THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA AT CHAPEL HILL ENDOWED BY THE DIALECTIC AND PHILANTHROPIC SOCIETIES Ar i 00011546099 DATE DUE oS Digitized by the Internet Archive. in 2021 with funding from University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill https://archive.org/details/practicallogical00alex ary A PRACTICAL LOGICAL ESSAY, ON THE SYNTAX OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. BY SAMUEL ALEXANDER: ¢ SECOND EDITION, LIVERPOOL: PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR BY C. BENTHAM & Co. 1830. The Linrary Tho try fern Cao Chsort Hl utereD at Stationers Wall. # eens ene * % wes ony OtaBS ANH Ye vimevhd! off "88 § yr aTy PREFACE. Many have been the essays on English Grammar, and numerous the meritorious productions on this no- ble science; yet few, very few have met the decided approbation of the public. It may be conjectured, by those who have only touched the surface of this science, and, therefore, are unacquainted with the gradations of improvement that it has acquired, even in the last cen- tury, that an attempt to produce any thing novel or instructive is folly, if not absolute enthusiasm. Indeed, considering the many publications that have found their way into the world under the auspices of dignified literary characters,—characters no less hon- ourable on account of their learned accomplishments, than for their exalted and official stations,—much may be said to discourage any further attempts to cast an illuminating ray on the science of Grammar. But re- flecting on the many emendations that our language has réceived since the period of the Saxons, a more than ordinary gleam of hope arises to stimulate a laudable exertion of intellect in the pursuit of a higher degree of polish and refinement. And besides, no author has yet*made his appearance on the vast theatre of letters possessed of such expansive powers of intellect, as to enable him at one effort to bring the system of our lan- li. PREFACE. guage to its present state of amplitude and accuracy: therefore it is a work of gradation ; and every step to- wards its improvement is a step higher on the hill of science, and a degree of advancement towards the tem- ple of intellectual pleasure and the summit of scien- tific perfection. . The flattering encouragement that has already been given to the first edition of this publication hasinduced the author to venture a second, with considerable addi- tions, alterations and amendments; especially in that part which relates to parsing, analysis, the simplifica- tion of compound sentences, and the elementary prin- ciples of grammar. Although this essay contains many original obser- £ vations with respect to the analogy of the constitution of Syntax, yet it is hoped the reader will not find him- self disappointed if he meets with much compilation, as indeed, the work is not to be considered a new publication on English grammar, much less, to cast the least shade a on the very excellent works of the author’s cohtemporaries or predecesssors, who have contributed somuch to the elegance and #nprovementof the language. The author’s design is merely to trace the rationality of the rules of [English Syntax to their first principles, and to explain what has hitherto re- mained unexplored, or taken for axioms upon the ipse dixit of the literati of antiquity : as such, they have pas- sed upon the learned world for ages as so many pro- positional truths wrapt in mystery and sanctioned -by the authority of the ancients: and it is'but too true that. the moderns in many instances, have followed their PREFACE. iil. example. ‘This treatise will not be solely confined to the explication of therules of syntax: it will also com- prise many useful examples, shewing the use of verbs in their application in the singular and plural number; the natural order of sentences, analysis, transposition, and grammatical arrangement, and the agreement and disagreement of words in sentences. From this view of the subject it will be impossible to avoid the involution of some metaphysical reasoning :— in teaching the rules of syntax, the reasons of the rules quill be illustrated, examples adduced, parsed, ana- lyzed and scanned in grammatical and _ philosophical order. Here let it be understood that the author does not propose to treat all the disquisitions relative to the explanation of the rules of syntax strictly according to the rules of logic, as this would give the subject more an air of pedantry than of utility. It is true, logic is simply the art of reasoning, and has its foundation in the reasonableness and fitness of things, and is to be found in its purity in the sublime science of pure geometry. The rules of logic when applied in a rhetorical way, render the composition perceptive, pleasing and de-. lightful; and when used in an easy and graceful man- ner, give ease and sublimity to composition. Indeed. logic is the touchstone of truth, and is interwoven in - the.constitution of the mental powers of man, and flows from the analogy of universal nature, and is for the most noble purpose (i. e.) to distinguish truth from falsehood ; right reason from sophistry. In fine, logic may be termed the sublimity of human intellect, for it iV. PREFACE. is impossible to separate logic from the true sublime ; which consists in a simplicity of style, a richness of ex- pression, a grandeur of thought, and a happy colloca- tion of words, more ‘easily conceived than put into proper language. As this essay commences with a philosophical illus- tration of the rules of English syntax, technical and applicable definitions must be introduced. The object of the author in this essay, is to makethe study of English Grammar more a rational investiga- tion than «laborious technical phraseology, and to elicit scientifical researeh—not to depend so much upon memory as common sense, and the rational relation that words bear to each other. The common method of teaching this science is to commence by causing the pupil to commit definitions and rules to memory— receiving every thing asserted in the elements of gram- mar as incontrovertible truth. This mode might pass with a Brahmin, in order to train a Hindoo in the re- ligion of Vishnu, but it is by no means suitable to the genius of a rational being. ‘The young student should be made acquainted with the principles of grammar—de- | finitions, and rules, and the basis upon which this beau- tiful edifice is constructed. By such a mode of initia- tion he not only obtains a scientific and permanent knowledge of erammar, but an expansion of mind con- ducive to prepare him for the various avocations of hu- man life, and the more abstruse reasonings of mathe- matical solution and demonstration. | 7 The author has had the mortification to hear many of theliterati assert, thatthe rules of syntax are arbitrary ; PREFACE. ¥. but however this opinion may have pleased in those days that are fled, he hopes that the time is arrived when the dignity of learned profession - will no longer impose upon enlightened reason; for if language be pushed back to the first rude efforts of speech, it will be found, to demonstration, to have had the origin of its system and analogy from the natural necessities of man; and the expressions these wants dictated. As the necessities of humanity naturally pressed themselves upon the mind by the imperative demands of appetite ; the first signs or sounds of these wants or necessities were indications of substantives, such as the various sorts of food, clothing, and social conveniences. The next in order were verbs, or atiributes, then qualities or adjectives, relatives and connectives, &c. Thus from the foliowing arrangement of the necessi- ties of men, proceeded the orderly and dependent sys- tem of language, and in succession of time, became refined and improved. ‘The grammar of each particu- lar tongue is either more or less founded upon this rude original. it follows, that toassert that the rules of lan- guage are arbitrary, is as absurd as to deny the eternal existence of the verity of the problems of Euciid. It is true, someidionis peculiar to all cultivated languages may be and are owing to custom, and others to the au- thority of the learned ; and not a few to the popularity of the affluent court fashionables of the age: these last = ewe more of their prevalence to their modish and whimsical originators than to propriety or derivative ~ language. © | But now, as the English language has been brought Vi. PREFACE. to a state of polish, refinement and accuracy superior toany of theliving languages, and also has rules formed upon analogical and rhetorical principles, and is lim- ited and restricted by certain laws peculiar to itself, under various and systematical heads, comprehending the very copious and explanatory divisions of the sci- ence, viz., orthography, etymology, syntax and prosody, and the other auxiliar idioms and observations, together with logic and rhetoric ; can there be any thing more futile than to build the superstructure of such a noble edifice upon the establishment of usage? Or that im- proper idioms should be introduced into English phra- seology, and pass as if sanctioned by the rules of grammatical concord? Common sense shrinks from the idea. Our language, like others, should be founded upon just principles of construction, so far as the grea; variety of its derivation will permit. LEvery sentence should be simple, energetic and perspicuous; laconic’ yet simple in explication ; fertile and flowing, yet free from turgidity, pomposity and affectation on the one hand, and sterility on the other; divested of ambiguity and vulgarity, together with a strict adherence to the rules of grammar. This being granted, custom like, the hydra-headed monster credulity, when coupled with ignorance, must be exploded and sent to seek its baneful retreat among the haunts of superstition in the mountains of error, no more to make its appearance in the fruitful valleys of heaven-born science among the illuminated sons of wisdom. As thought and the power of ratiocination came from God, (for “there is a spirit in man and the inspiration PREEACE. vii. of the Almighty giveth him understanding”) no doubt the language of our primogenitors was pure and correct, because man came perfect and innocent from the hands of his Creator, and was pronounced by him “ very good.” It follows, that the first system of language must also have been pure and correct, flowing from divine truth itself, and in harmony with the design for which it was bestowed ; so thatsymmetry, elegance and perspicuity characterised the language of our first pa- tents. Words are signs of our ideas, and in the first age of the world these emblems of ideas exactly re- presented the objects or things they were designed to express, and were indicative of their nature. Thelan- guage was clear, elerant, correct and intelligible, which was not so in man’s lapsed state; for the confusion of language at Babel proceeded from distraction of thought; hence the necessity of some rules of direction, and those rules must have flowed from that ratio of thought, that constitutes the most exalted knowledge. : In fine, no one has any right to impose arbitrary di- _ rections or laws on society ; so mankind are not bound by any unfounded scientific authority to receive as- sumed grammatical regulations independent of rational principles. The science of universal grammar, as it respects its fundamental parts, is the same in all languages: a sub- stantive in Latin, Greek or Hebrew, is a substantive in English. True, the grammar of the Latin tongue is lim- ited and circumscribed by certain rules from which there has been scarcely any deviation during the lapse of more than two thousand years: in like manner the vill. PREFACE. Greek has its unvaried regulations adapted to the or- ganization of this dialect, and likewise the Hebrew. Should not the English language, although amply de- rivative from many other languages, be settled upon some immoveable basis; its rules fixed upon scientific principles deduced from the analogy of its principal origin, and in accordance with the great outline of its principal rudiments ? It is worthy of observation, that it can be fairly at- tested upon the authority of Elias Levita, a learned Ger- man Jew, who flourished at Rome about the middle of the 16th century, that the stops were not used in the ancient Hebrew character until about 500 years after Christ; and the famous Morimus having examined all that had been said on both sides, for and against this matter, decidedly gave his opinion in favour of Elias Levita. “It appears” (says our very celebrated au- thor) “ that neither Origin nor St. Jerome knew this sub- . ject sufficiently.” Besides, it has been matter of con- jecture amongst the literati, whether the Chaldee, Sa- maritan, or Phoenicean, characters* were the most an- cient The prevailing opinion is that the Hebrew has the precedency in the antiquity of its origin :—hence the necessity of establishing the language of an enlight- and people and a great nation upon undeviating rules and principles. To advert to the learned languages, a knowledge of * Alstedius enumerates about 400 languages, but makes only 72 distinguisha- ed ones, and five chief ones ; viz., Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Germanic, and Sclavo- nie. At present a sort of Arabic mightily prevails in western Asia, and in the north of Africa. Mingled dialects of the Latin and Teutonic mostly prevail in the west of Europe. FREFACE, ix. them should be cultivated by those whose circumstances will admit, and by those who are designed for profes- sional avocations, or deep scientifical pursuits. The writings of many of the ancients evince more than merely the advancement of science in those obscure ages of polity and barbarism. In tracing the beauties of the dead languages may be seen symmetry, harmony and perspicuity of expression, derived from no less a source than the great Author of all things for the bene- . fit of succeeding generations ; comprehending in almost ail the Oriental compositions the qualities of a nervous Style, possessing so much of the nature of the true sub- lime, that it is impossible not to be pleased with the smooth flowing descriptive style ofa Virgil, the pathos of an Ovid, and the thunder of a Homer. Besides, the works of those authors not only prove the wisdom communicated from God to man, but they exhibit very strikingly the great expansive powers of human intel- lect, improved by application and experience, even in the obscure days of heathen ignorance, with respect to the knowledge of divine revelation. Here I may take up the language of Mr. Walker :— “But alas! reasoning on language, however well found- ed, may all be overturned by a single quotation from Horace :-— ‘____—_—. resus, Quem penés arbitrium est, et jus et norma loquendi.’”’ If this be owned it is a concise way of ending the con- troversy; and by virtue of this arrangement we may become critics in language, without the trouble of stu- dying it: not that I would be thought, in the most dist- ‘ey PREFACE. ant manner, to deny that custom is, in general, the sovereign arbiter of language ;—far from it. I acknow- ledge its authority and know that there is no appeal from it, unless where analogy and reason have pre- scribed the boundaries. I only wish to dispute where these arbiters have not decided. But what is this cus- tom to which we must so implicitly submit? Is it the usage of the multitude of grammarians, whether good ot bad? ‘This has never been asserted by the most sanguine abettors ofitsauthority. Isit the usage of the studious in schools and colleges with those of the learned professions, or that of those who, from their elevated birth or station give laws to the refinements and ele- ganees ofa court? ‘To confine propriety to the latter, which is too often the case, seems an injury to the for- mer, who, from their very profession, appear to have a natural right to a share, at least in the legislation of language, if not to an absolute sovereignty. The pol- ished attendants on a throne are as apt to depart from simplicity of language as in dress and manners; and novelty, instead of custom is too often the jus et norma loguendi of a court. Perhaps an attentive observation will lead us to con- clude that the usage which ought to direct us is nei- ther of these we have been enumerating, taken singly, but a sort of compound ratio of all three; neither the self-complacent opinion of a céurt, nor a pedantic grecism of schools will be denominated respectable usage, till a certain number of the general mass of grammarians have acknowledged them; nor will a multitude of common grammarians authorize any sys- ¥ PREFACE. i. tem of grammar which is reprobated by the learned and polite. And here let me entreat the candid reader to make every .reasonable allowance for the imperfections that may appear in this essay, for I do not pretend to be exempt from faults. I have offered some original thoughts on the structure of English syntax, some of which may not meet the views of my learned cotem- poraries ; for prejudice (sometimes the child of custom)* overleaps the barriers of sober reason, and sways the balance in favour of its own familiar system. In some instances it is probable I may be considered verbose, by endeavouring to render myself intelligible, and perhaps, by others, too laconic, in order to com- press much in little bounds :—the learned reader will exercise the necessary indulgence on both these ac- counts. I do not arrogate to myself the authority of offering the following observations as a decisory stand- ard of therationality ofthe rules of English syntax. No, I difidently submit them to the lovers of science and the patrons of literature ;—by their decision they stand or fall. If the latter, humanum est errare,—to err is human. ch Net et: , ia eee AS dyhiod oe ie saree ane Pi PG SL REN hen cat elnisea ‘ake Mab aeis 5 hh de a tous s sith man a At oma ca ia 4 isos ile be Co err ee bean saodd . Rm ; 7 bie (aay. te Hy ree Sty ie 4 LA og ; ae AN ELEMENTARY SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. Eweriso Grammar* teaches to write, and spell the English language correctly. -It is divided into four parts, viz, Orthography, Etymo- logy, Syntax, and Prosody. Orthography treats of the powers of letters and the just method of spelling words. Etymology treats of the differeut sorts of words, their various modifications and derivation. Etymology is of very little use in English grammar so far as it respects the derivation of words. Syntax is divided into two parts, concord and government. Concord shows the agreement of words in a sentence, as John loves. Government is that power which one part of speech has over another. (Vide Ist rule in Syntax.) Prosody teaches the laws of versification. There are in English nine sorts of words or parts of speech, viz. Article, Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Conjunction, Preposition, and Interjection. ARTICLES. + Aw Arricue is a word prefixed to substantives to point them out, tolimit or extend their signification. They are 4 and The. A becomes an before a vowelorsilent hf as, “*.4m, acorn, an hour.” JH is called by some an as- *From Gramma, a Greek word, signifying a letter, being thatletters form syllables, syllables words, &c. + From Articulus, a small part, which anatomists call a joint t Some grammarians suppose / to make only an aspiration, but it appears to be a distinct sound.— Encyclopedia Britannica. 2 SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. pirate. The Article is only used before nouns of the singular number or of multitude, or of the plural number preceded by the Adjectives few, many, great, &c. as a man, a thousand, a great many men, a few books, &c. the reason is, because the article A has a singular signification. A man is the same as, one man, any man, some man. The article the may be applied either to nouns of the singular, or plural number, as the ininister, the bishops, the sun, the stars, &c. The always points tosome partic- ular thing, as, the officer which I saw last month, &c. viz. denoting some particular officer. SUBSTANTIVES* OR NOUNS. A Supsranrive or Noun is the name of any person, place or thing, or of any word, or sentence that can be made the subject ofa discourse : as, apples, chairs, virtue, vice, to live piously and righteously are required of all men ; here the two infinitive moods, (i e.) to live piously and to live righteously are subjects to the verb are. Substantives are divided or classed into two sorts, common and proper. Common names are applied to a genus or kind without distinction, as, a tree, a flower, that is, any tree or any flower, without any specific designation, whether it be an ash tree, or anelm tree, or a sunflower, or a rose flower. Proper names are applied to individuals which are classed under some particular kind; as, man is acommon name for all mankind, and James or John is the proper name of some individual man under the genus man. As tree is 2 common name for all trees; so elm tree, or ash tree, is a proper name for that specific tree, referred to. If every man’s name were John, then John would be a common name for all men, therefore John, James, Paris, London, Berlin are called proper names, because John or . James is not the name of every man, nor is Paris, London, or Berlin the name of every city. * A substantive is a being that can subsist by itself, without depending upon any other being but God, and this gives occasion to logicians to call it a sub- stantive. : ‘ + From Nomen, a hame. SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 3 Substantives are also classed by logicians into natural, artificial, and abstracted. A man, a horse, a lion, are na- tural substantives: a house, a table, a watch, are artificial substantives: whiteness, blackness, or blueness, are ab- stracted substantives, or abstract nouns. To nouns belong gender,* number, and person. The masculine,+ which denotes auimals of the male kind, as, a man,alion. The feminine,£ which signifies animals of the female kind, as, a lady, a woman, a lioness. In english there there are only two numbers, the singu- lar and plural. The singular speaks only of one, as, an orange; the plural speaks of more than one, as, oranges. The persons of nouns are real and fignrative. First, the person who speaks; secondly, the person spoken to ; and thirdly, the person spoken of, and these may be either singular or plural, and are what may be called real persons. When things inanimate are personified, as the sun, the moon, hills, mountains, &c., are called he or she, these are only figurative persons, ot real, and are called so by per- sonification. To Nounsalso belong Cases.{| They are five in English, viz..—The Nominative, Objective, Possessive, Vocative, and Case Absolute. The Nominative Case simply expresses the name of a thing, or the subject of the verb, and usually precedes the Verb or Attribute; as, William loves Maria, William is the agent nominative, or subject to the Verb or Attribute loves; Maria is the object, or objective case governed by the active verb loves. (Vide Rule 11.) The objective Case usually comes after the Verb or * From Genus, asex, orkind. There is no such thing as a neuter gender, for Dr. Louth says, ‘‘ Itis the exclusion of all consideration of gender ;” there- fore such should, with propriety, be called a neuter noun. +From Mas, the male kind. {From Femina, in Latin, a woman; and from Ferme in French. A noun that is neither masculine nor feminine, is called the exclusion of all considera- tion of gender. || From Cado, to fall, or an inflexion from the nominative, which, like a right line in mathematics, is called Casws rectus, or the right case ; allthe rest are oblique. 4A SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. Preposition, as, “TI love religion ;” “In him dwelleth all the fulness of the Godhead bodily;” or, as in the above example of Maria. Religion is the object to the Verb Love: him is the object to the Preposition Jn, and Maria to the Verb Love. The Possessive Case implies possession, or property, and answers to what is called the Genitive in Latin; as, the Lord’s Day; Paul’s Epistles; John’s House. Its sign is an apostrophe placed over thes thus, John’s. But the possessive or genitive may be otherwise expressed ; as, this is the house of my father, or these are the epistles of St. Paul. ; The Vocative case is used in calling on or addressing a second person; as, ’tis said that he formed thee, Adam; thee O man! dust of the ground: or, O John! I love thee. The Noun being governed by no Preposition, nei- ther found as the agent or subject of a Verb expresssed or implied, must be in the Vocative Case. The Case Absolute which indeed answers to the Nomi- native, and is always such, only modified by a peculiar form of expression, is when a Noun or Pronoun precedes a Verb or Participle without the interference of a Verb or designation of time (except in a participial form); as, “The laws being good, the people were happy; ‘* The doors being shut Jesus stood in the midst.” The following words, which have been adopted from the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages, are thus dis- tinguished, with respect to number. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL, Cherub. Cherubim. Datum. Data. Seraph. Seraphim. Effluvium. Effluvia.. Antithesis. Antitheses. 5 Encomia or Automaton. Automata. Encomium. tones Basis. Bases. Erratum. Errata. . Crisis. Crises. Genius’ Genii. Criterion, Criteria. Genus. Genera. *From Vocatus or Voeo, to call; “a calling or summoning, or invitation.” —Virgil—Vide Encyclopedia Britannica for the authority of the vocative case. SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. i) Dieresis. . Dizreses. Indices or Ellipsis. Ellipses. Wee Indexes. Emphasis. Emphases. - Lamina. Lamine. Hypothesis. Hypotheses. Medium. Media. Metamor- Metamor- Magus. Magi. phosis. { phoses. Memoran- , Memoranda er Phcenomenon.Phcenomena. dum. Memorandums. A di f Appendices orRadius. Radu. *ppeners- Appendixes. Stamen. Stamina. Arcanum. Arcana. Stratum. Strata, AXis. Axes, Vortex. Vortices. Calx. Calces. PRONOUNS.* ‘ A Prownown isa word used instead of a noun to avoid the too frequent repetition of the nouns: as, ‘Solomon was wise; he governed Israel; ‘“‘The man is happy who lives virtuously. PRONOUNS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR CASES. Nominative Singular. Nominative Plural. L.2k: 1. We. 2. Thou. 2. Ye or you. 3. He, she, it. 3. They. There are three sorts of pronouns, viz., the personal, relative and adjective pronouns. There are five personal pronouns; viz., I, thou, he, she, it; with their plurals, we, ye or you, they. Personal pronouns admit of persop, number, gender, and case. The persons of pronounsare three in each of the numbers. I, is the first person Thou, is the second person | Singular He, she, or it, is the third person. We, is the first person Ye or you, is the second person \ Prural. They, is the third person Personal pronounsare such as relate to persons, and have three cases; the nominative, possessive, and objective. «From pro for and nomen, a name, being ita substitute or representative. 6 SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. Relative pronouns are suchas relate to some word or. phrase going before, which is thence called the antecedent: Who, which and what, are called interrogatives when they are used in asking ae : as, Who i is he? What is that? The possessive are such as relate to possession; viz., my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. PERSONAL OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS. Singular. Plural. 1 Me. 1 Us. 2 Thee. 2 You, is sometimes used as the nominative. 3 Him, her, whom. 3 Them. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. Singular. Plural, 1 My or mine. 1 Our. 2 Thine or yours. 2 Your. 3 His. 3 Thine. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVE, OR ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. Singular. * Plural. Singular. Plural. One. Ones. Other. Others. This. These. That Those. Thyself, yourself, yourselves, himself themselves.—-Him- self and themselves, whenever they belong to the nomina- tive, should be written himself and themselves. That is subject to three changes as it may be differently applied: as, ‘“‘ That man is wise ” here it is a demonstra— tive adjective pronoun. “The man that I saw;’’ here it isa relative pronoun. “ And that it is our duty to do justly ;” here it is a conjunction. ADJECTIVES.* Aw Apnsrcrive is a word added to a substantive to ex- press its quality or property, whether it be good or bad ; a fine flower, a fruitful tree, a wise king, a bad boy. In English Adjective shave no respect to Aine arin of nouns nor to number, except the prominal and nentioeel Adjec- * From ad, to and Jacio to put, to add or put to a noun. SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 7 tive Pronouns, viz. this and that, which make these and those ; and the numerals oxc, two, &c. when applied to Substantives. Grammarians generally reckon three degrees * of com- parison, the positive state may in some instances be a degree; as when we say, a wise man, a pruden,:wo- man, thisis a fair day, there is some reference made to men of wisdom, women of prudence and the state of the weather. : In other instances the degrees of comparison are innu- merable, for as much as qualities themselves are capable of encrease almost to infinity, even the color white may be encreased to a great number of degrees—as from a mole hill to the mountainsof Andes there are an incalcu- lable number of degrees, The positive state expresses the quality of an object without any, increase or diminution, as good wise, great. The comparative either increases or lessens the positive, as wise, greater, less wise. The superlative increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree, as wisest, greatest, least wise. The positive becomes comparative by adding r, or er to it, as wise, wiser; and the superlative is formed by adding st or est to the positive state; as, wisest, greatest, or least wise, and theadverbs, more and most placed before the adjective have the same effect; as wise, more wise, most wise. Monosyllables for the most part are compared by er or est, and dissyllables by more and most, as mild, milder, mildest, frugal, more frugal, most frugal. An adjective without a substantive with the definite article the before it, assumes the nature of a substantive and becomes one, as, there is a reward for the good and a punishment for the bad. Nouns put before other nouns become adjectives except * A degree, from gradus, a step: therefore the positive state, or first simple quality, cannot bea degree ; unless whena thing is said to be emphatically good ; as, ‘¢ There are two tables, but this zs a good one. 8 . SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. when. they are joined by a hyphen—then, they make one word, as sea-fish, wine-vessel :—without the hyphen, sea and wine are both adjectives when prefixed to substantives. Adjectives are also divided into cardinai and ordinal car- dinal, as one, two, three &c. ordinal, as first, second, third;- &c. , Degreesare also distinguished by the superlative of emi- nence rand the superlative of comparison : “as very, exceed- ingly, or other of similar import is called a degree of eminence, to distinguish it from the superlative GE com- parison. An adjective may be known by placing a sub- stantive after it and making sense: as, a swect apple. OF VERBS.* A Vers is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer: “Iam; I love; I am loved.” Verbs are of three-kinds, active, passive, and neuter; they are also divided into trausitive, intransitive, neuter, defective, irregular, and auxiliary. A verb Select expresses being, or a state, or condition * From verbum, a word by way of eminence, beisg the principal word ina sentence. + Verbs neuter are also divided into verbs sesalutely neuter, as, “I sleep 3” and entransitively neuter: as, ‘* I walk.” But these distinetion’ are. of very little use in grammar, although founded in nature. A lad is told that love is an active verb, and walk a verb neuter: he is at aloss what to think: “ Why, how is this? walk a verb neuter, and Jove an active verb! and what is the dif- ference? ‘There is certainly more action in the verb walk, than in love.” This no doubt might be the reasoning of thelad. But when he is told that the verb walk is an action confined to the person or agent that walks, that this action is not directed to any object, and that it does not affect any object; that itis - an intransitive action or verb; that all such actions that are contined to their respective agents are dictinenished by the name of neuter verbs; as, ‘* To sleep, torun, tomourn, to lve, to sit, &c.; and that the verb dove is caller ac- tive, because it is a passion of: the coal directed to some object: indeed, the term itself implies an object loved, and that all verbs that fall under this de- scription must have objects, and are called active. Still the pupil may not dis- tinguish them by their ddcoptation: They may be known by syimbols (i. e.) by placing a pronoun in the objective case, or a substantive, after them: as, *¢ John loves him or her ;” or, ‘¢ Jane loves ‘Charles: ” This cannot be applied to aneuter verb and make sense; for instance, it would be improper to say, ‘* John mourns Charles ;”’ or, ** John walks Diaries’ or walks him.” By a due and attentive ee ee ion of these observations, the student will be able to point out with precision the active from the neuter verb. SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 9 of being, or a sort of action which is entirely confined to the agent, and does not passto any object: as, “I am; 1 sleep; I sit.” A verb active or transitive expresses an action, and ne- cessarily implies an agent or actor, and an object acted upon, or an object to which the action is directed: as, “to love;” “I love Casandra.” Casandra is the object to which the passion of my love is directed. Such verbs are also called: transitive, because the action passes from the agent to the object. Verbs are called active intransitive when the action is altogether confined to the agent, and does not pass to, or affect any object: as, “ Cicero walked, or ran, &c. Verbs are called absolutely neuter when they are used to express an attribute that is altogether confined to the agent: as, “Socrates stood, or Cato slept; or, I sit.” Verbs are called passive when they express a passion or a suffering, or the receiving of an action, and necessarily imply an object acted upon and an agent by which it is acted upon: as, “’l'o be loved;’’ “ Casandra is loved by me.” Or, they are called passive when they express not action but passion, or suffering, whether pleasing or pain- ful: as, “ Darius was conquered by Alexander.” In verbs passive the agent and object change places. (Seeexample of Darius, &c.) Verbs are also divided into regular, irregular, defective, and auxiliary. Regular verbs are those which terminate in d or ed: as, ** Loved; received.” Irregular verbs are those which terminate in enor ¢: as, “ Brought; taken.” | Defective verbs are those which can only be used in some of their modesand tenses; as, ‘* Am, was, can, will, may, &c.” Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which the prin- cipal verbs are congugated: they are be, do, have, shall, will, can, may, with their variations/et and musi, which have no variations. The auxiliary verbs, such as do, shall, will, 10 SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. may, can and must, are in reality separate verbs, and were originally used as such.” The Conjugation of a verb, is the regular combination and arrangement of its several nnmbers, persons, moods, and tenses. The Conjugation of an active verb is styled the acrivs voice; and that ofa passive verb, the passrvE VoIcE. The auxiliary and active verb ro nave, is conjugated in the following manner. TO HAVE. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. Pers. I have. 1. We have. 2. Pers. Thou hast. 2. Yeor you have. _ 8. Pers. He, she, or ne hath or has. 3. They have. IMPERFECT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I Had. 1. We had. 2. Thou hadst. 2. Ye or you had. 3. He, &c. had. 3. They had PERFECT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I have had. 1. We have had. 2. Thou hast had. 2. Ye or you have had. 3. He has had. 3. They have had. PLUPERFECT TENSE. SINGULAR, PLURAL. 1. I had had. 1. We had had. 2. Thou hadst had. 2. Yeor youhad had. 3. He had had. 3. They had had. FIRST FUTURE TENSE. J SINGULAR. PLURAL. , T shall or will have. 1. We shall or will have. — 1. 2. Thou shalt or wilt have. 2. Yeoryoushallorwillhave 3. Heshall or will have. 3. They shall or will have. SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. ll SECOND FUTURE TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I shall have had. 1. We shall have had. 2. Thou wilt have had. 2. Ye or you will have had. 3.. He will have had. 3. They will have had. IMPERATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. Let me have. 1. Let us have. 2. Have, or have thou, or 2. Have, or have ye, or do ye do thou have. or you have. 3. Let him have. 3. Let them have. The imperative mood is not strictly entitled to three persons. ‘The command is always addressed to the second person, not to the first or third. For when we say, “ Let me have,” ‘‘ Let him, or let them have,” the meaning and construction are do thou, or do ye, let me, him, or them have. Strictly speaking both number and_per- son might be excluded from every verb. ‘They are, in fact, the properties of substantives, not a part of the essence of a verb. - Even the name of the imperative mood, does not always correspond to its nature: for it sometimes petitions as well as commands, But, with re- spect to all these points, the practice of our grammarians is so uniformly fixed, and so analogous to the languages, ancient and modern, which our youth have to study, that it would be an unwarrantable degree of innovation, to deviate from the established terms and arrangements, POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. Imay or can have. 1. Wemay or can have. 2, Thou maystorcansthave. 2. Yeoryoumay orcan have, 3. He may or can have. 8. They may or can have. 12 “ SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. IMPERFECT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. We might, could, would, 1. I might, could, would, or or should have. should have. 2. Ye or you might, could, 2. Thou mightst, couldst, would, or should have. wouldst, or shouldst have. 3. They might, could, 3. He might, could, would, would, or should have. or should have. PERFECT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. [may or can have had. 1. We may or can have had. 2. Thou mayst or canst 2. Ye or you may or can have had. have had. 3. He may or canhavehad. 3. They may or canhavehad. PLUPERFECT TENSE. SINGULAR. ‘ PLURAL. 1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, should have had. or should have had. 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, wouldst, or shouldsthave would, or should have had. had. 3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or should have had. or should have had. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. SINGULAR. eg PLURAL. 1. If I have. 1. If we have. 2. Ifthou have. 2. If ye or you have. 3, If he have. 3. If they have. *Except that the second and third persons, singular and plural, of the se- cond future tense, require the auxiliary shall, shall, instead of wilt, well Thus, ** He wil? have completed his work by midsummer,” is the indicative orm; but the subjunctive is, ‘If he shall have completed the work by mid: sUIMIMET, SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. a8 The remaining tenses or forms of the subjunctive mood, are, in every respect, similar to the corresponding tenses of the indicative mood ; with the addition of the verb, of a conjunction, expressed or implied, denoting a condi- tion, motive, wish, supposition, &c. - INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. ‘Lo have. PerFect. 'l’o have had. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT OR ACTIVE. Having. PERFECT. Had. COMPOUND PERFECT. Having had. The auxiliary and neuter verb ro Be is conjugated as follows: . . 7 TO BE. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. Tam. 1. We are. 2. Thou art. 2. Yeor you are. 3. He, she, or it is. 3. They are. IMPERFECT TENSE. SINGUBAR. PLURAL. 1. I was. 1. We were. 2. Thou wast. | -2..Ye or you were. 3. He was. 3. They were. PERFECT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I have been. 1. We have been. 2. Thou hast been. “2. Ye or you have been. 3. He hath or has been. 3, They have been. PLUPERFECT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I had been. 1. We had been. 2. Thou hadst been. 2. Ye or you had been. 3. He had been. 3. They had been. B 14: SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR, — FIRST FUTURE TENSE. . SINGULAR. PLURAL. i. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. ©, Thou shalt or wilt be. 2. Yeor you shall or will be. 3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. SECOND FUTURE TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 2. Thou wilt have been. 2. Ye or you will have been. 3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. IMPERATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. Let me be. 1. Let us be. 2. Be thou or do thou be. 2. Be ye or you, or do ye be. 3. Let him be. 3. Let them be. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. i. 1 may or can be. 1. We may or can be. 2. Thou mayst or canst be. 2. Ye or you may or can be. 3. He may or can be. 3. They may or can be. IMPERFECT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. i. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, should be. or should be. 2, Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, wouldst, or shouldst be. would, or should be. 3. He might, could, would, 3. They might,could,would, or should be. or should be. PERFECT TENSE. SINGULAR, PLURAL. . I may or can have been. 1. Wemay or can have been. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may oer can. - been. - have been. He may or can have been, 3. They may or can have been. SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 15 PLUPERFECT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. i. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, should have been. or should have been. 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should have been. been. 3. He might, could, would, 3. ‘They might,could, would, or should have been. or should have been SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. i. If I be. 1. If we be: 2. If thou be. 2. If ye or you be. 3. If he be. 3. If they be. IMPERFECT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. If I were. 1. If we were. 2. If thou wert 2. If yeor you were 3. If he were, 3. If they were. The remaining tenses or forms of this mood are, in ge- neral, similar to the correspondent tenses of the Indica- tive mood. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. To be. perrect. ‘To have been. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. Being. PERFEcT. Been. COMPOUND PERFECT. Having been. TO HAVE. PRESENT TENSE. Sing. 1. I have. 2. Thou hast. 3. He hath or has. Plur. 1. We have. 2. Ye or you have. 3. ‘They have. IMPERFECT TENSE. | Sing. 1. I had. 2. Thou hadst. 3. He had. Plur. 1. Wehad. 2, Ye or you had. 3. They had. perFect. I have had, &c. pexrurerrect. I had had, &c. 16 Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Plur. Sing. Plur. SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. Having. | PERFECT. Had. 1. Tam. 2, We are. 1. I was. 1. We were. PRESENT. . 1. IT shail. Plur. 1. We shall. 1. Tshould. .1. We should. ~1. EP will. 1. We will. 1. E would. 1. We would. 1, I may. TO BE. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Thou art. 3. He is. 2. Ye or youare. 3. They are: IMPERFECT TENSE. 2. Thou wast. 3. He was. ; aN 2. Ye or you were. 3. They were. PARTICIPLES. Being. PERFECT. Been. SHALL. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Thou shalt. 3. He shall. 2. Ye or you shall. 3. They shall. IMPERFECT TENSE. 2. Thou shouldst. 3. He should. 2.Yeoryoushould.3. They should. WILL. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Thou wilt. 3..He will. 2. Ye or you will. 3. They will. IMPERFECT TENSE. | 2. Thou wouldst. 3. He would. 2. Yeoryouwould. 3. They would. MAY. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Thou mayst. 3. He may. Plur. 1. We may. 2. Ye or you may. 3. They may. IMPERFECT TENSH. Sing. 1. Imight. 2. Thou mightst. 3: He might. .1. We might. 2. Yeoryou might. 3. They might. SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. 17 CAN. PRESENT TENSE. Sing. 1. I can. 2. Thou canst. 3. He can, Plur. 1. Wecan. 2. Yeor you can. 3. They can. IMPERFECT TENSE. Sing. 1. T could. 2. Thou couldst. 3. He could. Plur. 1. We could. 2. Ye or youcould. 3. They could. TO DO. | PRESENT TENSE. Sing. 1. I do. 2. Thou dost. 3. He doth or does, Plur.1. Wedo. 2. Yeoryoudo. 3. They do. IMPERFECT TENSE. Sing. 1. I did. 2. Thou didst. 3. He did. Plur, 1. Wedid. 2. Yeor youdid. 3. They did. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. Doing. PERFECT. Done. N.B.—When have, be, will and do, are not connected to any other verbs; they are principal verbs: as, *‘ We have a sufficiency,” &c. — OF THE MODES OF VERBS. Tuere are five modes* of verbs, viz., the indicativet, imperative, potential, subjunctivel], and infinitives. The indicative simply indicates or declares: as, “ I love or am loved.” * ¥rom Modus, a form. + From Indico, to shew: { From Jmpero, to command, \| From Sub, under, and Jungo, to join: and likewise the conjunctive, be- cause conjunctions precede the sentence, and are signs of it. § From Jnfinitivus, without bounds. The infinitive is called an abstract noun, ‘‘remarking that if affirmation be the essence of the verb, the infini- tive is no part of the verb at all: to write expresses no affirmation, or com- plete sentence; but ‘I am wrtting,’ affirms something.” It does not appear to me, that want of affirmation excludes the infinitive from being classed with | t a verbs. 4: NOTE.—The whole number of verbs in the English language is about 4300. The whole number of irregulars, including the defective, is about 117. 18 SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. The imperative commands, exhorts, or entreats; as, ‘Depart thou;” * Retreat in haste ;” “ Remember your duty.” The potential implies possibility, liberty, power, will, or obligation: as, “‘He may run;” “ Jane should go;” “William might learn.” The subjunctive skews a thing under a condition, mo- tive, wish, or supposition: as, “If I write, though James remonstrate, he will not renounce his sins.” The infinitive expresses a thing in a general and un- limited manner, without any distinction of number or person: ‘as, “ To act, to write, to run.” PARTICIPLE. Tue Participle* is a certain mode of the verb, and de- rives its name from ils participating not only of the pro- perties of a verb, but those of on adjective: as, “ J am desirous of knowing him ;” ‘‘ Caressed and applauded she became vain.” : There are two participles belonging to most verbs: the active, which ends in ing: as, love, loving; write, writing : and the passive, which ends in d, ed, or n: as, preseut love, participle past /oved; slay, slain; teach, taught,&c. Par- ticiples, like verbs, govern nouns, or pronouns in the ob- jective case in the same manner, as the verbs do from which they are derived. ADVERBS.+ Aw Adverb is a word added to a verb, an adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to denote the peculiar manner, circumstance, modification and degree of the ac- tion or quality in respect to order, time, place, manner, quality, quantity, negation, affirmation, number, interro- gation, comparison, &c. * From Partic:pio, to partake. + From ad, to, and verbusm, a word, being put or added to a verb. SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. ie) ADVERBIAL ARRANGEMENT. First, of number; 2, order; 3, place; 4, time past, present, to come, and time indefinite; 5, quantity; 6, manner or quality; 7,doubt; 8, affirmation ; 9, negation ; 10, interrogation; 11, comparison; besides others which are formed by the combination of prepositions with ad- verbs: as, herein, therein, Xc. CONJUNCTIONS.* A Consuncrion is a part of speech used to join words or sentences together. They are generally divided into two sorts, the copulative and disjunctive. The copulative connects words and sentences: as, “‘ Pen andink;” “ Hap- piness is the offspring of virtue, and they are both desir- able.” The conjunction disjunctive likewise connects words and sentences, but disjoins the sense or meaning : as, “I or Ann shall write;” ‘‘Cato fell by suicide, but Cesar by Brutus and others.” THE PRINCIPAL CONJUNCTIONS. _ Although, and, as, than, if, less, neither, unless, not- withstanding, but, either, for, yet, nor, or, so, that, both, and a few others which become conjunction by their pe- culiar application; as, that is sometimes a conjunction, and in other instances, a relative pronoun, and also a de- monstrative pronoun. PREPOSITIONS.+ Prepositions, like conjunctions, connect words with one another, and shew the relation between them: as, “He went from Manchester to London;” “ He 1s above * From Con, with, and Jungo, to join. Grammarians have given various other appellations to these conjunctions ; as, positive, suppositive, casual, eollective, simple, adversative, and adequate conjunctions. [Vide Harris’ Hermes. | ; + From Pre, before, and Pono, to place. The great use of prepositions in English is, that they answer those relations which, in other languages, are marked by cases, 20 SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMAR. the skies; he is hailed by Angels.” Prepositions, when prefixed to verbs, participate in degree of the nature and meaning of the verbs to which they are connected: as, to cast, that is, to throw. To cast up, is to reckon; to give, is to bestow; but to give over, is to cease from ac- tion. In these instances, viz., when the preposition is prefixed to the verb, it becomes an adverb, or takes the nature of one. INTERJECTIONS.* An Interjection is a word that is used to express some passion or emotion of the mind, and is produced by some- thing surprising, wonderful, admirable, &c.: as, Oh! ah! alas!| They may be classed in the following order :—Of insignificance; as, pish! tush !—Of wonder; as, heigh! really! strange !—Of calling; as, here! ho! so ho !— Of aversion or disgust; as, foh! fie! away !