THE LIBRARY OF THE 
 UNIVERSITY OF 
 NORTH CAROLINA 
 AT CHAPEL HILL 
 
 ENDOWED BY THE 
 DIALECTIC AND PHILANTHROPIC 
 SOCIETIES 
 
 
 
 
 
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 i 
 00011546099 
 
 DATE DUE 
 
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Digitized by the Internet Archive. 
 in 2021 with funding from 
 University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 
 
 https://archive.org/details/practicallogical00alex 
 
 ary 
 
A PRACTICAL 
 
 LOGICAL ESSAY, 
 
 ON THE 
 
 SYNTAX 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 BY SAMUEL ALEXANDER: 
 
 ¢ 
 
 SECOND EDITION, 
 
 LIVERPOOL: 
 PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR BY C. BENTHAM & Co. 
 
 1830. 
 The Linrary 
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PREFACE. 
 
 Many have been the essays on English Grammar, 
 and numerous the meritorious productions on this no- 
 ble science; yet few, very few have met the decided 
 approbation of the public. It may be conjectured, by 
 those who have only touched the surface of this science, 
 and, therefore, are unacquainted with the gradations of 
 improvement that it has acquired, even in the last cen- 
 tury, that an attempt to produce any thing novel or 
 instructive is folly, if not absolute enthusiasm. 
 
 Indeed, considering the many publications that have 
 found their way into the world under the auspices of 
 dignified literary characters,—characters no less hon- 
 ourable on account of their learned accomplishments, 
 than for their exalted and official stations,—much may 
 be said to discourage any further attempts to cast an 
 illuminating ray on the science of Grammar. But re- 
 flecting on the many emendations that our language 
 has réceived since the period of the Saxons, a more than 
 ordinary gleam of hope arises to stimulate a laudable 
 exertion of intellect in the pursuit of a higher degree 
 of polish and refinement. And besides, no author has 
 yet*made his appearance on the vast theatre of letters 
 possessed of such expansive powers of intellect, as to 
 enable him at one effort to bring the system of our lan- 
 
li. PREFACE. 
 
 guage to its present state of amplitude and accuracy: 
 therefore it is a work of gradation ; and every step to- 
 wards its improvement is a step higher on the hill of 
 science, and a degree of advancement towards the tem- 
 ple of intellectual pleasure and the summit of scien- 
 tific perfection. . 
 
 The flattering encouragement that has already been 
 given to the first edition of this publication hasinduced 
 the author to venture a second, with considerable addi- 
 tions, alterations and amendments; especially in that 
 part which relates to parsing, analysis, the simplifica- 
 tion of compound sentences, and the elementary prin- 
 ciples of grammar. 
 
 Although this essay contains many original obser- £ 
 vations with respect to the analogy of the constitution 
 of Syntax, yet it is hoped the reader will not find him- 
 self disappointed if he meets with much compilation, 
 as indeed, the work is not to be considered a new 
 publication on English grammar, much less, to cast the 
 least shade a on the very excellent works of 
 the author’s cohtemporaries or predecesssors, who have 
 contributed somuch to the elegance and #nprovementof 
 the language. The author’s design is merely to trace 
 the rationality of the rules of [English Syntax to their 
 first principles, and to explain what has hitherto re- 
 mained unexplored, or taken for axioms upon the ipse 
 dixit of the literati of antiquity : as such, they have pas- 
 sed upon the learned world for ages as so many pro- 
 positional truths wrapt in mystery and sanctioned -by 
 the authority of the ancients: and it is'but too true that. 
 the moderns in many instances, have followed their 
 
PREFACE. iil. 
 
 example. ‘This treatise will not be solely confined to 
 the explication of therules of syntax: it will also com- 
 prise many useful examples, shewing the use of verbs 
 in their application in the singular and plural number; 
 the natural order of sentences, analysis, transposition, 
 and grammatical arrangement, and the agreement and 
 disagreement of words in sentences. 
 
 From this view of the subject it will be impossible to 
 avoid the involution of some metaphysical reasoning :— 
 in teaching the rules of syntax, the reasons of the rules 
 quill be illustrated, examples adduced, parsed, ana- 
 lyzed and scanned in grammatical and _ philosophical 
 order. Here let it be understood that the author does 
 not propose to treat all the disquisitions relative to the 
 explanation of the rules of syntax strictly according to 
 the rules of logic, as this would give the subject more 
 an air of pedantry than of utility. 
 
 It is true, logic is simply the art of reasoning, and 
 has its foundation in the reasonableness and fitness of 
 things, and is to be found in its purity in the sublime 
 science of pure geometry. 
 
 The rules of logic when applied in a rhetorical way, 
 render the composition perceptive, pleasing and de-. 
 lightful; and when used in an easy and graceful man- 
 ner, give ease and sublimity to composition. Indeed. 
 logic is the touchstone of truth, and is interwoven in 
 - the.constitution of the mental powers of man, and flows 
 from the analogy of universal nature, and is for the 
 most noble purpose (i. e.) to distinguish truth from 
 falsehood ; right reason from sophistry. In fine, logic 
 may be termed the sublimity of human intellect, for it 
 
iV. PREFACE. 
 
 is impossible to separate logic from the true sublime ; 
 which consists in a simplicity of style, a richness of ex- 
 pression, a grandeur of thought, and a happy colloca- 
 tion of words, more ‘easily conceived than put into 
 proper language. 
 
 As this essay commences with a philosophical illus- 
 tration of the rules of English syntax, technical and 
 applicable definitions must be introduced. 
 
 The object of the author in this essay, is to makethe 
 study of English Grammar more a rational investiga- 
 tion than «laborious technical phraseology, and to elicit 
 scientifical researeh—not to depend so much upon 
 memory as common sense, and the rational relation 
 that words bear to each other. The common method 
 of teaching this science is to commence by causing the 
 pupil to commit definitions and rules to memory— 
 receiving every thing asserted in the elements of gram- 
 mar as incontrovertible truth. This mode might pass 
 with a Brahmin, in order to train a Hindoo in the re- 
 ligion of Vishnu, but it is by no means suitable to the 
 genius of a rational being. ‘The young student should 
 be made acquainted with the principles of grammar—de- | 
 finitions, and rules, and the basis upon which this beau- 
 tiful edifice is constructed. By such a mode of initia- 
 tion he not only obtains a scientific and permanent 
 knowledge of erammar, but an expansion of mind con- 
 ducive to prepare him for the various avocations of hu- 
 man life, and the more abstruse reasonings of mathe- 
 matical solution and demonstration. | 7 
 
 The author has had the mortification to hear many 
 of theliterati assert, thatthe rules of syntax are arbitrary ; 
 
PREFACE. ¥. 
 
 but however this opinion may have pleased in those 
 days that are fled, he hopes that the time is arrived 
 when the dignity of learned profession - will no longer 
 impose upon enlightened reason; for if language be 
 pushed back to the first rude efforts of speech, it will be 
 found, to demonstration, to have had the origin of its 
 system and analogy from the natural necessities of 
 man; and the expressions these wants dictated. As 
 the necessities of humanity naturally pressed themselves 
 upon the mind by the imperative demands of appetite ; 
 the first signs or sounds of these wants or necessities 
 were indications of substantives, such as the various 
 sorts of food, clothing, and social conveniences. The 
 next in order were verbs, or atiributes, then qualities 
 or adjectives, relatives and connectives, &c. 
 
 Thus from the foliowing arrangement of the necessi- 
 ties of men, proceeded the orderly and dependent sys- 
 tem of language, and in succession of time, became 
 refined and improved. ‘The grammar of each particu- 
 lar tongue is either more or less founded upon this rude 
 original. it follows, that toassert that the rules of lan- 
 guage are arbitrary, is as absurd as to deny the eternal 
 existence of the verity of the problems of Euciid. It 
 is true, someidionis peculiar to all cultivated languages 
 may be and are owing to custom, and others to the au- 
 thority of the learned ; and not a few to the popularity 
 of the affluent court fashionables of the age: these last 
 
 = 
 
 ewe more of their prevalence to their modish and 
 
 whimsical originators than to propriety or derivative 
 
 ~ language. © | 
 But now, as the English language has been brought 
 
Vi. PREFACE. 
 
 to a state of polish, refinement and accuracy superior 
 toany of theliving languages, and also has rules formed 
 upon analogical and rhetorical principles, and is lim- 
 ited and restricted by certain laws peculiar to itself, 
 under various and systematical heads, comprehending 
 the very copious and explanatory divisions of the sci- 
 ence, viz., orthography, etymology, syntax and prosody, 
 and the other auxiliar idioms and observations, together 
 with logic and rhetoric ; can there be any thing more 
 futile than to build the superstructure of such a noble 
 edifice upon the establishment of usage? Or that im- 
 proper idioms should be introduced into English phra- 
 seology, and pass as if sanctioned by the rules of 
 grammatical concord? Common sense shrinks from 
 the idea. Our language, like others, should be founded 
 upon just principles of construction, so far as the grea; 
 variety of its derivation will permit. LEvery sentence 
 should be simple, energetic and perspicuous; laconic’ 
 yet simple in explication ; fertile and flowing, yet free 
 from turgidity, pomposity and affectation on the one 
 hand, and sterility on the other; divested of ambiguity 
 and vulgarity, together with a strict adherence to the 
 rules of grammar. This being granted, custom like, 
 the hydra-headed monster credulity, when coupled 
 with ignorance, must be exploded and sent to seek its 
 baneful retreat among the haunts of superstition in the 
 mountains of error, no more to make its appearance in 
 the fruitful valleys of heaven-born science among the 
 illuminated sons of wisdom. 
 
 As thought and the power of ratiocination came from 
 God, (for “there is a spirit in man and the inspiration 
 
PREEACE. vii. 
 
 of the Almighty giveth him understanding”) no doubt 
 the language of our primogenitors was pure and correct, 
 because man came perfect and innocent from the hands 
 of his Creator, and was pronounced by him “ very 
 good.” It follows, that the first system of language 
 must also have been pure and correct, flowing from 
 divine truth itself, and in harmony with the design for 
 which it was bestowed ; so thatsymmetry, elegance and 
 perspicuity characterised the language of our first pa- 
 tents. Words are signs of our ideas, and in the first 
 age of the world these emblems of ideas exactly re- 
 presented the objects or things they were designed to 
 express, and were indicative of their nature. Thelan- 
 guage was clear, elerant, correct and intelligible, which 
 was not so in man’s lapsed state; for the confusion of 
 language at Babel proceeded from distraction of thought; 
 hence the necessity of some rules of direction, and those 
 rules must have flowed from that ratio of thought, that 
 constitutes the most exalted knowledge. : 
 In fine, no one has any right to impose arbitrary di- 
 
 _ rections or laws on society ; so mankind are not bound 
 by any unfounded scientific authority to receive as- 
 sumed grammatical regulations independent of rational 
 principles. 
 
 The science of universal grammar, as it respects its 
 fundamental parts, is the same in all languages: a sub- 
 stantive in Latin, Greek or Hebrew, is a substantive in 
 English. True, the grammar of the Latin tongue is lim- 
 ited and circumscribed by certain rules from which 
 there has been scarcely any deviation during the lapse 
 of more than two thousand years: in like manner the 
 
vill. PREFACE. 
 
 Greek has its unvaried regulations adapted to the or- 
 ganization of this dialect, and likewise the Hebrew. 
 Should not the English language, although amply de- 
 rivative from many other languages, be settled upon 
 some immoveable basis; its rules fixed upon scientific 
 principles deduced from the analogy of its principal 
 origin, and in accordance with the great outline of its 
 principal rudiments ? 
 
 It is worthy of observation, that it can be fairly at- 
 tested upon the authority of Elias Levita, a learned Ger- 
 man Jew, who flourished at Rome about the middle of 
 the 16th century, that the stops were not used in the 
 ancient Hebrew character until about 500 years after 
 Christ; and the famous Morimus having examined all 
 that had been said on both sides, for and against this 
 matter, decidedly gave his opinion in favour of Elias 
 Levita. “It appears” (says our very celebrated au- 
 thor) “ that neither Origin nor St. Jerome knew this sub- 
 . ject sufficiently.” Besides, it has been matter of con- 
 jecture amongst the literati, whether the Chaldee, Sa- 
 maritan, or Phoenicean, characters* were the most an- 
 cient The prevailing opinion is that the Hebrew has 
 the precedency in the antiquity of its origin :—hence 
 the necessity of establishing the language of an enlight- 
 and people and a great nation upon undeviating rules 
 and principles. 
 
 To advert to the learned languages, a knowledge of 
 
 * Alstedius enumerates about 400 languages, but makes only 72 distinguisha- 
 ed ones, and five chief ones ; viz., Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Germanic, and Sclavo- 
 nie. At present a sort of Arabic mightily prevails in western Asia, and in the 
 north of Africa. Mingled dialects of the Latin and Teutonic mostly prevail in 
 the west of Europe. 
 
FREFACE, ix. 
 
 them should be cultivated by those whose circumstances 
 will admit, and by those who are designed for profes- 
 sional avocations, or deep scientifical pursuits. The 
 writings of many of the ancients evince more than 
 merely the advancement of science in those obscure 
 ages of polity and barbarism. In tracing the beauties 
 of the dead languages may be seen symmetry, harmony 
 and perspicuity of expression, derived from no less a 
 source than the great Author of all things for the bene- . 
 fit of succeeding generations ; comprehending in almost 
 ail the Oriental compositions the qualities of a nervous 
 Style, possessing so much of the nature of the true sub- 
 lime, that it is impossible not to be pleased with the 
 smooth flowing descriptive style ofa Virgil, the pathos 
 of an Ovid, and the thunder of a Homer. Besides, 
 the works of those authors not only prove the wisdom 
 communicated from God to man, but they exhibit very 
 strikingly the great expansive powers of human intel- 
 lect, improved by application and experience, even in 
 the obscure days of heathen ignorance, with respect to 
 the knowledge of divine revelation. 
 
 Here I may take up the language of Mr. Walker :— 
 “But alas! reasoning on language, however well found- 
 ed, may all be overturned by a single quotation from 
 Horace :-— 
 
 ‘____—_—. resus, 
 Quem penés arbitrium est, et jus et norma loquendi.’”’ 
 If this be owned it is a concise way of ending the con- 
 troversy; and by virtue of this arrangement we may 
 become critics in language, without the trouble of stu- 
 
 dying it: not that I would be thought, in the most dist- 
 
‘ey PREFACE. 
 
 ant manner, to deny that custom is, in general, the 
 sovereign arbiter of language ;—far from it. I acknow- 
 ledge its authority and know that there is no appeal 
 from it, unless where analogy and reason have pre- 
 scribed the boundaries. I only wish to dispute where 
 these arbiters have not decided. But what is this cus- 
 tom to which we must so implicitly submit? Is it the 
 usage of the multitude of grammarians, whether good 
 ot bad? ‘This has never been asserted by the most 
 sanguine abettors ofitsauthority. Isit the usage of the 
 studious in schools and colleges with those of the learned 
 professions, or that of those who, from their elevated 
 birth or station give laws to the refinements and ele- 
 ganees ofa court? ‘To confine propriety to the latter, 
 which is too often the case, seems an injury to the for- 
 mer, who, from their very profession, appear to have a 
 natural right to a share, at least in the legislation of 
 language, if not to an absolute sovereignty. The pol- 
 ished attendants on a throne are as apt to depart from 
 simplicity of language as in dress and manners; and 
 novelty, instead of custom is too often the jus et norma 
 loguendi of a court. 
 
 Perhaps an attentive observation will lead us to con- 
 clude that the usage which ought to direct us is nei- 
 ther of these we have been enumerating, taken singly, 
 but a sort of compound ratio of all three; neither the 
 self-complacent opinion of a céurt, nor a pedantic 
 grecism of schools will be denominated respectable 
 usage, till a certain number of the general mass of 
 grammarians have acknowledged them; nor will a 
 multitude of common grammarians authorize any sys- 
 
 ¥ 
 
PREFACE. i. 
 
 tem of grammar which is reprobated by the learned 
 and polite. 
 
 And here let me entreat the candid reader to make 
 every .reasonable allowance for the imperfections that 
 may appear in this essay, for I do not pretend to be 
 exempt from faults. I have offered some original 
 thoughts on the structure of English syntax, some of 
 which may not meet the views of my learned cotem- 
 poraries ; for prejudice (sometimes the child of custom)* 
 overleaps the barriers of sober reason, and sways the 
 balance in favour of its own familiar system. 
 
 In some instances it is probable I may be considered 
 verbose, by endeavouring to render myself intelligible, 
 and perhaps, by others, too laconic, in order to com- 
 press much in little bounds :—the learned reader will 
 exercise the necessary indulgence on both these ac- 
 counts. I do not arrogate to myself the authority of 
 offering the following observations as a decisory stand- 
 ard of therationality ofthe rules of English syntax. No, 
 I difidently submit them to the lovers of science and 
 the patrons of literature ;—by their decision they stand 
 or fall. If the latter, humanum est errare,—to err is 
 
 human. 
 
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 err ee bean saodd 
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 ree Sty ie 4 LA og ; 
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AN ELEMENTARY 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 Eweriso Grammar* teaches to write, and spell the 
 English language correctly. 
 
 -It is divided into four parts, viz, Orthography, Etymo- 
 logy, Syntax, and Prosody. 
 
 Orthography treats of the powers of letters and the 
 just method of spelling words. 
 
 Etymology treats of the differeut sorts of words, their 
 various modifications and derivation. 
 
 Etymology is of very little use in English grammar 
 so far as it respects the derivation of words. Syntax is 
 divided into two parts, concord and government. 
 
 Concord shows the agreement of words in a sentence, 
 as John loves. Government is that power which one part 
 of speech has over another. (Vide Ist rule in Syntax.) 
 
 Prosody teaches the laws of versification. 
 
 There are in English nine sorts of words or parts of 
 speech, viz. Article, Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, 
 Adverb, Conjunction, Preposition, and Interjection. 
 
 ARTICLES. + 
 
 Aw Arricue is a word prefixed to substantives to point 
 them out, tolimit or extend their signification. They 
 are 4 and The. A becomes an before a vowelorsilent hf 
 as, “*.4m, acorn, an hour.” JH is called by some an as- 
 
 *From Gramma, a Greek word, signifying a letter, being thatletters form 
 syllables, syllables words, &c. 
 
 + From Articulus, a small part, which anatomists call a joint 
 
 t Some grammarians suppose / to make only an aspiration, but it appears to 
 be a distinct sound.— Encyclopedia Britannica. 
 
2 SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 pirate. The Article is only used before nouns of the 
 singular number or of multitude, or of the plural number 
 preceded by the Adjectives few, many, great, &c. as a man, 
 a thousand, a great many men, a few books, &c. the reason 
 is, because the article A has a singular signification. 
 A man is the same as, one man, any man, some man. 
 
 The article the may be applied either to nouns of the 
 singular, or plural number, as the ininister, the bishops, 
 the sun, the stars, &c. The always points tosome partic- 
 ular thing, as, the officer which I saw last month, &c. viz. 
 denoting some particular officer. 
 
 SUBSTANTIVES* OR NOUNS. 
 
 A Supsranrive or Noun is the name of any person, place 
 or thing, or of any word, or sentence that can be made 
 the subject ofa discourse : as, apples, chairs, virtue, vice, to 
 live piously and righteously are required of all men ; here 
 the two infinitive moods, (i e.) to live piously and to live 
 righteously are subjects to the verb are. Substantives are 
 divided or classed into two sorts, common and proper. 
 
 Common names are applied to a genus or kind without 
 distinction, as, a tree, a flower, that is, any tree or any 
 flower, without any specific designation, whether it be 
 an ash tree, or anelm tree, or a sunflower, or a rose flower. 
 
 Proper names are applied to individuals which are 
 classed under some particular kind; as, man is acommon 
 name for all mankind, and James or John is the proper 
 name of some individual man under the genus man. As 
 tree is 2 common name for all trees; so elm tree, or ash 
 tree, is a proper name for that specific tree, referred to. 
 If every man’s name were John, then John would be a 
 common name for all men, therefore John, James, Paris, 
 London, Berlin are called proper names, because John or 
 
 . James is not the name of every man, nor is Paris, London, 
 
 or Berlin the name of every city. 
 
 * A substantive is a being that can subsist by itself, without depending upon 
 any other being but God, and this gives occasion to logicians to call it a sub- 
 stantive. : ‘ 
 
 + From Nomen, a hame. 
 
SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 3 
 
 Substantives are also classed by logicians into natural, 
 artificial, and abstracted. A man, a horse, a lion, are na- 
 tural substantives: a house, a table, a watch, are artificial 
 substantives: whiteness, blackness, or blueness, are ab- 
 stracted substantives, or abstract nouns. 
 
 To nouns belong gender,* number, and person. The 
 masculine,+ which denotes auimals of the male kind, as, a 
 man,alion. The feminine,£ which signifies animals of 
 the female kind, as, a lady, a woman, a lioness. 
 
 In english there there are only two numbers, the singu- 
 lar and plural. The singular speaks only of one, as, an 
 orange; the plural speaks of more than one, as, oranges. 
 
 The persons of nouns are real and fignrative. First, 
 the person who speaks; secondly, the person spoken to ; 
 and thirdly, the person spoken of, and these may be either 
 singular or plural, and are what may be called real persons. 
 
 When things inanimate are personified, as the sun, the 
 moon, hills, mountains, &c., are called he or she, these are 
 only figurative persons, ot real, and are called so by per- 
 sonification. 
 
 To Nounsalso belong Cases.{| They are five in English, 
 viz..—The Nominative, Objective, Possessive, Vocative, 
 and Case Absolute. 
 
 The Nominative Case simply expresses the name of a 
 thing, or the subject of the verb, and usually precedes the 
 Verb or Attribute; as, William loves Maria, William is 
 the agent nominative, or subject to the Verb or Attribute 
 loves; Maria is the object, or objective case governed by 
 the active verb loves. (Vide Rule 11.) 
 
 The objective Case usually comes after the Verb or 
 
 * From Genus, asex, orkind. There is no such thing as a neuter gender, 
 for Dr. Louth says, ‘‘ Itis the exclusion of all consideration of gender ;” there- 
 fore such should, with propriety, be called a neuter noun. 
 
 +From Mas, the male kind. 
 
 {From Femina, in Latin, a woman; and from Ferme in French. A noun 
 that is neither masculine nor feminine, is called the exclusion of all considera- 
 
 tion of gender. 
 || From Cado, to fall, or an inflexion from the nominative, which, like a 
 
 right line in mathematics, is called Casws rectus, or the right case ; allthe rest 
 are oblique. 
 
4A SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 Preposition, as, “TI love religion ;” “In him dwelleth all 
 the fulness of the Godhead bodily;” or, as in the above 
 example of Maria. Religion is the object to the Verb 
 Love: him is the object to the Preposition Jn, and Maria 
 to the Verb Love. 
 
 The Possessive Case implies possession, or property, and 
 answers to what is called the Genitive in Latin; as, the 
 Lord’s Day; Paul’s Epistles; John’s House. Its sign is 
 an apostrophe placed over thes thus, John’s. But the 
 possessive or genitive may be otherwise expressed ; as, this 
 is the house of my father, or these are the epistles of St. 
 Paul. ; 
 
 The Vocative case is used in calling on or addressing a 
 second person; as, ’tis said that he formed thee, Adam; 
 thee O man! dust of the ground: or, O John! I love 
 thee. The Noun being governed by no Preposition, nei- 
 ther found as the agent or subject of a Verb expresssed or 
 implied, must be in the Vocative Case. 
 
 The Case Absolute which indeed answers to the Nomi- 
 native, and is always such, only modified by a peculiar 
 form of expression, is when a Noun or Pronoun precedes 
 a Verb or Participle without the interference of a Verb 
 or designation of time (except in a participial form); as, 
 “The laws being good, the people were happy; ‘* The 
 doors being shut Jesus stood in the midst.” 
 
 The following words, which have been adopted from 
 the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages, are thus dis- 
 tinguished, with respect to number. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL, 
 Cherub. Cherubim. Datum. Data. 
 Seraph. Seraphim. Effluvium. Effluvia.. 
 Antithesis. Antitheses. 5 Encomia or 
 Automaton. Automata. Encomium. tones 
 Basis. Bases. Erratum. Errata. . 
 Crisis. Crises. Genius’ Genii. 
 Criterion, Criteria. Genus. Genera. 
 
 *From Vocatus or Voeo, to call; “a calling or summoning, or invitation.” 
 —Virgil—Vide Encyclopedia Britannica for the authority of the vocative case. 
 
SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. i) 
 
 Dieresis. . Dizreses. Indices or 
 Ellipsis. Ellipses. Wee Indexes. 
 Emphasis. Emphases. - Lamina. Lamine. 
 Hypothesis. Hypotheses. Medium. Media. 
 Metamor- Metamor- Magus. Magi. 
 
 phosis. { phoses. Memoran- , Memoranda er 
 Phcenomenon.Phcenomena. dum. Memorandums. 
 A di f Appendices orRadius. Radu. 
 *ppeners- Appendixes. Stamen. Stamina. 
 Arcanum. Arcana. Stratum. Strata, 
 AXis. Axes, Vortex. Vortices. 
 Calx. Calces. 
 
 PRONOUNS.* ‘ 
 
 A Prownown isa word used instead of a noun to avoid 
 the too frequent repetition of the nouns: as, ‘Solomon 
 was wise; he governed Israel; ‘“‘The man is happy who 
 lives virtuously. 
 
 PRONOUNS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR CASES. 
 
 Nominative Singular. Nominative Plural. 
 L.2k: 1. We. 
 
 2. Thou. 2. Ye or you. 
 3. He, she, it. 3. They. 
 
 There are three sorts of pronouns, viz., the personal, 
 relative and adjective pronouns. 
 There are five personal pronouns; viz., I, thou, he, she, 
 it; with their plurals, we, ye or you, they. 
 Personal pronouns admit of persop, number, gender, 
 and case. 
 The persons of pronounsare three in each of the numbers. 
 I, is the first person 
 Thou, is the second person | Singular 
 He, she, or it, is the third person. 
 We, is the first person 
 Ye or you, is the second person \ Prural. 
 They, is the third person 
 Personal pronounsare such as relate to persons, and have 
 three cases; the nominative, possessive, and objective. 
 
 «From pro for and nomen, a name, being ita substitute or representative. 
 
6 SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 Relative pronouns are suchas relate to some word or. 
 phrase going before, which is thence called the antecedent: 
 
 Who, which and what, are called interrogatives when 
 they are used in asking ae : as, Who i is he? What 
 is that? 
 
 The possessive are such as relate to possession; viz., 
 my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. 
 
 PERSONAL OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 1 Me. 1 Us. 
 2 Thee. 2 You, is sometimes used 
 as the nominative. 
 3 Him, her, whom. 3 Them. 
 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 Singular. Plural, 
 1 My or mine. 1 Our. 
 2 Thine or yours. 2 Your. 
 3 His. 3 Thine. 
 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVE, OR ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 Singular. * Plural. Singular. Plural. 
 One. Ones. Other. Others. 
 This. These. That Those. 
 
 Thyself, yourself, yourselves, himself themselves.—-Him- 
 self and themselves, whenever they belong to the nomina- 
 tive, should be written himself and themselves. 
 
 That is subject to three changes as it may be differently 
 applied: as, ‘“‘ That man is wise ” here it is a demonstra— 
 tive adjective pronoun. “The man that I saw;’’ here 
 it isa relative pronoun. “ And that it is our duty to do 
 justly ;” here it is a conjunction. 
 
 ADJECTIVES.* 
 
 Aw Apnsrcrive is a word added to a substantive to ex- 
 press its quality or property, whether it be good or bad ; 
 a fine flower, a fruitful tree, a wise king, a bad boy. In 
 English Adjective shave no respect to Aine arin of nouns 
 nor to number, except the prominal and nentioeel Adjec- 
 
 * From ad, to and Jacio to put, to add or put to a noun. 
 
SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 7 
 
 tive Pronouns, viz. this and that, which make these and 
 those ; and the numerals oxc, two, &c. when applied to 
 Substantives. 
 
 Grammarians generally reckon three degrees * of com- 
 parison, the positive state may in some instances be a 
 degree; as when we say, a wise man, a pruden,:wo- 
 man, thisis a fair day, there is some reference made to 
 men of wisdom, women of prudence and the state of the 
 weather. : 
 
 In other instances the degrees of comparison are innu- 
 merable, for as much as qualities themselves are capable 
 of encrease almost to infinity, even the color white may 
 be encreased to a great number of degrees—as from a 
 mole hill to the mountainsof Andes there are an incalcu- 
 lable number of degrees, 
 
 The positive state expresses the quality of an object 
 without any, increase or diminution, as good wise, great. 
 
 The comparative either increases or lessens the positive, 
 as wise, greater, less wise. 
 
 The superlative increases or lessens the positive to the 
 highest or lowest degree, as wisest, greatest, least wise. 
 
 The positive becomes comparative by adding r, or 
 er to it, as wise, wiser; and the superlative is formed by 
 adding st or est to the positive state; as, wisest, greatest, 
 or least wise, and theadverbs, more and most placed before 
 the adjective have the same effect; as wise, more wise, 
 most wise. 
 
 Monosyllables for the most part are compared by er 
 or est, and dissyllables by more and most, as mild, milder, 
 mildest, frugal, more frugal, most frugal. 
 
 An adjective without a substantive with the definite 
 article the before it, assumes the nature of a substantive 
 and becomes one, as, there is a reward for the good and a 
 punishment for the bad. 
 
 Nouns put before other nouns become adjectives except 
 
 * A degree, from gradus, a step: therefore the positive state, or first simple 
 quality, cannot bea degree ; unless whena thing is said to be emphatically good ; 
 as, ‘¢ There are two tables, but this zs a good one. 
 
8 . SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 when. they are joined by a hyphen—then, they make one 
 word, as sea-fish, wine-vessel :—without the hyphen, sea 
 and wine are both adjectives when prefixed to substantives. 
 Adjectives are also divided into cardinai and ordinal car- 
 dinal, as one, two, three &c. ordinal, as first, second, third;- 
 &c. , 
 Degreesare also distinguished by the superlative of emi- 
 nence rand the superlative of comparison : “as very, exceed- 
 ingly, or other of similar import is called a degree of 
 eminence, to distinguish it from the superlative GE com- 
 parison. An adjective may be known by placing a sub- 
 stantive after it and making sense: as, a swect apple. 
 
 OF VERBS.* 
 
 A Vers is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to 
 suffer: “Iam; I love; I am loved.” 
 
 Verbs are of three-kinds, active, passive, and neuter; 
 they are also divided into trausitive, intransitive, neuter, 
 defective, irregular, and auxiliary. 
 
 A verb Select expresses being, or a state, or condition 
 
 * From verbum, a word by way of eminence, beisg the principal word ina 
 sentence. 
 
 + Verbs neuter are also divided into verbs sesalutely neuter, as, “I sleep 3” 
 and entransitively neuter: as, ‘* I walk.” But these distinetion’ are. of very 
 little use in grammar, although founded in nature. A lad is told that love is 
 an active verb, and walk a verb neuter: he is at aloss what to think: “ Why, 
 how is this? walk a verb neuter, and Jove an active verb! and what is the dif- 
 ference? ‘There is certainly more action in the verb walk, than in love.” This 
 no doubt might be the reasoning of thelad. But when he is told that the verb 
 walk is an action confined to the person or agent that walks, that this action 
 is not directed to any object, and that it does not affect any object; that itis - 
 an intransitive action or verb; that all such actions that are contined to their 
 respective agents are dictinenished by the name of neuter verbs; as, ‘* To 
 
 sleep, torun, tomourn, to lve, to sit, &c.; and that the verb dove is caller ac- 
 tive, because it is a passion of: the coal directed to some object: indeed, the 
 term itself implies an object loved, and that all verbs that fall under this de- 
 scription must have objects, and are called active. Still the pupil may not dis- 
 tinguish them by their ddcoptation: They may be known by syimbols (i. e.) by 
 placing a pronoun in the objective case, or a substantive, after them: as, 
 *¢ John loves him or her ;” or, ‘¢ Jane loves ‘Charles: ” This cannot be applied 
 to aneuter verb and make sense; for instance, it would be improper to say, 
 ‘* John mourns Charles ;”’ or, ** John walks Diaries’ or walks him.” By a due 
 and attentive ee ee ion of these observations, the student will be able to 
 point out with precision the active from the neuter verb. 
 
SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 9 
 
 of being, or a sort of action which is entirely confined to 
 the agent, and does not passto any object: as, “I am; 1 
 sleep; I sit.” 
 
 A verb active or transitive expresses an action, and ne- 
 cessarily implies an agent or actor, and an object acted 
 upon, or an object to which the action is directed: as, “to 
 love;” “I love Casandra.” Casandra is the object to 
 which the passion of my love is directed. Such verbs are 
 also called: transitive, because the action passes from the 
 agent to the object. 
 
 Verbs are called active intransitive when the action is 
 altogether confined to the agent, and does not pass to, or 
 affect any object: as, “ Cicero walked, or ran, &c. 
 
 Verbs are called absolutely neuter when they are used 
 to express an attribute that is altogether confined to the 
 agent: as, “Socrates stood, or Cato slept; or, I sit.” 
 
 Verbs are called passive when they express a passion or 
 a suffering, or the receiving of an action, and necessarily 
 imply an object acted upon and an agent by which it is 
 acted upon: as, “’l'o be loved;’’ “ Casandra is loved by 
 me.” Or, they are called passive when they express not 
 action but passion, or suffering, whether pleasing or pain- 
 ful: as, “ Darius was conquered by Alexander.” In verbs 
 passive the agent and object change places. (Seeexample 
 of Darius, &c.) 
 
 Verbs are also divided into regular, irregular, defective, 
 and auxiliary. 
 
 Regular verbs are those which terminate in d or ed: as, 
 ** Loved; received.” 
 
 Irregular verbs are those which terminate in enor ¢: as, 
 “ Brought; taken.” | 
 
 Defective verbs are those which can only be used in 
 some of their modesand tenses; as, ‘* Am, was, can, will, 
 may, &c.” 
 
 Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which the prin- 
 cipal verbs are congugated: they are be, do, have, shall, 
 will, can, may, with their variations/et and musi, which have 
 no variations. The auxiliary verbs, such as do, shall, will, 
 
10 SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 may, can and must, are in reality separate verbs, and were 
 originally used as such.” 
 
 The Conjugation of a verb, is the regular combination 
 and arrangement of its several nnmbers, persons, moods, 
 and tenses. 
 
 The Conjugation of an active verb is styled the acrivs 
 voice; and that ofa passive verb, the passrvE VoIcE. 
 
 The auxiliary and active verb ro nave, is conjugated 
 in the following manner. 
 
 TO HAVE. 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 1. Pers. I have. 1. We have. 
 2. Pers. Thou hast. 2. Yeor you have. 
 
 _ 8. Pers. He, she, or ne 
 
 hath or has. 3. They have. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 1. I Had. 1. We had. 
 2. Thou hadst. 2. Ye or you had. 
 3. He, &c. had. 3. They had 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 1. I have had. 1. We have had. 
 2. Thou hast had. 2. Ye or you have had. 
 3. He has had. 3. They have had. 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 SINGULAR, PLURAL. 
 1. I had had. 1. We had had. 
 2. Thou hadst had. 2. Yeor youhad had. 
 3. He had had. 3. They had had. 
 FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
 J SINGULAR. PLURAL. , 
 T shall or will have. 1. We shall or will have. — 
 
 1. 
 2. Thou shalt or wilt have. 2. Yeoryoushallorwillhave 
 3. Heshall or will have. 3. They shall or will have. 
 
SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. ll 
 
 SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 1. I shall have had. 1. We shall have had. 
 2. Thou wilt have had. 2. Ye or you will have had. 
 3.. He will have had. 3. They will have had. 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 1. Let me have. 1. Let us have. 
 2. Have, or have thou, or 2. Have, or have ye, or do ye 
 do thou have. or you have. 
 3. Let him have. 3. Let them have. 
 
 The imperative mood is not strictly entitled to three 
 persons. ‘The command is always addressed to the second 
 person, not to the first or third. For when we say, “ Let 
 me have,” ‘‘ Let him, or let them have,” the meaning 
 and construction are do thou, or do ye, let me, him, or 
 them have. Strictly speaking both number and_per- 
 son might be excluded from every verb. ‘They are, in 
 fact, the properties of substantives, not a part of 
 the essence of a verb. - Even the name of the imperative 
 mood, does not always correspond to its nature: for it 
 sometimes petitions as well as commands, But, with re- 
 spect to all these points, the practice of our grammarians 
 is so uniformly fixed, and so analogous to the languages, 
 ancient and modern, which our youth have to study, that 
 it would be an unwarrantable degree of innovation, to 
 deviate from the established terms and arrangements, 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 1. Imay or can have. 1. Wemay or can have. 
 2, Thou maystorcansthave. 2. Yeoryoumay orcan have, 
 3. He may or can have. 8. They may or can have. 
 
12 “ SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 1. We might, could, would, 1. I might, could, would, or 
 or should have. should have. 
 2. Ye or you might, could, 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 
 would, or should have. wouldst, or shouldst have. 
 3. They might, could, 3. He might, could, would, 
 would, or should have. or should have. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 1. [may or can have had. 1. We may or can have had. 
 2. Thou mayst or canst 2. Ye or you may or can 
 have had. have had. 
 3. He may or canhavehad. 3. They may or canhavehad. 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 SINGULAR. ‘ PLURAL. 
 1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 
 should have had. or should have had. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
 wouldst, or shouldsthave would, or should have 
 
 had. had. 
 3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 
 or should have had. or should have had. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 SINGULAR. eg PLURAL. 
 1. If I have. 1. If we have. 
 2. Ifthou have. 2. If ye or you have. 
 3, If he have. 3. If they have. 
 
 *Except that the second and third persons, singular and plural, of the se- 
 cond future tense, require the auxiliary shall, shall, instead of wilt, well 
 Thus, ** He wil? have completed his work by midsummer,” is the indicative 
 
 orm; but the subjunctive is, ‘If he shall have completed the work by mid: 
 sUIMIMET, 
 
SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. a8 
 
 The remaining tenses or forms of the subjunctive mood, 
 are, in every respect, similar to the corresponding tenses 
 of the indicative mood ; with the addition of the verb, 
 of a conjunction, expressed or implied, denoting a condi- 
 tion, motive, wish, supposition, &c. - 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 PRESENT. ‘Lo have. PerFect. 'l’o have had. 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT OR ACTIVE. Having. 
 PERFECT. Had. 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. Having had. 
 
 The auxiliary and neuter verb ro Be is conjugated as 
 follows: . . 
 7 TO BE. 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 1. Tam. 1. We are. 
 2. Thou art. 2. Yeor you are. 
 3. He, she, or it is. 3. They are. 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 SINGUBAR. PLURAL. 
 1. I was. 1. We were. 
 2. Thou wast. | -2..Ye or you were. 
 3. He was. 3. They were. 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 1. I have been. 1. We have been. 
 2. Thou hast been. “2. Ye or you have been. 
 3. He hath or has been. 3, They have been. 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 1. I had been. 1. We had been. 
 2. Thou hadst been. 2. Ye or you had been. 
 3. He had been. 3. They had been. 
 
 B 
 
14: SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR, — 
 FIRST FUTURE TENSE. . 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 i. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 
 ©, Thou shalt or wilt be. 2. Yeor you shall or will be. 
 3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 
 SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 
 2. Thou wilt have been. 2. Ye or you will have been. 
 3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 1. Let me be. 1. Let us be. 
 2. Be thou or do thou be. 2. Be ye or you, or do ye be. 
 3. Let him be. 3. Let them be. 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 i. 1 may or can be. 1. We may or can be. 
 2. Thou mayst or canst be. 2. Ye or you may or can be. 
 3. He may or can be. 3. They may or can be. 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 i. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 
 should be. or should be. 
 2, Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
 wouldst, or shouldst be. would, or should be. 
 3. He might, could, would, 3. They might,could,would, 
 or should be. or should be. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 SINGULAR, PLURAL. 
 
 . I may or can have been. 1. Wemay or can have been. 
 
 Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may oer can. - 
 been. - have been. 
 He may or can have been, 3. They may or can have been. 
 
SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 15 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 i. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 
 should have been. or should have been. 
 
 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 
 wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should have 
 
 been. been. 
 3. He might, could, would, 3. ‘They might,could, would, 
 or should have been. or should have been 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 i. If I be. 1. If we be: 
 2. If thou be. 2. If ye or you be. 
 3. If he be. 3. If they be. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 1. If I were. 1. If we were. 
 2. If thou wert 2. If yeor you were 
 3. If he were, 3. If they were. 
 
 The remaining tenses or forms of this mood are, in ge- 
 neral, similar to the correspondent tenses of the Indica- 
 tive mood. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. To be. perrect. ‘To have been. 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 PRESENT. Being. PERFEcT. Been. 
 COMPOUND PERFECT. Having been. 
 TO HAVE. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 Sing. 1. I have. 2. Thou hast. 3. He hath or has. 
 Plur. 1. We have. 2. Ye or you have. 3. ‘They have. 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. | 
 Sing. 1. I had. 2. Thou hadst. 3. He had. 
 Plur. 1. Wehad. 2, Ye or you had. 3. They had. 
 perFect. I have had, &c. pexrurerrect. I had had, &c. 
 
16 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Sing. 
 Plur. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Sing. 
 Plur. 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. Having. | PERFECT. Had. 
 
 1. Tam. 
 2, We are. 
 
 1. I was. 
 1. We were. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 . 1. IT shail. 
 Plur. 
 
 1. We shall. 
 
 1. Tshould. 
 .1. We should. 
 
 ~1. EP will. 
 1. We will. 
 1. E would. 
 
 1. We would. 
 
 1, I may. 
 
 TO BE. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 2. Thou art. 3. He is. 
 2. Ye or youare. 3. They are: 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 2. Thou wast. 3. He was. 
 ; aN 
 2. Ye or you were. 3. They were. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 Being. PERFECT. Been. 
 
 SHALL. 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 2. Thou shalt. 3. He shall. 
 2. Ye or you shall. 3. They shall. 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 2. Thou shouldst. 3. He should. 
 2.Yeoryoushould.3. They should. 
 
 WILL. 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 2. Thou wilt. 3..He will. 
 2. Ye or you will. 3. They will. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. | 
 2. Thou wouldst. 3. He would. 
 2. Yeoryouwould. 3. They would. 
 
 MAY. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 2. Thou mayst. 3. He may. 
 
 Plur. 1. We may. 2. Ye or you may. 3. They may. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSH. 
 
 Sing. 1. Imight. 2. Thou mightst. 3: He might. 
 
 .1. We might. 
 
 2. Yeoryou might. 3. They might. 
 
SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 17 
 
 CAN. 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Sing. 1. I can. 2. Thou canst. 3. He can, 
 
 Plur. 1. Wecan. 2. Yeor you can. 3. They can. 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Sing. 1. T could. 2. Thou couldst. 3. He could. 
 
 Plur. 1. We could. 2. Ye or youcould. 3. They could. 
 
 TO DO. 
 
 | PRESENT TENSE. 
 Sing. 1. I do. 2. Thou dost. 3. He doth or does, 
 Plur.1. Wedo. 2. Yeoryoudo. 3. They do. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 Sing. 1. I did. 2. Thou didst. 3. He did. 
 Plur, 1. Wedid. 2. Yeor youdid. 3. They did. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 PRESENT. Doing. PERFECT. Done. 
 
 N.B.—When have, be, will and do, are not connected to any other verbs; 
 they are principal verbs: as, *‘ We have a sufficiency,” &c. 
 
 — 
 
 OF THE MODES OF VERBS. 
 
 Tuere are five modes* of verbs, viz., the indicativet, 
 imperative, potential, subjunctivel], and infinitives. 
 
 The indicative simply indicates or declares: as, “ I love 
 or am loved.” 
 
 * ¥rom Modus, a form. + From Indico, to shew: 
 
 { From Jmpero, to command, 
 
 \| From Sub, under, and Jungo, to join: and likewise the conjunctive, be- 
 cause conjunctions precede the sentence, and are signs of it. 
 
 § From Jnfinitivus, without bounds. The infinitive is called an abstract 
 noun, ‘‘remarking that if affirmation be the essence of the verb, the infini- 
 tive is no part of the verb at all: to write expresses no affirmation, or com- 
 plete sentence; but ‘I am wrtting,’ affirms something.” It does not appear 
 
 to me, that want of affirmation excludes the infinitive from being classed with | 
 
 t 
 a 
 
 verbs. 4: 
 NOTE.—The whole number of verbs in the English language is about 4300. 
 
 The whole number of irregulars, including the defective, is about 117. 
 
18 SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 The imperative commands, exhorts, or entreats; as, 
 ‘Depart thou;” * Retreat in haste ;” “ Remember your 
 duty.” 
 
 The potential implies possibility, liberty, power, will, 
 or obligation: as, “‘He may run;” “ Jane should go;” 
 “William might learn.” 
 
 The subjunctive skews a thing under a condition, mo- 
 tive, wish, or supposition: as, “If I write, though James 
 remonstrate, he will not renounce his sins.” 
 
 The infinitive expresses a thing in a general and un- 
 limited manner, without any distinction of number or 
 person: ‘as, “ To act, to write, to run.” 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 Tue Participle* is a certain mode of the verb, and de- 
 rives its name from ils participating not only of the pro- 
 perties of a verb, but those of on adjective: as, “ J am 
 desirous of knowing him ;” ‘‘ Caressed and applauded she 
 became vain.” : 
 
 There are two participles belonging to most verbs: the 
 active, which ends in ing: as, love, loving; write, writing : 
 and the passive, which ends in d, ed, or n: as, preseut love, 
 participle past /oved; slay, slain; teach, taught,&c. Par- 
 ticiples, like verbs, govern nouns, or pronouns in the ob- 
 jective case in the same manner, as the verbs do from 
 which they are derived. 
 
 ADVERBS.+ 
 
 Aw Adverb is a word added to a verb, an adjective, and 
 sometimes to another adverb, to denote the peculiar 
 manner, circumstance, modification and degree of the ac- 
 tion or quality in respect to order, time, place, manner, 
 quality, quantity, negation, affirmation, number, interro- 
 gation, comparison, &c. 
 
 * From Partic:pio, to partake. 
 + From ad, to, and verbusm, a word, being put or added to a verb. 
 
 
 
SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. ie) 
 
 ADVERBIAL ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 First, of number; 2, order; 3, place; 4, time past, 
 present, to come, and time indefinite; 5, quantity; 6, 
 manner or quality; 7,doubt; 8, affirmation ; 9, negation ; 
 10, interrogation; 11, comparison; besides others which 
 are formed by the combination of prepositions with ad- 
 verbs: as, herein, therein, Xc. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS.* 
 
 A Consuncrion is a part of speech used to join words 
 or sentences together. They are generally divided into 
 two sorts, the copulative and disjunctive. The copulative 
 connects words and sentences: as, “‘ Pen andink;” “ Hap- 
 piness is the offspring of virtue, and they are both desir- 
 able.” The conjunction disjunctive likewise connects 
 words and sentences, but disjoins the sense or meaning : 
 as, “I or Ann shall write;” ‘‘Cato fell by suicide, but 
 Cesar by Brutus and others.” 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 _ Although, and, as, than, if, less, neither, unless, not- 
 withstanding, but, either, for, yet, nor, or, so, that, both, 
 and a few others which become conjunction by their pe- 
 culiar application; as, that is sometimes a conjunction, 
 
 and in other instances, a relative pronoun, and also a de- 
 
 monstrative pronoun. 
 PREPOSITIONS.+ 
 
 Prepositions, like conjunctions, connect words with 
 one another, and shew the relation between them: as, 
 “He went from Manchester to London;” “ He 1s above 
 
 * From Con, with, and Jungo, to join. Grammarians have given various 
 other appellations to these conjunctions ; as, positive, suppositive, casual, 
 eollective, simple, adversative, and adequate conjunctions. [Vide Harris’ 
 Hermes. | ; 
 
 + From Pre, before, and Pono, to place. The great use of prepositions 
 in English is, that they answer those relations which, in other languages, are 
 marked by cases, 
 
20 SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 the skies; he is hailed by Angels.” Prepositions, when 
 prefixed to verbs, participate in degree of the nature and 
 meaning of the verbs to which they are connected: as, 
 to cast, that is, to throw. To cast up, is to reckon; to 
 give, is to bestow; but to give over, is to cease from ac- 
 tion. In these instances, viz., when the preposition is 
 prefixed to the verb, it becomes an adverb, or takes the 
 nature of one. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS.* 
 
 An Interjection is a word that is used to express some 
 passion or emotion of the mind, and is produced by some- 
 thing surprising, wonderful, admirable, &c.: as, Oh! ah! 
 alas!| They may be classed in the following order :—Of 
 insignificance; as, pish! tush !—Of wonder; as, heigh! 
 really! strange !—Of calling; as, here! ho! so ho !— 
 Of aversion or disgust; as, foh! fie! away !—Of arrest- 
 ing the attention; as, lo! behold! hark !—Of command- 
 ingsilence; as, hush! hist !—Of salutation; as, welcome! 
 hail! all hail !—besides many others used by the canaile 
 which cannot be called language. 
 
 * Erom Inter, between, and Jacio, to throw: as, ‘Ob! joy thou weleome 
 stranger,” 
 
AN ESSAY 
 
 ON THE 
 
 SYNTAX OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 
 EY CADDY i 
 
 _ “A-verb must agree with its nominative case in 
 number and person: as “I learn;” “Thou art im- 
 proved ;” “The birds sing.’’* 
 
 The nominative, agent, or subject of the verb has, oris 
 supposed to be invested with power, and usually precedes 
 the verb; so the nominative case is said to govern the 
 verb or attribute, and the verb is put either in the singu- 
 lar or plural number, to shew the number of the nomina- 
 tive case; for all verbs are either more or less under 
 the controul of their actors or agents: as, “ Cyrus gives 
 orders to rebuild Jerusalem.” . The verb gives is put in 
 the singular number to agree with its nominative case 
 Cyrus. “Solomonand David were kings.” The verb 
 were is plural to agree with Solomon and David. 
 
 * To show that this rule is not arbitrary, or established by custom, let the 
 rule be reversed, (i. e.) the verb must govern the nominative case in number 
 and-person. This requires no demonstration to prove its absurdity ; as it is 
 the same as to say, that the effect is prior to the cause—that the action pre- 
 ceded the actor. Indeeed, if the fundamental rules of grammar be arbitrary, 
 any of the modern linguists or grammarians, have equal right to change, or 
 ‘form new rules, as the ancient literati had; but this has not been attempted, 
 because the fundamental laws of our language are founded on the basis of its 
 principles and analogy. In the rude ages of the world men expressed their 
 wants, &c., according to nature—rules were afterwards adapted to this lan- 
 guage, for the true language of nature is grammatical. 
 
22 ESSAY ON. SYNTAX. 
 
 In historical relations, and when a thing is said to be, 
 or not to be, the leading state of the noun is not endued 
 with the power of active agency, like that of Cyrus giv- 
 ing orders to rebuild Jerusalem; still the nominative re- 
 tains its government: as, ‘‘ Carthage was conquered by 
 the Romans;”’ ‘“‘Greece was famous for seven wise men.” 
 This government is by analogy, for the agent or nomina- 
 tive has power to modify the action, hence all actions are 
 subsequent to their agents,and made subservient to them: 
 as, ‘King William conquered James.” William is the 
 nominative or agent to the verb, or passive participle 
 conquered, and James is the object (or as some call it the 
 objective case). But when the verb is made passive, the 
 agent and the object change places: as, ‘‘James was con- 
 quered by William.” From this it is obvious, that the 
 nominative does not always denote the actor or agent, 
 but answers to what is called the leading state of the 
 noun, and the substantive that receives the force of the 
 verb or preposition, is called the object, or objective case. 
 
 “ The infinitive mood or part of a sentence, is some 
 times put as the nominative case to the verb: as, “To see 
 the sun is pleasant;” ‘To be good is to be happy ;” “A 
 desire to excel others in learning is commendable.” 
 
 In like manner, the infinitive mood may be the object, 
 
 or objective case to the verb: as, “John loves play or to” 
 play.”” Here the infinitive mood ‘to play,” is the object : 
 
 to the verb loves. Every verb must have a nominative 
 case expressed, or understood; as every action implies 
 some agent. It is impossible to form any correct idea of 
 a verb abstracted from some correspondent agent, there- 
 fore, every force exerted must be dependent, and conse- 
 quent to its cause, so all actions are either more or less 
 subject to their agents. 
 
 When the infinitive mood becomes the nominative 
 case to a verb it assumes the nature of a substantive: as, 
 to see the sun is pleasant, (i. e.) the action of beholding 
 the sun is pleasant; and as to see the sun is only expres- 
 sive of a singular action the verb is put in the singular 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 23 
 
 number 7s, and made to agree with its nominative case, 
 ‘* to see the sun,” in the singular number. 
 
 It has been observed, that every verb must have a no- 
 minative case, but the infinitive mood has neither num- 
 ber or person, or nominative case; and the Stoics held 
 this infinitive in such estimation in their grammatical en- 
 quiries, that they asserted it to be the genuine PHMA, 
 or verb, a name which they denied to all other moods; 
 their reasoning was, they considered the true verbal cha- 
 racter to be contained simple and unmixed in the infini- 
 tive only; thus, the infinitives ambulare, to walk, mean 
 simply that energy, and nothing more. The other modes, 
 besides expressing this energy superadded certain affec- 
 tions which respect persons and circumstances : thus, am- 
 bulo and ambula mean not simply to walk, but mean I 
 walk, and walk thou; hence, they are all of them resolv- 
 able into the infinitive, as their prototype, together with 
 some sentence or word expressive of their proper charac- 
 ter, ambulo, l-walk, this is, indico me ambulare, 1 declare 
 myself.to walk, ambula, walk thou, that is, impero te am- 
 bulare, 1 command thee to walk, and so with the modes 
 of every other species. Take away the assertion and 
 command, or whatever else gives to any of these modes, 
 and there remains nothing more than the mere infinitive. 
 [ Vide Hermes. | 
 
 The infinitive cannot have a definitive or specific no- 
 minative case, because it expresses a thing without any 
 distinction of number or person in an unlimited manner, 
 as, “to read,” ‘to love,” although the words read and 
 love both imply action ; they are vague and abstracted, — 
 and unconnected with any specific agents, therefore, the 
 infinitive is said. to have no nominative case. 
 
 From the definition of a verb, itis plain there can be 
 no action independent of an agent, although grammarians 
 do not connect any agent to the infinitive form of the 
 verb; yet, when it is said, “to love,” “to hate,” the idea 
 of an agent cannot be totally abstracted trom the verbs 
 love.and hate; for, there could be neither love nor hatred 
 were there no agents or persons to love or hate. 
 
s 
 
 94 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 It is also observed, that the case absolute has no no- 
 minative: the case absolute is when the substantive has’ 
 no persona} tense of a verb, but is put before the partici- 
 ple independently of the rest of the sentence: as, “shame 
 being lost, all virtue is lost,” “ the doors being shut Je- 
 sus stood in the midst.” 
 
 What is meant by the verb having no personal tense is, 
 that there is no distinct time of the action or of the par- 
 ticiple marked by any of the usual or common modes of 
 the inflections of the verb, or participle, but the sentence 
 may may be transposed thus, “the person that has lost all 
 shame has lost all virtue.” The doors were shut when 
 Jesus stood in the midst; or, the doors having been shut, 
 Jesus made his way through, and stood in the midst, 
 From this arrangement of the words it appears plainly 
 enough, that there is a nominative case implied in the case 
 absolute. In the first sentence shame is the nominative 
 to the participle, active being lost; in the second, doors 
 is the nominative to the participle being shut, for the par- 
 ticiple is a certain form of the verb, or a certain modifi- 
 cation of the attribute. 
 
 Impersonal verbs (so called) are those verbs that have 
 no reference to any personal agents as their nominative 
 cases, as, “it rains, it hails, it snows.” The pronoun it 
 has for its antecedent the atmesphere, or the alembic of 
 nature, and the atmosphere is under the influence of the 
 great architect of nature, who manages all things accord- 
 ing to the counsel of his will, and sends forth the frost, 
 
 snow, and the fruitful showers in their seasons. From 
 “this, it appears, that there cannot be any such.thing as an 
 ‘Impersonal verb, as there is no species of motion or ac- 
 tion which every verb, either more or less, implies, inde- 
 pendent of some agent. Every verb* signifies either 
 being, doing, or suffering; so there can be no being, 
 
 * When the verb fo de stands between a singular and a plural. nominative, 
 it agrees with the one next to it, or with the one which is more naturally the 
 subject of it: as, “‘ The wages of sin is death.” ‘This is a vague statement of 
 the rule. Suppose we say, ‘‘ Death zs the wages of sin;” then wages comes 
 next to the verb; for what is meant by the word next to the verb, is, the word 
 coming after the verb. By the above mode of expressing the Tule, wages may 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 25 
 
 doing, or suffering, unless through the medium of some 
 agent or first cause. For instance, a king implies sub- 
 jects; achief or commander, an army to be commanded ; 
 every force exerted has a reference to some first cause; 
 even verbs called absolutely neuter (if such can be) reci- 
 procate their actions to their respective agents, as, I 
 walk, this wearies me; I sit, this eases me; I sleep, this 
 refreshes me ; I stand, this sometimes fatigues me. Hence, 
 the definition of a neuter verb is obviously wrong, which 
 is, ‘a verb neuter expresses neither action nor passion,” 
 &c. There is no verb in any language that answers to 
 this description. If there were no action in standing, 
 sleeping, sitting, walking, or running, there would be no 
 result from these actions. It would be much better to 
 call those verbs intransitive, because the action of a neu- 
 ter verb is solely confined to the agent, and does not pass 
 to any object. 
 ‘ EXAMPLES. 
 
 Disappointments sinks the heart of man. The verb 
 should be sink in the plural number to make it agree with 
 its nominative case disappointments. ‘The renewal of 
 hope give consolation; the verb should be gives to accord 
 with renewal, its nominative case. 
 
 Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of flour. 
 The verb should be contain to agree with pounds in the 
 plural number. He dare not proceed in such haste ; dare 
 should be dares in the singular number, to agree with he 
 the third person singular. 
 
 The mechanism of clocks and watches were unknown 
 afew centuries ago. Were should be was to agree with 
 its nominative case mechanism. Clocks and watches are 
 both in the objective or accusative case by the proposi- 
 tion of: unknown is an adjective giving quality to me- 
 chanism: few is an adjective to centuries; centuries, a 
 
 be the nominative case; but it is evident, that death is the real subject of the 
 
 verb; therefore, the subject of the verb should be always made the nomina- 
 tive to the verb ; of course there is not a clear decision given to the expression 
 of the rule. ‘e 
 
 ied se 
 C 
 
26 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 substantive common, plural number, third person, objec- 
 tive case by the preposition of understood, thus, was un- 
 known in the space of a few centuries; ago, an adverb of 
 time. 
 
 James are studious, and make a good progress. The 
 neuter verb are should be is, to make it agree with its 
 nominative case James, vide, rule Ist. The active verb 
 make should be makes, to accord with the pronoun he 
 understood, thus, “and he makes a good progress ;” the 
 substantive progress is the objective case by the verb 
 makes. 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 Two or more nouns, &c. in the singular number 
 joined together by a copulative conjunction, expressed 
 or understood, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, 
 agreeing with them in the plural number; as, “Soc- 
 rates and Plato were wise ; they were the most eminent 
 philosophers of Greece ;” “The sun that rolls over 
 eur heads, the food that we receive, the rest that we 
 enjoy, daily admonish us of a superior and superin- 
 tending Power.” 
 
 By the first rule in syntax, a noun of the singular num- 
 ber must have a verb of the singular number to agree with 
 it: so two nouns, coupled by a conjunction, form the 
 plural number, and the verb is made plural also to agree 
 with them ; as, ‘¢ William and Mary were amicable.” This 
 rule is merely an amplification of rule Ist. When one 
 word is put to express another, as, that of the pronoun 
 being put for the noun; if the noun be of the plural 
 number, the pronoun must be plural also; as, ‘the pu- 
 pils were studious ;” ‘“‘tkey were diligent.” 
 
 The following sentences, although warranted by the 
 authority of Hume, Priestly, and others, and also by the 
 original principles of grammar, are censured by the late 
 Mr. Murray as not being formed upon just principles of 
 grammatical construction. ‘‘A long course of time, 
 with a variety of accidents and circumstances, are requi- 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 27 
 
 site to produce those resolutions.” ‘The king with the 
 lords and commons form an excellent frame of govern- 
 ment.” ‘The side A, with the side B and C compose 
 the triangle.” ‘The fire communicated itself to the 
 bed, which, with the furniture of the room and a valua- 
 ble library, were all consumed.” In the first sentence, 
 ‘a long course of time, with a variety of accidents,” &c. ; 
 course and variety are the nominative case to the verb 
 are, for, although variety is in the objective case by the 
 preposition with, yet it is connected to course, in order 
 “to produce the resolutions;” indeed, the whole of the 
 latter clause of the sentence is united to the first part, 
 ‘a long course of time;” it is true, that accidents and 
 circumstances are both the objective cases by the prepo- 
 sition of, but when considered as necessarily and inse- 
 parably united to produce resolutions: variety, accidents, 
 and circumstances, although they be in the objective case, 
 are the subject of the verb are*. ‘The king, with the 
 lords and commons form, &c.,” King is the singular 
 number, and is connected with lords and commons in 
 true sense and acceptation; consequently forms should 
 be form; for it is not the king alone that forms a frame 
 of government; the lords and the commons are united, 
 and lords and commons are both the objective case by the 
 preposition with: still in their acceptation, position and 
 office, they are in conjunction with the king, in order to 
 form an excellent frame of government. The foregoing 
 
 * When a nominative has a clause joined to it by with, it is often difficult 
 to determine whether the verb should be singular or plural, especially as our 
 most popular authors use sometimes the one and sometimes the other; for 
 example, some would say, ‘‘ My friend with his brother was in town yester- 
 day.’ Others would say, ‘* My friend, with his brother, were in town.” 
 
 The sense should be our guide, and nothing else can guide us in a case of 
 this kind. It is evident that the verb should be plural, for both friend and 
 brother are the joint subject of the affirmation, and decldred to be both in 
 town. 
 
 «« When the noun that precedes wth is exclusively the real subject of the 
 verb, it should be singular. ‘Christ, with his three chosen disciples, was 
 transfigured on the mount.’ Here the verb is singular, because none but 
 Christ was transfigured ; the disciples were not participators in the transfigu- 
 ration. 
 
28 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 > 
 
 reasoning will be found applicable to other similar 
 examples. 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 “Sand, salt, and a mass of iron, zs easier to bear than a 
 man without understanding.” 
 
 Here the verb és is put in the singular number to agree 
 with sand, salt, and a mass of iron, separately, not collect- 
 ively, in order to render the assertion more emphatical ; 
 for repetition and analysis give energy and clearness to 
 some assertions and propositions, (i. e.) it is easier to bear 
 sand, it is easier to bear salt, and it is easier to beara 
 mass of iron, than it is to bear a man without an under- 
 standing. However, such sentences seldom occur in com- 
 position: when they do, they are not to be considered as 
 a deviation from the second rule of syntax. This mode 
 may very properly be termed circumlocution, for the sake 
 of rendering the sense more energetical : still, perhaps it 
 would be more consonant to the principles of grammar to 
 put the conjunction or before mass of iron, and then the 
 verb is would be correctly and more appropriately 
 used. 
 
 “Tf the singular nouns and pronouns which are joined 
 together by a copulative conjunction, be of several per- 
 sons, in making the plural pronoun to agree with them in 
 person, the second person takes the place of the third, and 
 the first of both: as, ‘James, and thou, and I, are attach- 
 ed to our country;’ ‘You and he shared it between 
 you.’ 29 , 
 
 The nominative case to the verb are is, James, thou, 
 and I, and if the elliptical words were supplied, it would 
 read thus: James is attached, thou art attached, and I 
 am attached, each to his country; but by omitting the 
 elliptical words, the pronoun we stands for James, 
 thou and I: as, “We are attached to our country ;” 
 ‘‘ Thou and he shared it between you.” The verb shared 
 does not agree with thou, but for brevity and gracefulness 
 the elliptical word that should be inserted, to agree with 
 the pronoun thou, is left out: as, “ Thou didst share, or 
 
 - 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 29 
 
 thou sharedst it;” ‘‘ And he shared it between you.” ‘The 
 pronoun you is of the plural number, although in the 
 polite style it is used in the singular. 
 
