was entitled 
 to wear. Such conduct merited the love of Washington and 
 of the American people. 
 
 After the war he returned home, and was soon called 
 upon to serve his own country through many years of 
 revolution and war. When peace finally came he used his 
 splendid ability to secure to France a constitutional govern- 
 ment. For forty years he served France as soldier and 
 statesman. 
 
 During all these years Lafayette kept a warm interest in 
 the United States, and often spoke of visiting this country. 
 In 1824 Congress requested President Monroe to invite him 
 as a national guest. In July of that year, with his son George 
 Washington Lafayette and other attendants, he sailed for 
 New York. On August 16, 6000 citizens in gayly decked 
 boats met him down the bay and escorted his vessel to its 
 dock, amid the firing of salutes and the cheers of 200,000 
 people awaiting his arrival. 
 
 He visited each of the twenty-four states of the Union and 
 everywhere was most enthusiastically received. He went 
 first to the city of Washington, where he was received by Presi- 
 dent Monroe and welcomed as the nation's guest. He then 
 visited Mount Vernon, where forty years before he had enjoyed 
 the hospitality of General and Mrs. Washington. He visited 
 York town, and on the forty- third anniversary of the surrender 
 of Cornwallis there was a grand celebration, and Lafayette 
 held a reception in Washington's old war tent. 
 
 During his tour of the states there was a great variety of 
 celebrations. In some towns hundreds of little girls strewed 
 
 MAK. & DEF. — II 
 
i66 
 
 LAFAYETTE 
 
 flowers in his path. At others he was met by school children 
 who marched ahead singing a welcome as he entered the 
 town. Reunions of surviving Revolutionary soldiers were 
 held everywhere. At Buffalo he was greeted by the old In- 
 dian chief Red Jacket, who had served under his command. 
 The old Indian said : " Alas ! time has left my white brother red 
 
 cheeks and a head covered 
 with hair; but for me — 
 look!" and pulling off his 
 cap showed that his head 
 was bald . Lafayette then 
 removed the wig covering 
 his own baldness, much 
 to the surprise and joy of 
 the old chief. 
 
 Probably the most re- 
 markable event was the 
 gathering at Bunker Hill 
 on the fiftieth anniversary 
 of the battle. At the head 
 of a procession of 7000 
 people marched 200 of- 
 ficers and soldiers of the 
 Revolution, forty of whom 
 fought on the field fifty 
 years before. The Rev. 
 Joseph Thaxter, who was chaplain of Colonel Prescott's regi- 
 ment on the day of the battle, offered prayer. Daniel Web- 
 ster was the orator of the day, and Lafayette laid the corner 
 stone of the monument that marks the place of the battle. 
 
 On his sixty-eighth birthday Lafayette sailed for home, 
 happy in the expressions of a grateful people. He lived nine 
 
 Lafayette Statue presented by School 
 Children to the French 
 
VISIT TO THE UNITED STATES IN 1 8 24 
 
 167 
 
 years after this as a private citizen, spending most of the 
 time at his country estate, a luxury made possible by a gift 
 from the United States government, for during the long period 
 of war in France he had lost all his ancestral estates. 
 
 On July 4, 1900, a statue of Lafayette, paid for by the school 
 children of the United States, was unveiled in Paris and pre- 
 sented to the French people as a testimony of the appreciation 
 of the present generation for the man who helped America 
 in her great need. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Boyhood of the young marquis. Became an 
 officer in the French army. Interest in American colonists aroused. 
 Decided to help the cause. Served five years. For forty years in French 
 service. Visited the United States in 1824-1825. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Write a story describing Lafayette's visit to 
 the United States in 1824. II. Why does Lafayette deserve our ad- 
 miration ? 
 
 Slhffei ''iiM' 
 
 The National Capitol as it was in 1825 
 
ANDREW JACKSON — WAR HERO AND 
 PRESIDENT 
 
 While Lafayette was in America, probably the man most 
 talked about, except himself, was Andrew Jackson. Jackson 
 had been a presidential candidate in 1824 and, although not 
 elected, was still a popular hero. 
 
 Andrew Jackson was born in the hill region of North Caro- 
 lina very near the southwestern boundary, March 15, 1767. 
 His parents were Scotch-Irish, and had lived in America but 
 two years. His father died about the time of Andrew's 
 birth, and his thrifty mother supported her three boys by spin- 
 ning flax. Much of Andrew's childhood was spent at the 
 home of an uncle who lived a few miles over the line of South 
 Carolina. 
 
 Andy, as he was known, was a tall, slender boy, with red 
 hair and freckled face. He was wild, mischievous, and 
 quick-tempered. Although he had frequent quarrels with his 
 boy friends, he was devotedly fond of his mother, and kind to 
 all animals, particularly to dogs and horses. From early 
 childhood he was a fearless rider, and later in life owned many 
 fine horses. 
 
 His boyhood was spent in a frontier country, like that in 
 
 which Daniel Boone grew up, where the schools were poor and 
 
 of short duration. So in school Andy learned little save 
 
 reading, writing, and arithmetic; but his senses were keenly 
 
 alert and he early became well informed. 
 
 He was nine years old when the colonies declared their 
 
 168 
 
EARLY LIFE 
 
 169 
 
 independence. Rumors of war reached his home, but it was 
 not until four years later that the hill country of the Caro- 
 linas was invaded by the English. The army of the enemy 
 then swept through that neighborhood, and the thirteen-year- 
 old Andrew saw his 
 brother, cousins, and 
 neighbors wounded 
 and dying. The 
 church was used as 
 a hospital; there his 
 mother went and 
 nursed the sick and 
 wounded. Andrew 
 and his brother Rob- 
 ert waited on her and 
 ran errands. They 
 were in and out of 
 the building, so could 
 see what suffering 
 resulted from war. 
 The horror of it en- 
 raged the sensitive 
 boy, and he was eager 
 
 to play a man's part Andrew refuses to obey the Officer 
 
 in fighting the enemy. The time soon came when even four- 
 teen-year-old boys were useful in protecting homes and prop- 
 erty against invaders. 
 
 In one of the raids by the enemy, Andrew and his brother 
 Robert were taken prisoners in the home of their cousin, 
 Lieutenant Crawford. The English officers took what they 
 wished in the house, and then one of them ordered Andrew 
 to clean his mud-bespattered jackboots. Andrew replied, 
 
170 ANDREW JACKSON 
 
 " Sir, I am a prisoner of war and not your slave." Angered 
 by the reply, the officer struck the boy with his sword, wound- 
 ing him on the head and on one hand. The scars of both 
 wounds remained until his death. 
 
 With twenty other prisoners, the Jackson boys were taken 
 forty miles distant, and not allowed any food or a drop of 
 water on the way. They were then thrust into a small 
 inclosure with over 200 other prisoners. Smallpox soon 
 broke out among them. Mrs. Jackson succeeded in secur- 
 ing the release of her boys, but not until both were sick. Rob- 
 ert lived only two days after reaching home, and Andrew was 
 for many weeks very sick with smallpox. Before he recovered, 
 his mother had died. So we find Andrew Jackson at the age 
 of fifteen without father, mother, or brothers, much broken 
 in health and very bitter toward the English as the cause of 
 his sufferings. 
 
 At seventeen he began to study law, and was admitted to 
 practice by the spring of 1787. He then joined a company 
 of emigrants who were going over the mountains to settle in 
 Tennessee. Lawyers were few in that new country. Young 
 Jackson built up a large practice, and soon was the owner 
 of hundreds of acres of land. It was not long before he was 
 appointed United States District Attorney for that section, and 
 he was fearless in the performance of his duty. In his efforts 
 to maintain order among the frontiersmen and wild adven- 
 turers who had flocked to the new territory, Jackson some- 
 times had to fight to preserve the dignity of the law. The 
 frontier life was rough. Disputes were settled quickly and 
 often violently. Jackson was hot-tempered and a good shot. 
 One of the many duels fought by him was in 1806, when he 
 killed young Charles Dickinson. This quarrel grew out of 
 both political and domestic conditions. Dickinson believed 
 
WAR OF l8l2 
 
 171 
 
 that Jackson stood in his way to political preferment, and 
 Jackson resented some slurs upon Mrs. Jackson made by 
 Dickinson. The two men were well matched and both were 
 wounded; but Jackson recovered, while his opponent bled 
 to death. 
 
 Jackson served in the House of Representatives and was 
 appointed to the United States Senate, but resigned, and when 
 he was scarcely thirty-two years of age became judge of the 
 highest court of Tennessee. 
 
 When the War of 181 2 broke out, Jackson offered to raise 
 and lead against the enemy an army of 2000 men, but for 
 nearly two years his offer was not accepted. The last of 
 August, 1 813, a band of 
 Creek Indians, aroused 
 by the English, attacked 
 Fort Mimms, in southern 
 Alabama, and massacred 
 between four and five 
 hundred white people. 
 The neighboring state of 
 Tennessee promptly 
 
 Creek War 
 
 raised 3500 soldiers to be 
 sent against the Creeks. 
 Jackson was the choice for commander, but he was in bed, 
 suffering from wounds received in a foolish quarrel two weeks 
 before. When word reached him, he at once began to issue 
 orders, and in three days he rose from his bed and started 
 on the march to Alabama. When his physician was asked 
 whether the general was able to go, he replied, " No other man 
 would be able in his condition." But Jackson went, with his 
 left arm in a sling and with hardly strength enough to sit on 
 his horse. 
 
172 ANDREW JACKSON 
 
 Because of the poor facilities for transportation and the 
 sparsely settled country through which the army marched, 
 food for soldiers and horses was very difficult to get. For 
 weeks before reaching the land of the Creeks, General Jack- 
 son's greatest problem was how to keep his men from starv- 
 ing. Hungry men are hard to control, and no less than four 
 times did his troops break out in open mutiny. But at all 
 times Jackson was equal to the emergency. This campaign 
 against the Creek Indians lasted eight months, and resulted 
 in the complete conquest of the savages. 
 
 In May, 18 14, as a reward for this work, General Jackson 
 was appointed major general and was given command of 
 the United States forces in the south, with headquarters at 
 Mobile. Florida was at this time a Spanish colony, and 
 Spain was at peace with the United States. But that power 
 was secretly in sympathy with England, and English troops 
 made Pensacola, in Florida, a base of operations against 
 Mobile. General Jackson, after having remonstrated in 
 vain with the governor of Pensacola for affording shelter 
 and protection to the enemies of the United States, marched 
 against the place, stormed the town, and compelled the 
 English to abandon Florida. After he had returned to his 
 headquarters in Mobile, word came that the English, in 
 order to control the Mississippi River, were moving to cap- 
 ture New Orleans. 
 
 New Orleans was poorly prepared for defense against vet- 
 eran English soldiers, so Jackson's problem was a difficult 
 one. With great dispatch, he made himself familiar with the 
 surrounding country, and decided to prevent the English 
 from attacking the city itself. Early in the afternoon of 
 December 23, he was told that the English army was within 
 eight miles of the city. He at once summoned the aides, 
 
WAR OF l8l2 
 
 r 73 
 
 saying: "Gentlemen, the British are below. We must fight 
 them to-night." Messengers were sent ordering every divi- 
 sion to its assigned position, and, three hours later, Jack- 
 son left the city to meet the enemy. The English were sur- 
 prised on the road eight miles below New Orleans, and the 
 fighting lasted half that night. 
 
 The next day, December 24, the treaty of peace was signed 
 at Ghent in Belgium. But as there was no Atlantic cable, 
 the official news did not reach Jackson till March 6, 181 5. 
 The greater part of the fighting near New Orleans took 
 place after the two countries were supposed to be at peace. 
 
 The campaign lasted two weeks longer, and the great final 
 battle was fought on January 8, when the brave English 
 soldiers met a crushing defeat in attacking Jackson's line of 
 entrenchments. 
 
 Jackson's victory is remarkable because the attacking 
 
 Battle of New Orleans 
 
174 ANDREW JACKSON 
 
 army was made up of splendidly trained English veterans 
 under brave and experienced commanders, while many of 
 the American soldiers had never seen a battle and all were 
 poorly armed. Once at a critical moment 300 recruits came 
 down the river to Jackson's camp, but not a man had a 
 weapon, and there was not one to spare in the camp. Jackson 
 made the best of what he had. His generalship was superb. 
 When he knew he was too weak to attack the enemy, he 
 held his ground doggedly and earned the title, " Old 
 Hickory," that his soldiers loved to call him. 
 
 Three years later, Jackson commanded in another war 
 with the Creek Indians, part of whom were in United 
 States territory and a part in Florida. During the war, 
 Jackson followed a band over the line, and finding they 
 received aid from the Spanish settlements, he captured 
 two towns. The government afterwards gave these towns 
 back to Spain, but the raid helped the Spanish to decide 
 to sell the territory, as it was becoming more and more 
 difficult to defend. In 1819 Florida was purchased for 
 $5,000,000, and in 1821 Jackson was appointed the first 
 governor. 
 
 General Jackson's home in Tennessee was a fine estate of 
 1 100 acres with a spacious mansion, known as the Hermit- 
 age, near Nashville. He lived the life of the country 
 gentleman, and eagerly returned to his home after any 
 period of public service. He had no children, but adopted 
 several. Two nephews of his wife grew up as his sons, one 
 bearing the name Andrew Jackson. During the Creek wars 
 a mother was found dead with a babe in her arms. The gen- 
 eral took the child, found some one to care for it, and then 
 sent it to the Hermitage, where it found a happy home. 
 
 In 1824 Jackson was nominated for the presidency. 
 
PRESIDENT 
 
 175 
 
 The Hermitage 
 
 None of the four candidates that year received a majority 
 of the 261 electoral votes, and the election went to the 
 House of Representatives, by whom John Quincy Adams 
 was made President. Jackson was hurt because of this 
 selection, and the next four years were one continuous pres- 
 idential campaign for him. He was elected with a big vote 
 in 1828. A few weeks later, on December 22, his wife died 
 very suddenly. His biographer says that he never re- 
 covered from this shock. He had always been a hot- 
 tempered man, given to the use of strong language and 
 having many quarrels which resulted in duels. He now 
 became very much subdued; one of his friends declared, 
 " twenty years older in a night." 
 
 Early in January, he started for Washington to assume the 
 duties of President. The route was by steamboat down the 
 Cumberland and up the Ohio to Pittsburg, then across 
 
176 ANDREW JACKSON 
 
 Pennsylvania to the capital. Everywhere he was enthusiastic- 
 ally received as a great hero and the friend of the people. He 
 had always been a man of strong likes and dislikes. He also 
 possessed the notion that a man who did not vote for him was 
 his enemy. He confused political questions with personal feel- 
 ings. So, when he became President, he promptly dismissed 
 from office those who had not voted for him and appointed 
 his friends, regardless of their fitness for the work. Thus he 
 introduced what has been known as the "Spoils System." 
 
 After the War of 181 2, a new tariff had been placed on 
 imported goods as a protection to the small manufacturing 
 establishments that had been started in the United States. 
 In 1824, and again in 1828, the tariff was made higher than 
 before. As the southern states did not manufacture but 
 brought from Europe many things in exchange for their 
 cotton, they paid a large proportion of the tariff. Much 
 objection was made by the South. Finally, South Carolina, 
 in 1832, adopted a Nullification Act which declared the 
 tariff laws of the United States null and void in that state. 
 Now President Jackson did not favor a high tariff, and 
 many southern people expected his help. But at a Jef- 
 ferson birthday banquet in 1830, he had surprised many of 
 his friends by giving a toast of his own choosing, " The 
 Federal Union: It must be preserved." 
 
 Jackson kept his word when the crisis came. As President, 
 it was his duty to enforce the laws of Congress in all states 
 alike. So when South Carolina tried to nullify the tariff 
 law, he ordered General Scott to Charleston to enforce 
 obedience. This fearless conduct of President Jackson 
 preserved the Union. In a short time the tariff was reduced 
 by Congress, but not abolished; it was collected in South 
 Carolina as in other states, 
 
PRESIDENT 
 
 177 
 
 In ^37 Jackson returned to his old home, the Hermitage, 
 where he lived until 1845, c tyi n g at the age of seventy-eight. 
 He was a remarkable man, a product of the humblest and 
 poorest people in a wild and unsettled part of a new country, 
 and owed little or nothing to education. He rose by his own 
 efforts to the highest judicial position in his state, to the pin- 
 nacle of military power, and to the office of President of the 
 United States. In each place he discharged his duties faith- 
 fully. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Born of poor Scotch-Irish parents. As a child 
 he saw the terrors of war. Death of mother and brother. Studied 
 law and went to Tennessee. Served in Congress and ajj judge of state 
 supreme court. Served against Creek Indians. Commanded at battle 
 of New Orleans. Became President. Spoils system. Prevented 
 nullification. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Write a paragraph on what you consider 
 Jackson's greatest work. Give your reasons in full. II. Why did 
 people like Jackson so well, although he was so hot-tempered? 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Nashville, Pensacola, New Orleans. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 History. — Parton, " General Jackson." 
 
 Biography. — Burton, "Four American Patriots," pp. 133-192; 
 Brooks, "Century Book of Famous Americans," pp. 162-172; Blaisdell 
 and Ball, "Hero Stories from American History," pp. 185-198; Brown, 
 "Andrew Jackson." 
 
 Fiction. — Stoddard, "The Errand Boy of Andrew Jackson." 
 
HENRY CLAY, THE GREAT PEACEMAKER 
 
 In the first half of the nineteenth century, there were 
 three men prominent in American affairs. They were John 
 C. Calhoun of South Carolina, Daniel Webster of Mas- 
 sachusetts, and Henry Clay of Kentucky. Although none 
 of them became President, they had a greater influence 
 in guiding public opinion and in shaping the policies of 
 their parties than the Presidents with whom they were 
 associated. 
 
 The life story of Henry Clay is most interesting because 
 it shows us how in this country a poor boy may, by his 
 own energy and ability, rise to a position of great use- 
 fulness. Clay was born in Hanover County, Virginia, on 
 the 1 2th of April, 1777. His father died when Henry was 
 four years old, leaving a small farm and a large family to 
 the care of his mother. Mrs. Clay struggled bravely to 
 support her children, but she was able to give them only 
 a limited education. About all the schooling Henry had 
 was in the little log schoolhouse of the neighborhood. Like 
 other boys on a farm, he had to help with the work at home. 
 As soon as he was able to guide a plow, he helped with the 
 plowing or the cultivating. Often in the early morning, he 
 would go to mill on horseback with a bag of corn or wheat 
 for a saddle, and bring back the flour for the family. 
 
 The district in which they lived was called the " Slashes," 
 
 because of its low, marshy nature, and in after years Clay 
 
 was known as "the Millboy of the Slashes." 
 
 178 
 
EARLY LIFE 1 79 
 
 When he was fourteen years old, Henry went to work in a 
 store in the city of Richmond. He did his work there faith- 
 fully, and spent his leisure time in reading. About this time, 
 Henry's mother remarried, and his stepfather, through in- 
 fluential friends, obtained a place for him as clerk in the 
 court of chancery. A part of his duties was to copy the 
 records of the court. The country boy was at first laughed 
 at by the other clerks, for he wore homespun clothes and was 
 shy and awkward. But he had a genial, sunny nature, and 
 soon made friends with them. Moreover, his records were 
 well kept, and his handwriting clear and careful. So, when 
 the judge of the court wished a young man to write out 
 and record his decisions, he selected Clay. This judge, who 
 had the title of Chancellor, was George Wythe, one of Vir- 
 ginia's greatest lawyers and statesmen. He was a signer of 
 the Declaration of Independence and a member of the con- 
 vention which made the Constitution. It was in his office 
 that Thomas Jefferson studied law. 
 
 So, you see, it was a stroke of good fortune for young Clay 
 to come under the influence of this great man. Wythe liked 
 the bright boy, and took an interest in his reading and studies. 
 He advised Henry to study law, and loaned him books for 
 that purpose. After four years as Wythe's secretary, Clay 
 read law for a year and was admitted to the bar. During 
 this time, he trained his memory and cultivated his voice by 
 reading some good book, usually a history, and then trying 
 to recite what he had just read. In the fields and forests, or 
 sometimes in a barn, with only the cattle for listeners, as he 
 tells us, he tried these speeches. He organized also among 
 the young men of Richmond a debating club in which they 
 probably settled to their own satisfaction all the burning 
 questions of the day. In these simple and practical ways he 
 
180 HENRY CLAY 
 
 laid the foundation of his great skill as a public speaker and 
 debater. 
 
 Having fitted himself as a lawyer, Clay now began to look 
 about for a place in which to practice his profession. His 
 parents had moved to Lexington, Kentucky, a few years 
 before, so he decided to go there. Like many others, he felt 
 that the West offered greater opportunities for an ambitious 
 young man. 
 
 Lexington, at that time, was a rough pioneer town on the 
 frontier. But descendants of some of the best families 
 of Virginia had already settled there, and among these 
 Clay found congenial spirits. He had the happy fac- 
 ulty of making friends readily, and he was soon one of the 
 leading lawyers of the place. The story is told of an experi- 
 ence he had as a member of a debating club which he joined 
 soon after coming to Lexington. He had attended several 
 meetings, but had taken no part in the proceedings. One 
 evening as the debate was about to be closed, he said to a 
 friend that the subject did not seem to him to have been 
 fully discussed. He was asked to speak, but when he arose 
 was so embarrassed that he began, "Gentlemen of the 
 Jury." The members of the club laughed at this mistake, 
 and ' his embarrassment naturally increased. But quickly 
 collecting his wits, he delivered an oration that his friends 
 said afterwards was one of the best speeches of his life. 
 
 Much of his early practice was in criminal cases, where his 
 sympathetic nature led him to take the side of the defense. 
 Although he was not a deep student of law, he had the 
 power of making people believe as he did, and was usually 
 successful in pleading before a jury. He was as willing to 
 take a case for a poor client as for a rich one. Indeed, through- 
 out his life, his courtesy toward all classes was most marked. 
 
LAWYER l8l 
 
 At one time in later years, when he was riding with his young 
 son, they met a negro who lifted his hat respectfully. Clay 
 replied to the greeting, but his son did not. Noticing this, 
 Clay turned to the boy and said, " My son, would you allow 
 a slave to show greater courtesy than you do? " 
 
 Clay prospered so rapidly that he was able in 1799 to pur- 
 chase an estate of about 600 acres on the outskirts of Lexing- 
 ton. He named the new home Ashland, and to it brought his 
 young bride. Here they lived happily for more than fifty 
 years, and here, after he became prominent in national affairs, 
 Clay entertained his friends lavishly. A man of his marked 
 ability could not long keep out of public life, so we soon hear 
 of him in the Kentucky legislature. He served also for two 
 short terms in the United States Senate. 
 
 But it was not until 181 1 that he really began his career as 
 a national statesman. In that year he was elected to Congress 
 from the Lexington district, and was chosen speaker of the 
 House of Representatives. The country was on the verge of 
 its second great war. England had interfered with our 
 commerce. Under the pretense of searching for British 
 subjects, she claimed the right to stop our merchant ships 
 and take from them any sailors that w r ere natives of Great 
 Britain. Her motto was, "Once an Englishman, always an 
 Englishman," while we believed that a man who came to our 
 country had a right to become a citizen of the United States, 
 and that he therefore ceased to be a citizen of the country 
 from which he came. Clay was one of the leading men in 
 demanding that the rights of Americans, and especially of 
 American sailors, be respected, and it was largely through his 
 influence that the War of 181 2 was declared. How this w r ar 
 was fought and how gallantly our little navy swept the seas 
 has been told elsewhere. It developed in us a national 
 
 MAK. & DEF. — 12 
 
1 82 HENRY CLAY 
 
 spirit, and made us respected at home and abroad. Clay was 
 sent to Europe as one of the commissioners to arrange a 
 treaty of peace. The treaty was concluded December 24, 
 1814, and Clay, returning home, resumed his seat in Con- 
 gress, in one house or the other of which he served almost 
 continuously until his death. 
 
 After peace had been declared, an era of good feeling 
 began in the United States. The Federalist party had op- 
 posed the war and as a result had lost its influence, so that 
 the Republican party was the only influential factor in 
 national affairs. During the war, our trade with foreign 
 countries had been practically destroyed. As a result, we were 
 obliged to manufacture our own goods, especially in the 
 New England states, where great cotton and woolen mills 
 were established. After the war, foreign-made goods began 
 to flood our markets. This led to the passage by Congress 
 of a tariff to protect American industries and to provide 
 money for national improvements. 
 
 One of the marked movements of this period of our history 
 was the rapid growth of the West. Emigrants from Europe 
 and from the more easterly states were flowing over the 
 Alleghenies in a constant stream into the fertile valleys of the 
 Ohio and Mississippi. The population of Ohio, which was 
 45,000 in 1800, had increased to 580,000 in 1820. From the 
 vast domain between the Alleghenies and the Mississippi, 
 the great and powerful states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
 Mississippi, and Alabama were created during the years 
 between 1803 and 1819. Western travel was mainly by flat- 
 boats, where the rivers were navigable, or by wagons. The 
 settler would put his household goods and family utensils 
 in a wagon and travel into the new country until he found 
 a favorable spot to locate. Here he would build a log cabin, 
 
GROWTH OF THE WEST 
 
 I»3 
 
 clear the land, and plant his crops. The wagons were 
 curious sights, roofed over as they were with canvas, like 
 a tent. They were called prairie schooners, and in some 
 sections were also known as "Conestoga" wagons. It is 
 said that in one year over twelve thousand of them came 
 into Pittsburg heavily laden with freight and passengers. 
 From New York and the East goods were brought up the 
 Hudson in sloops, then taken by wagon to the falls of the 
 
 Emigrant's Wagon 
 
 Mohawk. Here they were loaded into " Schenectady 
 boats" and poled up the Mohawk to Oneida Lake and 
 Lake Ontario. Then by sloop to the falls of the Niagara, 
 a short "carry" overland to Lake Erie, then by boat to 
 Westfield on this lake, and by wagons to Chautauqua 
 Lake. In this roundabout way, the cargo reached the 
 headwaters of the Ohio, down whose broad surface it floated 
 in flatboats to its long journey's end. It was seen that 
 some more direct route to the West must be provided, 
 
184 
 
 HENRY CLAY 
 
 and this was one of the reasons for building the Erie 
 Canal. 
 
 Clay was foremost in urging a system of internal improve- 
 ments at government expense. He saw that one of the great 
 problems of the day was the opening of the West for settle- 
 ment. One of the plans for accomplishing this was the 
 building of the Cumberland Road. It was begun in 1806, 
 and was built partly by the government and partly by the 
 states through which it passed. The route followed was al- 
 most exactly the one taken by General Braddock's army in 
 the French and Indian War. Starting at Cumberland, Mary- 
 land, it extended in a northwesterly direction to Washing- 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 I 1 1 1 l_ 
 
 The National Road 
 
 ton, Pennsylvania. Then turning west, it passed through the 
 northern part of West Virginia to Wheeling on the Ohio River. 
 From there, it extended westward through the central parts of 
 Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, passing through the present pros- 
 perous cities of Columbus in Ohio, and Indianapolis and 
 Terre Haute in Indiana to its western terminus at Vandalia, 
 Illinois. It was completed in 1818 and became a main ave- 
 nue of trade and travel. In this expansion and development 
 of the West, Clay, as a western man, was intensely interested. 
 But amid the rapid growth and prosperity of our country, 
 another great national problem began to occupy men's 
 minds. Slavery, you will remember, had been early intro- 
 
COMPROMISE OF 1820 1 85 
 
 duced into America, and during the colonial period had 
 existed throughout the colonies. 
 
 Few of the earlier statesmen had ventured to defend it on 
 moral grounds, and at the close of the Revolution it was 
 gradually dying out in the North. Opposition to it was 
 most marked in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 
 among such leaders as Washington, Madison, and Franklin. 
 But the invention of the cotton gin and the rapid increase 
 in the value of the cotton crop made slave labor very profit- 
 able. So the southern states began to feel that slavery 
 was just and its continuance necessary for their prosperity. 
 As the western territory became settled and states were 
 organized, the question arose whether these new states 
 should be admitted into the Union as slaveholding or 
 free states. Slavery had already been forbidden in the 
 Northwest Territory, and from this territory the free states of 
 Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois had been created. In the new 
 states south of the Ohio River slavery was permitted. But 
 in the great stretch of land we had acquired by the Loui- 
 siana purchase, the question of slavery was still to be settled. 
 Missouri was one of the first states to be formed from this 
 territory. If left to herself, she would naturally permit 
 slavery, for her pioneers were mostly from the South. 
 
 The question was sharply debated in Congress, for the 
 North feared the further extension of the political power of 
 the South. At last, by the Compromise of 1820, of which 
 Clay, although not the author, was the warm ' supporter, 
 Missouri was admitted as a slave state while, with this excep- 
 tion, slavery was forbidden in all the territory north of 36 30'. 
 
 Again in 1832, when South Carolina, angered because of 
 a high protective tariff, threatened to secede from the Union, 
 Clay came forward with another compromise plan which 
 
1 86 HENRY CLAY 
 
 succeeded in quieting the country for a while. For these 
 measures as well as for others which made for peace and for 
 the preservation of the Union, Clay won the title of " the 
 Great Peacemaker." Indeed, his love of country and his 
 desire to serve it honestly and faithfully are the most marked 
 features of his career as a statesman. He believed in the 
 continuance of the national banking system, and in a tariff 
 to protect American industries. 
 
 His love of liberty led him to support Greece in her war 
 for independence. His sympathies were also enlisted in 
 behalf of the struggling South American republics. Clay 
 was a slaveholder, but was always humane and kind in his 
 treatment of his slaves, as is shown by an extract from a letter 
 to a friend in the North. 
 
 *^J &J? ^Z -ty </ -* &*-* U-~* £L< *e- &* -£-^rr? -£^n 
 
 ^c^<. 
 
 
 ^> j/.^Zs /^/ 
 
WAR WITH MEXICO 1 87 
 
 His life's ambition was to be President. But in his active 
 public career he had made many enemies, and he was put 
 aside in favor of smaller men against whom no faction of his 
 party might revolt. This was a bitter disappointment to 
 him and to his friends. His great ability, his power of leader- 
 ship, and his lofty patriotism would have enabled him to serve 
 his country with dignity and honor in that high office. He 
 never, however, sacrificed his principles to his ambition. At 
 one time, in order to carry through measures which he 
 believed to be necessary for the peace of the country, 
 Senator Clay had to act contrary to the wishes of many 
 political friends. He was warned that by doing so he 
 would lose their support for the presidency, but he made 
 this immortal reply, " I would rather be right than be 
 President." 
 
 During these years the question of slavery was increasing 
 in importance. Conciliatory measures gave only temporary 
 relief. The South, in order to gain more territory in which 
 slavery might be established, had brought on a war with 
 Mexico. The pretext for war was most flimsy — merely the 
 ownership of a strip of land between the Rio Grande and 
 Nueces rivers. Although we won every battle of this war, 
 it was no credit to us, for we were like a big bully fighting 
 a little boy for property which he honestly believed was his. 
 However, as a result of the war, we obtained a vast tract of 
 land north of Mexico and extending to the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 It was expected by the South that this region would 
 eventually be made into slaveholding states. But the 
 discovery of gold in California changed the whole course 
 of our history. In the great rush of gold seekers to that 
 country, northern men were in the majority, and in 1850 
 California asked for admission into the Union as a free 
 
i88 
 
 HENRY CLAY 
 
 state. Again the whole country was thrown into great 
 excitement. The South felt that the Mexican war had 
 been fought by its sons, and now it seemed a grievous wrong 
 that the results of the war should strengthen the political 
 power of the free states. 
 
 Clay had expected to retire to private life, but was persuaded 
 to come back to the Senate. He hoped to reconcile the North 
 and the South. A slave owner himself, living in a slave- 
 
 Clay speaking in the Senate 
 
 holding state, he could not fully realize how earnestly the 
 people of the North were beginning to feel that slavery was 
 a great evil that ought not to be allowed to extend its influence 
 farther. Clay was now seventy-four years of age, with a life- 
 time behind him rich in honorable service to his country. He 
 longed to harmonize the two opposing sections of the 
 country, for to him the integrity of the Union was greater 
 than the question of slavery. 
 
COMPROMISE OF 1850 1 89 
 
 So he introduced the Compromise of 1850, by which he 
 hoped to satisfy both sides. The main provisions of the bill 
 were: [i) that California should be admitted as a free state, and 
 (2) that all the other territory acquired from Mexico should 
 be organized without any reference to slavery. The measure 
 became a law; but like most compromises it failed to satisfy 
 either side, and it only postponed the inevitable struggle of 
 the Civil War. In its support, however, Clay was governed 
 by his great love for his country and his earnest desire to pre- 
 serve the Union. His last great public effort seemed to have 
 exhausted him, for his health failed rapidly. He was often 
 so feeble that he could with difficulty reach his seat in the 
 Senate chamber, and at last was unable to attend to his duties 
 as Senator. 
 
 Possessing the love and confidence of the whole country, 
 he came to the close of his eventful career, and on the 29th 
 of June, 1852, died in the city of Washington. He was 
 buried at Lexington, and his last resting place is visited 
 even to-day by admirers of the great orator and statesman. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Early life and efforts to get an education. Com- 
 mences the practice of law. Home in Lexington, Kentucky. Causes 
 of the War of 1812; Clay's share in it; its result. Western movement; 
 means and routes of travel; Erie Canal and Cumberland Road. Begin- 
 nings of slavery and tariff agitation; Clay's compromise measures. 
 Results. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Tell the story of Clay's boyhood. II. In 
 what way did Clay train himself as a public speaker? III. What 
 were the causes of the War of 1812? IV. Imagine yourself going from 
 New York to Pittsburg a hundred years ago. Describe your journey. 
 V. How did the views of the South regarding slavery change during 
 Clay's lifetime? What were the reasons for this change? VI. Name 
 the three great compromise measures with which Clay's name is asso- 
 ciated. VII. Describe one of these measures. VIII. What was the 
 
igo 
 
 HENRY CLAY 
 
 real cause of the Mexican War? IX. What was Clay's attitude regard- 
 ing slavery ? 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Richmond, Va., and Lexington, Ky. Trace 
 the Cumberland Road: Cumberland, Md.; Wheeling; Columbus, O.; 
 Indianapolis; Terre Haute; Vandalia. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 History. — Clay, " Speech on the War of 1812 "; last five paragraphs. 
 U. S. Reader, pp. 284-285. 
 