—Of arrest- ing the attention; as, lo! behold! hark !—Of command- ingsilence; as, hush! hist !—Of salutation; as, welcome! hail! all hail !—besides many others used by the canaile which cannot be called language. * Erom Inter, between, and Jacio, to throw: as, ‘Ob! joy thou weleome stranger,” AN ESSAY ON THE SYNTAX OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. EY CADDY i _ “A-verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person: as “I learn;” “Thou art im- proved ;” “The birds sing.’’* The nominative, agent, or subject of the verb has, oris supposed to be invested with power, and usually precedes the verb; so the nominative case is said to govern the verb or attribute, and the verb is put either in the singu- lar or plural number, to shew the number of the nomina- tive case; for all verbs are either more or less under the controul of their actors or agents: as, “ Cyrus gives orders to rebuild Jerusalem.” . The verb gives is put in the singular number to agree with its nominative case Cyrus. “Solomonand David were kings.” The verb were is plural to agree with Solomon and David. * To show that this rule is not arbitrary, or established by custom, let the rule be reversed, (i. e.) the verb must govern the nominative case in number and-person. This requires no demonstration to prove its absurdity ; as it is the same as to say, that the effect is prior to the cause—that the action pre- ceded the actor. Indeeed, if the fundamental rules of grammar be arbitrary, any of the modern linguists or grammarians, have equal right to change, or ‘form new rules, as the ancient literati had; but this has not been attempted, because the fundamental laws of our language are founded on the basis of its principles and analogy. In the rude ages of the world men expressed their wants, &c., according to nature—rules were afterwards adapted to this lan- guage, for the true language of nature is grammatical. 22 ESSAY ON. SYNTAX. In historical relations, and when a thing is said to be, or not to be, the leading state of the noun is not endued with the power of active agency, like that of Cyrus giv- ing orders to rebuild Jerusalem; still the nominative re- tains its government: as, ‘‘ Carthage was conquered by the Romans;”’ ‘“‘Greece was famous for seven wise men.” This government is by analogy, for the agent or nomina- tive has power to modify the action, hence all actions are subsequent to their agents,and made subservient to them: as, ‘King William conquered James.” William is the nominative or agent to the verb, or passive participle conquered, and James is the object (or as some call it the objective case). But when the verb is made passive, the agent and the object change places: as, ‘‘James was con- quered by William.” From this it is obvious, that the nominative does not always denote the actor or agent, but answers to what is called the leading state of the noun, and the substantive that receives the force of the verb or preposition, is called the object, or objective case. “ The infinitive mood or part of a sentence, is some times put as the nominative case to the verb: as, “To see the sun is pleasant;” ‘To be good is to be happy ;” “A desire to excel others in learning is commendable.” In like manner, the infinitive mood may be the object, or objective case to the verb: as, “John loves play or to” play.”” Here the infinitive mood ‘to play,” is the object : to the verb loves. Every verb must have a nominative case expressed, or understood; as every action implies some agent. It is impossible to form any correct idea of a verb abstracted from some correspondent agent, there- fore, every force exerted must be dependent, and conse- quent to its cause, so all actions are either more or less subject to their agents. When the infinitive mood becomes the nominative case to a verb it assumes the nature of a substantive: as, to see the sun is pleasant, (i. e.) the action of beholding the sun is pleasant; and as to see the sun is only expres- sive of a singular action the verb is put in the singular ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 23 number 7s, and made to agree with its nominative case, ‘* to see the sun,” in the singular number. It has been observed, that every verb must have a no- minative case, but the infinitive mood has neither num- ber or person, or nominative case; and the Stoics held this infinitive in such estimation in their grammatical en- quiries, that they asserted it to be the genuine PHMA, or verb, a name which they denied to all other moods; their reasoning was, they considered the true verbal cha- racter to be contained simple and unmixed in the infini- tive only; thus, the infinitives ambulare, to walk, mean simply that energy, and nothing more. The other modes, besides expressing this energy superadded certain affec- tions which respect persons and circumstances : thus, am- bulo and ambula mean not simply to walk, but mean I walk, and walk thou; hence, they are all of them resolv- able into the infinitive, as their prototype, together with some sentence or word expressive of their proper charac- ter, ambulo, l-walk, this is, indico me ambulare, 1 declare myself.to walk, ambula, walk thou, that is, impero te am- bulare, 1 command thee to walk, and so with the modes of every other species. Take away the assertion and command, or whatever else gives to any of these modes, and there remains nothing more than the mere infinitive. [ Vide Hermes. | The infinitive cannot have a definitive or specific no- minative case, because it expresses a thing without any distinction of number or person in an unlimited manner, as, “to read,” ‘to love,” although the words read and love both imply action ; they are vague and abstracted, — and unconnected with any specific agents, therefore, the infinitive is said. to have no nominative case. From the definition of a verb, itis plain there can be no action independent of an agent, although grammarians do not connect any agent to the infinitive form of the verb; yet, when it is said, “to love,” “to hate,” the idea of an agent cannot be totally abstracted trom the verbs love.and hate; for, there could be neither love nor hatred were there no agents or persons to love or hate. s 94 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. It is also observed, that the case absolute has no no- minative: the case absolute is when the substantive has’ no persona} tense of a verb, but is put before the partici- ple independently of the rest of the sentence: as, “shame being lost, all virtue is lost,” “ the doors being shut Je- sus stood in the midst.” What is meant by the verb having no personal tense is, that there is no distinct time of the action or of the par- ticiple marked by any of the usual or common modes of the inflections of the verb, or participle, but the sentence may may be transposed thus, “the person that has lost all shame has lost all virtue.” The doors were shut when Jesus stood in the midst; or, the doors having been shut, Jesus made his way through, and stood in the midst, From this arrangement of the words it appears plainly enough, that there is a nominative case implied in the case absolute. In the first sentence shame is the nominative to the participle, active being lost; in the second, doors is the nominative to the participle being shut, for the par- ticiple is a certain form of the verb, or a certain modifi- cation of the attribute. Impersonal verbs (so called) are those verbs that have no reference to any personal agents as their nominative cases, as, “it rains, it hails, it snows.” The pronoun it has for its antecedent the atmesphere, or the alembic of nature, and the atmosphere is under the influence of the great architect of nature, who manages all things accord- ing to the counsel of his will, and sends forth the frost, snow, and the fruitful showers in their seasons. From “this, it appears, that there cannot be any such.thing as an ‘Impersonal verb, as there is no species of motion or ac- tion which every verb, either more or less, implies, inde- pendent of some agent. Every verb* signifies either being, doing, or suffering; so there can be no being, * When the verb fo de stands between a singular and a plural. nominative, it agrees with the one next to it, or with the one which is more naturally the subject of it: as, “‘ The wages of sin is death.” ‘This is a vague statement of the rule. Suppose we say, ‘‘ Death zs the wages of sin;” then wages comes next to the verb; for what is meant by the word next to the verb, is, the word coming after the verb. By the above mode of expressing the Tule, wages may ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 25 doing, or suffering, unless through the medium of some agent or first cause. For instance, a king implies sub- jects; achief or commander, an army to be commanded ; every force exerted has a reference to some first cause; even verbs called absolutely neuter (if such can be) reci- procate their actions to their respective agents, as, I walk, this wearies me; I sit, this eases me; I sleep, this refreshes me ; I stand, this sometimes fatigues me. Hence, the definition of a neuter verb is obviously wrong, which is, ‘a verb neuter expresses neither action nor passion,” &c. There is no verb in any language that answers to this description. If there were no action in standing, sleeping, sitting, walking, or running, there would be no result from these actions. It would be much better to call those verbs intransitive, because the action of a neu- ter verb is solely confined to the agent, and does not pass to any object. ‘ EXAMPLES. Disappointments sinks the heart of man. The verb should be sink in the plural number to make it agree with its nominative case disappointments. ‘The renewal of hope give consolation; the verb should be gives to accord with renewal, its nominative case. Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of flour. The verb should be contain to agree with pounds in the plural number. He dare not proceed in such haste ; dare should be dares in the singular number, to agree with he the third person singular. The mechanism of clocks and watches were unknown afew centuries ago. Were should be was to agree with its nominative case mechanism. Clocks and watches are both in the objective or accusative case by the proposi- tion of: unknown is an adjective giving quality to me- chanism: few is an adjective to centuries; centuries, a be the nominative case; but it is evident, that death is the real subject of the verb; therefore, the subject of the verb should be always made the nomina- tive to the verb ; of course there is not a clear decision given to the expression of the rule. ‘e ied se C 26 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. substantive common, plural number, third person, objec- tive case by the preposition of understood, thus, was un- known in the space of a few centuries; ago, an adverb of time. James are studious, and make a good progress. The neuter verb are should be is, to make it agree with its nominative case James, vide, rule Ist. The active verb make should be makes, to accord with the pronoun he understood, thus, “and he makes a good progress ;” the substantive progress is the objective case by the verb makes. RULE II. Two or more nouns, &c. in the singular number joined together by a copulative conjunction, expressed or understood, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing with them in the plural number; as, “Soc- rates and Plato were wise ; they were the most eminent philosophers of Greece ;” “The sun that rolls over eur heads, the food that we receive, the rest that we enjoy, daily admonish us of a superior and superin- tending Power.” By the first rule in syntax, a noun of the singular num- ber must have a verb of the singular number to agree with it: so two nouns, coupled by a conjunction, form the plural number, and the verb is made plural also to agree with them ; as, ‘¢ William and Mary were amicable.” This rule is merely an amplification of rule Ist. When one word is put to express another, as, that of the pronoun being put for the noun; if the noun be of the plural number, the pronoun must be plural also; as, ‘the pu- pils were studious ;” ‘“‘tkey were diligent.” The following sentences, although warranted by the authority of Hume, Priestly, and others, and also by the original principles of grammar, are censured by the late Mr. Murray as not being formed upon just principles of grammatical construction. ‘‘A long course of time, with a variety of accidents and circumstances, are requi- ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 27 site to produce those resolutions.” ‘The king with the lords and commons form an excellent frame of govern- ment.” ‘The side A, with the side B and C compose the triangle.” ‘The fire communicated itself to the bed, which, with the furniture of the room and a valua- ble library, were all consumed.” In the first sentence, ‘a long course of time, with a variety of accidents,” &c. ; course and variety are the nominative case to the verb are, for, although variety is in the objective case by the preposition with, yet it is connected to course, in order “to produce the resolutions;” indeed, the whole of the latter clause of the sentence is united to the first part, ‘a long course of time;” it is true, that accidents and circumstances are both the objective cases by the prepo- sition of, but when considered as necessarily and inse- parably united to produce resolutions: variety, accidents, and circumstances, although they be in the objective case, are the subject of the verb are*. ‘The king, with the lords and commons form, &c.,” King is the singular number, and is connected with lords and commons in true sense and acceptation; consequently forms should be form; for it is not the king alone that forms a frame of government; the lords and the commons are united, and lords and commons are both the objective case by the preposition with: still in their acceptation, position and office, they are in conjunction with the king, in order to form an excellent frame of government. The foregoing * When a nominative has a clause joined to it by with, it is often difficult to determine whether the verb should be singular or plural, especially as our most popular authors use sometimes the one and sometimes the other; for example, some would say, ‘‘ My friend with his brother was in town yester- day.’ Others would say, ‘* My friend, with his brother, were in town.” The sense should be our guide, and nothing else can guide us in a case of this kind. It is evident that the verb should be plural, for both friend and brother are the joint subject of the affirmation, and decldred to be both in town. «« When the noun that precedes wth is exclusively the real subject of the verb, it should be singular. ‘Christ, with his three chosen disciples, was transfigured on the mount.’ Here the verb is singular, because none but Christ was transfigured ; the disciples were not participators in the transfigu- ration. 28 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. > reasoning will be found applicable to other similar examples. EXAMPLES. “Sand, salt, and a mass of iron, zs easier to bear than a man without understanding.” Here the verb és is put in the singular number to agree with sand, salt, and a mass of iron, separately, not collect- ively, in order to render the assertion more emphatical ; for repetition and analysis give energy and clearness to some assertions and propositions, (i. e.) it is easier to bear sand, it is easier to bear salt, and it is easier to beara mass of iron, than it is to bear a man without an under- standing. However, such sentences seldom occur in com- position: when they do, they are not to be considered as a deviation from the second rule of syntax. This mode may very properly be termed circumlocution, for the sake of rendering the sense more energetical : still, perhaps it would be more consonant to the principles of grammar to put the conjunction or before mass of iron, and then the verb is would be correctly and more appropriately used. “Tf the singular nouns and pronouns which are joined together by a copulative conjunction, be of several per- sons, in making the plural pronoun to agree with them in person, the second person takes the place of the third, and the first of both: as, ‘James, and thou, and I, are attach- ed to our country;’ ‘You and he shared it between you.’ 29 , The nominative case to the verb are is, James, thou, and I, and if the elliptical words were supplied, it would read thus: James is attached, thou art attached, and I am attached, each to his country; but by omitting the elliptical words, the pronoun we stands for James, thou and I: as, “We are attached to our country ;” ‘‘ Thou and he shared it between you.” The verb shared does not agree with thou, but for brevity and gracefulness the elliptical word that should be inserted, to agree with the pronoun thou, is left out: as, “ Thou didst share, or - ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 29 thou sharedst it;” ‘‘ And he shared it between you.” ‘The pronoun you is of the plural number, although in the polite style it is used in the singular. ‘In looking for the nominative of asentence, take care that the relative pronoun be not astumbling block, for relatives have no changes, to denote number or per- son; and though they may sometimes appear to be of themselves nominatives, they never can be such.”