THE LIBRARY OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA 
 
 ;, 
 
 ENDOWED BY THE 
 
 DIALECTIC AND PHILANTHROPIC 
 
 SOCIETIES 
 
 630.62 
 A278o 
 
ORIGINAL 
 combhtntcatiobis 
 
 MADE TO 
 
 THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY 
 
 <&t <Sotttf^@aroltua ; 
 
 AND 
 
 EXTRACTS 
 
 FROM SELECT AUTHORS ON 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY ORDER OF THE SOCIETY. 
 
 QUID faciat laetas segetes: quo sidere terrain 
 Vertere, Maecenas, ulmisque adjungere vites* 
 Conveniat : quae cura boiun, qui cultus habendo 
 Sit pecori: atque a pi bus quanta experientia parcis 
 Hinc cenere incipiam. . ——Virgil* 
 
 CHARLESTON: 
 
 PRINTED BY ARCHIBALD E. MILLER, 
 
 No. 4 Broad-Street. 
 
 — ^— 
 
 1824. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 THE Agricultural Society of South-Caro- 
 lina, anxious for the extensive diffusion of information, 
 on subjects connected with their Institution ; and aware 
 that much of this information is contained in books 
 written by various authors some of them voluminous 
 and expensive, and comprehending much matter not 
 adapted to our climate aud local circumstances, many 
 of them also being in foreign languages; have judged 
 it expedient to publish this volume, with the hope that it 
 may be useful to those, whom want of leisure or other 
 obstacles, may prevent from consulting the originals. 
 
 And as the approved practices of Agriculture, even 
 in our own State, are not generally known in others, 
 such communications thereon, as the Society have 
 received, are also herein published. 
 
REPORT. 
 
 TV 
 
 X sIK Committee on Communications and Foreign Publications, 
 beg leave to submit the following Report : — Your Committee, deeply 
 impressed with the importance of the duties assigned to them, ad- 
 dressed, at a very early period after their appointment, letters to all 
 such persons as from their success in Agriculture, they deemed most 
 likely to furnish important information, on the most practicable 
 modes of rural improvement in this state. It is with regret, that your 
 Committee have to remark, that to these various letters very few 
 answers have been returned. This circumstance, whilst it gives 
 evidence of a degree of apathy, which cannot be too deeply 
 deplored, and which is unworthy of the generous spirit of agricultura- 
 lists in this enlightened age and country, affords but poor encou- 
 ragement to your Committee in the prosecution of their future 
 inquiries; ai the same time, however, that they censure the negligent, 
 they cannot but feel gratified at the interesting communications which 
 they have received; particularly those from Messrs. Myrick and 
 J. H. Alston, on the subject of Rice Planting, The extraordinary 
 success, which has attended Mr. Myrick's plan, wherever he has 
 pursued it, proves its excellence, and shows that rice planting on 
 some of our tide lands has been brought almost to the acme of 
 perfection. Deprived in a great degree of the resource of original 
 communications, your Committee felt compelled to look abroad for 
 such materials in foreign works, as they conceived would most contri- 
 bute to carry into effect the design of the Society, in forming a 
 
 354360 
 
 
IV REPORT. 
 
 collection for a volume. Even here, however, they have been much 
 restricted by the want of a sufficient number of books on Agriculture, 
 from which to make a varied selection. As utility is the sole object 
 in view, they have been guided in their labors by the practical nature 
 of the communications which they have adopted, and by their 
 adaptation to our climate, so far as circumstances would permit In 
 their extracts from foreign works, they have confined themsel* es 
 chiefly to such passages as illustrate the agriculture of India and 
 Italy. — As irrigation forms an essential part in the agricultural 
 process in both of those countries, and may be introduced into this, 
 with considerable advantage, your Committee have thought proper 
 to extract from Simond's Picture of Tuscany, a detailed description 
 of Les Comblees, or Warping. They have made extracts on drai- 
 ning from Sir John Sinclair's Cede of Agriculture; and on the 
 reclamation and draining of Marsh Lands, as furnished by Messrs. 
 Swartout and others. They have selected essays on flax, hemp, and 
 other articles, which they conceive will be useful to our fellow- 
 citizens. They, however, beg leave to refer the Society for particulars, 
 to a table of contents, which accompanies this Report. — Here, perhaps, 
 your Committee ought to stop, but they cannot omit this opportunity 
 to congratulate the Society on the bright prospects which seem to 
 open on their labors. It must be cheering to every member to find, 
 that the apathy which too long enthralled and suspended its useful- 
 ness, has in some measure been overcome, and that the Society, by 
 its anxious and unremitting endeavours to promote the great object of 
 its institution, will deserve, and it is to be hoped, will meet, the 
 approbation of the community. 
 
 To extend our usefulness, however, we must receive more 
 encouragement than we have hitherto done; although we hope, 
 even with our present means, to do much; yet we cannot ac- 
 complish all that we may reasoablv desire. The depressed and 
 wretched condition of our Agriculture in the lower districts, with 
 very few exceptions, must be obvious to the least observing traveller, 
 and is well calculated to excite the regret of the patriot and friend 
 to improvement. The delapidated state and condition of most of 
 our farms and plantations, furnish abundant evidence that there is 
 something wanting to put our Agriculture generally upon the footing 
 on which it ought to stand. Who, in passing through this lower 
 country, can fail to observe the sad contrast which it presents, to 
 what it did thirty or forty years ago; although our tide lands are 
 
 i 
 
REPORT. V 
 
 unquestionably better cultivated than formerly, and our sea islands 
 are still admirably managed, yet no other parts can furnish evidence 
 of improvement. Favored as we were, for a long time by extrava- 
 gant prices for our productions, arising from the introduction of an 
 article of commerce and manufacture, which created a new era in 
 our Agriculture; and taking advantage of a state of things in Europe, 
 to which we cannot expect again to find a parallel ; and cultivating a 
 comparatively virgin soil, the agriculturalist never thought of change, 
 nor of improvement. — Those halcyon days are now however passed, 
 those happy times are changed, and we must change with them. Par- 
 taking in the general embarrassment, it becomes the duty of us 
 all, to make every practicable effort to relieve our distresses ; and how, 
 let us ask, can this be done, but by increased production and dimi- 
 nished consumption. If these distresses serve to call forth our 
 latent energies, and to teach us frugality, industry, economy, and a 
 better mode of employing our means, may they not serve as harbin- 
 gers, to a better and more permanent state of improvement.— 
 Abounding in resources, we have hitherto either lavished or neglected 
 them. — But we forbear to trespass on the province of the political 
 economist, or the statesman — whilst our brethren of the north, are 
 making every exertion to extend the knowledge of Agriculture, by 
 establishing societies in every section — whilst Agricultural Schools 
 are springing up in various parts of Europe under the patronage of 
 government, shall it be reserved for us alone, to leave it to the 
 guidance of ignorance, prejudice or accident? Are we not aware, 
 that one of the most sterile counties in England, has become 
 one of the most fertile, by the exertions and example of a single 
 individual, (Mr. Coke, of Holkham.) If all classes of society, 
 are anxiously striving to advance their interests — if the man- 
 ufacturers have succeeded in imposing an increased and odious 
 tariff, in spite of the eloquence and reasoning of our faithful 
 statesmen and representatives, shall we be contented to let things 
 remain as they are, and folding our arms, call, like the carter in the 
 fable, upon Hercules for relief? No, let our difficulties, double our 
 exertions and our energies ; and then we may call, with the hope of 
 success, not upon Hercules, but upon that good and gracious Being 
 whom we trust will bless our exertions. If we burthen posterity with 
 our debts, let us strive to put them in possession of the best means of 
 extricating themselves; to this we are prompted, by every duty and 
 every worthy motive.— But we are told that we are theorists, and 
 
V! REPORT. 
 
 that our labors are of no importance to practical men. Were these 
 remarks made by ignorant persons, and not repeated by those, whose 
 opinions ought to have weight in society, we would not condescend 
 to reply. Do we not promote the cause of Agriculture by associating 
 together, to interchange opinions respecting the state of our crops, 
 and dinerent modes of culture, adopted in different neighborhoods ? 
 Do we not know, that by these means we may obtain valuable 
 information trom those, who will communicate their knowledge 
 orally, but cannot be prevailed upon to commit it to writing? 
 Are not the improvements of one district or neighborhood, kept 
 secret for years, for want of this channel of communication ? Is it 
 of no importance that the youthful agriculturalist should have an 
 opportunity of holding converse with those, who have devoted their 
 lives to the pursuit ? Above all, do we not effectually promote the 
 cause, by giving suitable rewards to those, who shall have been 
 successful, in any department of Agricultural industry ? It is in this 
 point of view alone, our association claims regard — it is by furnishing 
 in addition to the stimulus of ambition, a handsome pecuniary reward, 
 that we are to hope for greater efforts, from those whose situation 
 would not otherwise enable or prompt them to make the necessary 
 exertions. 
 
 Our Society by offering a premium to the manager of two or 
 more plantations, who shall be recommended for his skill, fidelity 
 and humanity, adopts the most judicious plan for the encouragement 
 of that valuable, but hitherto neglected class of men ; and it is to 
 be regretted that our funds will not permit us to offer a greater 
 reward. It is true, that we are mostly theorists, and from the inhos- 
 pitable nature of our climate, we are likely to remain so ; hut does it 
 follow, therefore, that we can do no good, residing at the seat of 
 intelligence, with facilities of communication and investigation, which 
 our brethren in the country, removed to a distance from each other, 
 cannot possess — we can collect and waft the earliest information of 
 improvement to the most distant parts of the State. If properly 
 encouraged and assisted, we may be made the organs of communica- 
 tion of the latest improvements in Europe and other parts of the 
 globe. Enjoying a great deal of leisure during the summer months, 
 and blessed with an education that fits us for the task, in what way 
 could we employ that leisure better, than in collecting such interesting 
 facts, as occur in the agricultural records of other countries, and in 
 perusing the works of those scientific men, whose labors are a 
 
REPORT. VU 
 
 blessing to every country, and particularly those intrepid travellers, 
 who have devoted their lives to inquire into and illustrate the 
 physical resources of distant nations. We do not pretend to deride 
 practice, far from it, we are convinced that it is essential to success. 
 But practice without just theory, is almost as bad as theory without 
 practice, it is by an union of both, that the most beneficial results are 
 to be produced — they act and react on each other. 
 
 When we consider the im riense value of the interests at stake, 
 and often left to the guidance of ignorance ; surely we must be 
 deeply impressed with the importance of dispelling that ignorance. 
 This is only effectually to be done, by encourageing our overseers 
 and managers, and making ourselves acquainted with the rationale 
 of the profession we follow. And here we are encouaged by the 
 example and advice of some of the greatest patriots that ever lived. 
 Not to cite the names of those who are gone to their reward in 
 another and better world, we could mention a Madison, a Pickering, 
 a Peters, and others, who have not only given their sanction to such 
 associations as ours, but are active and zealous members. Our 
 Agriculture cannot be improved, so long as it does not excite the 
 attention of those who are most interested in its success. 
 
 " It is (says Sir H. Davy) from the proprietors of land, those 
 who are fitted by their education to form enlightened plans, and by 
 their fortunes to carry such plans into execution, it is from these, that 
 the plans of improvement must flow to the laboring classes of the 
 community ; and in all classes the benefit is mutual ; for the 
 interest of the tenant, must be the interest of the proprietor. The 
 attention of the laborei will be more minute, and he will expert 
 himself more for improvement, when he is certain he cannot deceive 
 his employer, and has a conviction of the extent of his knowledge. 
 Ignorance, in the possessor of an estate, of the manner in which 
 it ought to be treated, generally leads either to inattention, or injudi- 
 cious practices in the tenant or Bailiff. — Agrum pessimum mulctari 
 cujus dominus non docet, sed audit villicum. — Discoveries made 
 in the cultivation of the earth, are not merely for the time and 
 country in which they are developed, but they may be considered 
 as extending to future ages, and as ultimately tending to benefit the 
 whole human race, as affording subsistence for generations yet to 
 come ; as multiplying life, and not only multiplying life, but likewise 
 providing for its enjoyment." 
 
Vlll REPORT. 
 
 The afflictive dispensations, with which jt has pleased divine pro- 
 vidence to visit us during the present year, are calculated to excite 
 our tenderest sympathies. Whilst in the city, the arrow flieth by 
 day and pestilence walketh in darkness ; whilst we have been fre- 
 quently called to mourn over the victims of ruthless and loathsome 
 disease; in the country, our dwellings have been shattered by the 
 raging tempest, and the hopes of the farmer have been blasted by 
 the destroying flood. Indeed, unusual distress prevails throughout 
 the land, and we may truly say, republica est afflicta. Bowing with 
 becoming submission to the divine will, let us be thankful to the God 
 of mercy, that there is one drop, one cordial drop of hope, to cheer us 
 amidst our distresses, and that we have still reserved to us our intelli- 
 gence and industry. The genius of Carolina, beholds with pride and 
 exultation, the rapid strides with which her sister states are marching 
 to the complete fulfilment of the high destinies which seem to await 
 them — she hopes that the sun of prosperity, will long shine on them , 
 and if she pauses for a moment to sigh at her present condition, 
 knowing her resources, she springs forward with redoubled energy, 
 and calls upon her sons to assist her in developing them — surely she 
 will not call in vain. — Bound to her, by the ties of affection and 
 gratitude, let her misfortunes strengthen our attachment — and 
 whilst we venerate the last sentiments that faltered on the qui- 
 vering lips of the illustrious Pitt — Oh my Country! Let us 
 never forget the dying words of Father Paul — esto perjpetua. 
 
 All of which is respectfully submitted. 
 
 WM. WASHINGTON. 
 
 Chairman. 
 
 amrkston, (8. C) October, 1824. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS; 
 
 Page 
 LETTER I.— General Thomas Pinckney on Embankment of Tide 
 
 Lands, * 
 
 II.— General Thomas Pinckney on Salt Spots in Marshes, 10 
 III.— ditto on Method of Puddling for Canals, 16 
 
 IV. — Jordan Myrick, on Rice Planting, IS 
 
 V.— ditto on ditto. 21 
 VI.— John Middleton on the Culture of Rice, broad 
 
 cast, 23 
 
 VII — John H. Alston on Rice Planting, 25 
 
 VIII.— John Middleton on the Culture of the Sweet Potatoe, 28 
 
 IX.— Ditto on the Tuscany Cattle, 29 
 
 X.— Wai. R. Bull, on the Culture of the Sw eet Potatoe, 31 
 
 XI. — Edward Brown on the importance of raising Sheep, 34 
 
 XII. -Robert Ralston on Cotton Planting, 41 
 
 XIII.— John S. Bellinger on Corn Planting, 44 
 
 XIV —Charles E. Rowand on Rice Planting, 48 
 
 ART. 15. Report on the Decorticator, 51 
 16. Sinclair on the means of Improving the Agriculture of a 
 
 country, 57 
 17 Preliminary points to be considered before a Farmer can 
 
 undertake the occupation of a Farm, 72 
 
 18. Rules to be observed regarding the improvement of 
 
 Waste i,ands, 84 
 
 19. On the Advantages of Draining, 85 
 
 20. On Manures, 91 
 
 21. On Paring and Burning, $6 
 
 22. On Flooding Land, 99 
 
 23. On Warping Land, 101 
 
 24. On Ploughing, 104 
 
 25. On Harrowing, 108 
 
 26. On Transplanting Crops, 109 
 
 27. On Reaping, 110 
 
 28. On the various purposes to which Straw is applicable, 113 
 
 29. On Private Kitchen Gardens, 120 
 
 30. On the most desireable qualities of Live Stock, 121 
 
 31. On the Principles of Improved Breeding, 127 
 
 32. On the proper Management of Stock in general, 181 
 
 33. On the Embankment of Rivers, 133 
 
 34. On the Cultivation of Rice in India by Logaux de Flaix, 149 
 
 35. On Agriculture in the Plains of Tuscany, by Simonde, 153 
 
 36. On the Philosophy of Vegetation, by Fourcroy, 160 
 
 37. On the first Principles of Agriculture, 170 
 38 On Reclaiming Salt Marshes, 174 
 
 39. On Cotton — nature of soil, mode of planting, he, 181 
 
 40. On Manures, 185 
 
 41. On Oyster- Shells, as a Manure, 187 
 
 B 
 
% CONTENTS. 
 
 Page; 
 
 ART. 42. On Flemish Husbandry, 188 
 
 43. On the Agriculture of Tuscany, 193 
 
 44 On the manner of treating Flax in Ireland, 19ft 
 
 45. On the treatment of Flax in the Netherlands, 199 
 
 46. On Salt, as a Manure, 206 
 
 47. On the Tall Meadow Oat Grass, 205 
 
 48. On Corrections of ill-constructed Soils, 20ft 
 
 49. On Millet, 208 
 
 50. On work Horses, and manner of feeding, 209 
 
 51. On the Dairy, in answers, by Mr. Van de Poes, 210 
 62. On the Feld-Pea, 211 
 53 On Oat Pasture, and Improvement of Soils, 212 
 
 54. On Manure, from Dr. Cooper's Domestic Encyclopedia, 219 
 
 55. On Lime from ditto ditto 234 
 
 56. On Soil, by T. Pickering, 238 
 
 67. On Corn, by Dr Cooper, 242 
 
 68. On Chicorium Intubus, by ditto, 250 
 59 On Cabbage, by ditto, 251 
 
 60. On Buckwheat, by ditto, 254 
 
 61. On Boorcole. by ditto, 25*7 
 
 62. On the Common Vetch, by ditto, • 258 
 
 63. On Rice, by ditto, 263 
 64 On the Cultivation of a Farm in Italy, by Rigby, 268 
 
 65. On the Agriculture of India, by Buchanan, 277 
 
 66. On the Potatoe, from Dr. Cooper's Dom. Ency. 294 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 LETTER XV. — Whitemarsh B. Seabrook's answers on Cotton Planting, 301 
 
 XVI on Guinea Corn, 309 
 
 XV H — John Middleton on Lime, 312 
 
 XVUI —John Middleton on the Sweet Potatoe, 215 
 
 XIX — Jordan Myrick's answers on Rice Planting*, 214 
 
 Birectionsfor the Bindet** 
 
 jftace the Plate, Describing LmbankmentS, at page 5. 
 . $&d the Plate, on Fascines, at page 8. 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 We have noticed several typographical errors, which must be left for cor- 
 rection to the candid and intelligent reader. 
 
 Page 14 — line 8, for acres read barrels. 
 " 19 — line 15, for without read with. 
 " 32 — line 7, insert be, after will. 
 " 37 — line 20, for unequal read unequalled. 
 " 39 — line 26, for William Broicne, read Edward Brown. 
 " 79 — line 25, for previous read pervious. 
 " 88 — line 14, 2d part, for pouchy read poachy. 
 " 88 — line 31, " for require read acquire. 
 u 91 — line 5, 2d part, for measures read manures. 
 " 92 — line 2, for duftg read dung. 
 " 92 — line 14, for indisputable read indisputably. 
 u 94 — line 31, for rods read roads. 
 " 101 — line 34, for expese read expense. 
 " 107 — line 15, for measures read manures. 
 *• 107 — line 19, of Note, for retracted read protracted 
 ri 128— line 24, for herbs read herds. 
 
ORIGINAL LETTERS. 
 
 LETTER I. 
 
 On the Embankment of Tide Lands, 
 
 To the President and Members of the Agricultural > 
 Society of South-Carolina. $ 
 
 A HE construction of banks, capable of protecting 
 from inundation the low grounds adjacent to our rivers, 
 being indispensable for the secure cultivation of the 
 most fertile portions of our territory, I have thought it 
 might be acceptable to submit to the society, such ideas 
 as theory and practice have suggested to me, in the 
 course of long attention to this subject. And being 
 of opinion that the form of the bank generally used 
 among us, is not the most advantageous, I herewith 
 offer a drawing of the section of the bank now, and 
 for many years, generally adopted in the maritime parts 
 of our state, marked No. 1, and of that which is 
 thought to be an improvement upon it, marked No. 2, 
 with the view of explaining my ideas, aided by the 
 comparison. 
 
 1 
 
2 ON THE EMBANKMENT 
 
 The properties of a good bank may be assumed to 
 be, strength to resist the force of water; tightnes or 
 security from leakage; durability; cheapness of con- 
 struction; and facility of repair. An examination of 
 the form of these two banks, will enable us to judge, 
 which has the superiority in these points. It will 
 thence appear, that while the rising water must press 
 against No. 1, it lies in a great measure upon No. 2, 
 thereby consolidating rather than weakening it. And 
 as the stability of all elevations mainly depends on the 
 extent of the foundation exceeding that of the super- 
 structure; and the base of No. 2 being 26 feet, while 
 that of No. 1 is but 12, the advantage derived by the 
 former will be in proportion to these numbers; so that 
 while No 1 could only resist a pressure equal to 12, No. 
 2 could support one of 26: this has, therefore, more 
 than double the stability of No. 1. And in case of the 
 water being much agitated by violent wind, the surges 
 would dash nearly at right angles, against the almost 
 perpendicular side of No. 1 ; which must be greatly 
 injured thereby ; while the inclined position of No. 2, 
 offering less direct opposition, the waves would flow 
 up it like the surf oh the sea shore, and retire without 
 injuring it. In case also of a rapid movement of the 
 stream, in a direction parallel to the bank, it would 
 easily cut into and undermine the summit of No. 1, 
 while it would only extend itself up the easy slope of 
 No. 2. The first property therefore of strength, to 
 resist the action of water, appears to be in favor of 
 No. 2. 
 
 With respect to the ability to resist leakage, the 
 advantage seems to be on the same side, because it is 
 evidently more easy for water to percolate through a 
 stratum of twelve, than of twenty-six feet. But to 
 exemplify this with more precision, let us suppose that 
 the water has risen four feet perpendicular over the 
 surface on the outside of both banks, this water, in its 
 full depth, would come in contact with No. 1 ; and as 
 
OF TIDE LANDS. O 
 
 water acts equally on all sides, with a force propor- 
 tioned to its height or depth, it would here press with 
 the strength of a column four feet high, in forcing the 
 fluid through the pores or interstices of the twelve feet 
 of earth, which compose this bank in its widest dimen- 
 sion : but where No. 2, is only twelve feet thick, the 
 bank is so elevated, that the height of the column of 
 water on it, is but one foot and an half, and its power 
 of forcing through this equal stratum of earth, would 
 be in proportion thereto: consequently No. 1, would 
 be more liable to leak than No. 2, in the proportion 
 that four bears to one and an half, or the advantage 
 that No. 2, has over No. 1, as respects freedom from 
 leaks or tightness, is as eight to three. 
 
 With respect to durability, by fitness to resist the 
 other destructive operations, to which banks may be 
 exposed : violent rain, the trampling of heavy animals, 
 and perforations made by small ones, may be considered 
 as the principal causes of such destruction. Now it is 
 evident, that rain water would descend with more 
 velocity and consequently with more force down the 
 side of No. 1, than of No. 2, and would carry with it 
 more of the earth of which it is composed. 
 
 It is also apparent, that the materials of the surface of 
 these banks, which might be displaced by the trampling 
 of heavy animals, would more readily roll down the 
 precipitous side of one, than the easy slope of the other. 
 Crayfish, also fidlers and snakes, having more than 
 double the distance to travel through it, would be best 
 opposed by the widest foundation. To which may 
 be added that grass which grows best on the flattest 
 surface, affords additional security to the surface of 
 No. 2. 
 
 It appears then that with respect to the qualities of 
 strength, tightness and durability, the form of the bank 
 recommended has the advantage. 
 
 In considering the cheapness of construction, it 
 remains to be proved, that these advantages, however 
 
4 ON THE EMBANKMENT 
 
 important, do not cost more than they are worth ; by 
 shewing that the labor employed in constructing No. 2, 
 does not far exceed that of No. 1. 
 
 On reference to the numbers which designate the 
 dimensions of the ditches, A and B, it will be found 
 that any given length of each contains the same num- 
 ber of cubical feet of the earth which is to be removed 
 to form the corresponding bank : so far they are equal p 
 but it is evident, that it requires much more labor to 
 raise a weight perpendicularly, than to remove it hori- 
 zontally; the dififerenee of the forces necessary to be 
 applied in the two cases might be ascertained from the 
 principles of gravity ; but it may be sufficient here to 
 assume, (what an experienced spadesman will scarcely 
 controvert,) that it is at least as easy to pitch a spade- 
 ful of earth, ten feet horizontally, as to raise and 
 deliver it from a depth of five feet. The usual day's 
 work of one hand in the ditch being ten feet in length, 
 it is evident that the laborer must raise one hundred 
 cubical feet from the bottom of the ditch, five feet to 
 the surface; while the laborer in the ditch B, in the 
 same length of task, would have to raise only ten 
 cubical feet: this is an advantage in his favor of ten 
 for one ; he will, however, have to remove this earth 
 twenty feet, while the laborer in A, will on an average 
 have only a distance of five feet, to convey his horizon- 
 tally to its edge ; this therefore, is an advantage in 
 favor of A, of four for one ; which being substracted 
 from the ten for one, gained by B in the perpendicular 
 lift, still leaves the advantage to B, of six for one. 
 This advantage of course diminishes as the surface is 
 approached, and on account of the form of B, this 
 calculation cannot be precisely exact; but in practice 
 the facility of execution on the whole, is so decidedly 
 in favor of B, that I have always found, that fifteen 
 feet in length of this ditch could be executed in the 
 day, while only ten feet of the former is the usual task. 
 This, it must be observed, relates only to so much of 
 

 
 \ ! & / 
 
 
OF TIDE LANDS. O 
 
 the bank, as is comprised between the ditch and the 
 dotted line 5. To complete this bank, a small inner 
 ditch is formed, (marked C), which affords the earth 
 for the interior talus, and at the same time serves to 
 drain the field. Thirty feet of this ditch is the usual 
 day's task : one laborer then, with one woman to put 
 up the bank, will, in two days, execute thirty feet of 
 the exterior ditch and bank, and in another day, thirty 
 feet of the corresponding inner ditch and bank; while 
 in the same three days, the laborer in A, with his assist- 
 ing woman, will have performed no more than the 
 same length. The labor then of construction is equal, 
 and if the bank No. 2, is better than No. 1, it is of 
 course cheaper. 
 
 With respect to the last property, facility of repair, 
 this must depend in a great measure on having a supply 
 of materials necessary for the purpose, within a conve- 
 nient distance; and this is furnished in a short time, 
 by the exterior ditch B, which is speedily filled by the 
 earth of alluvion ; which consisting generally of clay, 
 affords a supply of the best material, within a conve- 
 nient distance; while the ditch A, being within the 
 banks and kept more generally dry, affords fewer 
 opportunities for the deposit of the sediment of water: 
 and even if it had an equal advantage in that respect, 
 the ditch B, being double the width of A, would of 
 course receive double the quantity of alluvium. 
 
 I have thus endeavored to show that, the bank No. 2, 
 is superior in strength, tightness, durability, cheapness 
 of construction, and facility of repair to those in gene- 
 ral use ; and having many years experienced its efficacy 
 I can safely recommend its adoption. I will now 
 proceed to describe the mode of executing it. The 
 ground being marked off by stakes as usual, the ditcher 
 takes his station in his task on the outward line of the 
 ditch, which is usually placed within a tew feet of the 
 river; he there digs down to the bottom of the ditch, 
 throwing each spadeful as he proceeds as far as he can, 
 
D ON THE EMBANKMENT 
 
 toward the inner line of the ditch, where a woman, his 
 partner in the task, is stationed ; who removes with 
 her hoe to the inner part of the bank, the earth pitched 
 to her, by the spadesman : and the gentle acclivity of 
 this bank rendering it unnecessary that the excavated 
 earth should remain to become more dry, before it is 
 formed into the bank, as is the case in the common 
 mode, it is at once placed in its proper position. After 
 the spadesman has attained his full depth on the out- 
 ward line, he proceeds inward, observing to dimlninsh 
 the depth according to his progress; this part of the 
 operation requires the most attention, but practice soon 
 renders it easy; and after the excavation is roughly 
 made ? a straight rod, laid on the surface, from the top 
 to the bottom of the ditch, enables the laborer, to give 
 it thereby, the proper form; a similar process serves 
 for trimming the bank. It may be observed, that by 
 thus proceeding, the most difficult part of the task is 
 executed first, while the laborer is unfatigued ; and the 
 latter part of it requires so little exertion, that he is 
 much encouraged by finding his difficulties diminish as 
 he proceeds: while in the ditch A, the reverse occurs, 
 and the workman finds towards the close of the day, 
 that the most toilsome part of his task is still to be 
 executed. /This moral advantage, will be properly 
 estimated by those who have observed how much the 
 encouragement of hope facilitates labor. / 
 i f It may be proper to remark, that the bank here re- 
 ( commended, is drawn under the impression, that it is 
 sufficiently elevated to keep out the highest spring tides ; 
 h where that is not the case, a greater elevation must be 
 4 given; observing always to have four feet of base for 
 one of height. \ And where from freshets, or any other 
 cause, banks are liable to be frequently overflowed, a 
 much wider inner talus should be formed. In our 
 high river swamps, I should be of opinion, that the 
 inner ought to be equal to the outer slope. 
 
OF TIDE LANDS. / 
 
 As connected with this subject, of the construction 
 and repair of banks, I will take the liberty of describ- 
 ing the mode which I have found most effectual in 
 Securing the creeks, which frequently intersect the 
 course of the bank; as well as in stopping any con- 
 siderable breaches, which may be made by storms, 
 freshets, &c. The usual mode in this, our timber 
 country, is to drive down several pair of large posts 
 across the breach, parrallel with the sides of the stan- 
 ding bank, and to unite the tops of each pair, by a 
 cross timber morticed on their tops; then driving a row 
 of large and strong puncheons into each side of the 
 breach, supported by horizontal timbers, which rest 
 against the cap'd posts; the earth to form the bank is 
 then thrown between these rows, and kept in its place 
 by the puncheons. This makes a tolerable temporary 
 stoppage; but as the puncheons cannot form a tight 
 joint, the earth piled perpendicularly within them, is 
 constantly escaping: and the wood which is exposed 
 to be wet and dry alternately, twice in twenty-four 
 hours, speedily rots, and no longer affords security to 
 the bank. 
 
 The model recommend, is to use fascines instead of 
 timber; for this purpose, a number of them, propor- 
 tionate to the size of the creek or breach, are prepared : 
 they are composed of bushes, or the smallest branches 
 of trees, cut into lengths of six feet; a sufficient 
 quan ty being placed in each, to form when well com- 
 pressed, a diameter of a foot; and firmly bound in the 
 middle, by a vine or by a switch of white oak, ozier, 
 or other tough wood, each about the size of a man's 
 ringer, and six or seven feet long : a noose or loop is 
 made at one end of this bind, which is passed under 
 the middle of the fascine, and the other end being 
 brought round, is passed through the loop and drawn 
 tight, the laborer pressing hiskn^e upon it to compress 
 it strongly; the bind is then passed again round the 
 fascine and its end inserted carefully under the noose, 
 
8 ON THE EMBANKMENT 
 
 to prevent it from slipping : a strong stake of about 
 two inches diameter, and six or seven feet long, is 
 prepared for each fascine; and a quantity of earth, 
 commensurate with the width and depth of the creek 
 or breech, being prepared at hand ; a row of fascines 
 is laid across the aperture in a line parallel with the 
 exterior talus of the banks, in the following manner: 
 a fascine is placed firmly down, with the but inside, 
 perpendicular to the bank, the end of which it joins, 
 and a stake is driven through it passing below the 
 upper side, and above the lower side of the bind; this 
 should not be driven perpendicularly, but with the 
 head inclining from the bank, near which it is placed 
 toward the opposite side, in the direction which the 
 row is to take; it must not be driven entirely in, but 
 the end must be left six or eight inches above the fas- 
 cine; another fascine is then placed by the side of the 
 first, and secured by the stake in the same inclined 
 position, and the row is continued across until it 
 reaches the bank on the opposite side: here a fascine 
 must be placed on the top of the last of the first row, 
 but drawn back so much as to let the bind of the 
 second tier lie close behind that of the first; this is 
 secured by a stake driven into the ground, through both 
 fascines, inserted through the bind of the upper, but 
 driven in a direction exactly opposite to the stakes of 
 the first row; whereby their ends cross each other in 
 the form of the letter X, and the two tiers are firmly 
 bound to the bottom: this row is continued across as 
 the first; and as many more added, as the depth may 
 require: but when they have risen a foot or two above 
 the surface, or so much as may be necessary to secure 
 the bank; long fascines or saucisson, from sixteen to 
 twenty feet in length, with a strong bind every three or 
 four feet, are placed across the middle of the other 
 fascines from bank to bank, and well staken down, the 
 more firmly to bind the whole together: this is called 
 the strong piece. When the outward side of the breach 
 

 ■»' >7»*» t .^ /.''VvV 
 
 
 /:/^ ^W ^/'-/^^d /^W y-J/^Y-y yj. 
 