 Biography. — Cravens, "Story of Henry Clay"; Brooks, "Century 
 Book of Famous Americans," pp. 145-155; Williams, "Some Successful 
 Americans," pp. 155-171. 
 
 um W 
 
 ^ 
 
 Henry Clay's home in Kentucky 
 
DANIEL WEBSTER, THE DEFENDER OF THE 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 Among the great statesmen who have swayed men's minds 
 by their persuasive eloquence or have convinced them by 
 their iron logic, the name of Daniel Webster stands pre- 
 eminent. No other American has equaled him in majesty 
 of presence and in power of speech. The few simple words 
 which Lincoln spoke at the dedication of the Gettysburg 
 Cemetery constitute, without question, the greatest single 
 oration ever delivered by an American; but, excepting this 
 address, our history and our literature record no greater 
 and no more enduring orations than those given by Webster. 
 While Clay's and Calhoun's speeches are forgotten, those of 
 Webster are read to-day by thousands. They are, or ought 
 to be, in every school reader, to be learned and declaimed by 
 every American boy who loves his country. It is, therefore, 
 most fitting for us to know something of the life of this com- 
 manding figure in our history. 
 
 Daniel Webster was born in Salisbury (now Franklin), New 
 Hampshire, on the 18th of January, 1782. His ancestors 
 were Puritan emigrants who came to the New World soon 
 after the founding of the Plymouth Colony. They settled in 
 New Hampshire, where, in a log cabin, Daniel's father, 
 Ebenezer Webster, was born. He grew to be a tall man, of 
 splendid physical strength and of sound character. Daniel 
 used to say that his father was the handsomest man he ever 
 saw, except Daniel's brother Ezekiel. Ebenezer Webster 
 
 served in the French and Indian wars, where he rose to the 
 
 191 
 
192 DANIEL WEBSTER 
 
 rank of captain, then married and settled in the town of 
 Salisbury. His cabin was an outpost of civilization, on the 
 edge of the primeval forests which stretched away to the 
 far off French settlements of Canada. 
 
 When the Revolutionary War broke out, Ebenezer Webster 
 was captain of the militia at Salisbury. The little company of 
 loyal men promptly joined the Continental Army and took 
 part in the siege of Boston. Captain Webster served faith- 
 fully through the war. He was in the battles of Bennington 
 and White Plains, and won the approval of General Stark 
 and of Washington himself. In 1780 he was stationed at 
 West Point, at the time Benedict Arnold was in command of 
 that fortress. It is said that on the night when Arnold's 
 treason was discovered, General Washington sent for Web- 
 ster to guard his tent. Taking him by the hand, Washington 
 said, " Captain Webster, I believe I can trust you." 
 
 We may be sure that in after years Captain Webster often 
 proudly told his children how the great general honored and 
 trusted him. But in our account of Daniel's family we 
 must not forget to honor his mother. Some one has said 
 that "the more mother a man has in him, the better he is," 
 and it is undoubtedly true that much of Webster's success 
 in life was due to the early training and self-sacrificing care 
 his mother gave him. She was of pioneer New Hampshire 
 stock, a woman of noble Christian character and of sound 
 common sense. 
 
 Daniel was the youngest boy in a family of ten children, 
 and as a child was delicate. For this reason, and also 
 because he was the baby, he was probably petted by his 
 parents and his brothers and sisters. He was allowed to play 
 a great deal and to run free in the fields and forests in the 
 hope that Mother Nature might strengthen his frail body. 
 
BOYHOOD 
 
 193 
 
 Like Sir Walter Scott and Washington Irving, who were 
 
 also weakly boys, he grew up in close contact with nature, 
 and learned to love hunting and fishing and other healthful 
 outdoor sports. As was the custom in New England, his 
 mother and his older sisters taught him to read at home. 
 The little boy loved 
 to read as w r ell as to 
 play, and his quick 
 memory enabled him 
 to retain readily 
 whatever he read. 
 
 Probably his 
 father's example 
 guided him in this, 
 for Mr. Webster had 
 a musical voice and 
 was a fine reader. 
 Often during the long 
 winter evenings he 
 would gather his fam- 
 ily around the fire- 
 place and read aloud 
 to them, usually from 
 the Bible. Daniel 
 Webster in after 
 years, in speaking of 
 this custom of his father's, said, "if there be anything in my 
 style or thoughts worthy to be commended, the credit is due 
 to my parents for instilling into my mind an early love for 
 the Scriptures." So, following his father's example, Daniel 
 became a good reader himself. Often the men who came to 
 his father's mill would hitch their horses and say, "Let's 
 
 Daniel Webster, reading 
 
194 DANIEL WEBSTER 
 
 go in and hear little Dan read." Or the farmers on their way 
 to market would stop at Captain Webster's for the noon hour, 
 and while they rested under the shade of the trees, the little 
 boy would read to them some of the fine passages from the 
 Bible. 
 
 Webster said of his life at this time, " I read what I 
 could get to read, went to school w T hen I could, and when 
 not at school was a farmer's youngest boy, not good for 
 much, for want of health and strength, but expected to do 
 something." 
 
 Daniel's brother, Ezekiel, was two years older, and the 
 boys were very fond of each other. One day Mr. Webster, 
 returning after an absence from home, asked Ezekiel what 
 he had been doing. "Nothing, sir," the boy replied. "Well, 
 Daniel, what have you been doing?" "Helping Zeke, sir," 
 was the quick reply. 
 
 Another interesting story is told of Webster's boyhood 
 days. In those days some famous speech or document 
 like the Constitution or the Declaration of Independence 
 was sometimes printed on a handkerchief. One day at the 
 little village store at Salisbury, Daniel saw one of these 
 handkerchiefs with the Constitution printed on it. Eagerly 
 saving his pennies, he at last became its proud purchaser, 
 and from it learned most of the great document, of which, 
 in his maturer years, he was to be the ablest defender. 
 
 When Daniel was fourteen years old, his parents decided 
 to send him away to school. Although they were poor, their 
 ambition was to give him a college education. So in the spring 
 of 1796 he entered Phillips Academy at Exeter, New Hamp- 
 shire. The boy had never before been so far away from 
 home or in such close contact with boys from more prosperous 
 families. They made fun of him and of his clothes, little 
 
EDUCATION 195 
 
 realizing that he would become the greatest of them all. 
 This thoughtless ridicule made him so sensitive that when 
 his turn came to speak before the school he was too timid 
 and bashful to do so. Boys of to-day will sympathize with 
 him in his experience, of which he tells us: " Many a piece 
 did I commit to memory and rehearse in my room over and 
 over again. But when the day came, w T hen the school 
 collected, when my name was called and I saw all eyes 
 turned upon my seat, I could not raise myself from it." 
 But he did the rest of his school duties so well that he was 
 soon at the head of his class, and the other boys came to 
 respect him for his ability. 
 
 Mr. Webster was unable to keep his son long at Exeter, so 
 Daniel finished his college preparations under Dr. Wood, a 
 clergyman in a village near the Webster home. Here he did 
 not apply himself so closely to his books as he had at the 
 Academy, so that often his master had to chide him for spend- 
 ing too much time in hunting and fishing. One day, as a 
 punishment, Dr. Woods gave the boy one hundred lines of 
 Virgil to memorize. When the time came for his recitation, 
 Daniel had learned not only the task set for him but also four 
 hundred lines more. This pleased the master so much that 
 he said, " Well, Dan, you may have the rest of the day for 
 pigeon-shooting." 
 
 In the fall of 1797, Webster finished his preparation and 
 entered Dartmouth College, at Hanover, New Hampshire. 
 Here he read widely and thoughtfully, although he did not 
 take high rank in scholarship. Here also he overcame his 
 boyish timidity, and became one of the best speakers and 
 debaters in the college. He was graduated in 1801 and began 
 the study of law. But his brother Ezekiel, for whom Daniel 
 always had the deepest affection, wished also to have a college 
 
196 DANIEL WEBSTER 
 
 education. Ezekiel had done much to help him through 
 college, and he now saw an opportunity to repay this self- 
 sacrifice. So Daniel applied for and was appointed principal 
 of the Academy at Fryeburg, Maine. He was to have three 
 hundred and fifty dollars for his year's work, and with a part 
 of this money he could help pay his brother's expenses. 
 
 He was a successful teacher, and had a strong influence over 
 his pupils. Some of them in old age used to tell of the impres- 
 sive manner in which Webster offered the morning and eve- 
 ning prayers with which he always opened and closed his 
 school. Out of school hours, he used to earn money by copy- 
 ing deeds, and gave every dollar he could spare to his loyal 
 brother in college. 
 
 After Ezekiel had finished at Dartmouth, he went to Boston, 
 where he taught a private school. Here Daniel soon joined 
 him and aided in the school, at the same time pursuing his 
 law studies. Daniel was fortunate at this time in obtaining 
 a clerkship in the office of Christopher Gore, a famous lawyer 
 of Boston, from whom Gore Hall in the Harvard Law School 
 was afterwards named. Gore's aid to Webster was of great 
 value, and it was not long before the young man was admitted 
 to the bar. He began the practice of his profession in Bos- 
 cawen, a little town near his home, but two years later 
 removed to Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Here he soon 
 became a leader in the social and professional life of the city. 
 
 In 1 81 2 he was elected to Congress as a member from New 
 Hampshire, and from this time was a prominent figure in our 
 national life. 
 
 The generation of statesmen who had won our independence 
 and established a new nation were passing away, and a new 
 race of leaders were taking their places in the halls of Congress. 
 
 Among these young men of vigorous intellect and of strong 
 
ORATOR 
 
 IQ7 
 
 personality were John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, and 
 Henry Clay of Kentucky. With these men Webster became 
 associated, and it was not long before he was their equal in 
 statecraft and in debate. From the first he allied himself with 
 the Federalist party and advo- 
 cated its principles. He favored 
 a sound currency, a moderate 
 protective tariff, and internal 
 improvements at the expense of 
 the federal government. But he 
 opposed the War of 181 2 as un- 
 necessary and injurious to our 
 commerce. In the debates on 
 these subjects he often came in 
 conflict with Calhoun, who held 
 opposite views. 
 
 In 1 816 Webster moved from 
 Portsmouth to Boston, where he 
 built up a large and profitable law practice. The demands 
 of his profession compelled him to retire from public life for 
 a time, but in 1823 he was again elected to Congress, and for 
 thirty years represented Massachusetts almost continuously 
 either in the House of Representatives or in the Senate. The 
 period durjng which his greatest service was given to his 
 country's cause was one of political unrest. Old parties were 
 breaking up and new ones being formed, sectional feelings 
 were being aroused, and the question of slavery was widening 
 the breach between the northern and the southern states. 
 In these stormy times Daniel Webster stands conspicuous in 
 his loyalty to the Union. Indeed, during his long and honor- 
 able career, the thought nearest his heart, the thought to which 
 he gave his splendid abilities, was the integrity of the Union 
 13 
 
 John C. Calhoun 
 
 MAK. & DEF. 
 
198 
 
 DANIEL WEBSTER 
 
 and the sacredness of the Constitution. Love of country, 
 reverence for its institutions, and gratitude for its blessings 
 were the themes on which he loved to dwell and in behalf of 
 which he spoke most eloquently. 
 Not all of his speeches were delivered in the chambers 
 
 of Congress. As our foremost 
 American citizen, he was called 
 upon to address great assemblies, 
 or to be the orator at celebrations 
 of great events in our national 
 history. Such were his orations 
 at the laying of the corner stone 
 of the Bunker Hill monument, 
 and also at its dedication, and on 
 the two-hundredth anniversary 
 of the landing of the Pilgrims. 
 But it was in the fulfillment of 
 his duties as one of the country's 
 lawmakers, when the gaunt spec- 
 ter of secession was abroad, when 
 he felt that our very national existence was threatened, that he 
 reached the highest flights of oratory. 
 
 One of his speeches deserves more than passing mention. 
 The circumstances leading to its delivery were these. By an 
 act of Congress, a high protective tariff had been placed upon 
 goods brought into the United States from abroad. This 
 benefited the manufacturing states of New England, but was 
 not popular in the South. The people of that section 
 wished to buy their goods in the cheapest markets, and 
 these were the markets of Europe. The southern states- 
 men made the utmost effort to have Congress repeal the 
 tariff law, which they claimed Congress had no right to 
 
 
 Bunker Hill Monument 
 
SENATOR 199 
 
 pass in the first place. Failing in this, some of the states 
 even threatened to secede. The leaders in this disloyal 
 movement were Calhoun and Hayne, the Senators from 
 South Carolina. Their arguments were based upon the 
 doctrine of state rights; they claimed that a state might, 
 under certain circumstances, decide that a law of the federal 
 government was unconstitutional; that the state could then 
 nullify it, or refuse to allow its enforcement within bound- 
 aries of the state; and also that a state might secede, or 
 withdraw from the Union, whenever it liked. 
 
 Against this dangerous doctrine Webster opposed all the 
 force of his powerful intellect. He held that the Constitu- 
 tion had established a union of the states, — not a partnership 
 to be dissolved at will, — and that no state could refuse to 
 obey the laws of the nation. 
 
 The debates on the subject continued for a long time and 
 became increasingly bitter. Finally they culminated in an 
 attack by Mr. Hayne upon Massachusetts and upon Mr. 
 Webster personally. It was a masterly speech, and the friends 
 of the Union feared that it was unanswerable. Mrs. Webster 
 had heard the speech, and when her husband returned from 
 the Senate, she anxiously asked him if he could answer the 
 arguments. With almost a roar, Mr. Webster replied, "An- 
 swer him! I'll grind him to powder." He had only the one 
 night in which to prepare his answer, but, in another sense, 
 he was fully prepared. The Constitution had been his life 
 study; he understood his subject thoroughly, and had often 
 used similar arguments elsewhere. 
 
 • The next day, as he was entering the Senate chamber, a 
 friend said to him, "It is a critical moment. It is time, it 
 is high time, that the people of this country shall know what 
 this Constitution is." 
 
200 DANIEL WEBSTER 
 
 "Then," answered Webster, "by the blessing of Heaven 
 they shall learn, this day, before the sun goes down, what I 
 understand it to be." 
 
 On the eventful day, the galleries, floors, and even the stair- 
 ways of the Senate chamber . were crowded with people. 
 Even the House of Representatives was deserted while its 
 members eagerly came to hear the great orator. For hours, 
 Mr. Webster held his audience spellbound. With all the 
 power of his eloquence, with all the magnetism of his personal 
 presence, he appealed to the loyalty of his hearers. His voice, 
 now soft and musical, now deep and solemn, thrilled with the 
 majesty of his theme. He closed his oration with these 
 sublime words: 
 
 "When my eyes shall be turned to behold for the last 
 time the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the 
 broken and dishonored fragments of a once glorious Union; 
 on states dissevered, discordant, belligerent; on a land rent 
 with civil feuds, or drenched, it may be, in fraternal blood! 
 
 "Let their last feeble and lingering glance rather behold 
 the gorgeous ensign of the republic, now known and honored 
 throughout the earth, still high advanced, its arms and tro- 
 phies streaming in their original luster, not a stripe erased or 
 polluted, not a single star obscured, bearing for its motto no 
 such miserable interrogatory as ' What is all this worth ? ' nor 
 those other words of delusion and folly, ' Liberty first and Union 
 afterwards'; but everywhere, spread all over in characters of 
 living light, blazing on all its ample folds as they float over the 
 sea and over the land, and in every wind under the whole 
 heavens, that other sentiment, dear to every American heart — 
 Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable!" 
 
 The effect of this splendid speech was wonderful. It 
 voiced the loyalty of the North. It was read everywhere. It 
 
SENATOR 
 
 20I 
 
 was memorized and spoken by thousands of boys in northern 
 schoolhouses. It was understood by the humblest voters. 
 Without doubt this and other great speeches of Webster 
 contributed largely to the moral strength and courage of the 
 "boys in blue" during the long years of the Civil War. 
 
 Webster had not only the mighty intellect and the musical 
 voice of a great orator, but he had 
 also an impressive physical pres- 
 ence. He was, in youth, tall and 
 slender, with dark eyes which 
 seemed fairly to burn beneath the 
 heavy brows; Carlyle called them 
 "dull anthracite furnaces needing 
 only to be blown." In his ma- 
 turer years his stately form filled 
 out; he was nearly six feet tall. 
 His head was massive, and a 
 broad, deep brow indicated the 
 mental strength beneath. A 
 sailor who saw him walking in the 
 streets of Liverpool, England, said, 
 Wendell Phillips tells the story of his attending a Whig con- 
 vention at a time when that party seemed about to disband. 
 Rising in his seat, Webster said, " Gentlemen, I am a W T hig, 
 a constitutional Whig, a Massachusetts Whig, a Faneuil Hall 
 Whig, and if you break up the Whig party, where, sirs, am I 
 to go?" "And," says Phillips, "we all held our breath won- 
 dering where he could go. If he had been five feet three we 
 should have said, 'who cares where you go.'" 
 
 Like Clay, Webster had a worthy ambition to serve his 
 country in the highest office within the gift of the people. 
 Twice the nomination of his party for President seemed within 
 
 Daniel Webster 
 
 "There goes a king." 
 
202 DANIEL WEBSTER 
 
 his grasp, and twice it escaped him only to be given to men 
 whose chief claim for distinction was their military renown. 
 The cause of his defeat the second time was undoubtedly due 
 to the position he took in supporting the Compromise of 1850. 
 
 One of the provisions of that famous bill was with refer- 
 ence to the return of slaves who had escaped from their 
 owners. This unjust measure provided that an escaped 
 negro could be arrested and, without a jury trial or an oppor- 
 tunity to testify in his own behalf, could be returned to the 
 person who claimed to be his owner. Sometimes, in its 
 operation, even free negroes were kidnaped and carried back 
 to slavery. This fugitive slave law was most unpopular in 
 the North, and many people secretly aided runaway slaves in 
 escaping to Canada. 
 
 When Webster spoke in favor of this law he deeply offended 
 his northern supporters. They felt that he had deserted the 
 cause and the ideals of a lifetime. But we can see more 
 clearly than our fathers did that the judgment then passed 
 upon him was unjust; that his course at that time, as well as 
 at all others, was guided by his love for the Union; that his 
 object was peace and the burying of all sectional antagonism 
 between the North and the South. He saw clearly that this 
 attitude would alienate his friends, but he felt his duty to his 
 country was greater than his desire to be President. His 
 political career soon ended, and he retired to his home at 
 Marshfield, Massachusetts, a broken old man. 
 
 At Marshfield, Webster hoped to find rest and comfort in 
 his old age. His home was a beautiful estate with its lawns 
 sloping gently to the sea. Here for years, he had been accus- 
 tomed to come when wearied with affairs of state, and here 
 he had lived the simple life of a farmer among his neighbors 
 and friends. 
 
COMPROMISE OF 1850 203 
 
 He retained his boyhood love for nature, and would often 
 be found wading the trout brooks in the vicinity, or sailing on 
 the bay in front of his house. He was fond of his cattle, and 
 prided himself on having the finest oxen in the state. 
 
 In May, 1852, while driving, he was thrown from his 
 carriage and severely injured. The wear and tear of half 
 a century of public life left him no reserve of strength, and 
 he failed rapidly. During his last illness, he suffered greatly 
 from sleeplessness. He had a little boat on the pond back 
 of his house, and by his orders an American flag was run up 
 to the masthead and lighted at night by a ship lantern, so 
 that his sleepless hours were comforted by the sight of the 
 flag he loved. Feeling that his earthly career was soon to 
 be finished, he awaited the end with Christian courage. 
 Always a believer in God and in the divinity of Christ, he 
 desired to leave some enduring record of his faith. Accord- 
 ingly, he prepared an inscription for his monument which 
 reads, in part: 
 
 "The Sermon on the Mount cannot be a merely human 
 production. This belief enters into the very depth of my 
 conscience. The whole history of man proves it. 
 
 " Dan'l Webster." 
 
 On the evening of the 23rd of October, 1852, he died, 
 mourned by a whole nation. In his lifetime he had been 
 very close to the hearts of the people, and they came from far 
 and near to pay their last tribute of respect to his memory. 
 One old man, bending over the casket, said pathetically, 
 "The world without you, Daniel Webster, will be lonesome." 
 
 In thinking of Daniel Webster, always remember his 
 manliness and courtesy. In a time when political antago- 
 nisms were bitter, when personal feeling ran high, Webster 
 never forgot that he was a gentleman. Though attacked, 
 
204 DANIEL WEBSTER 
 
 and sometimes insulted by the press or by political opponents, 
 he replied, if at all, with moderation. In the arrangement of 
 his speeches for publication, he directed the omission of all 
 passages in which he had spoken severely of others, even when 
 those references were justly provoked by unfair attacks on 
 his integrity as a man. He was indeed a great American, 
 and the strength of our united nation is due to-day, in a 
 large measure, to his eloquent defense of the Constitution 
 and to his patriotic devotion to his country. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Webster's rank as an orator. Webster's early 
 home; New England ancestry; father and mother. His school and 
 college days; love for his brother Ezekiel. Public career, as member 
 of Congress and United States Senator. The Webster-Hayne debate; 
 Webster as an orator; personal appearance. His attitude on the com- 
 promise measures of 1850; loss of friends; return to private life; home 
 at Marshfield; death. Traits of character. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Describe Daniel Webster's parents. II. How 
 did Daniel acquire his love for reading? for outdoor sports? III. Tell 
 the story of Daniel's school days. IV. Who were the leading men in 
 Congress during Webster's time? V. What were Webster's political 
 views? VI. Name some of Webster's great speeches. VII. Describe 
 the events leading up to his "Reply to Hayne." VIII. Describe Web- 
 ster's personal appearance. IX. What is there in his character that you 
 admire? X. How does Webster rank as an orator? XI. What was his 
 influence upon the political life of the United States? 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Franklin (Salisbury), and Hanover, N. H.; 
 Portsmouth; Boston; Marshfield (p. 60). 
 
 Memory Selection. — Last paragraph of the "Reply to Hayne." 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 Biography. — Baldwin, "Four Great Americans," pp. 125-186; 
 Brooks, "Century Book of Famous Americans," pp. 37-48; Hart and 
 Chapman, "How Our Grandfathers Lived," pp. 28-31, 341-344. 
 
INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS 
 
 After the Revolutionary War was over and the new gov- 
 ernment was established, men began to give more attention 
 to industrial questions. The country was in debt, and the 
 taxes were necessarily heavy. Men tried to devise methods 
 by which labor could be lightened and at the same time 
 could bring greater profits. It is often called the period of 
 inventions. Certainly some very important inventions were 
 made in the last years of the eighteenth and the first part of 
 the nineteenth centuries. Such inventions are quite as im- 
 portant events in history as wars and elections, for in- 
 ventions modify life and work, and history is really a 
 record of the life and the work of the people of a nation. 
 
 Eli Whitney and the Cotton Gin 
 
 Eli Whitney was born in Massachusetts in 1765, so he 
 was ten years old when the battle of Lexington was fought. 
 His father was a small farmer. He also had a workshop, and 
 in the winter made wheels and chairs, and did odd jobs of 
 mending tools for his neighbors. The young boy liked to 
 play in the shop. He not only learned readily the use of 
 tools, but showed unusual mechanical genius. 
 
 Once when Eli was twelve years old, his father was away 
 from home for two or three days, during which time Eli made 
 a fiddle. It was examined by many people, who pronounced 
 it an excellent piece of work for a boy. The story is also 
 
 told that about this time he took his father's watch to pieces 
 
 205 
 
2o6 ELI WHITNEY 
 
 and put it together again. He understood its mechanism so 
 well that it kept as good time afterward as before, and his 
 father knew nothing about it until some years later, when the 
 boy told what he had done. 
 
 At thirteen, Eli made some good knives. He was then 
 repeatedly called upon by the family and by the neighbors to 
 do all sorts of repairing of furniture, kitchen utensils, and 
 farm tools. During the Revolutionary War, nails were 
 very scarce. When fifteen years old, Eli told his father 
 that he would make nails if the iron could be furnished. 
 He turned out good nails made by hand, which were in 
 such demand that he was obliged to employ extra help. 
 When the war was over, making nails was no longer profit- 
 able, so he turned his attention to the making of hat pins. 
 The ladies were delighted, for his hat pins were better and 
 cheaper than those in common use. 
 
 He saved the money earned in these ways to go to college. 
 In the fall of 1789 he entered Yale, and was graduated in 
 1792, at the age of twenty-seven. He went to the South to 
 teach, and soon became acquainted with the widow of Gen- 
 eral Nathanael Greene, who was living at Mulberry Grove, 
 near Savannah. Whitney was disappointed in his teaching 
 venture, and Mrs. Greene offered him a home until he should 
 find something to do. He made himself very useful in help- 
 ing the children with their lessons, and in making and mend- 
 ing many things with great ingenuity. 
 
 From the time of the earliest settlements in the South, cot- 
 ton had been raised. Recent inventions in England had in- 
 creased the rapidity of spinning and weaving, and all the 
 cotton raised found ready market, but the cost of cotton cloth 
 was as great as that of silk cloth because of the difficulty of 
 separating the cotton seed from the fiber. The fluffy white 
 
THE COTTON GIN 
 
 207 
 
 ball containing the cotton is called a boll, and sprinkled 
 through it are the seeds of the cotton. Negro women were 
 usually employed for removing these seeds, and the average 
 day's work was the cleaning of one pound of cotton. The 
 most skillful workman 
 could clean no more than 
 four or five pounds in a 
 day, or a bale in three 
 months. 
 
 Some guests at Mrs. 
 Greene's were discussing 
 the question, when Mrs. 
 Greene suggested that 
 Mr. Whitney might be 
 able to find some easier 
 and quicker way of re- 
 moving the seeds; "for," 
 said she, "he can make 
 anything." He was 
 pleased with the idea, 
 and eagerly set to work. 
 He first made a careful 
 study of the cotton boll, 
 noting the number, size, 
 and quality of the seeds. 
 He then worked out the 
 general idea of the cotton 
 gin, which he first made 
 on a small scale. 
 
 He needed wire, but the kind he wanted could not be 
 purchased in Savannah. Travel was too slow to send North, so 
 he drew his own wire. Necessary tools also had to be made. 
 
 Eli Whitney at Work 
 
208 
 
 ELI WHITNEY 
 
 But he kept steadily at work and overcame all such obstacles. 
 He was encouraged and helped by a neighbor, Mr. Miller, 
 who was also a Yale graduate. 
 
 Late in the winter of 1793 the model was completed; it 
 was tested and worked well. The machine consisted of 
 two cylinders four feet long mounted on a strong frame. 
 Around one of these cylinders, which was five inches in 
 
 diameter, were saws set 
 one half inch apart, ris- 
 ing two inches from the 
 surface of the cylinder. 
 As this cylinder revolved, 
 the saws passed through 
 corresponding slits too 
 small for the seeds. The 
 other cylinder had rows 
 of stiff brushes. The cot- 
 ton was put into a hopper 
 where it was met by the 
 saw-teeth on the revolv- 
 ing cylinder and torn from 
 the seeds, then swept from 
 the teeth into a receptacle 
 by the stiff brushes. 
 Whitney and his friend 
 Miller formed a partnership to get a patent, and to manu- 
 facture and sell the machines. In great excitement men came 
 to see the machine, but if it was to be patented it must not 
 be shown. Some one broke into the workshop and stole one 
 of the models. Then imitations appeared in various places, 
 which caused Whitney a great deal of trouble. In fact, he 
 never received just reward for his great invention. 
 
 The Cotton Gin 
 (A) Whitney's Original Gin; (B) A Later Form 
 
THE COTTON GIN 200, 
 
 The cotton gin was a great gift to the southern states. It 
 could be operated by one man and clean in one day 1000 
 pounds of cotton. Later, by using horse power, 5000 or 
 6000 pounds could be cleaned in one day. That is, it multi- 
 plied a man's labor a thousandfold. This led every one to 
 raise cotton. Much of the work could be done by women and 
 children and unskilled slave labor. Immediately, there was 
 a great increase in the demand for slaves in all the cotton 
 states. 
 
 In a way, we can trace a direct connection between the 
 invention of the cotton gin and the Civil War. The cotton 
 gin on the other hand brought great prosperity, not only to 
 the South but to the whole United States. It made cotton 
 cloth cheaper, and in that way all poor people were benefited. 
 
 Eli Whitney never personally profited by the invention, 
 but later he made a large fortune in the manufacture of 
 firearms. The best muskets used in the War of 1812 came 
 from Whitney's manufacturing establishment at New Haven, 
 Connecticut. He died in that city in January, 1825, honored 
 not only by all who knew him but by the country at large. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Boyish ingenuity. Education; life in the South. 
 Limits to profitable cotton raising. The cotton gin. The importance 
 of the gin. Whitney did not profit by the invention. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Describe cotton growing, picking, and clean- 
 ing. II. Describe in your own words the machine and how it worked. 
 
 Elias Howe 
 
 Methods of sewing are as old as clothing itself. What- 
 ever the skin or fabric used, it had to be shaped and sewed in 
 order to cover the body. To us of the twentieth century, it 
 seems strange that for thousands of years no one found a way 
 easier than sewing by hand; for the sewing machine was 
 
2IO ELIAS HOWE 
 
 not used till about 1850. There are men living to-day who 
 knew the inventor, Elias Howe. 
 
 The first sewing was doubtless done by drawing a string 
 or fibrous thread through holes punched in the fabric. The 
 next step required a needle. This was first made of bone, and 
 later of ivory. It was not until comparatively modern times 
 that needles were made of steel. But even when a fine sharp 
 needle and smooth thread had been found, the labor of 
 making garments was very hard. Hood's poem was true of 
 many a woman. 
 
 "With fingers weary and worn, 
 With eyelids heavy and red, 
 A woman sits in unwomanly rags, 
 Plying her needle and thread — 
 Stitch! Stitch! Stitch! 
 In poverty, hunger, and dirt." 
 
 Unsuccessful efforts had been made before that of Howe, but 
 the machines we use to-day are practically all outgrowths of 
 his invention. 
 
 Elias Howe was born in Spencer, Massachusetts, in 1819. 
 He was one of eight children, all of whom had to go to work 
 when quite young. He was never very strong, and that may 
 explain why he was always trying to find an easier way to do 
 his work than to obey orders. Such a disposition, however, 
 has led to other great inventions. 
 
 He married at twenty-one, and found it very difficult to pro- 
 vide for his family on a dollar and a half a day. His young wife 
 early took in sewing to help with the expenses. In the 
 evening, after the children were put to bed, Howe used to 
 lie on the couch, exhausted from his own day's work, and 
 watch his wife sew. It grieved him, for he knew that her 
 day, too, had been hard. It was then that his mind began 
 
THE SEWING MACHINE 
 
 211 
 
 to work out a plan for making sewing easier. In less than 
 a year he had made a rude machine in which the needle 
 was made to work in imitation of hand sewing. He saw 
 that the method was clumsy, and decided that two threads 
 must be run together. He then experimented with two 
 needles, but later devised a shuttle to carry the lower 
 thread, and a needle with the eye in the point to carry the 
 upper thread. The first 
 model on this plan was 
 patented in 1845. 
 
 The year and a half 
 of experimenting had 
 brought with it great 
 sacrifice and suffering. 
 His wages were small. 
 He had three children. 
 His health was poor. 
 The only time he could 
 spare was at night after 
 his day's work was over. 
 Every bit of wire or wood 
 needed cost money. But still Elias Howe did not give up. 
 Finally a friend named Fisher, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, 
 lent him $500 and gave him the use of his shop. This was 
 a great favor, and Howe's final success was largely due to 
 this generosity. 
 
 Like so many other inventors, Howe suffered through the 
 ignorance of the very people who would be benefited by the 
 invention. He first offered it to the tailors of Boston. They 
 would have nothing to do with the machine, and declared it 
 would ruin their business. For over a year, he and Mr. 
 Fisher tried to get people to use it, but all kinds of workmen 
 
 Howe's First Sewing Machine 
 
212 ELIAS HOWE 
 
 stubbornly refused. Finally, Howe went to England, and for 
 eight months worked for an umbrella maker, who proved 
 such a hard master that Howe decided to return home. He 
 was obliged to pawn the model of his sewing machine to 
 get money to pay his passage, and he reached America 
 with only a dollar in his pocket. He found his wife very 
 ill, and a few days later she died. 
 
 It was not until 1854, ten years after he made his first 
 machine, that fortune began to favor him. The ignorance of 
 the people had been overcome. The machine was adapted to 
 stitching leather as well as both heavy and light weight 
 fabrics. Many improvements such as hemmers, tuckers, 
 etc., were added both by himself and by others. About 
 three hundred modifications were patented between 1858 
 and 1867. After Howe became prosperous, he helped many 
 struggling inventors. When he died, at the age of forty- 
 eight, he was not only a very rich man, but was honored 
 by the people of both Europe and America. 
 
 The sewing machine has been a great benefit to society. 
 It has been adapted to a great variety of uses. It is easier and 
 quicker to operate a machine than to sew by hand. This 
 has so multiplied the output that whatever has been made by 
 machine is much cheaper. So not only the immediate work- 
 men, but every man, woman, and child has been benefited by 
 the sewing machines. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 Biography. — Mowry, "American Inventions and Inventors," 
 pp. 148-152; Hubert, "Inventors," pp. 69-99, 99 -III 5 Williams, 
 "Some Successful Americans," pp. 147-153. 
 
COMMERCE AND TRAVEL 
 
 Robert Fulton and the Steamboat 
 
 In the early days, travel either by land or by water was a 
 slow process. A journey of days or weeks on foot was not 
 unusual. The only other ways of land travel were by horse- 
 back or by stagecoach. Horses on the roads in this new 
 country could rarely make forty miles a day. The easier 
 •mode of travel, of course, was by water, and for that reason 
 the new settlements were planted on the coast or on rivers. 
 Canoes, made of light frames covered with bark or skins, 
 were used on the small streams for short distances. Large 
 boats were dependent on the wind. The early explorers 
 had many sad experiences in being windbound. Drake's 
 ship was once becalmed just off the harbor of Lima, and 
 the ships of the Jamestown colony were held in sight of 
 England for several weeks because of adverse winds. 
 
 The Mayflower was nine weeks in crossing the Atlantic, 
 and ten years later the Massachusetts Bay colonists were 
 seventy-six days in traveling a distance that can to-day 
 be covered in six days or less. This great change has come 
 about largely through the work and genius of Robert Fulton. 
 
 Robert Fulton was born in Lancaster County, Pennsyl- 
 vania, the same year that Eli Whitney was born. His parents 
 were genial, hard-working Irish people. When Robert was 
 three years of age, the father died, leaving a family of five 
 small children. The mother was a thrifty woman, and the 
 children were well cared for in spite of her very small income. 
 