—Wr. Cobbett. According to this assertion there is no nominative case in grammar, except such as has God for the agent to the verb, for agreeably to the definition of a nominative case, it is the leading state of the noun, or the agent to the verb, or the person, cause, or thing that performs or ef- fects (or that is influential in) the operation, either phy- sically or metaphysically, in any of the occurrences of nature. Hence, God, as the principal mover of all creat- ed being, in the economy of his providence, is the great nominative case to every verb expressive of the benevolent display of his goodness to lapsed humanity. Hence, every agent in nalure owes its power of agency, or action to this “ great first cause.” Pronouns are put to represent nouns, or they stand in the place of nouns, and in a metaphysical sense, to supply the place of their respective agenis; consequently, pro- nouns are other names for nouns or substantives, and can be logically proved to be of the same species, conse- quently of the same genus with the nouns which they re- present. . When the pronouns he, she or dé, or their plurals, pre- cede verbs, reference is had to the antecedents, or nouns for which they stand. If the antecedent be man, the pro- noun ke conveys all the ideas represented by man (i. e.) soul, bones, sinews, arteries, veins, and immortality itself. But words are not substances, but sounds by which we distincuish matter and its various modifica- tions; then it follows, that pronouns when traced to their antecedents, as light when traced to its origin, the al 30 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. sun, perform the offices of nominative cases to their re- spective verbs. Indeed, pronouns thus considered, are of the same species of the nouns for which they stand. He, when it refers to man, has every thing understood in the species that is to be foundinthe genus. The pronoun he, when it is put for man, implies ail those ideas that are necessarily connected to, and expressive of the term man. Words are signs of ideas, and words are nominative cases to verbs; consequently signs of ideas are sometimes cases to verbs :—pronouns are signs of ideas, ergo, pronouns are nominative cases to verbs. It is true, in the expression he writes or he analyses, reference is necessary to find out who is the antecedent to the proneun he; but if this be assigned as a reason that pronouns of themselves, inde- pendently of their antecedents, are not nominative cases, verbs of themselves, cannot, independently of their respec- tive Lominative cases, or agents, perform the office of verbs; for verbs are only words expressive of operations, and have reference to agents. EXAMPLES. ‘Much do human pride and self-complacency requires some correction.” The active verb should be require, not requires, by the second rule insyntax. AZuch isan adverb. ‘*Much wisdom and much grief is inconsistent in one per- son.” The neuter verb should be are. [See Rule II.] Much is an adjective, because it qualifies wisdom and grief.» ‘‘ Where much are given and much are required there isno injustice.” The neuter verb should be is in both places [pr. Rule I.], to make it agree with its nomi- native case much, because much is a substantive in this ex- ample. RULE Ul. ‘The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary io that of the conjunction copulative; for as the verb, noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken separately, it must be in the singular number: as, “ Ignorance or negligence has caused this mistake ;’? ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 31 “John, James, or Joseph intends to accompany me ;” “There ts, in many minds, neither knowledge nor un- derstanding*.” Or, in other words, when either the conjunctions nor, or neither comes between words or nouns, the verbs be- longing to these words or nouns must be in the singular tiumber: as, ‘‘ Neither Paul nor Apollos was carnally minded ;” ‘* William or Mary was the abettor ;” “ Igno- rance or negligence was the cause that the professor did not understand the knowledge of salvation by the remis- sion of sins.” The conjunction zor does not point out whether it was William or Mary that was the abettor, nor the conjunc- tion or, whether it was ignorance or negligence that was the cause why the man did not understand the knowledge of salvation by the remission of sins; so that either ofthese eonjunctions leaves the reader in doubt which of the nouns should be the nominative case to the verb. Refer- ence is only to one noun, therefore the verb must be of the singular number to agree with a singular noun. [ Vide Rule I.] Another variety may arise under this rule: example, «* The love of money, or ambition, or both, were the cause of the great monopoly of the profits of commerce, and the misery of the poor.” Here, the conjunction or, that precedes the iatter clause of the sentence, implies that perhaps both were the cause, and upon this presumption, that both were united in the cause, the verb is put in the plural number, were. The conjunctions nor and neither are used as negatives: as,‘ Weitther the doctor nor the lawyer understood the * How it is possible to reconcile this definition to common sense, is not easy to define ; (i. e.) ‘‘ a conjunction disjunctive,” or a word that joins and dis- joins, is apparently a contradiction both in terms and meaning. It is true, the purport is, that the disjunctive conjunction disjoins the meaning, but joins the sentences : as, James or Jane received the visitors.” The conjunction or leaves it in ineertitude whether it were James or Jane that received the visi- tors. Would it not be more pertinent to call it a conjunction of ancertainty, or an indefinite conjunction, than a “* dasfunctive conjunction.” 32 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. doctrine of John, viz., ‘ He that is born of God doth not commit sin.” If nor, or the conjunction or, separate nouns of different persons and numbers, care must be taken to associate such noun or pronoun with its respec- tive verb, and to make the verb agree with the antecedent to which itbelongs. Example; ‘Thouor I am to blame.” The verb am is made to agree with the first person singu- lar, but does not agree with thou. The grammatical form of the sentence is thus: “’Fhou art to blame, and I am to blame.” This mode of expression is not so ele- gant: however, as far as the sense and a graceful flow of language will permit, it is more elegant to give each nominative its proper concord. Some ancient grammarians held that the infinitive mood was the genuine verb; others, that the essence of the verb consisted in affirmation, which, if allowed, would exclude the participle and the infinitive mood from their place in the verbs: but that the participle isa mere mood of the verb is manifest, if the definition of a verb be ad- mitted, for it either signifies being, doing, or saffering,. with the designation of time superadded; so the partici- ple is a species of the verb. EXAMPLES. ‘Pompey or Cwsar were the cause of the civil war in Rome.” The neuter verb were should be was, to make it agree with Pompey or Caesar in the singular number: and cause is the nominative case, coming after the neuter verb was. : ‘*James or Mary were the cause of the bloodshed.” Were should be was, per rule 3rd. Bloodshed the ob- jective case by the preposition of. ‘“‘Man’s happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his own hands.” The verb are should be is, to agree with either happiness or misery in the singular number. ‘« Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any con- dition of life, for they are, perhaps, to be your own lot.” ESSAY ON SYNTAX; 33 They should be it, to agree ‘with infirmity, or condition in the singular number. “Man is not such a machine as a clock ora watch, which moves merely as they are moved.” ‘The verb moves should be move, to agree with clock or watch in the sin- gular number, and as the antecedents to the relative, which are taken separately. “The relative is of the same person with the antecedent, and the verb agrees with the antecedent accordingly.”” The personal pronoun they should be it, to accord with clock or watch in the singu- lar; and the neuter verb are should be is, to agree seiili either clock or watch in the singular number. RULE IV. A noun of multitude, or signifying many, may have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it, either of the sin- gular or plural number ; yet not without regard to the import of the word, as conveying unity or plurality of idea: as, “The meeting was large ;” “'The parliament is dissolved ;” “The nation ¢s powerful ;” “My peo- ple do not consider: they have not known me ;” “The multitude eagerly purswe pleasure as ther chief good ;” “The council were divided in their sentiments.” Every noun of multitude is indicative of more than one, but many nouns of multitude admit of the plural form, as parliament, society, council, church; in such instances due regard must be had to the meaning of such nouns as convey unity or plurality of idea: as, “ The* church is the care of heaven;” not are, because every congregation of the faithful forms a church, and is *“ A part of the army was intercepted.” Part, although composed of many individuals, is the singular number, and should have a verb of the sin- gular to agree with it. Butif it be said, that a part of the Russian troops was scattered and destroyed, the verb should be were, as part in this place conveys the idea of plurality, which is evident from the latter part of the sen- tence, (i. e.) ‘* The Russian troops were scattered.” It is difficult to give any definite rule for the many sentences that occur in composition similar to the above: the import will be the best guide to the student. 34 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. equally the care of heaven as the whole collective body. But if it be said, the council was divided in their senti- ments, it should be were, because the word divided refers to a plurality of persons taken separately, and differing in opinion from each other, consequently, council is ex- pressive of a plurality of idea. When the noun of multitude is distinctly expressive of plurality, it will be necessary to. express the agencies of the noun of multitude by a plural attribute or verb: as, “The society were of divers opinions.” Here the word society has a plural signification, and the verb should be were, to agree with this plurality of acceptation, and the pronoun should also be in the plural number, viz., thetr. EXAMPLES. «The assembly of the wicked have enclosed me.” The verb have is plural to agree with its nominative case as- sembly, for, although assembly can be made plural, it evidently conveysa plurality of idea, which is plain from the word enclosed, or surrounded. ‘The construction of © this rule is founded on the first rule; therefore, in what place soever it may be necessary to use a noun of multi- tude care must be taken to see whether it requires a verb of the singular or plural number, which the sense of the phrase itself will direct. ‘ it should be “ himself,” as the distributive adjective every» points individually, in the singular number, to the woe human family. The adjective usually precedes the substantive, but, in many instances, it may, with propriety, come after it, especially in poetry: as, “A man, generous, kind, and good.” When the adjective is emphatical ; as, Alexan- der the great ;’’ “Paul the pious.” Again, when an ad- verb comes after a substantive: as,” A boy regularly stu- dious.” Sometimes adjectives become substantives: as, ‘The chief good; “The vast immense of space.” The word mean is made use of to denotea middle state: as, «« This is a mean between the extremes.” RULE IX. The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singu- lar number only, individually or collectively: as, “A Christian, an infidel, a score, a thousand.” The definite article the may agree with nouns in the singular and plural number: as, “The garden, the houses, the stars.” | The articles are often properly omitted : when used, they should be justly applied, according to. their. dis- tinct nature : as, “ Gold is. corrupting ; the sea is green ; a lion is bold.” 48 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. The article belongs to the substantive, and in English precedes it: in the Latin language the article is under- ‘stood by the declension of the noun, and has a remote analogy to the adjective: as, ‘“‘4 man means one man, some man, any man;” hence, the article may be a species of the adjective. The article the has a determinate quality, and serves to ascertain some particular thing or person, as the king, means some specific king, as of England, or of France, ie. 4 is used before nouns in the singular number only, except before the phrases few, great, many: as,“ A few books;” “ A great many apples ;” and even this applica- tion of the article a is not warrantable. It is also used before nouns of multitude: as, “A multitude, a thou- sand. The meaning of the first part of the rule is obvious, for the article a has a singular acceptation, and each of the words that serve to define its acceptation respectively conveys a singular idea, as any, such, some; hence, the article a can only agree with nouns in the singular num- ber individually or collectively, as one, is only expressive of one, how variously soever it may be expressed. The definite article the is used either in the singular or plural number, as the man, the angels. The definite article the is sometimes prefixed to ad- verbs of the comparative degree, to mark the degree more strongly: as, ‘The more I examine it, the better I like it;’’ “TI like this the least of any.” EXAMPLES. ‘* 4 man is the noblest work of creation;” the a should be omitted, because it is not any particular man, but all mankind. “'Wisest and best of men sometimes commit errors ;” should be the wisest and best of men, &c., as it means wisest men in general; here, the preceding clause of the sentence is the nominative case to the active verb to com- mits; errors i the objective case governed by commit. ESSAY ON SYNTAX, 49 i RULE X. One substantive governs another, signifying a dif- ferent thing, in the possessive or genitive case; as, My father’s house;” «‘ Man’s happiness ;” “ Virtue’s reward.” When it is necessary to express property, or possession the letter s is placed at the end of the word, and is accom- panied with a comma placed above, between the last let- ter ofthe noun and the letter s, to designate the genitive case; then the subsequent noun is said to be the property of the former: as, “ My Father’s House;” “ The nation’s prosperity.” But the possessive case is also expressed by the preposition of: as, ‘“‘ This is the house of my father ;” “ This is the prosperity of the nation.” “OF CASES The cases of substantives, in Latin, are generally known by their different terminations. In English they have no ‘different terminations, except a few that show the gender of nouns. In English, the meaning of the word case signifies the position, occupation, uiility, design, and general acceptation of the noun. OF DECLENSIONS. Singular. Nominative. Dominus, A Lord. - Genitive. Domint1, - Lord’s, of a Lord. Dative. — Domino, To a Lord. Accusative. Domintm, A Lord. Vocative. Domine, O Lord. Ablative. Domino, By a Lord. Plural. Nominative. Domint, T.ords. Genitive. Dominorum, Lords’, of Lords. Dative. Dominis, To Lords. Accusative. Dominos, Lords. Vocative. Domint, O Lords. Ablative. Dominis, By Lords. * * All cases that differ from the nominative are called oblique. The differ- ent endings of nouns in the Greek and Latin are called cases. [Vide Encyclo- E 50 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. The following may serve to shew the meaning of case in Latin and, Greek. Case is the termination of the pronoun or participle.— Vossius. The different endings of the substantives are, in the Latin and Greek languages, called cases.—Lowth. Cases imply the different inflections or terminations of nouns, serving to express the different relations they bear to each other, and to the things they represent.