 C t S//y/ i, 
 
OF TIDE LANDS. ^ 
 
 is thus secured, a similar baricade is made on the inside, 
 or if workmen are plenty, both may be carried on at 
 the same time; observing that the clear distance be- 
 tween them should be equal to the base of the bank. 
 The earth is then thrown in, and the bank formed; 
 covering the top of the fascines also with earth. — As 
 it frequently happens that the cavity, even at low water, 
 (at which time this work ought always to be begun,) 
 is so deep, that the fascines cannot be laid dry on the 
 bottom, two fascines or as many more as will be suffi- 
 cient to reach from the bottom to the surface of the 
 water are fixed through their binds on one stake, which 
 is driven down as before described, and the fascines 
 pushed or trod down firmly to the bottom: it will of 
 course be necessary to use longer and stronger stakes 
 for this purpose. An expert laborer ought to make 
 from sixty to eighty fascines a day ; and when this work 
 is properly directed, it may be performed with less 
 labor and more expedition than with posts, caps and 
 puncheons. 
 
 I am indebted for the above described mode of 
 embankment, as well as for the use of fascines, to the 
 late Mr. Van Hasselt an intelligent citizen of Holland, 
 who, having joined the patriotic party, during the dis- 
 turbances which took place in that country, soon after 
 the close of our revolutionary contest, was obliged to 
 abandon his country and took refuge in this state. 
 He died here, at an advanced age, regretted by all who 
 knew him, after having imparted much valuable infor- 
 mation on agricultural subjects. 
 
 Nearly forty years have elapsed since this gentleman 
 attended in person and instructed my people to stop a 
 breach in a bank, situated on quicksand, which had 
 previously occasioned much unsuccessful labor; and 
 which has ever since been perfectly strong. This 
 circumstance is mentioned to prove the efficacy and 
 durability of the work; and as I have since stopped a 
 considerable number of large creeks, and repaired 
 2 
 
10 ON SALT SPOTS 
 
 many breaches by this mode, I do not recommend it 
 without sufficient experience. 
 
 A drawing, representing a breach, during the opera- 
 tion of being thus stoppped, is herewith presented. 
 THOMAS PINCKNEY. 
 
 LETTER II. 
 
 On Salt Spots in Marshes. 
 
 A HIS society having resolved to endeavour to circu- 
 late extensively, information derived from individual 
 experience on agricultural subjects, it becomes pecu- 
 liarly incumbent on its members, to promote this 
 intention, by communicating facts occurring in then- 
 practice, which have proved beneficial to any branch 
 of their rural concerns. 
 
 Under this impression, I beg leave to submit to the 
 society, the result of an experiment made for the pur- 
 pose of improving the brackish marshes of our sea 
 coast, by reclaiming the salt spots with which this kind 
 of land is usually infested. 
 
 To those who are unacquainted with lands of this 
 description, it may be necessary to premise, that they 
 are situated on such parts of our rivers, within the 
 reach oi the tide, where the water is generally fresh, but 
 at spring tides, or with the prevalence of eastwardly 
 winds it become salt or highly brackish. The margins 
 
IN MARSHES. 11 
 
 of these lands bounding on the water courses, are so 
 high, as not to be covered by usual tides; but in the 
 cases abovementioned, the water flows over them, 
 covering the whole marsh, which, on the tides reced- 
 ing, is again left dry ; except those parts which lying 
 lower than the margins, the water cannot return by 
 that course ; much of it, however, escapes through 
 the pores of the soil ; but the lowest parts, or those 
 where the soil is of the most impervious quality still 
 retain it. These, in fact, become salt ponds, wherein 
 evaporation leaves a residum, consisting of marine 
 and glauber salts, &c. such as is found in the pans of 
 salt works. The soil, in these places of course, be- 
 comes barren ; and the proprietor, after being at the 
 expense of banking and draining the marsh, finds him- 
 self in possession of land, the better part of which is 
 of uncommon fertility, but a certain portion of it worse 
 than useless, on account of the greater extent of banks, 
 ditches and drains necessary to be kept up ; and by 
 adding to the brackish quality of the water circulating 
 through the drains, and in the soil. Of nearly four 
 hundred acres of this land which I have brought into 
 culture, about one tenth consisted of salt spots. It 
 was evident, that as they were already banked and 
 drained, by divesting them of their noxious qualities, I 
 should at once obtain land equal to good tide swamp, 
 equal from 130 to 150 dollars per acre. I, therefore, 
 attempted to effect it by various means ; and it may be 
 useful to relate, as a warning, the attempts which 
 were abortive, as well as that which finally succeed- 
 ed. As water will hold in solution a certain quantity 
 of salt, my first idea was, that by frequently introduc- 
 ing fresh water, and letting it flow off when saturated 
 with the salt, I should in time get rid of it. In order 
 to do this effectually, particular attention was paid to 
 the ditches, which surrounded the fields, and the 
 drains which intersected them : the former were eight 
 feet wide and five deep, and the drains three and an 
 
12 ON SALT SPOTS 
 
 half feet deep, were in general cut at fifty feet distance 
 from each other. By this means, free ingress and 
 egress was given to the fresh water taken in at plea- 
 sure through good flood-gates and trunks : and the land 
 being cultivated in rice, this process of admitting and 
 changing the water, was of course continued, while the 
 land was under cultivation. 
 
 Finding after several years very little improvement, 
 I tried the effect of animal manure in different quanti- 
 ties, in various spots ; this was sometimes carried and 
 spread on the land, but it was principally effected by 
 making cowpens and hog sties on the land, but equal- 
 ly without success. 
 
 I then tried the effects of burning the surface, by 
 spreading on it, and setting fire to stubble, brought 
 from the adjoining parts ; but this appeared to render 
 it more inveterately sterile. 
 
 At length, I determined to try the effect of lime, 
 and that succeeded to my wish. In the spring of 1821 , 
 in a field much infested by salt spots, I selected an 
 acre of the worst of it which had been previously dug 
 by the hoe, and, just before planting, oyster-shell-lime, 
 at the rate of one hundred bushels to the acre was 
 strewed on it, and hoed in ; the remainder of the field 
 was left unmanured. The rice on this acre came up 
 well, and instead of turning red and dying, as former- 
 ly, when from six to twelve inches high, it stood well 
 through the season, and produced as good a crop as 
 the best parts of the field, while other salt spots there- 
 in produced nothing. 
 
 Encouraged by this success, in the next year, (1822) 
 I burned several kilns of oyster-shell-lime, and strewed 
 nearly two thousand bushels over as many salt spots 
 as that would cover, at the rate of one hundred bushels 
 per acre. The success this year was similar to the 
 former. In the present year, I have spread lime 
 wherever the land appeared at all effected by the salts 
 varying the quantity, according to the degrees of steri- 
 
IN MARSHES. 13 
 
 lity, so as to allow only twenty bushels per acre, where 
 the vegetation seemed to be but slightly impaired. 
 There has been no indication of any salt spots during 
 the growth of this crop, and it is now in the barn yard 
 totally uninjured. 
 
 The manner in which the lime was applied in the 
 first experiment, has been mentioned, but as the mode 
 afterwards adopted, seems preferable, on account of 
 the more regular distribution, and the more intimate 
 admixture of the lime with the soil, I will describe it. 
 Our common planting acre being 210 feet square, our 
 fields are laid out in quarter acres, usually called tasks 
 of 105 feet square, marked by a stake at each corner 
 of the tasks : one side of a task was divided into ten 
 parts, each ten and an half feet in length, the division 
 marked by the chop of a hoe, turning a sod : a peck of 
 lime was deposited in a heap in the middle of each 
 division, at five and a quarter feet distance from the 
 line. A similar process was pursued with an adjoin- 
 ing line of the task: then a peck of lime was deposit- 
 ed at the distance of ten and an half feet from each of 
 the second heaps, near the connecting angle of the two 
 lines, (the heap nearest the angle being reckoned the 
 first of each line) : after this, no more measuring is ne- 
 cessary, for a field of any extent ; two heaps being 
 given in each direction, whereby to range the remaining 
 pecks of lime. One hundred pecks or twenty-five 
 bushels are hereby deposited in the quarter of an acre : 
 and on the same principle manure may be distri- 
 buted in any quantities at the distance required. In 
 order to ensure the lime being equally and intimately 
 mixed with the earth, about a bushel of the adjoining 
 soil should be scraped from the surface and thrown 
 on, and carefully mixed with each heap, and after- 
 wards spread equally over the square in which it stands: 
 and this should be done soon after it is carried on the 
 land, because rain or heavy dew is apt to make the 
 
14 ON SALT SPOTS 
 
 lime gather into lumps, thereby impeding its minute 
 division in the soil. 
 
 The expense of the improvement here described, 
 may be thus calculated, per acre : 
 
 One hundred bushels of lime, $12<|, carrying out and 
 
 spreading, $1. - - - - $ 13i 
 
 Product the first year, at a moderate computation, two 
 acres of rice, (mine produced considerable more) 
 at the low rate of $2£per cwt. 30 
 
 Clear gain, the first year, - - - l6£ 
 The land having previously been worthless, its whole 
 value in its improved state should be added ; this 
 may be estimated at-- 150 
 
 So that the entire gain on each acre reclaimed, after 
 
 deducting all expenses, will be ----- $l66£ 
 
 It may be thought, and indeed the question has been 
 asked, whether the reclaimed salt spots may not in 
 time relapse to their former state of sterility ; as I have 
 only three years experienced their continued fertility, 
 I cannot positively assert any thing beyond that period: 
 but if my theory of the manner in which these spots 
 were rendered barren be correct, it cannot be doubted 
 that while the banks are kept up, they will not revert to 
 their former condition. 
 
 But lest the success I have met with in cultivating 
 marsh land, should induce others to attempt it, without 
 equal advantages, it should be mentioned, that this 
 tract is situated on an Island formed by the two 
 branches of Santee River, a creek uniting them and 
 the ocean, into which the two branches fall about four 
 miles from the upper boundary ; and that the water of 
 the north branch at the upper angle of the tract is 
 scarcely ever too salt for vegetation, and by means of 
 canals this water may be conducted over all the re- 
 claimed lands. It should also be observed that on 
 these improved salt spots, nothing but rice has been 
 
IN MARSHES. 15 
 
 hitherto cultivated ; I cannot therefore say from ex- 
 perience how the dry culture would succeed in them : 
 but on other parts of the marsh, oats, barley, peas, and 
 potatoes grow well: but indian corn has invariably 
 failed, owing, in my opinion, to the deep root which 
 this plant strikes; penetrating, at a time when it wants 
 most nourishment to form the ear, into a part of the 
 soil which is too moist and which has not been ame- 
 liorated by the influence of the atmosphere. 
 
 I regret that I cannot at present recollect any expe- 
 riment of decided amelioration in our culture, but 
 one, the utility of which, must necessarily be so limited. 
 But if every member will communicate what has been 
 fairly proved from his own experience to be advanta- 
 geous, a considerable mass of useful information may 
 be collected. And if, in addition to this, each member 
 would annually dedicate a very small portion of his 
 land and his attention, to a well planned and well 
 recorded experiment, the sources for such communica- 
 tions would be abundant. 
 
 THOMAS PINCKNEY, 
 
LETTER III. 
 
 Method of Puddling for Navigable Canals, Reservoirs, 
 Banks, Rice Fields, &c. frc. 
 
 / 
 
 \ 40 feet wide at top. 
 
 /' ' \ 
 
 / 
 
 "'"\ 
 
 O-JJ 
 
 /->- \ 
 
 / BANK. 
 
 *\ 
 
 
 / -a- BANK. \ 
 
 / 40 feet wide at 
 
 :f: \ 
 
 .3- ba=e. \ 
 
 -CL- _*. 
 '/". ill 
 
 20 feet wide at j 
 bottom. / 
 
 40 -3. feet foundation. \ 
 
 Oo g" 
 
 B «-► S 
 
 
 A HE above is intended to represent the section of 
 a canal which I went to see, while forming, in the 
 neighborhood of Uxbridge — the dimensions may not 
 be accurate, as they were only ascertained by my 
 stepping them off, except the pudddle part which I 
 measured more exactly, and that part is included be- 
 tween the dotted lines in each bank. In case the 
 canal is carried along the side of a hill the lower side 
 alone is puddled, as that is the only way by which the 
 water can escape. In soils which are improper to 
 retain water, which are principally gravel, limestone, 
 and some chalks, not only the kind of walls above 
 delineated in the banks, but the whole bottom must 
 likewise be covered with a layer of puddle about two 
 feet thick. Puddling consists in an intimate admixture 
 of earth and water, worked to the consistence ol wet 
 
METHOD OF PUDDLING, &C. 17 
 
 mortar. For the purpose of making a canal bank 
 tight, a beginning is made by digging a trench three 
 wide and four feet deeper than the bottom of the canal, 
 in such a situation as when raised perpendicularly will 
 unite with, the top of the inner talus of the bank ; in 
 this trench, earth of any kind (coarse gravel excepted) 
 is to be thrown to the depth of about eighteen inches, 
 which is to be thoroughly moistened with water, by 
 the means of small moveable pumps and light wooden 
 troughs, which convey the water where wanted — the 
 laborers with common iron spades, chop and mix the 
 earth and water well together, till it is of the consis- 
 tency of mortar — the depth of eighteen inches for each 
 layer is generally practised because it is found that - the 
 spade can work with advantage to that depth. When 
 one layer is finished another is put on and worked up 
 in the same manner ; and the bank is carried on each 
 side of the pudded wall in proportion as that proceeds — • 
 in case any time intervenes between the formation of 
 the layers, so that the finished part become dry, some 
 water must be pumped on the top, a few inches of the 
 upper part repuddled to insure its mixing well with the 
 ensuing layer. Clay is said to make the best puddle, 
 but any good earth when cleared of stones, roots, and 
 other trash, answers very well, even sheer sand will 
 make a good puddle. By this method, (the discovery 
 of which is attributed to Brindley) a considerable 
 part of the expense is saved, amounting in some cases 
 to two thirds; for, previous to this invention, where the 
 soil was unfavorable, no method of preventing the 
 escape of the water was practised, but that of lining 
 the bottom and sides of the canal with masonry or 
 other expensive materials. 
 
 The puddle when dried, is said to become as firm 
 as stone, and more impervious to water than common 
 masonry, and in consequence when canals are carried 
 over bridges of masonry, the bottom of the canal is 
 always puddled where it rests on, or unites with the 
 
18 ON RICE PLANTING. 
 
 masonry of the bridge. Ponds are by this method 
 made to contain water in the most unfavorable soils, and 
 even to bear the tread of the heaviest cattle without 
 damage. I need not mention with what advantage 
 this invention may be applied to the banks of all 
 reservoirs, rice fields, &c. and is therefore worthy the 
 attention of our society for promoting Agriculture. 
 THOMAS PINCKNEY. 
 
 LETTER IV. 
 
 On Rice Planting, 
 
 Richmond, Cooper River, Feb. 20, 1824, 
 
 GENTLEMEN— I offer myself a candidate for the 
 premium to be awarded by your respectable and useful 
 society for the greatest production of rice in our state. 
 I am aware that my application, strictly speaking, 
 does not come within the mode prescribed in your 
 communication to the public, in as much as I rest my 
 pretensions on the production of twenty acres, whereas 
 you offer for only one, that is 210 feet square. But 
 with great deference I would observe that it must be 
 very obvious that if 20 acres, planter's measure, produce 
 an equal quantity of grain per acre, that the production 
 of the former must be regarded equal, if not superior 
 to the latter. Not being able to procure one of your 
 blank forms, I will therefore make my statement as 
 
ON RICE PLANTING. 19 
 
 briefly as possible, consistent with the necessary details 
 of the plan pursued : — 
 
 1st. The land is of the light black mould or soil, 
 situated on she eastern branch of Cooper River, in the 
 parish of St. John's Berkley. 
 
 2d. The field contains twenty acres, and not more, 
 and was planted in rice the year previous, aud cultivated 
 in the usual way. 
 
 3d. The surface of the field was not touched 
 after the stubble of the preceding crop had been burnt 
 off; the ditches were cleaned out and are located in 
 the following manner : a marginal ditch, six feet wide 
 and four and a half deep around the field ; ditches one 
 hundred feet apart, two feet wide, and two and a half 
 deep, running from river to high land, without centre 
 or cross ditch, same size. 
 
 4th. The furrows were made with a three inch 
 hoe, between the old rows, being fifteen inches apart 
 from centre to centre. 
 
 5th. Planted on the 28th of March, put six pecks 
 of seed to each acre, the seed received no preparation 
 whatever, and it was produced on the same plantation 
 the preceding year. 
 
 6th. Hoed the first time the last of April, two 
 hands in an acre ; it was dug deep, and the old rice 
 roots well sodded over. 
 
 7th. Put on the water the first of May, rice then 
 in the fourth leaf, and kept it three days over the rice, 
 then drew it down to six or eight inches, and so kept 
 it for eighteen days ; say twenty-one days water on 
 the field. 
 
 8th. Hoed the second time, eight days after the 
 water was let off, two hands to an acre. 
 
 9th. Put on the water 1st of July, rice forming the 
 second joint, kept it on until the rice was in full belly, 
 then drew it off and hand-picked the field of the long 
 grass, one hand to an acre; put on water six days 
 after, and kept it on till the rice was ready for harvest ; 
 
20 ON klCE frLANf INCf. 
 
 observing to change or freshen the water every third or 
 fourth day. 
 
 10th. The rice was cut on the 1st day of Septem- 
 ber, and when winnowed produced eighty-seven 
 bushels of fine rice, from the sheaf, per acre, and three 
 bushels of sound rice, from straw and sweepings, 
 making a total of ninety bushels per acre. 
 
 It <; ay be proper for me to state that the production 
 of the adjoining fields and the plantation generally 
 Was very good, although not cultivated in precisely the 
 same mode, having yielded an average of eighty-five 
 bushels per acre ; weight of rough rice 46 lbs. per 
 bushel* 
 
 The production of about one half of an acre that 
 is banked off from one of the adjoining fields may be 
 Worthy of remark ; it was managed pretty much in 
 the same way as the twenty acres above described, 
 excepting that it was planted twelve inches apart, the 
 drill being made with a two inch hoe, it produced 
 seventy bushels of good rice* 
 With great respect, 
 
 I am gentlemen, your ob't. ser't. 
 
 JORDAN MYRICK. 
 
 To Messrs. Washington and Huger. 
 
LETTER V. 
 
 On Rice Planting. 
 
 Richmond, Cooper River, February 20, 1824. 
 
 CjENTLEMEN— J received your favor in October 
 last, and now beg leave to state the manner after which 
 I prepare and cultivate the soil on Cooper River. 
 The first and most essential requisite, is to have the 
 land well ditched and drained, and this is done by cut- 
 ting a marginal ditch all round the field six feet wide, 
 and four and an half deep, with a river trunk to each 
 field or square, sunk to low water mark ; the small 
 ditches are cut one hundred feet apart, running from 
 the high land to the river, with a centre ditch if neces- 
 sary; these ditches are two feet wide and two and an 
 half deep. The land is hoed deep, turned up every 
 second or third year previous to planting. 1 begin to 
 plant about the 25th of March, or the 1st of April, in 
 drills of three inches wide, and fifteen inches from cen- 
 tre to centre. If the land is in fine order, I plant about 
 six pecks to the acre ; if grassy, and in bad order, I 
 put eight pecks per acre. After sowing, the water is 
 put on for two or three days to sprout the rice — after 
 Which the land is kept dry until the rice is fit for the 
 hoe, which will be the last of April or first of May — 
 1 then have it hoed as deep as the rice will admit of 
 and all the grass and weeds taken out with the hand. — 
 In two or three days after hoeing I commence with the 
 water, when the rice is in the third or fourth leaf, and 
 
22 *)N RICE PLANTING. 
 
 sometimes five or six leaves high; 1 then put on the 
 water for three days owr the tops of the rice, and 
 then slack it down to six or eight inches deep, so that 
 the tops of the rice are out of water; in this state I 
 keep it for fifteen or twenty-one days, observing to 
 keep the water fresh by frequently changing it. 1 then 
 let otf the water and keep the field dry, and hoe the 
 second time in about eight days after, or sooner if the 
 land is dry. The rice now remains without water 
 until it is hoed a third time, if required, which it some- 
 times does; the rice is now to be cleaned of all grass, 
 and the land well pulverized with the hoe, until the 
 rice is forming the second joint. I then put on the 
 water the same depth as before, and keep it on until 
 the rice is in belly — I then let it off for five or six days, 
 and if any grass is left it is then hand-picked ; — the 
 water is now put on until the rice is ripe, observing 
 to flow deeper after it has put forth its ears. I have 
 frequently, by this manner of cultivating the soil, made 
 eighty bushels per acre, on an average of the fields 
 that I plant, and last year made eighty-five bushels. 
 With great respect, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 JORDAN MYRICK. 
 
 To Messrs, Washington and Huger. 
 
 [Mr. Myrick was awarded the Society's premium of the gold 
 medal, for producing ninety bushels of rice to the acre, from twenty 
 acres.] 
 
LETTER VI. 
 
 On the culture of seven acres of Rice Land, sown 
 broad cast in the year 1823. 
 
 SOIL — Part of the field elay, the remainder light 
 husky black land. 
 
 Preparation — This field was kept under water 
 during the winter, occasionally shifting the water, to 
 increase the deposit of the particles suspended therein. 
 
 May 29th — Three ploughs with two oxen or mules,, 
 and one boy each, turning the land with the stubble on, 
 and four women turning up the sides of the ditches, 
 drains and head lands. 
 
 30th — Three ploughs and four women employed as 
 on the 29th inst. and two men employed in cleaning 
 out the drains. 
 
 31st — Two harrows with two mules or oxen and 
 one boy, each preparing the land to receive the seed ; 
 four women levelling back the mud thrown out of the 
 drains, atid pulverizing the clods on the sides of the 
 ditches, drains and headlands; finished preparing early 
 in the day. One of the boys who attended the har- 
 rows, sowed the field broad cast, at the rate of three 
 bushels to the acre. On that evening a pole was put 
 into the outside door of the trunk, to admit a suffi- 
 ciency of water to moisen the surface of the land 
 gradually, to prevent the rice from floating. 
 
 June 1st — The field completely flooded. The trunk 
 minder took ofTthe trash as it floated towards the banks. 
 
 9th — Drew off the water and kept the field per- 
 fectly dry, until the sprout of the rice had turned 
 green. 
 
24 ON RICE, SOWN BROAD CAST. 
 
 16th — Took on the water for the point flow. 
 
 2Mi — Drew off the water and kept the field per- 
 fectly dry. 
 
 July 20th — Put an the water and kept it on, occa- 
 sionally shifting it, until the rice was . ready for the 
 sickle. Two women were employed one day previous 
 to the rice earing out, in picking out the weeds and 
 waters grass from the margin and the sides of the 
 banks. 
 
 Sept. 16th — Cut the rice and left it on the stubble. 
 
 18^ — It was put into sheaves, carried into the barn- 
 yard and ricked. 
 
 It yielded four hundred and eighty-eight bushels of 
 good heavy rice weighing forty-eight pounds to the 
 bushel. It was measured in a barrel containing ten 
 bushels when struck; but as the measure is never 
 struck, I know that instead of ten bushels it exceeded 
 that quantity from four to eight quarts. Allowing 
 however the excess to be but four quarts, then the 
 actual quantity grow r n from the seven acres would be 
 four hundred and ninety-four bushels and four quarts, 
 being equal to seventy bushels and nearly nineteen 
 quarts to the acre. 
 
 Estimate of Labor, #-c. 
 
 Three ploughs two clays, one boy and two mules or oxen, 
 
 each at $1 per day, •- $6 00 
 
 Two harrows one day, one boy and two mules or oxen, 
 
 each at $1 per day, is 2 00 
 
 Four women three days, at 25 cts. each per day, is - - 3 00 
 Two women one day, picking out the water grass and 
 
 weeds, at 25 cents each, is 50 
 
 Two men cleaning out the drains, at 37£ cts. each per day, 7~> 
 Twenty-one bushels of seed rice at 75 cents, - - - 15 75 
 The value of the straw, small rice, and flour, is put against 
 
 the harvesting and threshing. 
 24£ barrels, 600 weight, each, at 3, $441 00 
 Deduct expenses, - - 28 00—413 00 
 
 Equal to $59 per acre. 
 
 J. MIDDLETON. 
 
 To Messrs. Washington and Huger, 
 
LETTER VII. 
 
 On Rice Planting. 
 
 Santee, llth November, 1823. 
 
 felR — You will permit me to acknowledge the favor 
 conferred on me by your letter, in behalf of the Agri- 
 cultural Society, requesting the result of my experi- 
 ence on the subject of agriculture. I have been occu- 
 pied in this pursuit for the last fifteen years of my life, 
 and have planted rice on all, or nearly all the different 
 kinds of soil in our state ; the preparation for this crop 
 admits of little variety. On tide land, the first requi- 
 site is to surround it by substantial banks, and intersect 
 it with drains in such manner as to keep the land 
 perfectly dry when required. As soon as your crop is 
 taken off, turn your land deep with the plough, so as 
 to bury the vegetable matter, then keep it, through the 
 winter, constantly flooded, observing to change the 
 water as often as practicable, in order to take the^ 
 benefit of the sediment ; the water, however, must be 
 drawn off in time for the land to be harrowed, which 
 I consider as well as the ploughing to be of great im- 
 portance. I differ, however, from most planters, and 
 think that land can be made too fine ; which leaves it 
 after the first flowing so incrusted or consolidated, as 
 to make it difficult for the tender fibres of the young 
 plant to push their way through. I therefore do not 
 care how rough the land is, provided it is so well broken 
 4 
 
26 ON RICE PLANTING. 
 
 as not to prevent the germination of the rice; this pro- 
 cess is applicable only to the fresh lands ; on the salt or 
 brackish lands, deep ploughing or digging are injuri- 
 ous ; on such lands I would advise shallow ploughing 
 or turning with the hoe just before the planting season. 
 The land being thus prepared I would advise that it 
 should be trenched in rows twelve inches from centre 
 to centre, and the rice sowed on a string ; the trenches 
 should be made with a narrow hoe, so as to string the 
 rice to something like two inches in width. The hoes 
 should be always under the width of the track to be W 
 cleaned, otherwise the corner of the hoe must be used 
 instead of the broad edge, to avoid cutting the rice, 
 and consequently the land will not be sufficiently stirred. 
 The rice being planted, the sprout watering is given to 
 it, to bring it up ; this being drawn off, and the rice in 
 the needle state, I give it what is termed the point 
 flowing, which I hold on for a longer or shorter time, 
 according to the following circumstances: — when the 
 object is merely to show your rice in the drill, three 
 days are quite enough ; if the birds are troublesome I 
 hold on six days, which will partially throw the rice- 
 tops to the ground without injury. Where the object is 
 to destroy the growth of grass, the point watering should 
 be held on from twelve to fifteen days, at which time 
 the rice will stand erect; and when the water is drawn 
 off the surface of the land, will be found clean; and 
 such will be the ascendency of the rice over the grass, 
 that little labor is necessary afterwards to make the 
 crop. The point water being drawn off, on the old 
 worn lands I keep dry and give two deep hoeings, 
 which brings the rice to a strong stand : the long flow 
 is then introduced, which I seldom continue exceeding 
 fifteen days and not less than twelve. Such lands, as 
 the last mentioned, to produce a great crop must be 
 again hoed deep, twice more and once shallow, which 
 will make five hoeings in all, which will suffice, as 
 shortly after, on a distinct separation of the first and 
 
ON RICE PLANTING. 27 
 
 second joints the last flow should be introduced, to be 
 changed but not drawn off, until the time for harvesting. 
 Although this last process of long flowing and hand 
 hoeing is calculated to make the greatest yield to the 
 acre, much more can be made to the hand by using the 
 water more freely; for instance, in cases of emergency 
 I have, after the long water was put on, never drawn 
 off except to run through with the hoe, and succeeded 
 extremely well. Any lands not polluted with grass 
 will yield handsomely under this course : the water so 
 reduces the necesssity of labor as to enable you to 
 plant and attend two acres more to the hand. I 
 planted rice successfully five years on Pon Pon River, 
 and am convinced, from my observations then and 
 since, that those lands will stand the water culture 
 without introducing the pernicious grasses, better than 
 any of the rice lands north of Charleston. In the 
 year 1817, which was memorable for the quantity of 
 rain which fell during the summer and autumn, I 
 planted about sixty acres on Col. Morris' plantation, 
 after Gen. Thomas Pinckney's plan of water culture, 
 bestowing about five days work on the whole, and 
 made, after a bad harvest, about forty bushels to the 
 acre. I highly approve of the mode of bringing up 
 rice under one water instead of covering with earth, 
 provided the rice is prevented from floating, which it 
 will do if not previously wet with dew, rain, or in 
 some other manner, or the water taken in slowly at 
 night. I have planted four hundred acres on Santee 
 during the present year with entire success, indeed 
 more than after the usual way. 
 
 Permit me now to communicate the result of a disco- 
 very which I made during the last season, illustrating 
 the advantage of a change of seed or vines in the sweet 
 potatoe. 1 planted for Mrs. Horry, of her own seed, 
 sound and well preserved slips grown from the cut vines 
 of the preceding year, and for myself on far inferior land 
 and on the same plantation, of seed which I procured 
 
28 ON SWEET POTATOES. 
 
 from John Middleton, Esq. At the season for using 
 potatoes, I was astonished to find my own better than 
 Mrs. Horry's. This astonishment soon subsided, for I 
 found in my own field that the vines which I had ob- 
 tained from Mrs. Horry's field were very superior, 
 producing on adjoining rows, at a guess, nearly two to 
 one by measurement or weight. Having thus, I pre- 
 sume, tired your patience, I subscribe myself, 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 J. H. ALSTON. 
 To William Washishgton, Esq. 
 
 LETTER VIII. 
 
 On the Culture of the Sweet Potatoe. 
 
 X HE last year, (1823,) I selected two half acres of 
 land, of a light sandy soil, as equal in quality as possi- 
 ble, with the view of ascertaining the most profitable 
 mode of cultivating the Sweet Potatoe — namely, 
 whether the seed ought to be cut into two or more 
 parts, according to the usual practice, or to be planted 
 whole. These two half acres were manured equally 
 with long litter or straw from the barn yard, and the 
 same labor was bestowed on each. The result is as 
 follows — the half acre planted with the cut seed pro- 
 duced 56* heaped bushels, being equal to 113 bushels 
 
ON THE TUSCANY CATTLE. 29 
 
 to the acre, and gave no vines in time* for slip planting. 
 The half acre planted with the whole seed, gave 108 
 bushels, being equal to 216 bushels to the acre, and 
 produced vines early and in abundance. As the expe- 
 rience of one year however, cannot lead to just con- 
 clusions in agriculture, I shall continue the experiment 
 until 1 am perfectly satisfied as to the result. 
 