 MAK. & DEF. — 14 213 
 
214 ROBERT FULTON 
 
 The boy went to school and learned the rudiments of reading, 
 writing, and arithmetic. He was not a brilliant pupil, but 
 certainly a very bright boy, interested in the life about him. 
 His mother went to the teacher one day and suggested that 
 he be given harder tasks and be required to study more. The 
 teacher replied that Robert himself had asserted that his 
 brain was so full of original ideas that there was no room for 
 the storage of the contents of dusty books. He was then ten 
 years old. 
 
 Like Whitney, he early showed mechanical genius. He 
 made his own lead pencils at the age of ten. When he was 
 thirteen, that is, in 1778, candles were so scarce in his home 
 town because of the war, that the village officers forbade- 
 their use for Fourth of July illumination. Young Fulton 
 invented a skyrocket as a substitute, saying that he would 
 illuminate the heavens instead of the streets. 
 
 He and another boy used to go fishing on the Conestoga 
 River, but they found " poling" a flat-bottomed boat hard 
 work. So they made a paddle wheel and fastened it to 
 the boat. This was made to revolve by turning a crank. 
 It worked well, and they considered it more satisfactory 
 than "poling." Such a paddle wheel was also applied 
 years later in Fulton's first steamboats. 
 
 As a young boy, he showed skill in drawing. A neighbor, 
 noticing this, gave him lessons in both drawing and paint- 
 ing. At seventeen, Fulton went to Philadelphia, where 
 in four years he earned enough money by painting pictures, 
 not only to pay for his lessons and support himself, but 
 also to buy a farm for his mother. The close application 
 to work, however, during those four years, had been bad 
 for his health. He showed symptoms of consumption, so 
 his friends advised him to go abroad for travel. 
 
THE STEAMBOAT 215 
 
 While in Philadelphia, he had become acquainted with 
 Franklin, who was now in France. His old neighbor, the 
 artist West, was living in England. Both men were fond 
 of young Fulton and urged his visiting Europe; so in 1786, 
 when he was twenty-one, he crossed the Atlantic. 
 
 Although he supported himself by painting pictures, 
 yet his mind moved and worked along lines of mechanical 
 thought. His first inventions were a machine for saw- 
 ing marble, one for spinning flax, and one for making 
 rope. 
 
 As Fulton was a boy during the days of the Revolutionary 
 War, he heard much about military affairs. He was early 
 familiar with all weapons, from the musket to the cannon, 
 and with methods of defense and attack. This probably 
 explains the fact that some of his early inventions were to 
 make warfare more effective. He invented cable cutters, 
 a torpedo, and a submarine or diving boat. The torpedo 
 consisted of an oval copper case, charged with gunpowder. 
 The explosion was regulated by clockwork that could 
 spring the lock and fire the charge. It was not very suc- 
 cessful in actual use, but the British were so afraid of it 
 that they avoided boats or harbors supplied with Fulton's 
 torpedoes. Fulton gave much thought to the construction 
 of a vessel that might move beneath the surface of the 
 water, — a submarine boat. He found difficulty in guiding 
 such a boat and in giving it sufficient speed. It was then 
 changed slightly, and was used as a diving boat to carry or 
 explode the torpedoes. 
 
 When Fulton was a little over thirty, while still in Europe, 
 his thoughts took another turn, and he became interested 
 in improving the means of travel and transportation. He 
 worked out several improvements for canal boats and locks. 
 
2l6 ROBERT FULTON 
 
 The steam engine was already known and used in many 
 places. Several men had tried experiments with boats to be 
 propelled by steam power. A man by the name of Fitch had 
 come nearer success than had any other man. The attempts 
 usually failed because the engine was too heavy for its motive 
 power. The first boats had paddles or oars on each side to 
 be moved or worked by the engine within. This was a 
 heavy and clumsy affair, and if the boat did move there was 
 little room left in it to carry anything. 
 
 When Robert Fulton became interested in the subject, he 
 introduced the paddle wheel which in his boyhood he had 
 found so useful on his old fishing boat. The steam engine 
 was used to turn this huge paddle wheel. The first boat of 
 the kind failed, for the timbers used in the boat proper were 
 not strong enough to hold the heavy machinery. The prin- 
 ciple was good, so when the boat was rebuilt and other 
 improvements were added, the result was a success. 
 
 Fulton had been fortunate in his friends. Franklin had 
 been of great help to him, and had made it possible for the 
 young American to meet many men of science in Paris. 
 But the best friend proved to be Robert Livingston, who 
 before going to France had been interested in the subject of 
 steam navigation. Livingston encouraged him and furnished 
 money during the days of experimentation with the steam- 
 boat on the Seine. 
 
 Fulton returned to America in the fall of 1806, and immedi- 
 ately secured a well-known shipbuilder to construct under 
 his direction the first successful American steamboat. 
 This ship, the Clermont, was finished in August, 1807. Few 
 men thought that a ship could be moved by steam power. 
 When the Clermont left the shipyard on the East River 
 and crossed over to the Jersey shore, a crowd of curious 
 
THE STEAMBOAT 
 
 217 
 
 people were ready to jeer at Fulton and his " folly," as it 
 was called. But instead of jeering, they were dumb with 
 surprise when they saw it glide swiftly away. 
 
 The first trip of the Clermont was from New York to 
 Albany. In a letter to a friend, Fulton wrote as follows: 
 "My steamboat voyage to Albany and back has turned out 
 rather more favor- ^ 
 able than I had cal- 
 culated. The dis- 
 tance from New 
 York to Albany is 
 150 miles. I ran it 
 up in thirty-two 
 hours and down in 
 thirty hours. The 
 power of propelling 
 boats by steam is 
 now fully proved." 
 Men who owned the 
 old-fashioned boats 
 tried to wreck the 
 new one, and in , 
 every way imagi- 
 nable sought to de- r 
 
 feat its Success. The Clermont, on its First Trip 
 
 In spite of all opposition, soon after the trial trip it was run 
 regularly between New York and Albany. Other boats were 
 built and put into service, so that a little later one left each city 
 each day. Steam ferryboats were soon constructed, and reg- 
 ular lines were established between New York and Brook- 
 lyn, and across the Hudson River. 
 
 But the great inventor did not live to see the crossing of 
 
 
2l8 ROBERT FULTON 
 
 the Atlantic accomplished by steam power. One stormy 
 winter's day he took a severe cold superintending some work 
 on a steam frigate, and a few days later, February 24, 181 5, 
 at the age of fifty, he died. 
 
 The first ocean steamer to cross the Atlantic was the 
 Savannah, in 1819. From year to year improvements were 
 made, and by 1840 steamship lines were running regularly 
 between Europe and America. To-day the ocean steamships 
 are floating palaces with electric lights and wireless tele- 
 graph facilities. The average ship can carry 1600 people — 
 some, as many as 3000, with a capacity of 10,000 tons of fuel 
 and cargo combined. Many of these ocean liners cross in 
 a week, the record time being about five days. Fulton 
 would probably not be surprised at this, for he fully be- 
 lieved in the almost unlimited possibilities of steam naviga- 
 tion. 
 
 In the fall of 1909, a celebration of two weeks was held 
 in New York and in the towns along the Hudson River in 
 honor of Fulton's invention. In the naval parade of this 
 celebration was an exact replica of the Clermont. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Boyhood ingenuity shown. Went to Phila- 
 delphia and worked as an artist. Went to Europe. Early inventions. 
 Steamboat experiments while in France. Clermont on the Hudson. 
 Later boats. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Imagine that you stood on the wharf when 
 the Clermont steamed away; tell why you were surprised. II. What 
 are some of the benefits of steam navigation? III. Why should a man, 
 who spends much time, hard work, and- money to make an invention, 
 be permitted for a time to control the manufacture and sale of the thing 
 invented ? 
 
 Map Work. — Locate (p. 60) Lancaster (the chief city of Lancaster 
 County, Pa.), Albany, New York; the Seine. 
 
THE ERIE CANAL 
 
 219 
 
 The Erie Canal — Clinton's Great Work 
 
 After the War of 1812 the territory north of the Ohio 
 River was rapidly settled. The land was fertile, and much 
 grain was raised for shipment to the East and to Europe. 
 But the expense of transportation greatly reduced the 
 profits. Much produce was sent down the Mississippi 
 and sold in New Orleans for export. With the money thus 
 gained some manufactured goods were bought and carried 
 back up the river; but others were secured from New York 
 or Philadelphia. Goods from Philadelphia were drawn by 
 teams along the Pennsylvania turnpike to Pittsburg, and 
 thence shipped down the Ohio. From New York goods 
 were shipped up the Hudson, then carted from Albany to 
 Buffalo over the Genesee turnpike, and again shipped on 
 Lake Erie. 
 
 These turnpikes were well-built roads kept in repair by 
 tolls collected along the route. At convenient intervals were 
 road houses, or inns, where teamsters could have meals or 
 stay over night, and get fresh horses. Transportation 
 companies controlled most of this work, and charged from 
 five to eight dollars a hundredweight for carrying freight 
 between Albany and Lake Erie. 
 
 The time required for this trip was about three weeks, but 
 in favorable weather it might fall a day or two short of 
 this. In going west, the load consisted of clothing, furni- 
 ture, tools, and manufactured articles of every description; 
 on the return trip all sorts of farm products were sometimes 
 carried. 
 
 For years men talked of a canal along the route of the 
 Genesee turnpike, as transportation by water had always 
 been cheaper than by land. As early as 1808 Judge Foreman, 
 
220 
 
 DE WITT CLINTON 
 
 one of the founders of Syracuse, New York, suggested in the 
 state legislature that a canal should be built connecting Lake 
 Erie and the Hudson River, and James Geddes was directed 
 to make a preliminary survey of the route. Later, the United 
 States Congress was asked to build such a canal, and when 
 they refused the people of New York were urged by De Witt 
 Clinton to undertake the work. He was made chairman of a 
 board of commissioners, and through his zeal the survey and 
 preparations were rapidly pushed. Ground was broken at 
 Rome, July 4, 181 7, and that fall Clinton was elected governor 
 of New York. The people who voted for him voted for the 
 
 Clia'itaiujbii.t. §/\-.JR Painted Post V^-^2^/? .fl"ji«"5il 
 
 The Erie Canal 
 
 canal, yet there was great opposition. He was ridiculed, 
 and the canal was called " Clinton's Big Ditch." 
 
 The Erie Canal is 363 miles long, and the original cost 
 was $9,000,000. Boats carrying freight are drawn by 
 horses or mules, but one team can draw a very much greater 
 load than is possible with wagons. As soon as the canal 
 was opened for traffic the freight charges were greatly 
 reduced. Before the canal was built it cost Si. 10 to carry 
 a bushel of wheat from western New York to New York 
 city, and the time taken to make the trip was about three 
 weeks. After its completion the freight rate was reduced 
 
THE ERIE CANAL 221 
 
 to forty cents a bushel and the time shortened to less than 
 a week. The rate now is less than three cents a bushel. 
 
 Water entered the Erie Canal October 26, 1825, and on 
 that day a flotilla of gayly decked boats with distinguished 
 men on board left Buffalo. The news was sent to New York 
 in an hour and twenty minutes by the firing of cannon placed 
 at intervals along the route. It may be of interest to know 
 that many of the cannon were those captured by Perry in the 
 battle of Lake Erie. The boat of honor in the flotilla was 
 called the Seneca ChieJ, and was drawn by four white horses. 
 Another boat was known as Noah's Ark; it had on board a 
 bear, a deer, eagles, various other birds, and two Seneca 
 Indians in native dress. All along the way crowds of 
 people cheered as the gay procession passed. At Albany, 
 the travelers left the boats and went to the capitol, where 
 speeches were made. In the evening there was a grand 
 illumination in the city and at the water front. 
 
 The next day the journey was resumed, and in twenty- four 
 hours they had reached New York. Steamboats were used 
 on the river, and some of the canal boats were towed by these. 
 The flotilla was joined at New York by many pleasure 
 boats, and they sailed down the bay to Sandy Hook, where 
 the final ceremonies were to be performed. November 4 
 was the wedding day of Lake Erie and the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 On board the Seneca Chief was a handsomely painted keg 
 of water from Lake Erie. This Governor Clinton lifted into 
 full view of the multitude of people, and poured its contents 
 into the Atlantic, saying: "This solemnity at this place, on the 
 first arrival of vessels from Lake Eric, is intended to com- 
 memorate the navigable communication which has been 
 accomplished between our 'Mediterranean' seas and the 
 Atlantic." A salute was fired, and other demonstrations 
 
222 
 
 DE WITT CLINTON 
 
 tSUEhOhT. 
 
 Ceremonies in New York Bay 
 
 expressed the satisfaction of the people. The company then 
 returned to New York city, where everybody was enjoying a 
 holiday. A great street parade had lasted all day, and in the 
 evening a banquet was held. The punch bowl used at this 
 banquet is to-day in the City Hall of New York. 
 
 The Erie Canal has returned to the people of the state 
 many times the cost of its construction and maintenance. 
 It turned the vast trade of the West toward New York 
 city. All points along the line were benefited. The cities 
 of Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse, and Albany grew very 
 rapidly, and scores of thriving manufacturing towns sprang 
 up along the banks of the canal. The central New York 
 farmers were furnished a cheap means of marketing their 
 produce. Passenger packets were a great improvement 
 over the old stagecoaches for long distance travel. Soon, 
 however, the railroads displaced them, for travel by rail was 
 soon discovered to be much quicker. 
 
THE ERIE CANAL 223 
 
 To-day, people are interested in a barge canal, that is, 
 one that will be deep enough to allow the lake steamers to 
 pass through to New York, thus saving much expense in 
 trans-shipment. Heavy freight, such as lumber and coal, 
 is still carried on canal boats, but all perishable products 
 and all fast freight go by rail. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Old route from the West to the seaboard. Gene- 
 see turnpike. De Witt Clinton believed that a canal should follow this 
 route. State decided to build it. Completed October, 1825. Cere- 
 mony at Sandy Hook. Benefits of the canal. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Write a paragraph to show that Ohio and 
 Indiana were benefited as much as New York by the Erie Canal. 
 II. Write a paper either for or against the barge canal. 
 
 Map Work. — Trace the route of the Erie Canal and locate the promi- 
 nent cities on the canal. 
 
 George Stephenson and the Steam Railway 
 
 While Robert Fulton's application of steam power to 
 travel by water had been a great blessing, there was still 
 need for improved methods of travel by land. Many men 
 believed that in time steam would be used for this purpose, 
 but the question was, how. Railroads had been used for 
 various purposes for years. Such railroads consisted simply 
 of a track; first the rails were of wood, and later of iron. 
 Horses were used to draw wagons whose wheels fitted the 
 rails. 
 
 Steam engines had become useful for various kinds of 
 work. It simply remained for some one to combine these 
 elements into some practical form for travel and transporta- 
 tion. The person who did this was the Englishman, George 
 Stephenson. 
 
 He was born in Northumberland, England, in June, 1781* 
 
224 GEORGE STEPHENSON 
 
 His father was a poor laborer in a coal mine, and had a large 
 family of children. Each boy had to go to work at an 
 early age, to help support himself and the younger children. 
 At first, George earned about four cents a day watching 
 cows, then he hoed turnips for sixteen cents a day. But 
 such work did not last long at a time, so his father got 
 a place for George as engine boy at the mine. At fifteen, he 
 was made fireman. He liked the work and loved his engine 
 so well that he did not want to leave it when working hours 
 were over. The engine seemed like something alive. Its 
 power fascinated the boy. While still a fireman he is said 
 to have taken the engine all apart and put it together again. 
 He was often asked to help the engineers at work on engines 
 out of repair. All this prepared the way for his next pro- 
 motion, when he became an engineer. 
 
 He was a thrifty boy, saving money even on very small 
 wages. Evenings after his day's work was over, he mended 
 shoes and cleaned watches. His school days had been very 
 few, and during the years from seventeen to twenty he used 
 every spare minute for study. Often he had a book open be- 
 side him at his engine, or in the evening while mending shoes. 
 He showed great readiness in mathematics and science. 
 
 In 1814 a prize was offered for the invention of a safety 
 lamp for miners. Stephenson knew the life of miners and 
 knew well its dangers. He began to experiment, and soon 
 devised a good safety lamp and offered it to the committee. 
 But just about the same time, Humphry Davy did the 
 same thing, and the prize went to Davy. Both of their 
 lamps, with slight changes, are used in mines all over the 
 world to-day. 
 
 For several years Stephenson had put much time and his 
 best thought or? the question of travel by steam power on 
 
THE STEAM RAILWAY 
 
 225 
 
 land. In 1814 he built his first locomotive. The machinery 
 
 of a steam engine for drawing cars on a railroad must be 
 
 arranged as compactly as possible. The boiler, which was 
 
 erect in most engines of the day, he put in a horizontal 
 
 position. His most serious problem was how to get up enough 
 
 fire in the space that he could allow for a fire box. The first 
 
 locomotive he built could produce only steam enough to draw 
 
 itself. He studied this 
 
 in operation and hit 
 
 upon the "steam 
 
 blast" idea. That is, 
 
 he used the escaping 
 
 steam to create a 
 
 strong draft for the 
 
 fire. It is this that 
 
 causes the puffing of ng y 
 
 an engine so familiar to us all. That engine of his was named 
 
 " Puffing Billy. " Puffing Billy had a drawing power of double 
 
 its own weight at a speed of twelve miles an hour. It is the 
 
 perfecting of this device that has made it possible to reduce 
 
 the height of smokestacks on locomotives. 
 
 There were still many difficulties in the way. Stephenson 
 needed money, which he did not have. Before a railroad 
 can be built, the privilege must be gained from the govern- 
 ment, and the right of way must be granted by the people 
 who own the land along which the road is to go. All classes 
 of people tried to prevent the giving of these privileges. 
 Writers in papers and magazines were against him. One 
 said, "What can be more absurd than the prospect held 
 out of locomotives traveling twice as fast as stagecoaches? 
 We should as soon expect the people to suffer themselves 
 to be fired off upon a rocket as to trust themselves 
 
2 26 GEORGE STEPHENSON 
 
 to the mercy of such a machine going at the rate of twelve 
 miles an hour." Another said, "It is certainly all over with 
 England, if she will allow herself to be converted into a 
 gridiron and covered with tea kettles." Writers also 
 declared that locomotives would kill the birds, prevent 
 cows from grazing and hens from laying, burn houses, and 
 cause the extinction of the race of horses. 
 
 Stephenson was called a maniac by some and a villain by 
 others, — a maniac, because no sane man could think such a 
 thing possible; a villain, because no honest man would so 
 deceive the public. 
 
 Much of the surveying for the first road had to be done at 
 night, because respectable people, as well as others, would 
 attack the men and prevent their working. The Stockton and 
 Darlington Company was the first organized, and Stephenson 
 was made engineer of construction. It was slow work, for the 
 grading, track laying, and locomotive building were all under 
 this one man's supervision. He was three years at work 
 on this line of eight miles. One of the company became 
 impatient and said to him one day, "George, you must 
 get on with this railway faster and have it done by the first 
 of January." 
 
 "It is impossible," said Stephenson. 
 
 "Impossible!" exclaimed the man, "I wish I could get 
 Napoleon at you. He would tell you that there is no such 
 word." 
 
 "Don't speak to me of Napoleon. Give me men, money, 
 and materials, and I will do what Napoleon couldn't do — 
 drive a railroad train from Liverpool to Manchester over 
 Chat Moss!" replied Stephenson. 
 
 The first trip was made in September, 1825. Stephenson 
 was in the engine as engineer. The train consisted of six 
 
THE STEAM RAILWAY 227 
 
 wagons loaded with coal and flour, three coaches with the 
 officers of the road, besides carriages having six hundred 
 passengers crowded in and hanging on the outside. The 
 speed was from four to six miles an hour. The next trip 
 was made at fourteen miles an hour. This first run of eight 
 miles proved to the public that steam travel by land was a 
 success. 
 
 Just after this trial trip a dinner was given to the great 
 engineer, at which he made a speech, saying: "Now I will tell 
 you that I think you will live to see the day when railroads 
 will supersede all other methods of conveyance in this country; 
 when mail coaches will go by railway, and railroads will 
 become the great highway for the king and all his subjects. 
 The time will come when it will be cheaper for a working 
 man to travel on a railway than to walk on foot." 
 
 George Stephenson for twenty years sacrificed personal 
 comfort, worked hard, endured ridicule and bitter charges 
 from his enemies to bring about better means of travel on 
 land. He succeeded, and when he declined the offer of 
 knighthood, he said success was reward enough for him. 
 
 He built a great locomotive factory at Newcastle, and 
 became a rich man. His son Robert continued the work 
 and made many improvements on the early engines. 
 
 America was not far behind England in railroad making. 
 In 1828 the Baltimore and Ohio Company began to build a 
 line, and two years later passengers were carried. Mean- 
 while, the people of New York were becoming interested in 
 this new method of travel, and in 1831 the Mohawk and 
 Hudson Railroad began to carry passengers between Albany 
 and Schenectady. The rails were at first wooden stringers 
 covered on the top with iron straps, and it was not until 
 some years later that all-iron rails were used. The first 
 
228 
 
 GEORGE STEPHENSON 
 
 locomotive in service on this road was called the "De Witt 
 Clinton." A part of its driving wheel is in the possession 
 of the Transportation Club in New York city. Other roads 
 were soon built in the state; one extending from New York 
 to Chatham on the eastern side of the Hudson River, others 
 along the western bank of this river in the direction of 
 Albany. These different roads gradually came under one 
 management, and are now divisions of the great New York 
 Central system. The first locomotives were brought from 
 England, but before Jong those made in America were pre- 
 ferred. In 1835 America had twenty- three railroads and 
 over 1000 miles of track. 
 
 Early locomotives were usually personified, and instead 
 
 of numbers were given names, as, "Puffing Billy," "John 
 
 Bull," and " The Best Friend of Charleston." They 
 
 appear to have been chiefly smokestack and a little 
 
 boiler. The most appar- 
 ent change since has been 
 a great reduction of the 
 former and enlargement of 
 the latter. The cab for the 
 fireman and engineer has 
 been added in place of the 
 platform on which they 
 formerly used to stand. 
 At first the cars were just like stagecoaches. Year by 
 year great improvements have been made in the cars, and 
 on some lines to-day one can enjoy all the luxury and con- 
 veniences of a perfectly furnished private house. As for 
 speed, little more can be asked when it is possible to go from 
 New York to Chicago, a distance of almost 1000 miles, in 
 eighteen hours, or to San Francisco in less than five days. 
 
 Early Locomotive 
 
THE STEAM RAILWAY 
 
 229 
 
 Topical Outline. — Boyhood of George Stephenson spent in the mines. 
 Became a fireman and an engineer. Built locomotives. The opposition 
 of the public. The trial trip; his prophecy; his great success. Early 
 railroads in America. Travel by rail to-day. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Make a list of all the benefits you enjoy 
 through the railroads. II. Describe your first ride on a train. 
 
 Map Work. — Trace the routes of the early railways in New York 
 state: Albany to Schenectady; New York to Chatham; New York to 
 Albany. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 History. — Earle, "Home Life in Colonial Days," pp. 325-328; 
 Earle, " Stage Coach and Tavern Days." 
 
 Biography. — Hubert, "Inventors," pp. 45-69; Mowry, "American 
 Inventions and Inventors," pp. 194-228; Hart and Chapman, "How 
 Our Grandfathers Lived," pp. 102-104. 
 
 Chaise 
 
 MAK. & DEF. — 15 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN, THE FIRST AMERICAN 
 Boyhood and Youth 
 
 Before the Revolutionary War was over, many hardy 
 frontiersmen and their families began to hnd their way 
 through the mountain passes of the Alleghenies and to 
 settle in the fertile country beyond. They were the van- 
 guard of a great army of pioneers who peopled the Mis- 
 sissippi valley. 
 
 Among these emigrants was a family whose name, in the 
 crude spelling of the times, was sometimes given as Linkhorn 
 and sometimes as Linckorn. From this family was descended 
 our great President, Abraham Lincoln, the man whom our 
 poet Lowell has called "the First American." He was born 
 in a rude log cabin and reared amid the humblest circum- 
 stances. Yet he reached the highest position of dignity and 
 honor, and is enshrined with Washington in the hearts of the 
 American people. 
 
 Abraham's father, Thomas Lincoln, was the son of a 
 prosperous Kentucky pioneer who came from Virginia as a 
 friend of Daniel Boone. 
 
 He purchased large tracts of land in the new country, and 
 
 was laying the foundation of an estate when he was killed by 
 
 the Indians. His property was left mainly to the oldest son, 
 
 and the youngest, Thomas, was left to shift for himself in a 
 
 young and undeveloped country. Thomas Lincoln had no 
 
 chance to get an education, but grew to be an honest and 
 
 temperate man. He had some skill as a carpenter, but was 
 
 230 
 
BOYHOOD 
 
 23 1 
 
 an indifferent farmer and seemed to care more for hunting 
 and for a wandering existence. Indeed, through all his life 
 he lacked ambition and the ability to conquer difficulties. 
 In 1806 he was married at Beachland, Kentucky, to Nancy 
 Hanks, a slender woman, of medium height, with dark hair 
 and hazel eyes. She is said to have been of a sensitive and 
 somewhat melancholy nature, qualities which her son Abra- 
 ham inherited. She was also a woman of native refinement 
 and of delicate instincts, a wild flower of the wilderness. 
 Unlike most of her pioneer neighbors, she knew how to read 
 and write, and taught her husband to write his name. 
 
 Soon after his marriage, Thomas Lincoln moved to some 
 land on Nolan Creek in Hardin County, and here on the 12 th 
 of February, 1809, his son Abraham was born. Very few 
 children to-day have houses as poor and as barren as the one 
 to which this little baby came. It was built of logs or poles 
 and was about fourteen feet square. The one room within 
 had to serve the fam- 
 ily for parlor, dining 
 room, bedroom, and 
 kitchen combined. 
 The floor had no car- 
 pet, but a bearskin 
 was laid down in cold 
 weather for the baby 
 to play on. At one 
 end of the room was 
 an open fireplace with 
 a huge chimney. Here Abraham's mother cooked their simple 
 meals. There was an abundance of game such as venison, 
 wild turkey, and pigeons, and these would be broiled over the 
 hot coais or boiled in a large iron kettle hanging from a crane 
 
 Lincoln's Birthplace 
 
232 ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
 
 over the fire. In the coals corn was roasted or corn cakes 
 baked. A few pots and kettles and pewter plates were all the 
 dishes they had. Their table was a board laid upon pegs 
 driven into the wall. A skin of some wild animal would be 
 hung across the doorway in cold weather to take the place of 
 a door. Their chairs were blocks of wood or three-legged 
 stools, and their bed was of poles covered with a bearskin. 
 
 As the little baby learned to walk and play about the 
 cabin, his mother made for him trousers of deerskin and a 
 little jacket and shirt of coarse tow cloth which she had 
 woven and spun. 
 
 In this simple and primitive life, Abraham grew to be a 
 sturdy boy. When he was four years old, his father moved to 
 Knob Creek, and three years later he moved again. This 
 time he crossed the Ohio and took up some land in Indiana 
 near Little Pigeon Creek, a few miles north of the Ohio 
 River. This was a wild and well-wooded region full of game, 
 and here Thomas Lincoln thought he would be content to 
 establish a home and rear a family. With little Abe's help 
 he built what was called a " half faced camp." It was only a 
 shed of poles, entirely open on one side. The crevices between 
 the poles were filled with leaves and clay mixed together, 
 while before the camp a great log fire was kept burning night 
 and day. 
 
 No road reached this rude home except the trail that 
 Lincoln blazed through the woods, and the nearest neighbors 
 were miles away. For a whole year they lived in this open 
 camp while some ground was being cleared and a little crop 
 planted. 
 
 During the year, Thomas Lincoln built a log cabin of 
 rough timber, without doors, floor, or windows. Into the 
 half finished house, the family moved the next autumn. 
 
BOYHOOD 233 
 
 They had the roughest of furniture. A log smoothed on one 
 side was used as a table; the bedsteads were made of poles 
 fastened to the wall and resting on forked sticks; the chairs 
 were log blocks roughly hewn. As in the Kentucky home, 
 there was a fireplace where the simple meals were prepared. 
 The cabin had been built high, so that there was room in 
 the loft. Little Abe's bed was in the loft, and each night 
 he climbed a ladder made of pegs driven into the logs. 
 His bed was not like those to which children to-day are 
 used, for it was made in the rudest fashion with leaves or 
 straw instead of springs, and with the skins of wild animals 
 for coverings. But the little boy, nevertheless, slept 
 soundly, for his life in the open air, clearing the land or 
 tilling the corn, made him so tired at night that any shelter 
 seemed sweet. 
 
 When Abraham was nine years old, a great sorrow came into 
 his life. His mother, worn out by the privations and hard- 
 ships of this frontier life, fell an easy prey to the malaria 
 common in a new country. Her death, away from her child- 
 hood home, with no friends near except her own family, 
 seemed doubly sad. In a rough coffin which Thomas Lin- 
 coln made from green lumber, she was buried near their 
 cabin. There was no minister to read the burial service, and 
 only the autumn wild flowers to cover the humble grave. 
 Something of the loneliness of this touched little Abe's heart 
 as he grieved for his gentle and patient mother. He thought 
 of a friend who was a wandering preacher in their old home 
 in Kentucky, and he wrote to this friend, whose name was 
 David Elkin, asking him to come to Indiana and preach 
 his mother's funeral sermon. So it was that some months 
 later, David Elkin spoke a few words of comfort above 
 the grave of Lincoln's mother. 
 
234 ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
 
 But there was soon to come into Abraham's life a woman 
 of a stronger nature, who had much to do with shaping 
 the character of the growing boy. This woman was Sarah 
 Johnson, a widow whom Thomas Lincoln married a few 
 months after the death of his first wife. She braced up her 
 shiftless husband, and made him complete the cabin which 
 he had left half-finished so long. She was a blessing to the 
 forlorn little family. With her accustomed thrift and 
 energy she took charge of the children as well as the 
 husband. She fed and clothed them well, and made them 
 more comfortable than they had ever been before. 
 
 She seems to have been especially fond of Abraham, and 
 to have won his affection by her kindness and tender care. 
 When Lincoln said, in after years, "All that I am or hope to 
 be I owe to my angel mother," it is probable that he referred 
 not to his own mother but to this woman who treated him 
 with such motherly tenderness. It was to her, and not to his 
 ignorant father, that he owed his scanty schooling. She 
 kindled in him an ambition to make something of himself. 
 She sympathized with his love for study and for reading. How 
 well he repaid her for her kindly care is shown by what she 
 said of him after he became famous: "Abe never gave me a 
 cross word or look, and never refused to do anything I 
 required of him. He was the best boy I ever saw." 
 
 She insisted that he should be sent to school as soon as 
 there was one to attend. Back in Kentucky he had occasion- 
 ally in the summer days trudged with his sister to a school 
 kept by Caleb Hazel. The master taught reading, writing, 
 and ciphering after a fashion, but his chief qualification was 
 his ability to whip the big boys. 
 
 The first Indiana school Lincoln attended was taught by 
 Hazel Dorsey. It was a rough-hewn cabin with a floor of 
 
BOYHOOD AND YOUTH 
 
 235 
 
 split logs and with windows made by covering holes in the 
 walls with oiled paper. The only desk was a shelf near the 
 door where the children could stand and trace their copies. 
 The benches were made of logs split in halves and mounted 
 upon pegs. In this and in other rude schoolhouses, Abraham 
 Lincoln got all the schooling he ever had. It was pitifully 
 irregular, for he was often taken out to help with the farm 
 
 A Log Schoolhouse 
 
 work. It was not always possible, either, in this wilderness 
 country, to find a wandering schoolmaster who was able or 
 willing to teach in the little log schoolhouse. 
 
 In the winter of 182 2-1 823 Abe again attended school for a 
 few months, and in 1826, when he was nearly seventeen 
 years old, he saw his last school days under a master named 
 Swaney, who held sway in a deserted cabin four and one 
 half miles from Lincoln's home. In all, Lincoln's school 
 
236 ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
 
 days did not exceed a year, under teachers who had scarcely 
 more than the rudiments of education. So you see that 
 Lincoln was correct when he described his early training 
 in the brief statement, "Education defective." 
 
 Had he been content with this, it is not probable that he 
 would have risen much above the level of his boyhood com- 
 panions. But in some mysterious way he had developed a 
 passion for reading. Books in that frontier region were scarce, 
 but such as he had or could borrow, Lincoln eagerly read and 
 thoroughly learned. "^Esop's Fables" improved his native 
 art of story-telling. " Robinson Crusoe," Bunyan's " Pilgrim's 
 Progress," and especially the Bible, enriched his mind and 
 formed his taste. A history of the United States, the " Life of 
 Henry Clay," and Weems's "Life of Washington" gave him 
 some knowledge of the history of our country and of its 
 great men. 
 
 The "Life of Washington" seemed to impress him more 
 than the literary qualities of the work merited. It may be 
 that he valued the book so highly because it was the first one 
 he ever owned. He borrowed it from a neighbor and sat up 
 late at night reading it by the light of a tallow candle. W 7 hen 
 the candle burned out, Abraham tucked the book into a 
 crevice of the wall where it would be ready for him when day- 
 light came. He was awakened by the patter of rain on the 
 roof, and found that the storm had beaten into the crevice 
 and damaged the book so that it could not be returned. Its 
 owner agreed to give it to the boy in return for three days' 
 labor. Tn this way, Abraham earned his first book. 
 
 A boy who was willing to do this was sure to succeed in his 
 efforts to get an education. It is not surprising, therefore, to 
 find him eagerly reading whenever opportunity afforded, or, 
 at night after the day's work was done, studying by the light 
 
BOYHOOD AND YOUTH 
 
 237 
 
 of a log fire. Paper was scarce, so he used to write with chalk 
 on the cabin walls, or figure with a bit of charcoal on the 
 wooden fire shovel. This he could whittle clean and fill with 
 figures, again and again. 
 
 And so with much hard work, some study, and some play 
 — for he was always fond of shooting, wrestling matches, 
 and other rough frontier sports — Lincoln grew to young 
 manhood. When he was nineteen years of age, he made his 
 
 Lincoln studying by Firelight 
 
 first trip to New Orleans on a flatboat. This long journey 
 in a new country, among strange scenes and peoples, broad- 
 ened his mind and added to the store of knowledge he was 
 slowly accumulating. 
 