 ‘In looking for the nominative of asentence, take care 
 that the relative pronoun be not astumbling block, for 
 relatives have no changes, to denote number or per- 
 son; and though they may sometimes appear to be of 
 themselves nominatives, they never can be such.”—Wr. 
 Cobbett. 
 
 According to this assertion there is no nominative case 
 in grammar, except such as has God for the agent to the 
 verb, for agreeably to the definition of a nominative case, 
 it is the leading state of the noun, or the agent to the 
 verb, or the person, cause, or thing that performs or ef- 
 fects (or that is influential in) the operation, either phy- 
 sically or metaphysically, in any of the occurrences of 
 nature. Hence, God, as the principal mover of all creat- 
 ed being, in the economy of his providence, is the great 
 nominative case to every verb expressive of the benevolent 
 display of his goodness to lapsed humanity. Hence, every 
 agent in nalure owes its power of agency, or action to 
 this “ great first cause.” 
 
 Pronouns are put to represent nouns, or they stand in 
 the place of nouns, and in a metaphysical sense, to supply 
 the place of their respective agenis; consequently, pro- 
 nouns are other names for nouns or substantives, and can 
 be logically proved to be of the same species, conse- 
 quently of the same genus with the nouns which they re- 
 present. . 
 
 When the pronouns he, she or dé, or their plurals, pre- 
 cede verbs, reference is had to the antecedents, or nouns 
 for which they stand. If the antecedent be man, the pro- 
 noun ke conveys all the ideas represented by man (i. e.) 
 soul, bones, sinews, arteries, veins, and immortality 
 itself. But words are not substances, but sounds by 
 which we distincuish matter and its various modifica- 
 tions; then it follows, that pronouns when traced to 
 their antecedents, as light when traced to its origin, the 
 
 al 
 
30 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 sun, perform the offices of nominative cases to their re- 
 spective verbs. Indeed, pronouns thus considered, are 
 of the same species of the nouns for which they stand. 
 He, when it refers to man, has every thing understood in 
 the species that is to be foundinthe genus. The pronoun 
 he, when it is put for man, implies ail those ideas that are 
 necessarily connected to, and expressive of the term man. 
 Words are signs of ideas, and words are nominative cases 
 to verbs; consequently signs of ideas are sometimes cases 
 to verbs :—pronouns are signs of ideas, ergo, pronouns 
 are nominative cases to verbs. It is true, in the expression 
 he writes or he analyses, reference is necessary to find out 
 who is the antecedent to the proneun he; but if this be 
 assigned as a reason that pronouns of themselves, inde- 
 pendently of their antecedents, are not nominative cases, 
 verbs of themselves, cannot, independently of their respec- 
 tive Lominative cases, or agents, perform the office of 
 verbs; for verbs are only words expressive of operations, 
 and have reference to agents. 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 ‘Much do human pride and self-complacency requires 
 some correction.” The active verb should be require, not 
 requires, by the second rule insyntax. AZuch isan adverb. 
 ‘*Much wisdom and much grief is inconsistent in one per- 
 son.” The neuter verb should be are. [See Rule II.] 
 Much is an adjective, because it qualifies wisdom and 
 grief.» ‘‘ Where much are given and much are required 
 there isno injustice.” The neuter verb should be is in 
 both places [pr. Rule I.], to make it agree with its nomi- 
 native case much, because much is a substantive in this ex- 
 ample. 
 
 RULE Ul. 
 
 ‘The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary 
 io that of the conjunction copulative; for as the verb, 
 noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms 
 taken separately, it must be in the singular number: 
 as, “ Ignorance or negligence has caused this mistake ;’? 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 31 
 
 “John, James, or Joseph intends to accompany me ;” 
 “There ts, in many minds, neither knowledge nor un- 
 derstanding*.” 
 
 Or, in other words, when either the conjunctions nor, 
 or neither comes between words or nouns, the verbs be- 
 longing to these words or nouns must be in the singular 
 tiumber: as, ‘‘ Neither Paul nor Apollos was carnally 
 minded ;” ‘* William or Mary was the abettor ;” “ Igno- 
 rance or negligence was the cause that the professor did 
 not understand the knowledge of salvation by the remis- 
 sion of sins.” 
 
 The conjunction zor does not point out whether it was 
 William or Mary that was the abettor, nor the conjunc- 
 tion or, whether it was ignorance or negligence that was 
 the cause why the man did not understand the knowledge 
 of salvation by the remission of sins; so that either ofthese 
 eonjunctions leaves the reader in doubt which of the 
 nouns should be the nominative case to the verb. Refer- 
 ence is only to one noun, therefore the verb must be of 
 the singular number to agree with a singular noun. 
 [ Vide Rule I.] 
 
 Another variety may arise under this rule: example, 
 «* The love of money, or ambition, or both, were the cause 
 of the great monopoly of the profits of commerce, and 
 the misery of the poor.” Here, the conjunction or, that 
 precedes the iatter clause of the sentence, implies that 
 perhaps both were the cause, and upon this presumption, 
 that both were united in the cause, the verb is put in the 
 plural number, were. 
 
 The conjunctions nor and neither are used as negatives: 
 as,‘ Weitther the doctor nor the lawyer understood the 
 
 * How it is possible to reconcile this definition to common sense, is not easy 
 to define ; (i. e.) ‘‘ a conjunction disjunctive,” or a word that joins and dis- 
 joins, is apparently a contradiction both in terms and meaning. It is true, the 
 purport is, that the disjunctive conjunction disjoins the meaning, but joins the 
 sentences : as, James or Jane received the visitors.” The conjunction or 
 leaves it in ineertitude whether it were James or Jane that received the visi- 
 tors. Would it not be more pertinent to call it a conjunction of ancertainty, 
 or an indefinite conjunction, than a “* dasfunctive conjunction.” 
 
32 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 doctrine of John, viz., ‘ He that is born of God doth not 
 commit sin.” If nor, or the conjunction or, separate 
 nouns of different persons and numbers, care must be 
 taken to associate such noun or pronoun with its respec- 
 tive verb, and to make the verb agree with the antecedent 
 to which itbelongs. Example; ‘Thouor I am to blame.” 
 The verb am is made to agree with the first person singu- 
 lar, but does not agree with thou. The grammatical 
 form of the sentence is thus: “’Fhou art to blame, and 
 I am to blame.” This mode of expression is not so ele- 
 gant: however, as far as the sense and a graceful flow 
 of language will permit, it is more elegant to give each 
 nominative its proper concord. 
 
 Some ancient grammarians held that the infinitive 
 mood was the genuine verb; others, that the essence of 
 the verb consisted in affirmation, which, if allowed, would 
 exclude the participle and the infinitive mood from their 
 place in the verbs: but that the participle isa mere mood 
 of the verb is manifest, if the definition of a verb be ad- 
 mitted, for it either signifies being, doing, or saffering,. 
 with the designation of time superadded; so the partici- 
 ple is a species of the verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 ‘Pompey or Cwsar were the cause of the civil war in 
 Rome.” The neuter verb were should be was, to make 
 it agree with Pompey or Caesar in the singular number: 
 and cause is the nominative case, coming after the neuter 
 verb was. : 
 
 ‘*James or Mary were the cause of the bloodshed.” 
 Were should be was, per rule 3rd. Bloodshed the ob- 
 jective case by the preposition of. 
 
 ‘“‘Man’s happiness or misery are, in a great measure, 
 put into his own hands.” The verb are should be is, to 
 agree with either happiness or misery in the singular 
 number. 
 
 ‘« Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any con- 
 dition of life, for they are, perhaps, to be your own lot.” 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX; 33 
 
 They should be it, to agree ‘with infirmity, or condition in 
 the singular number. 
 
 “Man is not such a machine as a clock ora watch, 
 which moves merely as they are moved.” ‘The verb moves 
 should be move, to agree with clock or watch in the sin- 
 gular number, and as the antecedents to the relative, 
 which are taken separately. “The relative is of the same 
 person with the antecedent, and the verb agrees with the 
 antecedent accordingly.”” The personal pronoun they 
 should be it, to accord with clock or watch in the singu- 
 lar; and the neuter verb are should be is, to agree seiili 
 either clock or watch in the singular number. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 A noun of multitude, or signifying many, may have 
 a verb or pronoun agreeing with it, either of the sin- 
 gular or plural number ; yet not without regard to the 
 import of the word, as conveying unity or plurality of 
 idea: as, “The meeting was large ;” “'The parliament 
 is dissolved ;” “The nation ¢s powerful ;” “My peo- 
 ple do not consider: they have not known me ;” “The 
 multitude eagerly purswe pleasure as ther chief good ;” 
 “The council were divided in their sentiments.” 
 
 Every noun of multitude is indicative of more than 
 one, but many nouns of multitude admit of the plural 
 form, as parliament, society, council, church; in such 
 instances due regard must be had to the meaning of such 
 nouns as convey unity or plurality of idea: as, “ The* 
 church is the care of heaven;” not are, because every 
 congregation of the faithful forms a church, and is 
 
 *“ A part of the army was intercepted.” Part, although composed of 
 many individuals, is the singular number, and should have a verb of the sin- 
 gular to agree with it. Butif it be said, that a part of the Russian troops 
 was scattered and destroyed, the verb should be were, as part in this place 
 conveys the idea of plurality, which is evident from the latter part of the sen- 
 tence, (i. e.) ‘* The Russian troops were scattered.” It is difficult to give any 
 definite rule for the many sentences that occur in composition similar to the 
 above: the import will be the best guide to the student. 
 
34 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 equally the care of heaven as the whole collective body. 
 But if it be said, the council was divided in their senti- 
 ments, it should be were, because the word divided refers 
 to a plurality of persons taken separately, and differing 
 in opinion from each other, consequently, council is ex- 
 pressive of a plurality of idea. 
 
 When the noun of multitude is distinctly expressive of 
 plurality, it will be necessary to. express the agencies of 
 the noun of multitude by a plural attribute or verb: as, 
 “The society were of divers opinions.” Here the word 
 society has a plural signification, and the verb should be 
 were, to agree with this plurality of acceptation, and the 
 pronoun should also be in the plural number, viz., thetr. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 «The assembly of the wicked have enclosed me.” The 
 verb have is plural to agree with its nominative case as- 
 sembly, for, although assembly can be made plural, it 
 evidently conveysa plurality of idea, which is plain from 
 the word enclosed, or surrounded. ‘The construction of © 
 this rule is founded on the first rule; therefore, in what 
 place soever it may be necessary to use a noun of multi- 
 tude care must be taken to see whether it requires a verb 
 of the singular or plural number, which the sense of the 
 phrase itself will direct. 
 
 ‘<The people rejoices in that which should give @ sor- 
 row.” People isa noun of multitude indicative of dis- 
 tinct plurality ; therefore the verb should be rejoice, per 
 Rule I. The pronoun it, should be them to make it agiee 
 with its antecedent people. [Vide Rule V. | 
 
 “The flock, and not the fleece are, or ought to be, 
 the objects of the shepherd’s care.”” The verb are should 
 be is, as flock, although made up of many, has a singular 
 or individual signification ; and objects should be object, 
 in the singular also, to correspond with flock. Flock is 
 the nominative case coming after the nenter verb de. 
 
 The above observations are in accordance with Mr, 
 Murray’s unlimited rule on the noun of multitude. 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 39 
 
 The following is a definite rule extracted from Mr. 
 Nixon’s System of English Parsing, and will be found to 
 be preferable to any which has hitherto been published. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE COLLECTIVE NOUN. 
 
 *“ Collective nouns are substantives which signify many 
 in the singular number. 
 
 Collective nouns are of two sorts :— 
 
 1. Those which cannot become plural like other sub- 
 stantives: as, nobility, mankind, &c. 
 
 2. Those which can be made plural by the usual rules 
 for asubstantive: as, ‘A multitude, multitudes; a crowd, 
 crouds, &c. 
 
 Substantives which imply plurality in the singular num- 
 ber, and consequently have no other plural, generally re- 
 quire a plural verb. ‘They are, cattle, cavalry, clergy, 
 commonalty, gentry, laity, mankind, nobility, peasantry, 
 people, populace, public, rabble, &c.: as, ‘The public are 
 informed.’ Collective nouns which form 2regular plural, 
 such as, number, numbers; multitude, multitudes; have, 
 like all other substantives, a singular verb, when they are 
 in the singular number; anda plural verb when they are 
 in the plural number : as, ‘A number of people is assem- 
 bled ;’ ‘The fleet was dispersed ; apart of it was injured ; 
 the several parts are now collected.’ 
 
 ‘An adjective put without a substantive, with the defi- 
 nite article before it, is generally taken in a plural sense; 
 as, ‘The virtuous are the happiest.’ ” 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, 
 and the nouns for which they stand, in gender and 
 number: as, “This is the friend wkomI love; “That 
 is the vice which I hate ;” ‘‘The king and the queen 
 had put on their robes;” “ The moon appears, and 
 she shines, but the light is not her own.” 
 
 The relative is of the same person as the antece- 
 
36 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 dent, and the verb agrees with it accordingly: as, 
 «Thou who lovest wisdom ;” “I who speak from expe- 
 rience.” 
 
 The pronoun is the representative of the noun, and is 
 governed by it; viz., the pronoun must be such as will 
 convey a clear notion of the antecedent, consequently, 
 must be of the same number, gender, and person, in order 
 to accord with the noun or antecedent: as, ‘‘ William ts 
 a religious boy, he fears God, he prays frequently.” In 
 the foregoing example William is the nominative case to 
 the verb is, masculine gender, third person singular. The 
 pronoun he is also the nominative case to the verb fears, 
 and prays, masculine gender, third person singular, agree- 
 ing with its antecedent William. 
 
 In all sentences the nouns stand either as nominative or 
 objective cases. When as nominatives, they are agents or 
 actors, or are substituted as such. It is true, in langnage 
 they are only metaphysically considered so, but the sense 
 is the same; consequently, as agents, they act, and all ac- 
 tors, either more or less, govern, or are possessed of a 
 ruling principle. So the verbs are made to agree with 
 their nominative cases, and the pronouns to agree with 
 their nouns; so in language there is an inseparable rela- 
 tion between cause and effect. 
 
 It is obvious that the relative is the nominative case to 
 the verb when no other nominative comes between it and 
 the verb, &c., and the relative is made to agree with its 
 antecedent, &c., and not to govern the verb. If sight of 
 the antecedent be lost by substituting the government of 
 the pronoun, or relative for the antecedent, which it re- 
 presents, disorder ensues, the sense will be rendered diffi- 
 cult, and the composition obscure: as, I am the man 
 who command you.” ‘The relative who is the substitute 
 for man; J is the first person singular; man is also the 
 first person singular; and the pronoun who represents 
 either J or man; therefore, the verb should be command, 
 and not commands, according to the idiom of the lan- 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX, 3” 
 
 guage, which requires a verb in the plural form in the 
 first person singular; as, I have, I write, 1 walk, 1 run; 
 for which, perhaps, the only reason that can be assigned 
 is, that the pronoun in the first person is in its original 
 simple form; and as the infinitive is allowed by some of 
 the ancient grammarians to be the original mode of the 
 verb, it is put in the plural form in the first person sin- 
 gular. 
 
 With respect to the gender of pronouns, Mr. Harris, in 
 his Hermes, has shewn the reason why the gender of the 
 first person singular is not distinguished :—because the 
 person who speaks is generally known, there is no occa- 
 sion to vary the pronoun that stands for the first person. 
 # may be either masculine or feminine, according to the 
 gender it represents. The pronoun they is defective with 
 respect to the designation of gender, and it is occasionally 
 put for a noun, or antecedent of the masculine, feminine, 
 or neuter gender. Reference must be had to the noun for 
 which it stands in order to discover its gender: it may 
 also represent nouns of both genders: as, “‘ James and 
 _ Mary were bigots; they followed the dictates of an evil 
 
 genius.” Here the pronoun they represents James and 
 Mary, and would leave us in obscurity about the gender 
 of the antecedents for which they stand, were the antece- 
 dents omitted. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 “Boys which seek wisdom, will certainly find her.” 
 Which should be who, as which is applied to irrational ani- 
 mals and inanimate things, and who to persons. Who is 
 the nominative to the verb seek. Him should be it, to 
 represent its antecedent, wisdom. 'The nominative to the 
 verb will find, is boys. 
 
 “The male amongst birds seem to discover no beauty 
 but in the colour of ifs species.” The verb should be 
 seems, to agree with its nominative case male: [Vide 
 Rule I.] Jtsshould be his, to correspond to the male, in 
 ihe masculine gender, singular number, third person. 
 
 D 
 
38 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when 
 no nominative comes between it and the verb: as, 
 «The master who taught us;” “The trees which are 
 planted.” 
 
 When a nominative comes between the relative and 
 the verb, the relative is governed be some word in its 
 own member of the sentence: as, “ He who preserves 
 me, to whom I owe my being, whose 1 am, and whom I 
 serve, is eternal. 
 
 The relative is of the same person with the antecedent, 
 and the verb agrees with it accordingly: as, ‘“‘ Thou who 
 lovest wisdom; ‘‘}, who speak from experience.” That 
 is, if the antecedent be of the third person singular, or 
 plural, the relative pronoun will also be of the third per- 
 son singular, or plural, to agree with the antecedent, or 
 noun for which it stands. The verb is always made to 
 agree with the antecedent, and not with the relative pro- 
 noun. 
 
 As the nominative case governs the werk, so the ante- 
 cedent governs the relative, or requires that the relative 
 shouid be of the same number, gender, and person with 
 the antecedent, in order to preserve the meaning of the 
 sentence. 
 
 The interjections 0! Oh! and Ah! require the objec- 
 tive case of a pronoun in the first person after them: as, 
 * Oh, me!” “O, me!” « Ah, me!’ But the nominative 
 
 case in the second person: as, “ O, thou persecutor !” 
 “Oh, ye hypocrites!” [Vide Mr. Murray. | 
 
 if interjections require the objective case after them, 
 they must govern nouns in the objective case; and if they 
 govern nouns, why not verbs? But “interjections bave 
 no government of case, tense,” &e.; they are only excla- 
 mations of the mind, occasioned by some sudden emotion 
 or transport ;—language of surprize or astonishment, 
 therefore, they are not indicative of agency or. govern- 
 ment, Interjections seem to be the first efforts of nature 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 39 
 
 in a state of confusion, terror, surprize, dismay, or amaze- 
 ment, in order to declare the feelings of the mind at that 
 particular juncture, notwithstanding, no intelligent sound 
 be uttered that conveys any distinct idea relative to the 
 specific state or feeling of the mind; leaving the auditors 
 in doubt concerning what may be the particular cause. 
 The examples “Ome! Oh me! Ah me!” do not prove 
 that interjections govern, or require pronouns in the ob- 
 jective case, for the true construction of those sentences 
 is this: ““O! wo is to me;” or, “Qh! wo be to me:” 
 “Ah! thou hast undone me.” Here it is obvious that it 
 is the preposition Zo, in the first two sentences, that gov- 
 erns the pronouns, and not the interjections. [En the latter 
 sentence, it is the verb undone that governs the pro- 
 noun me. . 
 
 It has been oberved, that interjections may be termed 
 the abstract incoherent language of nature in a state of 
 confusion, alarm, &c., ieierore such exclamations can- 
 not be classed with the language of sober reason; conse- 
 quently, interjections cannot require au objective case 
 after them, for they cannot govern.words in the manner 
 that verbs and prepositions do, being only abstract 
 sounds produced by sudden emotions of the mind. 
 
 Perhaps interjections bear some affinity to neuter verbs, 
 as they express the state of the mind with respect to its 
 affection, confusion and astonishment. But interjections 
 do not act by reciprocation as neuter or active verbs do: 
 as, “I govern myself.” In this sentence J is a pronoun, 
 first person singular, nominative case to the verb govern. 
 Myself is a reciprocal pronoun, objective case, governed 
 by the active verb govern. Thus, active verbs govern the 
 agent by reciprocation, viz., by the substitution of a pro- 
 noun in the place of the agent; as in the above sentence, 
 the pronoun myself represents the first person singular. 
 «The interjection O placed before substantives, expresses 
 more fully an address made to that person, or thing, and 
 is called, in Latin, the vocative case.”—Dr. Lowth. 
 
 “Q John, I love thee.’ The interjection O, in this 
 
40 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 place, bears some analogy to a verb, as it conveys the idea 
 of calling, or arresting the attention of the person ad-’ 
 dressed or apostrophised. When the interjection is used 
 in this sense by analogy to a verb, it serves to call the 
 attention of the person addressed, or apostrophied: as, 
 “QO! John do not sin against God.” ‘This is properly 
 termed the vocative case. 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 “The christian whom lives to God, denies himself of 
 worldly lusts.” Whom should be who, nominative to the 
 neuter verb dives. Christian is the nominative to the verb 
 denies. 
 
 “He whom preserves me, and who I serve is eternal.” 
 Whom should be who, nominative to the verb preserves. - 
 Who preceding I, should be whom, objective case to the 
 active verb serve, in accordance with the rule; ‘‘ when 
 another nominative comes between it and the verb, then 
 the pronoun shall be such a case as the active verb requires 
 after it.” Which is always the objective case: He is 
 the nominative case to the neuter verb is. 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 When the relative is preceded by two nominatives 
 of different persons, the relative and verb may agree 
 in person with either, according to the sense: as, “I 
 am the man who command you;” or, “ Tamthe man 
 who commaeds you*.” 
 
 In the first example, “I am the man who command you,” 
 the verb command is made to agree with the first person 
 singular, as f, man and the relative who, are all of the first 
 person singular. The substantive man is the nominative 
 case, coming after the neuter verb am, aud put in appo- 
 sition with the pronoun J, and who, is the nominative case 
 to the verb command, first person singular; for “the re- 
 lative is of the same person with the antecedent, and the 
 
 * This rule licences a breach of the latter clause of the fifth rule, a strict 
 
 adherence to which is absolutely indispensable, to preserve clearness and 
 precision. 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 4] 
 
 verb agrees with it accordingly. ” [Vide the Rule.] In the 
 latter example, the verb is made commands, to agree with 
 who, which is not according to the syntax of grammar, 
 for verbs suffer no Wrtuhion coming after the pronoun /; 
 the reason may be, that the infinitive mood, according to 
 the Stoics, is the primitive form of the verb, and the pro- 
 noun / represents the first person singular; hence, the 
 verb still retains its original form: besides this reason, 
 the verb is made to agree with the antecedent,—not with 
 the relative, consonant to the above rule. The relative 
 who, when it stands for the first person singular or plural, 
 must be of the first person itself, therefore, it cannot im- 
 ply a second or third person. How this rule has stood 
 the criticism of our English, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew 
  grammarians, for centuries, is a mystery; and, perhaps, 
 can be solved no other way than by opinion.* 
 
 Dr. Blair, in his lectures on composition, directs the 
 relative to be placed as near to its respective antecedent 
 as the nature of the subject will admit, in order to pre- 
 serve the unity, strength, and clearness of the sentence. 
 
 “J am the Lord, that maketh all things; that stretch- 
 eth forth the heavens above.’’—lIsaiah 44, 24. Thus far 
 the late Mr. Murray says, this sentence is consistent; the 
 Lord in the third person is the antecedent, and the verb 
 agrees with ihe relative in the third person. “1 am the 
 Lord, or he that maketh all things, or who made ail 
 things.” <I, James, the apostle, wrote the epistle.”’ It 
 is plain that /, James, and apostle, axe all of the first per- 
 sons; James and apostle are both put in apposition to J, 
 although / is not a substantive, but a pronoun, yet it 
 
 stands for a noun, and is virtually the same in significa- 
 
 tion as a substantive, supplying its place, and conveying 
 the same meaning: as, ‘‘ J wrote the epistle,” is the same 
 as to say, “I, James, wrote the epistle.” 
 
 * Custom sometimes renders errors familiar, and establishes them legal. 
 The construction of this rule stands prominently in direct contradiction to the 
 first rule in syntax, and also to the fifth rule in the late Mr. Murray’s gram- 
 mar. 
 
42 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 The relative is the nominative case to the verb when 
 no other nominative comes between it and the verb: as, 
 “The master who taught us;’ “’The trees which are 
 planted.” But when another nominative comes between 
 it and the verb, the relative is governed by some word in 
 its own number of the sentence: as, “He who preserves 
 me, to whom I owe my being, whose I am, and whom I 
 serve, is eternal.” ¢ 
 
 Every nominative case must. have a verb either ex- 
 pressed or understood, vide the above example, “ The 
 master who taught us.” The relative who is the nomina- 
 tive case to the verb taught, and master is the nominative 
 case to a verb elliptically understood: as, “The master 
 who taught 7s accomplished. 
 
 ‘“ But when another nominative comes between the re- 
 lative and the verb,” &c. ‘“ He who preserves me.” The 
 relative who is the nominative case to the verb preserves, 
 and the pronoun he is the nominative case to the verb is 
 understood. “’To whom I owe my being.” The prepo- 
 
 sition fo governs whom in the objective case. *‘ Whose I: 
 
 am,’ whose is put in the possessive case expressive of pro- 
 perty. ‘Whom I serve.is eternal; the pronoun whem is 
 the object of the verb serve, and the construction is-thus : 
 “I serve him, and he is eternal ;” him is put in the place 
 of whom, which comes before the pronoun J, thus: 
 “Whom I serve;” this mode corresponds to this rule 
 otherwise expressed. ‘ When another nominative comes 
 between the relative and the verb, then the relative shall 
 be such a case as the active verb will have after it, or as 
 the active verb requires after it, which is the objective 
 case. 
 ; EXAMPLES. 
 
 ‘Tam the man who command you; or, “1 am the man 
 who commands you.” ms 
 
 Mr. Murray observes that the form of these sentences 
 is rather obscure, which will always be so when sight of 
 the agreement between the verb and antecedent be lost 
 The substantive man, as it stands in this sentence, is evi- 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 43 
 
 dently the first person singular, and explicative of 7:— 
 Therefore the verb should be command, to agree with its 
 antecedent [; or, by changing the sentence a little, «I 
 who command you, am the man.” 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, be- 
 longs to a substantive, expressed or understood . as, 
 “ Fe is a good, as well asa wise man;” “ Few are hap- 
 pys that is “persons:” “This is a pleasant walk ;” 
 thatis “ This walk is,” &c. 
 
 Adjective pronouns must agree, in number, with 
 their substantives: as, ‘This book, these books ; that 
 sort, these sorts; another road, other roads.”’* 
 
 In the great economy of the universe, the various pro- 
 ductions of nature are endued with certain visible and in- 
 visible qualities, essential to their respective natures, and 
 
 **< A substantive or noun represents all that is essential to the thing, as 
 homo, or man, represents animal rationale, or a rational living creature, but 
 bonus, good, represents only an accidental quality, which, though morally ne- 
 cessary is not naturally so, but merely accidental. so that though a man be 
 called good, and, therefore, good in some sense, may be said to be his name, 
 yet it is not equally, or as much his name as man, this last representing all 
 that is essential to his nature, the other only what is accidental.”—[Vide R. 
 Johnson.| ‘* But the adjective is equally and altogether the name of a thing, 
 as the noun substantive, and the same may be said of all words whatever ; for 
 that is not a word, which is not the representative of a thing, and nothing 
 more, and says Vossius, ‘ Nec rectius substantium detinitur quod aliquid per 
 se significat nam omnis vox ew instituto signifieans aliquid significat per se.’”’ 
 —De Analog. lib. L, cap. 6. 
 
 The real remaining difference between an adjective and a substantive ac- 
 cording to the m is, that a substantive has but one signification : it is the sign 
 of that which it signifies, i. e., that which you understand by it, and no more, 
 but an adjective has two signijications ; itis not only a sign of that which 
 you understand by it, and which they call its distinct signification; but it 
 is also the sign of something which you do not, and never can understand by 
 it alone ; and this last they call its confused signification, or according to 
 Harris its obscure signification. Here it may with propriety be objected, 
 that an obscure signification is no signification. To obviate which, the term 
 white considered abstractedly, or by itself, hes what may be termed a contused 
 siznification, until it be applied to some substantive, as, horse, man, antral. 
 —[Vide Purley’s Diversions. 
 
44 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 these qualities, in many instances, are the radices of their 
 names. ‘These inseparable characteristics of substances 
 are invariably interwoven in the texture of substances, and 
 sometimes the adjective is expressive of the exterior, as 
 well as the interior merit or quality of the noun; ‘as, 
 when we szy a round table, a square figure, a heavy metal, 
 a solid wood,” &c. Hence some qualities are necessarily 
 constituent, and connected to their correspondent sub- 
 jects or nouns: as, when we say, ‘‘An accomplished beau- 
 tiful female.” The adjective accomplished, relates to the 
 polish of the mind; and the adjective beautiful, to the 
 external appearance of the person: hence, there can be 
 no substance without a quality, or an adjective so called. 
 
 With respect to the second part of this rule, viz., ‘ Ad- 
 jective pronouns must agree in number with ther substan-. 
 tives,’ &c., the word pronoun coming after adjective de- 
 fines the reason of this part oftherule. A pronounstands 
 for a noun, therefore, two pronouns will represent two 
 nouns: as, when we say, “ This book,” it means only one 
 book; this being a singular demonstrative adjective pro- ~ 
 noun, and book issingular also. ‘The pronoun these being 
 applied to a substantive shews it to be plural; eto 
 the adjective pronoun must be made to agree with the 
 noun to which it is prefixed. 
 
 The word means is often used by some of our famous 
 writers to convey a singular idea, and this ‘usage of the 
 word has such a number of learned mento support its au- 
 thority that it would be next to an herculean labour for 
 any modern writer to controvert it; viz., Bacon, Tillotson, 
 Atterbury, Addison, Steele, Pope, Dean Swift, Dr. Young; 
 “Lord Littleton, Goldsmith, Hume, Blackstone,.Dr. Robinson , 
 Burke, Dr. Blair, and Dr. Paley. Against such an host 
 of learned authors who dare make a Ha ? 
 
 However, if the word: mean be singular, means iS cer-. 
 tainly plural: as, “‘Constantine the great joined christi- 
 anity to heathen virtue, and by this mean he became truly 
 great;”? that is, “By the mean.of uniting christianity to 
 heathen virtue, or by the mean of christianity alone.. But 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 45 
 
 if we say that it was heathen virtue and christianity that 
 rendered Constantine great, the word means may be very 
 appropriately used to express a plural idea. Further, 
 ** Constantine was a christian, and by this mean he became 
 a good man;” again, “John was a merchant and a scho- 
 lar, and by these means he became polished and affluent. 
 
 A LIST OF ADJECTIVES COMPARED. 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
 Good. Better. Best. 
 Bad, evil, or ill. Worse. Worst. 
 Little. Less. Least. 
 Much or many. More. Most, 
 Late. Later. ‘Latest. 
 Near. Nearer. Nearest. 
 Old. Older. Oldest. 
 Far. Farther. Farthest. 
 
 Some words do not admit of comparison ; as true, per- 
 fect, universal, chief, extreme, &c. 
 
 Double comparatives or superlatives are improper : as, 
 “More wise, most wise*.” 
 
 Sometimes adjectives are indeterminate in thejr mean- 
 ing, either abstractéd from substantives or prefixed to 
 Fey as, good, white, black, bad, tall, low, short, and 
 many others of this class, and are only Bly understood 
 when compared with others of the same class, or by con- 
 trasting them with others of a similar nature; and even 
 then, these adjectives are not very definable: as, “A good 
 piece of mahogany.” The adjective good is here applied 
 to explain the texture, quality, or composition of the 
 wood in its natural state. But if it be said “A good 
 mahogany chair,” the adjective good has a far more am- 
 ple signification. In the former sentence it only simply 
 
 * In propriety, 2ach can never be a noun or substantive, for it cannot stand 
 by itself. If the question be asked, ‘* Much what is given ?” The answer a 
 plies a noun: as, ‘‘ Much duty is required ;” or, “* Much gratitude is due. 
 