 This paper is laid before the Society, with a view 
 of inducing others to institute a similar course of 
 experiments. 
 
 J. MIDDLETON. 
 
 Wacho, 20th Feb. 1823. 
 
 * It is said that the vines will take and produce good slips even 
 when put out in dry weather, provided they are put in a line on the 
 top of the bed and then covered with earth, leaving only four or five 
 inches of the vine extending beyond the rows where they are inter- 
 sected by the cross alleys. This is a matter of such importance as 
 to merit experiment. W. W. 
 
 LETTER IX. 
 
 The Tuscany Cattle, 
 
 Imported by Com. Bainbridge and Purser Hamilton, 
 
 and now in South-Carolina. 
 
 Charleston, Jan. 20th, 1824, 
 
 DEAR SIR— Your favor of the 20th November, I 
 received on my return to town a few days since. The 
 first calf of the Tuscan cow was a female, the second 
 
30 ON THE TUSCANY CATTLE* 
 
 a male, and are doing well. The half-blooded calves 
 are strongly marked in figure and color; I believe that 
 one could select them out of the stock. I shall have 
 about thirty of the half-bloods by the spring; I intend 
 keeping all the females, and about six of the males ; 
 the remainder 1 shall dispose of at a moderate price, 
 to such as may wish to purchase. Since I last wrote, 
 I have seen the gentleman who grew the crop of Guinea 
 corn. I was correct as to the quantity per acre, but 
 his manager was mistaken, as to the weight ; its weight 
 is from sixty-three to sixty-four pounds, per bushel. 
 I shall send you some of the grain by the Harvest, 
 Capt^ Emery, by whom I sent the Guinea grass seed, 
 which I hope you have received. I intend planting 
 ten acres the present season ; I shall put it in small 
 beds, five feet apart, and from two to two and a half 
 feet apart on the bed ; a few seeds in each hole will 
 be sufficient. Attend it in the same manner as you 
 would corn ; plant about the 1st of May. In rich land 
 the product is great, and on a poor soil it produces, I 
 am informed, more than any other grain. It is not 
 injured by water, that is to say, it will grow well in 
 such land as may be partially covered in wet seasons. 
 It has a discouraging appearance until the heats of 
 summer, when it grows rapidly, and will continue to 
 put out heads until checked by autumnal dews. 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 J. MIDDLETON. 
 
LETTER X. 
 
 On the Culture of the Sweet Potatoe. 
 
 JJEAR SIR — Through you, I would beg leave to 
 report to the South-Carolina Agricultural Society, the 
 produce of two acres of land, one planted with slip 
 potatoes, the other with rice : in the first instance, I 
 must state the soil to be a good sandy loam, well cow 
 penned in the year 1822, but in the last year, say 1823, 
 no manure of any sort or kind was applied to this piece 
 of ground. I had the ground laid off with a small 
 tracking plough, three and a half feet apart, the ground 
 listed with the hoe, the alleys ploughed with a shovel 
 plough, and then well bedded with the hoe. As early 
 as possible, I procured potatoe vines of the yam, and 
 of the red and white ; they were cut in short pieces of 
 from twelve to fourteen inches, one vine lengthwise, 
 another across the bed, thus ><J, was placed on the cen- 
 tre of the bed : the centre of the vines was then com- 
 pressed with each planter's fist, and then a handful or 
 two of earth from the alley, filled up the hollow occa- 
 sioned by the indent of the fist, which also covered the 
 vines well, so on was the whole planted at the distance 
 of from six to eight inches apart; on the bed, they 
 were very carefully hand-picked, and hoed twice. The 
 above is the manner of preparing and cultivating this 
 acre of ground, which was exactly two hundred and ten 
 
32 ON SWEET POTATOES. 
 
 feet square ; the product three hundred and fifty-two 
 and an half bushels as per certificate. I would add, 
 while planting, I had as favorable seasons as I possi- 
 bly could desire. It appears requisite, that I should 
 state the produce of another acre of slips, so as 
 to compare with the above. I did not select any one 
 particular acre, yet hope the following will more 
 satisfactory. I had a piece of ground about three 
 hundred yards from the above piece, containing seven 
 acres and seven eights: this ground is tolerable, of a 
 sandy loam, and was laid off four and a half feet, then 
 listed with the hoe, the alleys ploughed, and then 
 bedded with the hoe ; a part of this ground was planted 
 as above, the balance planted in the usual way, say 
 lying the vines lengthwise and then taking a hoe full 
 of earth, drop it on the vines, pat it with the hoe, 
 leave a space of about 12 inches, another hoe full of 
 earth and so on throughout the whole; it was hoed 
 twice and ploughed once. The season of planting 
 those seven acres and seven-eights was very unfavora- 
 ble : a great many of the vines died, the whole produce 
 of slips was only four hundred and nine bushels, which 
 was only an average of about forty-eight bushels per 
 acre, which is a very poor return, and less than we 
 generally make. 
 
 I would now mention to you the preparation of the 
 land, whereon I planted my rice ; it is a pond, which had 
 been under water nearly two years, and had originally 
 been planted in cotton. I had the ground well turned 
 with the hoe, gave my driver directions to track it off 
 twenty inches apart, but in consequence of his not 
 fully comprehending me about one third of the ground 
 was trenched twenty six inches, two-thirds twenty 
 inches apart, two and a quarter bushels of seed to the 
 acre. 
 
 This acre was hoed but once, and never had 
 the advantage of water, that is for the ground to be as • 
 moist as it ought, and the local situation of this ground 
 
ON SWEET POTATOES. 3J 
 
 was such, as to prevent me from flowing it. It was 
 cut with rice hooks in the morning ; a little rain coming 
 on, we were obliged to bring it home in a wagon, stack- 
 ed it up in small cocks; after it was dry, I had it put in 
 larger stacks, had it trashed with flails and cleanly 
 winnowed; had the same persons who saw it cut to 
 assist me in the measuring of it — the produce was 
 sixty-five bushels and four quarts. I had four other 
 other acres, one of which was on high land, and which 
 I do not think, yielded more than eight or ten bushels; 
 the other three was pond land, and produced about 
 forty bushels per acre. I submit the two above acres 
 to the consideration of your society, and should they 
 think proper to award me a premium, I shall consider 
 myself honored by their award. 
 
 I would also mention, that I have made an experi- 
 ment in manuring a part of my corn land. It is with 
 cotton seed, prepared in the following manner; as soon 
 as the frosts affect us, I have my seed put in each stall 
 of my stable, say on a thick plank floor ; I have it put 
 there in order that the horses may mash the seeds, 
 whereby the germinating quality is destroyed, but the 
 virtue of the seed retained, and nothing evaporated. 
 I manured twelve acres of land the last year with this 
 kind of manure, in the following manner; ground, well 
 broke with the plough, laid off seven feet by four, double 
 stalks, a good handful only in each hill of this manure, 
 underneath the corn, then covered ; the product per 
 acre was fifteen bushels of white flint corn. In the 
 same field, (a road only passing through,) I manured 
 twelve and a half acres, with stable and cowpen manure, 
 two quarts of manure to each hill, the ground prepar- 
 ed as above, lain off seven feet by three and a half, 
 double stalks, of yellow flinty corn; the product was 
 twelve and a half bushels per acre — both pieces 
 received the exact same cultivation. Hence I infer, 
 the cotton seed prepared as above stated, preferable to 
 stable or cowpen manure. 
 5 
 
34 ON SHEEP. 
 
 I shall be pleased if this mode of applying the cotton 
 seed will be in the least beneficial to any one of your 
 society. 
 
 I am, Sir, 
 
 Yours, very respectfully, 
 
 W. R. BULL, 
 
 To Charles E. Rowand, Esq. 
 Secretary of the S. C. Agricultural Society. 
 
 LETTER XI. 
 
 Essay on the importance of raising Sheep in the State. 
 
 A SPIRIT of enlightened inquiry has been excited 
 in the agricultural community, from which the hap- 
 piest results may be anticipated: arising from the 
 successful enterprise of many distinguished individuals, 
 combined with the amicable competition, and concen- 
 tration of talent, effected by the introduction of Agri- 
 cultural Societies. Few years only, have elapsed, 
 since the first dawn of light broke on the science of 
 agriculture; a long generation has basely passed away, 
 since the knowledge of this art was confined to tradi- 
 tionary customs. From this new era, important re- 
 sults have already arisen, and, it may be instanced (as 
 more particularly connected with the subject of this 
 paper) the attention awakened to the improvement of 
 the different breeds of domestic animals, and the al- 
 
ON SHEEP. 35 
 
 most general acknowledgement and due appreciation 
 of the value of manure, in promoting the growth of 
 your staple crops; whilst the animal capable of con- 
 ferring the greatest benefit to the community, appears to 
 have received but little attention. 
 
 Of all the domesticated animals, none, perhaps, are 
 so beneficial to man, in a civilized state, as the sheep. 
 A prejudice appears to exist here against this animal, 
 arising from its feeding so closely, that it is supposed to 
 impoverish where it feeds Let it be asked, if such 
 is the fact ? This deteriorating quality is not alleged 
 against it in other countries, where abundant oppor- 
 tunities, arising from long experience, must have de- 
 tected it, if such was the case ; on the contrary, it is 
 highly esteemed for its opposite qualities. Mr. Taylor, 
 in his " Arator," has expressed opinions, unfavorable 
 to this animal, but without foundation, if we may 
 judge from the notice it is receiving, from various 
 cor res pendents in the ' American Farmer .' Mr. 
 Young, in his ' Calendar of Husbandry? writes thus, 
 " where grasses, &c. are not likely to decline, the 
 " more sheep you keep, the more you may keep, and 
 " the more corn (grain) you will reap, a circumstance 
 " too important to be forgotten." Is it not high time, 
 that some decisive experiments should be made, to de- 
 termine whether this is the only country, possessing 
 almost every variety of soil, in which sheep cannot be 
 made beneficial ? Various sections of different pasto- 
 ral countries, have established the fact, that agriculture 
 lias advanced, in proportion to the attention paid to 
 this valuable animal. 
 
 The introduction of new, or different breeds of ani- 
 mals, or improvement of your elder ones, must neces- 
 sarily be attended with expense and trouble, and can- 
 not be effected, but by attention and perseverance. 
 This remark applies particularly to sheep, and improv- 
 ing the same by judicious crossing. Few animals are 
 more susceptible of improvement than sheep, from 
 
36 ©N SHEEP. 
 
 their numerous breeds and rapid propagation, enabling 
 each section of country, in a few years, to obtain a 
 breed particularly adapted to its soil, climate and pro- 
 ductions ; as will more fully appear by consulting the 
 table annexed. 
 
 Contrast the little mountain sheep of Wales, cropping 
 its sweet scanty herbage, avaraging six to eight pounds 
 per quarter, and clipping one to one and an half pounds 
 to the fleece; to the large sheep of Linconshire, brow- 
 zing in luxuriant marshes, avaraging twenty-five to 
 thirty pounds to the quarter, and clipping eightto eleven 
 pounds to the fleece ; and the long legged, horned, 
 short woolled Norfolk, with restless rambling disposi- 
 tion, that hurdles scarcely can confine, to the short 
 legged, no horned, long woolled Leicester, that may 
 be folded nearly to a line, without hurdle or fence. 
 
 The greatest apparent difficulties to be overcome 
 here, are the obtaining a good stock to breed from, 
 varieties to cross with, competent persons to act as 
 shepherds, and the raising sufficient food for winter 
 keep ; but surely there is ample energy and intelligence 
 in our agricultural community, to overcome the dif- 
 ficulties, which certainly, are not greater than others 
 have had to contend with, if the climate and modes 
 of agriculture are not favorable to the raising this 
 winter provender, a very great advantage is obtained 
 in the mildness of our winters and early spring. A 
 short review of what has been done in another coun- 
 try, towards perfecting this animal, may tend to ren- 
 der our difficulties less formidable, and assist to place 
 this animal in its fair light. 
 
 When we look at an Alfom, bred in the lowest 
 walks of life, but in whom an attention to this ani- 
 mal seemed almost intuition, how must the difficul- 
 ties shrink before those in more fortunate situations, 
 in point of wealth, influence and opportunities. 
 Next iu succession comes a Bake well, who made the 
 
ON SHEEP. Ol 
 
 Study of his life the improvements of this valuable 
 animal, and well was he rewarded, if the high esti- 
 mation in whuh his stock was held may be taken as a 
 criterion. In the year 1789, he received about three 
 thousand guineas for the hire of ten rams, for the 
 season. The celebrity of this gentleman, led others to 
 endeavor to improve different breeds, more particu- 
 larly the fine-woolled ; and a Mr. Ellnian distinguished 
 himself as an improver in this department, by his 
 judieious crosses of the Southdown, Berskshire and 
 Norfolk. His breed became so justly famous, that 
 Mr. Coke, the patriotic improver of the agriculture 
 of his country, (and who sent, as presents, some 
 valuable animals to gentlemen in Maryland,) is said to 
 have purchased a ram of V]r. Ell man's breed, at 1,000 
 guineas; and after considerable expense in setting a new 
 Leicester or Bakevvell flock, changed it to an improved 
 Southdown. The writer has frequently had the plea- 
 sure of witnessing the beauty, similitude, and high- 
 excellence of this large and almost unequal flock. The 
 names of many could easily be added to this imperfect 
 sketch, who have improved their fortunes by an atten- 
 tion to sheep, and given proof how highly that atten- 
 tion was deserved. If Stowe, the ancient chronicler, 
 may be relied on, the celebrated Merino was not origi- 
 nally a native of Spain, but was obtained from theCoIts- 
 wold, or Ryeland, during the period the monasticks 
 had the care of the flocks of sheep in England. These 
 remarks are introduced, to show how highly this ani- 
 mal is esteemed in a country, where agriculture is 
 carried to as high a pitch of excellence, as perhaps, on 
 any part of the globe. 
 
 The time appears not far distant, if we may judge 
 from the high bounty given to the maunfacturer, 
 at the expense of the farmer, when our wool may 
 command a price, commensurate with its quality ; so 
 as to make it an object to the grower to obtain it of 
 the best quality, in the greatest quantity. A profita- 
 
OO ON SHEEP. 
 
 ble market for the mutton, cannot be calculated op 
 with like certainty; but, surely, there is as good a chance 
 of a market for mutton and lambs as there is tor beef or 
 veal. The profit to be made, either on wool, mutton, 
 or lambs, is not so much contended for (although each 
 may certainly be male to yield some profit) as the im- 
 provement which mav be effected on the lands: particu- 
 larly where they are lisht and blowing, by the more 
 general introduction of sheep upon them. 
 
 In Young's * Annals of Agriculture,' a correspondent 
 writes, "on his soil, a li^ht blowing sand, he keeps eight 
 " hundred ewes. He once grew three hundred and 
 " ninety bushels of (Irish) potatoes from one acre of his 
 " general soil, where the sheep had laid in bad weather, 
 " but from whence a spade deep had been taken away, 
 " which proves how deep the urine must have sunk, 
 " and thus sinking without being lost." 
 
 A friend of the writer, for many years kept a dairy of 
 cows on his farm with no sheep : about the year 1812 
 he was induced to change his dairy, for a flock of sheep ; 
 the same pastures on which he had kept his cows, im- 
 proved so much by being pastured with sheep, that in 
 about four years, they were enabled to support nearly 
 double the number they were capable of supporting 
 when the change first took place. It is nearly within 
 the recollection of living witnesses, when the greater 
 part of the county of Norfolk, (England,) generally a 
 light sandy soil, laid principally open in extensive 
 heaths; or, as they were termed, sheep-walks ; giving 
 a bare subsistence to an inconsiderable number of 
 rambling ragged-coated sheep ; importing grain from 
 other counties and Holland, for the support of its thin 
 and scattered population; is now, by an improved 
 breed, and more general introduction of this valuable 
 animal, become the first farming, and one of greatest 
 exporting grain counties in England ; supplying her 
 with a considerable portion of the barley used in 
 making her principal beverage, besides much of 
 
ON SHEEP. 39 
 
 the mutton consumed in London. Her influence on 
 the wool-market is equal U important. Take from her, 
 her sheep, and she must return to her original steiiity 
 and dependence. 
 
 Even in this day of experiment and improvement, it 
 is not probable any one could be found so imprudent 
 as to veuture a large capital in an extensive flock, 
 befo»> its merits shall have been sufficiently tested, but 
 with Jinle more attention than is usually paid to other 
 stock experiments might be tried, which would tend 
 to prov: , in what degree, sheep might be made to con- 
 tribute to the general interests of agriculture. 
 
 The writer has neither ability nor opportunity to test, 
 himself, what degree of attention sheep may be deser- 
 ving of here, but from the high estimation, in which he 
 knows it to be held, by many eminent agriculturalists, 
 he cannot but think it deserving of more attention 
 than he has ever observed paid to it, in this part of the 
 country. It would be foreign to the intention of this 
 paper, to enter on any discussion of the merits of the 
 different breeds, or general management of a flock ; 
 abundant information on these, and most other particu- 
 lars, connected with the subject, may be obtained by 
 consulting the ' American Farmer? Rees' * Ency- 
 clopedia," " Encyclopedia Brittanica," &c. 
 
 WILLIAM BROWNE. 
 
 (j^ See Synopsis on the next page. 
 
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LETTER XIL 
 
 On Cotton Planting. 
 
 Daniels' Island, July 30th, 1824 t 
 
 OIR — I duly received your letter of the 22d instant,^ 
 and will, with much pleasure, communicate to you, as 
 Chairman of the Committee on Communications of the 
 Agricultural Society, my efforts in agriculture, and I 
 agree with you, that all our experiments in that first of 
 arts, ought to be freely communicated. 
 
 In answer to your first query : my attention has 
 been altogether directed to cotton and provisions, and 
 I generally commence planting from 20th to 25th 
 March ; in the lands that I plant, I lay out my beds 
 four feet nine inches and a quarter, or twenty-two beds 
 in one hundred and five feet; some very rich lands 
 perhaps, require more surface space, and thin lands 
 require less. 
 
 In close stiff lands, I decidedly prefer raising the 
 the beds well, in the first instance ; as when the action 
 of the sun has its effects on the land, it is difficult ever 
 to raise your bed if you do not at first ; in light lands 
 it may be different, but I think in all lands, you are 
 more protected both against droughts and rain by your 
 bed having a good body. I commence hoeing accor- 
 ding to circumstances, but generally by the 20th of 
 April, as I never wait for grass, the first hoeing is 
 generally to mash the lumps and consolidate the bed, 
 in which hoeing I seldom thin. The next hoeing, I 
 6 
 
42 ON COTTON PLANTING. 
 
 generally commence after the first of May, when I 
 commence pulling out the young cotton in handsfull. or 
 as it may require, in the next hoeing, which commences 
 perhaps about the midde of May, I thin to three and 
 four, for I always incorporate my thinning with my 
 hoeing ; for although thinning cotton may seem to be 
 trifling labor, take it as a day's work there is nothing 
 more irksome; for the last thinning 1 generally put 
 careful negroes, to select and leave the best plants, 
 which is usually about the 10th of June, when I 
 thin to two in each hill, of which I have from fifty- 
 five to sixty in one hundred apd five feet. Like other 
 practical planters, I have changed my mind frequently 
 as to leaving cotton thick or thin, perhaps from the 
 turn of a season, but am now decidedly of opinion, 
 that too thick cotton is not beneficial, and never more 
 than two in one hill. I use the plough in preparing 
 my land for planting and in digging my ditches, but 
 never for hoeing. 
 
 As to manures, I have tried the mud that we have 
 in our creeks, but did not find it answer, but have 
 found great advantage from the marsh cut in the sum- 
 mer and listed on in the winter, but more particularly 
 by being rotted in the cowpen. I think, generally 
 speaking, three acres and a half, is sufficient for a negro 
 to attend, if he, at the same time, raises provisions for 
 his sustenance. I approve much of the whipping 
 machine, and think I have enhanced the value of my 
 cotton at least five per cent, for the last two years, by 
 using one that Mr. Birnie made me, which was the first 
 he made. As to potatoes and potatoe slips, I manure 
 highly, and am decidedly of opinion we can raise the 
 same quantity on half of the land. I never plant more 
 than from eight to ten acres, of both slips and roots, 
 to feed about fifty negroes, horses, cows, &c. and feed 
 upwards of seven months in the year. I use the 
 plough in preparing the lands for them also, to great 
 advantage. 
 
ON COTTON PLANTING. 43 
 
 I hart about two acres of land in a body that was 
 planted with joint grass, which I ploughed and har- 
 rowed three or four times successively, raked it in the 
 intervals, and carried off the roots, amounting to up- 
 wards of twenty cart loads, in the fall of 1822; last 
 winter it was completely rotted. I put it on an acre of 
 tend, to which I added about thirty-five bushels of 
 lime, and planted the 20th of March, in cotton ; the 
 coi ton is at present promising, and I think two weeks 
 ah ad of cotton that was planted about the same 
 time. 
 
 I am, sir, 
 
 With great respect, yours, 
 
 ROB. RALSTON. 
 
 To William Washington, Esq. 
 
 N. B. — Alluding to the quantum of land, allotted to 
 each negro, I would be understood that the planter 
 must be regulated by the lands he plants — there is 
 much also in the season, I plant the same lands this 
 year I did three years ago, which was in 1821, and I 
 am convinced I could, with as much ease have attended 
 five acres this year, as in 1821 I could have attended 
 Hhree and a half. 
 
LETTER XIII. 
 
 On Corn Planting. 
 
 Pine Forest, Barnwell District, Feb. 7th, 1824. 
 
 AS a competitor for some of your premiums for the 
 present year, I beg leave to state the result of two 
 acres of high land planted with corn, each acre two 
 hundred and ten feet square ; the one being old pasture 
 land, much exhausted, but had not been planted for a 
 few years past. — After being well cowpened in the 
 fall and winter of 1822 and '23, and ploughed up 
 three times during that period, it was, on the 8th of 
 March last, planted with flint corn, flush on the ground; 
 the stalks stood in double rows, eighteen inches along 
 each row, and these rows eighteen inches apart, then 
 an alley of five feet and a half. The stalks along the 
 tows were not opposite each other, but formed an 
 irregular (or more correctly an Isosceles) triangle ; no 
 other manure was used but cowpen manure. The 
 other acre, planted with gourd seed corn, was the same 
 which in 1823 had made sixty-four bushels and five 
 quarts of flint corn, this received an additional ma- 
 nuring of two hundred bushels of stable manure, and 
 the same quantity of cotton seed since that crop. This 
 was planted in the same way and on the same day as 
 the other acre ; each acre contained eight thousand 
 stalks of this first planting; they were often and well 
 cultivated with the hoe and twice with the plough. 
 On the 5th of June, a second planting took place, 
 
ON CORN PLANTING. 45 
 
 every four feet and a half in the centre of the wide 
 alley, and of this two stalks were left in each hill. 
 The rows stood nearly east and west, so as to give 
 the second crop, the benefit of the morning and evening 
 sun. The acre of gourd seed corn produced sixty- 
 seven bushels, three pecks, and two quarts, of sound 
 and merchantable corn, and one bushel and fifteen 
 quarts of unripe and rotten corn. From the acre of flint 
 corn was obtained sixty-three bushels and five quarts 
 of sound and merchantable corn, and two bushels and 
 five, quarts of unripe and rotten corn. The first plant- 
 ings were gathered on the 9th of September, and the 
 second plantings on the 11th of December last. An 
 acre of similar natural land of gourd seed corn, planted 
 five feet square, two stalks in each hill, produced 
 sixteen bushels and twelve quarts ; an acre of old land, 
 made, of flint corn, ten bushels and a half. — The first 
 crops of the manured acres of corn were remarkably 
 sound, there being but seven quarts of rotten corn of 
 the gourd seed , and only five quarts of the flint corn, 
 as appears by the certificate I have brought for your 
 inspection. 
 
 Although I am sure you will have larger crops of 
 potatoes offered for your consideration, I shall state 
 the quantity made from one acre of manured land, and 
 also the produce of two other acres of common land. 
 The first was divided into sixteen beds, each fifty-one 
 feet square, and planted every twelve inches square 
 with slips. The acre contained forty thousand plants, 
 and made two hundred and sixty-three bushels and an 
 half and an half peck. About an eighth of this acre 
 was planted with what are called sprouts, obtained by 
 taking them from the roots as soon as fit to plant out. 
 This part of the land was most productive and made 
 at the rate of nearly four hundred bushels to the acre. 
 An acre of common land planted in the usual way on 
 three and an half feet beds with red Bermuda potatoe 
 slips, made one hundred and ten bushels and one peck. 
 
45 ON CORN PLANTING. 
 
 the other not far off, in the same old cotton field plan- 
 tation, planted the same day with vines of the yam 
 potatoe, made exactly the same number of bushels. 
 The manured acre vvas the one which made in 1822, 
 two hundred and eighty bushels and three pecks. 
 Each acre vvas measured in the same manner as they 
 Were the last year, viz: eat h half bushel, heaped so 
 as to be a lawful and just measure. A certificate re- 
 lative to each of these crops is also submitted to you. 
 From the first week in June to the end of the season 
 we had little rain, and the acres of manured corn and 
 potatoes suffered much. The corn fired to a great 
 degree, and certainly was much injured. Our crops 
 of corn were good, especially those planted in March, 
 and early in April. This fact appears to demonstrate 
 the difficulty of obtaining a very extraordinary crop of 
 corn from one acre of land in our climate — unless the 
 corn be planted universally thick. It appears, as far 
 as my experience extends, it cannot make a great crop, 
 and if the season be dry and hot, it then suffers much. 
 1 must state that some experienced corn planters are of 
 opinion my acres were planted too thick : — my opinion 
 as to thick planting however, appears confirmed from 
 the last year's experience, for neither of the acres 
 shewed any indication of being too thick, until the 
 serious droughts of June and July. As far as I can 
 judge two good rains in the early part of June would 
 have made the crops as good as the quality of the lands 
 would have admitted of: I believe I can, with confi- 
 dence state that there is not on record any account of 
 a great crop of corn which was not planted universally 
 thick, and generally speaking, the more stalks, the 
 greater the crop if the land be rich. I take the liberty 
 to state I planted an acre of new land with unusual 
 preparation in gourd seed corn; this from being also 
 thick, and containing about five thousand stalks, suf- 
 fered greatly by the drought, but still made thirty 
 bushels. One half of this quantity, with the usual 
 
ON CORN PLANTING. 47 
 
 labor bestowed on our new lands, would have been a 
 good crop. While on the subject of corn planting, 
 permit me to suggest to the consideration of our 
 society, the great diversity of opinion which exists 
 among the best practical larmers even of the same 
 neighborhood, while some contend for a small number 
 of stalks to the acre, say one stalk, four or five feet 
 square, others prefer two stalks the same distance- 
 indeed the same remark applies with . qual force to the 
 other staples of our state, cotton md rice. This con- 
 trariety of opinion among the cultivators of each crop, 
 appears to be worthy of your attention, and whether a 
 premium should not be offered for the most conclusive 
 experiment on a few acres of land, relative to each 
 staple of our state, (the society however stating the 
 mode of planting as regards the number of stalks of 
 corn and cotton, and the distance of the rows of rice, 
 and quantity of seed rice to each acre,) I leave to your 
 better judgments, with the hope, if you do not consider 
 the subject of sufficient importance, to offer the pre- 
 miums, you will at least receive these few observations 
 as an evidence of my wish to promote and advance 
 the agriculture of our common country. 
 
 JOHN S. BELLINGER. 
 To William Washishgton, Esq, 
 
LETTER XIV. 
 
 On Rice Planting. 
 
 Poplar Grove, St. Paul's, March 4th, 1824. 
 
 JLlEAR SIR — I should have done myself the plea- 
 sure of answering your letter sooner, but have been 
 too much engaged with the Agricultural Society, and 
 distributing the premiums awarded by them, (an account 
 of which you will see in the Mercury and Southern 
 Patriot papers.) It will afford me much pleasure to 
 suppose that I could suggest any plan or mode of 
 planting rice, that would benefit you, or at all aid the 
 cause of agriculture, in which we are all so materially 
 concerned ; however, such as it is, and such as I prac- 
 tice, I give you with pleasure. In the first place then, 
 your rice land, banks, ditches, and quarter drains being 
 in good order, and turned up with a hoe or plough, 
 the first step is, about the latter end of February, to 
 flood the fields deep, but not so deep, as to injure the 
 cross banks, the wind operating upon the water, creates 
 a wave, and washes them considerably ; my object in 
 flooding, is to destroy vegetation. The water is kept 
 on until about the 25th of March, which is the time I 
 generally begin to plant: the day before I commence, 
 the water is turned off the squares, leaving a beautiful 
 black rich appearance, and not the least symptom of 
 vegetation, the same process is observed in every square, 
 as I progress until I finish; making no division in my 
 planting. With regard to the crop ripening upon you at 
 
ON RICE PLANTING. 49 
 
 once, it is altogether a mistake, as matters can always 
 be so regulated as to backen a field of rice, by keeping 
 on the water. 
 
 My fields are at present deep flowed, and will 
 remain so, until the time specified above. In planting, 
 I generally put eighty rows in a quarter, and two 
 bushels of seed to an acre, making a deep and narrow 
 trench. 
 
 After the rice is up, it is allowed to remain untouch- 
 ed, until the hoe is wanted; when all hands are turned 
 in, with orders to hoe deep, turn the sod well over, 
 and be careful that they do not interfere with the 
 young rice; as soon as each field is hoed through, it is 
 immediately flooded deep, covering the rice entirely. 
 
 In that state it is allowed to remain three days, or 
 if the rice is well advanced, five days; when the water 
 is eased off, until the tops of the rice, and a general 
 verdure are seen through the field ; the trunk door is 
 then closed, and the water kept in until the rice 
 obtains a vigorous growth, which it will do, in the 
 course of a week or ten days, in which state it must 
 remain until the grass begins to make its way ; when 
 the water must be let off, and the hoe immediately 
 applied; each negro can with ease get through half an 
 acre ; as soon as finished, and before the grass has 
 time to recover itself, let the trunk be opened and the 
 field again flooded, which may be kept on until harvest, 
 occasionally shifting the water. Should, however, 
 the grass vegetate, which it often does from improper 
 hoeing, the same process must be observed ; I would 
 advise by all means, to handpick all the weeds and 
 foxtail grasses, until the rice begins to blossom, after 
 which time, nothing should be allowed to enter the 
 field. It has been a very prevalent practice with 
 many planters, to keep on the water until about three 
 days, before they begin to cut the rice, I have latterly 
 been induced to let off the water, as soon as I am 
 satisfied of the grain being filled, which is about a 
 7 
 
 I 
 
SO ON RICE PLANTING. 
 
 fortnight or three weeks previous to the harvest; and 
 I continue the practice, as I think the water kept on 
 so Ions injures the grain, inasmuch as it tends not only 
 to soften it, but also to discolor it. These are the 
 outlines that I have observed for some years past, and 
 ivhich I shall continue to follow up, until I see some 
 good reason to the contrary. 
 
 With regard to the Nondescript, you will find a 
 particular account of it in the American Farmer ', Vol. 
 II, No. 10, page 76; the mode, however, I have 
 adopted, is to have cuttings fourteen inches long, and 
 plant as thick as possible, inserting them eight inches 
 deep, and keep down the grass the first year, frequently 
 Stirring the earth, otherwise it will not succeed. 
 Neglect has been the cause of so many persons failing. 
 1 shall be happy to hear at a future day, of the result 
 of some of your experiments in rice planting, and 
 ivhich mode you most approve of. 
 