 He continued to work for his father or for the neighbors 
 until he was nearly twenty-one years of age. Then Thomas 
 Lincoln, discouraged by another epidemic of malaria, and 
 hearing of cheaper and more fertile lands toward the west, 
 
238 ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
 
 determined to move again. Packing all their household goods 
 into a long covered wagon, with Abraham driving the oxen, 
 they started on the tedious journey. After two weeks they 
 reached Illinois and located on the Sangamon River, about 
 ten miles west of Decatur. 
 
 Abraham was now of age and his time was his own, but he 
 remained to help his father get settled. He aided in clearing 
 the land and in fencing a part of it with rails which he split 
 from logs. He helped in building the new cabin home, and 
 in planting the spring crops. Then he began to look for 
 work for himself. But first of all he needed some clothes, for 
 he still wore the buckskin garments of the frontiersman. So 
 he bargained with a neighbor, Mrs. Nancy Miller, to make 
 him a pair of trousers. He was to split 400 fence rails for 
 every yard of "brown Jeans dyed with white walnut bark" 
 she wove for the trousers. As he was unusually tall he had 
 to split 1400 rails before the clothes were earned. 
 
 He had at this time nearly reached his growth. Although 
 very tall and slender, he had a rugged constitution. His out- 
 door life gave him great strength, and his skill in boxing and 
 wrestling was unusual even in a section where physical prow- 
 ess was common. He earned a reputation for honesty, as 
 well as for courage, and won friends readily in the new home. 
 In 1 83 1 he made his second trip to New Orleans with a 
 boat load of provisions and stock. It was at this time that he 
 first came in close contact with the evils of slavery. He saw 
 gangs of slaves chained and driven through the streets like 
 cattle; he saw them cruelly whipped and sold in the slave 
 market; he saw families separated and children heartlessly 
 taken away from their parents. Naturally kind-hearted, these 
 sights depressed him greatly, and he said to his companion, 
 "If I ever get a chance to hit slavery, I'll hit it hard." 
 
BOYHOOD AND YOUTH 239 
 
 After his return from New Orleans, Lincoln worked as a 
 clerk in the village store in New Salem, Illinois. He soon 
 became a favorite among the villagers. He was a famous 
 story-teller, and his skill as a wrestler won for him the respect 
 of the rougher element of the town. Here also he gained a 
 reputation for uprightness and for square dealing in business 
 matters, so that the people soon began to call him " Honest 
 Abe." Without doubt, this title pleased him more than all 
 the admiration of his physical strength. 
 
 During his leisure hours, Lincoln continued his studious 
 habits. He became interested in politics, and, in order to be 
 able to speak and write correctly, determined to study gram- 
 mar. The only text-book in the neighborhood was a copy 
 of " Kirkham's English Grammar," owned by an old school- 
 master who lived six miles out of town. Lincoln willingly 
 walked there and back in order to borrow and study the 
 book. 
 
 In 1832 an Indian war under the leadership of the chief 
 Black Hawk broke out, and Lincoln was made captain of 
 a company of volunteers raised in Sangamon County to aid 
 in subduing the Indians. The campaign was brief, and at 
 its close Lincoln returned to New Salem. With a partner 
 he opened a grocery store there. But this venture did not 
 prove successful. His partner drank, and Lincoln's mind was 
 on his studies more than on his business. So between the two 
 men their enterprise was neglected, and soon failed. The 
 partner died soon after, and left Lincoln responsible for the 
 debts of the firm. They were so large that he afterwards 
 referred to them as the " national debt." It was not until 
 many years afterward that he was able to pay the last of 
 these debts. 
 
 To support himself after the failure of the store, an 1 to give 
 
240 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
 
 him money to continue the study of law, Lincoln secured 
 employment as a surveyor. He was also for a number of 
 years postmaster at Xew Salem. In a barrel which he pur- 
 chased while keeping 
 store, he found a set 
 of law books called 
 Blackstone's "Com- 
 mentaries." He be- 
 came greatly inter- 
 ested in these and 
 in other law books 
 which he borrowed 
 from a friend in 
 Springfield whom he 
 had met during the 
 Black Hawk War. 
 In order to gain ex- 
 perience in practice, 
 he drew deeds, con- 
 tracts, and other legal 
 
 papers for his neigh- 
 Lincoln as Storekeeper ^ Re ^ cQn _ 
 
 ducted small cases in the justice's court, and, in due season, 
 was ready to practice his profession. 
 
 During this period of study and business, Lincoln showed 
 an increasing interest in public affairs. It was a time when 
 great issues in our national affairs were at stake. The Whig 
 party was growing in power, and its leaders, Webster and 
 Clay, were making eloquent speeches in the United States 
 Senate in support of national unity. Lincoln, ever since his 
 boyhood days, had been an admirer of Clay, That states- 
 man's life was one of the first books he had read as a child, 
 
LAWYER 241 
 
 and when he became a man he was an ardent admirer of the 
 great Kentucky orator. The " Louisville Journal," a paper 
 controlled by Clay, was one of the influential newspapers of 
 the West, and Lincoln was a constant reader of this journal. 
 In this way he kept himself informed regarding the political 
 questions of the day. He was naturally a politician, rather 
 than a business man, and his friends showed their confidence 
 in him by electing him four times to the Illinois legislature. 
 His career as a legislator during these eight years was not 
 especially important, although it gave him an opportunity 
 to take a courageous stand against slavery. The legislature 
 passed a strong proslavery resolution against the opposition 
 of Lincoln and one other member. In the protest which he 
 signed, he said that he believed the institution of slavery to 
 be founded on both injustice and bad policy. Thus early 
 in his public career he took a firm stand on the right side of a 
 great moral issue. 
 
 LINCOLN THE LAWYER 
 
 During his legislative career, Lincoln removed to Spring- 
 field, the capital of the state. Here he formed a law partner- 
 ship, under the firm name of Stuart and Lincoln, with the 
 friend who had helped him in his legal studies. Both men 
 were well known in that section, and they soon built up a fine 
 practice. Stuart was actively engaged in political matters, 
 and left much of the law business of the firm to his partner. 
 Lincoln's success as a lawyer was due to his absolute honesty 
 and the confidence in him which this trait inspired, rather 
 than to any profound knowledge of the law. He would refuse 
 any case that he believed to be wrong. Often after he had 
 commenced a suit, when he found that the law or the evidence 
 was on the other side, he would withdraw from the case. A 
 
242 ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
 
 fellow lawyer said of him, "Love of justice and fair play was 
 his predominant trait. It was not in his nature to assume 
 or attempt to bolster up a false position; he would abandon 
 his case first." 
 
 It is not strange, therefore, that he became known through- 
 out the state, as he had been known in the little village of 
 New Salem, as "Honest Abe." The firm of Stuart and Lin- 
 coln was dissolved after four years, and Lincoln in 1843 took 
 William H. Herndon as his partner. This firm remained in 
 existence until Lincoln's death. For years much of their 
 practice was in the circuit courts which the judges held in 
 different parts of the state. In order to try their cases, the 
 lawyers traveled from place to place as court was moved. 
 This was called " riding the circuit." Lincoln, with the others, 
 was accustomed to do this year after year, and in this way 
 built up a large acquaintanceship throughout the state. Cir- 
 cuit riding in those days was not an easy task. The roads 
 in stormy weather were almost impassable; sometimes there 
 were only trails; the streams were without bridges and often 
 swollen; and the accommodations at the country taverns were 
 meager. But these experiences in a new country brought 
 him home to the hearts of the common people. He knew them, 
 for he was one of them, and this knowledge helped to guide 
 him when he became their great leader. 
 
 Many stories are told of his kindness of heart at this period 
 as well as throughout his life. He sympathized with the 
 unfortunate and the oppressed. He often took cases when 
 he had no expectation of being paid a fee. He could be as 
 tender as a woman to misfortune and suffering. He was 
 fond of children and dumb animals, once even going out of 
 his way to put some young birds back in their nest. One of 
 his most eloquent appeals for justice was in a suit where he 
 
LAWYER 243 
 
 prosecuted a pension agent for cheating a poor widow. 
 Some one has said that "No one ever accused him of taking 
 an unfair or underhanded advantage in the whole course of 
 his professional career." 
 
 It seems strange that such a tender-hearted and kindly 
 natured man as Lincoln could not have won complete happi- 
 ness for himself. But he was given to fits of brooding and of 
 melancholy, and through all his life was a lonely man among 
 a multitude of friends. 
 
 In 1842 Lincoln met and married Mary Todd. He was 
 a faithful husband and a good father, but his wife never 
 fully understood him, and his home life was full of trials. 
 Their home in Springfield was an ordinary frame house, 
 where they lived simply and quietly. Indeed, even to the 
 time that he was elected President of the United States, 
 Lincoln did all of the outdoor work about the place — 
 milked the cow, cared for the horse, and chopped the wood 
 for the kitchen fire. His life was in no way different from 
 that of his less noted neighbors. His dress was as simple as 
 were his habits of life. In cold weather he wore an old gray 
 shawl about his shoulders. The nap on his "stove pipe" 
 hat was usually rubbed the w r rong way, and his boots were 
 unpolished. He often carried a faded green umbrella with 
 a string tied about its middle. As he rode the circuit in his 
 old open buggy or on horseback, he carried his legal papers 
 in the pockets of his saddle, or in a dilapidated carpetbag. 
 
 But with all this uncouthness of dress and of manner, 
 there was an unselfishness and a gentleness in his homely 
 and rugged face that drew all men to him. And w r hen, in after 
 years, the burdens and the sorrows of the Civil War were thrust 
 upon him, his countenance seemed to reflect all the pity and 
 the pathos of that dreadful struggle. 
 
244- ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
 
 LINCOLN THE POLITICIAN 
 
 Lincoln had gained some experience in political life during 
 the eight years he served in the Illinois legislature. After its 
 close he continued to practice law at Springfield until, in 1846, 
 he was elected to Congress. Here he gained some reputation 
 as a clear and logical speaker, as a loyal member of the Whig 
 party, and as an opponent of the extension of slavery. He 
 took the position that the Mexican War, then being fought, 
 had been forced upon Mexico by the President solely for the 
 purpose of acquiring more slaveholding territory. In his 
 famous "Spot Resolutions," he called upon the President 
 to put his finger on the spot where, as the President said, 
 Mexico had shed American blood upon American soil. He 
 voted also in favor of the Wilmot Proviso, a measure 
 intended to prohibit slavery in any territory acquired 
 from Mexico. 
 
 Returning to his home after this term in Congress, Lin- 
 coln says of himself, "I was losing interest in politics when 
 the repeal of the Missouri Compromise aroused me again." 
 You have been told in the life of Henry Clay what this meas- 
 ure was and how it was expected to settle forever the question 
 of the extension of slavery. But the thirty years following its 
 adoption were years of marked western expansion. Great 
 tides of emigration flowed largely from the northern states 
 into the territory west of the Mississippi River. This was 
 especially true after the discovery, in 1848, of gold in Cal- 
 ifornia. The southern statesmen had hoped that most of the 
 territory won from Mexico at the close of the Mexican War 
 would become slaveholding states. In this, however, they 
 were disappointed, for the greater number of the western 
 pioneers were northern men, and opposed to the institution of 
 
POLITICIAN 245 
 
 slavery. So when California, in 1850, sought admission 
 into the Union as a free state, the southern members of 
 Congress were bitterly opposed. Clay's Compromise Bill 
 of 1850 aimed to quiet this discord and to satisfy both 
 sections by admitting California as a free state, and by 
 providing that the other land acquired from Mexico should 
 be organized as territories without any reference to the 
 question of slavery. This meant that the settlers there 
 would be free to decide the matter for themselves when the 
 time came for the creation of states from these territories. 
 
 Neither the North nor the South was satisfied with this 
 measure. It left the question of whether slavery was morally 
 and economically right or wrong as much unsettled as it had 
 been before. The agitation was renewed when Stephen A. 
 Douglas, in 1854, introduced in Congress a bill to organize 
 two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, out of that great 
 section of the Louisiana Purchase north of the parallel of 
 36 30', and west of the states of Missouri and Iowa. This 
 measure, known as the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, swept away 
 all the restrictions regarding slavery which were contained 
 in the Missouri Compromise. It established the doctrine 
 of state sovereignty — that a state might decide for itself 
 whether it would be a free or a slaveholding state. 
 
 Immediately after the passage of the bill, a struggle began 
 between the North and the South for the possession of Kan- 
 sas. Each side tried to get a majority for the first territorial 
 election there. Slaveholding settlers, " border ruffians" 
 they were sometimes called, from Missouri and other 
 southern states, crossed over into the territory. In the 
 North, too, emigration societies were formed to raise money 
 and to hurry settlers to Kansas. Among these emigrants 
 was one John Brown and his stalwart sons, all haters of 
 
 MAK. & DEF. — 16 
 
246 ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
 
 slavery, and destined to become famous at Harpers Ferry 
 in 1859, when they seized the United States arsenal there 
 and endeavored to arouse a rebellion among the slaves in 
 Virginia. It is not strange that these two classes of settlers 
 soon clashed, and that a very bitter and bloody little war 
 broke out in Kansas between them. The struggle lasted 
 for years, but in the end Kansas was admitted as a free 
 state. 
 
 Bitter feeling was also greatly intensified by the attempt 
 during these exciting years to enforce the Fugitive Slave Law. 
 This was a law of Congress by which negroes who had escaped 
 could be arrested and returned to their owners. Several of 
 the northern states refused to allow this law to be enforced 
 within their borders, and abolitionists aided runaway slaves 
 to escape into Canada by means of the so-called underground 
 railroads. Then came the famous Dred Scott decision of 
 the United States Supreme Court. Scott was a negro who 
 had been taken by his master from Missouri, a slave state, 
 into a free state. Upon their return to Missouri, Scott sued 
 for his freedom on the ground that having lived in a free 
 state he was a free man. The court decided against him, 
 and the decision meant, of course, that southern slaveholders 
 could take their negroes anywhere in the Union and still hold 
 them as slaves. Such an interpretation of the law alarmed the 
 northern people greatly, for it meant, if put into practice, the 
 indefinite extension of slavery. 
 
 These vital issues which tried men's souls served also to 
 break down old party lines. The Whig party, some one 
 humorously said, " died of an attempt to swallow the Omnibus 
 Bill," as the Compromise of 1850 was sometimes called. Its 
 neutral attitude regarding the extension of slavery pleased 
 neither its northern nor its southern members. New parties 
 
POLITICIAN 247 
 
 such as the "Free Soilers," the "Anti-Nebraska Democrats," 
 and the "Americans" sprang into life. 
 
 Gradually these organizations drew more closely together. 
 They differed in minor matters, but had a common bond of 
 sympathy in their opposition to the further extension of 
 slavery. So from these various elements the Republican 
 party was formed. It grew rapidly, and in the election of 
 1856, the first presidential campaign in which it engaged, 
 polled over a million votes. 
 
 In Illinois, Abraham Lincoln at once became the recog- 
 nized leader of the new party, and was its candidate for 
 United States Senator from that state. In the speech which 
 he made, upon accepting the nomination, he said regarding 
 the preservation of the Union, "'A house divided against 
 itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot en- 
 dure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect 
 the Union to be dissolved. I do not expect the house to fall 
 — but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become 
 all one thing or all the other." 
 
 Then followed a masterly statement of the principles of his 
 party and a review of the measures by which the proslavery 
 statesmen sought to dominate the political life of the nation. 
 In closing, he voiced his belief in the justice of his cause and 
 in the ultimate success of the right. "The result is not 
 doubtful," he said; "if we stand firm, we shall not fail — 
 sooner or later the victory is sure to come." 
 
 His opponent in the campaign which followed was Stephen 
 A. Douglas. During the campaign, the rival candidates 
 spoke in a series of joint debates throughout the state of 
 Illinois. The "Lincoln-Douglas Debates," as they were 
 called, are perhaps the greatest series of campaign speeches 
 the political history of this country has known. Douglas 
 
248 ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
 
 was the most brilliant leader in the Democratic party. He 
 was a man of national reputation, of charming personality, 
 a successful politician, and a skillful debater. Mr. Lincoln, 
 on the other hand, lacked most of the characteristics of a 
 great orator. He was tall and awkward, and his voice was 
 shrill and piping. But his intense earnestness, his simple 
 yet resistless logic, and his belief in the righteousness of his 
 cause, carried conviction to the minds of his hearers. 
 In one of the debates, Douglas asserted that the Declara- 
 tion of Independence did not 
 include the negroes when it 
 declared that " all men are cre- 
 ated equal." Lincoln reply- 
 ing said : " I do not understand 
 the Declaration of Independ- 
 ence to mean that all men 
 were created equal in all re- 
 spects. They are not equal in 
 color. But I believe that it 
 does mean to declare that all 
 men are equal in some re- 
 spects; they are equal in their 
 
 Stephen A. Douglas .., , , 
 
 right to life, liberty, and the 
 pursuit of happiness." Blaine said that Lincoln did not seek 
 to emphasize in these speeches the thing that was for the day 
 only, but the thing which would stand the test of time and 
 square itself with eternal justice. 
 
 As a result of the campaign, Douglas was elected to the 
 Senate. But these debates gave Lincoln a wide reputation 
 as an orator and statesman. To this reputation he added 
 afterwards by some masterly speeches in New York and in 
 other eastern cities. He became a figure of national impor- 
 
PRESIDENT 249 
 
 tance, and was looked upon by many as an available candidate 
 for the Presidency. 
 
 LINCOLN THE PRESIDENT 
 
 Lincoln was soon to reap his reward for his forceful state- 
 ment of lofty moral principles, for when the time came, in 
 i860, to elect another President, the Republican party pre- 
 sented his name as its candidate. The Democrats were 
 hopelessly divided, and the Republicans had high hopes of 
 success at the polls. The people of the South feared Lin- 
 coln's election, for they had gained the impression that he 
 and the party he represented were pledged to the abolition of 
 slavery, and they felt that this meant ruin for them. That 
 they were mistaken in their conception of Lincoln's attitude 
 is certain. He was determined to save the Union at any 
 cost, and to prevent the further extension of slavery, but he 
 expressly and repeatedly stated that he did not intend to 
 interfere with slavery in the states where it was already 
 established. However, this misconception of Lincoln's at- 
 titude was only one of the causes for the differences of 
 opinion between the two great sections of our country. 
 
 Most of the commercial activity and business enterprise 
 was centered in the northern and central western states. 
 The South, on the other hand, with its great resources of 
 mine and forest undeveloped, was essentially an agricultural 
 country. 
 
 The doctrine of state rights had for years been instilled 
 into the minds of the southern people by their leaders, while 
 the North believed more firmly than ever before in the sacred- 
 ness and integrity of the Union under the Constitution. In 
 social conditions, in systems of labor and education, and in 
 policies of government, the two sections had never been in 
 
250 ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
 
 harmony, and the breach rapidly widened after Lincoln's 
 election. Some of the southern states threatened to secede 
 if Lincoln were chosen President, and immediately they pro- 
 ceeded to carry out this threat. 
 
 South Carolina, always the foremost advocate of state 
 rights, was the first to act. In December, i860, she declared 
 that she no longer owed allegiance to the United States. 
 Other southern states soon followed, and in February, 1861, 
 formed at Montgomery, Alabama, the " Confederate States 
 of America." The states thus in rebellion were South Caro- 
 lina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and 
 Texas. To these were added, later, North Carolina, Ten- 
 nessee, Virginia, and Arkansas, making eleven states in re- 
 bellion. The break which men had feared so long had come! 
 The day for compromise was past! Henceforth the great 
 issues that had been so bitterly discussed in legislative 
 halls and in the press, were to be fought out in the field. 
 It was to be now an appeal to arms and to the God of battles. 
 
 Although Lincoln had been elected in November of i860, 
 it was not until March of the following year that he was 
 inaugurated. In the meantime, the rebellious states actively 
 prepared for war. United States arsenals and arms were 
 seized, troops were raised, and fortifications prepared, while 
 the northern government made no effort to protect itself. 
 
 Lincoln remained quietly at home, waiting for the time 
 when, as President of the United States, he would endeavor 
 to preserve the Union. On the day before he left Springfield 
 for Washington, he went to his office to say good-by to his 
 partner. When the time came for them to part, he said to 
 Mr. Herndon, "Billy, how long have we been together?" 
 
 "Over sixteen years," he answered. 
 
 "We've never had a cross word during all that time, 
 
PRESIDENT 251 
 
 have we?" said Lincoln. Then he asked that the office 
 sign which hung on its rusty hinges at the foot of the stairs 
 be undisturbed, saying, "The election of a President makes 
 no change in the firm of Lincoln and Herndon. If I live, 
 I am coming back sometime, and then we'll go right on 
 practicing law as if nothing had happened." 
 
 The next day he left his home to assume responsibilities 
 greater than any which had ever before confronted a Presi- 
 dent of the United States. But he did not falter in his task, 
 nor fail in any way to do his duty. The solemn oath he 
 took on the 4th of March, 1861, to uphold the Constitu- 
 tion and to preserve, protect, and defend the government, was 
 never broken. When actual war was begun by the attack 
 upon Fort Sumter, a fort held by United States troops in 
 
 i ^p SB BWWWWPIWMi 
 
 Fort Sumter 
 
 the harbor of Charleston, S. C. (April 12, 186 1), he called 
 for seventy-five thousand volunteers to suppress the re- 
 bellion and to enforce the laws. The response was in- 
 stantaneous. When the news flashed over the wires that 
 the American flag had been fired upon and that Fort 
 Sumter had fallen, the whole North was aroused. The 
 men whom southern politicians said were too selfish or too 
 cowardly to fight, rushed by thousands to uphold the Stars 
 and Stripes. 
 
252 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
 
 Both sides in their enthusiasm thought that the war would 
 be of short duration, each underestimating the strength and 
 determination of its opponent. The South, impatient to end 
 the war, urged its soldiers to press forward and capture Wash- 
 ington. The North, also confident of victory, cried, "On 
 to Richmond! On to Richmond!" It was not until the two 
 
 armies met on the 
 held of Bull Run and 
 measured each other's 
 strength that they 
 realized the desperate 
 character of the 
 struggle. The Union 
 troops, defeated in 
 this battle, were driv- 
 en back upon Wash- 
 ington. Congress, 
 alarmed at the dis- 
 aster, awoke to the 
 fact that more troops 
 were needed; that it 
 took time to equip and 
 discipline an army. 
 
 Country around Washington At Qnce Congress 
 
 voted to raise five hundred million dollars and five hun- 
 dred thousand men for three years or until the war was 
 ended. As the soldiers enlisted and marched to the front in 
 response to their country's call, there rose from village and 
 farm, from every city and town the stirring battle cry, "We 
 are coming, Father Abraham, five hundred thousand strong!" 
 Plans for the prosecution of the war were gradually shap- 
 ing themselves under the direction and guidance of Lincoln. 
 
 10 20 30 40 
 
THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 253 
 
 As commander in chief of the army and navy, he had charge 
 of the selection of officers, the maintenance of the army, and 
 the general military movements. There was to be a three- 
 fold campaign: First, the Mississippi was to be opened and 
 the Confederacy split in half. Second, Richmond was to be 
 attacked. Third, the southern seaports were to be blockaded 
 in order that the South might not send its cotton to Europe and 
 
 The Merrimac and the Monitor 
 
 receive in return money and supplies from foreign ports. 
 Grant accomplished the first of these objects in 1803, when 
 Vicksburg surrendered to him; Richmond did not fall until 
 the war was practically ended; but the blockade was immedi- 
 ately effective. 
 
 The battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac was an 
 interesting incident of this blockade. It was important, also, 
 because it revolutionized naval warfare. A fleet of wooden 
 
254 ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
 
 warships was stationed in Hampton Roads, at the mouth 
 of the James River. Against them the Confederates sent the 
 Merrimac, a wooden vessel sheathed with iron plates and 
 fitted with a huge iron prow. Shot and shell had no 
 effect against the monster "ironclad," and she was rapidly 
 making havoc with the Union fleet, when the Monitor ap- 
 peared. This strange looking craft was a new Union " iron- 
 clad," invented by John Ericsson and recently completed in 
 the Brooklyn navy yard. She was simply a hull with a re- 
 volving tower in the center, protected by heavy armor plate. 
 The Confederates called her in derision the " Yankee cheese 
 box," but in the sea duel between the two monsters, the 
 Monitor drove the Merrimac to shelter, saved the rest of the 
 Union fleet, and maintained the blockade. 
 
 After a second victory at Bull Run, the Confederates deter- 
 mined to invade the North. The Union general, McClellan, 
 had failed in what is known as the Peninsular Campaign, 
 and the Confederate troops, flushed with victory, pressed 
 forward eagerly into Maryland. Here at Sharpsburg, on 
 Antietam Creek, a battle was fought (September 17, 1862) 
 and their advance checked. President Lincoln awaited the 
 result of this battle with intense anxiety, for he felt that it 
 might decide the fate of the Union. He saw that the people 
 of the whole country now realized — as he had long ago — 
 that the evil of slavery was at the root of the rebellion. 
 Lincoln said he had promised God that if the Union forces 
 were victorious at Antietam, he would free the slaves. Accord- 
 ingly, on the first of January, 1863, Lincoln issued the Eman- 
 cipation Proclamation, proclaiming all the slaves in the states 
 then in rebellion, free. This historic measure made Lincoln 
 immortal, and hastened the end of the war. 
 
 The two great military events of 1863 were the surrender 
 
THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 2 55 
 
 of Vicksburg and th c defeat of the Confederate army under 
 Lee at Gettysburg. Both occurred at almost the same time, 
 early in the month of July. How the capture of Vicksburg 
 was accomplished, and how it brought to the front a new 
 military leader, will be told more fully in the life of Grant. 
 The battle of Gettysburg was the turning point of the war. 
 Never again, after Gettysburg, did Confederate armies 
 seek to invade the North. Step by step, losing ground 
 
 Lincoln reading the Emancipation Proclamation to his Cabinet 
 
 day by day, they fought, now always upon the defensive, 
 until they surrendered at Appomattox (April 9, 1865) and 
 the war was ended. 
 
 It had been a terrible struggle. For four long dismal years, 
 the brave men of the South and of the North had fought, 
 each section believing in the righteousness and justice of its 
 cause. Through it all, our great President had borne the 
 burdens of his high office with patience and with a stead- 
 
256 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
 
 fast courage. "With malice toward none and with charity 
 for all" he followed the path of duty until he saved the 
 nation. His clouded brow relaxed, his wearied face grew 
 calm as he looked forward to the days of peace. Already 
 his great heart was planning to bind up the nation's wounds 
 and to establish firmly a reunited country, when the end 
 suddenly came. On the evening of April 14, 1865, as 
 Lincoln sat with his wife in a box in Ford's Theater in 
 
 Washington, he was shot 
 
 by an assassin. The bul- 
 let, passing through the 
 brain, left him uncon- 
 scious, and he died the 
 
 V*^ 
 
 .«.*"-. 
 
 ^£M&- ■■:■ 
 
 &-3,:Milm 
 
 next morning. 
 
 Flags that had been 
 flying in triumph were 
 lowered to half-mast in 
 sorrow. Amid the tears 
 Ford's Theater, Washington f the nation and the pro- 
 
 found grief of the world, he was laid to rest in his old home 
 at Springfield. In his death, the nation lost its greatest 
 hero; in his death, the South lost its most just friend. His 
 life is an inspiration to humanity. Roosevelt voices its les- 
 son to America when he says, "All of us alike, Northerners 
 and Southerners, Easterners and Westerners, can best prove 
 our fealty to the Nation's past by the way in which we do the 
 Nation's work in the present: for only thus can we be sure 
 that our children's children shall inherit Abraham Lincoln's 
 single-hearted devotion to the great unchanging creed that 
 'righteousness exalteth a Nation.' " 
 
 Topical Outline. — Lincoln's early life; his ancestry; his homes; 
 his schools; the influence of his stepmother upon his career. Lincoln's 
 
CIVIL WAR 257 
 
 life in Illinois; his trips to New Orleans; his studies and occupations; 
 how he fitted himself for public affairs. Lincoln the lawyer and poli- 
 tician: legislative career; professional and home life at Springfield; 
 service in Congress. Lincoln the statesman and hero: growth of 
 slavery agitation; measures which aroused the North; the Lincoln- 
 Douglas debates; Lincoln's election as President; why the North and 
 the South failed to understand each other; Civil War; death. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Write a story about Lincoln's early life 
 in Illinois. II. Imagine yourself a playmate of Lincoln's; tell the story 
 of a day's visit at his home. III. Describe the Lincoln-Douglas 
 debates, or describe the sea-duel between the Merrimac and the Monitor. 
 IV. What was Lincoln's greatest act as President? V. Why do you 
 admire the character of Lincoln ? 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Springfield, Illinois (p. 304); Fort Sumter, 
 Washington, Richmond, Antietam, Hampton Roads, Gettysburg. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 History. — Hart and Stevens, " Romance of the Civil War," pp. 1- 
 112; Kieffer, "Recollections of a Drummer Boy." 
 
 Biography. — Brooks, "Century Book of Famous Americans," 
 pp. 193-210; Baldwin, "Abraham Lincoln"; Brooks, "True Story of 
 Lincoln"; Tarbell, "Life of Lincoln"; Moore, "Life of Lincoln"; Tar- 
 bell, "He Knew Lincoln"; Lincoln, Last Paragraph of Second Inaug- 
 ural; Nicolay, " The Boy's Life of Abraham Lincoln "; Cravens, " Story 
 of Lincoln." 
 
 Poetry. — Howe, "Battle Hymn of the Republic"; Whittier, "Bar- 
 bara Frietchie"; Markham, "Lincoln, the Great Commoner"; Whit- 
 man, "O Captain, My Captain "; Stevenson, " Poems of American His- 
 tory." 
 
 Fiction. — Churchill, "The Crisis"; Butterworth, " Boyhood of Lin- 
 coln "; Andrews, " The Perfect Tribute "; Gerry, " The Toy Shop." 
 
GRANT, THE SILENT LEADER 
 
 Hiram Ulysses Grant, the great commander of the Civil 
 War, was of New England descent. His ancestors, for gener- 
 ations, had been sober, God-fearing people, of simple habits 
 and of sturdy courage. There had been soldiers and pioneers 
 among them, brave men and loyal women, sound stuff out of 
 which to build a nation. On his mother's side was good 
 Scotch blood. Indeed, many of the qualities of mind which 
 made him famous, he inherited from his mother. The Grant 
 home was at Point Pleasant, on the Ohio River, near Cincin- 
 nati. 
 
 Here on April 27, 1822, the subject of this sketch was born. 
 His father, Jesse Grant, was a farmer and tanner in comfort- 
 able circumstances. The year after the birth of Ulysses, the 
 family moved to Georgetown. Mr. Grant prospered in the 
 new home and lived there many years. Life in this Ohio 
 village then was not much different from what it is to-day in 
 thousands of quiet villages throughout the country. There 
 was no great wealth in the community, nor was there extreme 
 poverty. Every one lived simply and quietly. Among such 
 fortunate surroundings, Grant's boyhood days were spent. 
 
 He grew to be a sturdy, self-reliant lad. attended school 
 
 regularly, and was taught to do his share of the daily work at 
 
 home and on the farm. He says of himself, "When I was 
 
 seven or eight years of age, I began hauling all the wood used 
 
 in the house and shops. When about eleven years old, I 
 
 was strong enough to hold a plow. From that age until 
 
 258 
 
BOYHOOD 
 
 2 59 
 
 seventeen, I did all the work done with horses. I did not 
 like to work; but I did as much of it as grown men can be 
 hired to do in these days, and attended school at the same 
 time." His sports were equally simple and wholesome. Fish- 
 ing, hunting, and swimming in the summer, and skating and 
 sleighing in the winter, made the days and years pass swiftly 
 and happily. Even as a child he knew and loved horses, and 
 spent many of his leisure hours on horseback, riding usually 
 without a saddle. His parents governed him kindly but 
 firmly, and he was always an obedient son. This home 
 training and this outdoor life made him a clean-minded, 
 strong-muscled boy ready for the work of a man. 
 
 When Ulysses was seventeen years of age, his father ob- 
 tained for him an ap- 
 pointment as a cadet in 
 the United States Mili- 
 tary Academy at West 
 Point. The boy did not 
 want to go, but obeyed 
 his father. When he ar- 
 rived at the Academy he 
 found that, through an 
 error, his name had been 
 given in the papers filed 
 with his appointment, as 
 Ulysses Simpson Grant. 
 After trying for some 
 
 time to have this mis- Grant at West Point 
 
 take righted, he adopted the new name, and used it there- 
 after. 
 
 During the four years at West Point, young Grant did not 
 distinguish himself as a student, except in his mathematical 
 
260 GRANT 
 
 studies. His early experience with horses, however, now 
 proved valuable, and he became one of the expert horsemen 
 among the students. 
 
 In 1843 Grant finished his military training and began his 
 service as a second lieutenant in the regular army. He was 
 stationed at Jefferson Barracks near the city of St. Louis, and 
 entered at once upon the routine of garrison duty and camp 
 ,life. It was not long, however, before he was called upon for 
 more active service. Texas had seceded from the republic of 
 Mexico, and had formed an independent government. In 
 1845 the "Lone Star Republic," as she was called, was 
 admitted into the United States. But in the annexation of 
 Texas we annexed also her quarrel with Mexico over the 
 boundary line between the two countries. Troops were 
 ordered to the frontier, and before long, war was declared. 
 Grant, like most men of the North, thought that the wai 
 was unjust; that it had been forced upon Mexico by south- 
 ern politicians in their greed for more slaveholding territory. 
 But he was a soldier, and it was his duty to obey. His first 
 battle was on the frontier at Palo Alto, under General Taylor 
 as the commander of the American forces. But it was at 
 Monterey that Grant distinguished himself as a brave soldier 
 under fire. During the progress of the battle, ammunition 
 for a part of the army gave out. Volunteers were called for, 
 to ride across the bullet-swept city with orders for a fresh 
 supply. Grant was the first to respond. Clinging to his 
 horse, with his body on the unexposed side, with one leg 
 thrown over the saddle and with his arms clasped around the 
 horse's neck, Indian fashion, he rode swiftly across the lines 
 and delivered his orders. 
 