 To-day, yesterday, and to-morvow, are nouns, for they are parts of time: as, 
 *¢ Yesterday is past.” 
 
 Since is sometimes an adverb, and preposition: as, ‘‘I have not seen him 
 since that time.” Here it is a pr eposition ; but in the following sentence ;— 
 (“ Our friendship commenced long since,’’) it is an adverb. 
 
46 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 designates the quality of the wood, but in the latter it is 
 explicative not only of the quality of the wood, but of the 
 mechanism of the chair; and so of the rest. 
 
 In the use of adjectives great care should be taken not 
 to associate incongruous adjectives; viz., those that have 
 not a suitable relation to their respective substantives : 
 as, ‘“ That man is older than he is wiser or good.” 'There 
 is no comparison between wiser and good, for there is no 
 relation beween goodness and wisdom, nor is there any 
 connection between age and wisdom. ‘The words just, 
 honest, right, wrong, do notadmitof comparison. 'To say 
 more just or more honest, or a litile right, scarcely requires 
 any comment, asa thing that is just cannot be unjust, an 
 an honest man cannot bea rogueand an honest man at the 
 same time. 
 
 The application of adjectives should be attended to; 
 such as painful gouts, bad vices, pleasing pleasures: It is 
 plain that pleasures are pleasing, that gouts are painful, 
 and that vices are bad. A strict adherence to the mean- _ 
 ing of words will be the best guide to the student in the 
 use of adjectives. ' 
 
 EXAMPLES. * 
 
 “T have not travelled this twenty years.” The demon- 
 strative adjective pronoun éhis should be these, to harmo- 
 nize with years in the plural number, and years, the ob- 
 jective case by the preposition during, understood ; (i. e.) 
 “I have not travelled during these twenty years,” 
 
 The association of a singular noun with a plural nu- 
 meral adjective is erroneous: as, “Ten pound; thirty 
 shilling :” it should be pounds and shillings. . 
 
 Double comparatives and superlatives are improper. 
 Thus: ‘Mine isa more better book, but John’s is most 
 best,” should be “ Mine is a better book, but John’s is 
 the best.” Ny 
 
 “'The nightingale’s voice is the most sweetest in the 
 grove.” Most should be omitted: thus, “The sweetest 
 voice,” &c, nf 
 
 Chief, universal, perfect, and true, admit of no increase 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. AW 
 
 or comparison. It is admissible to say “The most per- 
 fect of her sex.” 
 
 Hach, every, either, are applied to nouns of the singular 
 number : as, “‘ Every tree is known by their fruit,” should 
 be“ dis fruit.” because the distributive adjective every, 
 _ relates individually to an indefinite collective number. 
 
 Hither is often applied improperly: it either signifies 
 one or the other disjunctively: as, ‘““ Nadab and Abihu 
 took either of them his censor:” it should be “Bach of 
 them,” &c. 
 
 Each signifies both or more, taken distinctly or sepa | 
 rately, including the whole of the class collectively: as, 
 “Let each esteem others better than themselves :’ > it 
 should be “ himself,” as the distributive adjective every» 
 points individually, in the singular number, to the woe 
 human family. 
 
 The adjective usually precedes the substantive, but, in 
 many instances, it may, with propriety, come after it, 
 especially in poetry: as, “A man, generous, kind, and 
 good.” When the adjective is emphatical ; as, Alexan- 
 der the great ;’’ “Paul the pious.” Again, when an ad- 
 verb comes after a substantive: as,” A boy regularly stu- 
 dious.” Sometimes adjectives become substantives: as, 
 ‘The chief good; “The vast immense of space.” The 
 word mean is made use of to denotea middle state: as, 
 «« This is a mean between the extremes.” 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singu- 
 lar number only, individually or collectively: as, “A 
 Christian, an infidel, a score, a thousand.” 
 
 The definite article the may agree with nouns in the 
 singular and plural number: as, “The garden, the 
 houses, the stars.” | 
 
 The articles are often properly omitted : when used, 
 they should be justly applied, according to. their. dis- 
 tinct nature : as, “ Gold is. corrupting ; the sea is green ; 
 a lion is bold.” 
 
48 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 The article belongs to the substantive, and in English 
 precedes it: in the Latin language the article is under- 
 ‘stood by the declension of the noun, and has a remote 
 analogy to the adjective: as, ‘“‘4 man means one man, 
 some man, any man;” hence, the article may be a species 
 of the adjective. 
 
 The article the has a determinate quality, and serves to 
 ascertain some particular thing or person, as the king, 
 means some specific king, as of England, or of France, 
 ie. 
 
 4 is used before nouns in the singular number only, 
 except before the phrases few, great, many: as,“ A few 
 books;” “ A great many apples ;” and even this applica- 
 tion of the article a is not warrantable. It is also used 
 before nouns of multitude: as, “A multitude, a thou- 
 sand. 
 
 The meaning of the first part of the rule is obvious, 
 for the article a has a singular acceptation, and each of 
 the words that serve to define its acceptation respectively 
 conveys a singular idea, as any, such, some; hence, the 
 article a can only agree with nouns in the singular num- 
 ber individually or collectively, as one, is only expressive 
 of one, how variously soever it may be expressed. 
 
 The definite article the is used either in the singular or 
 plural number, as the man, the angels. 
 
 The definite article the is sometimes prefixed to ad- 
 verbs of the comparative degree, to mark the degree more 
 strongly: as, ‘The more I examine it, the better I like 
 it;’’ “TI like this the least of any.” 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 ‘* 4 man is the noblest work of creation;” the a should 
 be omitted, because it is not any particular man, but all 
 mankind. 
 
 “'Wisest and best of men sometimes commit errors ;” 
 should be the wisest and best of men, &c., as it means 
 wisest men in general; here, the preceding clause of the 
 sentence is the nominative case to the active verb to com- 
 mits; errors i the objective case governed by commit. 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX, 49 
 
 i RULE X. 
 
 One substantive governs another, signifying a dif- 
 ferent thing, in the possessive or genitive case; as, 
 My father’s house;” «‘ Man’s happiness ;” “ Virtue’s 
 reward.” 
 
 When it is necessary to express property, or possession 
 the letter s is placed at the end of the word, and is accom- 
 panied with a comma placed above, between the last let- 
 ter ofthe noun and the letter s, to designate the genitive 
 case; then the subsequent noun is said to be the property 
 of the former: as, “ My Father’s House;” “ The nation’s 
 prosperity.” But the possessive case is also expressed by 
 the preposition of: as, ‘“‘ This is the house of my father ;” 
 “ This is the prosperity of the nation.” 
 
 “OF CASES 
 
 The cases of substantives, in Latin, are generally known 
 by their different terminations. In English they have no 
 ‘different terminations, except a few that show the gender 
 of nouns. 
 
 In English, the meaning of the word case signifies the 
 position, occupation, uiility, design, and general acceptation 
 of the noun. 
 
 OF DECLENSIONS. 
 
 Singular. 
 Nominative. Dominus, A Lord. 
 
 - Genitive. Domint1, - Lord’s, of a Lord. 
 Dative. — Domino, To a Lord. 
 Accusative. Domintm, A Lord. 
 Vocative. Domine, O Lord. 
 Ablative. Domino, By a Lord. 
 
 Plural. 
 Nominative. Domint, T.ords. 
 Genitive. Dominorum, Lords’, of Lords. 
 Dative. Dominis, To Lords. 
 Accusative. Dominos, Lords. 
 Vocative. Domint, O Lords. 
 Ablative. Dominis, By Lords. * 
 
 * All cases that differ from the nominative are called oblique. The differ- 
 ent endings of nouns in the Greek and Latin are called cases. [Vide Encyclo- 
 
 E 
 
50 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 The following may serve to shew the meaning of case 
 in Latin and, Greek. 
 
 Case is the termination of the pronoun or participle.— 
 Vossius. 
 
 The different endings of the substantives are, in the 
 Latin and Greek languages, called cases.—Lowth. 
 
 Cases imply the different inflections or terminations of 
 nouns, serving to express the different relations they bear 
 to each other, and to the things they represent.—Encyclo- 
 pedia Britannica. 
 
 This seems to be the best definition of case, as the sub- 
 stantive shews the relation that it bears to the things that 
 jt represents; from which it follows, that there are as 
 many cases in English as there are various relations ex- 
 pressed by the substantive: as, “‘ Dative domino,” to a 
 Lord. This answers to what is in English called the ob- 
 jective case; which proves that there is something more 
 implied in the word case, than merely the ending of nouns. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 ‘© ] will not destroy the city for ten sake,” should be 
 ien’s sake; or, for the sake of ten. 
 
 ‘© W isdom’s precepts, are the good boys’ delight,” should 
 be wisdom’s and boy’s, with an apostrophe. 
 
 The preposition is sometimes indicative of the pos- 
 sessive case, especially when the expression can be con- 
 verted into the regular form: as, “The good boy’s de- 
 light;” or, “The delight of the good boy :’.“ Virtue’s 
 reward:” or, “ The reward of virtue.” But though it is 
 proper to say “ A crown of gold; awatch of silver,” these 
 expressions cannot be converted into the possessive by 
 transposition, as “ Gold’s crown; silver’s watch,” are im- 
 proper expressions. 
 
 The pronoun his is Sometimes put in the place of the 
 noun, and answers to the génitive : as, “ This book is his,”’ 
 (i. e.) “ This book is John’s.” 
 
 pedia Britannica, Took, and Hermes,| 1t would be more intelligent to a learner 
 to consider the case of a noun in English as something different from its ter- 
 mination. The writers of grammars should consider that it is the logical 
 sense that should be attended to, when the case of a noun is to be defined. 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX» 5k 
 
 ‘The propriety of the following sentences cannot be 
 questioned :— 
 “The king of Great Britain’s authority.” 
 “That is the Duke of Bridgewater’s canal.” 
 “The Bishop of Landaff’s Sete 
 “The Lord Mayor’s authority.” 
 Those sentences may be expressed as follow, by a change 
 of words :-— 
 ‘The authority of the King of Great Britain.” 
 “’The canal of the Duke of Bridgewater.” 
 ‘** The book of the Bishop of Landaff.” 
 “The authority of the Lord Mayor*.” 
 In this form every preposition is connected to its re- 
 spective substantive. 
 
 RULE XI. 
 
 Active verbs govern the objective case: as, “Truth 
 ennobles her ;” “She comforts me ;” “They support 
 us; “ Virtue rewards her followers.’’t 
 
 Dr. Lowth, describes the oblique case, which answers 
 to the accusative, or objective in English, which generally 
 follows the verb active or the preposition. Every active 
 verb presupposes an object to which the action or passion 
 is directed, and as the agent requires the verb to agree 
 with it; so the verb or attribute is said to govern the ob- 
 ject, or the object is said to receive the force ot the verb. 
 ’ This gradation of government or transfer of action from 
 agent to attribute, and from attribute to object has its 
 origin in the connexion, relation, and analogy that neces- 
 
 * Thus it may be known whether the substantives coming after the prepo- 
 sition be in the possessive or objective cases: as, ‘‘ John’s book ;” or, ‘* The 
 book of John :”’ ** The rose’s fragrance ;”’ or, ‘* The fragrance of the rose.” 
 
 + ‘Sometimes a neuter verb governs an objective case, when the noun is 
 of the same import with the verb that precedes it: thus, - To sleep a sleep, tu 
 die the death, to think a thought.”” This government can only be relative, as 
 it has no foundation in the true analogy of the government of an active verb. 
 They may be constructed thus : * To sleep through the night, to dream of cer- 
 tain things ;’ or, ‘To have visions in the night ;’ ‘ To die in some particular 
 way, or under some peculiar circumstances.’ ‘ To think of some things, sub- 
 sects, matters, or thoughts,’ &c.” 
 
52 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 sarily. subsists in language, and proceeds from cause to 
 effect. A verb active expresses an action, and necessarily 
 implies an agent, and an object acted upon: as, “TI dove 
 virtue, I hate vice, I beat a naughty boy,” &c. Here 
 love, hate, and beat are active verbs, not merely because 
 they express action or passion, but because the action 
 passes from the agent to the object, or is directed to the 
 object: as, ‘ Virtue is the object of my love, and vice of 
 my hatred ; and a naughty boy the object that I beat ;” 
 but if it be said, “I Jove Casandra,” Casandra may be the 
 object of my love, and yet she may be quite indifferent to 
 my passion, and not in the least affected by it, still, she is 
 the object to which my love is directed.” But this is not 
 the case in the instance of the verb beat; the objectis af- 
 fected by the verb, and sensibly feels the force of it ; from 
 this, it appears that the government of active verbs may 
 be divided into real and relative. Real government is, 
 when the object is affected by the influence of the active 
 verb: as, “I beat Charles.” Relative government is, 
 when the active verb is only directed to. some object, 
 without in the least affecting or influencing it: as, “I 
 love beauty, I receive money.’ Hence, active verbs are 
 not always distinguished by the objects of the verbs being 
 affected by the force of the attributes, for the verbs may 
 be active, and they may not actually operate upon their 
 objects, as has been already shewn. <A verb passive is al- 
 ways known by its being accompanied by the auxiliary to 
 be in some of its variations: as, ‘“ Darius was ‘conquered 
 by Alexander.”* In this sentence conquered is a passive 
 
 * The active intransitive and neuter forms have generally a middle signifi- 
 cation, between the active transitive and the passive, combining the force and 
 energy of both. That they are generally, if not always, the same verb, in dif- 
 ferent forms, is evident from this circumstance, that, when they cre spelled 
 differently, something of the same meaning may still be perceived in them. 
 The following examples will set the matter in a clearer light: 
 
 ACTIVE TRANSITIVE. ACTIVEINT. AND NEUTER. PASSIVE. 
 To awake hin He awakes He is awaked. 
 bathe Aim He bathes lt is bathed 
 
 bend it Tt bends Tt is bent 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 53 
 
 verb. Again, virtue is loved by the votaries of religion ; 
 here the verb /oved is passive. When the verb is passive 
 the objective case becomes the nominative: as, ‘‘ James 
 loves Anne ;”’ here the verb is active. ‘ Anne is loved by 
 James ;” in this it is passive. 
 
 The neuter verb is distinguished by the action being 
 always confined to the agent; as, “Joseph walks, runs, 
 sits, sleeps,’ &c. It may be observed that all those verbs 
 imply action, true, but the action is confined to the agent, 
 viz., those neuter or intransitive verbs have no objects to 
 
 To breed cattle They breed They are hred 
 burn wood It burns It is burnt 
 eool a thing: It cools It is cooled 
 drop a@ thing It drops lt is dropped 
 eat food It eats well It is eaten 
 feed cattle They feed. They are fed 
 graze or touch lightly The cattle graze Athing is grazed 
 erind corn Com grinds well It is ground 
 
 Among us, the transitive form is much used, on account of its peculiar pre- 
 cision and comprehensiveness. Such expressions as ‘‘ the fire burns brightly ;”? 
 “the house sets well ;” *‘ a house to let ;”’ that is, ‘‘ to be let ;” “‘ they settled 
 there ;” that is, ‘‘ they settled themselves ;” or, ‘‘ they were settled there ;” 
 ““the goods sell to advantage ;” are of constant occurrence ; and, if so, the 
 pupil ought to familiarize himself with the theory, as well as the practice of 
 them. 
 
 A well known grammarian observes, ‘‘ We find the same signification in 
 the Hithpahel form of the Hebrew, in the reflective of the Sanscrit, and of 
 the French. The analogy may also be traced in Latin; thus, verfo, I tum; 
 vertor, I am turned; revertor, I return, &e.”’ 
 
 The difference between verbs conjugated by a change of their terminations, 
 as in the Greek and Latin tongues, and the English verbs, which are chiefiy 
 formed by prefixes, is very great. A complete Greek verb, in its ‘hree voices, 
 contains 827 different words: the complete Latin verb, in its two voices, 156 : 
 the French verb, 41: but in English, if we take the active transitive verb fo 
 raise, as an instance, it contains 7 different words: its intransitive form: to 
 
 rise, contains 8 more ; and its passive, none.’ In all the languages mentioned, 
 the auxiliaries have not been reckoned. The Greek auxiliary verb to be, alone 
 contains 108 different words. + 
 
 Among the ancient Greeks, a verb had three voices, nearly corresponding in 
 signification to our active transitive, active iutransitive, and passive forms. 
 
 It seems more than probable, that the difference in the formation of our 
 active transitive, and in active transitive verbs, has been intentional, in order to 
 express that difference of meaning which is effected by the active and middle 
 voices of the Greek; and it would have been well, perhaps, if ad? our verbs 
 had been so constructed. Through not discriminating between these forms, 
 their variation has been, in a great measure, one cause of increasing the num- 
 ker of our irregular verbs.—Vide Mr. Nixon. 
 
54 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 which their actions are directed. As neuter verbs cannot 
 govern an objective case, it will follow that the neuter 
 verb will admit the same case after it as that which next 
 precedes it; and this is invariably the mode with the verb 
 to be through all its variations; as, “I took it to be him.” 
 In this sentence the pronoun it is the object to the active 
 verb took, be a neuter verb, him is also the objective ease 
 coming after the neuter verb to be; but were we to say, 
 “Tt might have been him,” it would be wrong, for it is 
 ithe nominative case to the verbs might have been, there- 
 fore him should also be put in the nominative, viz., he- 
 When the various intentions of the mind are expressed by 
 the aid of auxiliaries, these forms are called modal pre- 
 positions, and according to logicians there are only two 
 primary forms, viz., the indicative and the imperative ; 
 the others are called secondary, and critically speaking 
 there are only two tenses,* or times of verbs, that is, the 
 past and future.t 
 
 * Harris’s Hermes on the principles of Universal Grammar. 
 
 + Horne Tooke says, I deny that the present time, (or any time,) or any 
 manner is signified by that which is called (improperly) the indicative mood, 
 present tense ; and therefore, its proper name is merely the verb,—indicative 
 if you please, 1. e., indicative merely of being a verb. 
 
 And in this opinion, viz., that there is no adsignification of manner or time 
 ia that which is called the indicative mood; and no adsignification of time 
 in that which is called the present participle, I am neither new nor singular ; 
 for Sanctius both asserted and proved it by numerous instances in the Latin: 
 thus, 
 
 ‘* Et absui proficiscens in Greciam.”’—CICc. 
 
 ‘* Sed postquam amans accessit pretium pollicens.”—TERENT. 
 
 ** Ultro ad eam venies indicans te amare.”—TERENT. 
 
 ** Tum apri inter se dimicant indurantes attritu arborum castas.”—-P LIN. 
 
 “ Turnum fugientum hec terra videbit.”—VIRG. 
 
 In the same manner we say, 
 
 ‘¢ The sun rises every day in the year.” 
 
 ‘* Justice is at all times mercy.” 
 
 ‘¢ Truth is always one and the same from the beginning of the world to the 
 end of it.” 
 
 Neither time nor manner fs signified by the indicative in these sentences. 
 
 Again, ‘¢ The rising sun always gladdens the earth.” 
 
 “ Do justice, justice being at all times merey.” 
 
 ** My argument is of no age nor country, truth being always the same, from 
 the beginning of the world to the end it.” 
 
 In the words rising and being, though called present participles, there is 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. ‘a79) 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 * Ye have reason to dread his wrath, which one day will 
 destroy ye both.” The pronoun ye should be you, as ye 
 
 evidently no adsignification of time. The first sentence, ‘‘ The sun rises 
 every day.” 
 
 The word rises is a verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, third per- 
 son singular, agreeing with its nominative case sun. It is true, there is no 
 particular or specific time signified by the verb rises as it stands in the sen- 
 tence ; but, that it indicates time present in an unlimited form is quite plain, 
 But this ‘sentence conveys avery comprebensive meaning, as it implies time 
 past, present, and future. ‘‘ The sun rises every day ;” i. e., it arose every 
 day in every year that is past; and itarose this day, and will arise in every 
 day that is to come. The distributive adjective every gives the affirmation of 
 the subject a greater range of signification ; and although definite time is not 
 expressed by the verb zs, yet present time is not excluded, but strongly im- 
 plied and imports that the sun rises in every passing day. In the sentence, 
 ** John zs a good boy,” it is definitely asserted that John zs now a good boy, 
 consequently, that he was a good boy some time prior to this present now ; 
 for it is not to be understood of the expression, that he acquired his goodness 
 at the moment that itis said of him, “* he is a good boy ;” but mark, it cannot 
 be understood by the copula of the proposition, that John will be a good boy 
 at any future period. Again, ‘‘ The three angles of every triangle ave equal to 
 two right angles ;” (i. e.,) they are equal now to two right angles, they were’ 
 always so, and they ever willbe so. Itis true, the verb considered simply, 
 signifies only a state of being, action, or passion : as, ‘* To de, to ove, to act,’ 
 &e.; butif these verbs be inflected, and expressed in their participial forms 
 thus, dcen, loved, been acted ; they are attributes of agents, as every verb is ; 
 they are respectively indicative of actions past, and if indicative of actions 
 past, they are of time past, and if of time past, according to the commonly 
 received acceptation of language, time cannot be separated from action or 
 passion, although time in the abstract is distinct from action, i. e., in its 
 meaning, as an hour, a day, a week are portions of time which have no rela- 
 tion to action; but every action or attribute presupposes an agent, ime, and 
 place, an agent that acts, a time in which that agent acts, a place where that 
 action was performed, an object to which the action was. directed. .The use 
 of the auxiliaries do, be, shall, will, may, can, have, is of vast importance in 
 the designation of time, circumstances, and acceptation. All verbs, whether 
 active, passive, or neuter, regular, irregular, or defective are expressive of 
 some species of action, or passion, therefore all verbs necessarily imply time 
 past, present, or future. As a state of existence suggests the idea of a time 
 of existence and of action, a time in which that action has been, is, or will be 
 performed. This recognizes the dependencies and relations of words; and, 
 however, words or language may have varied in the multitudinons modilica- 
 tions of sounds and particles; still, the same philosophy of language with re- 
 spect to the designation of agent, attribute, and time, and the other relation- 
 ships subsist between the component parts of speech in all languages, viz., 
 the adjective, the verb, and the substantive; the degrees of comparison 
 which naturally belong to adjectives; the connection of verbs and their 
 agents, &e. 
 
56° ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 is the nominative plural, second person, and you is used 
 in both cases ;—the objective and the nominative. Day 
 is the objective case by the preposition ‘in, understood ; 
 thus, ‘‘ Which in one, or some day.” 
 
 “They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury 
 has corrupted,” &c. .The relative pronoun who should 
 be whom, because another nominative comes between the 
 relative and the verb, namely, opulence. ‘Then the rela- 
 tive whom is governed by the active verb made, which iS 
 in its own number of the sentence. [Vide Rule VI. | 
 
 The relative who, preceding luxury, should aiso be 
 whom, by the same regimen, and is governed by the parti- 
 ciple corrupted. 
 
 RULE XII. 
 
 One verb governs another that follows it, or depends 
 upon it, in the infinitive mood: as, “Cease to do evil; 
 learn to do well;’? “ We should be prepared to render 
 an account of our actions.”’ 
 
 The preposition fo, though generally used before the 
 latter verb, is sometimes properly omitted: as, I heard 
 him say it;” instead of “to say it.” 
 
 It has been observed that verbs are attributes of agents, 
 and that substantives following them receive the force of 
 active verbs, or, technically speaking, are governed by 
 them, and in such circumstances are called the accusative 
 or objective cases; hence verbs influence other verbs: as 
 ‘¢ Cease to do evil: ** Learn to do well;” “Strive to ex- 
 cel:” and this property of verbs is not confired to any 
 particular mode of the verb. The subsequent verb may 
 be governed by a verb, either of the imperative (as in the 
 above example), or of the subjunctive, or of the potential 
 mood: as, “If you learn to write ;” or, “I may endea- 
 veur to improve.” From the nature of this rule it ap- 
 pears that the infinitive mood assumes a substantive form, 
 and as such may sometimes be the objective case governed 
 by the preceding verb. 
 
 In the above examples there are two verbs; that is, 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 5% 
 
 “Cease to do evil;”” “ Learn to do well.” In the first, the 
 verb cease is neuter, but it is united to the active verb do, 
 and participates of an active signification in the same 
 manner that the preposition to, which becomes an adverb 
 when it precedes a verb. Prepositions coalesce with 
 verbs and make a part of them: as, ‘To out-weighs; to 
 over-balance.” Ifso, with much more propriety may a 
 neuter verb coalesce with anactive verb, and be assimilat- 
 ed to it; as in the case of the auxiliary and the principal 
 verb, shewing the purport ofthe agent; or thus: ‘“ Cease 
 from evil;”’ “Learn true wisdom.” In these the infini- 
 tive form is lost, and the sentences become imperative. 
 
 “The infinitive mood is frequently governed by adjec- 
 tives and participles: as, “He is eager to learn;” “She 
 is worthy to be loved; “‘ They havea desire to improve ;” 
 they ‘‘endéavour to persuade.” 
 
 The adjective eager, in the first example, is indicative 
 of strong desire, aud is as nearly allied to a verb neuter as 
 an adjective; and the adjective worthy seems not barely 
 to court our esteem, but to command our love, as it is 
 an abstract term to express qualities that attract the finer 
 affections of the soul, and is also assimilated to the verb. 
 In the third sentence ‘‘ They have a desire to improve,” 
 have is a verb of the indicative mood, having for its ob- 
 ject, desire: Or thus, “ They wish to improve.” In the 
 fourth example, endeavouring is a participle active, and 
 as such is a certain form of the verb. 
 
 The above sentences otherwise expressed :— 
 
 1. “ He loves learning ;” or, ‘‘ He is fond of learning.” 
 
 2. “She commands esteem ;” or, “* Commands love by 
 her virtues.” 
 
 3. “They are fond of improvement;” or, “desire to 
 improve.” 
 
 4, “'They are enforcing their argument.” 
 
 Let it be observed that in these examples, in which the 
 adjective is said to govern the verb in the infinitive mood, 
 that the adjective is preceded by a verb. Although the 
 adjective eager expresses desire, it does not belong to the 
 
58 ESSAY ON SYNTAX, 
 
 verb neuter, but to the person alluded to; it is the pre- 
 ceding verb that requizes the verb that follows it, to. be in 
 the infinitive mood; because adjectives are only added to 
 substantives to express their qualities; then, as qualities 
 they can have no influence on either substantives or verbs 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 “Ye aught not walk too hastily,” should be “ to walk,” 
 in the infinitive, per rule. Let it be observed that by 
 substituting the present participle, or gerund, for the in- 
 finitive, the same sense is retained : as, ‘‘ Cease to do evil ;” 
 that is, “‘ Cease from doing evil,’ &c. 
 
 RULE XIII. 
 
 In the use of words and phrases which, in point of 
 time, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation 
 should be observed. Instead of saying, “The Lord 
 hath given, and the Lord hath taken away ;” we should 
 say, “The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away.” 
 Instead of, “I know the family more than twenty 
 years ;” it should be, “I have known the family more 
 than twenty years.” 
 
 Mr. Harris says, that logically speaking there are only 
 two tenses; viz., the past and future. But for the vari- 
 ous purposes of language, they are classed under six dif- 
 ferent heads; viz., the present, the imperfect, the perfect, 
 the pluperfect, and the first and second futures, 
 
 OF THE TENSES. 
 
 “‘T loved,” and “TI will love,” are the two philosophical 
 tenses. ‘Time is compared to a flowing stream which is 
 never at a stand; like it time is ever on the wing. If we 
 say the present now, before the sentence is pronounced, 
 that now is for ever fled. Therefore, there can be no pre- 
 sent tense, 
 
 The six tenses already mentioned shew all the inflex- 
 ions of the verb. 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 59 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. “IT love Jane;” or, “I am now loving Jane,” is cal- 
 Jed the present tense, and is indicative of the present ac- 
 tion of the mind. 
 
 2. “TI loved virtue ;” or, “ He loved virtue,” is 
 called the imperfect tense, and is indicative of an action 
 of the mind that is indefinitely past. 
 
 3. “TI have* loved virtue ;” or, ‘‘ He hath loved virtue,” 
 is called the perfect tense ; and this denotes (according to 
 grammarians) that “I have loved virtue either in this cen- 
 tury, in this year, in this month, in this week, or in this 
 hour; viz., in some limited portion of time not yet ex- 
 pired: whereas, the imperfect tense speaks of time in an 
 indeterminate manner: as, ‘‘I saw the king last year, last 
 week, or Jast hour,” and this, in the author’s opinion, 
 should be called the imperfect tense, because it expresses 
 time perfectly past, without any allusion to any other 
 time. 
 
 4. The pluperfect tense, which implies two times or 
 tenses, viz., a time prior to some other time, or a time be- 
 fore another time; as, “I had loved Cassandra before I 
 travelled to Sardis;” or, “I had dined before my friend 
 arrived.” Although there are evidently two times speci- 
 fied in the pluperfect tense, yet neither of those is definite 
 with respect to any limitation of tense. The first part of 
 the sentence, “I had loved Cassandra,” does not correctly 
 answer to the imperfect, nor the perfect tenses, but sug- 
 gests the preceding occurence of having loved Gaccindita 
 helere T had travelled to Sardis; so nee neither of these 
 imperfect clauses conveys any distinct notion of determi- 
 nate time; nor do both these clauses bogelien make any 
 thing more than imperfect time.’ 
 
 Indeed, were it enquired the exact Hatinction between 
 the imperfect, pluperfect, and perfect tenses, with respect 
 to time elapsed, as expressed by either, the only criterion 
 is, that the imperfect expresses time indeterminately past, 
 
 * Have, hast, hath, and has, when they precede verbs, are signs of the per- 
 fect tense. 
 
60 — ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 without any reference to the termination of any measure 
 of time: as, “I saw the king in the last century, in the 
 last month,’ &c.; and the perfect tense points to 
 some occurrence which has taken place in the present cen- 
 tury, the present year, or the present hour, &c., (i. e) in 
 some measure of time not yet elapsed. 
 
 The pluperfect expresses something prior tosome other 
 point of time specified in the sentence. From the defini- 
 nition of the perfect tense it might be inferred that it 
 shews time more recently past than the imperfect, or of a 
 more recent date. 
 
 ‘The perfect not only refers indefinitely to what is 
 past, but also conveys an allusion to the present tense.” 
 From this it appears that the term perfect tense properly 
 belongs to. the imperfect tense. Lest the reader should 
 not understand the difference between these tenses, I shall 
 give another example. 
 
 First, of the perfect tense:—‘“I have been at London 
 this year;” I have spent some of this morning in study ;”’ 
 “There have been some great geniuses in this century.” 
 
 Secondly, the imperfect tense :—<I was at London last 
 year ;” ‘There were many great geniuses last century ;” 
 ‘“‘T was at home yesterday*.” 
 
 5. The first future tense, which represents the action as 
 yet to come: as, “Tt will rain; “I will love;” ‘“ Ann 
 will prove unkind.” None of these point out any par- 
 ticular time in which any of these actions will take place, 
 notwithstanding they are all expressive of time to come; 
 
 * However, Mr. Murray says, that in reference to such a division of the day 
 as is past before the time of our speaking, we use thu imperfect: as, ‘‘ They * 
 came home early this morning ;” ‘* He was with them at three o’clock this 
 afternoon. 
 
 Let it be observed, that Mr. Murray’s observation respecting that of.‘‘ re- 
 ferring to such a division of the day, as is past before the time of our speak- 
 ing ; we use the imperfect ; as, ‘‘ they came home early this morning,” is a 
 manifest deviation from the rule laid down, and cannot be warranted by just 
 principles of grammatical analogy, according to the preceding rule; for in 
 speaking of all past events, the particular tense that the event took place in is 
 past, and the event past, yet the day or the hour in which that event took place 
 may not yet be expired. 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 61 
 
 yet by adding either * tomorrow,” “next week,” or “next 
 year,” the future assertion becomes limited, so as to leave 
 no doubt concerning the time of the future completion 
 of these events. 
 