 I should be happy if you would communicate to the 
 Agricultural Society, which will be a good channel 
 to dissminate its utility. 
 I remain, 
 
 Respectfully, 
 
 CHARLES E. ROWAND. 
 
 \Tq William Washington, Esq, 
 
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE 
 
 MavituUuvul sortttj? of souu^GraroUn*, 
 
 DECORTICATOR. 
 
 XN pursuance of a Resolution passed by this Society, appointi«$ 
 a Committee to test the utility of the Instrument termed the Decor- 
 ticator, which has been sent to this Society by Mr. Pomroy: youp 
 Committee have made such experiments as they were able, and now 
 respectfully Report : — 
 
 Your Committee have been impressed with the belief, that the 
 object of the Society, in making this appointment, was solely to give 
 a fair trial to the Decorticator, with a view to ascertain the practical 
 advantages to be derived from the use of it. And not that they 
 were to enter into an examination also of the theories advanced by 
 the inventor, or other writers, on the Cotton Plant ; they have, 
 therefore, thought proper to confine their remarks to the former; 
 leaving the deduction that may be drawn from them, to be offered 
 to the Society by those who have more experience, and are better 
 qualified to perform the task. 
 
 In making experiments, the points which struck your Committee, 
 as being most important to be considered, were : 
 
 1st. The facility of operating. 
 
 2d. The suitableness of such an instrument in the hands of 
 negroes. 
 
 3d. The effects arising to the plants from the operation. 
 
 1st. As to the facility of operating:. — Your Committee had d Q cor- 
 (jc,ated in their presence a task row of cotton containing about ninety 
 
52 
 
 REPORT ON 
 
 plants. The operator was a young man active and willing to try the 
 experiment. He was also accustomed to the use of instruments, 
 having been regularly brought up as a gardener ; and had been in the 
 habit of grafting and budding fruit trees. The time taken in opera- 
 ting on this row was eighteen minutes; at this rate, allowing ninety to 
 be the average number of plants on a row, and twenty-one rows in a 
 task, it would have taken him at least three days to decorticate one 
 acre. 
 
 The next experiment was made with a lad between eighteen and 
 nineteen years of age, a common field hand, but well disposed. 
 He was steadily employed, and was thirty-five minutes engaged in 
 decorticating one task row, containing one hundred and seventeen 
 plants. Seventy-six only of this number, however, were operated 
 on, in consequence of the balance being too small for the tnstrurm nt ; 
 admitting even, that an hundred plants were the average nilmbei dmt 
 would be to be decorticated on each row, at the rate of thim-five 
 minutes to the row, it would have taken the operator, at least six 
 days to decorticate one acre, allowing him eight hours a day. 
 
 The greatest difficulty experienced by the operator, is the necessi- 
 ty of his getting* down on his knees and up again, so repeatedly ; 
 or pushing himself along on his hands and knees, from plant to 
 plant, in order to get readily at the part of the main stalk to be 
 operated on, which, according to the suggestion of Mr. Pomroy, 
 should be, below the lowest branches. 
 
 Again.— -When the plants are left so near together, as two in a 
 hole, as is frequently the case, the free use of the hand is very much 
 interrupted, so that it would be impracticable, at a single operation, 
 to decorticate or detatch the annular strip of Dark, as stated by Mr. 
 Pomroy ; for the instrument soon comes in contact with the next 
 plant, which makes it necessary, not only to change it from one hand 
 to the other, but to alter the position of the body also ; this at once 
 destroys the regular and steady motion required, both for expedition 
 and to prevent too great injury to the bark. This difficulty would 
 not be obviated by leaving only one plant in a hole, as is often prac- 
 tised, also, as the low horizontal branches from one plant would most 
 generally extend themselves until they reached those coming from 
 another, which would present the same obstacle as above stated. 
 
 It might be said, that by practice, the persons using the decorticator 
 would become more familiarized to it, and consequently, use it with 
 more expedition. However true this might be, still, it is not to be 
 presumed that many would attain greater expertness than was 
 exercised by the persgn performing the first experiment. Besides, in 
 all efforts, merely experimental, more or less energy is generally 
 exhibited. The novelty of a process, gives an elasticity to the mind, 
 which leads to exertions that would never be made in common and 
 ordinary labor. 
 
 2d. The suitableness of such an instrument in the hands of 
 negroes. — The operation of decortication is a very delicate one. It 
 requires the greatest care to prevent unnecessary injury to the plant. 
 To decorticate in a proper manner, that is, to make the necessary 
 incision, and effectually remove the bark, it would be essentially 
 
THE DECORTICATOR. 53 
 
 necessary that the instrument to be used, should always be kept in 
 the best possible order and condition. Notwithstanding the inge- 
 nuity Mr. Fomroy has exhibited in the invention of the deeorticator, 
 and however well adapted this instrument may be, for the performance 
 of ilie operation intended by the inventor, still, we presume, there 
 is no one in this country, from his knowledge of the character of our 
 negroes, who would suppose for a moment it would be an instrument 
 suitable in their hands. Only observe their sickles, hoes and axes, 
 these alone, would be abundant proof, to satisfy even those who 
 are least acquainted with them — what then, would be the condition 
 of so complicated and delicate an instrument as the decorticator, 
 after being a few weeks in the possession of even the most careful 
 Of these people. It is an instrument that would require to be 
 always in the same order, as when received from the hands of the 
 artist, so far as to its sharpness, freeness from rust, and the graduation 
 of the horizontal blades. Therefore, whenever this instrument 
 would require to be sharpened, so delicate would be the operation in 
 order to preserve its true character, that no common negro would 
 be capable of doing it. 
 
 With regard to the construction of the decorticator, your Com- 
 mittee observed one objection, which they concluded did not strike 
 Mr. Pornroy, and which, probably, would never occur to him, unless 
 he makes as frequent use of the same instrument as has been done 
 by your Committee- The objection we allude to, is the effect pro- 
 duced dn the springs by the gradual and continued insinuation of the 
 juices and the finest particles of the inner bark, between the knives 
 and springs. This circumstance was discovered by a gentleman, 
 who, on perceiving that the bark was not as readily detached after 
 several operations, as at first, was induced to take the instrument to 
 peices and examine it. He soon discovered that the accumulation 
 of the sap and finest particles of the inner bark, was so great, as to 
 prevent the movement of the springs altogether. 
 
 3d. The effects arising to the plants from the operation. — Mr. 
 Pomroy, observes that " the most important point to be ascertained, 
 is the period most suitable to obstruct the sap, in order to promote 
 the highest state of improvement in the crop, and at the same time to 
 guard effectually against the rot." This circumstance was not lost 
 sight of by your Committee. They have to regret, however, that 
 notwithstanding the trials they have made, they are yet unable to 
 afford any satisfactory information on that point. Their first expe- 
 riment was made about the latter part of July, when the plants 
 generally had attained a size to admit of being operated on with the 
 decorticator ; for there were some, even then, too small to be grasped 
 by the instrument. Before the operations were commenced, two 
 rows of cotton were selected as near alike as possible, in point of 
 quality ; the one to be decorticated, and the other to remain untouch- 
 ed, as standard for comparison. The operation, though performed 
 by an intelligent negro, was, nevertheless, closely inspected by your 
 Committee. 
 
 The cotton was examined two days after the operation, but no 
 visible alteration was to be perceived. About a week after, it was 
 
54 REPORT ON 
 
 examined again, when- a very considerable change was instantly 
 observed, so much so, as to enable one to walk directly to the row 
 that had been decorticated, without any other mark than the appear- 
 ance of the plants themselves ; the color of the leaves was generally 
 changed from the original healthy green, to that of a pale and sickly 
 hue. The plants continued to flower however. There were several 
 stalks entirely broken off, by a slight wind that was experienced a 
 few days after the operation. 
 
 On the 10th of August, this cotton was again examined, when ifc 
 was found to have assumed every appearance of rust The leaves 
 were of a very yellowish cast, and specked over with red spots. 
 The plants were decidedly less vigorous than they were — the 
 leaves rather hanging than otherwise — and though the plants con- 
 tinued to flower, still the blossoms were less numerous than on the 
 standard row — and again, there was a good deal of the second 
 growth below T the excision on every plant, which was not perceptible 
 at that time on the plants on the adjoining row. 
 
 On the 18th of August, this peice of cotton was again inspected, 
 when it was distinctly perceived, that still further changes had taken 
 place. Many stalks had been broken off, at the part where the 
 excision was made, and the vegetation of the remaining plants had 
 gradually declined — not more cotton had opened on it, than on the 
 neighboring rows. Since the 18th, the state of this cotton has been 
 observed from time to time, when nothing worthy of remark was 
 noticed but the gradual decline of the plants. When seen last, 
 which was a few days ago, every plant that had been effectually 
 decorticated, was completely divested of every appearance of life. 
 There were a few bolls remaining on the branches ; but these were 
 shrivilled up, and appeared to have grown little or none, since 
 decorticated. 
 
 On the 16th of August, your Committee, had decorticated again, 
 a row of the green seed cotton. This cotton had, at this time, 
 attained a growth of from three and a half to four feet, from the top 
 of the bed, and was thought very promising. The number of pods 
 supposed to be matured, were about one fourth ; many had opened in 
 different parts of the field ; the rot had commenced its ravages 5 
 but there was not the least appearance of rust. Four days after the 
 operation was performed, (20th,) a high wind broke off thirty- two 
 stalks of the plants that had been decorticated : while those on the 
 neighboring rows were only bent down. On the 24th, all the bolls 
 that were considered as having arrived at maturity on the 16th, were 
 found burst open, and some few others ; but the young pods and 
 forms had dwindled, and the whole plant had assumed a sickly 
 appearance; several pods had been affected by the rot. On the 10th 
 of September, a few of those pods that had shrunk, were found 
 jppen ; but the rest with the forms had dropped off. 
 
 Since the commencement of these experiments, the decorticator 
 has been loaned to two or three gentlemen, with the view to make 
 experiments also. Two have made the following remarks: "The 
 u decorticator was tried on sea island cotton. Some stalks were but 
 " partly decorticated, these appeared stationary in their growth for 
 
THE DECORTICATOR. 55 
 
 f * some time, and the color of the leaves was lighter, but the wounds 
 " closed ; and when last observed, there was no visible difference be- 
 " tween those that had been, and those that had not been decorticated. 
 " Those which had the bark taken off entirely, around from the 
 u stalk, took the rust, &c." Again, " The decorticator has been 
 " used at different times, both on the green and black seed plants, 
 w growing in various soils, it neither stopped the rot, rust, nor second 
 u growth." 
 
 It might not be improper to remark here, that in all instances 
 where the branches were decorticated, they shared the same fate 
 with the main stems. 
 
 However just, Mr. Pomroy's theory may be, as to the nature and 
 causes of the rot or rust, in cotton, his instrument has proved truly 
 adverse to the arriving at any conclusive results, as to the best mode 
 of checking these diseases. From the unvaried effects produced on 
 the plants by the decorticator, both branches and leaves have been 
 soon rendered unfit for taking any part in the general process of the 
 circulation of the sap. The sap does not seem, after the operation 
 of decortication, to take exactly the course Mr. Pomroy would 
 suppose. It appears gradually to desert the leaves and branches, 
 leaving them to take care of themselves, and turns its whole stream 
 into a different channel, supporting a most vigorous second growth 
 from below the excision. We cannot account for this change in the 
 circulation of the sap, in any other way than the following : — That 
 in consequence of the check to the usual descent of the sap, the 
 various tubes through which the sap ascends become filled, which 
 produces a stagnation, and that in order to give vent to the continued 
 accumulation of fresh sap from below, a second growth shoots forth. 
 This idea seems strengthened by the circumstance of the gradual 
 decay of the leaves and upper branches, which leads to the conclu- 
 sion at on< e, that they no longer receive due nourishment from an 
 ascending sap. 
 
 Mr. Pomroy says, that " the bark ought always to be so separated, 
 " as to prevent re-union." Your Committee, from the experiments 
 they have made, cannot but feel convinced, that decortication carried 
 to such an extent, must always prove highly injurious. It seems to 
 produce too sudden and powerful a change in the habit of plants* 
 to admit of it. In most cases where there was the least particle of 
 the liber or inner baik left, there was more or less, a re-union of the 
 cortex, which preserved the plants. But in every instance, where 
 every part of the alburnum was effectually laid bare, the part of the 
 plant, above the excision, perished, and was generally broken off. 
 There seemed a brittleness in the alburnum, which required support 
 'from the elasticity of the cortex or liber, to resist the wind. 
 
 JAMES CUTHBERT. ? n 
 
 JOHN D. LEGARE, \ Committee: 
 
 %ARJ*«ston, Oet. 19th, 1824, 
 
EXTRACTS. 
 
 [FROM SIR JOHN SINCAIR'S CODE OF AGRICULTURE.} 
 
 On the means of improving the Agricultural state of 
 a Country. 
 
 /'Agriculture is the great art, which every government ought to protect :— 
 every proprietor of land to practise :■— and every inquirer into nature to 
 improve. 
 
 Introductory observations on the importance of Agriculture* 
 
 X HE prosperity of a nation, possessing; an extent of territory, 
 sufficient for maintaining its inhabitants, chiefly depends; 1. Upon 
 the quantity of surplus produce derived from the soil, after defraying 
 the expenses of cultivation; 2. Upon that surplus produce, obtaining 
 such a price at market, as will encourage re-production ; and, 3. 
 Upon the cultivator having such a command of capital, as may 
 enable him to carry on his business with energy. 
 
 1. The surplus produce arises, from that inestimable quality 
 possessed by the soil, which enables it, in proportion as it is skilfully 
 managed, to furnish maintenance, for a greater number of persons, 
 than are required for its cultivation. Thence proceed, the profits of 
 the farmer ; — the rents of the landlord ; — the subsistence of the 
 manufacturer and of the merchant; — and the greater proportion of 
 the income of the state. That surplus marketable produce, therefore, 
 is justly considered to be, the principal source of political power, 
 and of personal enjoyment. When that surplus produce does not 
 
 8 
 
5§ ON THE MEANS OF 
 
 exist, (unless in circumstances of a very peculiar nature), there 
 can be no flourishing towns; — no military or naval force; — none of 
 the superior arts ; — none of the finer manufactures ; — no learning ; — 
 pone of the conveniences and luxuries of foreign countries ; — and 
 none of that cultivated and polished society at home, which not only 
 elevates and dignifies the individual, but also extends its beneficial 
 influence, throughout the whole mass of the community. What 
 exertions ought not. then to be made, and what encouragement ought 
 not to be given, to preserve, or to increase, so essential a resource, 
 the foundation of our national prosperity ! 
 
 In order to form some idea, of the amount of the suplus marketa- 
 ble produce, on very different soils, under the judicious system of 
 cultivation, the following statements were drawn up by two intelli- 
 gent farmers, respecting that amount, in their respective occupations, 
 the one possessing land principally clay, the other a turnip soil. 
 
 Mr. Brown of Markle, in East Lothain, occupies a farm of 670 
 English acres, on which, in consequence of almost all his servants 
 being married, there is a population of 91 persons of all ages. The 
 produce of 80 English acres is consumed on the farm, or given to 
 the servants as wages, as nearly the whole of them are paid in grain, 
 and have cows kept for their use both summer and winter. About 
 90 acres are required for raising corn, clover, tares, and hay, for the 
 working stock, and 45 acres to furnish seed corn. One hundred 
 acres are in an unproductive state, that is, in summer fallow, or grass 
 for young horses not employed in labour, and in fences, roads, stack- 
 yards, or devoted to purposes from which no direct produce is 
 returned. Four acres are given to the servants, for raising flax as 
 a part of their wages ; in all 319 acres; so there only remain 351 
 acres for raising surplus produce. Of these, about 120 acres are in 
 pasture grass for sheep and cattle, in clover for soiling, or in turnips. 
 This leaves 231 acres for raising disposable grain, which may be 
 stated at nine hundred and fifty quarters, on an average of seasons. 
 On the whole, he calculates, the surplus marketable produce of 
 his farm, at eleven bushels and a fourth of corn, and one stone 
 7 lbs, pf butcher's meat, (Amsterdam weight,) for every English acre 
 In his possession, 
 
 Mr. Walker, of Mellendean, in Roxburghshire, on the extensive 
 tract of arable land, he cultivates, (2866 English acres,) with a 
 population of 250 souls depending on its cultivation for subsistence, 
 sends, of surplus produce, to market, 3551 quarters of grain, and 
 700Q stone of butcher's meat ; or, per acre, ten bushels of grain, and 
 two stone seven pounds of butcher's meat, 14 pounds to the stone, 
 and 1 6 ounces to the pound. 
 
 To these estimates of surplus produce, there are to be added, the 
 hides, the skins, the wool, the tallow, and a variety of other articles, 
 the basis, of many important manufactures, the value of which, 
 though it is impossible to give its amount correctly, from its great 
 uncertainty, and the fluctuation of prices, must be very considerable. 
 
 If such are the beneficial effects resulting from cultivating of the 
 soil, (and the facts are established beyond contradiction,) what source, 
 either pf domestic industry, or of foreign commerce, can in any 
 
IMPROVING A COUNTRY. 59 
 
 respect be put in competion, with such a mine of wealth, When 
 extended over a great empire ? 
 
 2. Out the prosperity of a nation, as already observed, depends 
 hot only on having a great marketable surplus, but also on its 
 disposable produce, fetching such a price, as to encourage re-produc- 
 tion. This was the case during the last war ; and hence the nation 
 was enabled to persevere in it so many years, and finally to bring it 
 to a successful conclusion. By means of a great surplus of agricul* 
 tural productions, sold at a high price, the profits of the farmer, and 
 the rents of the landlord, were doubled; these two classes were thus 
 placed in a condition, to pay very heavy taxes to government ; — to 
 engage in great undertakings of a private description; — to furnish' 
 employment to labourers, to whom the price of bread was of little 
 consequence, while work was always to be had, at wages propor^ 
 tioned to the price of corn ; — and to consume immense quantities 
 of merchandize, and articles of manufacture, by means of which, 
 those two branches of national industry were supported, when they 
 were in a great measure deprived of foreign markets. History does 
 not furnish an example of a nation, which abroad, made such incre- 
 dible exertions, while at home, so many millions of people, enjoyed 
 all the necessaries, the comforts, and most of them the luxuries of 
 life ; the whole originating in prosperous agriculture, without which, 
 our manufacturing industry, our commercial relations^ or the neces- 
 sary operations of our finances, could not have been carried on. 
 
 3. Nor is it alone sufficient, that the faimer should have a price* 
 adequate to promote re-production : he should likewise have, such 
 a command of capital, (and if it must be borrowed, at a moderate 
 rate of interest), as will enable him to carry on his business with 
 energy. Indeed, when that takes place, it lays the foundation of 
 general prosperity. It will not be disputed, that a hundred persons 
 may be put to the greatest inconvenience, because one individual, 
 at the head of a chain of circulation, cannot pay one hundred 
 pounds. Enable him to pay that sum, and progressively, those 
 connected with him are relieved. " But it is the farmer who is the 
 first link, in the great chain of national circulation. " When he is 
 supplied with money, he is enabled to pay his rents regularly; — the 
 landlord is thus enabled, not only to employ a number of labourers, 
 but to purchase goods, from the British manufacturer, and the foreign 
 merchant; the latter finding thus a demand for foreign goods, is 
 enabled to return, to export British manufactures to foreign markets ;— v 
 by means of an abundant circulation also, the revenue is* paid without 
 difficulty, it is regularly remitted, and furnishes the means of paying 
 the dividends due to the stock-holders ; the credit of the country is 
 thus maintained, and every class in the community prospers. The 
 whole, it is evident, originates with the farmer, the first link, in the 
 great chain of circulation, whose basis is the plough. 
 
 The superior importance of agriculture, ha* been recently proved, 
 in a manner so convincing, and unanswerable, that the question 
 ought, now, to be forever put to rest. It is well known, that all the 
 resources of the country were put to the test, by the strict manner, 
 1» which the tax on income was exacted. By analysing, therefore^ 
 
60 ON THE MEANS OF 
 
 the produce of that tax, under all its several branches, the real 
 foundations of our national wealth and prosperity, may be ascer- 
 tained with a degree of correctness, previously unattainable. The 
 result ot the inquiry is as follows : 
 
 1. Taxes on 1 nded property, <£4,2f>7,247 
 
 2. Ditto on the farmers or occupiers of land, 2,176.228 
 
 Total agricultural classes, £6,43 3,475 
 
 S. Taxes on commercial property, - - .£2,000,000 
 
 4. Ditto on professions, 1,021,187 
 
 3,021,187 
 
 Difference in favor of the agricultural } £3 412 288 
 classes, -_>.--„-.-£ ' ' 
 
 Hence it appears, that during that eventful period, when the 
 ignorant, and the prejudiced supposed, we existed solely by trade, 
 and that we ought to be considered as a nation of shopkeepers, it 
 was the wealth arising from the productions of the soil that chiefly 
 enabled us to go on; it was successful agriculture, that furnished us 
 with the means of carrying on the contest, and of bringing it to a 
 triumphant conclusion. 
 
 Nor is this subject to be dwelt on solely in a financial point of 
 view. Let it at the same time be considered, that it is the land 
 which furnishes the raw materials of the greater part of our manu- 
 factures; that the proprietors and occupiers of land, supply the best 
 markets to our manufacturers and merchants ; and that through 
 them, the greater part of all other professions gain their livelihood. 
 Numbers of fundholders are little aware, that upon the prosperity of 
 agriculture, the regular payments of their dividends must principally 
 depend. For it is to be observed, that as the property tax was 
 imposed on all the classes of the community, in proportion to their 
 wealth or income, hence, the taxes payable in every other ivay, by 
 each class, and every individual in each class, who spent his income, 
 must be paid, in nearly the same proportion, as the tax on property. 
 
 It Cannot at the same time, be doubted, that the agricultural classes, 
 are much indebted to those employed in trade and manufactures, for 
 consuming the produce of the soil But still, it is the surplus 
 productions of agriculture, raised under the superintendence of the 
 owners of the soil, and by the skill and industry of those who occupy 
 it, which constitute the real basis of our national prosperity ; and 
 exported manufactures, are nothing else, but so much beef, mutton, 
 wheat, barley, &c. converted into another, and more convenient 
 shape. Where manufacturers, however, are maintained, by the 
 productions of foreign industry, and in particular, when the articles 
 they manufacture, are produced from foreign raw materials, as fine 
 wool: instead of being an advantage, they have the effect of depre- 
 ciating the value of domestic agricultural productions, and bringing 
 foreign art * into competition with them, by means of British 
 capital. The paltry profits of the manufacture, are nothing com- 
 pared, to the mischiefs which are thus occasioned, to the real sources 
 of our prosperity. 
 
IMPROVING A COUNTRY. 61 
 
 It is to be hoped that these statements, will satisfy every impartial 
 individual, that the strength and resources of this country, principally 
 arise from the productions of the soil ; — that the land, is the basis 
 of our national wealth, and that on the amount, and the value of its 
 productions, our commerce and manufactures, and the payment of 
 the public creditors, must in a great measure depend. The revenues 
 of the church ; — by far the largest proportion of the payments to the 
 poor ; — and various other public charges, are likewise payable from 
 the same source. Hence, nothing can be more impolitic, than to 
 neglect the adoption of any measure, by which the interests of agri- 
 culture can be promoted 5 or more hazardous, than to take any step, 
 by which its prosperity can be impaired, or those who live by it, 
 impoverished, much less brought to ruin. 
 
 The means therefore, by which the agricultural prosperity of a 
 country can best be promoted, merit our peculiar attention. 
 
 It has long been considered, as an incontrovertible proposition, 
 and approaching to the nature of an axiom, " That whoever could 
 make two ears of corn, ©r two blades of grass grow upon a spot, 
 were only one grew before, would deserve better of mankind, and 
 do more essential service to his country, than the whole race of 
 politicians put together " 
 
 There never was a greater instance of sophistry, than this doctrine 
 of Swift's, who seems not to have been at all aware, of the immense 
 benefits, conferred upon agriculture, by a judicious system of civil 
 policy. In fact, the prosperity of agriculture, depends upon the 
 politician. The better and the more equitable the civil policy of a 
 country, the more perfect will its agriculture become. Those 
 politicians or statesmen, therefore, who, by removing every obstacle, 
 and furnishing every proper encouragement to agriculture, promote 
 its advancement, have a higher claim to the gratitude of mankind, 
 than those who have merely performed a secondary or practical part, 
 which part, they never could have performed at all, but under the 
 protection of wise laws, regularly administered, and executed with . 
 impartiality and vigour. 
 
 This leads to the most important discussion, perhaps, in the whole 
 range of political inquiry, and respecting which, the most ill-founded 
 prejudices are unfortunately entertained, namely, "What public 
 encouragements, for the advancement of agriculture, ought a wise 
 government to bestow ? 
 
 Many able men, reasoning solely from the abuses to which the 
 system of encouragement is liable., have thence been induced to 
 condemn this policy, and to recommend, that of giving to individuals, 
 the entire freedom of exercising their industry, in their own way, 
 without any legislative interference whatever. They dwell much, 
 on the reply once made by some of the principal merchants of 
 France, to the celebrated Colbert, who having asked, what govern* 
 ment could do for them t was answered^ " Laissez nous faire," 
 ( Let us alone.) On the other hand, they totally reprobate the mer» 
 cantile system, as they call it, (or a series of laws which have been 
 enacted in this country, for promoting the prosperity of commerce,) 
 f»s in the highest degree impolitic ; though, under that very system^ 
 
62 ON REMOVING OBSTACLES. 
 
 the commerce of Great Britian, has risen to a height altogether' 
 unexampled in history. But as our legislature have wisely deemed 
 it expedient, to protect both our manufactures and commerce, which, 
 under such a system, have so eminently flourished, no good renson 
 can be assigned, why, in a like manner, and on the same prinples, 
 agriculture ought not to be encouraged. 
 
 It is certainly better to let agriculture alone, than to establish 
 injudicous regulations respecting it. But if a government will make 
 such inquiries, as may enable it to judge of what can be done with 
 safety and advantage 5 and will promote agricultural industry, not 
 only by removing every obstacle to improvement, but by granting 
 positive encouragement ; agriculture will prosper with a rapidity, 
 and will be carried on to an extent, which is hardly to be credited; 
 and in a much superior degree, than by the " let alone system," 
 under the torpor of which, ages might pass away, without accom- 
 plishing, what might be effected in the course of a few years, under at 
 judicious system of encouraging regulations* 
 
 The principal encouragements, which a wise and liberal govern- 
 ment, will naturally be anxious to bestow, for the purpose of advan- 
 cing the agricultural prosperity of a country, may be classed under 
 the following heads : 1. Removing obstacles to improvement ; 2. 
 Promoting the collection and diffusion of useful information; 3. 
 Giving a preference to domestic productions in the home market ;. 
 4. Encouraging the exportation of any surplus produce that may 
 remain on hand, after the demands at home are supplied ; 5. Exten- 
 ding, by every prudent means, the cultivation of waste lands, in 
 order that the productive territory of the country may be constantly 
 on the increase ; 6. Granting public aid to substantial improvements, 
 such as roads, bridges, canals, &c. on which the agricultural and 
 general prosperity of a country so essentially depend; and, 7- 
 Countenancing the establishment of corporations, to furnish the 
 means of carrying on such improvements, as are beyond the power 
 of individual wealth or enterprise. 
 
 Sect. I.— On removing obstacles to Improvement. 
 
 There is no duty more incumbent on the government of a country, 
 or from which more advantage might be derived, than that of ascer- 
 taining those obstacles to improvement, which are occasioned by 
 the defectiveness of the laws. In England, property held in 
 common, cannot be divided, without the unanimous consent of those 
 having an interest in it; and even the Crown, corporate bodies, and 
 the guardians of minors, cannot consent, unless authorized by a 
 special act of the legislature. Nothing can be more impolitic, than 
 retaining such impediments to improvement. Such legal disabilities 
 to consent to enclosure, ought to be removed by a general law, and 
 a division authorized, when agreed to by a majority in value of the 
 parties interested, by whom commissioners for that purpose might 
 
ON PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 63 
 
 •foe appointed. Various attempts have been made, to procure the 
 sanction of Parliament to such regulations, but hitherto unsuccess- 
 fully, owing to the influence of those, who feel an interest in preser- 
 ving the present system, and its abuses. 
 
 Sect. II. — On promoting the Collection and Diffusion of useful 
 Knowledge. 
 
 It is a saying sanctioned by the authority of Bacon, that " know- 
 ledge is power. 71 Of all the various sorts of power, enumerated by 
 that great philosopher, this seems by far the most important. What 
 gives one man any real superiority over another, but the knowledge 
 he possesses! What enables some individuals, to produce abundant 
 harvests, — to carry on a prosperous commerce, — to establish suc- 
 cessful manufactures, — to excel in mechanism, or any other useful 
 art, but the acquisition, and judicious application of that knowledge, 
 in which others are deficient ? 
 
 That the power and prosperity of a country, depend on the 
 diffusion of useful knowledge, can hardly be questioned ; and there 
 is probably, no art, in which a variety of knowledge, is of more 
 essential importance, than in that of agriculture. The extent of 
 information necessary to bring it to any thing like perfection, is far 
 greater than is generally supposed. To preserve the fertility of the 
 soil ; — to free it from supeifluous moisture ;-^to cultivate it to the 
 greatest advantage ; — to raise its productions at the least expense; — 
 to procure the best instruments of husbandry ; — to select the stock 
 likely to be the most profitable ; — to feed them in the most judicious 
 manner, and to bring them to the most advantageous markets ; — to 
 secure the harvest, even in the most unpropitious seasons; — to 
 separate the grain from the straw with economy and success ; — and 
 to perform all the other operations of agriculture in the most judicious 
 modes, require a greater extent, and variety of knowledge, than 
 might, at first view, be judged requisite. 
 
 But though a general knowledge of agriculture, may be diffused 
 over a great country, it is found by experience, that it cannot be 
 materially improved, unless by comparing the various practices 
 which subsist, in different parts of the same kingdom. One district 
 has been led to pay a peculiar and successful attention, to one branch 
 of hunsbandry, or by a fortunate accident, some important discovery 
 has been made in it, while other districts excel in other particulars of 
 equal importance. Mutual benefit is derived from the communication 
 of such local practices. Of this, the improved modes of draining 
 by Elkington — the warping of land on the banks of the Humber; — 
 the drilling of turnips and potatoes in the northern part of the 
 island ; — and the more general use of the threshing-mill, and various 
 Other articles of agricultural machinery, may be cited as examples. 
 
 The advantages that may be derived, from the result of those 
 Inquiries, which have been carried on by the Board of Agriculture, 
 in so far as regards the culture of arable land, may thus be briefly 
 stated, The means have been explained, by which, in fertile districts, 
 
64 ON PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 and in propitious seasons, the farmer may, on an average, confidently 
 expect to reap, from 32 to 40 bushels of wheat ; from 42 to 50 
 bushels of barley ; from 52 to 64 bushels of oats; and from "J8 to 
 32 bushels of beans, Winchester measure, per statute acre. As to 
 green crops, 30 tons of turnips, three tons of clover, and from 
 eight to ten tons of potatoes, per statute acre, may be confidently 
 relied on. In favourable seasons the crops are still more abundant "; 
 but even these average ones, spread over a large proportion of the 
 united kingdom, would produce more solid wealth, than foreign 
 commerce could ever furnish. 
 