 The next year Grant was with General Scott in the march 
 from the sea against the city of Mexico. In the movements 
 
BUSINESS MAN 261 
 
 which culminated in the surrender of that city, Grant again 
 showed the stuff he was made of by seizing a church over- 
 looking the city and by dragging a small cannon up into its 
 belfry. He was able from this elevation to throw shot and 
 shell into the camp of the enemy. Grant's heart was not in 
 this war, although, as we have seen, he did his duty bravely 
 and efficiently. The war, however, was a valuable training 
 for him, and for many others, for the more serious struggle 
 of later years. His letters home at this time did not have 
 much to say about battles or the dark side of the conflict, but 
 were full of his admiration for the strange sights in this 
 wonderful country — the tropical forests on the mountain 
 sides, the many-colored birds and flowers, and the mighty 
 ruins of buried races. 
 
 After the war was ended Grant returned to St. Louis, where 
 he married Miss Julia Dent. For a time they were stationed 
 at Detroit and at Sacketts Harbor, New York, an army post 
 on the eastern end of Lake Ontario. From there he w r as 
 transferred to the Pacific coast. It was out of the question 
 to take his wife and young child on the long trip across the 
 continent, so they were left with his father in Ohio. For 
 nearly three years he was separated from his family. Unable 
 to endure longer the loneliness of this separation, he resigned 
 and came home in July, 1854. The outlook was gloomy. 
 On his meager pay as an army officer, he had been able to 
 save nothing. Now, at the age of thirty-two, with no money, 
 with no profession, except the one from which he had just 
 resigned, with no practical business experience, and with a 
 wife and children to support, he had to start life afresh. He 
 began as a farmer on some land near St. Louis which his 
 wife's father gave him. 
 
 Here he worked patiently and faithfully, but the climate 
 
 MAK & DEF. — 17 
 
262 GRANT 
 
 was bad; he became ill and was obliged to sell the farm. He 
 next tried to establish himself as a real-estate agent in St. 
 Louis, but failed. There came a time when he walked the 
 streets of the city looking for work. These were the darkest 
 days of his life. Modest, reticent, and unassuming, he was 
 almost crushed by this experience. Other men regarded 
 him as a failure, and he almost believed that their judgment 
 was correct. He finally secured employment as a clerk in 
 his father's store at Galena, Illinois, and was there when 
 the Civil War commenced. 
 
 THE SILENT GENERAL 
 
 We must not gain the impression that Grant failed in 
 business through neglect or wrong-dealing on his part. He 
 was frugal and industrious, and in all his relations with others 
 honest and generous. But the fifteen years of army life had 
 unfitted him for anything else. 
 
 While he was a farmer and business man, he watched 
 the country drift toward the Civil War. He had lived in a sec- 
 tion of the country where slavery existed, and his wife's family 
 were slaveowners. He felt that a great conflict between the 
 two sections of his country was sure to come. At once upon 
 the declaration of war, he offered his services to his country. 
 He refused the captaincy of a volunteer company in Galena, 
 but was soon appointed by Governor Yates as colonel of the 
 Twenty-first regiment of Illinois volunteers. 
 
 Grant's time had come; the work he was fitted to do was 
 before him. He said little, but he worked hard. Soon his 
 regiment was a model of discipline and efficiency, and he was, 
 as a result, promoted to a brigadier generalship. The war in 
 the West commenced now in earnest. The Confederates 
 held a strong defensive line extending from forts on the 
 
THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 263 
 
 Mississippi River at Columbus and Island No. 10 eastward 
 along the border of Kentucky and Tennessee to the Cumber- 
 land Mountains. Two of the strongest positions on this 
 line were Fort Henry on the Tennessee River and Fort 
 Donelson on the Cumberland. The capture of these forts 
 was the first movement in the Union campaign to gain con- 
 
 War in the West, 1862 
 
 trol of the Mississippi River. Accordingly, early in 1862, 
 Grant, in command of the land forces, and Foote, in com- 
 mand of the gunboats, moved against Fort Henry. 
 
 The fleet silenced the guns of the fort, and the Confederate 
 forces withdrew to Ft. Donelson. Here, ten days later, after 
 desperate fighting, they were compelled to yield. General 
 
264 GRANT 
 
 Buckner, who was in command of the fort, sent a flag of truce 
 to Grant, asking for the terms of surrender. Grant replied 
 in a brief but famous note: "No terms except unconditional 
 and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to 
 move immediately upon your works." Grant's soldiers, 
 after this, used to say that the initials of his name stood for 
 "Unconditional Surrender" Grant. 
 
 The gates of these western rivers were now open, and the 
 victorious Union army advanced over two hundred miles 
 into the territory of the enemy. The Confederates took their 
 next stand along the southern boundary of Tennessee, with 
 a line of defense extending from Vicksburg on the Mississippi 
 to Chattanooga in the mountains of eastern Tennessee. 
 Both of these positions were important. Chattanooga con- 
 trolled the gap through the Alleghenies into the fertile state 
 of Georgia, and Vicksburg overlooked and guarded the 
 great highway of travel along the Mississippi River. 
 
 Against the latter position, Grant now directed the move- 
 ments of his army. The South, gathering all its strength 
 under Albert Sidney Johnston, 1 one of its ablest generals, 
 endeavored to check this movement. The two armies met at 
 Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh (April 6-7, 1862), in one of the 
 most bitterly contested battles of the Civil War. The South- • 
 erners were victorious on the first day, but Grant, receiv- 
 ing reinforcements during the night, recovered his lost 
 ground on the next day and drove them back. Soon after, 
 Union fleets succeeded in taking New Orleans and Memphis, 
 and the way was open to attack Vicksburg. 
 
 1 A monument erected in the city of New Orleans bears this tribute to 
 his memory: "A man tried in many high offices and critical enterprises 
 and found faithful in all. Xo country ever had a truer son, no cause a 
 nobler champion, no people a bolder defender than the dead soldier." 
 
THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 265 
 
 The Confederates called this city the " Gibraltar of Amer- 
 ica." It was situated on high bluffs along the eastern bank 
 of the Mississippi River, and the Southern government had 
 prepared extensive defenses here to guard the river. Its 
 possession was important to them, for through it they con- 
 trolled the river and brought supplies from the Confederate 
 
 Besieging Vicksburg 
 
 states on its western side. After several failures, Grant 
 succeeded in reaching Vicksburg, and twice endeavored to 
 take the city by storm. 
 
 Finding the Confederates too strongly intrenched to be 
 captured in this way, he determined to starve them out. Day 
 after day, Grant drew his lines closer. Week after week, the 
 Southern soldiers lay in their trenches and starved. The 
 fire from the Union gunboats and batteries was so continuous 
 and so hot that the citizens of Vicksburg were compelled to 
 
266 GRANT 
 
 live in caves. At last siege and starvation did their work, and 
 on July 4, 1863, the Confederate forces surrendered. When 
 the news flashed through the North that Vicksburg had fal- 
 len, and that the Confederacy had been cut in two, there was 
 great rejoicing. Lincoln had said of Grant, "I can't spare 
 this man. He fights." The success of the western campaign 
 proved the soundness of his judgment. 
 
 Grant was now placed in command of all the Union forces 
 west of the Cumberland Mountains. He immediately com- 
 menced operations against the Confederates near Chatta- 
 nooga, and after directing Sherman, Thomas, and Hooker 
 in a series of brilliant battles, captured the enemy's positions 
 in the fall of 1863. The road into Georgia was now open, 
 ready for the time when Sherman and his men should 
 sw T eep in victory from Chattanooga to Atlanta, and from 
 Atlanta to the sea. 
 
 THE END OF THE WAR 
 
 These successes made it clear that Grant was the greatest 
 general on the Northern side that the war had produced. 
 Lincoln had been watching his career in the West with 
 increasing confidence. He saw that Grant was "a copious 
 worker and fighter, but a very meager writer"; that he 
 always accomplished what he set out to do. So he summoned 
 Grant to Washington and placed him in command of all the 
 Union forces. And from that day there were no military 
 orders from the White House, for the great President and the 
 silent general understood and trusted each other. Lincoln 
 had found his man, and the end of the war was at hand. 
 
 Grant's plan for the conduct of the war henceforth was 
 simple. With his Army of the Potomac, and with Sheridan 
 in command of his cavalry forces, he was to keep hammering 
 
THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 267 
 
 Sherman's Men destroying a Railroad 
 
 away at Lee until he had 
 utterly defeated that 
 general and had cap- 
 tured Richmond. His 
 trusted lieutenant, Sher- 
 man, was to march 
 through Georgia to the 
 sea, thereby cutting the 
 Confederacy in two again, and destroying the main sources 
 of supplies for its armies. How these plans were carried out 
 we shall now see. On the 4th of May, 1864, Grant com- 
 menced this twofold campaign. The army of the Potomac, 
 which he personally directed, numbering one hundred and 
 twenty thousand men, was encamped on the banks of the 
 Rapidan River in Virginia. From here he moved forward 
 to attack Lee. The two greatest generals of the North and 
 the South were for the first time face to face. 
 
 On the same day, in fulfillment of their agreement, Sherman 
 began his advance from Chattanooga into Georgia, nor did 
 he stop until he had captured and burned Atlanta and had 
 offered Savannah to the President as a Christmas gift. 
 
268 GRANT 
 
 As Grant's veteran troops crossed the Rapidan and marched 
 into the Wilderness, the soldiers sang: 
 
 "Ulysses leads the van! 
 Ulysses leads the van! 
 For we will dare 
 To follow where 
 Ulysses leads the van." 
 
 "We have a general of our own," they said, "and we mean to 
 follow him on to Richmond." They did so, but every step 
 of the way was stubbornly contested by the "boys in gray." 
 Grant met in Lee an antagonist worthy of his utmost skill. 
 Lee had been accustomed to Union generals who would fight 
 a battle and then sit down and rest — or run away. But 
 this quiet little man hung on with a bulldog grip. He never 
 knew when he was beaten. Grant once said, "The art 
 of war is simple enough. Find out where your enemy is.. 
 Get at him as soon as you can. Strike at him as hard as you 
 can and as often as you can, and keep moving on." This 
 was just what he did in the Wilderness and in the battles 
 which followed. "I propose to fight it out on this line if it 
 takes all summer," Grant wrote to Lincoln, and he did not 
 rest until he had driven Lee within the defenses of Rich- 
 mond. Then Grant followed the same tactics which had 
 won him Vicksburg. He drew his lines closely about the 
 Southern capital, and began a stubborn siege of the city and 
 its outlying fortifications. 
 
 Lee had been accustomed, whenever danger threatened 
 Richmond, to make a counter attack upon Washington. So 
 he sent General Jubal Early with the Confederate cavalry 
 down the Shenandoah valley to make this attack. Grant, 
 however, did not lessen his grip upon Richmond, but sent 
 a strong force under General Sheridan with orders to 
 
THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 269 
 
 drive Early back and to lay waste the valley. Sheridan 
 did his task thoroughly, although at Cedar Creek the 
 Union troops were surprised and driven back. Sheridan, 
 who was at Winchester, twenty miles away, heard the cannon- 
 ading. Mounting his horse, he rushed to the battle field. 
 As he met his retreating soldiers along the road, he shouted, 
 
 General Sheridan's Ride 
 
 "Turn, boys, turn! We're going back!" Defeat, by his 
 presence, was changed into victory, and Early was sent 
 "whirling" out of the valley. 
 
 By the first of November, Grant had lost eighty thousand 
 men in the battles about Richmond. These men the North 
 could replace. Lee's losses had not been so heavy, but he 
 had no reserves to make them good, for practically all the 
 Southern men capable of bearing arms were already in the 
 Southern army. The war now resolved itself into a question 
 of endurance. Finally, Lee's supplies were exhausted, and 
 he was forced to abandon Richmond. With the ragged 
 remnant of his gallant army, he fled toward the west, hoping 
 
270 
 
 GRANT 
 
 to reach the mountains and prolong the war. But human en- 
 durance had reached its limit; his men, wearied, discouraged, 
 and without food, were hemmed in on all sides by the Union 
 troops. So at Appomattox Court House, on the 9th of April, 
 1865, he gave up the unequal struggle. Grant, stern and 
 unyielding as a foe, now showed himself gentle and consider- 
 ate as a friend. The terms of surrender were as simple and 
 
 Lee and Grant discussing the Terms of Lee's Surrender 
 
 as kindly as the character of the man who made them. The 
 Southern officers and men were to retain their horses, bag- 
 gage, and side-arms, and to return to their homes on parole. 
 "The men will need their horses for the spring plowing," 
 Grant said. When Lee reminded him that the surrendered 
 soldiers had nothing to eat, he ordered that rations and sup- 
 plies be sent them at once; and when his men began the fir- 
 ing of salutes in honor of the victory, he stopped them, saying, 
 "The war is over; the rebels are our countrymen again." 
 
PRESIDENT 271 
 
 GRANT, THE NATION'S HERO 
 
 Grant's kindness to the conquered foe was shown again 
 and again in the dark days following the Civil War. Instead 
 of marching in triumph into Richmond at the head of his 
 victorious army, he hastened to Washington to take the neces- 
 sary steps to close the affairs of the war as quickly and as 
 quietly as possible. Johnson, succeeding to the office of Presi- 
 dent after the death of Lincoln, desired to arrest Lee and 
 other Confederate generals in order to have them tried for 
 treason. Grant, thoroughly angered, threatened to resign 
 from the army if this were done, and the scheme was dropped. 
 
 The whole nation loved and revered their great hero* and 
 sought to reward him by electing him as their President. 
 But the two terms he served in the presidential office added 
 neither to his dignity nor to his reputation. He was not a 
 statesman; he was not even a politician. He was simply a 
 straightforward, honest man whose great gifts of mind and 
 body were not along the lines of statecraft. So it was with 
 a feeling of relief that he became again a private citizen. Once 
 he said of a vote of thanks given him by Congress, "This is 
 the certificate given me for being a good boy in school." 
 It was with something of a boy's gladness when school days 
 are over and playtime comes, that Grant with his wife made 
 a tour around the world. He was received everywhere with 
 the highest honors. Upon his return, he entered the banking 
 firm of Grant and Ward. 
 
 Through the dishonesty of his partners, the enterprise 
 failed and Grant found himself at the age of sixty-two a 
 ruined man. Fearing dishonor more than poverty, he turned 
 all of his property — even the gifts which kings and rulers had 
 given him when abroad — over to his creditors. About the 
 
272 
 
 GRANT 
 
 same time an incurable disease fastened itself upon him. 
 With a Christian courage rarely equaled in the life of any 
 man, he went to work patiently to save his good name and to 
 provide for his family. He had been asked to write the his- 
 tory of his life, and now undertook the task. 
 
 The greatest fight the brave soldier had ever had was 
 before him; he must finish the Memoirs before death came. 
 
 The cancer in his throat 
 caused him intense agony, 
 yet he bore the suffering 
 uncomplainingly. For 
 hours, while stubbornly 
 working at his desk, he 
 would deny himself a 
 drink of water rather than 
 risk the chance of special 
 pain in swallowing it. 
 When he became too 
 weak to hold the pen, he 
 dictated the material for 
 his book. As the disease 
 progressed, his voice 
 
 Grant's Tomb, New York failed him and he ^^ 
 
 speak only in whispers. Still he fought on with the same, 
 dogged persistence that had won his other battles. At last, 
 victory was his. The Memoirs were finished, and he had no 
 further fear of death. 
 
 The end came at Mount McGregor, a beautiful mountain 
 home overlooking Saratoga, N. Y., to which he had been 
 removed in the summer of 1885. There, on the 23d of July, 
 the great general and simple-hearted man breathed his last. 
 He was laid to rest in a beautiful park in the city of New York, 
 
PRESIDENT 273 
 
 on the banks of the Hudson River. The splendid marble 
 tomb which a grateful country erected to his memory marks 
 his last resting place. But his most enduring monument is 
 in the hearts of the nation he helped to save. His simple 
 words, "Let us have peace," find a response in the heart 
 of every true American. 
 
 Topical Outline. — The ancestry of Grant. His boyhood days and 
 life at West Point. Grant in the regular army: his experiences in the 
 war with Mexico. His business ventures. Grant as a general in the 
 Civil War. His campaigns in the West: Forts Henry and Donelson, 
 Shiloh, Vicksburg, campaign in Tennessee. His campaigns in the East: 
 crushing Lee's army, kindness to the conquered foe. Grant's later 
 life: as President; as a private citizen; his greatest fight. His victory. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Write a paragraph describing Grant's early 
 life. II. Tell some incident of Grant's experiences in the Civil War. 
 III. Imagine yourself living in Vicksburg during the siege of that city. 
 What were your experiences there? IV. Why do you think Grant's 
 soldiers loved him ? V. Tell in your own words the story of Sheridan's 
 ride. VI. Give some examples of Grant's kindness of heart and thought- 
 fulness of others. VII. What event of Grant's life do you admire most? 
 
 Map Work. — Locate West Point (p. 60), Monterey, Mexico (p. 304), 
 Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Shiloh (near Pittsburg Landing), Vicks- 
 burg, Appomattox (p. 252). . 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 History. — Hancock, "Life at West Point"; Hart and Stevens, 
 "Romance of the Civil War," pp. 179-183, 257-259, 189-191. 
 
 Biography. — Burton, "Four American Patriots," pp. 195-254; 
 Brooks, "Century Book of Famous Americans," pp. 137-191; Brooks, 
 "True Story of Grant"; Grant, "Personal Memoirs"; Wister, " U. S. 
 Grant "; Allen, " Ulysses S. Grant." 
 
 Poetry. — Read, "Sheridan's Ride"; Finch, "The Blue and the 
 Gray"; Drake, "The American Flag.' 
 
ROBERT E. LEE, THE CAPTAIN OF THE 
 BOYS IN GRAY 
 
 The three men whom the Civil War made most famous 
 came from entirely different classes of American life. Lin- 
 coln, the martyred President, rose to his high position from 
 the humblest circumstances; his early life was one of toil and 
 privation. Grant, the iron-handed general, came from the 
 great middle class of America, the sinew and strength of our 
 nation. Lee, the gallant leader of the gray-clad Southern 
 soldiers, was descended from one of Virginia's aristocratic 
 families. All of these men w T ere gentlemen in the highest 
 sense of the term — kindly, clean-minded, and strong. Each 
 of them did his work in his own way and did it well. We 
 have read the lives of Lincoln and Grant, and we shall turn 
 now to that of Lee in order that we may see through South- 
 ern eyes what the Civil War was. 
 
 Robert Edward Lee was born at Stratford, a beautiful 
 country home of the Lee family, situated in the county of 
 Westmoreland, Virginia. His father was General Henry 
 Lee, whose daring deeds as a cavalry leader in the Revolu- 
 tionary War had given him the title of "Light Horse Harry." 
 He was a brave soldier and a gallant gentleman, whose 
 friendship for Washington led him to speak of the great 
 Virginian as " first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts 
 of his fellow-citizens." When Robert was four years old, his 
 father moved to Alexandria in order to give the children 
 better school privileges. Here his boyhood days were spent, 
 
 274 
 
YOUTH 
 
 2 75 
 
 and here, after the death of his father, he was the comfort 
 and support of an invalid mother. As he grew to young man- 
 hood, he learned to ride well, to shoot straight, and always 
 to tell the truth. 
 
 At eighteen Robert received an appointment to West 
 Point, from which he was graduated four years later with the 
 second highest honors of his class. He was assigned to duty 
 
 Lee's Home, Arlington 
 
 in the Engineer Corps of the regular army. For years he 
 served in this important division of the military branch of 
 our government, planning coast defenses, building levees on 
 the Mississippi River, and assisting in other engineering work. 
 During these busy years, he found time to woo and win 
 Mary Randolph Custis, the beautiful daughter of Wash- 
 ington's adopted son, Washington Park Custis. After their 
 marriage in 1831, they made their home in Arlington, Mr. 
 Custis's splendid country estate on the Potomac River within 
 sight of the city of Washington. This mansion, at Mr. 
 Custis's death, became the property of Mrs. Lee. It was 
 the home of the family until the Civil War. The surround- 
 
276 
 
 ROBERT E. LEE 
 
 ing grounds and estate are now used as a national cemetery, 
 in which many of the brave soldiers of that war have their 
 last resting place. 
 
 Lee saw active service throughout the war with Mexico, 
 winning the highest praise from his commanders, and show- 
 ing traits of courage and of leadership that were afterwards 
 
 to make him famous. 
 A story is told that 
 once when Lee was 
 acting as a scout he 
 pushed too near the 
 enemy's line and was 
 forced to lie hidden in 
 a hollow log while the 
 Mexicans passed and 
 repassed his place of 
 concealment. In 1852 
 Lee was appointed 
 superintendent of the 
 West Point Academy, 
 where he remained 
 
 John Brown at Harpers Ferry ^^ ^ Hjs SQn 
 
 Custis Lee was a student at the Academy during these years, 
 and in the same class with Custis was another southern boy 
 named Stuart, who afterwards became one of the dashing 
 cavalry leaders of the Civil War. 
 
 In 1859 Lee was sent by the government to capture John 
 Brown. Brown was a noted abolitionist who had shared in 
 the border troubles in Kansas. He conceived the idea that, by 
 arousing and arming the negroes in Virginia, he might hasten 
 their freedom. With only a handful of followers, he began 
 operations by seizing the United States Arsenal at Harpers 
 
ARMY OFFICER 277 
 
 Ferry. Colonel Lee was sent with a company of United 
 States marines to suppress the insurrection. He captured 
 Brown and turned him over to the civil authorities for trial. 
 The insurrection was in itself insignificant, but it was one of 
 the many irritating causes of the misunderstanding between 
 the North and the South, now rapidly reaching an acute 
 state. Soon after this incident, Lee was sent to Texas to take 
 charge of the government forces there. He remained in this 
 position for a year. Then, after Texas had joined the seces- 
 sion movement, Lee was recalled to Washington. 
 
 The war storm that had so long threatened now broke. 
 Seven of the Southern states, following the leadership of 
 South Carolina, had already formed the Confederate States 
 of America when Lee reached home. In the border slave- 
 holding states, however, there was a strong sentiment opposed 
 to secession. Nowhere was this stronger than in the great 
 commonwealth of Virginia. That state, the mother of Pres- 
 idents, the scene of so many splendid deeds of patriotism, 
 hesitated to sever the bonds of a Union in which she had 
 shared so conspicuously and so honorably. 
 
 Her citizens still longed for a peaceful solution of the prob- 
 lem. But the capture of Fort Sumter, which so aroused 
 the North, also unified Southern sentiment. When it was 
 seen that the government intended, at all hazards, to 
 prevent secession, Virginia^ together with North Carolina, 
 Tennessee, and Arkansas, joined the Confederacy. The men 
 and women of these border states felt that their duty and their 
 loyalty should be greater to their states than to the Nation. 
 
 To Lee, as well as to thousands of other men who loved the 
 old Union, now came the necessity of a choice between the 
 two flags. By the advice of General Scott, President Lincoln 
 offered Lee the command of the United States armies. His 
 
 MAK. & DEF. - - 18 
 
278 ROBERT E. LEE 
 
 marked ability and experience, as well as his conspicuous 
 services in the Mexican war, eminently fitted him for this 
 high position. But, although opposing secession and ear- 
 nestly praying that war might be averted, he felt that he could 
 take no part in an invasion of the Southern states. Accord- 
 ingly he refused Lincoln's offer and resigned his commission 
 in the army. His only ambition now was to remain a private 
 citizen, and to use his influence, if possible to avert, war. 
 
 In a letter to his sister he made clear his position at 
 this time. "The whole South," he wrote, "is in a state of 
 revolution, into which Virginia, after a long struggle, has 
 been drawn; and though I recognize no necessity for this 
 state of things, and would have pleaded to the end for redress 
 of grievances real or supposed, yet I had to meet the question 
 whether I should take part against my native state. "With all 
 my devotion to the Union, and the feeling of loyalty and duty 
 of an American citizen, I have not been able to make up my 
 mind to raise my hand against my relatives, my children, my 
 home." 
 
 Lee could not, however, long maintain this neutral atti- 
 tude. The time soon came when he found it necessary to 
 fulfill his solemn pledge to draw his sword only in defense of 
 his native state. The Virginia legislature, at once taking 
 active measures to repel the threatened invasion, placed Lee 
 in command of the military forces of the state. The next 
 year was spent by Lee in organizing troops, in a campaign 
 in West Virginia, and in caring for the coast defenses of South 
 Carolina and Georgia. On the 1st of June, 1862, he was 
 placed in command of the Army of Virginia, as the Southern 
 forces defending Richmond were called, and from that time 
 until the close of the war was the most conspicuous of the 
 Southern generals. 
 
THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 279 
 
 THE EASTERN CAMPAIGNS OF 1 862 AND 1 863 
 
 It is not within the scope of this book to give any detailed 
 account of the many battles and skirmishes of the Civil War. 
 The general movements of the opposing armies in the East 
 during the years of 1862 and 1863 should, however, be 
 
 The Virginia Campaigns of 1862 
 
 remembered. The scene of action was in Virginia and Mary- 
 land. The Northern army was called the Army of the Poto- 
 mac; the Southern, the Army of Virginia. The North tried 
 to capture Richmond; the South, to protect that city and, by a 
 
280 ROBERT E. LEE 
 
 counter attack, to threaten Washington. So, each year, 
 there was a determined effort to capture the Southern capital, 
 which was repelled, and which was followed by an equally 
 vigorous northern invasion by the Southern forces under the 
 command of Lee. Let us now see how these great move- 
 ments on the chessboard of war were conducted. 
 
 In the spring of 1862 the Union forces were encamped on 
 the Potomac about Washington, under the command of 
 McClellan. For months after the disastrous battle of Bull 
 Run, he had been occupied in organizing his army and 
 drilling his forces, until the phrase "All is quiet along the 
 Potomac" grew tiresome to the people of the North, who 
 wanted the Northern troops to move at once against Rich- 
 mond. 
 
 Finally McClellan began active operations. Instead of 
 marching his troops overland across Virginia, he transported 
 them by boat to Fort Monroe, at the entrance of Chesapeake 
 Bay, attacked the Confederates at Yorktown, and began 
 to approach Richmond from a southwesterly direction. 
 This was called the Peninsular Campaign, because it was 
 fought on the peninsula between the James and the York 
 Rivers. He reached a point within ten miles of Richmond, 
 and in the battle of Fair Oaks defeated the Confederates 
 under General Joseph E. Johnston. Johnston was severely 
 wounded in this battle, and the command of the Army of 
 Virginia was given to General Lee. 
 
 Lee at once took the offensive. In order to relieve the 
 attack upon Richmond, he sent General J. E. B. Stuart 
 with a large force of Confederate cavalry to cut off McClellan' s 
 supplies. General T. J. Jackson, whose bravery at the first 
 battle of Bull Run had given him the title of "Stonewall," 
 was sent up the Shenandoah valley to threaten Washington, 
 
THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 28l 
 
 Stonewall Jackson 
 
 and on his return Lee and Jackson attacked McClellan in 
 what are known as the Seven Days' Battles (June 26-July 2, 
 1862), culminating in the battle of Malvern Hill, where 
 the Confederates were repulsed with 
 fearful slaughter. The combined 
 movements, however, were success- 
 ful. The siege of Richmond was 
 raised, and Lee was free to invade 
 the North. 
 
 Before troops from the Army of 
 the Potomac could be brought to 
 strengthen the Northern forces pro- 
 tecting Washington, Lee fought and 
 won the battle of Manassas, on the 
 old battle field of Bull Run (August 29, 1862). He then 
 pushed forward rapidly, crossed the Potomac into Maryland, 
 and on September 17, 1862, met the Northern forces, now 
 reunited and strengthened, at Sharpsburg on Antietam 
 Creek. It was a drawn battle, but Lee was forced to with- 
 draw across the Potomac and abandon his campaign of 
 invasion. McClellan failed to press the retreating Southern 
 army as vigorously as the authorities in Washington desired, 
 and was removed from his command. Burnside was ap- 
 pointed as his successor, and proved as reckless as McClellan 
 had been cautious. He attacked Lee in a strongly fortified 
 position at Fredericksburg (December 13, 1862), and met 
 with a disastrous defeat. The Southern army now went 
 into winter quarters, and the Eastern campaign of 1862 
 ended with no advantage on either side. 
 
 The first general engagement between the opposing 
 armies in 1863 was fought at Chancellorsville (May 2-3, 
 1863), and here Lee won a brilliant victory over "Fighting 
 
282 
 
 ROBERT E. LEE 
 
 A 
 
 At Chancellorsville 
 
 Joe" Hooker, in command of the Army of the Potomac. In 
 this battle, however, Lee lost his most able general, Stone- 
 wall Jackson. Jackson had been an important factor in all 
 of these campaigns. At Manassas, at Antietam, and at 
 Fredericksburg, he had been Lee's "right arm." A man of 
 lofty moral principles, of stern devotion to duty, like the 
 Puritans of old, of boundless courage, and of great personal 
 influence over his men, Jackson was a soldier whom the Con- 
 federacy could not replace. 
 
 Lee's second invasion of the North now began. His troops, 
 flushed with victory, singing "Maryland, my Maryland" as 
 they marched across that state, pushed forward into Pennsyl- 
 vania. The North was thoroughly alarmed, for it was the 
 first time a considerable body of Southern troops had reached 
 any of the Northern states. All sorts of vague and terrifying 
 rumors swept over the country. " Lee was to attack Harris- 
 burg; his army might capture and destroy Philadelphia or even 
 
THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 283 
 
 New York; Southern 
 sympathizers in 
 Northern cities were to 
 aid him by mob force." 
 That these rumors 
 
 had no serious founda- Pickett's Charge at Gettysburg 
 
 tion in fact did not lessen the feeling of alarm. However, 
 the daring invasion of Lee's army was checked on the battle 
 field of Gettysburg, in southern Pennsylvania, July 1-3, 1863. 
 After a fearful struggle lasting three days, Lee was turned 
 back. One of the thrilling incidents of this battle, the great- 
 est of the Civil War, was the charge of fifteen thousand sol- 
 diers, the flower of the Confederate army, under General 
 Pickett. In a last desperate attempt to turn the tide of battle, 
 Lee hurled these men against the Union intrenchments on 
 
284 ROBERT E. LEE 
 
 Cemetery Ridge. Crossing a mile of open ground under a 
 most terrific fire, they reached the Union lines, and in a hand 
 to hand struggle were driven back. The history of the war 
 records no more superb courage or greater devotion to a lost 
 cause than that shown by Pickett's men in their famous 
 charge. A monument now marks the spot where the Con- 
 federates were repulsed. It bears the inscription, " Highwater 
 Mark of the Rebellion," and history confirms its verdict. 
 
 The loss of life in the battle of Gettysburg was appalling. 
 Nearly fifty thousand men, the best blood of America, fell on 
 that battle field. The men whom Lee lost could never be 
 replaced. He was forced to retreat, and he never made 
 another attempt to invade the North. The Army of the Poto- 
 mac followed the retreating Southern forces into Virginia, 
 and for the remainder of the year no movements of impor- 
 tance took place there. The two armies then went into winter 
 quarters, facing each other, on the banks of the Rappahan- 
 nock and Rapidan rivers. 
 
 When spring came, both sides girded themselves for the 
 final struggle. A new general was now in command of the 
 Northern armies. Grant, the hero of the West, had been 
 summoned to Washington to put down the rebellion and to 
 restore peace to the nation. 
 
 The Southern leaders knew that this simple, silent man 
 would fight until the end, and they made desperate efforts to 
 strengthen Lee's army. Every able-bodied man in the South 
 between the ages of seventeen and fifty was summoned for 
 military duty. The campaign commenced early in May, when 
 Grant began his advance. Back of him were the vast re- 
 sources of the North, while Lee had the advantage of fighting 
 on the defensive in a country with which he was thoroughly 
 familiar. 
 
THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 285 
 
 
 
 In a desolate, fire- 
 scarred jungle called the 
 "Wilderness," south of the 
 ■J Rapidan River, the armies 
 s# met, and for nearly two weeks 
 the opposing forces struggled. 
 Grant's plan was to get between 
 Lee's army and Richmond. Lee, 
 who was a master in defensive war- 
 fare, prevented every flanking move- 
 ment, but was obliged to fall back each 
 time to a new line of defense. While 
 Grant was fighting his way out of the 
 Wilderness, Lee was told that he was 
 retreating. "You are mistaken," Lee 
 replied, "quite mistaken; Grant isn't a retreating man." 
 
 Finally, the Confederate forces were pushed back to the 
 fortifications about Richmond. One of the most important 
 outposts of that city was Petersburg, south of the Con- 
 federate capital. This Grant attacked, but, finding it too 
 strongly fortified to be taken by storm, he began a siege. For 
 nine months Lee and his devoted men withstood all assaults, 
 
 Siege of Petersburg 
 
286 ROBERT E. LEE 
 
 but sickness and starvation did their work at last. When the 
 thin gray line under Lee could hold out no longer, Petersburg 
 fell, April 2, 1865. The next day the Confederates abandoned 
 Richmond, and the Union forces took possession of the city. 
 With the downfall of the Confederate capital the war was 
 practically ended, for Lee was forced soon after to surrender 
 to the superior forces under Grant. 
 
 The scene at Appomattox Court House, when Lee bade 
 farewell to his troops after he had surrendered, was touching 
 and pathetic. 
 
 For years they had followed " Uncle Robert," as they 
 affectionately called him, through dangers and privations, 
 and they sobbed in anguish when he told them that the 
 struggle was over. " Men," he said, " we have fought through 
 the war together. I have done my best for you. My heart is too 
 full to say more." Then he mounted his gray war horse, 
 Traveler, and rode back to his home and his family. 
 
 Now that the great conflict was ended, Lee retired to pri- 
 vate life, and bravely set about repairing his shattered for- 
 tunes. He was offered employment and a large salary in 
 several business enterprises, but refused to accept any posi- 
 tion for which he felt himself unfitted. Finally he was elected 
 president of Washington College, at Lexington, Virginia, 
 afterward re-named Washington and Lee University. This 
 call he accepted, saying, "I have led the young men of the 
 South to battle; I have seen many of them fall under my 
 standard. I shall devote my life now to training young men 
 to do their duty in life." 
 
 To this self-imposed task, he gave himself with all the 
 energy of his great nature. His exposure during the war, how- 
 ever, had sapped his vitality, and five years later, on the 12th 
 of October, 1870, he died. Some one has said of Lee: "He 
 
COLLEGE PRESIDENT 287 
 
 was a foe without hate and a friend without treachery, a sol- 
 dier without cruelty and a victim without murmuring. He 
 was a public officer without vice, a private citizen without 
 wrong, a neighbor without reproach, a Christian without 
 hypocrisy, and a man without guilt." 
 