 6. The second future tense, which indicates that the ac- 
 tion will be fully accomplished at, or before the time of 
 another future action or event; as, I shall have read and 
 prayed before Maria arrives: John and Thomas will have 
 visited Eliza before Anne reaches Italy. In this tense as 
 well-as the first future, some expletives must be super- 
 added in order to render the sense more circumscribed.— 
 Vide, the foregoing example: 
 
 as | EXAMPLES. 
 
 “The next new year’s day [I shall be at school three 
 years.” Should be, shall have been at school, in the se- 
 cond future. ‘On next new year’s day the period will 
 be completed ;” therefore, cannot be expressed by future 
 time or tense. 
 
 “ And he that was dead sat up and began to speak,” 
 should be, ‘“* And he that, or who had been dead,” &c. 
 
 As the occurrence of his death was prior to another 
 point of time specified in the sentence, it is proper to ex- 
 press it in the pluperfect tense. 
 
 “T should be obliged to him if he will gratify me,” 
 should be, * If he had gratified me;” had gratified is the 
 subjunctive mood, pluperfeet tense, third person singular : 
 or thus, “If he will gratify me, I shall be obliged to him.” 
 A due regard to the meaning of the subject will direct the 
 student in the moods and tenses. 
 
 RULE XIV. 
 
 Participles have the same government as the verbs 
 have from which they are derived: as, “I am weary 
 with hearing him ;” “She is instr ueting ws? vf Ehe 
 tutor is admonishing Charles.’’* 
 
 * When the participle is preceded by a preposition, and still retains its own 
 
 government, it answers to what is called in Latin the gerand.—Vide Dr. 
 Lowth. 
 
 F 
 
62 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 Active verbs govern the objective case; the participle 
 is a certain form of the verb, or a certain modification of 
 the attribute, and is expressive of present action; as, “I 
 am now reading Horace ;” reading is called the present, 
 or active participle. “I received James with pleasure ;” 
 received is called the passive participle; this requires no 
 further comment, as the reasoning on rule the 9th is ap- 
 plicable to this rule. ) 
 
 The participle with an article before it, and the prepo- 
 sition of after it, assumes the office of a substantive, ex-- 
 pressing the action itself, which the verb signifies; as, 
 «The receiving of the messengers of God,” is praise- 
 worthy; here, the present participle receiving iS a sub- 
 stantive, nominative case to the verb és. 
 
 The participle shews the performance of the action, 
 and is a substantive, and requires the same government 
 when it is placed as has been already described. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 “Esteeming theirselves wise,” &c., should be ‘“‘ them- 
 selves. Theirselves, a possessive pronoun, and themselves, 
 the objective case by the participle esteeming. 
 
 “ Suspecting not only ye,” should be “you.” Ye is the 
 nominative plural, and you may be used either in the 
 nominative or objective. You is the objective, governed — 
 by the participle suspecting. | 
 
 “I could not avoid considering they as enemies,” should 
 be “them,” governed by the patticiple considering. 
 
 “ From having exposed hisself,’ should be ‘‘ himself,” 
 governed by thes passive participle exposed. 
 
 A due attention to the government of active verbs will 
 direct the student to a knowledge of the participle. 
 
 RULE XV. 
 
 Adverbs, though they have no government of case, 
 tense, &c., require an appropriate situation in the sen- 
 tence, viz., for the most part, before adjectives, after 
 verbs active or neuter, and frequently between the 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 63 
 
 auxiliary and the verb: as, “He made a very sensible 
 discourse ; he spoke unaffectedly and forcibly; he was 
 attentively heard by the whole assembly.” 
 
 From the meaning of the adverb, (i. e.) a word being 
 ‘put or added to a verb, it is obvious that it should be 
 placed near to its relative word, as it is generally used to 
 qualify verbs, adjectives, and sometimes other adverbs. 
 When placed before a verb, it either amplifies or dimi- 
 nishes its signification: as, “‘ Jane reads extremely well ;” 
 “William writes indifferently.”’ It has the same influence 
 when connected to adjectives and other adverbs; hence 
 the propriety of the rule for using adverbs, 
 
 From these observations it appears that there can be no 
 decisive rule given for placing the adverb. The harmo- 
 ny, flow, and perspicuity of the phrase, are the chief 
 things te direct the writer. 
 
 | EXAMPLES. 
 
 “Tt cannot be impertinent or ridiculous, therefore, to 
 remonstrate,” should be thus, “It, therefore, cannot be 
 impertinent or ridiculous,” &c., because the conclusion 
 follows from some preceding argument, and the adverb 
 therefore expresses this consequence or conclusion. 
 
 ‘He offered an apology which being not admitted,’ 
 should be, “ which not being admitted.” 
 
 “He walked there in less than an hour,” should be 
 thither. The meaning of the adverb there is, in that place ; 
 thither signifies, to that place. “The prince will come 
 here to-morrow,” should be hither ; here means, in this 
 place ; hither, to this piace. 
 
 RULE XVI. 
 
 Two negatives, in English, destroy one another, or 
 are equivalent to an affirmative: as, Nor did they noé 
 perceive him :” that is, “they did perceive him.” “ His 
 language, though inelegant, is nof cee ge 6 
 that is, “it is evammatical. < 
 
 No absolute impossibility can be performed : as, “I 
 
64 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 cannot drink mone ;”? “ Nor did they not perceive him.” 
 The first sentence, “I cannnot drink none,” plainly 
 implies a possibility that I have the power to drink, but 
 that I cannot drink nothing, but I can drink something. 
 
 “ Nor did they not perceive him.” I confess I am at 
 a loss to demonstrate, how ner and not together can make 
 an affirmation, although I have quoted the example from 
 Mr. Murray. It is obvious that the force of the above 
 rule isnot universal ; for two negatives, in some instances, 
 do not make an affirmation: as, “Is William going to 
 Paris? Wo, no, he is not.” Here are three, and yet the 
 three negations do not make an affirmation. 
 
 ‘“‘ His language, though inelegant, is not ungrammaii- 
 cal;” that is, “it is grammatical.” There are not two 
 negatives of the same import in this sentence. Many 
 compositions are very inelegant, and yet, strictly gram- 
 matical, so as to be free from false concords, barbarisms 
 and solicisms. When it is said that language is not un- 
 grammatical, it must be grammatical; and when it is 
 said a man Is not virtuous, he must be vicious. In most, 
 if not in all cases, the negation of one extreme, is the af- 
 firmation of the other; hence the rule is not general in 
 its application. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 “Neither riches, mor honors, ner no such perishing 
 goods, can satisfy the desires of animmortal soul;” should 
 be “Neither riches, honors, nor any such perishable 
 goods,” Xe. | 
 
 “Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of dis- 
 guise,” should be thus, ‘“ Be honest, and take neither 
 shape nor semblance of disguise;” or thus, ““Be honest,— 
 take not any shape or semblance of disguise.” 
 
 RULE XVII 
 
 Prepositions govern the objective case: as, “I have 
 heard a good character of her; “From him that is 
 needy turn not away ;” “A word to the wise is suffi- 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 65 
 
 cient for them ;” We may be good and happy without 
 riches.” 
 
 The doctrine of prepositions would far exceed the 
 bounds of this treatise; still, such an elucidation may be 
 given as will explain their nature and energy. From the 
 nature of the rule itself, the analogy and relation that 
 prepositions bear to verbs, it will be expedient to classify 
 them, viz. :— 
 
 1. Prepositions of motion and force are, to, through, 
 over, into, under, from, against. 
 
 2. Prepositions of place are beyond, before, behind, be- 
 neath, in, into, after, above, below, under, at, within, with- 
 out, near, and about. 
 
 3, Prepositions of transferring property are, to from, 
 over, into, and on. 
 
 4, Preposition of possession is, of. 
 
 5. Preposition of motive, for; and of exception, save 
 or except. 
 
 6. Prepositions of cause are, by and with. 
 
 7. Prepositions of giving or proceeding, éo or unto. 
 
 8. Prepositions of division are, amongst and between. 
 
 9. Prepositions of relation are, concerning and about. 
 
 10. Preposition of time is during. 
 
 Upon inspection of this arrangement, many of the pre- 
 positions may be interchanged according to their appli- 
 cation. 
 
 Most prepositions denote relation of place, and have 
 been thence transferred to denote other relations by simi- 
 litude. 
 
 A LIST OF PREPOSITIONS AS THEY ARE APPLIED. 
 
 Of denotes possession, or what chiefly belongs to one: as, 
 ‘¢The rights of the action;” ‘* Love is the fulfilling of 
 the law.” 
 
 Prom enite: proceeding, or TeneTaee any thing: as, 
 
 * It appears from the above, that prepositions serve as media to convey 
 the intention of the agent to the object, by the assistance of the verb which 
 precedes the preposition. 
 
66 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 “He descended from Adam;” “He came from the land 
 of Goshen.” 
 
 To or unto is put in opposition to from, and shews giving 
 or proceeding: as, “ He rode to London, not from it ;”’ 
 “He gave the book fo Charles.” 
 
 Over and above are superior prepositions : as, ‘* His mer- 
 cy is over all his works ;” ‘“‘ God is above all.” 
 
 Through, course, order, or space: as, “‘ He went a mile,” 
 (i. e.) through a mile; “ Pir bngk grace are ye saved,” 
 (i. e.) through the operation of it.” 
 
 For shews the nature of action: as, “I love him for his 
 virtue.” | 
 
 By shews an agent, or cause: as, ‘ Darius was conquered 
 by Alexander: ” Alexander is the cause. 
 
 In respects time and place: as, ‘‘ He lived in Preston ;” 
 ‘“*‘ He was born in France.” 
 
 Below, beneath, and under, are inferior prepositions: as, 
 “He lived under a good master ;” “ He was nothing 
 below or beneath ihn | in virtue.” 
 
 Into expresses motion: as, “He went into the moun: 
 
 . tains.” 
 
 At is relative to place: as, ‘He lived at Islington, or at 
 Workington.” 
 
 With signifies to accompany, or the means of an action: 
 as, ‘“‘ He went with him;” “He walked with God;” 
 ‘ Alexander killed Clytus with a sword.” 
 
 Before, coming first: as, ‘‘ He went before the general.” 
 
 After, following in consequence: as, “ He went after him” 
 
 Behind, backwards: as, ‘ Behind him stood the captain.” 
 
 Within is formed by two prepositions, and marks the per- 
 son or thing more importantly than the mere repitition 
 of the word in. 
 
 Without, the opposite of with or within. 
 
 Up signifies ascending : as, “‘ He went up the street.’ Up 
 is chiefly an adverb. 
 
 Beyond shews some certain spot afar: as, ‘“ He went be- 
 yond the mountains of Derby.” 
 
 About signifies some circuit, or going round, or refers to. 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 67 
 
 time: as, ‘He was here aboué this hour.” It is some- 
 times an adverb: as, “ He went about doing good.” 
 WVear respects place, and, according as it is applied, may 
 be an adverb or an adjective, as well as a preposition. 
 On or upon respects time: as, ‘‘ Ou or upon such a day.” 
 Against denotes opposition: as, “The English fought 
 against the French.” 
 Among or amongst and between, being mixed or shewing 
 difference: as, ‘He went among them:” “He judged 
 between them.” 
 
 A LIST OF WORDS THAT REQUIRE PARTICULAR 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 Accuse of. Difficulty in. Profit by. 
 Acquit of. Discouragement to.Provide with. 
 Adapted to. Disappointedin or Prejudice against. 
 Abhorrence of. of. Reduce under. 
 Agreeable to. Disapprove of. Reconcile fo. 
 Averse to. Dissent from. Replete with. 
 Boast or brag of. Exception from. Regard io. 
 Bestow upon. Engaged in. _ Resolve on. 
 Banish from. Kager zn. Resemblance to. 
 Change for. Expect at or in. Spoke concerning. 
 Call on. Free from. Swerve from. 
 Confide in. Fall under*. Taste for or of. 
 Conformabdle to. Glad of or at. Think of or on. 
 Consonant to. Insist upon. True io. 
 Compliance with. Independent of or Thankful for. 
 Conversant with. on. Finder of. 
 Die of or by. Marry fo. Wait on. 
 Derogation from. Made of. Worthy of. 
 Dependent upon. Martyr for. Witness le. 
 Differ from. Need of. Wildness of. 
 
 Definition of. Observance of. Willing to. 
 Prepositions are also prefixed to words in such a manner 
 as to coalesce with them, and to become a part of them. 
 
 * Many of these words take other prepositions after them to express other 
 meanings: thus, Fall zn, to concur; to comply: Fall af, to forsake 
 
68 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 Hence the preposition becomes a part of the verb in 
 meaning and construction, and in its governing principle. 
 
 This being so, it follows, that prepositions are reci- 
 pients or media to receive the influence of the preceding 
 verbs, and convey the power of the verb to the object: 
 as, ‘I will throw an orange against the wall’ Here the 
 preposition against serves as a medium to convey the mo- 
 tion from the verb throw to the wall. Again, “I gave 
 the apples to Jane.” ‘The preposition fo in this sentence 
 has the same influence that the verb gave. would have, if 
 the sentence were transposed, thus, ‘I gave Jane apples,” 
 in which form, apples is the objective case by the active 
 verb gave :—to find a government for Jane, the elliptical 
 word to must be supplied: as, “I gave apples to Jane.” 
 In almost every sentence that prepositions govern the ob- 
 ject, the preposition is preceded by a verb, except the 
 sentence be elliptical, being so, the sense remains the 
 same, which proves the truth of Dr. Lowth’s reasoning 
 on verbs, (i. e.,) that prepositions coalesce with verbs, and 
 sometimes make a part of them: as, to outweigh, to over- 
 burden, to undertake. If this reasoning be denied, it 
 must be granted, that no one thing in nature can govern 
 another, unless it have a governing principle* or power; 
 
 * Upon this principle of analogy are the cases in Latin distinguished, being 
 mostly known by the declension of the nouns, (vide page 49,) for the cases of 
 most nouns in Latin are made clear by the termination of the noun. Hence, 
 the definition of the case in Latin is not applicable in English. Let it be ob- 
 served, that the bare declension of a Latin noun will not make a perfect phrase : 
 there must be a verb superadded in some of its inflections or variations. ** To 
 a lord,” or, ‘‘ From a lord,” does not give a perfect idea. If I say, ‘I re- 
 ceived a letter from Lord B.,” this is a simple complete sentence; and the 
 connexion or analogy between the verb received and the preposition from is 
 obvious. When itis said, that prepositions require the objective case, the 
 meaning is, that the substantive coming after the preposition of, is similar to 
 the substantive being the object of the active verb, because it expresses the 
 object of the action or of the relation. It is evident then, that prepositions 
 have power, either in themselves or derived ; if derived, it must be frem the 
 verbs that precede prepositions. Further, if this be rejected, let the same 
 mode of argument be applied to conjunctions ; they are also connectives as 
 well as prepositions, but do not, nor cannot govern cases, although Dr. Lowth 
 says, that the conjunction ¢han requires the objective case of the pronoun 
 avho «fter it (1.e.) whom, and gives for example, “‘ Beelzebub than zwhem none 
 
 « 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 69 
 
 either in itself, or communicated to it by some other 
 agent; but it is to be understood in a metaphysical sense. 
 
 A preposition merely as a connective cannot govern an 
 objective case. If the reader carefully examines the pre- 
 ceding classification of the prepositions he will: immedi- 
 ately perceive, that they have a remarkable peculiarity of 
 acceptation far different from conjunctions. Some pre- 
 positions denote motion, others ‘cause, and others divi- 
 sion. Indeed some of them approach very near to neuter 
 verbs in acceptation, but being connected to the verb in 
 the same sentence virtually participate of its nature, and 
 sometimes, make a part of it. 
 
 It has been said that prepositions as connectives cannot 
 govern an object. As a connective, its antecedent and 
 consequent would be equally affected, and as a link it can 
 affect the one no more than the other. From the fore- 
 going demonstration, it may appear that the preposi- 
 tions have a species of power, or are recipients of power, 
 which, when joined to a verb, calls that power into ac- 
 tion, otherwise prepositions could never govern an objec- 
 tive* case. 
 
 higher sat, Satan except.” Although this mode of expression be sanctioned 
 by a poet of high authority, the correctness of it may be questioned. ‘: None 
 higher sat than Beelzebub, except Satan.” In this form of the sentence, the 
 rules of grammar can be applied to the words without changing the eonjunc- 
 tion than, to make it govern whom. 
 
 * Some grammarians are of opinion that the English language has no ob- 
 jective case, but grant that the verb may have an object. 
 
 For the authority of an objective case the author refers his readers to Dr. 
 Lowth’s treatise on English grammar. “‘ Prepositions have a government of 
 cases after them}; as, ‘‘ with Azm, from her, to me; and further, that in 
 English the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, and separate 
 from it, like an adverb, in which situation it is not less apt to affect the sense 
 of it, and to give it a new meaning, and may be still considered as belonging 
 to the verb, and a part of it ; as, to cast, is to throw, but to east up an account 
 is to throw up, or complete an account, is quite a different thing ; thus, to fall 
 
 _on, to bear out, to give over, &c., so that the meaning of the verb and the 
 propriety of the phrase depend on the preposition snbjoined to the verb; as 
 the preposition subjoined to the verb has the construction and nature of an 
 adverb; so the adverbs here, there, where, with a preposition subjoined ; as, 
 hereof, wherewith, &c. have the construction and nature of adverbial pronouns. 
 
70 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 “Each man for hisself is accountable; should be him- 
 self,” objective case by the preposition for. 
 
 They of theirselves contributed their ornaments ;” 
 should be themselves, governed by the preposition of in 
 the objective case. 
 
 ‘“<Tt was not he that they were so angry with;” should 
 be “It wasnot with him that they were soangry.” Inall 
 correct and good composition every preposition has re- 
 Jation to some substantive.; every conjunction either 
 connects words or sentences; every adjective belongs to 
 some substantive ; and every verb (except the infinitive 
 mood) implies a nominative case, expressed or understood. 
 
 A due observance of this will prevent redundancy of 
 adjuncts, or minor parts of speech. 
 
 RULE XVIII. 
 
 Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses cf 
 verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns : as, “ Can- 
 dour is to be approved and practised ;” “'The master 
 taught both her and me to write; He and she™ were 
 Bohoul: fellows.’ 
 
 The principles of this rule will be found in the 11th and 
 seventeenth rules of Syntax, and is founded merely on 
 the notion of conjunctions being purely connectives, ex- 
 cluding every idea of their influence on substantives: as, 
 “The master taught her and me to write;” “THe and she 
 were schoolfellows.” In the first sentence, her and me 
 are pronouns in the objective case, governed by the active 
 verb taught, and when analysed would read thus, “The 
 master taught her, and he taught me to write.”” So the 
 copulative and absolute conjunction and couples her and 
 me in the same case; as, “ He and she were schoolfel- 
 lows.” He and she are two pronouns in the singular num- 
 ber, jomed by the conjunction and, nominative case to 
 the verb were. 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 71 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 * If a man say I love God, and hateth his hirdtlese he is 
 a liar;” should be “and hate his brother,” (i. eJcSl fa 
 man hate his brother.” Hate is the subjunctive mood, 
 present tense, third person singular. The former part of 
 the sentence is in the subjunctive mood; the latter part 
 is connected to the former by the conjunction and, there- 
 fore it should also be in the subjunctive mood, vide, 
 rule 18. 
 
 ** Did he not tell thee his fault and entreated thee to for- 
 give him;” should be “ and entreat thee.” Conjunctions 
 couple like tenses as well as moods. Thee is the objective 
 case by the preposition to, understood, and fault. is the 
 objective, by the active verb fell, (i. e.) “tell his fault to 
 thee.” 
 
 RULE XIX. . 
 
 Some conjunctions require the indicative, some the 
 subjunctive mood, after them. It is a rule, that when 
 something contingent or doubtful is implied, the sub- 
 junctive ought to be used: as, “If I were to write, he 
 
 would not regard it ;” “ He will not be pardoned, un- 
 less he repent.” 
 
 Merely as connectives, conjunctions, either pete or 
 critically, can have no influence on moods, tenses, or 
 nouns; however, when their acceptation is regarded, it is 
 the authority for the construction of this rule, which ap- 
 pears from the following arrangement, which are. 
 
 Copulative or absolute, conditional disjunctive, and com- 
 parative conjunctions. 
 
 The copulative or absolute, and the conditional are those 
 that fall under consideration The copulative has no 
 power whatever to change the form of the verb in any of 
 the moods. 
 
 It is the conditional alone that is said to affect the verb, 
 or to cause it to be put in the subjunctive* form. 
 
 * It is agreed by logicians that there are but two primary moods in the Eng- 
 lish language, that is, the éndicative and the zamperative, although the Stoics 
 
72 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 From the definition of a verb it is plain that there can 
 be no more moods than there are various ways of express- 
 ing thoughts. For instance, the verb to be, in the first 
 person singular, is “fam.” This sentence is declarative. 
 Prefix the conjunction to am, it doesnot change the form 
 of the verb, but renders a different acceptation, because 
 the particle if implies conditionality, &c. ‘If Iam;” 
 or, “If I were to write.” The verb were is plural, al- 
 though it is here, according to custom, put to agree with 
 a singular pronoun J, because it is the subjunctive mood, 
 (are) that a noun in the singular number must have a verb 
 in the plural number which is contrary to the first rule in 
 syntax. ‘If I were to write,” and “If they were to 
 write.” The verbs in these phrases are similar, nor can 
 it be distinguished by the verb abstractly to what mood* 
 it belongs. 
 
 (as has been observed) allowed the infinitive to be the genuine primary; the 
 other modes are called secondary, and are resolvable under the two former , 
 however, to define the forms of the verbs, it is manifest, that there are as 
 many moods as there are ways of expressing ideas ; for mode implies a certain 
 form of the attribute, or a change of the mood to Biv expression to the va- 
 rious ideas of meh. And although the verb suffers no variation in the sub- 
 junctive mood, except in the second person singular of the imperfect tense of 
 the neuter verb be, (i. e.,) wert, as, ‘‘ If thou wert,’ yet the intention of the 
 speaker is indicated by the conjunction; but as the intention of the speaker 
 does not affect the attribute through the medium of the conjunction, the in- 
 tention can have no influence on the subsequent word. It is, therefore, solely 
 by the conjunction that the idea of conditionality is represented; the form of 
 the verb still remains the same. Nor does the principal verb in any of the 
 moods undergo any vicissitude ; itis by the application of the auxiliary verbs, 
 except the infinitive, that the moods are designated: as, ‘‘I love holiness,” 
 ** T may love holiness,” *¢ Tf I love holiness,” ‘* To love ‘nbtiness ee UueL tim 
 love holiness.” The indicative mood comprehends the essence of the sub- 
 junctive and potential ; therefore, these sentences may be termed declarative 
 forms of speech ; the imperative and infinitive being the remaining varieties. 
 
 ‘*'The secondary moods are such as when the copula is affected with any of 
 them, make the sentence to be (as logicians call il) a modal proposition ; this 
 happens when the matter in discourse, namely, the being, or doing, or suffer- 
 ing of a thing is considered not simply by itself, but gradually in the causes 
 which it proceeds, either contingently or necessarily.—Vide Dr. Louth. 
 
 * Ifrecurrence be had to the idiom of the Greek language, ‘the particular 
 form of the verb by which they express the subject, or matter of a wish, 
 which properly constitutes the opative mood; butthe Latins have no such form. 
 The subject of a wish in their language, is subjoined to the wish itself, either 
 
 ° 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 73 
 
 “Indeed, the laws of harmony and symmetry contribute 
 very much to the ease and elegance of our language, and 
 these are never in opposition to scientific principles, but 
 flow spontaneously from theia; there is, therefore, no 
 principle in harmony or symmetry. at variance with the 
 two first rules of syntax; in fine, “the verb must agree 
 with the nominative case,” &c. In the sacred writings 
 (the best standard of English composition extant), the true 
 
 ‘grammatical construction of this mode appears: “If thou 
 will thou canst make me clean.” —JWaté. viii. 2. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 _ “If he acquires riches they will corrupt his mind.” 
 According to this rule the verb acquires should be ac- 
 quire, in the subjunctive mood; ihe idiom of which is, 
 to put the verb in the plural number, to agree (or rather 
 disagree) with a singular nominative case. 
 
 “Though he urges me yet more earnestiy, I shall not 
 comply.” ‘Theactive verb urges sbould be urge, in the 
 subjunctive mood, present tense, third person singular. 
 
 “J shall walk in the fields to-day, unless it rains ;” 
 should be rain; as it is doubtful (pr. rule) thesubjunctive 
 ought to be used ;—still putting the verb in the plural 
 although the noun be singular*. 
 
 “As the governess were present the children behaved 
 
 expressed or implied, as subsequent to, and depending on it; they have, there- 
 fore, no optative mood. What is expressed in that mood, in Greek, falls 
 properly under the subjunctive mood in Latin: it is, therefore, their condi- 
 tionality, their being subsequent and depending upon something preceding, 
 that determines them to be the subjunctive mood ; and in this grammatical 
 modal form, however they may differ in other respects, logically or metaphysi- 
 cally, they all agree.”’—Vide Dr. Lowth. 
 
 *The following are scriptural examples of the true form of the subjunctive : 
 ** Tf thou knewest the gift of God;” ‘If thou didst receive it; ‘If thou 
 _Aadst known ;” ‘* If thou wilt save Israel ;” ‘“ Though he Aath escaped the 
 sea;’’ *‘ That thou mayst be feared,” &ec. 
 
 lt may seem strange to,my readers that I disprove the subjunctive form of 
 the verb, and yet useit. It is not because 1 think that the subjunctive is ana- 
 logical, but that the tide of popular error flows so strongly in favour of the 
 form, viz., to make the verb plural when the noun is singular, when doubt, or 
 -contingency is implied. 
 
 G 
 
7A ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 properly.” This is plainly an indicative sentence, (i. e.) 
 there is nothing contingent or doubtful implied in it, 
 therefore, the verb were should be was, to agree with 
 governess in the singular number. 
 
 RULE XX. 
 
 When the qualities of different things are compared, 
 the latter noun or prououn is not governed by the 
 conjunction than or as, but agrees with the verb, or is 
 governed by the verb or the preposition, expressed or 
 understood: as, “Thou art wiser than I;” that is, 
 “thanI am.” “They loved him more than me ;” ice., 
 «more than they loved me;” ‘The sentiment is well 
 expressed by Plato, but much better by Solomon than 
 him ;”” that is, “ than by him.” 
 
 It has been said, that the scriptures are the best standard 
 for English composition. They are the most correct 
 translation of pure Oriental language; but what stamps 
 the greatest perfection upon them is, that they are the 
 effusions of the Holy Ghost ;—ihe will of God to man in 
 the language of inspiration. They exhibit a simplicity 
 of style, a sublimity of thought, a perspicuity of expres- 
 sion, an energy of pathos, a sweetness of harmony, a ma- 
 jesty of authority, and above ail; they are the power of 
 God to all them that believe their divine truisms. This, 
 perhaps, may be considered more a eulogium on the scrip- 
 tures than an explanation of the aboverule. Let it be ob- 
 served, that this rule does not originate in scientific techni- 
 calities, but in good sense and pure language, warranted 
 by the authority of the learned. 
 
 In the example, “Thou art wiser than I,” i.e., “than 
 Tam,” the am is omitted for the sake of brevity. A 
 striking example of the laconic appears in Cesar’s letter 
 from Gaul or France, “I came, I saw, I conquered.” The 
 Romans borrowed from the Greeks, and the English from 
 both. 
 
 That conjunctions have no government of case, tense, 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 75 
 
 &c. requires no proof, as they are only merely connectives. 
 Still Dr. Lowth (as has been observed) and Mr. Murray, 
 copying from him, says, when the relative who immedi- 
 ately follows than, it forms an exception to this rule, 
 viz., that the pronoun wko must be the objective case 
 coming after the conjunction than; and a similar exam- 
 ple appears in Dr. Lowth’s introduction; “ Alfred, than 
 whom a greater king never reigned ;” “ Beelzebub, than 
 whom none higher sat, Satan except.’”” The construction 
 of these sentences will not admit of a grammatical mode 
 of parsing, on account of the position of the two nomi- 
 native cases, Alfred and Beelzebud, because there is no 
 preposition, or verb to govern whom in the objective 
 case; it is true, the preposition except, may govern 
 Satan in the objective case, but whom is still left with- 
 out government, and has for its antecedent Beelzebub. 
 Better thus, perhaps, “ Alfred was the greatest king that 
 ever reigned.” ‘No infernal prince sat higher than 
 Beelzebub sat, except Satan.” In this order those sen- 
 tences can be parsed, and each word retain its relative 
 concord.* 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 “In some respects we have had as many advantages as 
 them; but they have had greater privileges than ws.” 
 
 Here Mr. Murray acknowledges that the conjunction 
 ihan or as does not govern pronouns ; hence, them should 
 be they, and the personal pronoun as should be we. By 
 supplying the elliptical words, it will read thus: “ As 
 many advantages as they have had.” “They have had 
 greater privileges than we have had.” 
 
 “The undertaking was much better executed by his 
 brother thau by ke ;” should be “ than by him,” the ob- 
 jective of he, and governed by the preposition by. 
 
 “They are much greater gainers than me by this unex- 
 
 « “ The best general rule that can be given, is to observe what the sense 
 necessarily requires.” Note.—After the past tense, the present infinitive 
 - ‘should be used, (not the perfect,) as, ‘I intended to write to my sister,” not 
 ** To have written.” , 
 
76 ESSAY ON SYNTAX, 
 
 pected event ;” should be “than Fam ;” because there is 
 neither a-verb nor a preposition to govern me. Besides, 
 by transposition I, will still retain the nominative form : 
 “TI gain less than they,” (i. e.) “ than they gain.” 
 
 ‘They know how to write as well as him ;” should be 
 as wellas he does; dropping the objective form and sub- 
 stituting the nominative personal pronoun he. 
 
 RULE XXI. 
 
 To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express our 
 ideas in few words, an ellipsis, or omission of some 
 words is frequently admitted. Instead of saying “He 
 was a learned man, he was a wiseman, and he was a 
 good man ;” we use of the ellipsis, and say, “He was a 
 learned, wise, and good man.” 
 
 When the omission of words would obscure the 
 sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with impro- 
 priety, they must be expressed. In the sentence, 
 “We are apt to love who love us,” the word them 
 should be supplied.” “A beautiful field ‘and trees,” is 
 not proper language. Itshould be, “ Beautiful fields 
 and trees ;” or, “A beautiful field and fine trees.” 
 
 This rule is merely a direction, equal to an axiom for 
 perspicuity, strength, and elegance of expression; and 
 also to prevent ambiguity of style, which has been noticed 
 in the observations on the preceding rule. 
 
 2 EXAMPLES. 
 
 “JY gladly shunned who fled from me ” should bes] 
 gladly shunned him who gladly fled from me.” The ac- 
 tive verb or participle governs kim, in the objective case, 
 and who is the nominative to the neuter verb fled; from is 
 a preposition; me is a personal pronoun, first person sin- 
 gular, objective case, by the preposition from. 
 
 “ And this what men mean by distributive justice ;” 
 should be, ‘ Aud this is that which men mean by distribu- 
 tive justice.” ; 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. V7 
 
 That is a demonstrative pronoun, pointing to thing, un- 
 derstood, which is a relative pronoun, third person sin- 
 gular, objective or accusative case, by the active verb 
 mean. {Vide the Rule.| Or, when a nominative comes 
 between the relative and the verb, the relative shall be 
 such a case as the active verb will admit after it. 
 
 The nominative to the verb mean is men; distributive, 
 an adjective, giving quality to justice ; by, a preposition; 
 justice, a substantive common, third person singular, ob- 
 jective case by the preposition by. 
 
 “The fear of death, nor hope of life, could make him 
 submit to a dishonest action ;” should be “ Neither the 
 fear of death, nor the hope of life, could makehim submit 
 to a dishonest action.” 
 
 In this example, a clause of the sentence is the nomina- 
 tive case to ihe verbs could make*; hope is coupled to 
 
 fear, in order to complete ihe nominative case to the verb 
 make. 
 
 RULE XXII. 
 
 When the qualities of different things are compared, 
 the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the 
 conjunction than or as, but agrees with the verb, or is 
 governed by the verb or the preposition, expressed or 
 understood: as, “Thou art wiser ‘than I;” that is, 
 “than { am.” “They loved him more than me;” 
 that is, “more than they loved me ;” “The sentiment 
 is well expressed by Plato, but much better by Solo- 
 mon than him ;’ that is, “than by him+.” 
 