 The various means by which useful information could best be 
 collected and diffused, are, 1. Forming institutions for tkat pur- 
 pose; — 2. The establishment of experimental farms; — 3. The 
 institution of agricultural professorships; — and, 4. The improve- 
 ment of veterinary knowledge. 
 
 1. Institutions for collecting and diffusing Agricultural Infor- 
 mation. — The establishment of a Board of Agriculture in Great 
 Britain, scanty and limited as its means have been, has produced the 
 happiest effects ; and will propably in future be considered, as an era 
 in the history of the art. Notwithstanding the limited powers of 
 that institution, the most distant parts of the country, are already 
 made acquainted with each other's useful practices ; and the know- 
 ledge of beneficial inventions, which, from the insulated state of 
 farmers, might for centuries have been confined to the place of their 
 origin, have been at once rendered generally accessible. The publi- 
 cation of the County Reports in particular, has proved of peculiar 
 importance, from the discussions which they have ocasioned; — the 
 spirit of emulation which they have excited ; — the knowledge which 
 they have been the means of circulating; — the truths which they 
 have established ; — and the errors which they have contributed to 
 overturn. Animated by the example of that Board, a much greater 
 number of agricultural societies have been constituted, than ever 
 before existed in any other country, there being hardly an extensive 
 district in the united kingdom, in which one, and sometimes more 
 of such associations, have not been established. A zeal for the im- 
 provement of husbandry, has been thus cherished and kept up ; and 
 in the course of friendly and familiar conversation, useful observa- 
 tions are made, new facts are stated, and practical knowledge, 
 derived from experience, is generally diffused. Much good has 
 already been done by these societies ; but still more might be effected 
 by them, where the Board of A griculture, placed on such an efficient 
 footing, that it might act as a common centre, to all these numerous 
 associations, and were for that purpose invested, with the privilege 
 of correspondence postage free. It would thus be enabled, better 
 than it is at present, to perform those public services, which were in 
 the contemplation of those, by whose exertions the Board was 
 originally established. 
 
 2. Experimental Farms. — The art of agriculture, can never be 
 brought to its highest degree of perfection, or established on rational 
 and unerring principles, unless by means of experiments, accurately 
 fried, and properly persevered in. The ardent inquirer, has too long 
 
ON PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 65 
 
 been obliged, to rely, on vague opinions, and assertions which have 
 nit been warranted by sufficient authority ; it is full time therefore, 
 by the establishment of experimental farms, under the sanction, and 
 at the expense of government ; or by enabling the Board of Agri- 
 culture to grant adequate premiums to deserving persons, for new 
 discoveries, to bring the art to as great perfection as possible, by 
 ascertaining the principles on which it ought to be conducted. 
 
 It is alleged, that there are many distinguished characters, who 
 carry on experiments for their own information and amusement, by 
 means of which, every important fact, will in process of time be 
 ascertained ; and it cannot be doubted, that their example is of very 
 great advantage to those, who have the means of examining the 
 progress that is made. Their farms, however, are, more properly 
 speaking, pattern farms, for the advantage of the farmers in their 
 immediate neighborhood, than experimental ones, in the strict sense 
 of the word; and they are too often, rather the partial records of 
 successful experiments, than the faithful journals of success and of 
 disappointment. In order to render experimental farms generally 
 useful, they ought to be open to the inspection of the public ; the 
 account of each experiment ought to be regularly published, and 
 every new practice, likely to improve the cultivation of any conside- 
 rable part of the kingdom, ought to be examined with the utmost 
 precision, every trial repeated for confirmation, and, if possible, made 
 by different persons, in different places, and on different soils. 
 
 It cannot be expected, that persons of high rank, whose attention 
 is necessarily directed to other objects, should renounce their ordinary 
 pursuits, and devote themselves exclusively to the conducting of 
 agricultural experiments : but if one or more experimental farms 
 were established, under a proper system, it would ere long be disco- 
 vered, what practices ought to be avoided, as well as what ought to 
 be pursued. It is important, that the one should be made known 
 as well as the other; yet errors in husbandry, are seldom communi- 
 cated to the public, .or known beyond the sphere of a confined 
 neighborhood, because a farmer is in general ashamed of acknow- 
 ledging his want of success. Unfortunately also, when his experi- 
 ments answer, they are sometimes concealed, least others should 
 avail themselves of the discovery. The object of an experimental 
 farm, however, should be, to ascertain facts and to publish them; 
 and as much credit would be acquired, by an intelligent conductor of 
 an experimental farm, for his exertions in detecting errors, as in 
 establishing facts likely to be useful. 
 
 It would surely be a highly beneficial measure, for a country, 
 possessing such an immense revenue, to lay out any moderate sum 
 that may be necessary, were it only 5000/. per aunnum, for ten or 
 twenty years, to ascertain points of such essential importance, and 
 which might be the means of making, very great additions, to the 
 national produce, wealth and revenue. 
 
 3. Agricultural Professorships. — It is not many years ago, 
 since, at the expense of a private individual, (the late Sir William 
 Pulteney,) a professorship was established at Edinburgh, for reading 
 lectures on the art of agriculture. The utility of such an institution 
 
 9 
 
*66 ON DOMESTIC PRODUCTIONS, 
 
 is so evident, that it ought to be extended to all the other universities. 
 The attention of young men, by such establishments, would be 
 directed early to this most useful of all the branches of knowledge, 
 which has now become, the general subject of conversation, wherever 
 they go. If they inherit landed property, agriculture is the topic to 
 which their view's should be particularly directed ; and as there is 
 Scarcely any professsion, which will preclude them from spending 
 •some part of their time in the country ; and if, after having accumu- 
 lated a fortune, they become proprietors of land, they having early 
 acquired Such knowledge, it would be a source of much gratification, 
 and perhaps of advantage. For such establishments, no new grant 
 would be necessary, or required from Parliament, but merely an act, 
 /Suppressing those professorships, which are at present sinecures, or 
 of little real utility, and establishing in their room, those of 
 agriculture. 
 
 4. Improvement of Veterinary Knowledge.- -Some encourage- 
 ment has been given, by an annual grant, to the acquisition and 
 diffusion of veterinary knowledge; a deficiency in which, had proved 
 so fatal to the public interest. It is not improbable, that for every 
 pound of public money that has been in this way laid out, a thousand 
 lias been saved in our national expenditure, in the article of horses 
 alone, employed in the cavalry and artillery. It would be desirable, 
 indeed, that schools for veterinary knowledge, should be established 
 in all the principal towns in the kingdom; and that the preservation 
 of every species of our valuable stock of domestic animals, should 
 no longer be left to ignorance or quackery, but that the practice to be 
 adopted in the management of their disorders, should be grounded 
 on scientific principles. 
 
 Sect. IV»— To give a Preference to Domestic Agricultural Pro- 
 ductions in the Home Market. 
 
 This is peculiarly necessary, both to preserve the cotmtry from 
 famine, and to render it independent of other nations for the neces- 
 saries of life. To permit the industry of any foreign nation, to enter 
 into competition with our own domestic industry, or productions, is 
 Hot allowed in the manufactures of linen or cotton, or many other 
 articles, and ought still less to be suffered in that of corn. 
 
 If two nations, similarly circumstanced in regard to soil, climate, 
 labor, and circulation, Were to give each other reciprocal liberty of 
 trading, the system, or the whole, might not be materially injurious to 
 either; but to place in competition the industry of one country, 
 which has a great national debt, and heavy taxes, and where the 
 price of labour must consequently be high, with that of an indefinite 
 number of other countries, which, with better climates and more 
 fertile soils, are not subject to the same burdens, would be highly 
 inexpedient. Besides, no country that has sufficient extent of surface, 
 and can by any exertion produce food for itself, would act wisely f 
 X® allow itself to be dependent on others for subsistence- 
 
ON EXPORTING PRODUCE. 6$ 
 
 The equitable principle, therefore, is, to impose a protecting duty 
 on all foreign agricultural productions, until their price be at least as 
 high as that at which they can be raised in Britain, in seasons of 
 moderate fertility, and gradually to diminish that duty as prices rise, 
 but still giving a decided preference, to the produce of the agriculture 
 of the united kingdoms. 
 
 The exportation and importation of grain, and other agricultural 
 productions, either duty free, or at low rates, in justness and equity, 
 «an only take place between nations, where the value of money is 
 the same, where they are subject to the same weight of taxation, are 
 similarly situated in regard to soil and climate, and live in amity witb 
 each other. 
 
 Sect. V. — To Encourage the Exportation of any Surplus* 
 Produce, 
 
 It is likewise highly expedient, to promote the exportation of 
 domestic produce, if there be any redundancy, after supplying the 
 demand at home. It is not sufficient to permit the exportation ; but 
 it may be necessary, for the encouragement of domestic cultivation, 
 and in order that the articles grown at home, may be enabled to meet 
 the productions of other countries, in foreign markets, on equal 
 terms, to give what is called a bounty on exportation. Nothing, 
 however, can be more erroneous, than to consider that encouragement 
 a bounty, when it is in fact a drawback, under another name. The 
 farmers at home, are subjected to a variety of taxes, which are not 
 imposed on their foreign competitors. To enable them to meet on 
 equal terms, they are entitled to receive an allowance, on every 
 quarter of grain exported, equal to what they had actually paid on 
 its account to the public, under various denominations. It is but 
 just, that the government should repay the taxes it had received, on 
 what is thus exported, to enable the farmers, under its protection, to 
 enter into a fair competition with foreign cultivation ; more espe* 
 eially if at the rates at which importation is allowed, are so fixed for 
 the benefit of the manufacturers, that the corn growers can, at no 
 period, obtain great profits, the increased price being, in general, 
 only a bare compensation for deficiency in produce. 
 
 Sect. VI. — To promote the Improvement of Waste or Unproductive 
 Lands, 
 
 It is of peculiar importance to a country, increasing in population, 
 to be constantly adding to its productive territory. There are 
 different ways by which that object may be promoted; 1. By facili- 
 tating the division, draining, embankment, and improvement of 
 commons, meadows, or other intermixed lands ; at least in all cases 
 where two-thirds, or three-fourths of the parties concerned, are in 
 favour of any such measure; and this benefit might be made attaina- 
 ble, by an act of the legislature, authorising an application to the 
 
68 ON SUBSTANTIAL IMPROVEMENTS. 
 
 Quarter Sessions in England, or Sheriffs in Scotland, to order an 
 inspection, and a report of the expense, &c. to be made and after 
 hearing parties, to decide on the propriety of the application, if 
 then approved of, the direction and execution of the improvement, 
 should be referred to commissioners; 2. By exempting from the pay- 
 ment rf tithes and poor-rates, for a term of years, according to the 
 expense of improvement, waste lands brought into cultivation ; and, 
 3. By fixing the price at which foreign corn is permitted to be im- 
 ported, at such a sum, as will enable a British farmer, to defray the 
 expense of reclaiming waste, or improving uncultivated land. For 
 unless this be done, it is impossible, that the produce of our barren 
 so/7.9, cultivated at a great expense, can stand a competition, with the 
 produce of the fertile fields of other countries, where the expense of 
 cultivation must, comparatively speaking, be inconsiderable. 
 
 Sect. VII. — To encourage Permanent and Substantial Improve- 
 ments. 
 
 The wealth and agricultural prosperity of a country, materially 
 depend, on such great and substantial improvements being promoted, 
 as, 1. Roads and bridges; 2. Canals; 3. Railways; 4. Harbours; 
 and, 5. Embankments ; and, where the aid of government cannot 
 be given to such undertakings, the establishment of corporations, un- 
 der the sanction of public authority, might be found an advantageous 
 mode of carrying such improvements into effect. 
 
 1. Roads and Bridges. — As the first means of introducing im- 
 provements into a country, roads and bridges are essential; and 
 where the population is thin, and the country is poor, there is no 
 possibility of having such communications made, without public as- 
 sistance. Two plans for that purpose have been adopted in making 
 roads. By the one, the military have been employed in such public 
 works ; by the other, under the authority of Commissioners appoint- 
 ed for that special purpose, the public has agreed, in the more remote 
 parts of the country, to advance one-half of the expense of making 
 roads and bridges, where the proprietors come forward with the other. 
 The communications which have been opened, in consequence of 
 this encouragement, are numerous, k and the public will soon be amply 
 indemnified, for any sum it has thus expended, by the increased, re- 
 venue it will derive from districts, which have hitherto been unpro- 
 ductive. 
 
 In times of peace also, the military cannot be better employed, 
 than in carrying on public works of so useful a description, as roads, 
 canals, &c. Unless when engaged in war, soldiers are the better for 
 beiug thus actively employed : it strengthens their bodies, and occu- 
 pies their minds. The remains of those roads, which were construct- 
 ed by the Roman armies, fully prove, what that intelligent nation 
 considered to be the best means of preparing soldiers, in time of peace, 
 for the hardships, and achievements of war. 
 
 2. anals. — TV advantages of canals to agriculture, need not be 
 dwelt upon. They facilitate the means of conveying the bulky pror 
 
ON SUBSTANTIAL IMPROVEMENTS. 69 
 
 duclions of the soil to market, and also by bringing at a moderate 
 expense, not only coal, but lime, and other manures, to the farmer. 
 Under a proper system also, the surplus water might be usefully 
 employed, for the purposes of irrigation. On all these accounts, 
 canals ought to be encouraged by the government of the country. 
 It is not desirable, except in very particular cases, that they should 
 be executed at the public expense; but it would greatly promote 
 such useful undertakings, if government were to lend a certain sum 
 to the proprietors of such canals, at a moderate interest, to enable 
 them to complete any undertaking of that sort This was done for 
 the Forth and Clyde navigation; and the company has since repaid 
 the loan. The same plan might be successfully adopted in other 
 instances; and the principle is at last sanctioned by parliament, in 
 a recent act, the effects of which, under judicious management, can 
 hardly fail to prove highly beneficial. 
 
 3. Railways. — This new mode of conveyance, is capable of being 
 rendered as extensively useful as canals, and is well entitled to the 
 encouragement of government, by loans of money, at a moderate 
 interest, to carry them on The government of this country, can 
 always borrow money at a cheaper rate than private individuals, from 
 the speculation that attends public loans; and the easiness with 
 which the monied interest can re-invest their savings in the funds, in. 
 preference to any other security. Railways would be particularly 
 convenient, where canals are impracticable, and where either may be 
 undertaken, the former, being less expensive, will often be preferred. 
 They ought to be promoted, because the more that communications 
 can be opened between one part of the kingdom and another, the 
 more does a country prosper, and the more are the people in it com- 
 bined into one great community. 
 
 4. Harbours. — Though harbours are more essential in a commer- 
 cial than in an agricultural point of view, yet they are stitf of mate- 
 rial consequence to the husbandry of a country, by facilitating the 
 exportation of bulky articles of produce, and the importation of coal 
 and lime, those essential articles to the farmer. The same plan of 
 public assistance, either in whole, or in part, will be found as useful 
 in regard to harbours, as to railways or canals, and has answered in 
 practice. Certain sums of money, (arising from the forfeited estates 
 in Scotland,) which were at the disposal of parliament, were granted 
 for improving the harbours on the north-eastern coast of Scotland. 
 The sums given were trifling ; in general from two to four thousand 
 pounds each; and excepting in one instance, where the sum was 
 granted to encourage a fishing establishment, erected by a public 
 spirited company, (the Society for improving the Sea-coasts of the 
 kingdom,) the inhabitants of the towns or neighborhood, where that 
 assistance was bestowed, were bound to furnish one half of the total 
 sum to be expended. The effect of this system has been most 
 beneficial. It is not so much indeed the sum actually given, as the 
 spirit which it excites, that is of service ; and when once such a 
 spirit is roused, it is not confined to one object, but extends itself to 
 others. Little causes thus produce great effects; and a moderate 
 public expenditure of a few thousand pounds, may lay the foundation 
 
70 ON SUBSTANTIAL IMPROVEMENTS. 
 
 of an extensive fishery, or a great emporium of commerce, and 
 promote, at the same time, the agricultural prosperity of an exten- 
 sive district. 
 
 5. Embankments. — When the difficulty and hazard of embanking 
 a considerable tract of country, either against the overflowings of a 
 lake or river, or the inroads of the sea, are considered, there is no 
 undertaking, that seems better entitled to the encouragement of a 
 wise government. Extensive tracts of fertile territory, may thus be 
 acquired, greatly to the public advantage. The soil thus obtained, 
 is generally of a nature peculiarly productive, and well adapted for 
 agricultural purposes. To carry on such undertakings, however, at 
 the public expense, might be hazardous; but when their utility, and 
 ultimate profit, are sufficiently proved, by the evidence of intelligent 
 engineers, to the conviction of parliament, it may be advisable for 
 the legislature, in times of peace, to authorize the advancing one 
 third, or any other proportion of the estimated expense, at a mode- 
 rate interest. 
 
 Where extensive drainages are necessary, the same encouragement 
 ought to be given. 
 
 6. To establish Corporations for carrying on beneficial improve- 
 ments. — Many of these improvements might be successfully promot- 
 ed, by the establishment of corporations, for carrying on particular 
 objects, which cannot be effected by individual wealth. This is fre- 
 quently done in the case of canals, and ought to be extended to other 
 means of improvement. The formation of such associations, is at 
 present the more expedient, that there is likely to be a large capital, 
 requiring profitable employment, much of which will be sent abroad, 
 unless it can be laid out at home with advantage. Much good there- 
 fore might be effected, by erecting public companies, for specific ob- 
 jects of improvement. Each company should be permitted to raise 
 a capital adequate to the object in view. It should execute no work 
 itself, (planting perhaps excepted,) but should merely be permitted, 
 to lend money, at any rate of interest, not exceeding five or six per 
 cent, to all such landed proprietors, as had any great improvement, 
 to execute ; the sum advanced never to be demandable, but the stock 
 of the company to be transferable, like other public securities, which 
 would answer equally well the purposes of those stockholders, who 
 might wish to receive again the sums they had subscribed. Estates 
 under the fetters of strict entail, might thus be improved, which other- 
 wise would be neglected. The surplus capital of the country, would 
 thus be employed at home and embodied, it may be said, with our 
 own territory ; and the whole country would be improved in a man* 
 ner, and to an extent, that cannot otherwise be attainable. 
 
 It was by promoting such measures as these, that the most celebrat- 
 ed statesman of modern times, justly called Frederick the Great, 
 (more from his attention to internal improvement, than to foreign 
 conquests,) raised his dominions notwithstanding the disadvantages 
 ©f situation, soil, and climate, to that height of prosperity and power, 
 
ON SUBSTANTIAL IMPROVEMENTS. 71 
 
 to which they attained during his reign. His practice was, to lay 
 out about 300,000/. sterling per annum, in the encouragement of 
 agricultural improvements, which he considered, " as manure spread 
 upon the ground," to secure an abundant harvest ; and in fact, in- 
 stead of being impoverished by such liberal grants, he thereby in- 
 creased his revenues so much, that he was enabled to leave a treasure 
 behind him, amounting to above 12,000,000Z. sterling. On the other 
 hand, this country, owing partly to unfavourable seasons, partly to 
 its increased population, but principally to its agricultural interest 
 not being sufficiently encouraged, has been under the fatal necessity, 
 of transmitting to other nations, above 57 millions sterling, in the 
 space of twenty years, and no less a sum than 12 millions in one 
 year, to procure food for its inhabitants ! 
 
 The celebrated Watson, Bishop of Llandaff, has most ably ex- 
 plained, the advantages to be derived by agriculture, from such pub- 
 lic encouragement, in the following words : " The agricultural im- 
 provements which have hitherto taken place amongst us, have been, 
 by the expenditure of private wealth ; but the country cannot be 
 brought to that perfection of cultivation, of which it is capable, 
 unless individual efforts, are aided and accelerated, by public wisdom 
 and munificence. I boast not of any particular patriotism, but I 
 would willingly pay my share of twenty or thirty millions of public 
 money, to be appropriated by the legislature, to the agricultural in> 
 provement of Great Britain and Ireland. This appears to me, to 
 be an object, of far nearer concern to our independence, as a nation, 
 than any extension of commerce, or any acquisition of distant terri- 
 tory ever can be. If the time had fully come, when an unproductive 
 acre of land could not be found in either of these, our fortunate 
 islands, we shall then have food within ourselves, for the annual 
 sustenance, of at least thirty millions of people; and with a popula- 
 tion of thirty millions, what power in Europe, or what combination 
 of powers, will dare to attempt our subjugation. 
 
 May these considerations be listened to by those, who take ay 
 active part, in conducting the government of this great empire; and 
 may some effectual steps be taken, by encourageing cultivation and 
 improvement, in the manner above suggested, or by such other 
 means as may be judged most useful, not only to prevent, what is 
 justly accounted the greatest of all possible calamities, scarcity or 
 famine, but also to promote, the future permanent welfare and hap- 
 piness of the people. 
 
 JOHN SINCLAIR. 
 
 Ormly Lodge, Ham Common^ Surrey 
 20th June, 18X7- 
 
72 ON SOIL. 
 
 [FROM SIR JOHN SINCAIR'S CODE Of AGRICULTURE.] 
 
 Preliminary points to be considered, before a Farmer 
 
 can undertake with prudence the occupation 
 
 of any extent oj land. 
 
 Sect. II. — Soil. 
 
 The surface, or outward coating of land, usually consists of various 
 earthy matters, with a mixture of animal and vegetable substances in 
 a stafe of partial decomposition, together with certain saline and 
 mineral ingredients. Where favourably combined, it is admirably 
 calculated to afford support to plants, to enable them to fix their roots, 
 and gradually to derive nourishment by their tubes, from the soluble 
 and dissolved substances contained in the soil, (as this mixed mass 
 is called,) or passing in it. The strata on which it is incumbent, are 
 known under the general name of subsoil. 
 
 The importance of the soil has been described in various ways. 
 By some it has been called the mother or nurse of vegetation. By 
 others it is represented as discharging functions to plants, similar to 
 those which the stomach does to animals, in preparing their food, 
 and fitting it for absorption by their roots. It furnishes the plant 
 also with heat; for a well cultivated, and highly manured soil, is much 
 warmer than the surrounding atmosphere. The farmer, it is said, 
 ought to study the relative value of the different soils, as the merchant 
 does the worth of the several commodities he deals in. In short, a 
 favourable soil and climate, are declared to be, the first riches of a 
 country. 
 
 The importance of a farmer's paying particular attention to the 
 nature and quality of the soil he cultivates, need not therefore be 
 dwelt upon. By availing himself of the qualities it possesses, or by 
 removing its defects, his profits are much increased. He must, in 
 general, regulate his measures accordingly, in regard to the rent he is 
 to offer, the capital he is to lay out, the stock he is to keep, the crops 
 he is to raise, and the improvements he is to execute. Indeed such is 
 the importance of the soil, and the necessity of adapting this system 
 to its peculiar properties, that no general system of cultivation can be 
 laid down, unless, all the circumstances regarding the nature, and sit- 
 uation of the soil and subsoil, be known; and it rarely happens if a 
 farmer has been long accustomed to one species of soil, that he is 
 equally succesful in the management of another. 
 
ON SOIL. 73 
 
 Soils may be considered under the following general heads : — Sand; 
 —Gravel ; — Clay ) — Chalk ; — Peat ; — Alluvial ; and, — Loam, or that 
 species of artificial soil, into which the others are generally brought, 
 by the effects of manure, in the course of long cultivation. After 
 describing each sort, it is proposed to state, the modes of improving 
 their texture; the crops for which they are respectively calculated; 
 and the districts where they are cultivated with the greatest success. 
 
 1. Sand. — A soil that consists entirely of small grains of a hard 
 nature, (silex,) which neither cohere together, nor are softened by 
 water, nor soluble in acids, though it ought not to be totally abandon- 
 ed, yet is too poor to be cultivated with advantage. It would indeed 
 be hazardous in the extreme, from the risk of having the covering mould 
 blown off the new-sown grain, in the spring, by high winds. Sandy 
 soils, however, generally have a considerable mixture of other sub- 
 stances, by which their quality is greatly ameliorated. 
 
 The best mode of improving the texture of such a soil, deficient 
 in retentive or adhesive properties, is, by a mixture of clay, marl, 
 sea-ooze, sea-shells, peat, or vegetable earth; and it frequently hap- 
 pens, that under the sand itself, or in its immediate neighborhood, 
 the very materials may be found, so essential for its improvement. 
 
 In some parts of Norfolk, they have availed themselves of these 
 auxiliaries, for improving a sandy soil, in an eminent degree : by 
 means of which they have created a new soil ; and by the continua- 
 tion of judicious management, they have given a degree of fame to 
 the husbandry of that district, far surpassing that of others naturally 
 more fertile. 
 
 The improvement of a sandy soil, is generally accomplished by 
 fossil manures ; but vegetable substances are likewise effectual. A 
 top dressing of peat has been tried for that purpose, and the experi- 
 ment was attended, not only with immediate good effects, but with 
 permanent benefit. 
 
 Sandy soils are valuable, being so easily cultivated, and so well 
 calculated for sheep, that most profitable species of stock Where 
 the land is hilly, rabbits are frequently kept, for the rabbit can easily 
 throw down the light soil from the hole he excavates, where there is 
 a declivity. Hence it has been remarked by some that loose-soiled 
 hills, will pay better in rabbit-warrens, than under any other mode of 
 occupation. Others consider planting to be a more profitable appro- 
 priation of such hills. 
 
 Rich sandy soils, however, such as those of Frodsham, in Ches- 
 hire, under a regular course of husbandry, are invaluable. They 
 are cultivated at a moderate expense ; and at all seasons, have a dry 
 soundness, accompanied by moisture, which secures excellent crops 
 even in the driest summers. 
 
 The crops raised on sandy soils are numerous, as the common 
 turnip, — potatoes, — carrots, — barley, — rye, — buckwheat, — pease, — 
 clover, — sainfoin, and other grasses. This species of soil, in general, 
 has not strength enough for the production of the Swedish turnip, 
 beans, wheat, flax, or hemp, in any degree of perfection, without 
 much improvement in its texture, the addition of great quantities of 
 enriching manure, and the most skilful management. 
 
 10 
 
74 ON SOIL. 
 
 When under a course of cultivation, it is a great advantage to 
 sandy soils, either to fold sheep upon them, or to consume the ci ps 
 of turnips upon the ground where they are raised. These practices 
 greatly contribute to the improvement of such soils, not only by 
 the dung and urine thus deposited, but by the consolidation and 
 firmness of texture which the treading of the sheep occasions. 
 
 The carrot husbandry, in the •' Sandlings" of Suffolk, as they are 
 called, is one of the most interesting objects to be met with in British 
 agriculture. After defraying all expenses, the clear profit, by 
 feeding horses in the stable, is considerable, (5/. 9s. 6d* per statute 
 acre.) Some prefer to fatten bullocks with them ; while others, who 
 bave the advantage of water carriage, think it most beneficial to 
 send their carrots to the London market. Carrots are likewise an 
 admirable preparation for other crops. 
 
 In Norfolk and Suffolk, it is found that poor sandy soils, not 
 worth 5s. per acre for any other purpose, under sainfoin, will pro- 
 duce, after the first year, about two tons per acre, of excellent hay, 
 for several , years, with an after-grass, extremely valuable for weaning 
 and keeping lambs. How much more beneficial than any crops of 
 grain that such soils usually yield ! 
 
 In the neighborhood of Dunbar in Scotland, there are some farms 
 originally of a light sandy soil, which have been rendered uncom- 
 monly productive ; but they are situated on the coast, and accom- 
 modated with immense quantities of sea-weed. For many years 
 they were cultivated in the following course of severe cropping. 
 1. Turnips; 2. Drilled wheat ; 3. Clover; 4. Drilled wheat. By 
 Cultivation, the soil has now become a species of ligh loam. 
 
 The management of sandy land, according to the system adopted 
 by the celebrated Duckett of Petersham and Esher, in Surrey, has 
 been strongly recommended by an eminent author. It was founded 
 On three principles : 1. Ploughing very deep : a due degree of mois- 
 ture was thus preserved in his light land, by means of which his 
 crops were flourishing in seasons of drought, which destroyed those 
 of his neighbours; — 2. Ploughing seldom, but effectually, by a 
 trench plough, or what he called a skim-coulter plough, with which 
 he buried the weeds that grew on the surface ; he has been known 
 to put in seven crops with only four ploughings; and, 3. Occa- 
 sionally raising a crop of turnips the same season, after a crop of 
 wheat or of pulse* 
 
 In the Pays de Waes in Flanders, sand is likewise cultivated to 
 great perfection. The soil of that district, which was originally a 
 barren white sand, by a slow but sure process, has at last been con- 
 verted into a most fertile loam. The surface, to the depth of three 
 or four inches, was at first alone cultivated, but the soil was gra- 
 dually deepened, as it became progressively enriched ; and now the 
 ground, at the commencement of every rotation, is trenched by a 
 shovel, (the soil being very loose, ) to the depth of from fifteen to 
 eighteen inches, the exhausted surface is buried, and the fresh soil 
 brought up, enriched by the manure washed down to it, during the 
 Seven preceding years. It is then subjected to the following course 
 of crops: 1. Potatoes; 2. Wheat manured, sown in November, and 
 
ON SOIL. 7§ 
 
 carrots in February, for a second crop in the same year; 3. Flax, 
 manured, and sown with clover seed, for the ne crop ; 4. Clover; 
 5. Rye or wheat, with carrots for a second cro ^: 6. Oats after the 
 carrots ; and, f: Buck-wheat, at the end of which period the ground 
 is again trenched. 
 
 The double crops raised in the sandy soils of Flanders, in the 
 course of the same year, are attended with much advantage. The 
 Flemish farmers thus obtain a greater quantity of manure, than they 
 could produce under any other system, by which they are enabled to 
 extract so much produce from soils, originally sterile, and which 
 would soon revert to their former state of barrenness, without the 
 greatest industry, and the most unwaried attention. 
 
 It is a rule, in regard to sandy soils, never to pick off any small 
 stones that may be found in them, as they contribute to prevent 
 evaporation, and to preserve moisture. It is another rule, frequently 
 to renovate the strength of such soils, by laying them down with 
 grass-seeds, and pasturing them for a few years, as they are so 
 apt to be exhausted by aration, if corn crops are too frequently 
 repealed. 
 
 It may be added as a general rule, that the fertility of sandy, or 
 siliceous soils, is in proportion to the quantity of rain that falls, 
 combined with the frequency of its recurrence. As a proof of this, 
 in the rainy climate of Turin, the most prolific soil has from 77 to 
 80 per cent, of siliceous earth, and from nine to fourteen of calca- 
 reous; whereas in the neighbourhood of Paris, where there is much 
 less rain, the silex is only in the proportion of from 26 to 50 per 
 cent, in the most fertile parts. 
 
 2. Gravel. — Gravelly soils differ materially from sandy, both in 
 in their texture and modes of management. They are frequently 
 composed of small soft stenes, sometimes of flinty ones ; but they 
 often contain granite, limestone, and other rocky substances, par- 
 tially, but not very minutely decomposed. Gravel, being more 
 porous than even sand, is generally a poor, and what is called, a 
 hungry soil, more especially when the parts of which it consists, 
 are hard in substance and rounded in form. Gravelly soils are 
 easily exhausted, for the animal and vegetable matters they contain, 
 not being attracted by the earthy constituent parts of the soil, 
 which are seldom sufficiently abundant for that purpose, are more 
 liable to be decomposed by the action of the atmosphere, and carried 
 off from them by water. 
 
 Gravelly soils are improved by draining, where they are troubled 
 with springs; — by deep ploughing; — by mixing them with coats of 
 clay, chalk, marl peat, or other earth ; by frequent returns of grass 
 crops ; — by repeated applications of manure ; — and by irrigation, if 
 the water be full of sediment, and judiciously applied on a proper 
 form of surface. 
 