 In this summary of his virtues a reunited country now 
 agrees. We wish to remember him as a Christian gentle- 
 man, beloved in peace as well as in war, a noble example 
 of a great American. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Three types of American citizens. Lee's an- 
 cestry and education. His life in the army prior to the Civil War. 
 The movement toward secession. Lee's services in the Civil War. 
 (a) The Eastern campaign of 1862; (b) The eastern campaign of 1863. 
 The final struggle with Grant. Lee as a private citizen. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Tell of Lee's early life and education. 
 
 II. Write a paragraph about his reasons for loyalty to his state. 
 
 III. Describe one of Lee's campaigns. IV. Write the names of the 
 leading generals on the Southern side in the Civil War. V. Whom do 
 you consider the greater general, Lee or Grant? Why? 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Alexandria, Richmond, Malvern Hill, Manas- 
 sas, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Petersburg. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 Biography. — Williamson, "The Life of Lee"; Cooke, " Robert E. 
 Lee"; Lee, " General Lee." 
 
ADMIRAL FARRAGUT AND THE WORK OF THE 
 
 NAVY 
 
 The navy as well as the army had important work in the 
 Civil War, and among the commanders were many brave 
 men. One of the most famous was Admiral Farragut. 
 
 Statue of Farragut, New York 
 
 The father of Farragut was a Spanish gentleman who came 
 
 to this country in 1776 and served as major of cavalry in the 
 
 288 
 
YOUTH 289 
 
 Revolutionary War. He married and settled in eastern Ten- 
 nessee, where in 1801 David Glasgow Farragut was born. 
 Soon after the purchase of Louisiana the Farraguts moved to 
 the vicinity of New Orleans. 
 
 One day in 1808, while fishing on Lake Pontchartrain, 
 Farragut found an old man prostrated by the heat. He took 
 him home and found that he was David Porter, a sailing 
 master and father of Captain David Porter, who became 
 prominent in the War of 1812. Porter was very sick at the 
 Farragut home for several weeks. Mrs. Farragut, who ten- 
 derly cared for him, died just before his death, and the funeral 
 of both occurred on the same day. 
 
 The old gentleman's son, Captain Porter, felt so grateful to 
 the Farraguts for their kindness, and so sorry for the mother- 
 less children, that he asked to adopt young David. He took 
 the boy north and placed him in school. 
 
 When but eight years of age, David said that he wanted to 
 enter the navy. Soon after going north, Captain Porter took 
 the lad to the Secretary of the Navy, who was pleased with the 
 boy and promised him a midshipman's warrant. Although 
 he was appointed in December, 1810, he remained at school 
 until the following August, when with Captain Porter he 
 joined the Essex. 
 
 Life on the Essex w r as good training for the future admiral. 
 The best of discipline was maintained on board ship. The 
 chaplain, who was the midshipman's schoolmaster, took 
 particular interest in young David, and did much more for 
 him than merely hearing him recite. The boy soon shared in 
 exciting experiences, for war with England was declared the 
 following spring. 
 
 The Essex made a long cruise to the Mediterranean, then 
 back around Cape Horn to the Pacific, capturing British 
 
29O DAVID G. FARRAGUT 
 
 prizes. She had taken eleven British whalers in the Pacific 
 when Captain Porter received word that three English ships 
 were on their way to capture or destroy him. 
 
 Early in February, 1814, the Essex, with some prize ships, 
 entered the neutral harbor of Valparaiso (the chief port of 
 Chile, in South America), followed a little later by the two 
 English ships, the Phosbe and the Cherub, under the com- 
 mand of Captain Hillyer, a personal friend of Captain 
 Porter. The American ships had the better position, but 
 circumstances did not warrant Captain Porter's opening 
 an action with apparently friendly visitors. 
 
 After several days, in which Captain Porter was puzzled 
 about the Englishman's purpose, a heavy gale broke the top- 
 mast off the Essex and severed her cable chains. The ship 
 was so badly disabled that she could not put to sea. The 
 English ships then made an attack. They were armed with 
 long-range guns, that sent a small ball with great force; while 
 the American ships had short-range guns, firing larger shot 
 with less speed. These could do great damage, but in order 
 to use them the ship must be able to move freely. As it was, 
 the Essex was so crippled that the English ships could easily 
 get out of her range, while their long guns in two hours com- 
 pelled Captain Porter to strike his colors. 
 
 David Farragut, not yet thirteen, was in the thick of this 
 terrible fight, but escaped unharmed. Young as he was, he 
 was regarded as a prisoner of war, and was formally ex- 
 changed a few months later after returning to New York. 
 
 He then attended a private school in Chester, Pennsylvania, 
 until after peace was made with England. In the spring of 
 1816, he was ordered to Washington for a trip to the Mediter- 
 ranean. His journal mentions visits to the cities of the Bar- 
 bary coasts, Sicily, and Italy. The Rev. Charles Folsom was 
 
THE CIVIL WAR 29 1 
 
 the chaplain, and found Farragut an apt pupil. In the 
 autumn of 181 7, Mr. Folsom was appointed consul to Tunis, 
 and asked that David be permitted to spend the winter with 
 him, to continue his studies. This companionship with Mr. 
 Folsom was most valuable to Farragut. 
 
 He was regularly promoted, and had most interesting expe- 
 riences, among which was the command of the Brandywine to 
 take Lafayette home in 1826. For lack of space we must pass 
 over many years of his life. After California was added to 
 the Union, Farragut was sent to San Francisco to build a 
 navy yard, and remained four years in charge of Mare Island 
 navy yard, in San Francisco Bay. In 1858 he was promoted 
 to the rank of captain, then the highest grade in the navy, and 
 was given command of the Brooklyn, our first steam war ship. 
 
 In October, i860, he returned to his home at Norfolk, Vir- 
 ginia. Trying days followed. Lincoln was elected, and the 
 Southern states seceded. Farragut was born in a Southern 
 state, for many years his home had been in Virginia, and 
 many of his personal friends were in sympathy with the 
 South. But when Virginia joined the Confederacy in 1861, 
 Farragut moved his family to New York state, and offered 
 his services to the government to help preserve the Union. 
 
 Early in the war the government decided to get possession 
 of the Mississippi River. The plan provided for an army 
 and a fleet of gunboats to force their way down the river, 
 while at the same time an entrance was to be made from 
 the Gulf of Mexico. This latter task was committed to 
 Farragut, then about sixty years of age. 
 
 New Orleans is ninety miles from the mouth of the river. 
 Seventy-five miles below the city were two forts on opposite 
 banks, just below which heavy chain cables, attached to 
 hulks of old boats, crossed the river. Between the forts and 
 
292 
 
 DAVID G. FARRAGUT 
 
 SCALE OF MILES °_ 
 
 the city was a fleet of Confederate war vessels, which fur- 
 nished the only communication between the two. 
 
 Farragut had twenty-five men-of-war, and twenty mortar 
 
 boats under Captain Porter, 
 the son of his foster father. 
 An army under General But- 
 ler was ready to cooperate 
 with him. Farragut decided 
 to run past the forts and de- 
 stroy the fleet; then, with 
 Butler's army, the forts and 
 Xew Orleans could be taken. 
 By a daring and clever bit 
 of work, the chain cables 
 
 New Orleans and Vicinity were cutj anc J t h e current of 
 
 the river drove the obstacles toward the shore and out of 
 the way. 
 
 The mortar boats, covered with branches of trees, kept near 
 the river banks and crept up the stream undetected, until 
 they got within good range of the forts. Then for six days the 
 guns from these boats hurled shell thick and fast into the 
 forts. The guns in the forts were fired at random, for the 
 mortar boats could not be sighted. The Confederate fleet 
 sent down fire rafts, but they were intercepted, hauled out 
 of the way, and beached. 
 
 At two o'clock on an April morning in 1862, Farragut's 
 fleet formed in line and steamed up the river past the forts. 
 They formed an ever varying mark, and the shots from the forts 
 did not often hit. Then the Confederate fleet came to meet 
 them. A battle between the two fleets raged for five hours, 
 when all was over, and Farragut moved up the river to New 
 Orleans. The city was taken with little resistance save a 
 
THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 2 93 
 
 stubborn determination not to lower the flag over the city 
 hall. A little later the forts surrendered. Farragut remained 
 on the river until the fall of Vicksburg, in 1863. His 
 achievements entitled him to first place on the list of pro- 
 posed admirals. 
 
 In August, 1864, Farragut was sent to open Mobile Bay. 
 An island lies at the entrance, and the channels on both sides 
 
 Fight in Mobile Bay 
 
 were well fortified. Farragut lashed his ships in pairs, and 
 
 passed these forts rapidly, firing broadsides. In order to see 
 
 above the smoke, he climbed up under the maintop of his 
 
 ship. One of his men, fearing he might lose his footing, sent 
 
 a seaman up to tie him to the rigging. Farragut consented, 
 
 for, as he replied, he could then use his field glasses more 
 
 easily. 
 
 MAK. & def. — 19 
 
294 NAVAL HEROES 
 
 When once past the entrance, the light in the bay was short 
 but at first very uncertain, because of the monster ram, Ten- 
 nessee. This was finally compelled to surrender by several of 
 Farragut's boats closing in around her. This victory gave 
 Mobile Bay to the federal government; but the city of Mo- 
 bile, thirty miles above, was not taken until the next spring. 
 
 In July, 1866, Farragut was the first American to be created 
 an admiral, and it is interesting to know that Captain Porter, 
 who aided him at New Orleans, succeeded to the title on 
 Admiral Farragut's death in 1870. 
 
 Admiral Farragut was a good man as well as a great com- 
 mander. As a mere child he was a favorite on board ship, and 
 as a man he was loved by all under his command, and was 
 often spoken of as "Little Luff." What he wrote his wife on 
 entering Mobile Bay shows his character well: "I am going 
 into Mobile in the morning, if God is my leader, as I hope he 
 is, and in him I place my trust." 
 
 Other Naval Exploits 
 
 There were other brilliant exploits under brave com- 
 manders, among whom were Lieutenant Worden of the 
 Monitor, Captain Winslow of the Kearsarge, and Lieutenant 
 Cushing, who destroyed the ram Albemarle. 
 
 Early in 1862, the Confederates covered an old warship 
 with iron plates and sent it out to attack federal ships. 
 This ironclad is famous as the Merrimac, and, although 
 seamen laughingly called it a Quaker meetinghouse, for a 
 time it was the best ship afloat. 
 
 The Merrimac at Hampton Roads had one day sunk the 
 Cumberland and the Congress, and intended, the next day, to 
 dispose of the Minnesota, but when she was about to attack 
 the latter, a queer-looking little boat slipped out from behind, 
 
THE CIVIL WAR 295 
 
 and replied with heavy balls. The Confederates at first 
 jeered at what they called "A Yankee cheese-box on a raft," 
 but very soon they realized that the little ironclad Monitor 
 was a worthy opponent. 
 
 The boats advanced, backed, and dashed at each other, 
 continually firing shot that rolled off with little damage. The 
 Monitor began to gain the advantage. Then a well-directed 
 shell struck her pilot house, where Lieutenant Worden stood 
 directing the battle. Flakes of iron and powder were driven 
 into his face and eyes. The Monitor then withdrew, and the 
 Merrimac was glad to bring the engagement to an end. 
 
 When lying on a couch in the cabin, blinded and in great 
 suffering, Lieutenant Worden asked, "Have I saved the 
 Minnesota?" Wlien told that he had, he replied, "Then I 
 die happy." But he did not die. He recovered his sight and 
 his health, and served the government for twenty years longer. 
 
 Captain Winslow and the Alabama 
 
 The Confederates made heroic efforts to break the blockade, 
 not only to carry on trade with Europe, but to destroy North- 
 ern merchant vessels. One of the famous vessels in this serv- 
 ice was the Alabama, built in England. The Alabama had 
 captured sixty-six merchant vessels when Captain Winslow 
 of the Kearsarge caught her in the harbor of Cherbourg, 
 on the north coast of France. 
 
 The Alabama was compelled to fight. The engagement 
 took place three or four miles from the coast, and was wit- 
 nessed by many English and French people. Since the 
 Kearsarge and the Alabama were about equal in fitness, the 
 fight was hard and fair. Both sides showed much skill, 
 but in the end the Alabama had to strike her flag. The 
 ship soon sank, while her captain escaped to an English ship. 
 
296 
 
 NAVAL HEROES 
 
 The Alabama and the Kearsarge 
 
 Lieutenant Cushing and the Albemarle 
 
 One of the youngest officers to attain distinction by a val- 
 iant piece of work was Lieutenant Cushing, but twenty-two 
 years of age. The Confederates had an ironclad ram, the Al- 
 bemarle, that had done a great deal of damage to Federal ship- 
 ping. This boat had the advantage of speed, and could also 
 run in water too shallow for war vessels of the regular pattern. 
 
 The ram lay anchored in the Roanoke River, near the city 
 of Plymouth, North Carolina, eight miles from the mouth of 
 the river, in October, 1864. Lieutenant Cushing, eager for 
 daring work, begged permission to attempt to destroy her. 
 With a dozen men in a launch one dark night he slipped up 
 the river, unseen until a few yards from the Albemarle. He 
 had everything in readiness, and just as the shots from the 
 ram shattered his launch, a torpedo exploded by Cushing 
 blew up the Albemarle. 
 
 Cushing shouted to his men to take care of themselves, and, 
 
THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 297 
 
 as his boat sank, he swam down stream. Half an hour later, 
 nearly exhausted, he crawled through a swamp and found a 
 negro's cabin, where he got food and shelter for a few hours 
 rest. He then started out, captured a skiff from a rebel 
 picket, and before night had reached his fleet in safety. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Farragut: birth and descent. Adopted by Cap- 
 tain Porter. Taken north and became midshipman. The fight of the 
 Essex. Mediterranean cruises. Built navy yard at San Francisco. 
 Battle of New Orleans. Opened Mobile Bay. Character. Other 
 famous naval officers in the Civil War: Worden, Winslow, Cushing. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Imagine you were young Farragut, and 
 write an account of the battle of the Essex. II. Write on the importance 
 of controlling the Mississippi River during the war. III. Tell the story 
 of Lieutenant Cushing and the Albemarle. 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Valparaiso (p. 328); Mare Island (near San 
 Francisco), New Orleans, Mobile Bay, Plymouth, N. C. (p. 304); Cher- 
 bourg. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 History. — Hart and Stevens, "Romance of the Civil War," pp. 171- 
 179, S^ttiS* 347-379; Hai *t, "Source Book," pp. 313-315. 
 
 Biography. — Beebe, "Four American Naval Heroes," pp. 133- 
 192, 201-254; Mahan, "Admiral Farragut"; Barnes, "Midshipman 
 Farragut." 
 
 Loading a Naval Cannon in the Civil War 
 
CLARA BARTON AND THE RED CROSS 
 SOCIETY 
 
 As soon as President Lincoln called for volunteers in 1861, 
 groups of women in Northern cities and towns began to make 
 an effort to give relief and comfort to the soldiers. They met 
 together to sew. They prepared bandages and made "com- 
 fort bags," and sent them to the army. 
 
 In June, the Sanitary Commission was organized and given 
 the right to work in the camps and on the battle fields. These 
 men and women realized that soldiers cannot win battles 
 when they are sick, and that as great efforts should be made 
 to prevent sickness as to care for the wounded. They sent to 
 the soldiers printed circulars that gave directions about keep- 
 ing their clothes and the camps clean, and also warned them 
 about drinking water and the care of food. When it was 
 found that much sickness could be prevented by furnishing 
 the soldiers vegetables to eat, farmers through the North and 
 West shipped to the front carloads of potatoes and onions. 
 
 Very early in the war came the call for nurses, and many 
 
 young women responded. Among these were Dorothy Dix 
 
 and Mary Livermore, whose services will long be remembered. 
 
 Even an untrained woman was of great help in the hospitals 
 
 as she went from cot to cot, giving a drink of water to one 
 
 patient, a fresh handkerchief to another, and a word of cheer 
 
 here and there. At meal time many of the sick ones had to be 
 
 fed, and some wanted letters written home. At all times the 
 
 surgeons and the skilled nurses were very busy dressing 
 
 wounds and caring for the serious cases. 
 
 298 
 
THE CIVIL WAR 299 
 
 Of all the brave women who gave themselves to this work 
 the greatest is known to the world to-day as Clara Barton. 
 She was a Massachusetts woman of thirty or more, 
 and was in the Patent Office in Washington when the war 
 broke out. Seeing the great needs of the first troops, and 
 the difficulties of the government in supplying them, she 
 offered her salary, but the government could not accept it. 
 
 Finding no way of contributing, and unwilling to draw her 
 salary, she resigned her position and went to the field to care 
 for the sick and wounded, even before the organization of the 
 Sanitary Commission. This drew the attention of the North- 
 ern people, who, finding a way of getting supplies direct to 
 their soldiers, commenced to send them to her in such 
 quantities as to require storage. The government gave 
 her trains and men for transportation, and such information 
 as was proper, concerning possible engagements. In this 
 way, her supplies were first at a battle, often holding in 
 check the most terrible needs, till regular relief came. On 
 some expeditions she had ten army w r agons of supplies, 
 with sixty mules and drivers. In this way, she went through 
 the four years of war, often remaining months at the field 
 with no shelter but her wagons and tents. 
 
 At the close of the war, the army rolls showed that sixty 
 thousand men were "missing." President Lincoln author- 
 ized her to make a search to learn their probable fate. She 
 and her helpers gained information of about twenty thou- 
 sand. Through this search the government learned of the 
 condition of the dead buried at Andersonville prison. Miss 
 Barton was then sent to identify and mark the graves of 
 the thirteen thousand soldiers buried there. Their burial 
 place, covering fifty acres of ground, is known to-day as the 
 "Cemetery of the Union Dead at Andersonville. " 
 
3°° 
 
 CLARA BARTON 
 
 Broken in health, she went to Europe in 1869 for needed 
 rest, but the war between France and Germany called her 
 again to the field, to serve with the Red Cross Society at all 
 the greatest battles from the Rhine to Paris. Returning to 
 America, where the Red Cross had never been heard of, she 
 
 set to work to make 
 
 known to our govern- 
 ment the principles 
 of the society for the 
 relief of the sick and 
 wounded in war. Af- 
 ter six years of labor 
 at her own expense, 
 she succeeded in get- 
 ting our government 
 to cooperate with the 
 International Red 
 Cross. On President 
 Garfield's suggestion, 
 she became president 
 of the American Red 
 Cross, and held that 
 position until 1904, 
 when she resigned. 
 
 The flag, a red 
 cross on a white 
 ground, is recognized 
 and respected as neutral in time of war. All nurses and repre- 
 sentatives wear the red cross arm badge, and the field hospital 
 must show, with this red cross, the national flag as well. It is 
 always the practice of the Red Cross in time of war to care 
 for friend and enemv alike. 
 
 Clara Barton 
 
THE RED CROSS 3OI 
 
 By consent of foreign nations, Miss Barton added to the 
 work of the Red Cross in America, the relief of great 
 disasters in civil life, as from fire, flood, and famine. This 
 is known as the ''American Amendment/' She was always 
 present with her helpers in such disasters as the Mississippi 
 and Ohio floods, the Johnstown and Galveston floods, and 
 the Russian famine; some twenty in as many years. Dur- 
 ing all this time not a dollar was drawn from the treasury of 
 the United States for relief of disasters, and, except in the 
 time of the Cuban War, no appeal for money was ever 
 made to the public. As none of the officers of the Red Cross 
 receive salaries, the freewill offerings of the people were 
 sufficient. 
 
 At over eighty, still well and active, Miss Barton has 
 organized and nationalized the work of the " First Aid to the 
 Injured in America," of which she is president. This, as she 
 says, is a movement in which even school children may learn 
 to lessen the sufferings of others. Miss Barton's home at 
 present is at Glen Echo, Maryland. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Sanitary Commission. Nurses and their work. 
 Clara Barton in the Civil War. The Red Cross and its work. Later 
 services of Clara Barton. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Suppose you were a Civil War nurse, and 
 write a letter giving your experience. II. Write imaginary experiences 
 in a field hospital during the Cuban War. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 History. — Hart and Stevens, "Romance of the Civil War," pp. 381- 
 393; 395-403; 4i3-4i8. 
 
THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION AND 
 DEVELOPMENT 
 
 When the Civil War was over, two important questions 
 had to be settled: What was to be done with the Confed- 
 erate states? and What was to be done with the negroes? 
 Congress disposed of the first by requiring those states to 
 draw up new constitutions, in which they promised never 
 again to secede. They were also required to give the negroes 
 the right to vote, and to ratify new amendments to the 
 United States Constitution. This had to be done before 
 they could send representatives to Congress. 
 
 In January, 1863, the Emancipation Proclamation freed 
 the slaves in the states still under arms against the govern- 
 ment. Of course that was not sufficient, so the Thirteenth 
 Amendment was passed, freeing all slaves, and prohibiting 
 slavery forever in the territory governed by the United 
 States. 
 
 Freeing people who had no knowledge of the responsibil- 
 ities of life or liberty, naturally led to crime. As slaves, they 
 had never been obliged to provide for themselves or for their 
 families, and many did not know how to go to work to earn a 
 living, so they stole to keep from starving. When brought to 
 trial, the negro had no money to pay his fine. He feared 
 imprisonment, so when a white man offered to pay his fine 
 the negro eagerly agreed to work for him for an indefinite 
 period. In some cases he bound himself to work three or 
 four years for the payment of a fifty dollar fine. The 
 
 3°2 
 
ALASKA 303 
 
 Southern planters needed workmen, and in this way often 
 got them very cheap. Congress believed that they were 
 violating the Thirteenth Amendment, so a Civil Rights 
 Bill was passed. Also the Fourteenth Amendment was 
 added to the Constitution, giving to the negroes or freed- 
 men the rights of citizenship. 
 
 As the slaves had been freed and made citizens, they would 
 now be counted in apportioning representatives in Congress. 
 This and the fact that the states had been required to give 
 them the right to vote, led to the Fifteenth Amendment. 
 It says, "the right to vote shall not be denied on account 
 of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." 
 
 Alabama Claims. — We recall that the Alabama, built in 
 England, captured sixty-six merchant vessels before Captain 
 Winslow of the Kearsarge destroyed her, off the coast of 
 France. The United States government claimed that Eng- 
 land had violated the laws governing neutral nations when 
 she allowed the ship to be launched in an English shipyard. 
 In 1872, by the Geneva Award, Great Britain agreed to pay 
 $15,500,000 to the United States for the damage done by 
 Confederate cruisers. As the most famous of these was the 
 Alabama, the suits brought by our government for damages 
 are often called the Alabama Claims. 
 
 Purchase of Alaska. — Alaska had been discovered and 
 explored in the middle of the eighteenth century by Rus- 
 sians. The Russian government gave its control to a fur 
 trading company, whose charter expired in 1867. Then the 
 United States bought it for $7,200,000, or about two cents 
 an acre. This was our last great acquisition of territory 
 on the American continent. Earlier acquisitions are shown 
 on the map on the following page. 
 
 Growth of Railroads. — After the discovery of gold in Cal- 
 
304 
 
THE REAPER 305 
 
 ifornia there was a great demand for railroads across the 
 continent, but the Civil War interrupted the work for a few 
 years. In 1870 the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific 
 were completed, and the Northern Pacific begun. These 
 roads with others and their many branches have brought 
 the cities of the Pacific Coast within five days of those of the 
 Atlantic Coast. 
 
 Immigration and Growth of Cities. — At the close of the 
 war there was a great increase in immigration. While only 
 about 90,000 foreigners came to this country in 1861, nearly 
 500,000 came in 1873. The building of railroads, rapid 
 growth of industries, and general prosperity caused a steady 
 increase, until, in 1907, nearly 1,300,000 came. Many of 
 these people settled in the cities. 
 
 Another reason for the growth of cities lies in the fact that 
 the machines saving agricultural labor must be made in 
 factories and foundries in cities. So we find that as fewer 
 men are needed to work on the farms, they flock to the cities 
 and work in shops. These labor-saving machines, and the 
 application of steam and electricity, have brought about great 
 industrial changes. People can enjoy more luxuries with less 
 hard work than formerly. 
 
 Cyrus Hall McCormick and the Reaper 
 
 Until nearly the middle of the nineteenth century the 
 implements used for cutting grass and grain were the sickle, 
 scythe, and cradle. In each case the work was slow, one 
 man being able to cut little more than an acre in a day. 
 This was a great disadvantage, for grass and grain are 
 injured by rains, which in many countries are liable to 
 occur at the harvesting season. Another disadvantage 
 
306 CYRUS HALL McCORMICK 
 
 was that it required men to exercise violently in the fields 
 at a time when heat is almost unbearable. 
 
 Some attempts had been made to construct a machine to 
 do this work, but until 1831 nothing had been made that 
 worked well. Robert McCormick, a Virginia farmer, had 
 before 181 7 invented several labor-saving farm tools, but he 
 failed to make a machine to cut grain. He had a little son, 
 who played around his shop, watching these efforts and lis- 
 tening to the conversation on the difficulties of the problem. 
 This boy, years later, succeeded in doing what his father 
 had failed to do. 
 
 Cyrus Hall McCormick was born February 15, 1809, just 
 three days after the birth of Abraham Lincoln. His childhood 
 was spent in a home of great comfort, and he received the best 
 of training from parents of fine Christian character. At fif- 
 teen, young Cyrus began to experiment on a reaper, using the 
 parts cast aside by his father. At twenty- two, he had built a 
 machine that worked well. 
 
 The first reaper was a simple affair, but it possessed the 
 essential features of the later machines. Unlike some built in 
 earlier times, that clipped off the heads of the grain, this cut 
 the straw close to the ground. There was no seat for the 
 driver, so he rode on one of the horses; and a man walked 
 beside the reaper to rake the grain from the platform after it 
 was cut. McCormick was not satisfied with this model of 
 1 83 1, so he made many improvements before he asked for a 
 patent, three years later. 
 
 He built no reapers to sell until 1840, but from that time the 
 demand for them increased rapidly. In 1844 some machines 
 made by the McCormick Brothers in Virginia were sold to 
 western farmers, and were shipped by water from Richmond 
 to New Orleans, then up the Mississippi River to the Ohio. 
 
THE REAPER 
 
 3°7 
 
 This increased the expense and reduced the profits, so the 
 McCormicks moved to Chicago, within easy reach of the 
 great wheat-raising farmers of the West. 
 
 The manufacturing establishment they founded there 
 now covers an area of forty acres, employs 2500 men, and 
 makes over 200,000 machines each year, to be sold in every 
 country of the world. 
 
 There have been many improvements on the original 
 
 McCormick Harvester 
 
 machine. Since 1835 the government of the United States has 
 granted over 20,000 patents for modifications. There are 
 harvesters used on some western farms which combine the 
 reaper, binder, thresher, fanning mill, sacker, and straw 
 carrier. They are propelled by traction engines or by thirty 
 or thirty-six horses. They can cut from sixty to one hundred 
 and twenty- five acres, and thresh from seventeen hundred to 
 three thousand bushels of grain in a day. Those using 
 steam-power require seven men, while four men can manage 
 the horse-power harvesters. Such monster machines are not 
 
308 CYRUS HALL McCORMICK 
 
 in common use. The average reaper saves the labor of seven 
 or eight men. 
 
 Wheat is the most important food product in the world. 
 When wheat is cheap, bread is cheap. The price of wheat 
 depends largely on the supply-. Labor-saving machines have 
 made great production possible. In some sections where a 
 farmer could formerly harvest barely ten acres in a season, 
 a hundred or two can now be harvested. 
 
 Mr. McCormick, who invented the reaper, was also a great 
 benefactor in other ways. He made large sums of money 
 from his business, but he did not keep it all for himself. He 
 founded a theological seminary for the Presbyterian Church. 
 He gave generously to charity and religious publications. He 
 lived to be an old man, and saw the great changes that came 
 as the result of his invention. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Early methods of cutting grain. Robert Mc- 
 Cormick's attempts to make a reaper. Success was won by Cyrus 
 McCormick in 1831. First machine sent west. McCormicks located 
 in Chicago. A modern reaper. Benefits. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Describe a reaper you have seen cutting 
 grain. II. Show how a poor man in the city may be benefited by a 
 reaper. 
 
 Map Work. — Locate on the map the states where the reaper does 
 its greatest work. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 Biography. — Mowry, "American Inventions and Inventors," 
 pp. 1 1 7-123; Hubert, "Inventors," pp. 207-223; Williams, "Some 
 Successful Americans," pp. 79-89. 
 
MORSE AND OTHER INVENTORS 
 
 From the earliest times people have felt the need of send- 
 ing messages from place to place more quickly than it would 
 be possible to travel the same distance. Such need led to the 
 adoption of various methods of signaling. One method 
 most widely used was that of the beacon-light or a signal-fire 
 by night or a column of smoke by day. Early settlers in 
 America, when in need of help in case of Indian attacks, 
 usually built a fire on a hill. In the Revolution the action of 
 the enemy was made known miles away by the successive 
 lighting of signal-fires. By day, mirrors reflecting sunlight 
 were used in a similar way. The semaphore was long used. 
 This is an upright standard with one or more arms that can 
 be moved into positions representing letters or figures, cor- 
 responding to the code of the communicating parties. 
 
 The firing of cannon placed at intervals limited by the range 
 of sound has also been used. But a more secret method and 
 one that also allows an extended message and its reply, is 
 the signaling with flags. A code understood by the com- 
 municating parties is followed in the color and waving of these 
 flags. 
 
 All such devices seem poor in these days of the telephone 
 and wireless telegraph. Yet our present conveniences have 
 not long been enjoyed, and they have all grown out of the work 
 of Professor Morse. 
 
 Samuel Finley Breese Morse was born near Bunker Hill 
 battle ground in 1791. His father was a Congregational 
 
 309 
 
310 MORSE 
 
 minister who had been a college professor, and was related 
 to many scholarly men. The little boy early showed a very 
 bright mind. He was sent to school at the age of four. His 
 first teacher was known as "Old Ma'am Rand," who was 
 lame and could not leave her chair, but she had a whip long 
 enough to reach every boy in the room. Professor Morse 
 tells us that he was often pinned to her dress, to punish him 
 for drawing pictures instead of studying his lessons. 
 
 He was later sent to one of the famous boys' schools in 
 New England, and then to Yale college, from which he was 
 graduated at the age of nineteen. The year after graduation, 
 he went to England to study painting, and there he received 
 much help and inspiration from the great artist, West, who 
 had been so good a friend to Robert Fulton. 
 
 Finley Morse, as he was called, had much ability, and was 
 remarkably successful in his art work. When he was only 
 twenty- two, he received a gold medal from the Royal Academy 
 for his first attempt at sculpture, which was called The 
 Dying Hercules. Several of his paintings received generous 
 praise from the critics during his four years' stay in England. 
 
 In 1 815 his father died, and he was obliged to return to 
 America. For several years he spent all his time painting 
 portraits, among which was one of Lafayette, done while the 
 great Frenchman was in this country in 1825. After this, 
 Morse spent a few years in Europe, copying in the famous 
 galleries and studying under the great teachers of England 
 and France. 
 
 While in Europe Morse had learned much about the 
 electro-magnet. As you know, Franklin had made some 
 valuable experiments with electricity a century before, but 
 thus far little had been accomplished in controlling and using 
 an electric current. As a student, Morse had been greatly 
 
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH 
 
 311 
 
 interested in the subject of electricity, and now the old interest 
 was revived by talk about the electro-magnet. 
 
 In 1832, while on shipboard returning from Europe, he 
 became greatly absorbed in the idea of possible communica- 
 tion by means of an electric current. It was well known that 
 a current interrupted in its circuit produced a spark. His 
 first thought was to use, in combinations, the spark, its 
 absence, and the duration of its absence, to rep- 
 resent letters and words. He made an alphabet. 
 Then he devised a machine for recording the in- 
 terruptions of the current of electricity. It is said 
 that the fundamental idea of the telegraph was 
 worked out on that voy- 
 
 age. It took him, how- 
 ever, twelve years to put 
 that idea into practical 
 use. 
 
 On his arrival in New 
 York, Morse became pro- 
 fessor of art literature in 
 the University of the City 
 of New York. Although 
 the duties of his profession 
 were along a different line 
 of thought, he continued 
 his experiments with the 
 
 telegraph. His great difficulty was the lack of money. 
 People were slow to lend it, because they did not under- 
 stand the science underlying his idea. It was also a difficult 
 thing to explain without actual demonstration, which costs 
 money. But from 1832 to 1843, although Professor Morse 
 was so very poor that he had to deny himself and his family 
 
 Morse and his First Telegraphic 
 Instrument 
 
 MAK. & DEF. 
 
 20 
 
312 MORSE 
 
 often the necessaries of life, he persevered in his experi- 
 ments. 
 
 He applied to Congress for help. A bill was introduced 
 in the House of Representatives, appropriating $30,000 to be 
 used by Morse in completing his experiments to prove that 
 messages could be sent by electricity. Morse believed that 
 if a message could be sent ten miles, it could be sent a thou- 
 sand. Many men in speaking on the bill ridiculed it bitterly, 
 but Morse and his friends succeeded in influencing enough 
 men to pass it. For many days the Senate gave no attention 
 to it. In fact, at the beginning of the evening session of the 
 last day before adjournment in March, 1843, there were 119 
 bills to be acted upon before this one. Morse went to his 
 hotel utterly discouraged. The next morning he was sur- 
 prised to be told that the bill had passed the Senate five min- 
 utes before closing. This assured him of the government's 
 support to the extent of $30,000. 
 
 Morse and his friends then worked rapidly, and by May 24, 
 1844, a line connecting Washington and Baltimore was ready 
 to be tested. Morse was in the office in Washington, and a 
 helper was at Baltimore. In each place were visitors. The 
 daughter of a friend was asked to give a message. She 
 replied, "What hath God wrought I " This was clicked over 
 the wires. Then others asked questions and received answers 
 from Baltimore. Some of the visitors believed, but others 
 were mystified and regarded it as a hoax. 
 
 The first important news transmitted by the electric 
 telegraph was a report of the proceedings of the Democratic 
 convention of 1844 in Baltimore. After Polk was nom- 
 inated for President, the telegraph was used to notify Mr. 
 Silas Wright in Washington that he had been nominated 
 for Vice President. Mr. Wright declined the nomination. 
 
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH 313 
 
 When his telegram was read to the convention, they decided 
 to adjourn until a committee could go to Washington to 
 see Mr. Wright in person. When that committee returned 
 to give Mr. Wright's answer, just as it had been telegraphed 
 the day before, the men were convinced that the telegraph 
 was a great invention. People who knew little about 
 electricity had queer notions about how a message was 
 sent. Some even looked to see it going along the wires. 
 