 * Some grammarians call the principal and auxiliary verbs all one verb ; 
 this mode cannot be correct, because the auxiliary, in many cases, has a dif- 
 ferent signification. There is no similitude between can and write, nor could 
 and make, nor will and travel, &e. 
 
 + ‘* When whom immediately follows ‘han, itis improperly used in the objec- 
 tive case: as, ‘Alfred than whom a greater king never reigned. Thanwhom 
 is not grammatical; it ought to be than who.” Lennie. 
 
 Inthis form, there are two nominatives to the verb reigned; (i. e.) Alfred 
 and who. Who is the nominative case to the neuter intransitive verb reigned, 
 
78 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 | The 21st rule cautions against a redundancy of expres- 
 sion, and this against sterility or jejueneness, and is distinct 
 in direction for the use of more and than m_ senten- 
 ces. Example; “‘He was more beloved, but notso much 
 admired as Cynthio.” Although the meaning isclear, yet 
 there is want of strength and harmony, which a refined 
 ear immediately perceives. Supply the word than and 
 the sense is complete, and the style harmonious. ‘“ He. 
 was more beloved than Cynthio, but not so much ad- 
 mired.” 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 “The deaf man whose cars were opened, and tongue 
 loosened, doubtless glorified the great physician.’ Thus, 
 “The deaf man whose ears had been opened, and whose 
 tongue had been loosened, doubtless glorified the great 
 physician?” 
 
 Were opened, as it appears in the first example, is the 
 indicative mood, imperfect tense, third perion plural; 
 and the verb or participle glorified, is also the indicative 
 mood, imperfect tense, third person singular, having man 
 for its nominative case. It is plain, that the man’s ears 
 were opened, and his tongue loosened, before he glorified 
 the great physician: therefore, the two first clauses of 
 the sentence should be in the pluperfect tense, because it 
 is prior to another time specified in the sentence, (i. e.) 
 to the man glorifying God. 
 
 ‘* No person was ever so perplexed as he was to-day ;,, 
 should be, “ te person was ever so atta Pa as he hkas* 
 been to day.” 
 
 pr. Rule VI. Alfred is the antecedent to the pronoun who, and has reference 
 to no verb except reigned. The laws of syntax require every nominative case 
 to refer to Ome verb, and every verb to have a nominative case ; ‘hence, the 
 relative who is either ‘dipertinous, or there is an imperfection in the conieae: 
 tion of the sentence ; perhaps better thus ; “ A sreater king never reigned than 
 Alfred ;” (i. e.) “* than Alfred was.” ; 
 
 * “©The perfect tense not only refers indefinitely to what is past, bat cofveys 
 #n allusion to the present tense,” Therefore, as the odcirrence took place to- 
 day, it should be expressed in the perfect tense, according to the definition of 
 this tense, which has been Roti¢ed in ‘a former part of this eseay, oe should 
 be fasted the imperfect tenbe. 
 
EXAMPLES OF PARSING. 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 “For who love I so much.”—Suaxkesprare’s Merchant 
 of Venice. 
 
 Who should be whom, because it is governed by the ac- 
 tive verb love, see rule 6th, thus, “I love none so much 
 as I love thee. When a question is asked, the verb, al- 
 though transitive, admits the nominative case after it, the 
 action not passing from the agent to the object: for isa 
 
 conjunction, and connects the former part of the sen- 
 tence to the latter. 
 “« It shines, it thunders, it hails, it rains.” 
 
 The pronoun z in these sentences has no antecedent 
 expressed, but refers to the state of the weather, which 
 implies some influential agent, to cause the rain to fall, 
 the hail to descend, and the thunder to send forth its ter- 
 rific peals: from this, Dr. Lowth observes, that there is 
 no such thing as an impersonal verb. 
 
 «To that which once was* thee.’—Prior. ° 
 
 Thee should be thou, coming after the neuter verb was, 
 for the verb to bé through all its variations, has the same 
 case after it as that which precedes it.. 
 
 “ Impossible ! it can’t be me.”’—Swirr, 
 The pronoun me should be J, because if is the nomina- 
 
 _ * The verb fo de has always the nominative after it, except it be in the im 
 finitive mood. ‘‘ Though you took it to be him.” Here the neuter pronoun 
 if is the objective case governed by the active verb took, and him is also ob- 
 jective by the same government, as the intervention of the neuter pronoun 
 éannot affect the pronoun coming afterit. This nearly answers to what is 
 éalled the rule of apposition, i. e., when one noun is put to explain another 
 more fully, as, ‘‘ Paw, the Apostle ;” “* George, the King.”. é 
 
80 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 tive case to the verb be, therefore it should be in the same 
 
 case with it, i.e., the nominative. 
 
 “IT am not like other men, to envy the talents that I cannot 
 reach.” 
 
 The infinitive to envy has no preceding verb to govern 
 it: it should be who envy; every verb, except the infini- 
 tive must have an agent, and every verb in the infinitive 
 requires some governing word. 
 
 “Ve are alone, there’s none but thee and I,”,—-SHAKSPEARE’S 
 Henry VI. 
 
 The pronoun thee should be thou, see rule 18th. If the 
 question were. asked, ‘‘ Who is here?” ‘The answer is, 
 * Thou art here.” 
 
 Who did this ? 
 
 The most common answer to this question is, “It was 
 me,” instead of “J,” i. e., “Zé was I didit.”” The nomina- 
 tive is known by asking the question who or what, as, 
 “ Who wrote the book ?” The answer is, ** Cicero,” that 
 is, “Cicero wrote the book.” Cicero isa proper name, 
 nominative case, third person singular, to the verb wrote ; 
 wrote is a verb active, indicative mood, imperfect tense, 
 third person singular; the, an article definite; book is a 
 common substantive, because it 1s a common name for all 
 books, objective case by the active verb wrote. ‘The ob- 
 jective follows the verb active, or the preposition, and 
 answers to the question what, after the verb; as, ‘“* What 
 did Cicero write?’ ‘The answer is, “ A bock.” 
 
 * James* loves Maria.” 
 
 James is a proper name, nominative case to the active 
 verb loves, third person singular. Loves is a transitive 
 verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person singular, 
 and agrees with its nominative case James. [Vide 
 Rule L.] Maria is also a proper name, third person sin- 
 
 * By taking the s from the verb, it renders it plural, except in the first per- 
 von singular, viz., ‘‘ J love, [hate.”” On the contrary by adding the s, it makes 
 the verb singular: “ he receives, he loves, he hates.” The verb is always said 
 to be of the same person with the nominative case. 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 8] 
 
 gular, objective case by the active verb loves. [See 
 Rule 11.] 
 “ Manchester is thirty-six miles from Liverpool.” 
 
 The grammatical arrangement of the sentence is thus: 
 “Manchester is, in distance, about the space of thirty-six 
 miles from Liverpool.” Manchester is a proper name, 
 nominative to the neuter verb is. Distance, a common 
 substantive, objective case by the preposition in. Thirty- 
 six is a numeral adjective, giving quality to miles. Miles 
 is asubstantive common, objective case, by the preposi- 
 tion of. [See Rule 17.] From isa preposition. Liver- 
 pool, a proper name, objective by the preposition from, 
 third person singular. 
 
 Upon the inspection of the first arrangement of the 
 sentence, it might appear that miles is the nominative case 
 coming after the neuter verb és, according to the observa- 
 tion on the neuter verb, which says, “ that neuter verbs 
 admit the same case after them as that which precedes 
 them; buat here it cannot be admitted, for Manchester 
 is not miles, therefore it cannot be put in apposition with 
 miles. When it is said, “ Paul was an apostle; John isa 
 poet;” the substantives after the verb neuter are put to 
 explain the nominative cases, (i.e.) Paul and John. But 
 this is not applicable to miles, for miles and Manchester 
 have no relation to each other*. 
 
 “<4 calf becomes an ox ;” or, “A calf grows to be an ox.” 
 
 “ As the action or process of growth is simply confined 
 to the agent, ox cannot be the obj ective case, because or 
 “igs not the object of the verb becomes; it is only the ealf 
 that grows larger and to a greater state of perfection.” 
 
 “ Plautus was accounted a poet;” or, “ Plautus was said to 
 be a poet.” 
 Here poet is put to explain what Plautus was, and an- 
 
 + The substantive after a verb neuter, or passive, when it is said that such 
 a thing zs, or is made, or thought, or called such another thing ; or when the 
 substantive after the verb is spoken of the same thing, or person, with the sub- 
 stantive before the verb: as, “‘A calf becomes an ox;” ‘‘ Plautus was ac- 
 counted a poet;” “Iam he.” Here the latter substantive may be said to 
 agree in case with the former.”—Dr. Lowth. . 
 
82 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 swers to the rule of apposition, viz., one noun put.to. ex- 
 plain another more fully. Again, “J am he,” viz., “f 
 am the man.’ In all these examples the nominative case 
 follows the neuter verb. Poet, ox, and fe are all nomina- 
 tives, as are also calf, Plautus, and Z, It is only when,an 
 action is directed to an object through the medium of the 
 verb, or the preposition, that the substantive that follows 
 the verb, or the preposition, is called the objective case.* 
 
 ‘“‘ Let thee and I my fair one dwell.”,—Prior. 
 The pronoun. I should be me ; Jet is an active verb, and 
 governs thee in the objective. ‘‘Conjunctions connect 
 the same cases,” &c.—[ Vide rule 18th, ] 
 
 “ Fierce as he moved, his silver shafts resound.” 
 
 It should be resounded. By rule 22 all the parts of a 
 sentence should correspond. The verb or passive parti- 
 ciple moved is the imperfect tense, third person singular ; 
 resound is the present tense, which should be in the im- 
 perfect tense, to make it correspond to moved, viz., “ His 
 silver shafts resounded as he swiftly moved.” 
 
 “O liberty, thou goddess heavenly bright !”—Anvp1son. - 
 
 The termination /y being a contraction of like, ex- 
 presses similitude, or manner, and being added to nouns, 
 forms adjectives; and, added to adjectives, forms adverbs ; 
 but adverbs expressing similitude, or manner, cannot be 
 so formed from nouns; the few adverbs that are so formed 
 have a very different import; as, daily, yearly, viz., day 
 by day, year by year. 
 
 “You are a much greater loser than me by his death.” 
 
 The pronoun me should be J, seerule 18th, that is, than 
 Fam. Read it as it stands, it would be, than me am, 
 which is improper. 
 
 ‘“« And their eyes were opened, and they knew him, and he 
 vanished out of their sight.” 
 And, A conjunction copulative. 
 
 * Passive verbs which signify naming, and some neuter verbs have a nomi- 
 native case after them, as, ‘‘ He shall be called John; ‘‘ He became the 
 
 slave of irregular pagans 7? ** Stephen died a ‘martyr fot the Christian re- 
 ligion.” 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 83 
 
 Their, A possessive adjective pronoun, third person 
 plural, 
 
 Eyes, A substantive common, third person plural, no- 
 minative case to the verbs were opened. 
 
 Were, An auxiliary verb to opened, and is an inflection 
 of the verb to be. 
 
 Opened, A passive verb, or participle, having eyes for its 
 nominative case, indicative mood, imperfect 
 tense, third person plural. 
 
 And, A conjunction copulative. 
 
 They, A personal pronoun, third person plural, no- 
 minative case to the verb knew. 
 
 Knew,  Anactive verb, indicative mood imperfect tense, 
 third person plural. 
 
 Him, A pronoun, third person singular, objective 
 case by the active verb knew. 
 
 And, A conjunction copulative. 
 
 He, A pronoun personal, third personsingular, mas- 
 
 culine gender, nominative case to the verb 
 vanished. 
 
 Vanished, A verb or participle, (for a participle is a cer- 
 tain form of the verb,) indicative mood, im- 
 perfect tense, third person singular. 
 
 Oui, An adverb. 
 
 Of, A sign of the possessive case. 
 Their, A. possessive adjective, pronoun, third person 
 . plural. - 
 
 Sight, | A common substantive, third person singular, 
 denoting the genitive case. 
 “ And if Christ be in you the body is dead, because of sin ; 
 but the spirit is life, because of righteousness.” 
 
 And Conjunctions copulative. (Zf implies con- 
 
 if ditionality, and limits the sense.) 
 
 Christ, A substantive proper, third person singular, 
 nominative case to the neuter verb be. 
 
 Be, An irregular defective verb, subjunctive 
 
 mood, present tense, third person singular, 
 agreeing with its nominative case Christ. 
 
Dead, 
 
 Because 
 
 Of 
 Sin, 
 
 But 
 
 Life, 
 
 Because 
 Of* 
 
 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 A preposition. 
 
 A pronoun, second person singular, objec- 
 tive case. by the preposition in. (Repeat 
 the: Rule.) 
 
 An article definite. 
 
 Is a substantive common, third person sin- 
 gular, nominative case to the verb is. 
 
 A verb neuter, indicative mood, present 
 tense, third person singular, having Body 
 for its nominative case. 
 
 An adjective, giving qualityto body. (Dead 
 cannot be compared.) 
 
 Is a conjunction copulative. 
 
 Is a preposition. 
 
 A substantive, third person singular, ohjec- 
 tive case by the preposition of. [Vide 
 Rule, 17. ] 
 
 Is a conjunction (and sometimes answers to 
 except) and is used to introduce the minor 
 
 of a syllogism. 
 
 Is anarticle definite. 
 
 Isa common substantive, third person sin- 
 gular, nominative case to the verb és. 
 
 A neuter verb (here it is the principal verb 
 itself, because it is not connected to any 
 other verb) indicative mood, present tense, 
 third person singular, agreeing with Spirit 
 for its nominative case. 
 
 A substantive common, third person singu- 
 lar, nominative case coming after the neu- 
 ter verb is, and put in apposition with 
 spirit to explain it more fully, in accor- 
 dance with, “ when one noun is put to ex- 
 plain another more fully,” they are said 
 to be in apposition. 
 
 _Is a conjunction copulative. 
 Is a preposition. 
 
 - * The-particle of does not always:govern the objective case, it is very fre- 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 85 
 
 Righteousness, A common substantive, third persén sin- 
 gular, objective case, governed by the - 
 preposition of. (Here repeat the Rule.) 
 
 ** Dread o'er the scene the ghost of Hamlet stalks ; 
 Othello rages ; poor Monimia mourns ; 
 And Belvedira pours her soul in love.” 
 Dread, An adjective, giving quality to ghost, (i. e.) “The 
 _. dread ghost of Hamlet stalks o’er the scene.” 
 
 O’er, A preposition, and is put here for over*. 
 
 The,—An article definite. 
 
 Ghost,—A_ substantive common, ‘third person singular, 
 nominative case to the verb stalks. 
 
 Of,—A preposition. 
 
 Hamlet,—A substantive proper, third person singular, ob- 
 jective case by the preposition of. 
 
 Stalks,—A neuter verb, indicative mood, present tense, 
 third person singular, having Hamlet for itsnom- 
 inative case 
 
 Othello, —A onietautive proper, third person singular nomi- 
 native case to the verb rages. 
 
 Rages,—A neuter verb, indicative mood, present tense, 
 third person singular. 
 
 Poor,—An adjective, positive state, giving quality to 
 Monimia. (Let the student compare it. s. 
 Monimia,—A proper susbtantive, third person singular, 
 
 nominative case to the verb mourns. 
 
 Mourns,—A verb neuter (because the action is intransi- 
 tive, or does not pass to any object), indicative 
 mood, perfect tense, third person singular. 
 
 And,—A conjunction copulative. 
 
 quently the sign of the genitive case : as, ‘‘ The laws ofthe commons ;” ‘‘The 
 rights of the people ;” ‘‘ The righteousness of the men ;” ‘* The liberty of the 
 nation,” &c. But when a verb or adjective precedes of, it is then a preposi- 
 tion, and governs an objective case: as, ‘I heard of him ;’ ‘‘ Hach of the 
 eden? &e. ; 
 
 * The » is cut off orleft out by a figure in grammar called syncope. BINS Saf 
 cuts off a letter at the end of a word ; as, th’ for the.—Apheresis cuts off a let- 
 ter at the beginning of a word; as, locust for against. The use of these 
 figures of grammar is only allowable in poetry, in order to make one syllable 
 of two, to suit the measure of verse. 
 
 Hi 
 
86 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 Belvedira,—A proper substantive, third person singular, 
 nominative case to the verb pours. 
 
 Pours,—A verb active, indicative mood, present. tense, 
 third person singular. 
 
 Her, -A possessive pronominal adjective, feminine gen- 
 der, third person singular. 
 
 Soul,—A. substantive common, third person singular, ob- 
 jective case by the active verb pours. {Rule 11.] 
 
 in,—A preposition. 
 
 Love,—A common substantive, third person singular, ob- 
 jective case by the preposition in. 
 
 “The spirit itself beareth witness with our spirits, that we 
 are the children of God.”—Rom. viii. 16. 
 
 The,—Definite article. 
 
 Spirit,—A common substantive, third person singular, 
 nominative or subject to the verb beareth. 
 
 Itself,—A reciprocal* pronoun, in the same case with 
 spirit. 
 
 Bear eth,—A_ verb active, indicative mood, present tense, 
 third person singular; andis made deareth, be- 
 cause it is used in the solemn style. 
 
 Witness,—A_ substantive, third person singular, objective 
 case by the active verb beareth. 
 
 With,—A preposition. 
 
 Our,—A possessive adjective pronoun, first person plural. 
 
 Spirits,—A common substantive, plural, objective case. 
 by the preposition with. | 
 
 That,—A conjunction, (because it cannot be changed into 
 who or which and retain the sense). 
 
 We,—A pronoun, first person plural, nominative case to 
 the neuter verb are. 
 
 Are,—A verb, indicative mood, present tense first person 
 plural, agreeing with its nominative we. 
 
 The,—An article definite. 
 
 Children,—A substantive, third person plural, nominative 
 
 * Himself is called reciprocal, because it may be either nominative or ob- 
 jective: as, ‘ He himself did it; “I gave the book to himself.” 
 
4 
 - 
 
 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 87 
 
 ease coming after the neuter verb are, which ex- 
 plains we more fully. 
 
 Of,—A preposition. 
 
 God, —A substantive proper, determinate, appropriate, and 
 in the most ample acceptation, is only applica- 
 ble to the Divine Being, and may be termed the 
 possessive case by the particle of, and by trans- 
 position it would be the possessive also: as, 
 “God’s children;” is the same as ‘¢ The chil- 
 
 ' dren of God.‘ 
 
 “ Thee I revisit safe, 
 And feel thy sovereign vital lamp; but thou 
 Revisitest not these eyes, that rollin vain 
 To find thy piercing ray, and find no dawn, 
 Se thick a drop serene hath quenched their orbs, 
 Or, dim suffusion veiled.’—Mitto0N. 
 
 Thee,—A pronoun, second person singular, objective case 
 by the active verb revisit. 
 
 i,—A pronoun, first person singular, nominative case to 
 the verb revisit. 
 
 Safe—{Put here for safely).—An adverb, but when added 
 
 _ to a substantive, is an adjective. 
 
 And,—A conjunction. 
 
 Feel,—A verb active, indicative mood, present tense, first 
 person singular, having JZ, understood, for its 
 nominative. 
 
 Thy,—A. possessive adjective pronoun, second person 
 
 singular. 
 
 Sovereign, Adj ectives, both giving quality to lamp. Vi- 
 
 Vital, ae is the positive state- 
 
 But*,—A conjunction disjunctive, or indefinite 
 
 Thou,—-A pronoun, singular number, second person, nomi- 
 native to the verb revisitest. 
 
 Revisitest,—A. verb active, indicative mood, present tense, 
 
 * In the phrase ‘* He took all dué¢ these ;” dwt has more the true meaning of 
 a preposition than a conjunction, and plainly signifies except, 
 
 Than, in some instances, signifies besides: as, ‘* He had no more than one, 
 i, e. ‘* beszdes one.” 
 
88 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 second person singular, agreeing with thou for 
 its nominative case. 
 
 Not,—An adverb of negation. 
 
 These,—-A demonstrative pronoun. 
 
 Eyes,—A substantive common, third person tay objec- 
 tive case by the verb revisitest. 
 
 That,—-A relative pronoun, has. for its antecedent eyes, 
 nominative case, third person plural. 
 
 Roll,—A_ verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, 
 third person plural. (In accordance with the — 
 rule, the relative is of the same person with the 
 antecedent, and the verb agrees with the antece- 
 dent accordingly.) 
 
 In,—A_ preposition, 
 
 Vain,—May be made an adjective tne for a substan- 
 tive ; or, by ellipsis, the word way may be sup- 
 plied: as, “In avain way;” then vain is an ad- 
 jective giving quality to way. 
 
 To,—A sign of the infinitive mood, and when it precedes 
 a eaeb takes the nature of an adverb. 
 
 Find,—A verb active, infinitive mood, present tense, hav- 
 ing neither number, nor person, nor nominative 
 case, and is governed by the verb roll ; as ‘‘ These 
 eyes rolled to find*. 
 
 Thy,—A Pronominal possessive adjective, second person 
 singular. 
 
 Piercinecck participial adjective. 
 
 Ray,—A substantive common, third person singular, ob- 
 jective case by the verb jind. 
 
 * Verbs which have commonly other verbs following them in the infinitive 
 mood, without the sign Zo, are bid, dare, not, need, make, see, hear, feel ; and 
 also, let, not used as an auxiliary, and perhaps a few others: as, “I bad him 
 do it;” ‘* Ye dare not do it ;” ‘‘I saw him do it;” ‘*I heard him say it;” 
 “ Thou lettest him go.” 
 
 The infinitive mood is improperly used in the following sentences: ‘‘I have 
 observed satirists fo use ;”? should be “‘ who use.” ‘* To see so many to make 
 s0 little ;’’? shonld be *‘ who make :” ‘‘ It is delightful to see a young person to 
 acquit himself gloriously, ¢o hold out against temptation, and /o reject all the 
 vanities of the world ;’’ should be ‘* who acquits, who holds, and whe rejects :” 
 
 ‘« That all our doings may be ordered by thy governance, to do aiways what is 
 righteous ;” should be ‘‘ that we may do what is righteous.” 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. sain, San 
 
 And,—A. conjunction copulative. 
 
 #ind,— An active verb, third person plural, having they for 
 its nominative case, understood; thus, “ And they 
 find no dawn.” 
 
 WVo,—A negative adjective. 
 
 Dawn,—A_ substantive common, third person singular, 
 objective case by the active verb find. [Rule 11.] 
 
 So,—Aun adverb. 
 
 Thick,—An adjective, giving quality to drop. 
 
 A,—An article indefinite. 
 
 Drop,—A common substantive, third person singular, 
 nominative to the verbs hath quenched. 
 
 Aath,—An auxiliary active verb to quenched. 
 
 Quenched,—T he whole verbs active hath quenched, indica- 
 tive mood, perfect tense, third person singular. 
 
 Their,—A possessive pronoun, third person plural. 
 
 Orbs,—A substantive common, third person plural, ob- 
 jective case by the participle quenched. 
 
 Or,—A conjunction disjunctive. 
 
 Dim,—An adjective, positive state. 
 
 Suffusion,—A substantive common, third person singular, 
 nominative case to the verb veiled. 
 
 Veiled,—A. verb active, indicative mood, perfect tense, 
 third, person singular having them or eyes for its 
 object understood. (i e.) hath veiled. 
 
 ** Let me die the death of the righteous. that my latter end 
 may be like his.” 
 
 Let, —An auxiliary verb to die. 
 
 Me,—-A. pronoun, objective case by the verb Jet, first per- 
 son singular, 
 
 Die,—Imperative mood, present tense. 
 
 The,—An article, 
 
 Death,—(in the position it stands is a substantive, but here 
 it has the same signification as the verb that pre- 
 cedes it, that is die. If it be allowed to be asub- 
 stantive it has no governing word. The accep- 
 tation of it is notany particular mode of suffer- 
 ing. or deprivation of life; it referssolely to the 
 
90 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 feelings, prospects, and hopes of the righteous 
 at the hour of dissolution. Thus, ‘Do thou 
 let me die with the same bright prospects and 
 hopes that the righteous possess, that my laiter 
 end may be like his;” or, “Let. me die in the 
 same manner, i.e. with the same feelings of 
 mind.” The neuter verb die cannot be made to 
 govern death, for it is an intransitive verb.) 
 
 Of,—Is a preposition. 
 
 The,—An article, agreeing with righteous people under- 
 stood. 
 
 Righiteous,—A adjective, standing for a substantive, and 
 refers to. people, objective case by the ae 
 tion of. 
 
 That,—A conjunction, because it cannot be changed into 
 who or which, and make sense. 
 
 My,—A possessive adjective pronoun. 
 
 Laiter,—An adjective that does not admit of comparison. 
 
 Eind,—A substantive, third person singular, nominative 
 case tu the neuter verbs may be. 3 
 
 May,—An auxiliary neuter verb. 
 
 Be,—The principal verb neuter, potential mood, present 
 tense, third person singular, 
 
 Like,—An adjective, giving naialins to end, unlarstood*: 
 
 His,—A possessive pronoun, masculine gender, third per- 
 son singular. 
 
 “God, from the mount of Sinai, whose grey top 
 Shall tremble, he descending, will himself 
 . In thunder, eee and loud tr saul nd Ss sound, 
 Ordain them laws.”’ 
 God,—A substantive proper, third person singular, nomi- 
 native case to the verb will ordain. 
 From,—A preposition. 
 The,—An article definite. 
 
 * Some grammarians would make ‘ may 6¢ like’ all one verb, and introduce 
 the preposition to by ellipsis i. e. to hig end, understood, in the objective ease.. 
 Perbaps this mode is more analogieal. 
 
 S 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. Oo} 
 
 Mount,--A substantive proper, third person singular, 
 objective case by the preposition from. 
 
 Of,—A preposition, or particle of possession. 
 
 Sinai,_A substantive proper third person singular, pos- 
 sessive case; [or Sinai’s mount]. 
 
 W hose,—A. proniminal possessive pe aa 
 
 Grey,-—An adjective. 
 
 Top,—A substantive proper, third person singular, nomi- 
 native case to the verb shall tremble. 
 
 Shall,—An auxiliary verb to tremble. 
 
 Tremble,—An intransitive neuter verb, indicative mood, 
 first future tense, third person singular. . 
 
 He,—A personal pronoun, third person aitienlar: 
 
 Descending,— A present participle, case aisldie: and in 
 accordance with the gerund in Latin. 
 
 Wiil,—An auxiliary verb to ordain. 
 
 Himself,—A pronoun reciprocal, nominative case, putin 
 apposition with God, in the same case, to render 
 the sense more emphatical. 
 
 —A preposition. 
 
 Thunder,—A substantive common, third person singular, 
 objective case by the preposition in. 
 
 Lightening,—A. common substantive, third person singu- 
 
 | lar, objective case by the preposition in under- 
 
 > stood, 
 
 And,—A conjunction copulative. 
 
 Loud,— Anadjective positive state, giving quality to sound, 
 
 Trnmpet’s, —A substantive, possessive case. 
 
 Seund,—A substantive common, third person singular, ob- 
 
 jective case by the preposition in, understood. ; 
 thus, “and in the loud sound of the trumpet;” 
 ‘also vide rule 18th. 
 
 Ordain,—A verb active, indicative mood, first future tense, 
 third person singular, and has God for its nomi- 
 native case. 
 
 Them,——A. pronoun, third person plural, abieoteee case by 
 the preposition for, understood, viz., “he will 
 ordain laws for them.” 
 
92 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 Laws,-—A substantive, third person plural, objective case 
 by the active verb ordain. 
 
 “ 4il our ambition death defeats, but one, 
 And that it crowns. Here cease we; but ere long 
 More powerful proof shall take the field against thee, 
 Stronger than death, and smiling at the tomb.” 
 
 All,—A numeral adjective. 
 
 Our,—A pronominal possessive adjective. 
 
 Ambition,—A. common substantive, third person singular 
 objective case by the active verb defeats ;—(here 
 repeat the rule.) 
 
 Death,_A common substantive, third person singular, 
 nominative case to the verb defeats. 
 
 Defeats,—A verb active, indicative mood, present tense, 
 third person singular, agreeing with. its nomina- 
 tive case death. 
 
 But,—A conjunction. 
 
 One,*— A numeral adjective pronoun, and has relation to 
 ambition, third person singular, (i. e.) does not 
 defeat that one ambition. 
 
 And,—A conjunction copulative. 
 
 That,—A pronoun demonstrative, thus, “and that one 
 ambition it crowns, viz., immortality ;” or, ‘it 
 crowns that one ambition.” " 
 
 Zt,—A relative (neuter pronoun) to death, third person 
 singular, nominative case to the verb crowns. 
 
 Crowns,—-An active verb, indicative present tense, third 
 person singular, agreeing with its nominative 
 case crowns, (i. e.) “it crowns that one ambition, 
 —our immortality. 
 
 Here,—An adverb of place. 
 
 Cease, A verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, 
 third person singular, agreeing with its nomina- 
 tive case we. 
 
 
 
 * Some grammarians would make one a relative pronoun. The order of the 
 sentence is thus, ‘* Death defeats all our ambitions, but one ambition ;” hence, 
 one is a pronominal adjective pronoun, pointing to amhition. 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 93 
 
 We,—A pronoun, first person plural, nominative to the 
 ’ verb cease, viz., ‘* we cease here.” 
 
 But,—A. conjunction. 
 
 re long,—A compound adverb of time. 
 
 More,—An adverb of quantity. 
 
 Powerful,—An adjective, comparative degree. 
 
 Proof,—A common substantive, third person singular, no- 
 
 | minative case to the verb shall take. 
 
 Shall,—An auxiliary. or helping verb to take. 
 
 Take,—An active verb, indicative mood, first future tense, 
 third person singular, having proof for its no- 
 
 - . minative case. 
 
 The,—-An article definite. 
 
 Field,—A common substantive, third person singular, ob- 
 jective case by the verbs shall take. 
 
 aplienge: —A preposition. 
 
 Thee,—A pronoun, third person singular, objective case 
 governed by the preposition against. 
 
 Stronger,—An adjective, comparative degree. 
 
 Than,—A conjunction, used in comparison. 
 
 Death,—A common substantive, third person singular, no- 
 minative case to the verb is, understood by the 
 rule of ellipsis. 
 
 And,—A. conjunction. 
 
 Smiling,— A present participle of the verb smile. 
 
 t,—A preposition. 
 
 The,—The definite article. 
 
 Tomb,—A. common substantive, third person singular, ob- 
 jective case governed by the preposition at. 
 
 NOTE.—The learner should be well practised in the conjugations of the 
 verbs, and the declensions of the pronouns. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING IS A LIST OF ADVERBS. 
 
 1. Of number ; as, ‘“ Once, twice, thrice,” &c. 
 
 2. Of order; as, “First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, 
 fifthly, lastly, finally,” &c. 
 
 3. Of place: as, “ Whither, hither, thither, herein, here, 
 there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, nowhere, 
 upward, downward, backward, forward, hence, whence, 
 thence, whithersoever,” &c. 
 
04 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 A, Of time present: as, “ Now, to-day,” &c. 
 
 Of time past; as, ‘Heretofore, hitherto, long ago, 
 long since, already, before, lately, yesterday,” &c. 
 
 Of time to come: as, “ Not yet, hereafter, to-morrow, 
 instantly, presently, by and by, henceforward, henceforth, 
 straightways, immediately,” Xe. 
 
 Of time indefinite: ‘« Again, never, ever, yearly, always, 
 when, then, oft, often, oft-times, often-times, sometimes, 
 soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly,” &c. 
 
 5. Of quantity : as, “Enough, abundantly, how great, 
 much, little sufficiently, how,” &c. 
 
 6. Of manner or quality: as, Slowly, quickly, wisely, 
 foolishly, justly, unjustly, badly, cheerfully, ably, ad- 
 mirably.” 
 
 7. Of doubt: as, ““Peradventure, perhaps, perchance, 
 possibility,” &c. 
 
 8. Of affirmation: as, “Yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, 
 verily, truly undoubtedly, doubtless,” &c. 
 