 Sometimes the ground is so covered with flints and stones, that 
 hardly any mould is to be seen. Land of this description is very 
 troublesome to work, and is injurious to the implements of husbandry 
 employed in the cultivation ; but with proper management, it can be 
 rendered highly productive. 
 
76 ON SOIL. 
 
 The stone-brash or corn-brash soils, (as they are provincially 
 called,) of Gloucestershire, and the midland counties of England, 
 may be included under the general head of gravelly soils, being so 
 much mixed with small stones. They have frequently, however, 
 more sand, or clay, or calcareous loam, in their composition, than 
 gravelly soils usually possess, and on that account, are treated of by 
 some authors as a distinct species of soil. 
 
 Gravelly soils, from their parting so readily with moisture, are 
 apt to burn, as it is called, in dry seasons; but in wet ones, they 
 usually produce abundant crops of barley, rye, tares, pease, oats, 
 and even wheat : and even a thin stratum of gravel, if mixed with 
 shells, and other marine productions, possesses many advantages for 
 cultivation, in a wet climate. 
 
 A gravelly soil, free from stagnant water, gives such an additional 
 warmth to the climate, that vegetation is nearly a fortnight earlier, 
 than where other soils predominate. About Dartford and Blackheath 
 in Kent, such soils produce early green pease, winter tares, rye, au- 
 tumnal pease, and occasionally wheat, in great perfection. When 
 barley and oats are cultivated, they should be sown very early, that 
 they may have full possession of the ground before the dry season sets 
 in. Gravelly soils, in a wet climate, answer well for potatoes ; and 
 indeed, in Cornwall, in a sheltered situation, with a command of sea- 
 sand, and of sea-weed, they raise two crops of potatoes in the same 
 year. 
 
 Poor gravelly soils, full of springs, and those sulphurous, are very 
 unfriendly to vegetation; and are better calculated for wood than for 
 arable culture. 
 
 3. Clay. — A clay soil is distinguished above every other for 
 tenacity. It feels smooth, and somewhat unctuous. If cultivated 
 in a wet state, it sticks to the plough like mortar, and does not soon* 
 become dry. It is often, indeed, of so adhesive a nature, that it will 
 hold water like a dish. In a dry summer, the plough turns it up in 
 great clods, scarcely to be broken or separated by the heaviest roller. 
 It requires, therefore, much labor to put it in a state fit for producing 
 either corn or grass : and though it will yield great crops, yet being 
 cultivated at a heavy expense, unless when occupied by a judicious 
 attentive farmer, it is seldom that much profit is obtained. The very 
 superior management of clay soils, as practised in the Lothians, is 
 fortunately an exception to this general rule. 
 
 The value of a clayey soil, depends materially on its having an 
 open subsoil, which renders it more tractable and productive. Its 
 texture is improved by a suitable mixture of common sand, sea-sand 
 and above all, of limestone gravel, where it can be obtained Peat- 
 moss also, that has for some time been dug up, and exposed to the 
 action of the atmosphere, may be used with advantage. It is like- 
 wise necessary to enrich it with putrid and calcareous manures in 
 the course of its cultivation. 
 
 Under proper culture, clay soils are well calculated for growing 
 crops of beans, wheat, oats, clover, and winter tares ; but not for 
 barley, unless immediately after a fallow; nor for turnips, or 
 potatoes, unless under very peculiar management. Clays become 
 
ON SOIL. 77 
 
 good meadow, though from their aptitude to be poached, they are, in 
 general, unfit to be fed by heavy cattle in wet weather ; but they do 
 well for hay, or soiling. The after-grass may be used to feed neat 
 cattle till October, and sheep till March. A stiff clay, however, 
 with a strong marl undei it, is preferred in Cheshire and Derbyshire 
 for the dairy. 
 
 Ploughing previous to winter setting in, is of great use to clays, 
 by exposing the surface to the frost, which mellows and reduces it 
 in a manner infinitely superior to what could be accomplished by all 
 the operations of man. In this state, the soil remains till spring 
 seed-time, when it is either ploughed with a shallow furrow or 
 scarified and sown. 
 
 In respect to fallowing strong clay, (a subject to be afterwards 
 more fully discussed,) though some eminent farmers think it unne- 
 cessary, provided particular attention be paid to the bean crop, 
 sowing early, horse-hoeing regularly, and weeding completely ; yet 
 there certainly are many clay soils, more especially in Scotland, so 
 tenacious and obdurate, so adhesive to every thing that comes in 
 contact with them when wet, and assuming, when dry, such a stony 
 hardness, that they are but ill calculated, in that stubborn state, for 
 the purposes of vegetation. In that case, a summer fallow is indis- 
 pensably necessary every six or eight years ; both to prevent such 
 soils contracting a most injurious sourness and adhesion from wet 
 ploughing, and in order that, by exposure to the sun and winds, 
 during the summer months, they may be so thoroughly pulverised, 
 as to be placed in a state fit for bearing abundant crops of grain and 
 grass. There are certain soils, and situations, indeed, where summer- 
 fallowing cannot be advantageously relinquished for any other 
 process of tillage whatsoever. 
 
 4. Peat. — This substance is unquestionably of vegetable origin. 
 The difference between it and vegetable mould is this, that mould is 
 derived from finer substances, as the leaves of the trees, — the remains 
 of the arable cultivation, — and the roots as well as the leaves and 
 stalks of the finer grasses, which contain a large proportion of earthy 
 matters ; whereas peat is chiefly composed of various sorts of 
 aquatics; which, instead of rotting on, or near the surface, are 
 generally immersed in stagnant water, and only partially decomposed. 
 In valleys, peat-moss has often a considerable proportion of vegeta- 
 ble earth washed from the higher grounds. 
 
 An author who has successfully explained the nature of peat, has 
 adopted the following classification : 1. Fibrous; 2. Compact ; and, 
 3. Bituminous peat; 4. Peat mixed with calcareous matter; 5. 
 With sand or clay; 6. With pyrites; and, 7. With marine salt. 
 Each of these, he contends, differs essentially in its composition and 
 chemical qualities; and, above all, each species requires different 
 treatment, in order to convert it, either into a soil, or into manure. 
 
 In converting peat into earth, it is a rule to plough and dig it in au- 
 tumn, that it may be effectually exposed to the winter's frost. If this 
 work be not commenced at a proper season of the year, and if the 
 peat be once hardened by the summer's sun, it is hardly possibly af- 
 terwards to decompose it. 
 
78 ON SOIL. 
 
 The crops best calculated for a reclaimed peat-bog or moss, are> 
 oats, rye, beans, potatoes, turnips, carrots, cole-seed, white and red 
 clover, and timothy. Wheat and barley have succeeded on such 
 lands after they have been supplied with abundance of calcareous 
 earth ; and the florin grass, (agrostis stolonifera,) seems likewise to 
 be well adapted to that description of soil, when moderately surface- 
 drained. 
 
 The improvement of peat-bogs, and of all wet lands, must be pre- 
 ceded by draining ; stagnant water being injurious to all the nutritive 
 classes of plants. Soft black peat earth, when drained, is often ren- 
 dered productive, by the mere application of sand and clay as a top 
 dressing. When peat contains ferruginous salts, calcareous matter is 
 absolutely necessary to fit it for cultivation. When mosses or bogs 
 abound with the branches, or the roots of trees, or when the surface 
 entirely consists of living vegetables, they must either be carried off, 
 or burnt. In the last case, their ashes furnish ingredients calculated 
 to improve the texture of the peat. For this soil, soap-ashes are 
 found an excellent manure. 
 
 In Leicestershire, and various other counties, they have great 
 tracts of meadow land, which, in many instances, are the sites of 
 lakes filled up, the soil of which is composed of peat and sediment ; 
 the former originally formed by aquatic vegetation, and the latter 
 brought down by rains and streams from the upland. This forms a 
 soil admirably calculated for grass. 
 
 The fens in Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, and several other dis- 
 tricts in England, likewise consist of peat and sediment They are 
 pared and burnt for cole-seed, to be fed off by sheep, who by their 
 manure enrich the soil. After two crops of grain, they are sown with 
 grass seeds, (two bushels of rye-grass, and eight or ten pounds of 
 white clover,) and remain in grass for five, six, or seven years ; the 
 longer the better. In the fens, beans and turnips have been cultivat- 
 ed, but have not been found to answer ; nor can fen land be fallowed, 
 for it does not bear much stirring. Potatoes, and above all, carrots, 
 may be tried as an intervening crop, and with a prospect of success. 
 
 The great object however is, to adopt the most proper manage- 
 ment of fen or peaty land for hay crops ; and here it is proper to 
 mention a modern discovery of great moment. It is ascertained, that 
 by suffering the second crop of grass, that might often, with difficulty, 
 be converted into hay or rot upon the ground, an immense produce of 
 hay is ensured for the succeeding year, and that fen land may thus 
 become a perpetual hay meadow. This important fact is corrobo- 
 rated by some experiments which have been tried near Oudenarde in 
 Flanders, where the same effect has been produced, by leaving the 
 second crop on the ground every second or third year ; the grass pro- 
 duced the succeeding year being of extraordinary length. 
 
 5. Chalk. — Chalky soils principally consist of calcareous matter, 
 mixed with various other substances, in greater or lesser proportions. 
 Where .clayey or earthy substances are to be found in such soils in 
 considerable quantities, the composition is heavy and productive $ 
 where sand or gravel abounds, it is light, and often unfertile. 
 
on soil. 79 
 
 The crops chiefly cultivated on chalky soils, are pease, turnips, 
 Parley, clover, and wheat ; and however much the soil is exhaused, 
 it will produce sainfoin. 
 
 The means of ameliorating the texture of chalky soils, are, either 
 by the application of clayey and sandy loams, pure clay or marl ; or 
 where the staple is deficient, by using great quantities of peat, or of 
 water-fed earth. The chalk stratum sometimes lies Upon a thick 
 vein of black tenacious marl, of a rich quality, which ought to be dug 
 up, and mixed with the chalk. 
 
 The ashes of a sort of peat produced in some parts of Berkshire 
 and Bedfordshire, of a red colour, and which abound with iron, are 
 found to be highly beneficial to chalky soils, particularTy when sown 
 with trefoil, and other grasses : on such soils, these ashes are of use, 
 not only for crops of barley, but likewise even of oats. 
 
 Chalky soils are, in general, fitter for tillage, than for grazing ; for, 
 without the plough, the peculiar advantages derived from this soil by 
 sainfoin, (one of the most valuable grasses we owe to the bounty of 
 Providence,) could not be obtained. The plough, however, ought 
 not to extend to those fine chalky downs, (called ewe leases in Dor- 
 setshire,) which, by a very attentive management, and in the course 
 of a number of years, have been brought to a considerable degree of 
 fertility, as grazing land, and are so useful to sheep in the winter sea- 
 son. 
 
 A chalky soil that has once been in tillage, is so retentive of water 
 in winter, and previous to the sun's rays in summer, that it is the 
 work of an age to make it a good pasture of natural grasses, more 
 especially when the chalk lies near the surface. Hence, in the west- 
 ern counties of England, several thousands of acres of this soil, 
 though not ploughed for thirty years, have scarcely any grass of tole- 
 rable quality upon them, and are literally worth nothing. Such soils 
 ought to be cultivated in the following manner, as a preparation for 
 sainfoin : 1st year, Pare and burn for turnips, to be eaten on the land 
 by sheep, with the aid of some fodder ; 2d, Barley to be sown very 
 early with clover seed ; 3d, Clover, eaten off by sheep ; 4th, Wheat 5 
 5th, Turnips, with manure; and. 6th, Barley, with sainfoin. The 
 corn crops must be carefully weeded, and, in particular, cleared of 
 charlock. Under this system, which has been successfully practised 
 by a celebrated Kentish fanner, (Mr. Boys of Betshanger,) the pro- 
 duce has been great, and the ground has been laid down in the high- 
 est order with sainfoin, or any other gmss calculated for this species 
 of soil. By adopting this system, many thousands of acres might be 
 improved, now lying in a miserable state. 
 
 6. Alluvial Soils. — These are of two sorts ; one derived from the 
 sediment of fresh, and the other of salt water. 
 
 Along the sides of rivers, and other considerable streams, water- 
 formed soils are to be met with, consisting of the decomposed matter 
 of decayed vegetables, with the sediment of streams. They are 
 usually deep and fertile, and not apt to be injured by rain, as they 
 usually lie on a bed of open gravel. They are commonly employed 
 as meadows, from the hazard of the crops being injured, or carried 
 off by floods, if cultivated. 
 
OU ON SOIL. 
 
 Those fine alluvial soils, occasioned by the operations of salt-water, 
 (called salt marshes in England, and carses in Scotland,) are com- 
 posed of the finest parts of natural clay, washed off by running 
 water, and deposited on flat ground, on the shores of estuaries, where 
 they are formed by the reflux of the tide, and enriched with marine 
 productions. They generally have a rich, level surface, and being 
 deep in the staple, they are well adapted for the culture of the most 
 valuable crops. Hence wheat, barley, oats, and clover, are all of 
 them productive on this species of soil; which is likewise peculiarly 
 well calculated for beans, as the tap-root pushes vigorously through 
 it, and finds its nourishment at a great depth. Lime, in considerable 
 quantities, is'found to be the most effectual means of promoting the 
 improvement of this species of soil. 
 
 7. Loam. — Where a soil is moderately cohesive, less tenacious 
 than clay, and more so than sand, it is known by the name of loam. 
 From its frequency, there is reason to suppose that, in some cases, 
 it might be c died an original soil. At the same time a constant 
 course of tillage for ages, the application of fertilizing manures, and 
 where necessary, mixing any particular substance in which the soil 
 is deficient, (as clay with sand, or sand where clay predominates,) 
 will necessarily convert a soil thus treated into a loam. 
 
 Loams are the most desirable of all soils to occupy. They are 
 friable ; can in general be cultivated at almost any season of the 
 year • — are ploughed with greater facility and less strength than clay ; 
 — bear better the vicissitudes of the season ; and seldom require any 
 change in the rotation adopted. Above all, they are peculiarly well 
 adapted for the convertible husbandry ; for they can be altered, not 
 only without injury, but generally with benefit, from grass to tillage, 
 and from tillage to grass. They should not however, be kept in 
 tillage too long, nor while they are in cultivation, should too white 
 crops be taken in succession. 
 
 Loams are of four sorts; 1. Sandy; 2. Gravelly; 3. Clayey; 
 and, 4. Peaty. 
 
 1. A sandy soil, and a sandy loam, are easily distingnished. A 
 sandy soil is always loose and crumbling, and never gets into a clod, 
 even in the driest weather; whereas a sandy loam, owing to the clay 
 that is mixed with it, retains a degree of adhesion or cloddiness, after 
 wetness or drought, and will not suddenly crumble down, without 
 the application of machinery for that purpose. 
 
 A mellow, rich, crumbling sandy loam, adhesive enough to fear no 
 drought, and friable enough to strain off superfluous moisture, if 
 incumbent on a sound subsoil, is the most profitable of all soils, 
 being managed with much less expense than any other soil, and 
 raising with advantage, every species of crop that the climate will 
 admit of. 
 
 2. Gravelly loams, when warm, sound, and dry, or free from 
 springs, are useful soils, more especially in wet seasons and climates. 
 
 3. A clayey or stiff loam, is nearly allied to brick earth. Though, 
 the soil might have originally been poor cold, and hungry, yet if 
 it be well drained, according to the Essex system, and highly 
 manured, it will yield great crops. It is found well adapted for the 
 dairy in Cheshire. 
 
ON SOIL. 81 
 
 4. Peat, in some of its varieties, may likewise be converted by 
 culture, into a species of soft black loam, and, in that state, it 
 becomes highly fertile and productive. 
 
 Loams will produce hemp and flax, in the greatest perfection and 
 abundance, besides the other crops usually cultivated in this country : 
 and in rich loams, where the subsoil is both dry and open, lucerne 
 might be more generally grown than it is, in preference to other 
 grasses. 
 
 Before the subject of soils is dismissed, there are some miscella- 
 neous particulars which merit attention; as, 1. The means of 
 ascertaining their composition ; 2. The nature of mould so essential 
 for their fertility ; 3. Their colour ; 4. The importance of cultiva- 
 ting good soils ; and, 5. The general principles on which their 
 improvements may be effected. 
 
 1. That the most efficient methods for improving soils may be 
 adopted, it is necessary that their composition should be known. 
 A distinguished philosopher has suggested a plan tor that purpose, 
 which can easily be carried into effect, by any person at all conver- 
 sant in chemical researches. But the generality of farmers have 
 not the means of entering into such researches ; yet they are able, 
 by observation and experience, to discover the most important 
 deficiencies of the soil they cultivate. This may be effected, by 
 comparing their own soils with each other, and with the most fertile 
 in their immediate neighborhood. The great object they ought to 
 keep in view is, to render a soil capable of receiving and retaining 
 such a due quantity of moisture, as may be sufficient to nourish the 
 vegetables that grow in it, and to absorb or throw off, that superflu- 
 ous wafer which would prove injurious. 
 
 2. Mould, which contains a mixture of animal and vegetable re- 
 mains, particularly from putrefaction, is an essential ingredient in all 
 fertile soils. It arises from the decomposition of the roots and leaves 
 of vegetables on grass land, and the stubble and roots of grain crops, 
 on arable. This process on grass lands is very slow ; for it is calcu- 
 lated that it proceeds at the rate of only one inch in a century. 
 Considerable accumulations of this mould, are likewise produced 
 from the leaves of trees, amassed for a number of years, and rotted 
 on the surface. When, in addition to vegetable, there are animal 
 remains, in a state of decomposition, the soil is distinguished for its 
 fertility. 
 
 3. It is of essential consequence, when the surface is bare and 
 exposed to the rays of the sun, that the colour of the soil should be 
 such, as to attract and absorb the greatest heat from the sun and the 
 atmosphere, more especially in spring. 
 
 Soils are of various colours ; the principal are white, black, and red. 
 
 White stiff clays are heated with difficulty, and being universally 
 very moist, they retain their heat only for a short time. 
 
 A black soil, containing much vegetable matter, is most easily 
 heated by the sun and air. Its temperature has increased from 65° 
 to 88° by exposure to sunshine for an hour. A chalky soil, under 
 the Same circumstances, was heated only to 69°. In the shade, 
 however, the black mould lost its heat more rapidly. 
 
 11 
 
82 ON SUBSOIL. 
 
 The red colour in soils, is owing to iron in various combinations. 
 It is favourable or adverse to fertility, according to the nature of the 
 combination. That which approaches nearest to the metallic state, 
 is considered by some the most favourable. 
 
 4. It has been justly remarked, that too much can hardly be paid 
 for a good soil, and that even a low rent will not make a poor one 
 profitable. The labour of cultivating a rich and a poor soil, is 
 nearly the same ; while the latter requires more manure, and conse- 
 quently is more expensive. Poor soils, at the same time, may have 
 such a command of lasting manures, or even of temporary sorts, 
 like seaweed, as may render them profitable to cultivate. 
 
 5. There are various modes of improving soils. 
 
 Soils with acids, or salts of iron, may be ameliorated by the 
 application of lime, or chalk. The sulphate of iron is thus con- 
 verted into a manure. 
 
 If there be an excess of calcareous matter in the soil, as in chalky 
 soils, it may be improved by the application of sand, or clay, or 
 earthy substances. 
 
 Soils too abundant in sand, are benefited by the use of clay, or 
 marl, or vegetable matter. 
 
 A deficiency of vegetable or animal matter, must be supplied by 
 manure. 
 
 An excess of vegetable matter is to be removed by burning, or to 
 be remedied by the application of earthy materials. The substances 
 necessary for improving soils, are seldom far distant. Coarse sand 
 is often found immediately upon chalk, and perhaps always under it, 
 while beds of sand and gravel are commonly below clay, and clay 
 and marl generally below sand. 
 
 The labour and expense of improving the texture or constitution 
 of the soil, it has been justly observed, are amply repaid by the great 
 permanent advantages they produce. Less manure is afterwards 
 required, the future fertility of the soil is ensured, and capital, thus, 
 expended, secures for ever the productiveness, and consequently the 
 value of the land. 
 
 Sect. III. — Subsoil. 
 
 The value of a soil depends much upon the nature of the 
 subsoil or under stratum. On various accounts its properties merit 
 particular attention. By examining the subsoil, information may be 
 obtained regarding the soil itself; for the materials of the latter, are 
 often similar to those which enter largely into the composition of the 
 former, though the substances in the soil are necessarily altered, by 
 various mixtures, in the course of cultivation. — The subsoil may be 
 of use to the soil, by supplying its deficiencies, and correcting its 
 defects. — The hazard and expense of cultivating the surface, are 
 often considerably augmented by defects in the under stratum, but 
 which, in some cases, may be remedied. 
 
 .Subsoils are, 1. Retentive; or, 2. Porous. 
 
ON SUBSOIL. 83 
 
 1. Retentive subsoils consist of clay, or marl, or of stone beds of 
 various kinds. 
 
 A retentive, clayey, or tilly subsoil, is highly injurious. The land 
 is soaked with water, is ploughed with difficulty, and is not in a 
 condition to exert its powers, until the cold sluggish moisture of the 
 winter be exhaled. By the water being retained in the upper soil, 
 the putrefactive process is of course interrupted, and manures are 
 prevented from operating. The plants likewise, from the roots 
 being chilled, can make but little progress. Hence, when grain is 
 cultivated, it is always of inferior quality, and the herbage, when in 
 grass is coarse. 
 
 A clayey subsoil, however, may sometimes be of material advan- 
 tage to a sandy soil, by retaining moisture in such a manner, as to 
 supply what is lost by evaporation, and the consumption of plants. 
 
 When soils are immediately situated upon a bed of impervious 
 rock or stone, they are much sooner rendered dry by evaporation, 
 than where the subsoil is clay or marl. A stony subsoil, when in a 
 position approaching to the horizontal, is, in general, prejudicial, 
 and if the surface soil be thin, usually occasions bareness ; unless the 
 rock should be limestone, and then the soil though thin, is distin- 
 guished for its fertility. 
 
 2- A porous subsoil, if not carried to an extreme, is uniformly of 
 great advantage, not only by its admitting the fibrous sorts of vege- 
 tables to extend deeper, in search of moisture and nutriment, but 
 also, from its carrying off all superfluous moisture, which is less 
 perfectly done artificially, by the expensive operation of hollow- 
 draining. 
 
 Below clay and all the variety of loams, an open subsoil is par- 
 ticularly desirable. It is favourable to all the operations of husban- 
 dry ;— it tends to correct the imperfections of too great a degree of 
 absorbent power in the soil above; — it promotes the beneficial 
 effects of manures ; — it contributes to the preservation and growth of 
 the seeds ; — and ensures the future prosperity of the plants. Hence 
 it is, that a thinner soil, with a favorable subsoil, will produce better 
 crops, than a more fertile one, incumbent on wet clay, or cold and 
 non-absorbent rock. 
 
 Lands whose substratum consists of clean gravel or other siliceous 
 earths, can bear but little sun, owing to their not having a capacity of 
 retaining moisture, and their generally possessing but only a shallow 
 surface of vegetable mould. In England, this soil was formerly 
 called rye-land, being more generally cropt with that species of grain, 
 than any other. Such soils should be ploughed deeper than they 
 usually are, and if cultivated for barley, it should be sown early and 
 t kicky and the seed soaked for forty-eight hours previously in water, 
 or still better, in the exudation from a dung heap. Thus its 
 simultaneous germination, and ripening at the same time, will 
 he secured. 
 
84 CULTIVATING AND IMPROVING WASTES. 
 
 Rules to be observed regarding the Improvement of Waste 
 Lands. 
 
 In the culiivation of wastes, the following rules are laid down by 
 the most successful improvers. 
 
 1. Not to put in practice any scheme of improvement, without 
 the fullest deliberation, nor without the command of an adequate 
 capital. 
 
 2. Not to begin on too great a scale, nor until, by experience it 
 be found, that the design is suitable to the soil, situation and 
 climate. 
 
 3. When the intention is to cultivate peat-moss, not to begin 
 cropping, till at least one season after the drains are completed, and 
 the soil thoroughly reclaimed from superfluous moisture. In flow or 
 spongy mosses, a longer time is necessary, and it is desirable to 
 expose the soil to the action of the atmosphere, during the frosts of 
 winter. 
 
 4. To plough or delve peat-moss in autumn, that it may be effec- 
 tually exposed to the winter frost and rains, and not to the summer's 
 heat, which hardans it, and prevents its decomposition. 
 
 5. Whatever is done, to do it effectually ; not to think of laying 
 on four acres, the manure necessary for three ; nor the lime, chalk, 
 earth, clay, sand or gravel, upon two acres, that should be employed 
 in covering only one. 
 
 6. To carry on the improvement of waste lands, without en- 
 croaching upon the dung necessary for the improved part of a farm, 
 as dung ought never to be brought from a good soil, to lay upon a 
 bad one. Unless dung therefore can be procured from a neighbour- 
 ing town or village, it will be better to leave the lands in their natural 
 state, except in cases where the soil, by being pared, burnt, limed, 
 or marled, or covered with chalk, clay, earth, &c. will pay the 
 expense of the improvement. 
 
 7. The last rule is, to lay down land, improved from waste, more 
 especially in high and bleak situations, as soon as possible into 
 grass, and to retain it in that state as long as it is tolebrably produc- 
 tive. For though grain and roots may be cultivated on waste lands, 
 when properly improved, yet grass pastured, particularly by sheep, 
 is principally to be depended on for improving all weak soils, in 
 barren districts. In such cases, it is from grass alone that remune- 
 ration can be looked for by the improver of waste land. Even 
 though soils of this description do not produce grass in much abun- 
 dance, or of good quality, yet when in pasture they produce some- 
 thing, and a stop is put to father expenditure. 
 
ON DRAININ©. 85 
 
 Sect. II. — Advantages of Draining. 
 
 The benefit of draining is experienced, 1. In arable land ; 2. In 
 grass; 3. In woods and plantations ; 4. In the improvements of 
 wastes ; 5. In the climate ; and, 6. In various miscellaneous 
 particulars. 
 
 1. Arable Land. — While land remains in a wet state, the manure 
 laid upon it, is, comparatively speaking, of little use; — the seed 
 sown often perishes ; — the crops are sickly, and later of ripening; — 
 and the operations of harvest are attended with uncertainty and 
 danger; whereas, when land is thoroughly drained, it can be plough- 
 ed at any season with advantage, — it is easily managed, and kept 
 clean at a moderate expense, — every exertion of good husbandry is 
 attended with success, — it suffers less from the inclemency of the 
 seasons, — the produce is generally ample, — the quality of the grain 
 is excellent, — and the farmer will thrive, where his predecessor, 
 cultivated a wet and undrained soil, was impoverished, or perhaps 
 totally ruined. 
 
 2. Grass Land. — The beneficial effects of draining on grass land 
 are also very great. Rushes and other aquatic plants soon disap- 
 pear ; — the finer grasses rise in abundance ; — the pastures maintain 
 a greater number of cattle and sheep ; — the stock becomes superior 
 in size and quality, and less subject to disease ; — that destructive 
 malady, the rot, so fatal to sheep, is prevented ; — and if the land be 
 mown, the hay produced, is so much improved in quality, as to be 
 doubly valuable. 
 
 3. Woods and Plantations. — Draining is likewise an improve- 
 ment of the most essential consequences to plantations, where they 
 do not consist of aquatic trees. Land intended for planting forest 
 trees, if wet, particularly requires draining; for the roots of trees, 
 penetrating deeper than those of any other plants, the necessity of 
 removing the under, as well as the surface water, is evident. Where 
 this has been attended to, the plantations thrive, and the trees grow 
 to a considerable size, much faster than oan otherwise be expected. 
 
 4. Improvement of Wastes. — The improvement of wet moors, 
 must be preceded by draining, stagnant water being injurious to all 
 the valuable classes of plants. Care in particular should be taken, 
 to render the land dry, before the application of lime, dung, or 
 compost, otherwise the attempt will be ineffectual. At present^ 
 commons lying waste, are, in respect of drainage, in a most wretched 
 state. The soil, in the first instance, absorbs as much water as it 
 can contain, and the surplus water remains on the surface, in a stag- 
 nant state, highly injurious to the healthiness of the neighborhood. 
 
 5. Melioration of Climate. — By the removal of stagnant water, 
 and the prevention of noxious exhalations, the climate is rendered 
 more healthy and genial, both to animal and vegetable life. Indeed, 
 since the introduction of draining into this country, agues, and other 
 similar distempers, occasioned by the humidity of the soil, and the 
 consequent impurity of the atmosphere, have been prevented, in a 
 
86 ON DRAINING. 
 
 great measure, and the general health of the inhabitants has been 
 greatly improved. 1'vfuch water is discharged into the atmosphere, 
 by spouty land, through the aquatic plants and coarse herbage which 
 it carries; and it is a curious and important circumstance; in an 
 experiment recorded, that while the air immediately above a wet 
 soil, was only 57° of Farenheit, the dry part of the same field, and 
 of a similar soil, was about 100°. 
 
 6. Miscellaneous Advantages. — The drainage of one tract of 
 land, may likewise furnish water by which the accommodation of 
 another may be promoted for various useful purposes, as, for irriga- 
 tion ; — for mills, and other machinery ; — for supplying houses, ponds, 
 inclosures, canals, or artificial navigations. By peculiar modes of 
 applying the arts of draining also, the quantity of water found in 
 mines and quarries, may be diminished, either by cutting ofT the 
 resources above, or by letting down that which often impedes their 
 working, into a porous stratum below. 
 
 On the whole, there is no means by which the value of land can 
 be advanced, or from which, when usefully applied, so many advan- 
 tages can be derived at a moderate expense, as that of draining. 
 The owner is benefited by an increase of rent; the occupier by that 
 of produce ; and the public, by being thus supplied with greater 
 quantities of the most essential commodities, and by having a source 
 of useful employment furnished to the laboring classes of community. 
 Unfortunately, both in England and Scotland, the greater part of the 
 counties stand more in need of draining than of manuring; and 
 there are very few districts where a knowledge of this essential 
 means of improvement, is so general or so perfect, as it ought 
 to be.* 
 
 * There is, probably, no agricultural process, which has been the subject of 
 more injudicious remark, among 1 the people of this country, than that of 
 draining. An undue importance has been attached to it on the one hand, 
 while no importance at all has been given to it on the other. In a country 
 like America, where labor is scarce and dear, and lands are plenty and com- 
 paratively cheap, the truth would seem to lie between these extremes. Labor 
 with us is a given quantity, and very limited, too, in its amount. The great 
 question among us ought, therefore, to be, how this given quantity of labor can 
 be most economically and profitably employed. If the amount of labor at our 
 command will afford us a greater return of profit, if expended on our dry, 
 than it would on our wet lands, then certainly every principle of economy 
 would require us to put it on the former, rather than the latter. If the return 
 would be equal, then, other circumstances, besides mere profit, musf determine 
 us what course to take. Now it is an unquestionable fact, that we have not a 
 sufficiency of labor to cultivate our dry lands to the greatest advantage; and 
 it is another unquestionable fact, that the same expense, generally speaking, 
 put upon our dry, or up-iands, will afford a greater return of profit, than if put 
 upon our wet lands. If so, the conclusion is irresistible, that we ought, with 
 our present supply of labor, to cultivate our dry lands, to the neglect of our 
 wet, rather than our wet lands, to the neglect of our dry, nor is the conclusion 
 less irresistible, that we cannot cultivate oui wet lands, unless we do at the 
 same time neglect our dry lands. 
 