—Encyclo- pedia Britannica. This seems to be the best definition of case, as the sub- stantive shews the relation that it bears to the things that jt represents; from which it follows, that there are as many cases in English as there are various relations ex- pressed by the substantive: as, “‘ Dative domino,” to a Lord. This answers to what is in English called the ob- jective case; which proves that there is something more implied in the word case, than merely the ending of nouns. EXAMPLES. ‘© ] will not destroy the city for ten sake,” should be ien’s sake; or, for the sake of ten. ‘© W isdom’s precepts, are the good boys’ delight,” should be wisdom’s and boy’s, with an apostrophe. The preposition is sometimes indicative of the pos- sessive case, especially when the expression can be con- verted into the regular form: as, “The good boy’s de- light;” or, “The delight of the good boy :’.“ Virtue’s reward:” or, “ The reward of virtue.” But though it is proper to say “ A crown of gold; awatch of silver,” these expressions cannot be converted into the possessive by transposition, as “ Gold’s crown; silver’s watch,” are im- proper expressions. The pronoun his is Sometimes put in the place of the noun, and answers to the génitive : as, “ This book is his,”’ (i. e.) “ This book is John’s.” pedia Britannica, Took, and Hermes,| 1t would be more intelligent to a learner to consider the case of a noun in English as something different from its ter- mination. The writers of grammars should consider that it is the logical sense that should be attended to, when the case of a noun is to be defined. ESSAY ON SYNTAX» 5k ‘The propriety of the following sentences cannot be questioned :— “The king of Great Britain’s authority.” “That is the Duke of Bridgewater’s canal.” “The Bishop of Landaff’s Sete “The Lord Mayor’s authority.” Those sentences may be expressed as follow, by a change of words :-— ‘The authority of the King of Great Britain.” “’The canal of the Duke of Bridgewater.” ‘** The book of the Bishop of Landaff.” “The authority of the Lord Mayor*.” In this form every preposition is connected to its re- spective substantive. RULE XI. Active verbs govern the objective case: as, “Truth ennobles her ;” “She comforts me ;” “They support us; “ Virtue rewards her followers.’’t Dr. Lowth, describes the oblique case, which answers to the accusative, or objective in English, which generally follows the verb active or the preposition. Every active verb presupposes an object to which the action or passion is directed, and as the agent requires the verb to agree with it; so the verb or attribute is said to govern the ob- ject, or the object is said to receive the force ot the verb. ’ This gradation of government or transfer of action from agent to attribute, and from attribute to object has its origin in the connexion, relation, and analogy that neces- * Thus it may be known whether the substantives coming after the prepo- sition be in the possessive or objective cases: as, ‘‘ John’s book ;” or, ‘* The book of John :”’ ** The rose’s fragrance ;”’ or, ‘* The fragrance of the rose.” + ‘Sometimes a neuter verb governs an objective case, when the noun is of the same import with the verb that precedes it: thus, - To sleep a sleep, tu die the death, to think a thought.”” This government can only be relative, as it has no foundation in the true analogy of the government of an active verb. They may be constructed thus : * To sleep through the night, to dream of cer- tain things ;’ or, ‘To have visions in the night ;’ ‘ To die in some particular way, or under some peculiar circumstances.’ ‘ To think of some things, sub- sects, matters, or thoughts,’ &c.” 52 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. sarily. subsists in language, and proceeds from cause to effect. A verb active expresses an action, and necessarily implies an agent, and an object acted upon: as, “TI dove virtue, I hate vice, I beat a naughty boy,” &c. Here love, hate, and beat are active verbs, not merely because they express action or passion, but because the action passes from the agent to the object, or is directed to the object: as, ‘ Virtue is the object of my love, and vice of my hatred ; and a naughty boy the object that I beat ;” but if it be said, “I Jove Casandra,” Casandra may be the object of my love, and yet she may be quite indifferent to my passion, and not in the least affected by it, still, she is the object to which my love is directed.” But this is not the case in the instance of the verb beat; the objectis af- fected by the verb, and sensibly feels the force of it ; from this, it appears that the government of active verbs may be divided into real and relative. Real government is, when the object is affected by the influence of the active verb: as, “I beat Charles.” Relative government is, when the active verb is only directed to. some object, without in the least affecting or influencing it: as, “I love beauty, I receive money.’ Hence, active verbs are not always distinguished by the objects of the verbs being affected by the force of the attributes, for the verbs may be active, and they may not actually operate upon their objects, as has been already shewn. stood, And,—A conjunction copulative. Loud,— Anadjective positive state, giving quality to sound, Trnmpet’s, —A substantive, possessive case. Seund,—A substantive common, third person singular, ob- jective case by the preposition in, understood. ; thus, “and in the loud sound of the trumpet;” ‘also vide rule 18th. Ordain,—A verb active, indicative mood, first future tense, third person singular, and has God for its nomi- native case. Them,——A. pronoun, third person plural, abieoteee case by the preposition for, understood, viz., “he will ordain laws for them.” 92 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. Laws,-—A substantive, third person plural, objective case by the active verb ordain. “ 4il our ambition death defeats, but one, And that it crowns. Here cease we; but ere long More powerful proof shall take the field against thee, Stronger than death, and smiling at the tomb.” All,—A numeral adjective. Our,—A pronominal possessive adjective. Ambition,—A. common substantive, third person singular objective case by the active verb defeats ;—(here repeat the rule.) Death,_A common substantive, third person singular, nominative case to the verb defeats. Defeats,—A verb active, indicative mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing with. its nomina- tive case death. But,—A conjunction. One,*— A numeral adjective pronoun, and has relation to ambition, third person singular, (i. e.) does not defeat that one ambition. And,—A conjunction copulative. That,—A pronoun demonstrative, thus, “and that one ambition it crowns, viz., immortality ;” or, ‘it crowns that one ambition.” " Zt,—A relative (neuter pronoun) to death, third person singular, nominative case to the verb crowns. Crowns,—-An active verb, indicative present tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative case crowns, (i. e.) “it crowns that one ambition, —our immortality. Here,—An adverb of place. Cease, A verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nomina- tive case we. * Some grammarians would make one a relative pronoun. The order of the sentence is thus, ‘* Death defeats all our ambitions, but one ambition ;” hence, one is a pronominal adjective pronoun, pointing to amhition. ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 93 We,—A pronoun, first person plural, nominative to the ’ verb cease, viz., ‘* we cease here.” But,—A. conjunction. re long,—A compound adverb of time. More,—An adverb of quantity. Powerful,—An adjective, comparative degree. Proof,—A common substantive, third person singular, no- | minative case to the verb shall take. Shall,—An auxiliary. or helping verb to take. Take,—An active verb, indicative mood, first future tense, third person singular, having proof for its no- - . minative case. The,—-An article definite. Field,—A common substantive, third person singular, ob- jective case by the verbs shall take. aplienge: —A preposition. Thee,—A pronoun, third person singular, objective case governed by the preposition against. Stronger,—An adjective, comparative degree. Than,—A conjunction, used in comparison. Death,—A common substantive, third person singular, no- minative case to the verb is, understood by the rule of ellipsis. And,—A. conjunction. Smiling,— A present participle of the verb smile. t,—A preposition. The,—The definite article. Tomb,—A. common substantive, third person singular, ob- jective case governed by the preposition at. NOTE.—The learner should be well practised in the conjugations of the verbs, and the declensions of the pronouns. THE FOLLOWING IS A LIST OF ADVERBS. 1. Of number ; as, ‘“ Once, twice, thrice,” &c. 2. Of order; as, “First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally,” &c. 3. Of place: as, “ Whither, hither, thither, herein, here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, nowhere, upward, downward, backward, forward, hence, whence, thence, whithersoever,” &c. 04 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. A, Of time present: as, “ Now, to-day,” &c. Of time past; as, ‘Heretofore, hitherto, long ago, long since, already, before, lately, yesterday,” &c. Of time to come: as, “ Not yet, hereafter, to-morrow, instantly, presently, by and by, henceforward, henceforth, straightways, immediately,” Xe. Of time indefinite: ‘« Again, never, ever, yearly, always, when, then, oft, often, oft-times, often-times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly,” &c. 5. Of quantity : as, “Enough, abundantly, how great, much, little sufficiently, how,” &c. 6. Of manner or quality: as, Slowly, quickly, wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, badly, cheerfully, ably, ad- mirably.” 7. Of doubt: as, ““Peradventure, perhaps, perchance, possibility,” &c. 8. Of affirmation: as, “Yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, verily, truly undoubtedly, doubtless,” &c. 9. Of negation: as, Not, no, nay, in no wise, not at all. 10. Of interrogation: as, “ How, why whether, where- fore,” &ce. . 11. Of comparison : as, “ Better, best, worse, worst, less, least, more, most, very, almost, little, alike,” &c. A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL CONJUNCTIONS. The Copulative. If, that, then, both, and, since, for, because, therefore, wherefore. | The Disjunctive. But, unless, either, neither, yet, nor, or, as, than, lest, though.* EXERCISES _ OF DISCORDS IN SYNTAX WHICH THE STUDENT IS TO CORRECT FOR IMPROVEMENT. I loves she. We receives they. Me hates they. Thou love he. Ye loves we. Thee love ye. He love J. They hates we. Him receives he. * The adverbs and conjunctions have been arranged after the examples in parsing, that the student may with facility refer to them in cases of doubt with respect to the species of either. ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 935 Of the singular and plural number of the verb to be. I are. We am. I were. We was. Thou ts. Ye, oryouis. Thouwere. Yewas. He are. They art. They wert. They wast. The learner will observe, that am, art, and ¢s are used after pronouns of the singular number, ‘and that are and were are put after nouns and pronouns of the plural number, as, lam, thou art, heis, we are, ye, or you are, they are. The imperfect tense ‘thus, I was, thou wast, he was, we were, ye, or you were, they were,—[ See conjuga- tion of the verb at large. Lhas spoke, thou have spoke, he hast spoke ; we ‘hadst taught, ye had taught, they hadst taught; I studies, thou studieth, he study. Boys that delights to obey the laws of God is found ca- pable to receive every good and ‘perfect gift, human as well as divine. The heavens declares the glory of ‘God, and the firma- ment shew forth his handy work. Day after day utter speeches, and night unto night shew knowledge. When your youthful otiénts glides away without im- proving in virtue and knowledge, rational existence, and Le very end of your creation is lost. ' Those commands’that enjoins you to honour your ‘pa- rents, also requires you above all things'to fear and loves God. : } The diamonds derives their lustres and value from the hands ‘of the lapidary; the marble owe its veins and spots of beauty to the sculptor. So do the philosophers owe their rite i to those mines of learning, which lies deep in the chambers of science, which adustey have found. If treasures of knowledge is superior to gold and silver, it shouldst be your chief study to begin a stock of wisdom, lest you turneth bankrupt, when old age draw his bills of science upon you. For those children which waste their precious hours on the pleasures ofa rattle, or the vain imagery of folly and 96 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. disobedience, is to expect bitterness of soul até a period when there are no redress. Solomon, on’ Mount Gibeon, in the presence of. his God, preferedst wisdom before any earthly honour or at- tainment. He have directed us, “to go to the ant, and considereth her ways and be wise.” Therefore, unless the the hours of youth is devoted industriously to the pursuit of virtue; unless the human soul is laid open to her fair impressions in your early days, vice, that subtle spy, will soon doliest the door. against you, perhaps for ever, Providest these things art carefully attended to, youth mayest, glide along the smooth expanse of wisdom’s, crys- tal stream and dive to beds of pearls. Revere old age, for in it are found the maxims of pure wisdom, from whom may be drawn rules for a happy life. Elisha’s bears holdeth out to children, the judgment that follows those that mocks at hoary hairs. | Tenderness to birds, beasts, and all living creatures‘ ¢ are a noble sensation in the soul ; for we art taught to know, ‘‘that the beetle on whom we treadest feel as much, in corporal sufferance, as when a giant or a little boy die.” Lies is as abominable as the father of them; crimes is often committed on the score of hiding or glossing them over with a falsehood ; any one, therefore, capable of tell- ing lies are qualified for every vice. Truth art like an ornament of gold about your neck ; this great quality raised Cato’s fame in Rome so high, that though it was a law, that no less than two persons conldst make a witness in their councils, his testimony alone were sufficient. Taking God’s holy name in vain, are to be strictly avoided, for we art commanded not to swear by even the earth, for it are his footstool, nor by heaven, for it are his throne; nor by the seas, for they art the Lord’s, and the fulness thereof. ! But when shalt wisdom be found, and where aré the ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 97 place of understanding? men knows not the prices thereof, neither are it found in the Jands_of the living. The depth say, it are notin me, and. the sea say, it, be not with me. It cannot deest got for gold, neither shalt silver be weighed for the price thereof, it cannot be val- lued’st with the gold of Ophir. With the precious Onyx or the Sapphire, the gold and the chrystal, and the exchange of it shall not be for jewels of fine gold. No mention shalt be made of :coral or of pearls, for the price of wisdom are’above rubies. The topaz of Ethiopia are not equal to it, neither shaié it be valued with pure gold. Whence then comest wis- dom? and where art the place of understanding? seeing it be hid from the eye of all living. Destruction and death saith, we hast heard. the fame thereof with our ear. God understandest the way thereof, and he know the place thereof, for he look to the ends of the earth, and see under the whole heaven. When he madest a sluice for the.rain, and a ways for the lightning of thunder, then didst he see it and declares it, he preparedsé it, and search it out.—And unto men he saidst, behold!.the fear of the Lord, that art wisdom, and to depariest from evil are understanding. Education and good morals is the greatest ornaments that adorns the human soul; yet most people seems to overlook those invaluable accomplishments that raises us one above another. Grammar with oratory, was* the chief study of the Spartan, commonwealth; the former of these didst in- struct. their children in the excellence of the Greek. lan- guage, while the latter madest them great.and sublime speakers. «Virtue and morality was the ae datia las which the doctrines of their schools inculeatedst, and was the fruits that flowed from them, as such orators was capable of moving the passions, and raising 7é to a flame by attic fire. <* What was the chief study of the Spartans? The answer is, Grammar and oratory :—the verb should be were. I 98 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. Children, therefore, through a pure knowledge of the English grammar, assisted by elocution mayest have equal powers, (merely confined to this language,) over the pas- sions and affections of their auditors, and who doubt, to see an English temple shining with as precious stones as the Athenian one. : Religion or theology, are the chief corner ‘stones, on which the principles of all education should be laid: any other foundation aré but as sand on whom no goodly structure can be raised. Knowledge separated from those things, tho’ in the rich- est dress, art only tinselled vice, for the knowledge of God should be the first impression on the mind, and as Tertullian observes, “« The first vesture of the soul,” and if thou seek him, thou shail find him. SYNOPSIS OF FALSE CONCORDS OR DISCORDS. EXAMPLES. 