 9. Of negation: as, Not, no, nay, in no wise, not at all. 
 
 10. Of interrogation: as, “ How, why whether, where- 
 fore,” &ce. . 
 
 11. Of comparison : as, “ Better, best, worse, worst, less, 
 least, more, most, very, almost, little, alike,” &c. 
 
 A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL CONJUNCTIONS. 
 The Copulative. If, that, then, both, and, since, for, 
 because, therefore, wherefore. | 
 The Disjunctive. But, unless, either, neither, yet, nor, 
 or, as, than, lest, though.* 
 
 EXERCISES _ 
 
 OF DISCORDS IN SYNTAX WHICH THE STUDENT IS TO 
 CORRECT FOR IMPROVEMENT. 
 
 I loves she. We receives they. Me hates they. 
 
 Thou love he. Ye loves we. Thee love ye. 
 
 He love J. They hates we. Him receives he. 
 
 * The adverbs and conjunctions have been arranged after the examples in 
 parsing, that the student may with facility refer to them in cases of doubt 
 with respect to the species of either. 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 935 
 
 Of the singular and plural number of the verb to be. 
 
 I are. We am. I were. We was. 
 Thou ts. Ye, oryouis. Thouwere. Yewas. 
 He are. They art. They wert. They wast. 
 
 The learner will observe, that am, art, and ¢s are used 
 after pronouns of the singular number, ‘and that are 
 and were are put after nouns and pronouns of the plural 
 number, as, lam, thou art, heis, we are, ye, or you are, 
 they are. The imperfect tense ‘thus, I was, thou wast, he 
 was, we were, ye, or you were, they were,—[ See conjuga- 
 tion of the verb at large. 
 
 Lhas spoke, thou have spoke, he hast spoke ; we ‘hadst 
 taught, ye had taught, they hadst taught; I studies, thou 
 studieth, he study. 
 
 Boys that delights to obey the laws of God is found ca- 
 pable to receive every good and ‘perfect gift, human as 
 well as divine. 
 
 The heavens declares the glory of ‘God, and the firma- 
 ment shew forth his handy work. Day after day utter 
 speeches, and night unto night shew knowledge. 
 
 When your youthful otiénts glides away without im- 
 proving in virtue and knowledge, rational existence, and 
 Le very end of your creation is lost. 
 
 ' Those commands’that enjoins you to honour your ‘pa- 
 rents, also requires you above all things'to fear and loves 
 God. : } 
 
 The diamonds derives their lustres and value from the 
 hands ‘of the lapidary; the marble owe its veins and spots 
 of beauty to the sculptor. 
 
 So do the philosophers owe their rite i to those 
 mines of learning, which lies deep in the chambers of 
 science, which adustey have found. 
 
 If treasures of knowledge is superior to gold and silver, 
 it shouldst be your chief study to begin a stock of wisdom, 
 lest you turneth bankrupt, when old age draw his bills of 
 science upon you. 
 
 For those children which waste their precious hours on 
 the pleasures ofa rattle, or the vain imagery of folly and 
 
96 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 disobedience, is to expect bitterness of soul até a period 
 when there are no redress. 
 
 Solomon, on’ Mount Gibeon, in the presence of. his 
 God, preferedst wisdom before any earthly honour or at- 
 tainment. He have directed us, “to go to the ant, and 
 considereth her ways and be wise.” 
 
 Therefore, unless the the hours of youth is devoted 
 industriously to the pursuit of virtue; unless the human 
 soul is laid open to her fair impressions in your early days, 
 vice, that subtle spy, will soon doliest the door. against 
 you, perhaps for ever, 
 
 Providest these things art carefully attended to, youth 
 mayest, glide along the smooth expanse of wisdom’s, crys- 
 tal stream and dive to beds of pearls. 
 
 Revere old age, for in it are found the maxims of pure 
 wisdom, from whom may be drawn rules for a happy life. 
 Elisha’s bears holdeth out to children, the judgment that 
 follows those that mocks at hoary hairs. | 
 
 Tenderness to birds, beasts, and all living creatures‘ ¢ are 
 a noble sensation in the soul ; for we art taught to know, 
 ‘‘that the beetle on whom we treadest feel as much, in 
 corporal sufferance, as when a giant or a little boy 
 die.” 
 
 Lies is as abominable as the father of them; crimes is 
 often committed on the score of hiding or glossing them 
 over with a falsehood ; any one, therefore, capable of tell- 
 ing lies are qualified for every vice. 
 
 Truth art like an ornament of gold about your neck ; 
 this great quality raised Cato’s fame in Rome so high, 
 that though it was a law, that no less than two persons 
 conldst make a witness in their councils, his testimony 
 alone were sufficient. 
 
 Taking God’s holy name in vain, are to be strictly 
 avoided, for we art commanded not to swear by even the 
 earth, for it are his footstool, nor by heaven, for it are 
 his throne; nor by the seas, for they art the Lord’s, and 
 the fulness thereof. ! 
 
 But when shalt wisdom be found, and where aré the 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 97 
 
 place of understanding? men knows not the prices thereof, 
 neither are it found in the Jands_of the living. 
 
 The depth say, it are notin me, and. the sea say, it, be 
 not with me. It cannot deest got for gold, neither shalt 
 silver be weighed for the price thereof, it cannot be val- 
  lued’st with the gold of Ophir. 
 
 With the precious Onyx or the Sapphire, the gold and 
 the chrystal, and the exchange of it shall not be for jewels 
 of fine gold. No mention shalt be made of :coral or of 
 pearls, for the price of wisdom are’above rubies. 
 
 The topaz of Ethiopia are not equal to it, neither shaié 
 it be valued with pure gold. Whence then comest wis- 
 dom? and where art the place of understanding? seeing 
 it be hid from the eye of all living. 
 
 Destruction and death saith, we hast heard. the fame 
 thereof with our ear. God understandest the way thereof, 
 and he know the place thereof, for he look to the ends of 
 the earth, and see under the whole heaven. 
 
 When he madest a sluice for the.rain, and a ways for 
 the lightning of thunder, then didst he see it and declares 
 it, he preparedsé it, and search it out.—And unto men he 
 saidst, behold!.the fear of the Lord, that art wisdom, 
 and to depariest from evil are understanding. 
 
 Education and good morals is the greatest ornaments 
 that adorns the human soul; yet most people seems to 
 overlook those invaluable accomplishments that raises us 
 one above another. 
 
 Grammar with oratory, was* the chief study of the 
 Spartan, commonwealth; the former of these didst in- 
 struct. their children in the excellence of the Greek. lan- 
 guage, while the latter madest them great.and sublime 
 speakers. 
 
 «Virtue and morality was the ae datia las which the 
 doctrines of their schools inculeatedst, and was the fruits 
 that flowed from them, as such orators was capable of 
 moving the passions, and raising 7é to a flame by attic fire. 
 
 <* What was the chief study of the Spartans? The answer is, Grammar 
 and oratory :—the verb should be were. 
 
 I 
 
98 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 Children, therefore, through a pure knowledge of the 
 English grammar, assisted by elocution mayest have equal 
 powers, (merely confined to this language,) over the pas- 
 sions and affections of their auditors, and who doubt, to 
 see an English temple shining with as precious stones as 
 the Athenian one. : 
 
 Religion or theology, are the chief corner ‘stones, 
 on which the principles of all education should be laid: 
 any other foundation aré but as sand on whom no goodly 
 structure can be raised. 
 
 Knowledge separated from those things, tho’ in the rich- 
 est dress, art only tinselled vice, for the knowledge of 
 God should be the first impression on the mind, and as 
 Tertullian observes, “« The first vesture of the soul,” and 
 if thou seek him, thou shail find him. 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF FALSE CONCORDS OR DISCORDS. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. I loves, thou hateth, he love, we writes, ye writes, 
 they readeth, I reads, thou reads, I were studying, thou 
 was writing, he wert reading, we art speaking, ye 7s think- 
 ing, they és talking. 
 
 2. Limproves, He improve, we bbapeanehe ye corrects, he 
 correct, I learneth, thou learns, he learn. 
 
 EXERCISES OF WORDS PRONOUNCED ALIKE, BUT SPELLED 
 DIFFERENTLY. 
 
 a> To exercise the pupil, a number of which should be 
 given out at certain times by the master, and examined the day 
 following, to see if the words peculiar to the sense be cor- 
 
 rectly spelled. 
 
 Ore the pleasant seas of science, which roll like golden 
 oar, tis necessary to take the labouring o’er to gain the 
 wonted haven. 
 
 Let us in pares, go to yonder fruit-garden, where pairs 
 grow in abundance, which Robert often pears with his 
 Sisley 
 
 Fane would I raise a feign.on yonder tower, for which 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 99 
 
 i hope you do not think I fain to honour Nelson’s bust 
 and name. 
 
 I will ste you to view with your cite the beauyitull sight 
 of Donoughmore. 
 
 On the weigh, I met a way of wheat, which I proposed 
 to wey as well as measure. 
 
 I took my corse, through a tract course near the sea 
 side, where I found a drowned coarse. 
 
 Let all “* the species firmament on hich,” with all the 
 spacious stars that glow therein, let all the human spe- 
 cious admire. 
 
 Though in immanent danger in battle, let us be immi- 
 ment and exercise those eminent virtues. 
 
 Be ye serous through the serious of years you have to 
 live; for your blood possesses none of that proper series 
 belonging to a person who has to live so long. 
 
 Before I ceil mine eyes, I shall sealthe room, and after 
 I write my letter, I shall seeZ it likewise. 
 
 A caret of gold, is not like a carrot in language, nor 
 yet a carat in the garden. 
 
 The herb century, in this centry, was long protected 
 by a centaury. 
 
 Aisle, go through the isle of Christ’s-church, where I 
 may discover beauties greater than in this JU. 
 
 » The male that carries through this kingdom is useful to 
 mankind: the guards brought with them two Spanish 
 meal sheep, which refused to eat oat mait. 
 
 Heal thou shades of Moore and Nelson! none can hale 
 those wounds out of which thy heroic souls have leap’d 
 to glory. ‘et us, from our triumphal cars, hail all their 
 foes. 
 
 The admiralty. seize it, as the right of war, to take and 
 seas, on the high sees, all ships of the enemy. 
 
 Hue came home from the navy of England, and being 
 long at sea, he is of an iron hew, and purposes to return 
 again to hugh the enemies down. 
 
 Astronomers can meet the heavens, though they meat 
 with very little honour or profit, and often have worse 
 
100 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 mete to live on, than those who could scarce survey # 
 mole-hill.* 
 VULGAR PHRASES. 
 
 Come my chap; now then; pitched upon him; tip him 
 the wink; I was one for him; subject matter ; that’s your 
 sort; full well; self same; handed down; chalked out; 
 pop out: must needs; gotrid of; fall to work; where- 
 withal; quoth he; do away; long-winded ; behest ; be- 
 hoof; (the two latter may be considered obsolete by some 
 writers, but behest is used by Milton, and Mr. Walker has 
 honoured them both witha place in his dictionary ;) topsy 
 turvy; hurly burly; having.amonth’s mind for a thing ; 
 currying for or with a person; dancing attendance on the 
 great, &c. | 
 EXAMPLES. OF TAUTOLOGY. 
 
 N. B.—All the words in italics are redundant. 
 
 As soon as awoke I rose up and dressed myself. 
 
 I leave town in the /atter énd of July. 
 
 We were mutually friendly to each other. 
 
 Ji should ever be your constant study to do good. 
 
 He raised wp his arm to strike me. 
 
 Smoke ascends zp into the clouds. 
 
 We hastily descended down from the mountains. 
 
 We must do this last ef all, hence, therefore, I say. 
 
 I found nobody else but him there. 
 
 Learn from hence to study the scriptures diligently. 
 
 I cannot tell for why he did it. 
 
 Where shall I begin from when I read? 
 
 This was the luckiest accident of all others. 
 
 I ran after him a little way, but soon returned back again, 
 Lift wp. your book and read it all through, 
 He mentioned it over again. 
 
 Raise wp your arm and ‘sige! 
 
 Read this here book. 
 
 * The good sense of the teacher will direct him to proportion a quantity of 
 the above exercises to the capacity.of the pupil, for each evening’s lesson; 
 and when the exercise is presented to the master to be corrected, the student 
 should be taught to conjugate the verbs backwards, i. e. to commence with 
 the third person plural throughout the whole of the moods and tenses. 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 1O1 
 
 He plunged down into the water. 
 Before I do that I must first finish this. 
 I shall say my lesson first of ail. 
 You must return back immediately. 
 IT never fail to read whenever I can gei a book. 
 ‘They both met. 
 Give me both of them books, should be those books. 
 He was in here yesterday when I spoke to him. 
 L saw them éz here yesterday. 
 The latter end of those men shall be peace. 
 I always find I can improve when [ try. 
 This here boy is idle. 
 i could not come zo sooner. 
 
 PROPRIETY. 
 
 Proprieéy in our words and phrases should be observed. 
 We must avoid low expressions, supply words that are 
 wauting, be careful not to use the same word in different ’ 
 senses, avoid the iujudicious use of technical phrases, 
 especially where the company do not understand them ; 
 also, equivocal or ambiguous words, unintelligible ¢x- 
 pressions, and all such ‘words and phrases as are not 
 adapted to our meaning. 
 
 impropriety, a eacblana, and solecism should be carefully 
 guarded against. 
 
 Se eecont iety is the application of some word or phrase 
 used to express some idea or thing to which it has no re- 
 ference: as, ‘“‘ He flies in the water,’, instead of swims. 
 These are for arguments instead of ornaments. 
 
 Barbarism is the using of some word which is not to be 
 found in our language, nor traced to any original lan- 
 guage. [Vide Laneashire dialect, and the various vulgar 
 idioms of the several provinces of Great Britain and 
 Ireland. | 
 
 Solecism is a discord of the verb and nominative case, 
 or the pronoun and. antecedent, or any breach of the rules 
 _ of syntax: as, They doves praise;’’ “ James and John was 
 studious; * These Apple 3? * One ornaments,’ Ke. 
 
 ” 
 
102 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 PRECISION 
 
 Is one of the requisites of perspicuity, and respects 
 words and phrases. It signifies cutting off superfluities, 
 and pruning acter so as to represent an exact copy 
 of the person’s idea who uses it. 
 
 Words thus used may be faulty in three respects. 
 
 1. An author may use words which do not exactly ex- 
 press his idea, but may resemble it. 
 
 2. The-words may express his idea but not fully and 
 completely. 
 
 2. The words may express his idea and something more 
 than he intends. 
 
 But by endeavouring to be too precise, an author may 
 run into the extreme of barrenness of expression, and dry- 
 ness of composition. 
 
 DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN THE MEANING OF WORDS. 
 
 Custom, habit.—Custom respects the action: habit the 
 actor. By custom we mean the frequent repetition of the 
 same act; by habit, the effect which that repetition pro- 
 duces on the mind or body. “By the custom of dram- 
 drinking, one acquires a habit of frequenting public- 
 houses.” | Ley 
 
 Pride and vanity. Pride is the estimation thatwe make 
 of our own worth; vanity is the high opinion that we 
 wish others to entertain of us.’ It has beensaid that some 
 men are too proud to be vain. 
 
 Haughtiness and disdain. Haughtiness proceeds: from 
 the high opinion we have of ourselves; disdain is the low 
 opinion we have ‘of’ others. They ‘are: all children of 
 pride. 
 
 Only and alone. Only imports that there’ is beiti one of 
 the same kind; alone is being without company, or hav- 
 ing no other companion. An only child 1s one that has 
 neither brother nor sister’; a aes alone is one left by 
 itself. 
 
 Wisdom and prudence. Wisdom th ches to .aipea with 
 caution, and to act with prudence 3 prudence prevents our 
 speaking or acting imprudently. 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 103 
 
 Entire and complete. A thing is entire that wants none 
 of its parts; complete, by wanting none of its appendages. 
 
 Surprised, astonished, amazed, and confounded. Yam 
 surprised at what is unexpected or novel; I am astonished 
 at what is prodigious, vast, or great; I am amazed at 
 what is incomprehensible; Lam confounded at what is 
 dreadful or terrible. 
 
 Tranquility, peace, and calm. ‘A good man. has tran- 
 quility in himself; peace in his own mind and with others ; 
 -and calm after a storm, | 
 
 PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY. 
 
 Sentences, in general, should not be very long, nor very 
 “short. Long sentences, unless very clear, keep the 
 mind too much on the stretch, in order to perceive the 
 purport and connexion of the subject. Short ones are 
 apt to break off the sense too suddenly, and yet they may 
 both be used in their proper places. Composition should 
 be so constructed as to render the sentences harmonious; 
 for there is.acertain melody peculiar to prose as well as 
 verse ; and although every good writer has his own style, 
 which is only appropriate to himself, yet he accompanies 
 that style with suitable harmony. 
 There are four things indispensably necessary to an ac- 
 curate and perfect sentence. 
 ») first, clearnesss; 2, utility ;.3, strengths. 4,a judicious 
 use of the figures of speech. 
 
 Purity consists in the selection of such words as are 
 most suitable to the subject, and such constructions as 
 belong to the idiom of the language we speak, avoiding 
 all obsolete, new coined, and harsh words, with a due re- 
 gard to the concords of syntax, 
 
 Propriety of language is the selection of such words as 
 the best usuage of the literati has sanctioned, and appli- 
 cable to give expression to the ideas we mean to convey. 
 To preserve purity, therefore we must avoid low expres- 
 sions, be careful not to use the same word in different 
 senses, avoid the injudicious use of technical phrases, 
 
104 ESSAY ON SYNFAX. 
 
 equivocal or ambiguous words, and all such terms as are 
 not adapted to our meaning. 
 
 1. Clearness, Whatever leaves the mind in any sort of 
 suspense, concerning the design of the author in his sub- 
 ject, should be avoided. Obscurity may arise from a 
 wrong choice of words, a bad or improper arrangement 
 of them, or from the author himself not having a clear 
 view of his subject. To preserve clearness, the verb 
 should. be placed as near to its nominative as the sense 
 will admit; the adjective to its substantive; the relative 
 to its antecedent; and the inferior connecting parts of 
 speech so disposed, as to place each in its relative situa- 
 tion. 
 
 2. Unity. Without this there can be no perfect sen- 
 tence. The principal part of the proposition should be 
 strictly adhered to throughout the sentence. It is true, it 
 may have parts, but each of these parts should have an 
 inseparable relation to the principal subject. Sudden 
 transitions from person to. person, or from subject to sub- 
 ject should be avoided. 
 
 8. Strength is the disposition and management of the 
 several words and members, best calculated to bring out 
 the sense to the greatest advantage, and to give every 
 word and member its due weightand force. Sentences, 
 if possible, should not be concluded with an adverb, a 
 preposition or a monosyllable. 
 
 A. A judicious use of the figures of speech, or figurative 
 language (which is to be met with in all compositions) 
 should be acquired, which, when properly used, enriches, 
 beautifies, and embellishes style, and renders it more co- 
 pious, harmonious, and descriptive. 
 
 Simile. ‘*Go to the butterfly, and the caterpillar will 
 resolve thee: in its first state it is sluggish and located; 
 after its metamorphosis it hecomes a winged seraph, float- 
 ing on the breeze, gorgeous to bebold, light as air, active 
 as the wind, flitting from flower to flower, sipping au- 
 rorean dew, and extracting nectareous essences from aro- 
 _ matic flowers. 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 105 
 
 Of Metaphor. “1 will be unto her a wall of fire round 
 about, and will be the glory in the midst of her.” . “Thou 
 art my rock aud my fortress.” “Thy word isa lamp to 
 my feet, and a light to my path.” 
 
 Of Aniithesis. ‘He has visited all Witipacedot to 
 survey the sumptuousness of palaces, nor the stateliness of 
 temples; not to make accurate measurements of the re- 
 mains of ancient grandeur, nor to form a scale of the cu- 
 riosity of modern art; not to collect medals, or’ collate 
 manuscripts :—but to dive into the depths of dungeons; 
 to plunge into the infection of hospitals; tosurvey the 
 mansions of sorrow and pain; to take the gage and di- 
 mensions of misery, depression, and contempt; to remem- 
 ber the forgotten, to attend the neglected, to visit the 
 forsaken, to compare and collate the distresses of all men, 
 in all countries.” 
 
 RHETORICK 
 
 on simple the art of speaking not merely with propriety, 
 but with art, elegance, and persuasion. It teaches by 
 tropes, figures, &c., the flowers of oratory, and shews the 
 dignity and sublimity of the scriptures, and the high re- 
 verence that is paid to the majesty of God and his ae 
 ous attributes. 
 
 It consists of four ame invention, disposition, elocu- 
 tion, and pronunciation. pare 
 
 Invention is the finding of proper arguments to instruct, 
 persuade, or move the passions, All agreements are 
 grounded on reason, morals, or affections. 
 
 Reason is to inform the judgment, or instruct accord- 
 ing to rational aguments, such as‘are found out by the 
 learning and skill of the orator, and differ according to 
 the nature of the tropes, which are three ; i. e. demonstra- 
 tive, deliberative, and juridical. , 
 
 1. Demonstrative, when we speak to the praise or dis- 
 praise of any person, deed, or thing; or by a train of 
 elucidating arguments, prove the truth or falsity of a 
 proposition, 
 
106 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 2. Deliberative, when to the advantage or disadvantage 
 of any thing, we point out with safety the profit or loss. 
 
 3. Juridical, when we either accuse or defend the va- 
 rious ways and forms of accusation, and the different argu- 
 ments and places of defence, 
 
 Morals are to prove favors, or to persuade adiecisgnes 
 to meye the passions, or to please. 
 
 EXPLANATION OF 
 LOGICAL PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 A proposition is a sentence wherein two, or more ideas 
 or terms are joined or disjoined by one affirmation or ne- 
 gative: as, ‘‘ Plato was a philosopher;” “ Every angle is 
 formed by two.lines meeting ;” “ No man living on earth 
 can be completely happy.” 
 
 There are three things which go to the nature and con- 
 stitution of a proposition, viz., the subject, the predicate, 
 and the copula. 
 
 The subject of a proposition is that concerning which 
 anything is affirmed, or denied ; so Plato, angle, man living 
 on earth, are the subjects of the foregoing propositions. 
 
 The predicate is that which is affirmed or denied of the 
 subject; so philosopher is the predicate of the first pro- 
 position, formed by two right lines meeting is the predi- 
 cate of the second; capable of being completely happy is 
 the proper predicate of the third. 
 
 The subject and predicate of a proposition taken to- 
 gether are called the matter of it; for these are the ma- 
 terials of which it is made. 
 
 The copula is the form of a proposition; it represents 
 the act of the mind affirming or denying, and is expressed 
 by the words am, art, is, are, &¢., or am not, art not, is 
 not, are not, &c. 
 
 A proposition is usuaily denominated aeanative or ne- 
 gative by its copula. 
 
 Where the subject predicate and copula is not each 
 distinctly expressed, yet they are all understood and im- 
 plicitly contained therein: as, “ Socrates disputed,” is a. 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX, 107 
 
 complete proposition, for it signifies that Socrates was 
 disputing ; so / die signifies I am dying, I can write, (i. e.) 
 Tam able to write. 
 
 OF TROPES. 
 
 According to some writers the chief tropes are seven, 
 (and others only four) ; ; viz, metaphor, allegory, metono- 
 my, synecdoche, irony, hyperbole, and catechresis. 
 
 1. A Metaphor, as “He isa pillar of the state;” but 
 when we say, ‘ He upholds the state like a pillar, it isa 
 simile. 
 
 2. An Allegory is a continuation of tropes, or similies. 
 [ Vide the 80th Psalm. ] 
 
 3. Metonomy puts one name for another; “ He reads 
 Horace, for his writings ;” “‘ Hedrank the glass,” viz., the 
 liquor. 
 
 4. Synecdoche, a part for the whole. ‘A genus fora 
 species ;” ‘“‘ Three summers,” i, e. years, “I have lived 
 here.” | 
 
 5. Irony, when we say any thing contrary to what we 
 mean ; ‘“ Heis a good boy,” when we really mean he is a 
 bad one. 
 
 6. Hyperbole soars too high or descends too low, an ex- 
 pression beyond the truth ; as, “ High as heaven ;”* Deep 
 
 as earth.” ce 
 7. Catechresis, impropriety or harsh words used in 
 
 speech; as, “A brass inkhorn;” ‘“ A man midwife;” 
 “ He sails aloft in air,” for ‘ he dies in air.” 
 
 FIGURES.* 
 
 THEY ARE AS FOLLOW: 
 
 1. Personification, inanimate things made to speak, as, 
 «¢ doth not wisdom ery ?” Prov. viii. 1. 
 
 2. Simile, the resemblance that one object bears to an- 
 other, aoe ‘he shall be like a,tree planted by the rivers 
 of res 
 
 3. Antithesis, is a contrasting contrary whisatas to cause 
 
 * From fingo, to fashion. 
 
108 _ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 
 
 them to appear to more advantage; as, “ the wicked flee 
 when no man pursueth, but the righteous are bold as a lion. 
 
 4. Climax, is the gradual rise of a subject, in order to 
 place the circumstances in a stronger light, as, “ who 
 shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall tribula- 
 tion, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness, 
 or peril, or sword? nay,” &c.—Rom. viii. 38, 39. 
 
 5. Exclamation, expresses some strong emotion of the 
 mind, as, “‘ Oh, the depth of the riches both of the wis- 
 dom and knowledge of God !” 
 
 6. Interrogation, expresses the emotion 4; the mind 
 and animates discourse by proposing questions, as, “ Hath 
 the Lord said it? and shall he not do it?” “ Hath he 
 spoken it? and shall he not make it good ?” 
 
 7, Ecphonesis, exclaims, as, “My. God! ! my God! 1 &e., 
 —Matthew xxvil., 46. 
 
 8. Aporia, doubts, as, ‘Whither shall I g0 from wi 
 spirit ?”—Psalm 139, vil. 
 
 9. Epanarthosis, corrects, as, “I Jabour more abun- 
 dantly than they all.”’—1 Cor. xv. 10._. 
 
 10. Aposiopesis, suppression, as, “ Father, save me from 
 this hour.”—Luke xix. 27, 
 
 11. Apophasis, omission, or speaking Poaieallyss as, “fy, 
 Paul, have written it with mine own hand.” 
 
 12. Apostrophe, address, as, ‘ Death is swallowed. up in 
 victory; Oh! Death, where is thy sting?” 
 
 13. Anastrophe, suspeMston, as, ** Now unto him that i is 
 to do exceedingly,” &c. 
 
 14. Erotesis, interrogation, as, 5 «Doth God pervert 
 judgment ?” ral 
 
 15. Prolepsis, Seaerk by a “ faraned objection, as, 
 ‘“* How are the dead raised Matthew Xv. 26, 
 
 16. Synchoresis, concession, as; 34 The branches were 
 broken off.”—Rom. xi. 19. 
 
 17. Metabasis, changing, as, “ Have all the gifts of heal- 
 ing?’ * Do all prophecy ?” 
 
 18. Periphrasis, more words than needs, as, “I go the 
 way of all flesh,” i. e., “I die.” 
 
ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 109 
 
 19. Asyndeton, omission of the copula, and, as, “ Veni, 
 vidi, vinci,’ “1 came, I saw, I conquered.”—Cesar’s 
 letter to the Roman senate. 
 
 20. Polysyndeton, abounding with copulas, as, “I came, 
 and I saw, and I conquered.” 
 
 21. Oxymoran, contradiction, as, “She that liveth in 
 pleasure, is dead while she liveth.”-—Tim. v. 6. 
 
 22. Enantiosis, contraries, as, “* The wise shall inherit 
 glory ; but shame promoteth fools.” 
 
 24. Hypotyposis, representation or lively description.— 
 Job’s war horse, chap. xxxix, 19, 20. 
 
 25. Prosopopa@ia, inanimate things made to speak.— Vide 
 Personification. 
 
 26. Epiphonema, acclamation, as, “Then said the king 
 to his servants, bind him hand and foot.”— Matt. xxix. 13. 
 
 27. Antonomasia, for a name, imparts proper names, as, 
 “The philosopher, i.e., Aristotle, asserted so;” ‘“ The 
 Poet, i.e., Virgil, sings.”-—Eneas, &c. 
 
 28. Onomatopeia, feigning aname, or coinsa word from 
 sound, as, “Flies buzz,” i.e., make a humming noise. 
 _ Tantaras, viz., noise of trumpets. 
 
 > 
 
 OF AN ORATION. 
 
 Orators dispose orations into six divisions: 
 
 1. The exordium or introduction. 2. The narration 
 or relation. 3. The proposition, or subject proposed to 
 be refuted or proved. 4. The confirmation or truth of 
 the proposition proved. 5. The refutation or the dis- 
 proval of charges alleged. 6. ‘The peroration or conclu- 
 sion of the oration.—[ Vide Paul’s defence before Agrip- 
 pa, and Satan’s speech to the rebel hosts.—Milton. | 
 
 The five species of elocution from Longinus: 
 
 First and chief is, a grandeur and sublimity of concep- 
 _tion. 2. That pathetic enthusiasm which at the same 
 time, melts and inflames. 3. Is a certain elegance of for- 
 
 * This word is purely French, and is the same as ordinance. 
 K 
 
110 PROSODY. 
 
 mation and ordonnance* of figures. 4. A splendid dic- 
 tion. 5. Is that which includes in itself all the rest, a 
 weight and dignity in the composition, all which are to 
 be found in Pope’s Essay on Man. 
 
 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 
 
 Prosody teaches the true pronunciation of words com- 
 prising accent, quantity, emphasis; pause, and tone, and me 
 laws of versification. 
 
 Accent is the pronouncing of one syllable in a rl 
 stronger than another; as, surcharge; the stress of the 
 voice is laid upon charge, which takes the aceent. 
 
 Quantity is that time that is occupied in pronouncing a 
 syllable, whether it be long or short; as, controul. 
 
 Emphasis is a greater force laid upon certain words in 
 a sentence, to distinguish and render them more em- 
 phatical. 
 
 Pause is a perceptible cessation of the voice, and may 
 be either total or partial. 
 
 Tone differs both from emphasis and pauses; consist- 
 
 ing of a certain modulation or inflection of the voice, or 
 notes or variations of sound which are employed in ex- 
 pressing sentiments, 
 
 VERSIFICATION. 
 
 Versification is the arrangement of a certain number of 
 syllables, or feet*, according to certain laws 
 
 * Feet are the parts into which a verse is divided ; a syllable is a foot. 
 They are called feet from the resemblance which the movements of the tongue 
 in reading verse, bears to the motion of the feet in walking. 
 
 A line is called a verse, two lines a couplet, and three lines a triplet. In 
 scanning verse, every accented syllable is called long. 
 
PROSODY. li 
 
 Rhyme is the harmonising of the last sound of one 
 werse to the last sound or syllable of another. 
 
 All feet in poetry consist either of two or of three syl- 
 lables, and are reducible to eight sorts; four of two syl- 
 lables, and four of three syllables, ; as follows:— 
 
 Dissyllables. Trissyllables. 
 
 A Trochee. A Dactyle. 
 
 An Jambus. An Amphibrach. 
 A Spondee. An Anapest. 
 
 A Pyrrhic. A Tribrach. 
 
 Trochee has the firsh syllable accented, and the last net 
 accented: as, ‘ Lovely, hatefii. 
 
 An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented and the 
 second accented : as, “ Rétirn, bétray.” 
 
 A Spondee has both the syllables accented: as, “The 
 pale moon.” 
 
 - A Pyrrhic has both the words or ce he He unaccented : 
 as, “ dn thé tall tree.” 
 
 A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and two lat- 
 ter unaccented: as, “ Labdurér, admiral.” 
 
 An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented 
 and the middle one accented; as, “ Dérangemeént, d6- 
 mestic.” 
 
 An Anapest has the two first syllables unaccented s as, 
 “ Contravene, acqiiesce.” 
 
 A Tribrach has all its syllables HMRI as, Ni- 
 mérablé, conquerable.” 
 
 Some of these are, or may be called, Britienal feet ; as 
 pieces of poetry may be wholly, or chiefly, formed of 
 many of them. Such are the iambus, trochee, dactyle, 
 and anapest. ‘The others may be termed secondary feet , 
 because they are principally used to diversify the num- 
 numbers, and improve the verse. 
 