 Although the question of draining on an extensive scale, would thus appear 
 to be conclusively settled, it by no means follows, that draining can in no case. 
 be attempted with advantage. It may often happen, and actually does happen, 
 that the sitation, and other circumstances of a piece of low, wet ground, are 
 such as would justify an attempt to drain it, even on a most rigid adherence to 
 
ON DRAINING. 87 
 
 2. On the Causes of Wetness in Land. 
 
 To proceed with any prospect of success in the art of draining, 
 it is necessary to ascertain the causes which produce wetness in 
 
 the principles just laid down. It may be in the vicinity of a large town, where 
 the value of land is so great, that the expense of draining would be amply 
 reimbursed. It may be situated near one's house, or barn, where the compa- 
 rative value of land is much enhanced by that particular fact, and the land 
 would, if reclaimed, be of more advantage to the proprietor, than other land 
 purchased and improved with the same cost. It may be so situated as to be 
 not only useless, but a nuisance, the removal of which might be necessary to 
 the due cultivation of adjoining lands, or the profitable enjoyment of other 
 privileges. But the making of such lands more productive, is not always the 
 only motive which would justify the draining of them. A regard to health, 
 mere convenience, and decent appearance, will sometimes require, that the 
 process be undertaken. As it respects the first, if it do but clearly appear 
 that the draining of such lands will contribute to its preservation, there surely 
 can be no question as to the expediency of the measures. As it respects con- 
 venience, of that every one must be his own judge, whether the convenience 
 will equal the expense in a particular case, or not. All that needs to be here 
 said of that, is, cases do often occur in which draining is of very great impor- 
 tance in that respect. With regard to decency of appearance, it may be 
 observed, that on almost every farm of any considerable size, there are found 
 detached pieces of wet, boggy, pouchy land, inconsiderable perhaps in extent, 
 but which are an incumbrance in the way of improving the adjoining land, 
 and greatly disfigure the gene> al appearance of the farm. — It may be asked 
 here, what if the farm is disfigured ; is appearance profit ? It sometimes 
 certainly is, it is always worth something ; and though like other things of value 
 it may be purchased at too dear a rate, it does not follow that it is always 
 so acquired. One thing is clear, account for it as we will, a slovenly farmer 
 is seldom a thrifty one, and a nice, neat, and tidy farmer is seldom an un- 
 thrifty one. 
 
 Let it be taken, then, for granted, that draining, on a limited scale, may 
 be attempted to advantage in this country : the question occurs, what is 
 the best mode of doing it? — The author of the Code of Agriculture, has 
 treated of two kinds of drains, the open and the covered. It is believed, 
 that in this country, where the expense of making them would be so great, 
 and where land is so plenty, the saving of ground by means of covering 
 the drains, cannot, in general practice, be any object. Nor does it appear 
 that any advantage is derived from such drains, on account of their accom- 
 plishing the main object more effectually. No further remarks, therefore, 
 will here be made respecting drains of that description : but what is said, 
 will be confined to open drains, as it respects their size, and the manner of 
 making them. 
 
 Our drains are almost universally made both too narrow and too shallow. 
 By being norrow, frosts, and the. treading of cattle, soon fill them up, and the 
 expense of making them is thus thrown away. This evil is increased by 
 leaving the earth, which is trown out in making them, on their sides. This 
 earth, by lying near the margin of the drain, causes that side on which it is 
 placed, to fall in the sooner and then follows it itself. In this way all the 
 earth which was taken out, is replaced, and the land reduced to its original 
 state. If the drain is small, a moderate quantity of earth, grass, or other 
 matter easily clogs it, and obstructs the passage of the water. Whereas if it 
 be large, exactly the reverse takes place. If the drain is wide, and the eartb 
 taken from it is removed to a distance, neither cattle nor frost can fill it up ; 
 but in spite of the trampling of the one, and the heaving of the other, a hollow 
 must still remain. 
 
 But drains ought to be deep, as well as wide. Besides the increase of 
 rapacity which additional depth gives them, there are other advantages 
 
o5 ON DRAINING. 
 
 land, and the different appearances which, according to soil and 
 situation, it assumes. The causes are, 1. Surface-water; 2 Soils 
 absorbing and retaining a superabundant quantity of moisture, 
 either from their own texture, or the quality of their subsoils ; 3. 
 Land springs from surface-water ; 4. Springs from subjacent water; 
 and, 5. Back-water from ditches or ponds. 
 
 resulting from the same source. Not only is the under stratum of water if 
 there be one, in that case carried off, but more of the surface water, even 
 where that is the sole cause of wetness, is removed by a deep, than by a 
 shallow drain. A drain both wide and deep, even in a piece of ground where 
 there is no outlet for the water to pass off, may oftentimes leave the surface 
 dry, and that too, where there is no perforation made into a dry stratum 
 beneath. 
 
 / \~ 
 
 In the first place let a, a, represent the surface of a wet tract of ground 
 which it is proposed to drain. Suppose that there is an outlet for the water 
 to pass through down some declivity, and that the earth is completely saturated 
 with water. Let A, represent a transverse section of a drain, cut in this piece 
 of ground. By means of this drain, we will suppose that the upper stratum 
 of earth will be left dry, down to b, and that the water rises in the drain no 
 higher than e. Now if the drain be cut deeper still, say down to d, it is 
 evident that the water will not then rise so high in the drain as before; that is, 
 while the general wetness of the land remains the same. Let it rise to /. 
 It is evident from bare inspection, that now, since the water in the whole drain, 
 a, e,f,d, is down to/, a greater depth of earth from the surface downward, 
 say to c, must be left dry, than when the water stood at e. — Thus far we have 
 supposed that the water in the drain runs off through some outlet. But 
 suppose that there is no outlet, and that a piece of Wet pouchy land not 
 covered with standing water, is surrounded by other land higher than itself 
 Let a, be a drain cut in it. As soon as the earth which filled the space now 
 occvipied by the drain is removed, the water will ooze into it from the ad- 
 joining strata of earth, a, b, c; and as the water has now a greater space to 
 fill, it must of course sink below the surface a, and leave a portion of it dry. 
 The more the capacity of the drain is increased, the more this effect will 
 take place. If the drain is cut down into a hard stratum of earth not per- 
 vious to water, the effect will be greater still, because in that case no water 
 oozes from the sices of this stratum to help fill the drain, but the drain is 
 filled only by the water which lies above such stratum. — We often meet with 
 land of the last description, wet and pouchy, but on which no water ever rises 
 above the surface, uidess in peculiarly wet seasons. A drain cut wide and deep 
 in such land, might sometimes answer a good purpose, on the principles last 
 mentioned. If the earth taken from the drain should be spread upon the land, 
 the latter would thereby be raised, and perhaps otherwise improved. The loss 
 *f land which the drain would occasion, would be more than made up by the 
 knperior quality which the remain <>r would require. 
 
 The most expeditious, effectual aid economical mode of making a drain, 
 would undoubtedly be to use oxen and a scraper, or ox-shovel, as it is some 
 times called: an instrument well known in this country, in the making of 
 
ON DRAINING. 89 
 
 1. Surface-water. — On clay soils, wetness is commonly produced 
 'fey surface-water. These soils are of different kinds, varying both 
 in their color and texture; but they all possess, in a greater or smaller 
 degree, those adhesive qualities, which retain the water that falls upon 
 the surface, until it is either drawn off by art, or exhaled by the sun 
 and the atmosphere. Such soils, therefore, require the aid both 
 
 roads. In some cases this mode might not answer, as in very miry grounds, 
 and lands just cleared of* timber. But where lands are very miry, if the 
 process is begun at the outlet for the water, and there indeed, it ought alw lys 
 to be begun, the next adjoining portion will generally be made so dry, as to 
 allow being trod upon in a proper season; and in this way a drain may by 
 degrees, be carried on towards the centre. In nineteen cases out of twenty, 
 drains may probably be effected in this mode. Where the ground will admit 
 of it, two men, a boy, and two yoke of oxen, will accomplish more business 
 of this sort in a day, than half a dozen men in the same time, with only shapes 
 and shovels. Whenever the labor of cattle can be substituted, in this country, 
 for human labor, policy requires it to be done. Such a substitution is 
 certainly practicable in the present case, and merits consideration. The 
 surface of wet and miry lands is usually full of inequnlities; if a scraper is 
 employed in draining them, the earth taken from the drain is easily landed 
 in any hollow spot which needs to be filled; and if there are no such hollows, 
 or they have already been filled, the earth may be spread over the surface in 
 such a manner as to do the most good. If the earth is not wanted for other 
 purposes, it is recommended to drop and spread it, if practicable, in such a 
 manner as to leave the general surface of the land sloping towards the drain, 
 that the water may the more readily incline towards it and pass off. At some 
 distance below the surface in peat grounds, there is usually found a hard 
 stratum of earth, called in the common language of our farmers, hard-pan. 
 This hard-pan if ploughed into, scraped out, and spread on the surface, 
 would greatly improve the texture of such soils. This furnishes another 
 argument in favor of using a scraper in draining, for in no other way can the 
 upper earth taken out of the drains, be so cheaply removed, and put on the 
 adjoining grounds: nor in any other way can the hard-pan be so easily 
 broken up and carried off, nor in any other way, oftentimes, can suitable, 
 earth be so well obtained for the purpose of spreading it over the surface, 
 with a view to improve the texture of the soil. If the object be to pile the 
 earth from the drains into heaps with a view to composts, this purpose i§ 
 completely accomplished by means of the scraper. 
 
 When peat-grounds are drained, as a general rule it will be found best to 
 keep them for a considerable time afterwards in pasture. If well pastured, 
 the coarse natural grasses are kept back, and better ones take their place.. 
 White clover, in particular, seems to delight in such soils, when treated in this; 
 manner. But another important advantage is derived from pasturing. The 
 trampling of the cattle serves to destroy the bogs which usually deform such 
 grounds, and to give consistence and compactness to the soil. This last is a 
 very important consideration, for one of the greatest defects of such soils is, 
 their extreme porosity and lightness. Where the soil consists almost entirely 
 of peaty matter, with little or no mixture of real earth, and extends to a 
 considerable depth, it ought seldom or never to be ploughed for the purpose of 
 tillage. It is labor and expense absolutely trown away, to attempt the tillage 
 of such a soil, until a portion of loam or other earth has been incorporated 
 with it. It is of little value even for pasture, until the process of draining it, 
 and the treading of the animals kept on it, have increased its compactness: 
 then indeed, it becomes, if sufficiently dry, of real value, and no kind of 
 land, perhaps, will yield to it in productiveness of summer feed. But 
 ploughing alone undoes what has thus been gained, and increases, rather 
 than diminishes, its natural porosity. Such lands may be made capable of 
 tillage by the addition of earthy matter, and the more compact that matter 
 the better. Yet after all the expense of carting such earthy matter, especially 
 if from a distance, will be so great as will seldom justify a resort so this mode 
 of improvement, in the present situation of this country; The time may 
 
 12 
 
9D »N DRAINING. 
 
 of surface and of under drains, to relieve them from superabundant 
 moisture. 
 
 2. Absorbing soils. — Loamy soils absorb water freely, and swell 
 with it. They usually retain, however, a greater quantity than is 
 necessary. This is particularly the case, when they have a strong 
 and impervious subsoil, through which no water can penetrate. As 
 this surplus quantity is highly injurious to vegetation, it ought to be 
 got rid of. Sandy soils, on a retentive bottom, also require draining, 
 the water as it cannot descend lower, being lodged in the upper 
 stratum ; but there is seldom a necessity to go deeper than a few- 
 inches, into the clay, on which the upper soil is incumbent. 
 
 3. Land Springs. — In many cases, soils are greatly intermixed, 
 and changes of sand and clay, or substances that are porous and 
 retentive, will be found in the same field. Draining, in such cases, 
 is attended with more difficulty, and requires more skill, than where 
 the surface, and internal strata are thick, and regularly disposed. 
 The means by which this can be best effected at a moderate expense, 
 is to ascertain the quality of the soil by examining its produce. The 
 porous soils collect reservoirs of water, which augment in times of 
 rain, to the full level of the surrounding clay, from which it bursts 
 out, and forms a kind of temporary spring, which renders the land 
 over which it flows, wet, and unproductive. It then perhaps is 
 absorbed by another porous stratum, and produces similar effects. 
 Formerly, this mischief was endeavored to be remedied by small 
 drains, made over the whole field, which seemed thus to be eqally 
 effected; but by cutting a trench, from the nearest and lowest part of 
 the field to be drained, up to the highest and most distant sand-bank, 
 in such a direction, as to psss through the intermediate sand-beds, 
 the soil is radically cured. Besides these main drains, however^ 
 side-cuts are often necessary. 
 
 4. Springs from subjacent Water. — A knowledge of the causes, 
 and the nature of springs, arising from subjacent water, is so closely 
 connected with the principles of draining, that it is necessary to 
 explain it at more length. The earth is known to be composed of 
 various strata, which, being in their nature and quality of opposite 
 consistence, have acquired the distinguishing names of porous and 
 impervious. Sand, gravel, calcarous earths, and various kinds of 
 rock, the parts of which are separted by frequent clinks and fissures, 
 are denominated porous soils; — clay, shale, till, and certain kinds 
 
 arrive when it may be done with profit; and in particular cases, it may be 
 attempted now; but as a general rule, it will be found for a good while to 
 come, that to pasture is the best mode of treating our peat lands, where the 
 peat is deeper than the reach of the plough.* Further reasons might be 
 given for this opinion ; but this is not the place for a minute inquiry into the 
 subject. Although it may not be proper to bring lands of this description 
 into tillage, it may nevertheless, be sometimes advantageous to drain them 
 with a view to pasture solely. Such pastures are often very productive ; 
 cattle are fond of feeding on the grasses which they produce, and will often 
 give them the preference to those which grow on uplands, even when the 
 latter are of the best artificial kinds. 
 
 Amer. Ed 
 *It may sometimes answer to mow them. 
 
ON MANURES. 91 
 
 of gravel, with a mixture of argillaceous and cementing particles in 
 their composition, and rocks of a solid and compact nature, and 
 without fissures, are the principal strata that resists the admission of 
 water, and are thence termed impervious. It is evident, therefore, 
 that springs must originate from water falling, either in the shape of 
 rain, or dew, or the melting of snow and hail, upon such porous and 
 absorbent bodies; and that the water subsiding downwards, until it 
 is obstructed in its passage by these impenetrable substances, there 
 forms reservoirs of considerable magnitude, which afterwards 
 burst forth in all those different appearances which are met with. 
 Thus springs are formed, the strength of which must depend upon 
 the extent of high ground which receives and retains the rain-water, 
 the size of the reservoirs, and the supply they furnish. 
 
 5. Back-water. — A frequent cause of wetness is, the stagnation of 
 water in the ditches that surround fields, particularly such as lie in 
 the upper side of the enclosure, where the water, being confined, 
 finds its way downwards into the open parts of the subsoil, and oozes 
 out to the surface, forming in wet weather, all the appearances of, 
 and producing nearly the same effect as, a natural spring. Water 
 conveyed in a drain, or small stream for mills, or confined in a 
 mill-dam, or pond, has often the same effect. Where this happens 
 in drains, the stagnant water should be removed, by giving more 
 depth or declivity, to the ditch in which it lies. Where a dam 
 occasions the mischief, a cut should be made on its lower side, to 
 intercept any water that may ooze through it. Old marl pits fall of 
 water, and cattle-ponds improperly constructed, sometimes occasion 
 this sort of mischief. 
 
 2. Calcareous Manures. 
 
 1. Advantages of Lime. — Though there are exceptions to the 
 rule, yet in general, it may be confidently asserted, that unless where 
 a soil has by nature, enough of calcareous matter in its composition, 
 for the purposes of vegetation, it can neither be brought into its .most 
 fertile state, nor will other measures be so useful as they ought, if 
 lime, or some other calcareous earth, be not previously applied. By 
 lime spread upon a moory soil, good herbage is produced, where 
 nothing but heath, and unpalatable grasses grew before. By the same 
 means, grass lands, instead of yielding nothing but bent, and other 
 inferior grasses, have been covered with those of a more valuable 
 description. The utility of lime to turnips is so great, that though 
 in the same field, where no lime had been applied, the crop died 
 away ; yet in the limed part, the turnips flourished with unabated 
 vigour. On the Mendip lands in Somerset, by the application of 
 
yz ON MANURES. 
 
 lime, the value of land was raised, from 4s. to 30s. per acre ; and 
 dutfg, which previous to liming, had no sensible effect, operated, 
 near its application, as on other lands. Macclesfield forest in 
 Cheshire, and vast tracts in the northern and more elevated parts of 
 Derbyshire, and the adjacent districts, have been astonishingly 
 improved by the same means. The rye lands of Herefordshire, m 
 1636, refused to produce wheat, peas, or vetches; but since the 
 introduction of lime they have been so fertilized, as to be successfully 
 applied to the growth of every species of corn. In maiden soils of 
 a tolerable quality, the richest manure, will not enable them to bring 
 any crops, but those of oats or rye, to maturity ; whereas if they 
 receive a sufficient quantity of lime, crops of peas, barley, or wheat, 
 may be raised to advantage. The benefit resulting from the use of 
 •lime, has been indisputable proved in the same farm, for the richer 
 parts that were left unlimed, were uniformly inferior in produce, 
 to the poorer that had been limed, during a period of not less than 
 twenty-one years, under the same course of management. 
 
 2. The principles on which Lime operates as a, Manure. — Quick- 
 lime in powder, or dissolved in water, is injurious to plants ; hence 
 grass, watered with lime water, is destroyed. But lime freshly burnt, 
 or slacked, fotms a compost of vegetable matter, which is soluble in 
 water, and nutritive to plants. Mild lime, (as chalk, or quick-lime 
 again impregnated with carbonic acid,) chiefly operates, by impro- 
 ving the texture of the soil, and its relation to absorption. 
 
 3. The various sorts of Limestone. — Sometimes limestone is 
 almost perfectly pure, as is the case with marble, which frequently 
 contains scarcely any other substance but calcareous matter. Several 
 sorts of limestone, however, have mixtures of clay and sand, in 
 various proportions, by which the efficacy of the manure, in propor- 
 tion to the quantity of these substances, is considerably diminished. 
 It is necessary, therefore, to analyze limestone, to ascertain the 
 proportion of pure lime, before it is advisable to use so expensive an 
 article in great quantities, more especially if it must be conveyed 
 from a distance. Bituminous limestone makes good manure. But 
 the magnesian is the species which requires the greatest attention. 
 Limestone sometimes contains from 23*3 to 23*5 of magnesia, in 
 which case it would be injurious to weak soils, to apply more than 
 from 25 to 30 bushels per statute acre, though in rich soils, double 
 that quantity may be used, and still more with peat, on which soil 
 it would have a most powerful effect in producing fertility. 
 
 4. 'Mode of preparing it for Use. — Limestone is burnt in kilns 
 of various constructions. It is applied with advantage to soils 
 recently reclaimed, in a caustic state ; but is generally slacked, by 
 throwing water upon the lumps, until they crack and swell, and fall 
 down into a fine powder. This operation when it is to be done, 
 should not be delayed, for, if properly burnt, calcined lime is easily 
 reduced into a fine powder, which may not be the case, if the slacking 
 be postposed. If water cannot easily be obtained, the lumps may 
 either be divided into small heaps, and covered with earth, by the 
 moisture of which they are soon pulverized, or they may be made 
 into large heaps, the lumps and earth in alternate strata, the lumps 
 
ON MANURES. - 93 
 
 tour inches, and the earth six inches thick, and the whole covered 
 with earth. Where it can easily be had, it is a great advantage, to 
 slack the calcined limestone for manure, with sea-water, or urine. 
 When applied to land in a. powdery state, lime tends to bring any 
 hard vegetable matter that the soil contains, into a more rapid 
 state of decomposition and solution, so as to render it a proper food 
 for plants. 
 
 5. Application. — Summer is the proper season for liming land. 
 That experienced farmer, Mr. Rennie of Phantassie, is of opinion, 
 that the most profitable period for applying lime is, when the land is 
 under summer fallow in the months of June and July, that it may 
 be completely mixed with the soil before the crop is sown. This is 
 also the general practice in other districts. For a turnip crop, it 
 should be laid on early in the spring, before the turnips are drilled, 
 in order that the lime may be thoroughly incorporated with the soil, 
 by the ploughings and harrowings it will receive; the land will thus 
 have time to cool, and the lin e will not dry up the moisture necessary 
 for bringing the turnips into leaf. For potatoes, lime is not to be 
 recommended, as it is apt to burn and blister their skins. When 
 applied to old ley, it is a good practice, to spread it on the surface, 
 previously to the land being broken up, by which it is fixed firmly on 
 the sward. One year has been found of use, but when clone three 
 years before, it has produced still greater advantages; in the former 
 case, the increase of oats, being only at the rate of 6 to 1 , and in 
 the latter, that of 10 to 1, of the seed sown. The quantity applied 
 must vary according to the soil From 240 to 300 bushels, of 
 unslacked lime, may be applied on strong lands with advantage. 
 Even 600 bushels have been laid on at once on strong clays with 
 great success., On light soils, a much smaller quantity will answer, 
 say from 150 to 200 bushels, but these small doses ought to be more 
 frequntly repeated. When applied on the surface of bogs or moors, 
 the quantity used is very considerable, and the'more that is laid on, 
 the greater the improvement. The real quantity, however, of cal- 
 careous matter used, depends upon the quality of the stone. It often 
 happens, that five chaldrons do not furnish more effective manure 
 than three, because they do not contain three-fifts of calcareous 
 matter. 
 
 6. Effects of Lime. — Many farmers have subjected themselves to 
 an expense, at the rate of ten shillings per acre per annum, for the 
 lime they used, and have been amply remunerated. The benefit 
 derived from the cultivation of green crops, is sufficient for that 
 purpose. Such crops may be raised by large quantities of dung; 
 but where calcareous substances are applied, it is proved by long 
 experience, that a less quantity of animal and vegetable manure will 
 answer the purpose. This is making the farm-yard dung go farther, 
 with more powerful, and more permanent effects ; and, from the 
 weightier crops thus raised, the quantity of manure on a farm, will 
 be most materially augmented. Indeed, upon land in a proper state 
 for calcareous application, (as old ley,) lime is much superior to 
 dung. Its effects continue for a longer period, while the crops 
 produced are of a superior quality, and less susceptible of injury, 
 
94 
 
 ON MANURES. 
 
 from the excesses of drought and moisture. The ground likewise, 
 more especially if it be of a strong nature, is much more easily 
 wrought; and in some instances, the saving of labor alone, would 
 be sufficient to induce a farmer to lime his land, were no greater 
 benefit derived from the application, than the opportunity thereby 
 gained, of working it in a more perfect manner. 
 
 7. Rules for the Management of Lime. — 1. It is necessary to 
 ascertain the quality of the soil to which lime is proposed to be 
 applied; and whether it has formerly been limed, and to what extent. 
 In general it may be observed, that strong loams and stubborn clays, 
 require a full dose of lime to bring them into action, as such soils are 
 capable of absorbing a great quantity of calcareous matter. Lighter 
 soils, however, require less lime to stimulate them; and may be in- 
 jured, by administering a quantity of lime, recently calcined, that 
 would prove moderately beneficial to those of a heavy nature. 2. 
 As the effects of lime greatly depend on its intimate admixture with 
 the surface soils, it is expedient to have it in a powdered state before 
 it is applied, and the drier and the more perfectly powdered, the 
 better. 3. Lime having a tendency to sink in the soil, it cannot be 
 ploughed in with too shallow a furrow or kept too near the surface. 
 4. Lime ought not to be applied, a second time, to weak or poor 
 soils, unless mixed with a compost ; after which the land should be 
 immediately laid down to grass. 
 
 2. Pounded Limestone. — This substance differs from calcined 
 lime in containing fixed air, or carbonic acid, and likewise as being 
 insoluble in water. Machines were erected in Scotland, for pounding 
 limestone, many years ago, but unfortunately, were destroyed, before 
 the experiment had been fairly tried. There is evidence, that it was 
 attended with success, so far as the experiment had gone. The 
 practice might certainly be of use in districts where fuel is scarce. 
 The scrapings or dust of rods, made with limestone, which is in 
 fact pounded limestone, has been used with advantage as a manure, 
 in Gloucestershire and other districts, and ought never to be 
 neglected. 
 
 3. Limestone Gravel. — This is said to be an excellent manure for 
 peat-bogs, its great weight giving the pressure so much wanted. It 
 is of immense benefit to Ireland, and may probably be found in 
 ether parts of the United kingdom if diligently searched for. 
 
 3. Composts. 
 
 The utility of composts has been proved by the experience of 
 numbers, in various districts. The subject may be considered under 
 the following heads: 1. The materials used ; 2. The soils or crops 
 to which it should be applied; and, 3. The effects produced. 
 
 1. Materials. — Unslacked lime, and earth of different sorts, are 
 the substances commonly used. Quicklime is the proper stimulus 
 for bringing the powers of a compost into action; operating upon a 
 heap of earth in some degree as yeast does upon a quantity of flour 
 or meal. Enough ought to be applied, to excite a species of fermen- 
 
ON MANURES. 95 
 
 tation in the heap, and to neutralize any pernicious mineral substan- 
 ces which may exist in it. 
 
 The formation and conveyance of compost being attended with 
 much expense, where circumstances will admit of it, horses, instead 
 of manual labor, ought to be employed in the process of preparation, 
 and the compost should be prepared in the field to which it is after- 
 wards to be applied. 
 
 It has been ascertained by a number of experiments, that two 
 bushels of unslacked lime, are sufficient for each cubic yard of earth 
 of a medium quality, and as 80 cubic yards of earth are sufficient 
 to manure an acre, 1(50 bushels of unslacked lime is the quantity re- 
 quired. To obtain this quantity of earth, it is the practice of some 
 farmers to plough the head-ridges at both ends of the field, ten 
 inches deep, and to collect one half of this, which can be often 
 spared, without any loss, as the head-ridges are generally too high, 
 in consequence of the earth accumulated in the course of years ? 
 from the plough being cleared every time it turns. It has been 
 calculated, that where a head-ridge is 18 feet broad, 72 feet of it in 
 length, ploughed ten inches deep, will produce 40 cubic yards of 
 earth, and consequently the two head-ridges will produce 80 cubic 
 yards of compost for the field to be manured. 
 
 Composts are frequently made of various materials, as several 
 sorts of earth, lime, old mortar and plaster, green vegetables, before 
 they run to seed, soft chalk, tanners' bark, sawdust, soap-ashes, 
 dung, &c. It is recommended, that instead of being laid in regular 
 layers, they should be mixed as much as possible, in forming the 
 heap. A fermentation is soon excited, and the oftener the heap is 
 turned, so much the more will firmentation be promoted. 
 
 A mode of making compost was suggested by the late Lord 
 Meadowbank, of which peat is the basis. It was not unusual in 
 various parts of Scotland, to bed cattle, and even sheep, with peat, 
 for the purpose of increasing the quantity of manure ; but Lord 
 Meadowbank was the first individual in this country who investigated 
 the properties of that species of manure, and explained them on 
 scientific principles. The result is, that one ton of dung, wilt 
 ferment three tons of peat, or moss earth. This is a most valuable 
 discovery, and must, if duly attended to, greatly enrich many hitherto 
 neglected districts. The great advantage of this compost is, that it 
 has nothing but inert vegetable matter to act upon, whereas, when 
 lime is mixed with rich earth, it may have the effect of dissipating 
 the gasceous matters it contains, and of rendering it proportionably 
 less valuable. 
 
 2. Composts are peculiarly well calculated for grass-lands, and 
 ought to supersede the offensive, and wasteful practise, of laying 
 putrescent matter on the surface of the soil, by which a very large 
 proportion of its most valuable component parts, is lost in the atmos- 
 phere. They are likewise of great use to moorish lands, augmenting 
 their staple, and adding to them a number of valuable and enriching 
 substances. In regard to sandy or clayey soils, composts, principally 
 consisting of articles different from their general nature respectively, 
 will improve their texture, and convert them into loams. 
 
96 ON PARING AND BURNING. 
 
 3. The effects of composts are highly satisfactory. In regard to 
 grass-lands, experience has shown, that they at once improve their 
 quality, and check for years, the progress of moss, or even unprofita- 
 ble grasses. In thin moorish soils, composts properly and repeatedly 
 applied, alter the nature of the soil; it becomes more ferrile, retains 
 its moisture better, and does not suffer by the summer's drought, 
 which would otherwise burn up the crops. The effects of ihe 
 Meadowbank compost are still more extraordinary ; a farmer in 
 Roxburghshire, (Mr. Thompson, of Bewlie,) having raised as good 
 turnips, and as productive crops of wheat, after fallow, on good soils, 
 manured with this compost, as from dung. 
 
 It is a circumstance not to be omitted, that lime will operate in 
 compost, upon lands that had been exhausted by the over frequent, 
 or too abundant application of lime or marl, even where it had not 
 succeeded when used by itself. This is a strong recommendation 
 of such mixed manure, as land may thus be cultivated to advantage, 
 that would otherwise remain unproductive. 
 
 The perusal of this Section, must satisfy any one, of the endless 
 sources of fertility, which may be obtained by the active and indus- 
 trious farmer; and which, aided by judicious rotations of crops, can 
 hardly fail to preserve his fields in a constant state of increasing 
 productiveness. It were to be wished, however, that various doubt- 
 ful points, regarding the nature and effects of manures, and the 
 most advantageous modes of application, were ascertained by a 
 series of experiments, tried on different soils, in different climates, 
 and under different courses of crops. — Agriculture will never reach 
 that perfection and certainty, which it ought to attain, until that 
 measure be accomplished. 
 
 Sect. IV. — On Paring and Burning. 
 
 » 
 
 Paring the surface of the soil, and burning the sods or turf thus 
 obtained, is an operation in husbandry, highly advatageous, when 
 judiciously executed; though if the subsequent tillage and crops be 
 improper, the soil must necessarily be exhausted, and essentially 
 deteriorated. Hence it need not excite wonder, that the utility of 
 this practice has been much contested. The principles, however, 
 on which this improvement is adopted, are now in a great measure 
 ascertained. 
 
 In discussing this subject, it is proposed to consider, — The soils 
 which are calculated for this operation ; — The instruments used in 
 paring; — The depth of the turf or sod ; — The mode in which the 
 burning should be conducted; — The expense; — The season ; — The 
 nature of the ashes, and the snbstances mixed with them ; — Their, 
 
ON PARING AND BURNING. 97 
 
 Management ; — The crops which should immediately follow; — The 
 rotations to be afterwards adopted ; — The advantages of the prac- 
 tice ; — Its disadvantages ; — and, the result of the whole inquiry. 
 
 Soils. — Paring and burning are in general, considered to be 
 essential for the improvement of peat-mosses; — For unreclaimed 
 lands, with a sufficient depth of soil ; — Chalky downs; — Sainfoin 
 layers ; — and Old rough-swarded pastures. With regard to sandy 
 soils, and also those distinguished for their fertility, the practice is 
 not to be recommended, unless under peculiar circumstances. 
 
 Fens, and Peat-mosses — It is scarcely possible to improve fen 
 and peat soils from a state of nature, to that of profitable cultivation, 
 without the assistance of fire. The spontaneous growth is so 
 worthless, that it must be destroyed; and that is most readily and 
 effectually done by paring and burning, operations to which these 
 soils are peculiarly well calculated. The surface is easily pared ; — 
 the soil is more inflammable than any other ; — and the turf can be 
 converted into ashes at a moderate expense 
 
 Unreclauned hands. — Where the soil is in a wild uncultivated 
 state, and its vegetative powers in a great measure dormant aril in- 
 active they cannot be called into full action without some stimulus. 
 In that case, the ashes produced by sod-burning, with the aid of iiuie, 
 are generally necessary, and always effectual. Indeed where land, 
 covered with thick -turned coarse grass, is broken up and sown, 
 without having previously undergone this process, the old rubbish 
 carries most of the moisture from the seed, and proves a harbour for 
 grubs, slugs, and other vermin ; whereas when the turf is burnt, 
 these enemies to cultivation are destroyed ; — the causes of sterili/y 
 are removed, — and in tts stead, a fertilizing power is created, which, 
 ^thout the aid of this process, could not have been obtained. 
 