 Lines were rapidly put up, connecting the large cities, but 
 men said that the wire would cost more than could be col- 
 lected by sending messages. This seemed likely at first, for 
 one day only twelve cents was taken in; the seventh day, 
 sixty cents; the eighth day, one dollar and thirty cents was 
 received. Since then, however, fabulous sums have been 
 made by the telegraph companies. Professor Morse wanted 
 to sell his rights to the government, but the government did 
 not dare to buy. 
 
 Professor Morse became a rich man, but he was rewarded 
 also in other ways for his years of labor, poverty, and disap- 
 pointment. The King of Prussia and the Emperor of Austria 
 each gave him a gold medal for his services to civilization. 
 Ten European governments, represented in Paris in 1858, 
 made up a purse of $80,000 as an expression of their appre- 
 ciation of his services to the world. 
 
 In June, 1871, there was unveiled a statue of Professor 
 Morse, erected in Central Park, New York, at the expense of 
 the telegraph operators of the country. Delegates were pres- 
 ent from every state in the Union, and from the provinces of 
 Canada. In the evening a great meeting was held in the 
 Academy of Music. A telegraph instrument on the stage was 
 in connection with every one of the 10,000 instruments in 
 America. An operator stepped to the key and sent this 
 
3*4 
 
 MORSE 
 
 message: "Greetings and thanks to the telegraph fraternity 
 throughout the world. Glory to God in the highest; peace, 
 good will to men." Then Professor Morse stepped forward 
 and, touching the key, sent out "S. F. B. Morse." 
 
 His last public appearance was on February 22, 1872, when 
 he unveiled the statue to Franklin in Printing House Square, 
 New York. He lived to see the valuable fruits of his labor. 
 
 Laying the Atlantic Cable (1866) 
 
 Not only was his invention then used by the whole civilized 
 world, but it was regarded as absolutely necessary. 
 
 Professor Morse early believed that messages could be 
 sent under water as well as on land. He tried some experi- 
 ments to prove this, but he willingly left the task of connecting 
 America and Europe to younger men. To Cyrus W. Field 
 belongs the honor of laying the first Atlantic cable, after many 
 unsuccessful attempts. In August, 1858, two ships carrying 
 
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH 315 
 
 miles of cable sailed to mid ocean. There the ends of the cable 
 were spliced, and the ships parted and sailed in opposite 
 directions, one to Ireland and the other to Newfoundland, 
 where the ends were connected with instruments. On Au- 
 gust 16 this message was sent: " Europe and America are 
 united by telegraph." A greeting from Queen Victoria 
 to the President and his reply were sent. But a few days 
 later the cable failed to work. It had broken, as had 
 happened during many other attempts to lay cables. 
 
 The Civil War came, and all attempts to lay another cable 
 were given up. The summer after the war was over, the work 
 was renewed, and in July, 1866, two cables were successfully 
 laid. Since then all parts of the world have been brought 
 into communication by telegraph and cable, both of which 
 are of great importance to the business and general welfare 
 of nations. 
 
 It was discovered in the early days of the telegraph that 
 sounds were conveyed by the wires. This led to experiments 
 on a telephone, which in 1876 was completed successfully, 
 and was first publicly exhibited at the Centennial at Phil- 
 adelphia. This was accomplished by the patient and 
 persistent efforts of Alexander Graham Bell, then a teacher- 
 of visible speech to the deaf and dumb. He strung a wire 
 between the first and fourth floors of his house, and devised 
 a receiver and a transmitter that worked well. Men who 
 saw it said that it would not work well out of doors, so the 
 next task was to prove that it would. Short distance lines 
 proved successful. Now many thousand miles of telephone 
 wires are stretched throughout the country. A business 
 man in New York can call up another in Chicago and com- 
 plete an important piece of business in a few minutes. 
 
 The reproduction or transmission of the human voice, 
 
316 MORSE 
 
 recognizable many miles away, seemed really the limit of 
 wonders, but greater things have been achieved. Now tele- 
 graph messages are sent without wires. There was a time 
 when an ocean voyage meant being cut off from home news 
 for at least a week. Now many steamships are equipped 
 with wireless machinery, and are in communication with 
 points on both sides of the water and with passing ships. To 
 the young Italian, Marconi, belongs the credit for this last 
 great invention. 
 
 These improved methods of communication have been of 
 untold benefit to the world. Each one cost years of hard 
 labor, sacrifices, and much discouragement, but the result 
 has been abundantly worth the efforts. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Methods of signaling. Morse as a boy and a 
 painter. Interest in electricity. Twelve years experimenting on the 
 telegraph. First line operated in 1844. Atlantic cable laid by Field 
 in 1858. Telephone invented by Bell in 1876. Wireless telegraph by 
 Marconi in 1902. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Write a paragraph on whichever of these 
 inventions you think the greatest. II. Describe in full the workings 
 of one of these methods of communication. 
 
 Instrument for sending Telegrams 
 
EDISON AND THE ELECTRIC LIGHT 
 
 Probably one of the earliest forms of artificial light was 
 the torch, or burning stick, such as a pine knot. This did 
 very well for use in the open air, but produced too much 
 smoke to be pleasant for house use. The Greeks and Romans 
 used a simple lamp in the form of a covered cup with a small 
 opening through which a piece of cloth was drawn. The 
 lamp was filled with olive oil, and the piece of cloth served as 
 a wick. 
 
 In the colonial days of our country the tallow candle was 
 chiefly used. The candle of tallow or wax has been widely 
 used for centuries, and is popular to-day for decorations. The 
 first lamps of modern days were filled with whale oil, but 
 about the middle of the nineteenth century this was dis- 
 placed by kerosene, which is much used to-day. The next 
 step in advance was the introduction of illuminating gas, 
 and men thought the perfect light had at last been found, 
 but electricity in some respects is much better. The in- 
 candescent light so familiar to us is of recent invention. It 
 is one of many devices invented by Thomas A. Edison. 
 
 Edison, as he is usually called, was born in Ohio, Febru- 
 ary ii, 1847. His parents were poor, and the boy is said to 
 have had only two months of school life. His mother, how- 
 ever, was an intelligent woman, and she taught him to read 
 and laid the foundations for the excellent work which he later 
 did for himself. If ever there was a self-educated man, 
 
 3 J 7 
 
318 EDISON 
 
 Edison is a good example, for he is essentially well educated 
 
 without having been (o school. 
 
 At the age of twelve, he became a newsboy on the Grand 
 Trunk and Michigan Central Railroad, running from 
 Toronto to Port Huron, Michigan. He sold papers and 
 candy, and kept his eyes and ears open. He learned much 
 from what he saw and heard, and he read everything that 
 seemed to him worth reading. The story is told that he 
 made up his mind to read a whole library. He selected a 
 shelf and read every book in turn until he had devoured 
 the contents of all standing on fifteen feet of shelving. 
 
 His chief interest was in chemistry. He said he came to 
 know every word in his first textbook on chemistry. But he 
 was never satisfied merely to read about experiments. He 
 rigged up a corner of the baggage car as a laboratory. Here 
 he also printed a little sheet, "The Grand Trunk Herald," 
 with type thrown away by a printing house. The paper con- 
 tained railroad news, and both trainmen and travelers 
 cheerfully bought it. 
 
 Edison says that at the beginning of the Civil War he was 
 working very hard but making little money. He had to be 
 careful to get no more papers than he could sell, and on the 
 other hand he wanted enough to meet the demand. This led 
 him to study the headlines in estimating the number he could 
 sell. Then it occurred to him to telegraph bits of war news 
 to stations ahead of his train. The operator wrote these on 
 a bulletin, and by the time Edison's train arrived crowds 
 were calling for papers. 
 
 Telegraphy had a peculiar fascination for him. He knew 
 all the operators along his route, and he wanted to learn the 
 business, but he could not afford to stop work and pay for 
 lessons. Fortune favored him when he least expected it. He 
 
EARLY LIFE 
 
 3*9 
 
 saved a small child from being run over by an approaching 
 train, and the grateful father, who was an operator, taught 
 young Edison without pay. At fifteen he became an oper- 
 ator. When still a young man he invented a repeating 
 instrument, a device by which a message could be forwarded 
 on a second line without the presence of an operator. A 
 little later he invented the famous duplex which made 
 possible the sending of two messages over the wire at the 
 
 Edison and the Phonograph 
 
 same time. This has been modified and improved so 
 that to-day the same wire can be used for four or six mes- 
 sages at once. 
 
 He is by nature an inventor. He makes this distinction 
 between discovery and invention. "In a discovery there 
 will be an element of the accidental. In my own case but 
 few, and those the least important of my inventions, owed 
 anything to accident. Most of them have been hammered 
 out after long and patient labor, and are the result of count- 
 
320 EDISON 
 
 less experiments all directed toward some well determined 
 object." Back in the days of the baggage-car laboratory he 
 was not content to read about a battery, but he set to work 
 and made one. It has been his good fortune that he is also 
 a genius in mechanics. He has the skill to express an idea 
 in material form. For example, he had an idea that a 
 record of sounds uttered by the human voice could be 
 made and preserved, so that the sounds could be reproduced 
 at a later time. His mechanical skill served him in the 
 actual construction of a contrivance carrying out that idea, 
 and we have as a result the phonograph. 
 
 Many scientists had worked on the problem of electric 
 lighting. The arc light involved less difficulty than the 
 incandescent lamp, which is a coil of wire in a glass bulb 
 from which the air has been exhausted. Inventors failed 
 with this at first because of the expense and its uncertainty. 
 Edison mastered the difficulties, at the expense of much 
 money, time, and patience. Every possible material was 
 tried, and hundreds of lamps were kept burning and were 
 carefully studied in order to determine just what conditions 
 produced the best and most lasting light. To-day millions 
 of people are enjoying the benefits. The light is clean, 
 bright, odorless, and produces little heat. This can be said 
 of no other mode of lighting houses. 
 
 Edison's inventions patented by the United States govern- 
 ment number nearly eight hundred. He has made a great 
 deal of money, but he still finds his greatest pleasure in his 
 laboratory experiments. His laboratory at West Orange, New 
 Jersey, is the finest in the world. In one room twenty feet 
 square are instruments that cost $18,000. In the storeroom 
 are to be found every known metal, every chemical, every 
 kind of glass, stone, wood, fiber, paper, and skin that can 
 
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT 32 I 
 
 be used in experiments. The supplies in this room are 
 valued at $100,000. This complete assortment of materials 
 is kept to prevent delay in securing any substance at a critical 
 time of experimentation. 
 
 Edison has as his helpers the most skillful men to be found. 
 When a man in any of the great establishments with which 
 he is connected shows marked ability, he tests him and gives 
 him special advantages. This often results in the addition 
 of the man to the force of helpers at West Orange. 
 
 In appearance Edison is of medium height and compactly 
 built. His hair is quite gray, but his smooth-shaven face is 
 fresh and boyish. His eyes are clear and steady, and, as he is 
 somewhat deaf, he appears to listen with his eyes. He cares 
 little for dress or personal luxury, but has a very beautiful 
 home because he considers the happiness of his family. He 
 is very patient with visitors and particularly kind and encour- 
 aging to boys who show mechanical genius. 
 
 Edison is regarded as America's greatest inventor and one 
 of the greatest men of genius of this age. Although he started 
 with but two months of schooling, he has succeeded because 
 of his powers of application and concentration, persistent 
 effort, and hard labor. 
 
 The inventions by Morse, Edison, and Marconi are sup- 
 plemented by the improved method of printing that brings 
 the news to the masses of people. As you may know, 
 Benjamin Franklin's press could print but one page at a 
 time, and was worked by turning a crank by hand. To-day, 
 through the inventions of Richard M. Hoe, there are presses 
 run by 125 horse power of electricity, that print in an hour 
 280 miles of paper the width of a newspaper. In other words, 
 they turn out in an hour 96,000 sixteen-page papers, or 48,000 
 thirty-two-page papers, all folded, pasted, and counted. 
 
322 
 
 EDISON 
 
 Topical Outline. — Early forms of lighting: torch, candle, lamp 
 Edison; newsboy and telegraph operator. Experiments on incan- 
 descent lamp. Characteristics of the man. Services. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. Describe a phonograph. II. Write on 
 other uses of the incandescent lamp besides that of house-lighting. 
 III. Write on any other things you have read about Edison. 
 
 Collateral Reading 
 
 History. — Eggleston, " Stories of American Life and Adventure," 
 pp. 66-74; Hart and Chapman, " How our Grandfathers Lived," 
 pp. 220-223; Earle, "Home Life in Colonial Days,"'pp. 32-51. 
 
 Biography. — Mowry, " American Inventions and Inventors," pp. 
 67-89, 265-294; Hubert, "Inventors," pp. m-i55> 223-270. 
 
 Modern Printing Press 
 
ADMIRAL DEWEY AND THE SPANISH WAR 
 
 Spanish rule in Cuba for many years had been so cruel 
 and oppressive that the island was in a constant state of rebel- 
 lion. In 1895- part of the Cuban people succeeded in setting 
 up a native government. Spain, fearing the consequences, 
 sent over a governor general who employed more oppress- 
 ive measures than had formerly been used. He drove the 
 farmers into the 
 
 Q 
 
 ISLE OF 
 
 Pines 
 
 U*>S>* 
 
 West Indies 
 
 towns to live, and 
 then he destroyed 
 their crops and 
 buildings. This 
 deprived the Cu- 
 ban army of the 
 food supplies usu- 
 ally furnished by 
 the farmers. When the country people reached the towns, 
 they were compelled to live in most unsanitary conditions, 
 and were allowed little and poor food. 
 
 The people of the United States were shocked at such 
 treatment, and indignantly demanded that Spain should be 
 more humane in dealing with the Cubans. Finally, our 
 government sent the battleship Maine to Havana harbor 
 because, in such troublous times, American citizens and Amer- 
 ican interests in Cuba were likely to suffer. 
 
 On the night of February 15, 1898, this battleship was 
 blown up and 266 lives were lost. Many Americans believed 
 
 323 
 
3 2 4 
 
 GEORGE DEWEY 
 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 14 Ma, ««m 
 
 Manila Bdp^- \./\, J" 
 
 J" .PA NAY) • •-V_\ i -_ 
 
 the Spanish authorities were responsible for the outrage. 
 The government tried to make a peaceable settlement with 
 Spain, but failed. On April n, President McKinley, in a 
 special message to Congress, said, "In the name of human- 
 ity and civilization, the war in Cuba must stop." Congress 
 
 declared war against Spain 
 x\pril 25, and the commander 
 farthest from home won the first 
 victory. This was Commodore 
 Dewey, who was in command of 
 an American fleet temporarily 
 stationed at Hongkong, China. 
 
 George Dewey was born in 
 Montpelier, Vermont, in Decem- 
 ber, 1837, and was graduated 
 from the United States Naval 
 Academy in 1858. In 1861 he 
 was commissioned lieutenant 
 and served under Admiral Far- 
 ragut in the Mississippi cam- 
 
 The Philippines pa j gn j R l862 _ 63< Later } n t h e 
 
 war, he served in the North Atlantic blockading squadron. 
 
 After the Civil War, Dewey received in turn the ranks of 
 Commander, Captain, and Commodore, and served in many 
 waters. In January, 1898, he was given command of the 
 Asiatic squadron, " An assignment then considered but little 
 short of exile," says Lodge. 
 
 After the destruction of the Maine, when war with Spain 
 seemed probable, Commodore Dewey under orders of our 
 government began to prepare his vessels for active service 
 in the harbor of Hongkong. When war was declared, he 
 was ordered to capture or destroy the Spanish fleet in the 
 
 CELEBES SEA 
 
THE SPANISH WAR 325 
 
 Philippine waters. This was very necessary, for otherwise 
 it was thought these ships might attack the American 
 cities on the Pacific coast. 
 
 One of Commodore Dewey's striking characteristics was 
 his readiness to meet an emergency. His men were under 
 splendid discipline; his ships were in good shape and well 
 supplied for action. Five days after war was declared, 
 Dewey's fleet had traveled over six hundred miles, and on 
 the night of April 30th was steaming into Manila Bay, 
 where he knew the Spanish squadron was to be found. 
 
 The American fleet consisted of nine swift, well-armed ships, 
 but not one of them was armor-clad. At the entrance to the 
 bay lie two islands on which were strong fortifications, but, 
 like Farragut of old, Dewey took his chances in passing these 
 forts. The night was dark, not a light was visible, and not a 
 sound could be heard save the throbbing of the engines. 
 The flagship Olympia took the lead, and the other ships 
 silently followed in line. They were well in the channel 
 before they were discovered. A few shots were exchanged; 
 then came quiet, and daylight found Dewey's fleet far up 
 the bay. 
 
 Manila Bay is about thirty miles long. Manila is twenty- 
 six miles and Cavite is sixteen miles from the entrance to 
 the bay. Close under the batteries of Cavite lay the 
 Spanish fleet. As Senator Lodge says, "The moment had 
 come. It came fortunately to a man who knew exactly 
 what he meant to do. . . . Commodore Dewey had 
 his plan thoroughly laid out, and now proceeded to carry 
 it into execution." 
 
 The Commodore got his two supply boats into a safe posi- 
 tion, and then his fleet moved past Cavite. Two or three 
 mines exploded, but did no injury. The Spanish batteries 
 
326 
 
 GEORGE DEWEY 
 
 and ships fired, but the Americans had been instructed 
 "to hold fire until close in. " When within a little less than 
 three miles of the Spanish ships, Dewey said to the Captain 
 of the Olympia, "If you are ready, Gridley, you may fire." 
 Then the signal went up, "Fire as convenient." This was 
 followed by the order, "Open with all the guns." 
 
 The American ships, firing deadly broadsides, passed and 
 repassed the Spanish fleet five times, each time a little nearer 
 
 Battle of Manila Bay 
 
 than before. The Spanish flagship bravely darted out toward 
 the Olympia, but the storm of shot directed on her tore up 
 her deck and exploded her boilers, killing 150 of her crew. 
 Several other ships that ventured out were treated in a similar 
 way. 
 
 After two hours, Commodore Dewey gave the signal to 
 cease firing and follow the flagship. They moved toward the 
 
THE SPANISH WAR 327 
 
 opposite side of the bay, where they ate breakfast, cleaned the 
 decks, and rested. Three hours later, at a quarter before 
 eleven, the battle was renewed; and it ended early in the 
 afternoon with the complete destruction of the Spanish fleet. 
 After raising the white Hag, the Spanish admiral fled to 
 Manila. Soon the shore batteries were silenced. Dewey's 
 orders had been to capture or destroy the fleet. He had com- 
 pletely destroyed it without the loss of a ship or of a man, and • 
 only eight of his men had been at all injured. A little later 
 an army was sent to take possession of Manila. 
 
 Senator Lodge says, "The secret of this great victory was 
 in the accuracy and rapidity of the American gunners. This 
 great quality was not accidental, but due to skill, practice, 
 and national aptitude. In addition to this traditional skill 
 was the genius of the commander, backed by the fighting 
 capacity of his captains and his crews." The same qualities 
 were shown two months later in the destruction of the other 
 Spanish fleet off Santiago. 
 
 In recognition of Dewey's services, Congress voted him a 
 $10,000 sword, and the rank of Admiral was revived and 
 conferred upon him. On September 26, 1899, he arrived in 
 New York in his famous flagship Olympia, and received the 
 grandest reception ever given to a public officer. The dem- 
 onstration included a naval parade on September 29, and a 
 land parade the following day. 
 
 As a result of this war with Spain, Porto Rico and the 
 Philippine Islands were ceded to the United States, and Cuba 
 was granted independence under the protection of our gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Spanish oppression in Cuba. Destruction of 
 the Maine. War declared. Dewey ordered to capture or destroy the 
 
 MAK. & DEF. — 21 
 
THE SPANISH WAR 
 
 3 2 9 
 
 Asiatic fleet of Spain. Battle of Manila. Santiago victory. Dewey's 
 return. Results of the war. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. As one of the crew of the Olympia, describe 
 that Sunday morning's work in Manila Bay. II. Describe another 
 event of this war, that you have read about elsewhere. 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Hongkong, Manila Bay, Santiago. 
 
 For Collateral Reading. — Johnson, " The Hero of Manila."* 
 
 srv ?/« ■■-■■' • - 
 
 T v &«*■ • • v 
 
 ■-> . , '/aij* * ■*• '■■■ '? 
 % , 
 
 l\ fit liwSWS 
 
 "m^: 
 
 Scene in the Philippines 
 
ANDREW CARNEGIE — THE PHILANTHROPIST 
 
 There is a man known and respected by all Americans, 
 who was neither a soldier nor inventor, but a successful 
 business man and philanthropist. The life of this man 
 
 should be an inspiration to every 
 ambitious boy, for all his wealth 
 has come from his own work. 
 
 Andrew Carnegie was born at 
 Dunfermline, 1 Scotland, Novem- 
 ber 25, 1837. His father was a 
 master weaver, and his mother a 
 thrifty housewife, who found time 
 to give her boys the best of care 
 and training. She taught Andrew 
 at home until he was eight, when 
 he was sent to a public school. 
 The schoolmaster began the 
 day's work with a scripture les- 
 son, and the boys were once 
 asked to give a text from the Proverbs of Solomon. Now 
 Andy had been well instructed in the Bible, but that morn- 
 ing, when his turn came, he responded with, "Take care 
 of the pence, and the pounds will take care of themselves." 
 This shows that his mother began early to start her boy on 
 the road to become a rich man. 
 
 1 In Fife County, north of the Firth of Forth; a few miles northwest 
 of Edinburgh. 
 
 33° 
 
 Andrew Carnegie 
 
BOYHOOD 331 
 
 Andrew's father was a prosperous weaver; he had four 
 damask-looms and kept several apprentices. But early in 
 the 'forties, machines rapidly displaced the hand looms, and 
 one day, when Andrew was ten, his father announced that 
 there was no more work for him. It was a serious prospect, 
 for everywhere in England and Scotland were the same con- 
 ditions. 
 
 They decided to move to America. As some relatives had 
 previously settled in Pittsburg, the Carnegies went directly 
 to that city on their arrival in 1848. The father found work 
 in a cotton mill, and Andrew became a bobbin boy at $1.20 a 
 week. He says that although he has handled many millions 
 of dollars since, no money has ever given him so much pleas- 
 ure as that dollar and twenty cents at the end of a hard 
 week's work of twelve-hour days. He shared in the expenses 
 of the family, arid formed the habit of saving a little each week. 
 
 The next year he fired an engine in a factory at an increase 
 of pay, but the work was distasteful to him. He was on the 
 lookout for something better, and within a year had work as 
 a telegraph messenger boy at $2.50 a week. This delighted 
 him because he could be out of doors. But he met difficulties, 
 for he did not know the city. So this fourteen-year-old boy 
 set to work committing to memory the location of every 
 prominent business house, until he could close his eyes and 
 tell exactly where each was located. He says, however, 
 that one difficulty of the business he failed to master. It was 
 the custom, if anything was the matter, to send one of the boys 
 up a telegraph pole, to repair the wire. Carnegie says he 
 tried his best to climb one of those poles, but failed. 
 
 He had been employed as a messenger but one month when 
 he began to learn telegraphy. He used his spare time at the 
 instruments, and, from the first, trained himself to receive by 
 
332 ANDREW CARNEGIE 
 
 sound instead of by reading the tape. At sixteen, he was an 
 operator. He was thorough and exact in all he did, and men 
 sought him for these special qualities. Newspaper men asked 
 him to prepare "copy" of news received over the wire. This 
 gratified a peculiar desire he had to write for publication, and 
 it added a little to his income. 
 
 Superintendent Scott of the Pittsburg Division of the Penn- 
 sylvania Railroad came to know his accuracy, and selected 
 young Carnegie as the operator for his most important mes- 
 sages. In time Mr. Scott decided that Carnegie was just 
 the kind of boy he wanted in his own office. During the 
 period of Carnegie's work in the superintendent's office, 
 there were many times when his integrity and good judgment 
 were well tested. He did his work so well that he became 
 superintendent himself when still very young. 
 
 Each promotion after he was sixteen meant much, for 
 Andrew's father had died, and, being the elder son, Andrew 
 felt responsible for his mother's comfort. He was always 
 devoted to his mother, and often says that he owes his 
 success to her training when he was a child, and to her 
 encouragement when he became a man. 
 
 When war broke out, Mr. Scott became Assistant Secretary 
 of War, and Carnegie became Assistant Superintendent of 
 Military Railroads and Telegraphs. Although he never 
 enlisted, young Carnegie was the third man wounded. He 
 was not wounded by a bullet, but by a bounding wire when he 
 was working on a special telegraph line for receiving war news 
 from the field. He sent messages to the War Department from 
 the front, and devised a code for cipher dispatches. After 
 one year of service, he and Mr. Scott returned to Pittsburg. 
 
 Soon after this, a man came to him one day with a model 
 ot a sleeping car. Carnegie saw at once that the idea was 
 
BUSINESS MAN 333 
 
 good. He consulted Mr. Scott, and through their iniluence 
 the Pennsylvania Railroad put on its line the first sleeping 
 cars used in America. Carnegie invested in their manufac- 
 ture, which proved to be a very profitable business. 
 
 When he became superintendent of the Pittsburg Division, 
 the question of bridges occupied much of his thought. 
 
 Making Steel 
 
 Bridges of wood burned and decayed and were often washed 
 away by the floods, and it was largely through him that iron 
 bridges were substituted. He believed so thoroughly in the 
 idea, that, as in the case of the sleeping cars, he became 
 interested in their manufacture. The Keystone Bridge Com- 
 pany, of which he was a large stockholder, sold bridges all 
 over the country. 
 
334 ANDREW CARNEGIE 
 
 Carnegie always had a desire to improve whatever he 
 worked with. Realizing the superiority of steel over iron 
 for many things, he set to work to make steel. Pittsburg is 
 in the midst of a great iron-producing section. Carnegie 
 established furnaces where steel is made by forcing powerful 
 currents of air through molten iron to remove the carbon. 
 For several years he was the leading figure in the steel- 
 producing world. 
 
 Andrew Carnegie had many men in his employ, and his 
 treatment of them is interesting. He had the reputation 
 of paying the best wages in the country for the kind of work 
 done, and long ago he favored an eight-hour day. He 
 would have no laggards in his employ. He said he was 
 willing to pay well for work, but not for loafing. He gave 
 four million dollars for pensions to worthy men in his 
 employ. 
 
 He is famous for his young men partners. He often 
 took capable young men from the unskilled ranks and put 
 them into places of responsibility. If they were successful, 
 they were taken into partnership. Carnegie says that 
 honesty, industry, and concentration are the qualities 
 necessary for success in business. He himself is a good 
 example of the practical value of these virtues, and they 
 are possible to any boy. 
 
 Carnegie is a philanthropist as well as a good business 
 man. His favorite benefaction is in the form of public 
 libraries. He says this is prompted from his own experience. 
 As a young boy he wanted books, but had few, until Colonel 
 Anderson let him come to his private library and select books 
 to take home and read. He regards that as one of the great- 
 est privileges of his boyhood, and he is eager to put books 
 within the reach of every poor boy to-day. Up to June, 
 
PHILANTHROPIST 335 
 
 1907, Carnegie had given away $167,000,000, and about 
 one third of this amount was for the founding of public 
 libraries. 
 
 The story is told that, as a little boy in Dunfermline, he 
 used to look through the iron fence into a private park and 
 long to go in and play. When he became wealthy, he went 
 back to Dunfermline, bought that park, and gave it to the 
 town to be free for every one. The fine old mansion in the 
 park was made into a clubhouse with reading rooms for 
 old and young. He also gave $10,000,000 for universities 
 in Scotland. He built a beautiful castle near his boyhood 
 home, and usually spends a part of each year there. 
 
 Mr. Carnegie is the author of several books, in one of which 
 he says he believes that " the man who has neglected to help 
 his fellows during life dies disgraced." He has enjoyed mak- 
 ing money and possessing great wealth because of the good 
 he can do with it. Although over seventy, he is still fond of 
 outdoor life. He is also devoted to children. Men say that 
 you cannot look into his face and catch the twinkle of his 
 blue eyes without feeling that you would like to know him 
 better. 
 
 Topical Outline. — Birthplace in Scotland. Boyhood of hard work. 
 Became a telegraph operator. Service in war time. Maker of sleeping 
 cars and iron bridges. Great steel industry. Generous gifts for public 
 good. 
 
 For Written Work. — I. What do you particularly like about Mr. 
 Carnegie ? Give your reasons. II. Write a paragraph on the good of 
 public libraries. III. Explain why honesty, industry, and concentra- 
 tion are necessary to business success. 
 
 Map Work. — Locate Dunfermline, Scotland; Pittsburg. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE — 1776 
 
 In Congress, July 4, 1776. 
 the unanimous declaration of the thirteen united states of 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
 people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
 another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and 
 equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle 
 them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
 should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 
 
 We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all men are created 
 equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
 rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 
 That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, 
 deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, when- 
 ever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the 
 right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new govern- 
 ment, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers 
 in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and 
 happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long estab- 
 lished, should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, ac- 
 cordingly, all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to 
 suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing 
 the forms to which they are accustomed. But, when a long train of 
 abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a 
 design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is 
 their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for 
 their future security. — Such has been the patient sufferance of these 
 colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter 
 their former systems of government. The history of the present king 
 of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all hav- 
 
 1 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 ing in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these 
 States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 
 
 He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary 
 for the public good. 
 
 He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing 
 importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be 
 obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to 
 them. 
 
 He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large dis- 
 tricts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of repre- 
 sentation in the legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable 
 to tyrants only. 
 
 He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfort- 
 able, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole 
 purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 
 
 He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with 
 manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 
 
 He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others 
 to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, 
 have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remain- 
 ing, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from with- 
 out, and convulsions within. 
 
 He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that 
 purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to 
 pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions 
 of new appropriations of lands. 
 
 He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent 
 to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 
 
 He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their 
 offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 
 
 He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of 
 officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. 
 
 He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the 
 consent of our legislature. 
 
 He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, 
 the civil power. 
 
 He has combined, with others, to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 
 to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent 
 to their acts of pretended legislation : 
 
 For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : 
 
 For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any mur- 
 ders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States : 
 
 2 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : 
 For imposing taxes on us without our consent: 
 For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury: 
 For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses: 
 For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring prov- 
 ince, establishing therein an arbitrary government and enlarging its 
 boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and lit instrument Cor 
 introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies: 
 
 For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and 
 altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments : 
 
 For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested ■ 
 with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 
 
 He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his protec- 
 tion, and waging war against us. 
 
 He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and 
 destroyed the lives of our people. 
 
 He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries 
 to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun, 
 with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most 
 barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 
 
 He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, 
 to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their 
 friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 
 
 He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored 
 to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, 
 whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, 
 sexes, and conditions. 
 
 In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress in 
 the most humble terms : our repeated petitions have been answered only 
 by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every 
 act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 
 
 Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We 
 have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to 
 extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them 
 of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have 
 appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured 
 them, by the ties of 'our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, 
 which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. 
 They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. Vf d 
 must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separa- 
 tion, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in 
 peace friends. 
 
 3 
 
THE DECLARATION OE INDEPENDENCE 
 
 We. therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in 
 general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world 
 for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by authority of 
 the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That 
 these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent 
 States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, 
 and that all political connection between them and the state of Great 
 Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and inde- 
 pendent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, con- 
 tract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things 
 which independent States may of right do. And for the support of this 
 declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, 
 we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred 
 honor. John Hancock. 
 
 Neiv Hampshire 
 Josiah Bartlett, 
 Wm. Whipple, 
 Matthew Thornton. 
 
 Massachusetts Bay 
 Saml. Adams, 
 John Adams, 
 Robt. Treat Paine, 
 Elbridge Gerry. 
 
 Bhode Island 
 Step. Hopkins, 
 William Ellery^ 
 
 Connecticut 
 Roger Sherman, 
 Sam'el Huntington, 
 Wm. Williams, 
 Oliver Wolcott. 
 
 New York 
 Wm. Eloyd, 
 Phil. Livingston, 
 Frans. Lewis, 
 Lewis Morris. 
 
 New Jersey 
 Richd. Stockton, 
 Jno. Witherspoon, 
 Eras. Hopkinson, 
 John Hart, 
 Abra. Clark. 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Robt. Morris, 
 Benjamin Rush, 
 Benja. Franklin, 
 John Morton, 
 Geo. Clymer, 
 Jas. Smith, 
 Geo. Taylor, 
 James Wilson, 
 Geo. Ross. 
 
 Delaware 
 Caesar Rodney, 
 Geo. Read, 
 Tho. M'Kean. 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Samuel Chase, 
 Wm. Paca, 
 Thos. Stone, 
 4 
 
 Charles Carroll of Car- 
 rollton. 
 
 Virginia 
 
 George Wythe, 
 Richard Henry Lee, 
 Th Jefferson, 
 Benja. Harrison, 
 Thos. Nelson, jr., 
 Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
 Carter Braxton. 
 
 North Carolina 
 Wm. Hooper, 
 Joseph Hewes, 
 John Penn. 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Edward Rutledge, 
 Thos. Heyward, Junr., 
 Thomas Lynch, Junr., 
 Arthur Middleton. 
 
 Georgia 
 Button Gwinnett, 
 Lyman Hall, 
 Geo. Walton. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES— 1787 1 
 
 We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
 union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the com- 
 mon defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of 
 
 liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Con- 
 stitution for the United States of America. 
 
 ARTICLE I 
 
 Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in 
 a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
 House of Representatives. 
 
 Section 2. 1 The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
 members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, 
 and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for 
 electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. 
 
 2 No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to 
 the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a eitizen of the United 
 States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in 
 which he shall be chosen. 
 
 3 Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the 
 several States which may be included within this Union, according to 
 their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the 
 whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term 
 of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other per- 
 sons. 3 The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after 
 the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every 
 subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. 
 The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty 
 thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative ; and until 
 such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be 
 entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Provi- 
 dence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey t'< >ur, 
 Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North 
 Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 
 
 4 When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the 
 executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such 
 vacancies. 
 
 5 The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other 
 officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 
 
 Section 3. 1 The Senate of the United States shall be composed of 
 two senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof for six 
 years ; and each senator shall have one vote. 
 
 1 This reprint of the Constitution exactly follows the text of that in the 
 Department of State at Washington, save in the spelling of a few words. 
 