 * Jambic verse may be divided into several species, ac- 
 cording to the number of feet or syllables of which they 
 are composed- 
 
 The feet in most common use are iambic, trochaic, and 
 anapestic. 
 
112 PROSODY. 
 
 Jambic measure is adapted to serious subjects. 
 1. Of four syllables, or two feet; as, 
 ‘With ravished ears 
 Thé monarch hears.” 
 It sometimes has an additional short syllahle's 3 as, 
 «Upon a mountain.’ 
 2. It sometimes has three iambuses, or six syllables ; as, 
 “ Aloft in awfil state.” 
 3. It may have eight syllables, or four iambic feet ; as, 
 “« And may at last my weary age.” 
 
 4, It may, also, have ten syllables, or five heroic feet, 
 called hexameter, or tragic verse ; as, 
 
 ‘“« Thé stars shall fade A4way,—thé sin himself,” &c. 
 
 5. It may consist of six feet, or what is called Alexan- 
 drine; as, 
 
 “ For thee thé land in fragrant flowérs is drest.” 
 
 6. The last form of iambic measure is made up of seven 
 ambuses ; as, 
 
 “Thé Lord déscendéd from above and bowed thé héa- 
 véns high*.” 
 
 Deiphuic verse is of several sorts, the shortest of welch 
 consists of one trochee and a long syllable, and some of 
 two trochees; as, 
 
 “ Tiaimiult cease, On thé. mointain, 
 Sink td peace. By a foiintain. 
 2. Or two trochees, or two feet, with an additional 
 long syllable, 
 “In thé days of old.” 
 3. Of three trochees, and an additional long syllable ; as, 
 “When Sur hearts are mourning.” 
 4. Of four trochees, or eight syllables; as, 
 ‘Round iis soars the tempést loudér 
 
 5. Of six trochees, or twelve syllables; as, 
 
 The dactylic measure is so uncommon, one exam- 
 ple of this species will be sufficient. 
 
 “From the low pleasiires sf this fallén nattire.” 
 
 * This form was anciently written in one line, but it is now written in two. 
 
PROSODY. 113 
 
 Anapestic verses are divided into several species : 
 
 1. Of two anapests, or two and and an unconnected 
 syllable; as, 
 . ; “ But his coairage ’gan fail.” 
 
 2. Of three anapests, or nine syllables; as, 
 
 “OQ, yé woods, spréad yoiir branchés apace.” 
 
 8. Of four anapasts, or twelve syllables. 
 
 ‘May I govérn my passions with absolute sway.” 
 
 The following lines are quoted as an example of the 
 method of scanning English verse : 
 
 Spon. Amph. Dact. Tam. 
 “ Time shakes thé stablé tyranny of thrones.” 
 
 Another variety: 
 
 “Where is t8-morréw? in anothér world.” 
 
 Itis thus the principal feet are susceptible of many 
 variations, 
 
 POETICAL PAUSES. 
 
 There are two sorts of pauses, one for sense the other for 
 melody. The former may be called sentential, the latter 
 harmonic. 
 
 - The sentential comprehend the stops used in prose. 
 
 The harmonic belong to poetry. 
 
 They are divided into final and cesural pauses. These 
 sometimes coincide with the sentential pauses; but they 
 exist where there is no stop in the sense. 
 
 The final pause takes place at the end of the line and 
 closes the verse; and is only a suspension of the voice, 
 not a change of note or tone. 
 
 Cesural divides it into equal or uneqnal parts, and is 
 commonly on the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable of heroic 
 verse; as, 
 
 «The silver eél” in shining volumes rolled.” 
 
 SYNTAX* AND PUNCTUATION. 
 
 A sentence isan assemblage of words arranged in proper 
 order, making a complete sense. 
 
 * Syntax consists of concord and government. Concord is the agreement 
 that one word has with another in number, gender, case, or person. Gevern- 
 
| 114 PROSODY. 
 
 Sentences are simple or compound- 
 
 A simple sentence has but one subject and one finite 
 verb: as, “Life is a blessing.” 
 
 A compound sentence contains two or more simple sen- 
 tences connected by a conjunction or conjunctions: ‘as, 
 ‘Time is short, but eternity has no end.” 
 
 A phrase is two or more words put together, making 
 part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence: as, 
 ‘In truth, to be plain with you, he was guilty.” 
 
 The principal parts of a simple sentence are the subject 
 (or nominative), the aétribute (or verb), and the object. 
 
 The subject isa thing chiefly spoken of; the attribute 
 is the thing affirmed or denied; and the object is the thing 
 affected, or to which the action or intention of the sub- 
 ject is directed, either through the medium of the verb or 
 preposition. 
 
 OF THE COMMA. 
 
 The comma separates those parts of sentences, which 
 in sense and construction, require a pause between them. 
 
 1. The simple members of a compound sentence. de- 
 pending on each other: as, ‘I remember his goodness, 
 and his condescending behaviour.” 
 
 2. At the end of an imperfect phrase; as, “‘ Studious of 
 praise, he was ostentatious.” 
 
 3. When proper, common, or important names follow 
 in succession ; as, “ William, James, John, or Jane intend 
 to accompany me :” “The end, manner, place, time, and 
 circumstance of the action, and the purport of the law, 
 contributed to the event.” 
 
 4. When it is necessary to render the sense very per- 
 ceptible; as, “The mind, unoccupied with useful know- 
 ledge, becomes a magazine of trifles.”’ 
 
 5. When a simple sentence is too much lengthened, so 
 as to require an effort of breathing ; it may sometimes ad- 
 
 2? 
 mit of a pause preceding the verb; as, “ The great march 
 
 ment is the power that one part of speech has over another ii determining its 
 mood, tense. or case 
 
PROSODY. 115 
 
 of intellect in the present age, has exceeded the specula- 
 tions of philosophers.” 
 
 6. Two nouns connected by a conjunction are not to 
 be separated. 
 
 7. When two or more adjectives belong to a substan- 
 tive, they admit of the comma; as, “ Plain, simple, hon- 
 est men.” 
 
 8. When clauses or verbs are disjoined by a disjunctive : 
 as, ‘ Hither riches, levity, or natural propensity to evil; 
 
 was the cause.”’ 
 9 All simple sentences, whether the verbs have nomi- 
 
 native cases expressed or understood : as, “ Religion sup- 
 ports in adversity and moderates in prosperity. 
 
 10. When a direct address is made: as, ‘My friend, 
 remember thou art to die.” 
 
 iJ. Nouns in apposition; as, “William, the king ;” 
 ‘“* Cicero, the orator:” but if such nouns be only expres- 
 sive of proper names, the comma is omitted; as, “‘ Wil- 
 liam the king of Great Britain is virtuous.” 
 
 12. When adjectives follow the conjunctions yet and 
 tho’; as, 
 
 “Tho? deep, yet clear; tho’ gentle, yet not dull ; 
 
 Strong without rage; without o’erflowing full.” 
 
 In many instances no precise rule can be laid down: 
 the good sense of the writer will discern where the pause 
 is requisite. 
 
 OF THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 The semicolon is used to divide a compound sentence, 
 in order to distinguish those parts that approach nearer 
 to a period than a comma, and yet not so near as those 
 clauses marked by a colon. The pause is double that of 
 a comma, or while one, two may be expressed. 
 
 1. It is used when the preceding member is a simple or 
 imperfect sentence, that does not of itself contain a com- 
 plete sense, but requires an additional clause to put what 
 precedes it in propositional form, that a conclusive clause 
 may follow to complete the sentence: as, ‘The desire of 
 approbation, when it operates according to reason, im- 
 
116 PROSODY. 
 
 proves the amiable part of our species in every thing laud- 
 able; so nothing is more destructive than folly and va- 
 nity.” . 
 
 Straws swim upon the surface, but pearls he at h 
 bottom. 
 
 2. It is sometimes used after a sentence, upon which 
 what follows depends: as, ‘‘ Philosophers assert, that na- 
 ture is unlimited in her operations; that she has treasures 
 in reserve; that knowledge will always be progressive ; 
 and that future generations will make discoveries yet un- 
 known. 
 
 OF THE COLON. 
 
 The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more 
 parts, which nearly make distinct and complete sentences, 
 but depending on something that is to come after, to 
 make a full sentence. It may be applied in the subse- 
 quent cases, viz., 
 
 1. When a member is complete in itself, but followed 
 by some necessary supplemental illustration or observa- 
 tion on the subject; as, “Nature felt her inability to 
 work out her own deliverance from the power of the car- 
 nal mind: the gospel alone reveals the plan of divine in- 
 terposition and deliverance,” » 
 
 2. When several semicolons have been used, and still a 
 greater pause is necessary in order to note the concluding 
 sentiment; as, “A Divine Legislator uttering his voice 
 from heaven; an Almighty Governor putting forth his 
 arm to punish or reward; informing us of perpetual rest 
 prepared hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation 
 and wrath awaiting the wicked: these are considerations 
 that should overawe the world.” 
 
 | OF THE PERIOD. 
 
 A period is put at the end of a complete and independ- 
 ent sentence. 
 
 A number of complete sentences may succeed each 
 other, requiring the period; as, Fear God. Honour the 
 king. Do justice to all men. 
 
 A period is sometimes put at the end of a sentence, 
 
PROSODY. 117 
 
 when either but, and, for, therefore, or hence immediately 
 follow: as, “He awoke from his dream of fancy, and 
 acted conformably to the dignity of reason.”  “ But his 
 mind was much enervated by riotous living.” It is also 
 used after every abbreviated word ; as, M.S. P.S. A.D. 
 O.S. N.S. 
 
 N.B.—Some authors allow the pause for the comma 
 while one can be pronounced; the semicolon two; the 
 colon three; and the period four. 
 
 OF THE NECESSARY MARKS USED IN COMPOSITION. 
 
 Accute accent ’ denotes a short syllable. 
 
 Apostrophe ’ shews the letter omitted; as, ‘ Lov’ly,”’ for 
 “* Lovely.” 
 
 Admiration or Exclamation ! is put to denote any thing 
 wonderful or surprising, or any sudden emotion of the 
 mind. 
 
 Asterisk, * double dagger, ¢ obelisk, + and parallel lines, || 
 are used to refer to some note in the margin. 
 
 Brace _»_, connects words or figures that have some 
 relation to each other, or three lines in poetry. 
 
 Breve ~ shews ashort vowel or syllable. 
 
 Caret , shews a word omitted or interlined. 
 
 Crotchets or Brackets [ | serve to enclose a word or 
 sentence, sometimes requisite to be explained, or to sup- 
 ply some deficiency. 
 
 Dash — shews when the writer breaks off abruptly. 
 
 Dieresis ** serves to divide a dipthong into syllables, as, 
 “ Aérial.” | 
 
 Ellipsis 
 king. 
 
 Grave Accent * shews a long syllable. 
 
 Hyphen - is set at the end of the line to shew that the 
 word is continued in the next; it is also used in com- 
 pound words; as, ‘“‘ Coach-horse.” 
 
 Index {<F points to something remarkable. 
 
 Interrogation ? is put when a question is asked. 
 
 Parenthesis () serves to enclose ashort sentence in the 
 body of another sentence. 
 
 
 
 
 
 implies letters omitted; as, “K g,” for 
 
118 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Paragraph { shews the commencement of every new 
 subject. 
 
 Quotation “ ”? shews a passage from another author. 
 
 Section § divides asubject. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR CAPITALS. 
 
 1. The first word of every book, chapter, es note, 
 or writing. 
 
 2. The first -word after a period, a note of vera 
 tion, or exclamation. 
 
 3. The appellations of the Deity im all their varieties. 
 
 4. The proper names of persons, towns, places, moun- 
 tains, rivers, &c. 
 
 5. All adjectives derived from the proper names of 
 places; as, “Grecian, Roman, English,” 
 
 6. The pronoun JZ, and the interjection O. 
 
 7. The first word of a quotation after a colon, or when 
 it is in a direct form: as, “Always rememberthis ancient 
 maxim ‘ Know thyself.’ ” 
 
 8. The first letter of every line in poetry. 
 
 9. Common nouns when apostrophised by personifica- 
 tion: as, “ Come; gentle Zephyrs. 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 ’ MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 The pronouns who, which, and what are called interro- 
 gatives when used in asking questions. What is a very 
 significant relative, and is equivalent to that which: as, 
 “'Phis is what I wanted,” 1.e., The thing that | wanted.” 
 
 Much is applied to goods weighed or measured. Many 
 to things that are numbered. 
 
 Who is applied to persons, except when things inani- 
 mate are personified. 
 
 Vhat and which are somesimes used adjectively 5 as, “I 
 
OBSERVATIONS; 119 
 
 know not by what destiny my lot has been so adverse,” 
 “ Which things are an allegory ;” which in this phrase is 
 equivalent to these. What is sometimes used as an adverb; 
 as, ‘ What with thinking, what with writing, I am weary,” 
 ie., “ Partly with thinking,” &e. 
 
 You, former, and latter may be called demonstrative ad- 
 jective pronouns, as well as this and that. 
 
 The phrase mone other, should be no other. 
 
 The potential mood has no specific first or second fu- 
 ture tenses; the first tense is implied in the present tense 
 of this mood: as, “I may write to-morrow or next year.” 
 
 Will and shall. Will in the first person singular and 
 plural intimates determination and promising ; as, “ I wilt 
 not comply;” “I will deliver thee.” 
 
 Shall in the first person foretells and shews intention ; 
 as, SI or we shall visit Paris.” In the second or third 
 persons it promises, threatens, or commands; as, “The 
 soul that sinneth shail die;” “They or you shail be pu- 
 nished. 
 
 N.B.—This must be understood of affirmative sentences only. When: the 
 phrases ere interrogative the meaning is quite different; as, ‘‘ Shall I send 
 you.some fruit?” ‘* Will Edward visit London ?” 
 
 Should and would are subject to similar rules as shal and 
 will, and: are generally attended with a supposition ; as, 
 ‘‘ were I to travel I should soon be fatigued.” 
 
 Must belongs to the present and perfect potential forms 
 of the verb, as, “I must love, thou must love, he must 
 _ have: loved.” 
 
 Towards is a preposition, but toward is an adjective; 
 as, ‘he is toward to learn;” i.e. he is ready to learn.— 
 It is now not much used. 
 
 But is sometimes used adverbially ; as, “we are but of 
 yesterday ;”” i.e. only of yesterday. 
 
 In the phrases, “ she smiled at him—she smiled upon 
 him,” the preposition must be considered as a part of the 
 verb.—Lennie. 
 
 The prepositions at and upon are recipients to transmit 
 the influence of the verb smiled to the object him. 
 
120 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 ’ There are three persons that may be the subject of a 
 discourse : the first is the person who speaks; the second 
 is the person spoken to; and the third is the person 
 spoken of; and these may be either singular or plural, 
 as, I, thou, he, or we, ye or you, they. 
 
 Some nouns are only used in the plural, as, guipanes, 
 literati, credenda, minutia, banditti, data, &c. 
 
 Aparatus, hiatus, series, brace, dozen, means, (as it is 
 now used,) are alike in both numbers. 
 
 Some, however, pluralize series, brace and dozen; 1. e. 
 serieses, braces, dozens. 
 
 When two objects are compared, the comparative is 
 generally used; when more than two, the superlative is 
 used, and in some instances the comparative also; as, 
 ‘*‘ Greece was more learned and polished than any other 
 nation of antiquity.” 
 
 After the imperfect or past tense, the present infinitive 
 (and not the perfect) should be used, as, “I intended to 
 write to my father,” and not, “I intended to have writ- 
 ten.” 
 
 A neuter verb should not be used in the passive form ; 
 thus, “I am purposed; he is arrived;” should be, “T 
 have purposed ; he has arrived.” Yet there are a few ex- 
 ceptions; for it may be said, “‘ she zs gone; he is gone.” 
 But a grammarian would prefer the critical mode, i.e., 
 ‘‘has come; has gone.” 
 
 When the noun after with is a mere involuntary or in- 
 animate instrument, the verb should be singular; as, 
 “The captain with his men catches poor Africans, and 
 sells them for slaves.””-—Lennte. 
 
 He with his gun shoots a hare. The singular of the 
 verb shoots is right, because the gun is a passive inanimate 
 instrument in the hands of the man who shoots, and is the 
 same as, “he with his instrument tills the ground,” “she 
 with her pen writes a letter.” 
 
 Follows and appears. ‘These two verbs are sometimes 
 erroneously used; as, ‘The arguments advanced were 
 nearly as follows :” ‘“‘ The positions were as appears,” i.e., 
 
ABBREVIATIONS. 121 
 
 say the authors of those phrases; as, it follows, and as, it 
 appears, which are manifest solecisms. Let the questions 
 be asked, ‘‘ What follows, and what appears?” The an- 
 swer is, “The arguments and positions ;” both in the plu- 
 ral number. ‘The syntactical mode is to give each of 
 these verbs its true concord, like any other in the lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Them is sometimes improperly used for ihese or those ; 
 as, “Give me them books;” should be, these books, or 
 those books. 
 
 Jt is and it was are very common phrases, yet the ante- 
 cedent to the neuter pronoun ié is sometimes not easily 
 ascertained; for this éé, is found to be so accommodating 
 that dé is used to express both the singular and plural num- 
 ber: as‘“It was the lad that gave the first insult,” i. e. 
 «« The lad gave the first insult ;” “It was the French that 
 first began,” i. e. “’The French first began.” Here the 
 pronoun ié is put to express the plural number. Better 
 to express such occurrences in grammatical order, than 
 licence erroneous idioms of speech. 
 
 The perfect participle should not be used instead of the 
 imperfect tense: “I run,” for “I ran;” “TI seen,” in- 
 stead of “I saw,” &c. When the perfect participle is 
 used it must be accompanied with either have, hath, has, 
 or had: as “IT haverun: I have seen.” 
 
 When the antecedent consists of two nouns, the one re- 
 quiring who and the other which, the relative that may be 
 used: ‘The man and the horse that we saw.” 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 A. B.—Artium Baccalaureus. Bachelor ofarts. 
 A. D.—Anno Domini. In the year of our Lord. 
 A. M —Artium Magister. Master of arts. 
 A. M.—Anno Mundi. Inthe year of the world. | 
 A. M.—<Ante Meridiem. In the forenoon. 
 
 A. U. E.—Anno Urbis Conditae. In the year after the 
 building of the city of Rome, 
 
 L 
 
(32 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 B. D.—Baccalaureas Divinitatis, Bachelor of divinity. 
 
 Cc. P. S.—Custos Privati Sigilli. Keeper of the privy seal. 
 
 C. S.—Custos Sigilli. Keeper of the seal. 
 
 D. D.—Docter Divinitatis. Divinity Doctor, or Doc- 
 tor of Divinity. 
 
 R. S. S.—Regiae Societatis Socius. Fellow of the Roy- 
 al Society. 
 
 R. 8. A. S.—Regiae Societatis Antiquariorum Socius. 
 Fellow of the Royal Society of Antiquarians. 
 
 G. R.—Georgius Rex. George the King. 
 
 J. H. S.—Jesus Hominum Salvator. Jesus the Saviour 
 of men. 
 
 L. L. D.—Legum Doctor. Doctor of Laws. 
 
 M. D.—Medicinae Doctor. Doctor of Medicine. 
 
 M. S.—Memoriae Sacrum. Sacred to the Memory (or 
 S. M.) 
 
 N. B.—Nota Bene. Note well; Take notice. 
 
 P. M.—Post Meridiem. In the afternoon. 
 
 P.S.-Post Scriptum. Postscript, something written 
 after. | 
 
 Ult.—Ultime. Last month. 
 
 e. g.—Exampli Gratia. For example. 
 
 i. e.—Id est. ‘Phat is. . 
 
 &c.—Et caetera. And the rest; and so forth. 
 
 A.—Answer. ; ) 
 
 Acct.—Account. 
 
 Bart,—Baronet. 
 
 Bp.—Bishop. 
 
 Capt.—Captain. 
 
 Col.—Colonel. 
 
 Cr.—Creditor. 
 
 Dr.—Debtor. 
 
 Do. or Ditto.—The same. 
 
 Viz.—Namely. 
 
 Q.— Question, or Queen. 
 
 R. N.—Royal Navy. 
 
 Esq.—Esquire. 
 
 L. C. J.—Lord Chief Justice. 
 
LATIN ‘PHRASES. 133 
 
 Kut.—Knight. 
 
 K. G.—Knight of the Garter. 
 K. B. Knight of the Bath. 
 
 K. C.—Knight of the Crescent. 
 K. P.—Knight of St. Patrick 
 K. T.—Knight of the Thistle. 
 M. S.—Manuscript. 
 
 M. 8. S.—Manuscripts. 
 
 N. S.—New Style. 
 
 O. S.—Old Style. 
 
 J. P.—Justice of the Peace. 
 
 LATIN PHRASES. 
 
 A. U. ©.—Ab urbe condita, Arcanum, a secret. 
 from the building of the Argumentum ad hominem, 
 
 city. an appeal to the professed 
 Ad captandum vulgus, te principles or practices of 
 ensnare the vulgar. an adversary. 
 Ad infinitum, to infinity. Argumentum ad fidem, an 
 Ad valorem, according to appeal to the faith. 
 value. Bona fide, in reality, in good 
 A fortiori, with stronger rea- faith. 
 son. Contra, against. 
 Alias, (a-le-as) etherwise. Caput mortuum, the worth- 
 Alibi (ale bi) elsewhere. - less remains, dead head. 
 Alma mater, the university. Compos mentis, in ones sen- 
 Anglice, in English. ses. 
 Anno domini, in the year of Cum privilegio, with privi- 
 our Lord. lege. 
 Anno mundi, in the year of Data, things granted. 
 the world. Desideratum, something de- 
 
 A posteriori, from the effect. sirable, or much wanted. 
 A priori, from the former, Dramatis persone, charac- 
 from before, from the na- _ ters represented, 
 ture or cause. Et cetera, and the rest, 
 
124 FRENCH PHRASES. 
 
 Exempli gratia, as forexam- Nolens volens, willing or 
 
 ple. unwilling. 
 
 Ex officio, officially, by vir- Non compos mentis, not of 
 tue of office. a sound mind. 
 
 Fac simile, exact copy, or Nem. con. (for nemine con- 
 resemblance, tradicente. 
 
 Fiat, let it be done, cr made. Omnes, alll, without con- 
 Humanum, est errare, toerr _ tradiction. 
 
 is human. Onus, burden. 
 Tbidem, in the same place. Passim, every where. 
 Idem, the same. Per se, by itself, alone. 
 
 {mprimis, in the first place. Proandcon, forand against. 
 In statu quo, in the former Quondam, formerly. 
 
 state. Rex, king. 
 Tpse dixit, on his sole asser- Regina, queen. 
 tion. Sine die, without ae 
 Item, also, or article. ing any particular day. 
 Locum tenens, deputy, sub- Sub poena, under a penalty. 
 stitute. Supra, above. 
 Labor omnia vincit, labour Summum bonum, the chief 
 overcomes every thing. good. 
 Lingue lapsus, a slip of the Verbatim, word for word. 
 tongue. [ter. Vale, farewell. 
 
 Magna charta, the great char- Via, by the way of. 
 Memento mori, remember Vice, in the room of. 
 
 death. Vide, see, (contracted in- 
 Memorabilia, matters deserv- to v.) 
 
 ing of record. Viva voce, orally, by word 
 Multum in parvo, much in — of mouth. 
 
 little. Vox populi, the voice of 
 Ne plus ultra, no farther, the people. 
 
 nothing beyond. 
 
 FRENCH PHRASES. 
 A. propos, to the purpose; opportunely. 
 Auto da fe, (Portuguese,) burning of heretics. 
 Beaux esprits, men of wit. 
 Bon mot, a piece of wit; a jest; a quibble. 
 
FRENCH PHRASES. 125 
 
 Bon gre, with a good, or ill grace, whether the party will 
 or not. 
 
 ‘Bon jour, good day; good morning. 
 
 Carte blanche, a blank; unconditional terms. 
 
 Chateau, a country seat. 
 
 Ci devant, formerly. 
 
 Conge’d’elire, leave to elect or choose. 
 
 Coup de grace, a stroke of mercy; the finishing stroke. 
 
 Coup d’ceil, a glance of the eye. 
 
 Coup de main, a sudden or bold enterprise. 
 
 Debut, first appearance in public. 
 
 Dernier resort, the last shift or resource. 
 
 - Depot, a store-house, &c. 
 
 Double entendre, double meaning. 
 
 Douceur, a present or bribe. 
 
 Dieu et mon droit, God and my right. 
 
 En bon point, in good condition; jolly. 
 
 En masse, in a body, or mass. 
 
 En passant, by the way; in passing; by the by. 
 
 Ennui, wearisomness, lassitude. 
 
 Faux pas, a slip; misconduct. 
 
 Fete, a feast, or entertainment. 
 
 Fracas, bustle; a slight quarrel. 
 
 Honi soit qui mal y pense, evil to him that evil thinks. 
 
 Je ne scais quoi, I know not what. 
 
 Jeu de mots, a display of wit. . 
 
 Mal-a-propos, unfit, out of time or place. 
 
 Mauvaise honte, false modesty. 
 
 Mot du guet, a watchword. 
 
 ‘Naivete, ingenuousness, simplicity, innocence, 
 
 Outre, eccentric; blustering: wild; not gentle. 
 
 Petit maitre, a beau, a fop. 
 
 Protege, a person patronised. 
 
 Rouge, red, or a kind of red paint for the face. 
 
 Sans, without. 
 
 Sans froid, bold blood; indifference. 
 
 Savant, a wise or learned man. 
 
CONCLUSION. 
 
 Many of my readers may, perhaps, imagine that I 
 should have written more amply on the elements of gram- 
 mar; but let such consider, that the principal object of 
 this Essay is the demonstration of the rules of syntax,—to 
 render them practical by illustrative examples, and to 
 excite in the juvenile mind a desire of investigation. 
 
 I have diffidently offered my opinions on some of the 
 imperfections of the rules; not merely considered so by 
 myself, but by all the learned with whom I have con- 
 versed on the subject, i, e, the objectionable definition of 
 a neuter verb, the contradictory terms of a conjunction 
 disjunctive, which I have preferred to calla conjunction 
 of uncertainty, for want of a better term presenting itself 
 at the time. The collective noun has also been noticed ; 
 and Mr. Nixon’s definitive and appropriate direction, or 
 rule adverted to. 
 
 I have shewn that a strict adherence to the laws of syn- 
 tax should be the sole guide for the construction of every 
 sentence ; a deviation from which, causes the many diffi- 
 culties that present themselves in parsing, and the bad 
 arrangement, and erroneous juxtaposition of some princi- 
 pal word or words in such sentences. When these pas- 
 sages occur they should be transposed, so that no doubt 
 concerning their connexion and agreement might appear. 
 
 The observations on the seventh rule of syntax may be 
 thought novel; i. e. “I am the man who command you,” 
 or ‘Yam the man who commands you,” by calling man 
 the first person singular. Let it be enquired, does 
 not man, in this sentence, represent myself as much as the 
 
CONCLUSION. 127 
 
 pronoun /, in the most critical acceptation? Therefore, 
 the relative is not preceded by two nominatives of differ- 
 ent persons, but by two nominatives of the same person. 
 When two nominatives of different persons occur, the 
 first is preferred to the second, and the second to the 
 third ; 1. e. the verb is made to agree with the nominative 
 that is the subject of it. 
 
 The reasoning on prepositions may be thought too 
 metaphysical, especially for children; however, this ob- 
 jection will soon vanish when the nature and scope of 
 governing words, or those that require other words to 
 agree with them in gender, number, case, or person, be 
 well explained by the teacher, which the student will 
 quickly comprehend, as soon as he is convinced that 
 grammar is a science founded on reason. Consequently 
 he will be early taught to think, scan, and reason for 
 himself. 
 
 Most of the principal figures of rhetoric are defined. 
 I have confined myself to the numeral arrangement of 
 the rules of Mr. Murray’s Grammar, not because that I 
 think that they are perfect, but that they may be im- 
 proved. 
 
 In the third edition of this essay, I purpose to furnish 
 the public with a more laconic and complete system of 
 English grammar, better adapted to the use of schools. 
 
 Although this essay contains many logical inferences, 
 yet it abounds with numerous simple examples suited to 
 the capacity of youth. Many observations are printed 
 in the larger type which should have been in the smaller- 
 My generous subscribers and readers will not censure for 
 immaterial imperfections, but judge by the general tenor 
 and outline of the work. 4 
 
 As various forms grace different features, so men vary 
 in many respects concerning the definitions, rules, and 
 
128 CONCLUSION. 
 
 idioms of grammar; which is no small proof that the rules — 
 of our language are either defective or undecisive in their 
 
 specific applications. The whole republic of letters 
 
 agree, that the primary and principal use of the grammar 
 
 of any language, is to teach its practical application ; to 
 
 give a fac simile of ideas designed for publication, This 
 
 being so, it follows, that the system that is most condu- 
 
 cive to this end is the best. 
 
 That many of the technicalities of English grammar. 
 do not critically express the ideas which they are designed 
 to represent, must be granted; and this may partly arise 
 from the use of terms borrowed from realities; such as 
 substantive, noun, person, government, to explain the 
 metaphysical parts of grammar. Grammar not only in- 
 structs to speak and write, but to think coherently. 
 Hence it is ascience, as well for the regulation of thoughts 
 as of words and composition. 
 
 Perhaps the greater number of disputes upon grammar 
 amongst the learned, is about the propriety and applica- 
 tion of its terms. Indeed, while some would endeavour 
 to retrace the gradatory improvement of the language 
 to its original principles, and having arrived there, lose 
 themselves in the labyrinths, intricacies, and idioms of 
 the dead languages; others would rightly direct us to 
 these as the grand basis of the fundamental laws of gram- 
 mar ; but, perhaps, grossly err, by deducing irrelative 
 conclusions, and contorting many of the respective 
 idioms of the Latin and Greek to suit their own fanciful 
 modes of imaginary reasoning. Indeed, when it is con- 
 sidered, that no exact translation from one language into 
 another ever has been, or can be, made, so as to give the 
 true meaning of the original language, without any shade 
 of colouring as to the particular and general design of the 
 incidents, circumstances, and minutia of the whole ;— 
 
CONGLUSION. 129 
 
 much allowance must be made on account of the different 
 sentiments of men on this subject. 
 
 The English is now a separate, although a derivative 
 language; therefore to bend it to the rules of other 
 tongues, is unnatural as well as irrational. The truly 
 enlightened scholar looks not to the mere gingle of 
 words, but to that mode of phraseology that constitutes 
 common sense; convinced, that although a classical 
 education expands the mind, illuminates the under- 
 standing, and rectifies the judgment, yet the study of 
 the peculiarities and rules of the English grammar is as 
 absolutely necessary as those of: Latin, Greek, or Hebrew. 
 
 Aware that cynical malevolence plumes itself with the 
 pinions of slanderous animadversion, and is ever on the 
 wing—the ill-natured will censure even merit itself: but 
 the noble, generous, and good, will, like the fanning gales, 
 separate the chaff from the wheat, and if only one grain 
 
 be found, that shall be preserved. ‘The scientific patriot 
 _looks not to the transient moments of his own existence, 
 nor feels the sordid selfishness that limits fame or emolu- 
 ment to the small circle of his own endeavours or ac- 
 quirements; he acts not merely for himself, but for pos- 
 terity. He views mankind emerging from ignorance into 
 the splendor of intellectual effulgence, and, laudably 
 ambitious to add another star to the bright constellation, 
 he avails himself of every opportunity of patronizing the 
 weakest effort of genius to augment the treasury of sci- 
 ence, convinced that knowledge is progressive, and that 
 learning is far above rubies. 
 
 FINISE. 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 
 
 Page 4, line 23, for participial, read present. 
 », 8, line 9, for other, read any other. 
 »» 22, line 22, for put as, read for. 
 >» 45, line 23, for how read low. 
 », 61, line 17, for dy future, read first future. 
 5, 66, line 31, for repition, read repetition. 
 » 69, line 20, for never read not. 
 », 107, line 27, for Hes read /lies. 
 

 

 
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