1. I loves, thou hateth, he love, we writes, ye writes, they readeth, I reads, thou reads, I were studying, thou was writing, he wert reading, we art speaking, ye 7s think- ing, they és talking. 2. Limproves, He improve, we bbapeanehe ye corrects, he correct, I learneth, thou learns, he learn. EXERCISES OF WORDS PRONOUNCED ALIKE, BUT SPELLED DIFFERENTLY. a> To exercise the pupil, a number of which should be given out at certain times by the master, and examined the day following, to see if the words peculiar to the sense be cor- rectly spelled. Ore the pleasant seas of science, which roll like golden oar, tis necessary to take the labouring o’er to gain the wonted haven. Let us in pares, go to yonder fruit-garden, where pairs grow in abundance, which Robert often pears with his Sisley Fane would I raise a feign.on yonder tower, for which ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 99 i hope you do not think I fain to honour Nelson’s bust and name. I will ste you to view with your cite the beauyitull sight of Donoughmore. On the weigh, I met a way of wheat, which I proposed to wey as well as measure. I took my corse, through a tract course near the sea side, where I found a drowned coarse. Let all “* the species firmament on hich,” with all the spacious stars that glow therein, let all the human spe- cious admire. Though in immanent danger in battle, let us be immi- ment and exercise those eminent virtues. Be ye serous through the serious of years you have to live; for your blood possesses none of that proper series belonging to a person who has to live so long. Before I ceil mine eyes, I shall sealthe room, and after I write my letter, I shall seeZ it likewise. A caret of gold, is not like a carrot in language, nor yet a carat in the garden. The herb century, in this centry, was long protected by a centaury. Aisle, go through the isle of Christ’s-church, where I may discover beauties greater than in this JU. » The male that carries through this kingdom is useful to mankind: the guards brought with them two Spanish meal sheep, which refused to eat oat mait. Heal thou shades of Moore and Nelson! none can hale those wounds out of which thy heroic souls have leap’d to glory. ‘et us, from our triumphal cars, hail all their foes. The admiralty. seize it, as the right of war, to take and seas, on the high sees, all ships of the enemy. Hue came home from the navy of England, and being long at sea, he is of an iron hew, and purposes to return again to hugh the enemies down. Astronomers can meet the heavens, though they meat with very little honour or profit, and often have worse 100 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. mete to live on, than those who could scarce survey # mole-hill.* VULGAR PHRASES. Come my chap; now then; pitched upon him; tip him the wink; I was one for him; subject matter ; that’s your sort; full well; self same; handed down; chalked out; pop out: must needs; gotrid of; fall to work; where- withal; quoth he; do away; long-winded ; behest ; be- hoof; (the two latter may be considered obsolete by some writers, but behest is used by Milton, and Mr. Walker has honoured them both witha place in his dictionary ;) topsy turvy; hurly burly; having.amonth’s mind for a thing ; currying for or with a person; dancing attendance on the great, &c. | EXAMPLES. OF TAUTOLOGY. N. B.—All the words in italics are redundant. As soon as awoke I rose up and dressed myself. I leave town in the /atter énd of July. We were mutually friendly to each other. Ji should ever be your constant study to do good. He raised wp his arm to strike me. Smoke ascends zp into the clouds. We hastily descended down from the mountains. We must do this last ef all, hence, therefore, I say. I found nobody else but him there. Learn from hence to study the scriptures diligently. I cannot tell for why he did it. Where shall I begin from when I read? This was the luckiest accident of all others. I ran after him a little way, but soon returned back again, Lift wp. your book and read it all through, He mentioned it over again. Raise wp your arm and ‘sige! Read this here book. * The good sense of the teacher will direct him to proportion a quantity of the above exercises to the capacity.of the pupil, for each evening’s lesson; and when the exercise is presented to the master to be corrected, the student should be taught to conjugate the verbs backwards, i. e. to commence with the third person plural throughout the whole of the moods and tenses. ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 1O1 He plunged down into the water. Before I do that I must first finish this. I shall say my lesson first of ail. You must return back immediately. IT never fail to read whenever I can gei a book. ‘They both met. Give me both of them books, should be those books. He was in here yesterday when I spoke to him. L saw them éz here yesterday. The latter end of those men shall be peace. I always find I can improve when [ try. This here boy is idle. i could not come zo sooner. PROPRIETY. Proprieéy in our words and phrases should be observed. We must avoid low expressions, supply words that are wauting, be careful not to use the same word in different ’ senses, avoid the iujudicious use of technical phrases, especially where the company do not understand them ; also, equivocal or ambiguous words, unintelligible ¢x- pressions, and all such ‘words and phrases as are not adapted to our meaning. impropriety, a eacblana, and solecism should be carefully guarded against. Se eecont iety is the application of some word or phrase used to express some idea or thing to which it has no re- ference: as, ‘“‘ He flies in the water,’, instead of swims. These are for arguments instead of ornaments. Barbarism is the using of some word which is not to be found in our language, nor traced to any original lan- guage. [Vide Laneashire dialect, and the various vulgar idioms of the several provinces of Great Britain and Ireland. | Solecism is a discord of the verb and nominative case, or the pronoun and. antecedent, or any breach of the rules _ of syntax: as, They doves praise;’’ “ James and John was studious; * These Apple 3? * One ornaments,’ Ke. ” 102 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. PRECISION Is one of the requisites of perspicuity, and respects words and phrases. It signifies cutting off superfluities, and pruning acter so as to represent an exact copy of the person’s idea who uses it. Words thus used may be faulty in three respects. 1. An author may use words which do not exactly ex- press his idea, but may resemble it. 2. The-words may express his idea but not fully and completely. 2. The words may express his idea and something more than he intends. But by endeavouring to be too precise, an author may run into the extreme of barrenness of expression, and dry- ness of composition. DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN THE MEANING OF WORDS. Custom, habit.—Custom respects the action: habit the actor. By custom we mean the frequent repetition of the same act; by habit, the effect which that repetition pro- duces on the mind or body. “By the custom of dram- drinking, one acquires a habit of frequenting public- houses.” | Ley Pride and vanity. Pride is the estimation thatwe make of our own worth; vanity is the high opinion that we wish others to entertain of us.’ It has beensaid that some men are too proud to be vain. Haughtiness and disdain. Haughtiness proceeds: from the high opinion we have of ourselves; disdain is the low opinion we have ‘of’ others. They ‘are: all children of pride. Only and alone. Only imports that there’ is beiti one of the same kind; alone is being without company, or hav- ing no other companion. An only child 1s one that has neither brother nor sister’; a aes alone is one left by itself. Wisdom and prudence. Wisdom th ches to .aipea with caution, and to act with prudence 3 prudence prevents our speaking or acting imprudently. ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 103 Entire and complete. A thing is entire that wants none of its parts; complete, by wanting none of its appendages. Surprised, astonished, amazed, and confounded. Yam surprised at what is unexpected or novel; I am astonished at what is prodigious, vast, or great; I am amazed at what is incomprehensible; Lam confounded at what is dreadful or terrible. Tranquility, peace, and calm. ‘A good man. has tran- quility in himself; peace in his own mind and with others ; -and calm after a storm, | PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY. Sentences, in general, should not be very long, nor very “short. Long sentences, unless very clear, keep the mind too much on the stretch, in order to perceive the purport and connexion of the subject. Short ones are apt to break off the sense too suddenly, and yet they may both be used in their proper places. Composition should be so constructed as to render the sentences harmonious; for there is.acertain melody peculiar to prose as well as verse ; and although every good writer has his own style, which is only appropriate to himself, yet he accompanies that style with suitable harmony. There are four things indispensably necessary to an ac- curate and perfect sentence. ») first, clearnesss; 2, utility ;.3, strengths. 4,a judicious use of the figures of speech. Purity consists in the selection of such words as are most suitable to the subject, and such constructions as belong to the idiom of the language we speak, avoiding all obsolete, new coined, and harsh words, with a due re- gard to the concords of syntax, Propriety of language is the selection of such words as the best usuage of the literati has sanctioned, and appli- cable to give expression to the ideas we mean to convey. To preserve purity, therefore we must avoid low expres- sions, be careful not to use the same word in different senses, avoid the injudicious use of technical phrases, 104 ESSAY ON SYNFAX. equivocal or ambiguous words, and all such terms as are not adapted to our meaning. 1. Clearness, Whatever leaves the mind in any sort of suspense, concerning the design of the author in his sub- ject, should be avoided. Obscurity may arise from a wrong choice of words, a bad or improper arrangement of them, or from the author himself not having a clear view of his subject. To preserve clearness, the verb should. be placed as near to its nominative as the sense will admit; the adjective to its substantive; the relative to its antecedent; and the inferior connecting parts of speech so disposed, as to place each in its relative situa- tion. 2. Unity. Without this there can be no perfect sen- tence. The principal part of the proposition should be strictly adhered to throughout the sentence. It is true, it may have parts, but each of these parts should have an inseparable relation to the principal subject. Sudden transitions from person to. person, or from subject to sub- ject should be avoided. 8. Strength is the disposition and management of the several words and members, best calculated to bring out the sense to the greatest advantage, and to give every word and member its due weightand force. Sentences, if possible, should not be concluded with an adverb, a preposition or a monosyllable. A. A judicious use of the figures of speech, or figurative language (which is to be met with in all compositions) should be acquired, which, when properly used, enriches, beautifies, and embellishes style, and renders it more co- pious, harmonious, and descriptive. Simile. ‘*Go to the butterfly, and the caterpillar will resolve thee: in its first state it is sluggish and located; after its metamorphosis it hecomes a winged seraph, float- ing on the breeze, gorgeous to bebold, light as air, active as the wind, flitting from flower to flower, sipping au- rorean dew, and extracting nectareous essences from aro- _ matic flowers. ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 105 Of Metaphor. “1 will be unto her a wall of fire round about, and will be the glory in the midst of her.” . “Thou art my rock aud my fortress.” “Thy word isa lamp to my feet, and a light to my path.” Of Aniithesis. ‘He has visited all Witipacedot to survey the sumptuousness of palaces, nor the stateliness of temples; not to make accurate measurements of the re- mains of ancient grandeur, nor to form a scale of the cu- riosity of modern art; not to collect medals, or’ collate manuscripts :—but to dive into the depths of dungeons; to plunge into the infection of hospitals; tosurvey the mansions of sorrow and pain; to take the gage and di- mensions of misery, depression, and contempt; to remem- ber the forgotten, to attend the neglected, to visit the forsaken, to compare and collate the distresses of all men, in all countries.” RHETORICK on simple the art of speaking not merely with propriety, but with art, elegance, and persuasion. It teaches by tropes, figures, &c., the flowers of oratory, and shews the dignity and sublimity of the scriptures, and the high re- verence that is paid to the majesty of God and his ae ous attributes. It consists of four ame invention, disposition, elocu- tion, and pronunciation. pare Invention is the finding of proper arguments to instruct, persuade, or move the passions, All agreements are grounded on reason, morals, or affections. Reason is to inform the judgment, or instruct accord- ing to rational aguments, such as‘are found out by the learning and skill of the orator, and differ according to the nature of the tropes, which are three ; i. e. demonstra- tive, deliberative, and juridical. , 1. Demonstrative, when we speak to the praise or dis- praise of any person, deed, or thing; or by a train of elucidating arguments, prove the truth or falsity of a proposition, 106 ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 2. Deliberative, when to the advantage or disadvantage of any thing, we point out with safety the profit or loss. 3. Juridical, when we either accuse or defend the va- rious ways and forms of accusation, and the different argu- ments and places of defence, Morals are to prove favors, or to persuade adiecisgnes to meye the passions, or to please. EXPLANATION OF LOGICAL PROPOSITIONS. A proposition is a sentence wherein two, or more ideas or terms are joined or disjoined by one affirmation or ne- gative: as, ‘‘ Plato was a philosopher;” “ Every angle is formed by two.lines meeting ;” “ No man living on earth can be completely happy.” There are three things which go to the nature and con- stitution of a proposition, viz., the subject, the predicate, and the copula. The subject of a proposition is that concerning which anything is affirmed, or denied ; so Plato, angle, man living on earth, are the subjects of the foregoing propositions. The predicate is that which is affirmed or denied of the subject; so philosopher is the predicate of the first pro- position, formed by two right lines meeting is the predi- cate of the second; capable of being completely happy is the proper predicate of the third. The subject and predicate of a proposition taken to- gether are called the matter of it; for these are the ma- terials of which it is made. The copula is the form of a proposition; it represents the act of the mind affirming or denying, and is expressed by the words am, art, is, are, &¢., or am not, art not, is not, are not, &c. A proposition is usuaily denominated aeanative or ne- gative by its copula. Where the subject predicate and copula is not each distinctly expressed, yet they are all understood and im- plicitly contained therein: as, “ Socrates disputed,” is a. ESSAY ON SYNTAX, 107 complete proposition, for it signifies that Socrates was disputing ; so / die signifies I am dying, I can write, (i. e.) Tam able to write. OF TROPES. According to some writers the chief tropes are seven, (and others only four) ; ; viz, metaphor, allegory, metono- my, synecdoche, irony, hyperbole, and catechresis. 1. A Metaphor, as “He isa pillar of the state;” but when we say, ‘ He upholds the state like a pillar, it isa simile. 2. An Allegory is a continuation of tropes, or similies. [ Vide the 80th Psalm. ] 3. Metonomy puts one name for another; “ He reads Horace, for his writings ;” “‘ Hedrank the glass,” viz., the liquor. 4. Synecdoche, a part for the whole. ‘A genus fora species ;” ‘“‘ Three summers,” i, e. years, “I have lived here.” | 5. Irony, when we say any thing contrary to what we mean ; ‘“ Heis a good boy,” when we really mean he is a bad one. 6. Hyperbole soars too high or descends too low, an ex- pression beyond the truth ; as, “ High as heaven ;”* Deep as earth.” ce 7. Catechresis, impropriety or harsh words used in speech; as, “A brass inkhorn;” ‘“ A man midwife;” “ He sails aloft in air,” for ‘ he dies in air.” FIGURES.