 2 The last half of this sentence was superseded by the 13th and 14th Amend- 
 ments. (See p. lb following.) 
 
 5 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 2 Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the 
 first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
 classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at 
 the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of 
 the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, 
 so that one third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies 
 happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature 
 of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments 
 until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such 
 vacancies. 
 
 3 No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age 
 of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and 
 who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he 
 shall be chosen. 
 
 4 The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the 
 Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 
 
 5 The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro 
 tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise 
 the office of President of the United States. 
 
 6 The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
 When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
 When the President of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall 
 preside : and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two 
 thirds of the members present. 
 
 7 Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to 
 removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of 
 honor, trust or profit under the United States : but the party convicted 
 shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and 
 punishment, according to law. 
 
 Section 4. 1 The times, places, and manner of holding elections for 
 senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the 
 legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time by law make or 
 alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 
 
 2 The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such 
 meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by 
 law appoint a different day. 
 
 Section 5. 1 Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns 
 and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall con- 
 stitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from 
 day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent 
 members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may 
 provide. 
 
 2 Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its 
 members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, 
 expel a member. 
 
 3 Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time 
 to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment 
 require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House 
 on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be 
 entered on the journal. 
 
 4 Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the 
 consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
 place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 
 
 6 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Section 6. 1 The senators and representatives shall receive a com- 
 pensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the 
 Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, 
 felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their 
 attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and 
 returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either House, 
 they shall not be questioned in any other place. 
 
 2 No senator or representative shall, during the time for which be 
 was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the 
 United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof 
 shall have been increased during such time ; and no person holding any 
 office under the United States shall be a member of either House during 
 his continuance in office. 
 
 Section 7. 1 All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
 House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with 
 amendments as on other bills. 
 
 2 Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and 
 the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President 
 of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall 
 return it, with his objections to that House in which it shall have origi- 
 nated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed 
 to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of that House 
 shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, 
 to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if 
 approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all 
 such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, 
 and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be en- 
 tered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be 
 returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it 
 shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner 
 as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent 
 its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 
 
 3 Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the 
 Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a ques- 
 tion of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United 
 States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, 
 or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate 
 and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations pre- 
 scribed in the case of a bill. 
 
 Section 8. 1 The Congress shall have power to lay and collect 
 taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the 
 common defense and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, 
 imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; 
 
 2 To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 
 
 3 To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several 
 States, and with the Indian tribes ; 
 
 4 To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on 
 the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 
 
 5 To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and 
 fix the standard of weights and measures ; 
 
 6 To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
 current coin of the United States ; 
 
 7 To establish post offices and post roads ; 
 
 7 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 8 To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for 
 limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respec- 
 tive writings and discoveries ; 
 
 9 To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 
 
 10 To detine and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high 
 seas, and offenses against the law of nations ; 
 
 11 To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
 rules concerning captures on land and water ; 
 
 12 To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that 
 use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 
 
 13 To provide and maintain a navy ; 
 
 14 To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
 naval forces ; 
 
 15 To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
 Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions ; 
 
 16 To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and 
 for governing such part of them. as may be employed in the service of the 
 United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the 
 officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the disci- 
 pline prescribed by Congress ; 
 
 17 To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such 
 district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular 
 States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government 
 of the United States, 1 and to exercise like authority over all places pur- 
 chased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same 
 shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and 
 other needful buildings ; and 
 
 18 To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
 into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this 
 Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department 
 or officer thereof. 
 
 Section 9. 1 The migration or importation of such persons as any 
 of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro- 
 hibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and 
 eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceed- 
 ing ten dollars for each person. 2 
 
 2 The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
 unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may re- 
 quire it. 
 
 3 No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 
 
 4 No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion 
 to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 
 
 5 No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 
 
 6 No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or reve- 
 nue to the ports of one State over those of another : nor shall vessels 
 bound to, or from, one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in 
 another. 
 
 7 No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of 
 appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the 
 
 1 The District of Columbia, which comes under these regulations, had not 
 then been erected. 
 
 2 A temporary clause, no longer in force. See also Article V, p. 12 following. 
 
 8 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time 
 to time. 
 
 8 No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no 
 person holding any office of protit or trust under them, shall, without the 
 consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, 
 of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 
 
 Section 10. x 1 No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- 
 federation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills 
 of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of 
 debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the 
 obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 
 
 2 No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts 
 or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary 
 for executing its inspection laws : and the net produce of all duties and 
 imposts laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of 
 the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to 
 the revision and control of the Congress. 
 
 3 No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of 
 tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any 
 agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or 
 engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as 
 will not admit of delay. 
 
 ARTICLE II 
 
 Section 1. 1 The executive power shall be vested in a President of 
 the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of 
 four years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same 
 term, be elected, as follows 
 
 2 Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof 
 may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators 
 and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress : 
 but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or 
 profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 
 
 The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot 
 for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the 
 same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the per- 
 sons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall 
 sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the 
 United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the 
 > Senate, shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
 open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person 
 having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number 
 be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if there be 
 more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of 
 votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by 
 ballot one of them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then 
 from the five highest on the list the said house shall in like manner choose 
 the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken 
 by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum 
 for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of 
 the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. 
 
 1 See also the 10th, 13th, 14th, and loth Amendments, pp. 15, 16 following. 
 
 9 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the 
 greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice President. But 
 if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate 
 shall choose from them by ballot the Vice President. 1 
 
 3 The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and 
 the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same 
 throughout the United States. 
 
 4 No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
 States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to 
 the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office 
 who shall not have attained to the age of thirty -five years, and been four- 
 teen years a resident within the United States. 
 
 5 In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, 
 resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said 
 office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress 
 may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or ina- 
 bility, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what officer 
 shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until 
 the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 
 
 6 The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- 
 pensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the 
 period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
 within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any 
 of them. 
 
 7 Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the fol- 
 lowing oath or affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I 
 will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and 
 will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitu- 
 tion of the United States." 
 
 Section 2. 1 The President shall be commander in chief of the 
 army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several 
 States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may 
 require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the 
 executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their 
 respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons 
 for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 
 
 2 He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
 Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present con- 
 cur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of 
 the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, 
 judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, 
 whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which 
 shall be established by law : but the Congress may by law vest the 
 appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the Presi- 
 dent alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 
 
 3 The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
 happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which 
 shall expire at the end of their next session. 
 
 Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress infor- 
 mation of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration 
 such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on 
 
 1 This paragraph superseded by the 12th Amendment, p. 15 following. 
 
 10 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in 
 case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjourn- 
 ment, he may adjourn them to such time, as he shall think proper; he 
 shall receive ambassadors and other public, ministers; he shall take care 
 that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers 
 of the United States. 
 
 Section 4. The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the 
 United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and con- 
 viction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 
 
 ARTICLE III 
 
 Section 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested 
 in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may 
 from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme 
 and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and 
 shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation which 
 shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 
 
 Section 2. 1 The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and 
 equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, 
 and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; — to 
 all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls ; — 
 to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; — to controversies to 
 which the United States shall be a party ; — to controversies between two 
 or more States; — between a State and citizens of another State ; l — be- 
 tween citizens of different States, — between citizens of the same State 
 claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or 
 the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens or subjects. 
 
 2 In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con- 
 suls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall 
 have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the 
 Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, 
 with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall 
 make. 
 
 3 The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by 
 jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall 
 have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the 
 trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have 
 directed. 
 
 Section 3. 1 Treason against the United States, shall consist only in 
 levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them 
 aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the 
 testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in 
 open court. 
 
 2 The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, 
 but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture 
 except during the life of the person attainted. 
 
 ARTICLE IV 
 
 Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the 
 public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And 
 
 1 See the l'lth Amendment, p. 15 following. 
 11 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such 
 acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 
 
 Section 2. 1 The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privi- 
 leges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 
 
 2 A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, 
 who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall on de- 
 mand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be 
 delivered up to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 
 
 3 No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws 
 thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regu- 
 lation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be 
 delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may 
 be due. 1 
 
 Section 3. 1 New States may be admitted by the Congress into this 
 Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdic- 
 tion of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two 
 or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures 
 of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 
 
 2 The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful 
 rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging 
 to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so con- 
 strued as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular 
 State. 
 
 Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this 
 Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them 
 against invasion ; and on application of the legislature, or of the execu- 
 tive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence. 
 
 ARTICLE V 
 
 The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it 
 necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
 application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall 
 call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall 
 be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when 
 ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by 
 conventions in three fourths thereof, as the or^e or the other mode of 
 ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided that no amend- 
 ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred 
 and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the 
 ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, 
 shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 
 
 ARTICLE VI 
 
 1 All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the 
 adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States 
 under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 
 
 2 This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be 
 made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, 
 under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the 
 land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in 
 the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 1 See the 13th Amendment, p. 16 following. 
 12 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 3 The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the mem- 
 bers of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, 
 both of the United States, and of the several States, shall be bound by 
 oath or affirmation to support, this Constitution; but no religious test 
 shall ever be required as a qualification to any ollice or public trust under 
 the United States. 
 
 ARTICLE VII 
 
 The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for 
 the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the 
 same. 
 
 Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States present the 
 seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand 
 seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United 
 States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto 
 subscribed our names, 
 
 Go: Washington — 
 
 Presidt. and Deputy from Virginia 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 John Langdon 
 Nicholas Gilman 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Nathaniel Gorham 
 Rufus King 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Wm. Saml. Johnson 
 Roger Sherman 
 
 New York 
 Alexander Hamilton 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Wil : Livingston 
 David Brearley 
 Wm. Paterson 
 Jona: Dayton 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 B. Franklin 
 Thomas Mifflin 
 Robt. Morris 
 Geo. Clymer 
 Thos. Fitzsimons 
 Jared Ingersoll 
 James Wilson 
 Gouv Morris 
 
 Attest 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Geo : Read 
 
 Gunning Bedford Jun 
 John Dickinson 
 Richard Bassett 
 Jaco: Broom 
 
 Maryland 
 
 James McHenry 
 
 Dan of St. Thos Jenifer 
 
 Danl. Carroll 
 
 Virginia 
 
 John Blair — 
 James Madison Jr. 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Wm. Blount 
 
 Richd. Dobbs Spaight 
 
 Hu Williamson 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 J. Rutledge, 
 
 Charles Cotesworth Pinckney 
 
 Charles Pinckney 
 
 Pierce Butler. 
 
 Georgia 
 
 William Few 
 Abr Baldwin 
 William Jackson Secretary. 
 
 13 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Articles in addition to, and amendment of, the Constitution of the United 
 States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the legisla- 
 tures of the several States pursuant to the fifth article of the original 
 Constitution. 
 
 ARTICLE Ii 
 
 Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or 
 prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, 
 or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to 
 petition the government for a redress of grievances. 
 
 ARTICLE II 
 
 A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, 
 the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. 
 
 ARTICLE III 
 
 No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without 
 the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be pre- 
 scribed by law. 
 
 ARTICLE IV 
 
 The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
 and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- 
 lated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by 
 oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, 
 and the persons or things to be seized. 
 
 ARTICLE V 
 
 No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous 
 crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in 
 cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual 
 service in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject 
 for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall 
 be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be 
 deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall 
 private property be taken for public use without just compensation. 
 
 ARTICLE VI 
 
 In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
 speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district 
 wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have 
 been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and 
 cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; 
 to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to 
 have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 
 
 ARTICLE VII 
 
 In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
 twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
 tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United 
 States, than according to the rules of the common law. 
 
 1 The first ten Amendments were adopted iu 17UL 
 14 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ARTICLE VIII 
 
 Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive lines imposed, nor 
 cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 
 
 ARTICLE IX 
 
 The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be 
 construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 
 
 ARTICLE X 
 
 The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor 
 prohibited bv it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to 
 
 the ' ,COple - ARTICLE XI> 
 
 The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend 
 to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the 
 United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of 
 any foreign State. ARTICLE XII > 
 
 The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot 
 for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an 
 inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their 
 ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person 
 voted for as Vice President, and they shall make distinct lists of all per- 
 sons voted for as President and of all persons voted for as Vice President, 
 and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and 
 certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United 
 States, directed to the president of the Senate; — The president of the 
 Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
 open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted ; — The person 
 having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, 
 if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; 
 and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the 
 highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as 
 President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by 
 ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be 
 taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a 
 quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two 
 thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary 
 to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a 
 President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before 
 the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice President shall act 
 as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability 
 of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as 
 Vice President shall be the Vice President, if such number be a majority 
 of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a 
 majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall 
 choose the Vice President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two 
 thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole 
 number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally 
 ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice Presi- 
 dent of the United States. 
 
 i Adopted in 1798. 2 Adopted in 1804. 
 
 15 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ARTICLE XIII i 
 
 Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a pun- 
 ishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall 
 exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 
 
 Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by ap- 
 propriate legislation. 
 
 ARTICLE XIV 2 
 
 Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
 subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of 
 the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law 
 which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United 
 States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, 
 without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within its jurisdic- 
 tion the equal protection of the laws. 
 
 Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
 States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number 
 of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right 
 to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice 
 President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive 
 and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, 
 is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one 
 years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, 
 except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representa- 
 tion therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such 
 male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one 
 years of age in such State. 
 
 Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, 
 or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or mili- 
 tary, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously 
 taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United 
 States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judi- 
 cial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, 
 shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given 
 aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of 
 two thirds of each House, remove such disability. 
 
 Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, author- 
 ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties 
 for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. 
 But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt 
 or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the 
 United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; 
 but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. 
 
 Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
 legislation, the provisions of this article. 
 
 ARTICLE XV s 
 
 Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
 not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account 
 of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 
 
 Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
 appropriate legislation. 
 
 1 Adopted in 1805. 2 Adopted in 1868. 3 Adopted in 1870. 
 
 16 
 
INDEX 
 
 Diacritic marks : a as in late ; a as in fat ; a as \\\ far ; a as in what ; aw as in saw ; 
 e as in me ; e as in vie t, berry ; e as in her ; e as in veil ; g as in gem ; % as in go ; \ as 
 in mine ; I as in tin ; i as in police ; 5 as in note ; 6 as in not ; oo as in fool ; s as in news ; 
 u as in tune ; u as in nut ; u as in bush ; y as in city. Italic letters are silent. 
 
 Ad'ams, John, 26, 115, 120. 
 
 Adams, John Quincy, 175. 
 
 Adams, Samuel, 20-30, 31, 32. 
 
 Al-a-ba'ma, warship, 295, 296, 303. 
 
 Alabama Claims, 303. 
 
 A-las'ka, purchase of, 303. 
 
 Albany (awl'ba-ny), and Erie Canal, 222. 
 
 Al'be-tnarle, ship, 296. 
 
 Al-ex-an'dri-a, Lee at, 274. 
 
 Al-le-g^e'ny Mountains, 140. 
 
 Allegheny River, 47. 
 
 Al'len, E'than, 56. 
 
 An'der-son-ville, 299. 
 
 An-nap'o-lis, no. 
 
 An-t/e'tam, battle of, 254, 281. 
 
 Ap-po-mat'tox Court House, surrender 
 
 at, 255, 270, 286. 
 Ar'ling-ton, Lee at, 275. 
 Army of the Potomac, 279, 266. 
 Army of Virginia, 278, 279. 
 Ar'nold, Ben'e-dict, 82, 84-85, 67-68. 
 Articles of Confederation, 111-113. 
 Ash'land, 181. 
 At-lan'ta, captured by Sherman, 267. 
 
 Bar'clay, Captain, 153, 155. 
 
 Bar'ton, Clara, 299-301. 
 
 Bell, Alexander Gra'/zam, 315. 
 
 Bel'voir, 42. 
 
 Be'mis Heights, battles of, 84-85. 
 
 Ben'ning-ton, battle of, 78-79. 
 
 Black Hawk War, 239. 
 
 Bon Homme Richard (bo-nom' re- 
 
 shar'), 107-109. 
 Boon*?, Daniel, 141-147. 
 
 Boon^s/bor-oa^/fc, 145, 147. 
 
 Boston, "Massacre," 23; "tea party," 
 
 24-26; siege of, 34-36, 55, 56. 
 Brad'dock, General, 48, 49. 
 Bran'dy-wine Creek, 65. 
 Brown, John, 245, 276, 277. 
 Buck'ner, General, 264. 
 Buf'fa-lo, and Erie Canal, 222. 
 Bull Run, battle of, 252; second battle 
 
 of, 254. 
 Bunk'er Hill, battle of, 34-37, 54. 
 Bur-goyn^', General, 64, 74-79, 83-87. 
 Burn'side, General, 281. 
 Burr, Aaron, 138. 
 But'ler, General, 292. 
 
 Cab'i-net, First, 116. 
 Cable, telegraph, 314, 315. 
 Calhoun (cal-hoon'), John C, 197, 199. 
 Cal-i-for'ni-a, 187, 189. 
 Cam'bridge, 54. 
 Cam'den, battle of, 91. 
 Can'a-da, 9. 
 
 Cape Bret'on fisheries, 106. 
 Car-neg'te, Andrew, 330-335. 
 Ca-vi"te, battle of, 325-328. 
 Ce'dar Creek', battle of, 269. 
 Chads Ford, battle of, 65. 
 Chan'cel-lors-ville, battle of, 281. 
 Charlifs'ton, 91. 
 
 Charlottesville (shar'lots-vil), 117; Uni- 
 versity of Virginia at, 123. 
 Chat7/am, 228. 
 Chat-ta-noo'ga, 264, 266. 
 Che-raw', 94. 
 
 17 
 
INDEX 
 
 Circuit riding, 242. 
 
 Cities, growth of, 305. 
 
 Civil Rights Bill, 303. 
 
 Civil War, 251-256, 262-270, 277-286, 
 291-299. 
 
 Clark, George Rog'ers, 113. 
 
 Clark, William, 126. 
 
 Clay, Henry, 178-190. 
 
 Cler'mont, 216-218. 
 
 Clin'ton, De Witt, 220-222. 
 
 Clinton, General Henry, 67, 91. 
 
 Colonies, 9. 
 
 Committees of Correspondence, 22, 24- 
 27. 
 
 Compromise of 1820, 185. 
 
 Compromise of 1850, 189, 202, 245, 246. 
 
 Concord (kong'kerd), battle of, 33-34. 
 
 Con-es-t5'ga wagons, 183. 
 
 Confederate states, 250, 277. 
 
 Constitution, 115, 135. 
 
 Constitution, frigate, 160. 
 
 Continental Congress, 16, 27, 54, 56, 
 
 111-113. 
 Continental currency, 134. 
 Corn-wal'lis, 58, 61, 63, 69, 91, 93-95. 
 Cotton gin,' 185, 207-209. 
 Cow'pens, battle of, 95. 
 Cra/'gte homestead, 55. 
 Creek War, 171-172. 
 Critical period, 111-115. 
 Crown Point captured, 56. 
 Cru'ger, Nicholas, 130. 
 Cu'ba, 323-324, 328. 
 Cul'pep-er County, 43. 
 Cum'ber-land Gap, 144. 
 Cumberland Road, 184. 
 Cush'ing, Lieutenant, 296, 297. 
 Cus'tis, Martha, 50, 52. 
 Custis, Mary Randolph, 275. 
 
 Dart'm<?uth College, 195. 
 
 Da'vy, Humphry, 224. 
 
 Dear'born, General, 150, 151. 
 
 De-ca'tur, 156, 157. 
 
 Declaration of Independence, 120-122. 
 
 De Kalb', Baron, 163. 
 
 Dent, Julia, 261. 
 
 Dew'ey, George, 324-328. 
 
 Dick'in-son, Charles, 170. 
 
 Dix, Dorothy, 298. 
 
 Doug'las, Stephen A., 245, 247-248. 
 
 Dred Scott decision, 246. 
 
 Dun-ferm'lin^, 330, 335. 
 
 Early (er'ly), General Jubal, 268. 
 
 Ed'i-son, Thomas A., 317-321. 
 
 Electric light, 320. 
 
 Emancipation Proclamation, 254, 302. 
 
 Em'er-son, 34. 
 
 England, War of Revolution, 9-109 ; W T ar 
 
 of 1812 with, 149-160. 
 Era of good feeling, 182. 
 Er'ics-son, John, 254. 
 E'rie Canal, 219-223. 
 Ex'e-ter, N.H., 194. 
 
 Fair'fax, Lord, 42. 
 
 Fair Oaks, battle of, 280. 
 
 Fan'euil Hall, 23. 
 
 Far'ra-gut, David Glasgow, 288-294. 
 
 Field, Cyrus W., 314. 
 
 Fifteenth Amendment, 303. 
 
 Flag, 81, 105. 
 
 Flam'bor-o&if^ Head, Jones at, 108. 
 
 Flor'i-da, purchase of, 174. 
 
 Foote, 263. 
 
 Fore'man, Judge, 219. 
 
 Fort DQn'el-son, 263. 
 
 Fort Duquesne (du-kan'), 47-49. 
 
 Fort Henry, 263. 
 
 Fort Le fcoeui, 45. 
 
 Fort Lee, 61. 
 
 Fort Mimms, 171. 
 
 Fort Necessity, 48. 
 
 Fort Schuyler (skl'ler), 79. 
 
 Fort Stan'wix, 79-82. 
 
 Fort Sum'ter, 251, 277. 
 
 Fort Wash'ing-ton, 61. 
 
 Fourteenth Amendment, 303. 
 
 France, ally of America, 107. 
 
 Frank'lin, N.H., 191. 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 107, 114, 120, 124 
 
 Fraunce's tavern, 71. 
 
 Fred'er-icks-burg, 38 ; battle of, 281. 
 
 18 
 
INDEX 
 
 Free'man's farm, battles of, 84, 85. 
 Free Soil'ers, 247. 
 French and Indian War, 9, 44-49. 
 Fugitive Slave Law, 246. 
 Fyl'ton, Robert, 213-218. 
 
 Gag?, General, 26, 31, 36. 
 
 Ga-le'na, Grant at, 262. 
 
 Gates, General, 83-86, 91. 
 
 Ged'des, James, 220. 
 
 Gen-e-see' turnpike, 219. 
 
 Ge-ne'va Award, 303. 
 
 George III, 9, 10, 119. 
 
 Ger'man-town, battle of, 65. 
 
 Get'tys-burg, battle of, 255, 283, 284. 
 
 G//ent, treaty of, 173. 
 
 Gist, Christopher, 45, 46, 47. 
 
 Gold, discovery of, 187. 
 
 Golden Hill, battle of, 130. 
 
 Gore, Christopher, 196. 
 
 Go-wa'nus Bay, 57. 
 
 Grant, Ulysses Simpson, 258-273. 
 
 Gra.s.5^, Count de, 69. 
 
 Great Meadows, 47. 
 
 Green*?, Na-than'a-el, 89-97. 
 
 Green'way Court, 43. 
 
 GtfU'ford Court House, battle of, 95. 
 
 Hale, Nathan, 98-102. 
 
 Ham'il-ton, Alexander, 124, 129-139. 
 
 Hamp'ton Roads, 254. 
 
 Han'cock, John, 26, 31, 32, 122. 
 
 Hanks, Nancy, 231. 
 
 Han'o-ver, N.H., 195. 
 
 Har'lem Heights, battle of, 59. 
 
 Har'pers Fer'ry, 276, 277. 
 
 Har'ri-son, William Henry, 151. 
 
 Hayn<?, Senator, 199. 
 
 Henry, Patrick, 13-19, 118, 119. 
 
 Her'ki-mer, General, 79-80. 
 
 Her'mit-age, 174. 
 
 Hern'don, William H., 242. 
 
 Hoe, Richard M., 321. 
 
 Hook'er, General, 282. 
 
 Hop'kins, Commodore, 104. 
 
 House of Burgesses, 13. 
 
 How*, E-U'as, 210-212. 
 
 Howe, General, in Revolution, 57-61, 64, 
 
 65, 67, 83. 
 Hull, General, 150, 151. 
 Hutch'in-son, Governor, 22, 23. 
 
 Immigration, 305. 
 In-di-an-ap'o-lis, 184. 
 Indians, and Boone, 143-147. 
 Inventions, 205-218, 224-228, 306-321. 
 Ir-o-quob' Indians, 74. 
 
 Jack'son, Andrew, 168-177. 
 Jackson, General T. J., 280-282. 
 Ja-mai'ca, 58. 
 Jay, John, 114, 116, 135. 
 Jef'fer-son, Thomas, 1 17-128. 
 John'son, Sarah, 234. 
 John'ston, Albert Sidney, 264. 
 Johnston, General Joseph E., 280. 
 Jones, John Paul, 103-110. 
 
 Kan'sas, 245, 246. 
 
 Kear' surge, warship, 295, 296. 
 
 Ken-tuck'y, 142-147. 
 
 Kings Mountain, battle of, 91. 
 
 Knox, Henry, 116. 
 
 La-fa-yetfe', 64, 69, 162-167. 
 
 Lake Champlain (sham-plan'), battle on, 
 
 Lake E'rie, battle on, 153-155. 
 Law'rence, Captain, 154. 
 Lee, General Charles, 67. 
 Lee, Major Henry, 93, 96. 
 Lee, Robert E., 274-287 ; at Appomat- 
 tox, 270, 286. 
 Le/th, Jones at, 107. 
 Lew'is, Mer'i-weth-er, 126. 
 Lex'ing-ton, battle of, 32. 
 Lexington, Kentucky, 180. 
 Light, artificial, 317, 320. 
 Lin'co/n, Abraham, 230-257. 
 Lincoln-Douglas debates, 247. 
 Liv'er-more, Mary, 298. 
 Liv'ing-ston, Robert R., 120. 
 Long Island, battle of, 57-5^. 
 Lou-T-^I-Sn'a (loo-), purchase of, 125. 
 
 19 
 
INDEX 
 
 McClel'lan, General, 254, 280, 281. 
 
 McCor'mick, Cyrus Hall, 306-308. 
 
 McCr^a, Jane, 78. 
 
 McKin'ley, President, 324. 
 
 Mad'i-son, James, 135. 
 
 Maine, battleship, 323. 
 
 Mal'vern Hill, 281. 
 
 Ma-nas'sas, battle of, 2S1. 
 
 Ma-nil'a Bay, battle of, 325-328. 
 
 Mar-co'ni, 316. 
 
 Mare Island navy yard, 291. 
 
 Mar'i-on, the Swamp Fox, 69. 
 
 Marsh'field, Webster at, 202. 
 
 Mayn?, Rev. James, 40. 
 
 Mer'ri-mac and Monitor, 253, 294, 295. 
 
 Mex'i-co, war with, 187, 260, 261. 
 
 Mint, 137. 
 
 Min'ute-men, 27. 
 
 Mis-sis-sip'pi River, in Civil War, 264, 
 
 291, 292. 
 Missouri (mi-soo'n), 185. 
 Missouri Compromise, 245. 
 Mo-buV, in War of 1812, 172. 
 Mobile Bay, battle of, 293, 294. 
 Molasses Act, 10. 
 Mon'i-tor and Merrimac, 253, 294, 
 
 295- 
 Mon'm<?uth, battle of, 67, 163. 
 Mo-non-ga-he'la River, 47. 
 Mon-te-rey', battle of, 260. 
 Mon-ti-cel'lo, 118-119, 127. 
 Mor'gan, General, 94-96. 
 Mor'ris, Robert, 63. 
 Mors*?, Samuel Finley Breese, 309-316. 
 Mount McGreg'or, Grant at, 272. 
 Mount Vernon, 42, 44, 49, 52. 
 
 Na-po'le-on, and Louisiana, 125. 
 
 Nas'sau, capture of, 105. 
 
 Navy, in Revolution, 103-109; in War 
 of 1812, 153-160. 
 
 Nev'is, Hamilton at, 129. 
 
 New Or'le-ans, battle of, 173; in Civil 
 War, 291-292. 
 
 New York, in Revolution, 57-61 ; capi- 
 tal, 135 ; western trade of, 219, 222. 
 
 Nor'fo/k, Farragut at, 291. 
 
 Northwest Territory, 114, 185. 
 Nueces (nwa'ses) River, 187. 
 
 O-hi'o, growth of, 182. 
 Old Hickory, 174. 
 O-n/i'das, 74. 
 Ordinance of 1787, 114. 
 Or'e-gon Country, 126. 
 O-ris'ka ny, battle of, 80-81. 
 O'tis, James, 10-12, 22. 
 
 Pain*?, Thomas, 113. 
 Pa'lo Al'to, battle of, 260. 
 Paper money, 134. 
 Par'lia-ment, 11. 
 Pen-in'su-lar Campaign, 280. 
 Pen-sa-co'la, 172. 
 Per'ry, Oliver Hazard, 152-156. 
 Pe'ters-burg, siege of, 285. 
 Phil-a-del'phi-a, in Revolution, 65, 66; 
 Convention, 114; western trade of, 219. 
 Phil'ip-pin^s, 324-328. 
 Phonograph, 320. 
 Pick'ett, General, 283, 284. 
 Pit'cairn, Major, 31-33. 
 Pitts'burg, 49 ; Carnegie in, 331. 
 Pittsburg Landing, battle of, 264. 
 Platts'burg, battle of, 158-160. 
 Por'ter, Captain David, 289, 294. 
 Porto Ri'co, 328. 
 
 Ports' mouth, N.H., Webster at, 196. 
 Po-t5'mac River, 280. 
 Prairie schooners, 183. 
 Presque Isle (presk el'), 45. 
 Prince'ton, battle of, 63. 
 Put-in-Bay, battle of, 154-155. 
 Put'nam, General, 75. 
 
 Queens'town, battle of, 151. 
 
 Railroads, 223-228, 305. 
 Ran'dolph, Edmund, 116. 
 Rap-i-dan' River, 267, 284. 
 Rap-pa-han'nock River, 38. 
 Reaper, 306. 
 
 Red Cross Society, 300-301. 
 Red Jacket, 166. 
 
 20 
 
INDEX 
 
 Republican party, 247. 
 
 Re-vere', Paul, 31, 32. 
 
 Revolution, causes of, 9-28 ; War of, 31- 
 
 36, 54-109, 109-170. 
 Rich'mond, siege of, 268, 269, 285, 286, 
 
 253- 
 Ri'o Gran'de, 187. 
 
 Rochambeau (ro-shang-bo'), Count, 152. 
 Roch'es-ter, and Erie Canal, 222. 
 Roo'se-velt, 159-160, 256. 
 
 St. Leg'er, 64, 74, 79-83. 
 
 St. Louis (loo'is), Grant at, 260-262. 
 
 Salisbury (sawlz'ber-i) , N.H., 191, 192. 
 
 San'ga-mon River, 238. 
 
 Sanitary Commission, 298. 
 
 SSr'a-nac River, 157. 
 
 Sar-a-to'ga, surrender at, 65, 85. 
 
 Sa-van'nah, in Revolution, 91 ; taken by 
 
 Sherman, 267. 
 Schenectady (ske-nec'ta-dy), 227. 
 Schenectady boats, 183. 
 Schuyler (ski'ler), Philip, 76-83, 86-87. 
 Schuylkill (skool'kilj River, 65. 
 Scotch-Irish, 140. 
 Se-ra'pis, 107-109. 
 Seven Days' Battles, 281. 
 Sewing machine, 209-212. 
 Sharps'burg, battle of, 254, 281. 
 Shen-an-do'ah Valley, 42 ; in Civil War, 
 
 268, 269, 280. 
 Sher'i-dan, General, 268, 269. 
 Sher'man, General, 266-267. 
 Sherman, Roger, 120. 
 Shi'loh, battle of, 264. 
 Signaling, 309. 
 Slavery, 184-189, 202, 244-249; ended, 
 
 254. 302. 
 Sons of Liberty, 130, 132. 
 South, the, 249 ; see Civil War. 
 South Carolina, and nullification, 176, 
 
 185 ; secession of, 250. 
 Spain, war with, 324-328. 
 Spoils System, 176. 
 Spot Resolutions, 244. 
 Spring'field, Lincoln at, 241. 
 Stamp Act, 11, 14-16. 
 
 Stamp Act Congress, 2T. 
 
 Stark, John, 78-79. 
 
 Stars and Stripes, 81. 
 
 Steamboat, 216-218. 
 
 Steel making, 333-334. 
 
 Stephenson (ste'ven-sun), George, 223- 
 
 227. 
 Steu'ben, Baron, 66. . 
 Still'wa-ter, battles of, 84, 85. 
 Stu'art, General J. E. B., 280. 
 SyVa-cuse, and Erie Canal, 222. 
 
 Tariff, 176, 182, 185, 198. 
 
 tax, 24-26. 
 Telegraph, 309-316. 
 Telephone, 315. 
 Terre Haute (ter'e-hof) , 184. 
 Tex 'as, 260. 
 
 Thirteenth Amendment, 302. 
 Ti-con-der-o'ga, 56, 75-76. 
 Todd, Mary, 243. 
 Tories, 74, 132. 
 Tren'ton, battle of, 62. 
 Trip'o-11, 157. 
 
 Valley Forge, 65, 66. 
 Val-pa-rai'so, the Essex at, 290. 
 Van Braam', Jacob, 45. 
 Van Ren^'se-ker, General, 150, 151. 
 Ve-nan'go, 45. 
 
 Vicks'burg, capture of, 253, 255, 264-266. 
 Vir-gin'i-a, in Revolution, 14-18; Jeffer- 
 son and, 122, 123. 
 
 21 
 
 Wal'la-bout Bay, 57. 
 
 War of 1812, 149-160, 181, 289-290. 
 
 Wash'ing-ton, City of, 160. 
 
 Washington, George, 38-72, 98; and 
 Lafayette, 163; in Constitutional Con- 
 vention, 114. 
 
 Washington, Colonel William, 93, 95, 96. 
 
 Washington and Lee University, 286. 
 
 Wa-tau'ga River, 142. 
 j Web'ster, Daniel* 191-204. 
 
 Wee-haw'ken, 139. 
 
 West, growth of, 182. 
 
 West Point Military Academy, 259. 
 
INDEX 
 
 White-ha'ven, Jones &.t, 107. 
 White Plains, battle of, 61. 
 Whit'ney, Eli, 205-209. 
 Wilderness, battles of the, 268, 285. 
 Wil'liams-burg, 13; Jefferson at, 117. 
 Wil'ming-ton, 95. 
 Wil'mot Proviso, 244. 
 
 Wins'lov, Captain, 295. 
 Wor'den, Lieutenant, 294, 295. 
 Wright, Silas, 312. 
 Writs of Assistance, 10, II. 
 Wyth<?, George, 179. 
 
 York'town campaign, 69-70, 164. 
 
 22 
 

 8S&