* THEY ARE AS FOLLOW: 1. Personification, inanimate things made to speak, as, «¢ doth not wisdom ery ?” Prov. viii. 1. 2. Simile, the resemblance that one object bears to an- other, aoe ‘he shall be like a,tree planted by the rivers of res 3. Antithesis, is a contrasting contrary whisatas to cause * From fingo, to fashion. 108 _ESSAY ON SYNTAX. them to appear to more advantage; as, “ the wicked flee when no man pursueth, but the righteous are bold as a lion. 4. Climax, is the gradual rise of a subject, in order to place the circumstances in a stronger light, as, “ who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall tribula- tion, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness, or peril, or sword? nay,” &c.—Rom. viii. 38, 39. 5. Exclamation, expresses some strong emotion of the mind, as, “‘ Oh, the depth of the riches both of the wis- dom and knowledge of God !” 6. Interrogation, expresses the emotion 4; the mind and animates discourse by proposing questions, as, “ Hath the Lord said it? and shall he not do it?” “ Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it good ?” 7, Ecphonesis, exclaims, as, “My. God! ! my God! 1 &e., —Matthew xxvil., 46. 8. Aporia, doubts, as, ‘Whither shall I g0 from wi spirit ?”—Psalm 139, vil. 9. Epanarthosis, corrects, as, “I Jabour more abun- dantly than they all.”’—1 Cor. xv. 10._. 10. Aposiopesis, suppression, as, “ Father, save me from this hour.”—Luke xix. 27, 11. Apophasis, omission, or speaking Poaieallyss as, “fy, Paul, have written it with mine own hand.” 12. Apostrophe, address, as, ‘ Death is swallowed. up in victory; Oh! Death, where is thy sting?” 13. Anastrophe, suspeMston, as, ** Now unto him that i is to do exceedingly,” &c. 14. Erotesis, interrogation, as, 5 «Doth God pervert judgment ?” ral 15. Prolepsis, Seaerk by a “ faraned objection, as, ‘“* How are the dead raised Matthew Xv. 26, 16. Synchoresis, concession, as; 34 The branches were broken off.”—Rom. xi. 19. 17. Metabasis, changing, as, “ Have all the gifts of heal- ing?’ * Do all prophecy ?” 18. Periphrasis, more words than needs, as, “I go the way of all flesh,” i. e., “I die.” ESSAY ON SYNTAX. 109 19. Asyndeton, omission of the copula, and, as, “ Veni, vidi, vinci,’ “1 came, I saw, I conquered.”—Cesar’s letter to the Roman senate. 20. Polysyndeton, abounding with copulas, as, “I came, and I saw, and I conquered.” 21. Oxymoran, contradiction, as, “She that liveth in pleasure, is dead while she liveth.”-—Tim. v. 6. 22. Enantiosis, contraries, as, “* The wise shall inherit glory ; but shame promoteth fools.” 24. Hypotyposis, representation or lively description.— Job’s war horse, chap. xxxix, 19, 20. 25. Prosopopa@ia, inanimate things made to speak.— Vide Personification. 26. Epiphonema, acclamation, as, “Then said the king to his servants, bind him hand and foot.”— Matt. xxix. 13. 27. Antonomasia, for a name, imparts proper names, as, “The philosopher, i.e., Aristotle, asserted so;” ‘“ The Poet, i.e., Virgil, sings.”-—Eneas, &c. 28. Onomatopeia, feigning aname, or coinsa word from sound, as, “Flies buzz,” i.e., make a humming noise. _ Tantaras, viz., noise of trumpets. > OF AN ORATION. Orators dispose orations into six divisions: 1. The exordium or introduction. 2. The narration or relation. 3. The proposition, or subject proposed to be refuted or proved. 4. The confirmation or truth of the proposition proved. 5. The refutation or the dis- proval of charges alleged. 6. ‘The peroration or conclu- sion of the oration.—[ Vide Paul’s defence before Agrip- pa, and Satan’s speech to the rebel hosts.—Milton. | The five species of elocution from Longinus: First and chief is, a grandeur and sublimity of concep- _tion. 2. That pathetic enthusiasm which at the same time, melts and inflames. 3. Is a certain elegance of for- * This word is purely French, and is the same as ordinance. K 110 PROSODY. mation and ordonnance* of figures. 4. A splendid dic- tion. 5. Is that which includes in itself all the rest, a weight and dignity in the composition, all which are to be found in Pope’s Essay on Man. PROSODY. Prosody teaches the true pronunciation of words com- prising accent, quantity, emphasis; pause, and tone, and me laws of versification. Accent is the pronouncing of one syllable in a rl stronger than another; as, surcharge; the stress of the voice is laid upon charge, which takes the aceent. Quantity is that time that is occupied in pronouncing a syllable, whether it be long or short; as, controul. Emphasis is a greater force laid upon certain words in a sentence, to distinguish and render them more em- phatical. Pause is a perceptible cessation of the voice, and may be either total or partial. Tone differs both from emphasis and pauses; consist- ing of a certain modulation or inflection of the voice, or notes or variations of sound which are employed in ex- pressing sentiments, VERSIFICATION. Versification is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables, or feet*, according to certain laws * Feet are the parts into which a verse is divided ; a syllable is a foot. They are called feet from the resemblance which the movements of the tongue in reading verse, bears to the motion of the feet in walking. A line is called a verse, two lines a couplet, and three lines a triplet. In scanning verse, every accented syllable is called long. PROSODY. li Rhyme is the harmonising of the last sound of one werse to the last sound or syllable of another. All feet in poetry consist either of two or of three syl- lables, and are reducible to eight sorts; four of two syl- lables, and four of three syllables, ; as follows:— Dissyllables. Trissyllables. A Trochee. A Dactyle. An Jambus. An Amphibrach. A Spondee. An Anapest. A Pyrrhic. A Tribrach. Trochee has the firsh syllable accented, and the last net accented: as, ‘ Lovely, hatefii. An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented and the second accented : as, “ Rétirn, bétray.” A Spondee has both the syllables accented: as, “The pale moon.” - A Pyrrhic has both the words or ce he He unaccented : as, “ dn thé tall tree.” A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and two lat- ter unaccented: as, “ Labdurér, admiral.” An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented and the middle one accented; as, “ Dérangemeént, d6- mestic.” An Anapest has the two first syllables unaccented s as, “ Contravene, acqiiesce.” A Tribrach has all its syllables HMRI as, Ni- mérablé, conquerable.” Some of these are, or may be called, Britienal feet ; as pieces of poetry may be wholly, or chiefly, formed of many of them. Such are the iambus, trochee, dactyle, and anapest. ‘The others may be termed secondary feet , because they are principally used to diversify the num- numbers, and improve the verse. * Jambic verse may be divided into several species, ac- cording to the number of feet or syllables of which they are composed- The feet in most common use are iambic, trochaic, and anapestic. 112 PROSODY. Jambic measure is adapted to serious subjects. 1. Of four syllables, or two feet; as, ‘With ravished ears Thé monarch hears.” It sometimes has an additional short syllahle's 3 as, «Upon a mountain.’ 2. It sometimes has three iambuses, or six syllables ; as, “ Aloft in awfil state.” 3. It may have eight syllables, or four iambic feet ; as, “« And may at last my weary age.” 4, It may, also, have ten syllables, or five heroic feet, called hexameter, or tragic verse ; as, ‘“« Thé stars shall fade A4way,—thé sin himself,” &c. 5. It may consist of six feet, or what is called Alexan- drine; as, “ For thee thé land in fragrant flowérs is drest.” 6. The last form of iambic measure is made up of seven ambuses ; as, “Thé Lord déscendéd from above and bowed thé héa- véns high*.” Deiphuic verse is of several sorts, the shortest of welch consists of one trochee and a long syllable, and some of two trochees; as, “ Tiaimiult cease, On thé. mointain, Sink td peace. By a foiintain. 2. Or two trochees, or two feet, with an additional long syllable, “In thé days of old.” 3. Of three trochees, and an additional long syllable ; as, “When Sur hearts are mourning.” 4. Of four trochees, or eight syllables; as, ‘Round iis soars the tempést loudér 5. Of six trochees, or twelve syllables; as, The dactylic measure is so uncommon, one exam- ple of this species will be sufficient. “From the low pleasiires sf this fallén nattire.” * This form was anciently written in one line, but it is now written in two. PROSODY. 113 Anapestic verses are divided into several species : 1. Of two anapests, or two and and an unconnected syllable; as, . ; “ But his coairage ’gan fail.” 2. Of three anapests, or nine syllables; as, “OQ, yé woods, spréad yoiir branchés apace.” 8. Of four anapasts, or twelve syllables. ‘May I govérn my passions with absolute sway.” The following lines are quoted as an example of the method of scanning English verse : Spon. Amph. Dact. Tam. “ Time shakes thé stablé tyranny of thrones.” Another variety: “Where is t8-morréw? in anothér world.” Itis thus the principal feet are susceptible of many variations, POETICAL PAUSES. There are two sorts of pauses, one for sense the other for melody. The former may be called sentential, the latter harmonic. - The sentential comprehend the stops used in prose. The harmonic belong to poetry. They are divided into final and cesural pauses. These sometimes coincide with the sentential pauses; but they exist where there is no stop in the sense. The final pause takes place at the end of the line and closes the verse; and is only a suspension of the voice, not a change of note or tone. Cesural divides it into equal or uneqnal parts, and is commonly on the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable of heroic verse; as, «The silver eél” in shining volumes rolled.” SYNTAX* AND PUNCTUATION. A sentence isan assemblage of words arranged in proper order, making a complete sense. * Syntax consists of concord and government. Concord is the agreement that one word has with another in number, gender, case, or person. Gevern- | 114 PROSODY. Sentences are simple or compound- A simple sentence has but one subject and one finite verb: as, “Life is a blessing.” A compound sentence contains two or more simple sen- tences connected by a conjunction or conjunctions: ‘as, ‘Time is short, but eternity has no end.” A phrase is two or more words put together, making part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence: as, ‘In truth, to be plain with you, he was guilty.” The principal parts of a simple sentence are the subject (or nominative), the aétribute (or verb), and the object. The subject isa thing chiefly spoken of; the attribute is the thing affirmed or denied; and the object is the thing affected, or to which the action or intention of the sub- ject is directed, either through the medium of the verb or preposition. OF THE COMMA. The comma separates those parts of sentences, which in sense and construction, require a pause between them. 1. The simple members of a compound sentence. de- pending on each other: as, ‘I remember his goodness, and his condescending behaviour.” 2. At the end of an imperfect phrase; as, “‘ Studious of praise, he was ostentatious.” 3. When proper, common, or important names follow in succession ; as, “ William, James, John, or Jane intend to accompany me :” “The end, manner, place, time, and circumstance of the action, and the purport of the law, contributed to the event.” 4. When it is necessary to render the sense very per- ceptible; as, “The mind, unoccupied with useful know- ledge, becomes a magazine of trifles.”’ 5. When a simple sentence is too much lengthened, so as to require an effort of breathing ; it may sometimes ad- 2? mit of a pause preceding the verb; as, “ The great march ment is the power that one part of speech has over another ii determining its mood, tense. or case PROSODY. 115 of intellect in the present age, has exceeded the specula- tions of philosophers.” 6. Two nouns connected by a conjunction are not to be separated. 7. When two or more adjectives belong to a substan- tive, they admit of the comma; as, “ Plain, simple, hon- est men.” 8. When clauses or verbs are disjoined by a disjunctive : as, ‘ Hither riches, levity, or natural propensity to evil; was the cause.”’ 9 All simple sentences, whether the verbs have nomi- native cases expressed or understood : as, “ Religion sup- ports in adversity and moderates in prosperity. 10. When a direct address is made: as, ‘My friend, remember thou art to die.” iJ. Nouns in apposition; as, “William, the king ;” ‘“* Cicero, the orator:” but if such nouns be only expres- sive of proper names, the comma is omitted; as, “‘ Wil- liam the king of Great Britain is virtuous.” 12. When adjectives follow the conjunctions yet and tho’; as, “Tho? deep, yet clear; tho’ gentle, yet not dull ; Strong without rage; without o’erflowing full.” In many instances no precise rule can be laid down: the good sense of the writer will discern where the pause is requisite. OF THE SEMICOLON. The semicolon is used to divide a compound sentence, in order to distinguish those parts that approach nearer to a period than a comma, and yet not so near as those clauses marked by a colon. The pause is double that of a comma, or while one, two may be expressed. 1. It is used when the preceding member is a simple or imperfect sentence, that does not of itself contain a com- plete sense, but requires an additional clause to put what precedes it in propositional form, that a conclusive clause may follow to complete the sentence: as, ‘The desire of approbation, when it operates according to reason, im- 116 PROSODY. proves the amiable part of our species in every thing laud- able; so nothing is more destructive than folly and va- nity.” . Straws swim upon the surface, but pearls he at h bottom. 2. It is sometimes used after a sentence, upon which what follows depends: as, ‘‘ Philosophers assert, that na- ture is unlimited in her operations; that she has treasures in reserve; that knowledge will always be progressive ; and that future generations will make discoveries yet un- known. OF THE COLON. The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, which nearly make distinct and complete sentences, but depending on something that is to come after, to make a full sentence. It may be applied in the subse- quent cases, viz., 1. When a member is complete in itself, but followed by some necessary supplemental illustration or observa- tion on the subject; as, “Nature felt her inability to work out her own deliverance from the power of the car- nal mind: the gospel alone reveals the plan of divine in- terposition and deliverance,” » 2. When several semicolons have been used, and still a greater pause is necessary in order to note the concluding sentiment; as, “A Divine Legislator uttering his voice from heaven; an Almighty Governor putting forth his arm to punish or reward; informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked: these are considerations that should overawe the world.” | OF THE PERIOD. A period is put at the end of a complete and independ- ent sentence. A number of complete sentences may succeed each other, requiring the period; as, Fear God. Honour the king. Do justice to all men. A period is sometimes put at the end of a sentence, PROSODY. 117 when either but, and, for, therefore, or hence immediately follow: as, “He awoke from his dream of fancy, and acted conformably to the dignity of reason.” “ But his mind was much enervated by riotous living.” It is also used after every abbreviated word ; as, M.S. P.S. A.D. O.S. N.S. N.B.—Some authors allow the pause for the comma while one can be pronounced; the semicolon two; the colon three; and the period four. OF THE NECESSARY MARKS USED IN COMPOSITION. Accute accent ’ denotes a short syllable. Apostrophe ’ shews the letter omitted; as, ‘ Lov’ly,”’ for “* Lovely.” Admiration or Exclamation ! is put to denote any thing wonderful or surprising, or any sudden emotion of the mind. Asterisk, * double dagger, ¢ obelisk, + and parallel lines, || are used to refer to some note in the margin. Brace _»_, connects words or figures that have some relation to each other, or three lines in poetry. Breve ~ shews ashort vowel or syllable. Caret , shews a word omitted or interlined. Crotchets or Brackets [ | serve to enclose a word or sentence, sometimes requisite to be explained, or to sup- ply some deficiency. Dash — shews when the writer breaks off abruptly. Dieresis ** serves to divide a dipthong into syllables, as, “ Aérial.” | Ellipsis king. Grave Accent * shews a long syllable. Hyphen - is set at the end of the line to shew that the word is continued in the next; it is also used in com- pound words; as, ‘“‘ Coach-horse.” Index {» 45, line 23, for how read low. », 61, line 17, for dy future, read first future. 5, 66, line 31, for repition, read repetition. » 69, line 20, for never read not. », 107, line 27, for Hes read /lies. a Pai aly upeey i at ‘ Sale ees, HEX S59 SNOW Neat