 It is remarked in a work distinguished for its ability, that the 
 difference between the two methods of breaking up rough ground, 
 (either paring and burning or ploughing merely,) is more than the 
 value of the freehold in favor of the former. The one opens an 
 immediate source of great profit ; whereas the other leads to 
 nothing but disapppointment and expense. 
 
 Advantages. — The benefits resulting from paring and burning, 
 are numerous, and important. 1. By this process, the various 
 tribes of grubs and insects, which lodge in the surface of the soil, 
 are destroyed. 2. By the same means, the seeds of many weeds 
 are consumed, by which the crops would otherwise have been 
 injured. 3. Not only are the stems and leaves of shrubs, furze, 
 heath, ferns, &c. destroyed, converted into charcoal, and thus pre- 
 pared for the food of plants, out by extirpating the old sickly roots, 
 room is left for others, younger and more vigorous. 4. The soil is 
 at once completely pulverized. 5. The texture of soils, in their 
 natural state, tough, tenacious, and unfit for corn crops, is improved, 
 and prepared for cultivation. 6. By paring and burning, manure 
 can be obtained at a trifling expense, at the commencement of the 
 improvement ; it is found on the spot, free from carriage, which in 
 some cases costs more than the manure itself : and a stock of manure 
 is thus provided, which, under judicious management, may serve 
 
 13 
 
98 ON PARING AND BURNING. 
 
 to keep the land in fertility, until it shall be brought into a regular 
 ctfurse of husbandry. These are important advantages, and he must 
 be a bad farmer, who cannot continue, for any length of time, land 
 so enriched, in a high state of productiveness. 7- Even the heat 
 communicated to the soil by burning, and the mixture of a substance 
 that has passed though fire, is found to be advantageous. 
 
 Disadvantages. — Among the objections to this practice it is 
 urged, that shallow soils are thus rendered shallower. But others 
 maintain, that the earthy parts of the soil, are neither consumed nor 
 diminished by burning : for though the bulk of the sod or turf be 
 diminished, this arises solely from the burning of the roots and 
 vegetable substances ; and that in regard to shallow soils, they are 
 more improved by the process, than any other ; for, when enriched 
 by this process, more subsoil can be safely incorporated with them. 
 It is likewise said, that as the animal and vegetable matters contained 
 in the turf are destroyed, the ashes cannot possess any properties of 
 a real fertilizing quality: but the great ciops produced by these 
 ashes, seem to refute that assertion. It is farther contended, that the 
 soil is thus deprived of its natural grasses ; but it is also thus deprived 
 of its natural weeds, which is a most material object. In regard to 
 grasses, the artificial ones thus raised, afford a much more abundant, 
 and valuable article of produce and fodder, than all the natural 
 grasses; which, on lands such as those usually pared and burnt, are 
 generally of the worst sorts. 
 
 Some persons have maintained, that it would be a better plan 
 to pare only, to cart the parings off the land, and to put them in 
 heaps, there to remain till the mass be reduced into mould ; when 
 these heaps should be re-carted and spread on the land from which 
 they came. This, however, is a laborious and expensive process, 
 which it would require a considerable period of time to perfect, and 
 which, after all, would be much less effectual than paring and 
 burning. 
 
 In regard to more general objections ; — that it dissipates what 
 ought to be retained; — annihilates oil and mucilage; — calcines 
 salts; — and reduces fertile organic matter, into ashes of very weak 
 efficacy ; — it may be answered, that they seem to be either un- 
 founded in fact, or that all these mischiefs are principally to be 
 attributed to the abuse of the system, and are by no means necessarily 
 connected with it, under judicious management. 
 
 The result. — By the process of paring and burning, a stiff, 
 damp, and consequently a cold soil, will be converted into one that 
 is friable, dry, and warm, and much more proper as a bed for vegeta- 
 tion. Though some animal or vegetable matter, or manure previ- 
 ously in the soil, may thus be destroyed, yet such temporary disad- 
 vantages are amply compensated, by the dung and urine of sheep 
 fed upon the land, as well as by the texture of the soil being perma- 
 nently improved. In regard to soils, in which there is an excess of 
 inert vegetable matter, the destruction of that excess must be benefi- 
 cial ; for the remainder will be rendered fitter for cultivated crops, 
 not only by the addition of calcareous earth, but by the carbonaceous 
 matter remaining in the ashes, which is likely to be much more useful, 
 than the coarse vegetable fiber from which it was produced-. 
 
tfN FLOODING LAND, 99 
 
 Sect. VIII. — On Flooding Land* 
 
 The mode of improvement by " Flooding" is, when the land is 
 overflowed or drowned by a quantity of water, from a stream or 
 lake; by means of which, (if it takes place in a favorable season,) 
 the future production of crops, both of grass and of grain, is promoted. 
 It differs completely from irrigation, in which the water ought con- - 
 stantly to be in a flowing state, whereas in the process of artificial 
 flooding, it is wholly, or nearly stagnant. 
 
 Along the margins of many of the rivers in England and Scot- 
 land, the meadows are thus improved. — When the floods take place 
 in winter, or spring, they produce the most fertilizing effects; but 
 these flat grounds, being rarely protected by embankments, they often 
 suffer severely from overflowings in summer and autumn. 
 
 The most striking instance known in Great Britain, of advantage 
 being derived from the inundations of a lake, is, that of Loch Ken, 
 in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright. At the head of that beautiful 
 piece of water, there is a flat of about 248 statute acres, which is 
 rendered, by flooding, one of the richest spots in Scotland. Many 
 acres in it produce at the rate of three tons of hay each, and some 
 parts of it, have been cropped with grain, for 25 years in succession, 
 without any manure, except what it receives from the inundations it 
 experiences. These, however, leave behind them, a variety of 
 enriching substances. 
 
 The advantages of flooding, in favorable circumstances, cannot 
 therefore be too highly appreciated ; and it evidently appears, that 
 water, in a stagnant state, may produce the most beneficial effects, 
 more especially where the surface is incumbent upon an open subsoil 
 er bottom. 
 
 From the advantageous consequences of flooding, when done by 
 nature, there was reason to imagine, that the same benefit would 
 result from it when artificially executed ; and this was formerly at- 
 tempted in various parts of the kingdom. Hence the obsolete 
 practice of floating upwards, as it was termed. For that purpose 
 the water was penned, in times of floods, by means of a dam or 
 floodgate across the bottom of the meadow, or flat to be watered. 
 The waters were not suffered to remain long upon the land, but 
 were let off, as soon as it was judged that they had dropped their 
 sediment. The benefit arising from this method of using flood 
 waters, it is said, was considerable ; but when the improved mode of 
 irrigation, by floating ridges, was introduced, and found more advan- 
 tageous, the other was discontinued. 
 
 Besides these meadows, mill-ponds thus fertilized, were rendered 
 dry, and cropped with oats ; artificial pieces of water, were likewise 
 rilled up, and became productive ; and by means of sluices, and 
 ether contrivances, bogs and lower greunds were thrown under 
 
100 0N FLOODING LAND. 
 
 water during the winter months, and greatly enriched, with produc- 
 tive vegetable earth, from the surface of the higher parts The 
 ■waters were let off in spring, and the ground was than ploughed and 
 sown. But, in consequence of the great humidity of the ><>il, the 
 crops were very late, and a wet summer, they were lodged and 
 spoiled. In dry seasons, however, and where proper attention was 
 paid to the draining and lidging of the soil, the returns were consi- 
 derable, and the land was enabled, without manure, to raise good 
 crops of grain. 
 
 In discussing this mode of reclaiming waste lands, it is proposed 
 to consider the following particulars : — The manner in which thc- 
 plan ought to be carried into effect ; — The mode in which the flooding 
 operates ; — The kinds of water calculated, or otherwise, for the 
 purpose ; — The seasons fittest for the operation ; — and, The advan- 
 tages and disadvantages attending it. 
 
 1. Manner of carrying the Plan into effect. — This plan of 
 improvement, is only calculated for tracts, where there is a command 
 of water, and an opportunity of stemming it up, so as to overflow 
 the whole surface. In n any places, there are such situations, in 
 particular all land-locked peat-mosses, that lie on a level lower than 
 the adjacent springs or rivers. In some districts 200, 300, and even 
 400 acres of mossy land, may be laid under water, by a single bank 
 at the outlet, which may be effected at a trifling expense. It is only 
 by shutting up such openings, and stemming the streams that flow 
 through them, that this mode of improvement can be artificially 
 accomplished. 
 
 2. Mode in which the Flooding operates. — Some ingenious reasons 
 have been assigned, for the advantages resulting from this ptocess; 
 as, — that it promotes the fermentation of any vegetable matter with 
 which it comes in contact ; — and, that the mechanical weight of a 
 body of stagnant water, must tend to consolidate, and to improve 
 the texture of a soft soil ; — But the salutary effects of flooding, may 
 principally be ascribed to the advantages of moisture, so essential 
 for vegetation ; and to the particles of sand, clay, earth, calcareous 
 matter, and other adventitious substances, with which the waters arc 
 impregnated. 
 
 3. The Waters calculated for Flooding. — All sorts of water, are 
 not equally adapted, for the beneficial practice of flooding. Pure 
 Spring water answers the purpose well ; and if it can be used in 
 sufficient quantities, will convert heath, and coarse herbage, into 
 sweet pasture grasses. Soft, and also muddy waters, may be em- 
 ployed with advantage. River water is often impregnated with a 
 number of useful ingredients ; and the quality of water may some- 
 times be artificially improved, by a mixture of calcareous and other 
 Substances. But waters that issue from peat-mosses, or soils impreg- 
 nated with pyrites, or bituminous oil, are said to be injurious. 
 
 4. The Seasons fittest for the Operation. — The object of watering 
 meadows, is essentially different from that of impioving waste lands 
 by means of flooding. In the former case, water is frequently made 
 use of, to nourish the grasses already produced by the soil. In the 
 latter, the purpose is, to destroy the indigenous plants, as they are 
 
ON WARPING LANti. 1©1 
 
 generally useless. Hence, though covering the soil with water in 
 winter is of use, yet the greatest improvement must be effected by 
 summer flooding. Hie heat of the sun, combined with water, 
 produces a putrid fermentation of the vegetable matter on the surface 
 of the land ; and when the coarse and useless herbage disappears,a 
 rapid growth of succulent grasses rises in its places : this is the case 
 even in sterile mosses. 
 
 5. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Process. — The great 
 advantage of flooding is, the cheapness of the process, and the 
 facility with which it is executed. On the other hand, it is only irt 
 very flat countries, that it can be used to any extent ; and if be 
 carried on upon a great scale, covering great tracts of country with 
 Water, in cold, and still more in the warm seasons of the year, it 
 must render the climate moist and unwholesome. At the same time, 
 where the situation is favorable, it can hardly fail to be attended with 
 benefit, in a pecuniary point of view. 
 
 Sect. IX. — On Warping Land. 
 
 There is no circumstance which proves more clearly, the advaiW 
 tages to be derived from minute and extensive inquires, adopting for 
 their basis, the political divisions of the country, than the discovery 
 of the process called warping land. This most valuable species of 
 improvement, applicable wherever tides in their course keep alluvial 
 matters in a state of suspension, was confined to a small district on 
 the banks of the Humber ; and though it had existed there for about 
 50 years, yet not a syllable concerning it, had ever found its way 
 into a page of printed husbandry, and it might have remained 
 unknown for many years longer, had not the Board of Agriculture, 
 undertaken the survey of the kingdom, in the course of which it 
 was brought to light. 
 
 In discussing this subject, it is proper to consider, — The origin of 
 the practice ; — The nature of the improvement ; — The mode of 
 carrying the plan into effect; — The season most suitable for the 
 purpose ; — The expese and profit ; — The advantages attending it ; — ■ 
 The situations where it may be attempted ; — and, The improvements 
 and the extent of which it is susceptible. 
 
 1. Origin of the Practice. — It is said, that the person who made 
 the first experiment of warping, was Mr. Richard Jennings of 
 Armin, near Howden in Yorkshire, who tried it about the year 1743. 
 But it was about the year 1753, before it was attempted by any 
 other person ; and it remained in obscurity, till the beginning of 
 November 1793, when it was made public by three eminent faiu.ers, 
 who had been appointed by the Board of Agriculture, to draw up a 
 
102 ON WARPING LAND. 
 
 report of the husbandry of the West Riding of Yorkshire. As the 
 Board had only met for the first time, on the 4th day of September 
 preceding, the discovery of warping, in less than two months, is a 
 striking proof, of the zeal and activity of those, appointed to carry 
 on its inquiries. 
 
 2. The Nature of the Improvement. — The water of the tides 
 that came up the Trent, the Ouze, the Dun, and other rivers which 
 empty themselves into the great estuary of the H umber, is muddy to 
 an excess ; insomuch, that in summer, if a cylindrical glass, from 
 twelve to fifteen inches long, be filled with that water when the tide 
 is high, it will presently deposit an inch, and sometimes moie, of 
 what is called warp, or a species of mud of vast fertility. This 
 substance, probably originates from a variety of earthy particles 
 washed down by the rivers to their mouths, where they are mixed 
 with saline and other matters, with which the sea abounds, and by 
 agitation are rendered so fine, as to be suspended, when the water is 
 agitated by the tide. Some of it was analysed by an eminent 
 chymist, whose report was, that it contained mucilage, and a very 
 minute portion of saline matter ; a considerable quantity of calca- 
 reous earth ; the residue mica and sand; the latter in by far the larger 
 quantity, and both in very fine particles. 
 
 3. Mode of carrying the Plan into effect. — The plan of securing! 
 by embankments, rich alluvial soil, has been practised for ages ; but 
 it was reserved far modern times, to conduct mud-laden waters, 
 artificially, from the estuary or river in which they flowed, for the 
 purpose of furnishing low and barren ground with a sufficient depth 
 of fertile soil. The mode of executing this plan, is extremely 
 simple. When the improvement is determined on, the ground 
 must first be surrounded with banks, from three to four, six, or 
 seven feet high, according to circumstances, that the water may be of 
 a proper depth on the land to be warped, and to prevent the con- 
 tiguous lands, whether cultivated or not, from being overflowed. 
 The tide is then admitted, and detained, until the sediment in the 
 water is deposited, upon the surface. To render the plan efficacious, 
 the water must be at command, to keep it out, and to let it in ; so 
 that there must be, not only a cut or canal made to join the river, but 
 a sluice at the mouth, (provincially dough,) to open or shut as 
 wanted. The effect is very different from that of irrigation, for it 
 is not the water that produces the effect, but the warp or mud ; and 
 the great object is, not to manure, but to create a soil. 
 
 4. The Season for Warping. — June, July, and August, are 
 thought the best months for warping, on account of their being int 
 general the driest seasons of the year. Land, however, may be 
 warped in any season, provided tne weather be dry, and the fresh 
 water in the river very low. When the season is wet, and the river 
 full of fresh water, this operation cannot be advantageously executed. 
 The fresh water, in this case, stems the tide, and occasions a degree 
 of stagnation, favorable to the repose of the prepared matter, and 
 consequently it is not half so muddy, nor <o capable of depositing the 
 same quantity of sediment, as when the tide flows in more freely, 
 and stirs up the mud. Warping, in spring, is attended with no •• 
 
ON WARPING LAND 
 
 103 
 
 peculiar advantage, more than in summer, as there -can be no crop 
 that year The sediment must lie to soak and dry, before the ground 
 can be cultivated. It is thought, however, good management, to 
 sow white clover the very season after a sufficient quantity of warp 
 is deposited, which grows in the greatest profusion 
 
 5. The Expense and Profit. — It is impoesible to calculate the 
 expense, without ascertaining the situation of the land proposed to 
 be warped ; the sum it will require to embank the lands, to build the 
 doughs or sluices, to cut the drains, &c. ; and the quantity of land, 
 the same drains and doughs will be sufficient to warp ; for the 
 greater the quantity, the less will be the expense per acre. There are 
 great quantities of" land, however, which might be warped, for so 
 small a sum, as from 3/. to 4/. per acre ; an expense trifling, when 
 compared to the profit that is derived. Mr. Webster, at Bankside, 
 in Yorkshire, purchased a farm of 212 acres, which he warped. 
 The price was 11/. per acre, and the expense of warping, about 12/. 
 more, or 23t. in all. It was immediately rendered by warping, 
 worth 70/., and in some parts even 100/. per acre, at which price 
 warped land frequently sells ; but even at 70/. the profit is immense. 
 Mr. Webster warped some moorland, worth ]s.6d. per acre, (for 
 such land there is in that neighborhood.) and could immediately let 
 it for 5/ per acre, for producing flax and potatoes. 
 
 6. Advantages of the Process. — The productiveness of land thus 
 improved, is very great. Thirty-six bushels of wheat ; — 9.0 bushels 
 of beans ; — from 6 to 10 quarters of oats ; — from 40 to 50 stones of 
 flax ; — and four tons of hay, in two crops, are not unusual. It is 
 likewise peculiarly well calculated for potatoes, and when in grass, 
 is the best of pasture land. The land is so enriched, that it will 
 admit of cropping, six, twelve, and sometimes even sixteen years, 
 previous to its being laid down to grass, which, with the exception of 
 white clover, cannot be hazarded sooner than in six years, the saline 
 particles, being at first too powerful for other small seeds. The 
 rotations that may be adopted, are of the most advantageous descrip- 
 tion, frequently beans and wheat, with occasionally crops of pota- 
 toes, flax, or oats. Warped kinds has often been cropped for twelve 
 or thirteen years, without any manure; and whenever the soil 
 becomes exhausted, the process is renewed, and the land recovers its 
 fertility. Where it possible to wear it out by cropping or ill manage- 
 ment, a few tides will at any time restore it. 
 
 7 Can the Process be extended? — Some doubts are entertained, 
 whether this great repository of highly prepared matter in the 
 Humber, may not be exhausted. But there seems no just ground for 
 such apprehension, when the great extent of the estuary in which it 
 is found, is considered, or the vast tract of country, which, for ages, 
 has been pouring down these valuable substances into its bosom. 
 At the same time, it would be desirable to remove every doubt of 
 that sort, by as accurate examinations of the banks or the bed of the 
 river and shoals in it, as is practicable in such cases. If upon inquiry 
 it should by ascertained, that the quantity of warp is as immense, as 
 there is reason to expect, it is to be hoped that such a treasure, sur- 
 passing, perhaps, any other the country is possessed of, will not be 
 
104 ON PLOUGHING. 
 
 neglected. We have the means in our power, of converting land 
 worth only a few pence, to yield a rent of 5/. per acre per annum ; 
 or in other words, of transmuting copper into gold. It is well 
 known, what efforts were made in Egypt, to obtain, and to secure 
 the fertility of its soil, in circumstances not very dissimilar ; and 
 shall nothing be done by the British government, to imitate the hus- 
 bandry of the Nile, on the banks of the Humber ? Why not make 
 it a national concern, or at least promote its success, by some species 
 of public encouragement, more especially as the valuable substance 
 in question, (silt or warp,) is not confined to the Humber, but is to 
 be met with in many of our other rivers and arms of the sea, in as 
 great perfection and abunbance. 
 
 Of Ploughing. 
 • 
 
 The various benefits arsing from good tillage, cannot be too much 
 inculcated. By tillage, the composition and consistence of the soil 
 is improved, and adapted to the nature of the different species of 
 cultivated plants. — By its assistance, the manure, and the seed, are 
 most advantageously inserted. — It is calculated to give considerable 
 relief from surface-water, and undue moisture, by enabling the culti- 
 vator to extend the depth, and to adjust the surface of the soil. — It 
 can be employed to destroy almost all the varieties of weeds which 
 lurk in the soil, either as roots, or as seeds, bringing the former to 
 the surface, and inducing the latter to vegetate. — By the same means, 
 various tribes of insects, and their larvae, are got rid of. — And by 
 exposing the soil to the influence of the atmosphere, the decom- 
 position of dead substances, and, at the same time, the growth of 
 living plants, are promoted. — As all these important advantages are 
 to be obtained by the operations of tillage, it is not to be wondered 
 at, that skilful and experienced husbandmen, have, in all ages and 
 countries, entertained the highest ideas of its utility. 
 
 Indeed where tillage is imperfect, there can be no good or complete 
 husbandry. In one extensively cultivated district, it is stated as 
 more than probable, that a third part of the crops collectively, on 
 some of the best soiled fields in it, is every year lost, through the 
 want of sufficient tillage ; nay. that perhaps, from One-fourth, to 
 one-sixth part, of the priduce of the arable lands of the kingdom, 
 in general, is lost, from the same cause. This is a subject, therefore, 
 that cannot be too minutely investigated. It is well known, that the 
 horses of a good ploughman, suffer less from the work, than those 
 intrusted to an awkward and unskilful hand; and that a material 
 difference will be found, in the crop of those ridges tilled by a bad 
 ploughman, when compared to any part of the field, where the 
 operation has been judiciously performed. 
 
0N PLOUGHING. 105 
 
 It will be necessary here to consider, first, the best mode of 
 ploughing j and then other particulars connected with that important 
 operation. 
 
 1. Mode of Ploughing. 
 
 ' The simplest, the most economical, and the most perfect mode of 
 ploughing, for general purposes, is, by a swing-plough, with a pair 
 of horses, and without a driver. In the sandy soils of Norfolk, a 
 wheel-plough will run over more expeditiously, with a light furrow- 
 slice, a greater extent of ground ; but in loamy and clayey soils, 
 wheels must always be an incumbrance, and occasion additional 
 4abor to the horses. 
 
 In working with the swing-plough, the off-side horse walks in the 
 furrow already made ; the near side horse on the untilled land, the 
 ploughman in the new furrow. His skill is proved, when there is no 
 baulking, or portion of the land left untilled ; and when the furrow- 
 slice is completely turned over. If the bottom of the furrows 
 remain like the teeth of a saw, or with pieces of land uncut, they 
 preserve the thistles from destruction, and prevent the descent of 
 moisture from above, to the open furrows left for carrying it off ; and 
 the land is consequently drenched with wetness. 
 
 3. Maxims respecting the proper Depth of Ploughing. 
 
 1. The depth to which land ought to be ploughed, must first be 
 regulated by the depth of the soil. On thin soils, more especially 
 on a rocky substratum, the ploughing must necessarily be shallow : 
 but when the soil, whether light or strong, will admit of it, the 
 ploughing ought to be as deep as a pair of horses can accomplish ; 
 and at some seasons, it is advatageous, to plough it even with four, 
 particularly at the commencement of every fresh rotation. 2 The 
 depth ought likewise to depend on the means of improving the 
 soil; — for where the land is poor, and the means of enriching it is 
 scanty, the depth of ploughing ought to be in proportion, to the 
 quantity of manure which can be obtained 3. I Jeep ploughing is 
 highly advantageous upon every soil, excepting those where the 
 subsiratum is of an orchy sand. In fact, such sands are scarcely 
 worthy of being cultivated, unless in situations, where much alluvial 
 compost, or short town manure, can be procured. 4. It is a general 
 rule, never to plough so deep as to penetrate below the soil that was 
 formerly manured and cultivated, excepting upon fallow, and then 
 only, when you have plenty of lime or dung to add to, and improve 
 the new soil. 5. Many farmers recommend, when fallowing land, 
 to go as deep as possible with the first furrow ; by which the subse- 
 quent furrows will be more easily done, and to expose the soil to he 
 winter's frost, and to the summers heat: but when the hind is 
 ploughed in spring, for a crop of oats, a strong soil cannot be 
 ploughed with safety, above five or six inches. 6. Deep ploughing 
 
 14- 
 
106 ON PLOUGHING. 
 
 is advisable on moorish cold soils, as it affords a greater scope for 
 the roots of plants to procure nourishment, amidst the superabun- 
 dant moisture to subside from them, and prevents the summer 
 drought from making an injurious impression on the growing crops : 
 for, on such land, shallow ploughing, exposes vegetation to be starved 
 or drowned in wet weather, and to be scorched or withered in dry. 
 7". It is unnecessary to plough deeper, when the seed is sown, than 
 where there is a fair probability of the different kinds of plants 
 sending their roots ; and as beans, clover, and turnips, the only tap- 
 rooted kinds usually cultivated in this country, seldom send their 
 shoots above seven or eight inches down into the soil, and the 
 culmiferous species not so far, it is probable, from these circumstan- 
 ces, that from seven to eight inches may be deep enough for all the 
 purposes of ordinary culture. Occasionally, however, ploughing 
 even ten inches, in the course of a rotation, during the fallow process, 
 is advisable. 
 
 Deep ploughing is not to be recommended; 1, When lime or 
 marl has been recently applied, as they have such a tendency to sink, 
 fro n their weight, and the moisture they imbibe. 2. Where turnips 
 have been eaten off by sheep, on the land where they were grown. 
 
 3. When grass only two or three years old, more especially where 
 it has been pastured with sheep, is broken up ; because, owing to 
 the extreme condensation of the soil, by the trampling of the sheep, 
 a furrow, even of a moderate depth to appearance, will make the . 
 plough penetrate, below the staple that had been cleared, by the 
 culture given during the previous fallow. By this means, myriads of 
 the seeds of annual weeds are raised to the surface, where they 
 vegetate, and materially injure the crop cultivated, besides replen- 
 ishing the soil with a fresh supply of their own seeds. In all these 
 cases, from four to five inches deep will be found sufficient. And, 
 
 4. If land is infested with natural grasses, which generally run 
 much on the surface, the first ploughing should not be deeper than 
 is necessary to turn up the roots of the grasses, that they may be 
 destroyed. 
 
 It will now be proper to give a general view of the advantages 
 of deep ploughing, a practice which is apt to get into disuse with 
 slovenly farmers, and to be too much neglected by many who merit 
 a different character. To prevent the continuance of so injurious 
 a system as shallow ploughing, it is advisable, to have one or two 
 strong ploughs, calculated even for four horses, by which the 
 strongest and stiffest land may be cultivated to the proper depth, 
 whenever it is necessary. This, indeed, is the practice of several 
 farmers of acknowledged skill in their profession. 
 
 4. Advantages of deep Ploughing. 
 
 1. Bringing up new mould, is peculiarly favorable to clover, 
 turnips, beans, and potatoes; and, indeed, without that advantage, 
 these crops usually diminish in quantity, quality, and value 2. 
 Deep ploughing is likewise of great consequence to every species of 
 
ON PLOUGHING. 
 
 107 
 
 plant, furnishing not only more means of nourishment to their roots, 
 but, above all, by counteracting the injurious consequences of either 
 too wet or too dry a season. This is a most important consideration, 
 Jov if the season be wet, there is a greater depth of soil to absorb the 
 moisture, so that the plants are not likely to have their roots 
 immersed in water; and in a dry season, it is still more useful, for in 
 the lower part of the cultivated soil, there is thus a reservoir of 
 moisture, which is brought up to the roots of the plants, by the 
 evaporation which the heat of the sun occasions. 3. By deep 
 ploughing, also, the ground may be more effectually cleared of root 
 weeds of every description ; in particular, it is the best mode of 
 eradicating thistles. 4. By deep ploughing, animal and vegetable 
 manures, which have such a tendency to rise to the surface, are pro- 
 perly covered. This cannot be done by shallow ploughing, :*. 
 consequence of which, much of the value of such measures is lost. 
 And, 5. By deep ploughing, a heavier crop is raised, than can be 
 got^from a shallow furrow. An intelligent farmer, indeed, after 
 pointing out that deep ploughing increases the staple of the soil, 
 Jkeeps the roots of the corn from being injured by wetness, and also 
 enables the crop longer to resist drought, adds,. " I have ever found 
 deep ploughing attended with good crops, when ridges, shallow 
 ploughed, in the same field, were but indifferent :" which seems a 
 decisive proof in favor of deep ploughing.* 
 
 * A particular attention is strongly recommended to the people of this 
 country, to what the author here says on the subject of ploughing deep., 
 Shallow ploughing is a very common fault with our farmers. Happily, how- 
 ever, a better practice begins, in some places to take place. To produce first 
 rate crops, a soil should not only be of a good quality, but should also be deep. 
 But a soil will rarely, if ever, be deeper than your plough. Of this any one 
 may easily satisfy himself, if he will be at the trouble to examine, by digging 
 the depth of the soil in a field which has been a considerable length of time 
 under tillage. He will find that the natural appearance of the earth has 
 never been changed at any greater depth than where the plough has pene- 
 trated. — Nor is the deepening of the soil the only benefit which results from 
 ploughing deep ; the soil is in that way loosened to a proper depth, and the 
 spreading of the fibrous, as well as other roots, of plants, is very much 
 facilitated. — Where shallow ploughing has always been practised, it may not 
 be advisable to shift at once to the greatest depth that is to be ultimately fixed 
 upon as proper, lest too great a proportion of barren earth should by such a 
 procedure, be turned up by the plough, and injure the crops immediately 
 succeeding. The change should rather be brought about by degrees, and be 
 accelerated or retracted as circumstances vary. Yet there is reason to believe, 
 that this change will, in general, admit of an earlier accomplishment, than 
 very many seem to be aware. Amer. Ed. 
 
108 ON HARROWrNGk 
 
 On Harrowing. 
 
 This process is of essential use in the culture of arable lands. 
 By harrowing, the soil is pulverized ; — root weeds near the surface, 
 are torn out and collected, more especially during the operation of 
 fallowing; — the manure that has been inserted in the soil, is more 
 thoroughly mixed with it; and the seed is more effectually covered. 
 The large, or what are called the brake harrows, are of great use 
 also in he cultivation of rough land. 
 
 To answer so many various purposes, harrows of different dimen- 
 sions, weight, and strength, have been invented, suitable to the 
 strength and condition of the soil, and adapted to the particular 
 purpose intended to be accomplished. 
 
 There are two modes of driving the harrows, either leading the 
 horses, or driving them by whip-reins. The latter ought to be 
 preferred, for as young horses are frequently employed in harrowing, 
 before they are broken to regular work, the person who leads, is 
 exposed to considerable danger: whereas, when he directs the 
 horses by long whip-reins, he runs no risk and is always at hand, to 
 remove any obstructions that may occur, from the accumulation of 
 weeds, and other extraneous substances among the tines, or by the 
 harrows riding on each other. 
 
 Harrowing is usually given in different directions ; first in length, 
 then across, and finally in length, as at first. An excess of harrow- 
 ing is prejudicial to wheat, it is better for that crop to have the land 
 rough and cloddy ; but the process ought to be effectually done for 
 barley, (more especially if accompanied by gi ass-seeds,) and for 
 turnips. 
 
 The quantity done must vary according to the pace of the 
 horses. In Norfolk, it is customary to walk the horses against the 
 rise, if any, and to trot them back again in the same place. The 
 quantity done in this way, is about seven acres per day In Scot- 
 land, a man and a pair of horses, will do a single tine, as it is called, 
 to the extent of ten acres, but if a double tine, only five acres per 
 day. The expense in the one case is \Qid. and in the second 
 Is. Sd per acre. 
 
 As the treading of horses is injurious to the seed that has been 
 Sown, and to the land, when in wet condition, attempts have been 
 made, to discover a mode of harrowing, which might be performed 
 by horses walking in the furrows. But where the ridges are bioad, 
 such machines are complicated and expensive, though, with narrow 
 ones, they have succeeded ; and this is one of the advantages which 
 narrow ridges have over broad ones. 
 
ON TRANSPLANTING CROPS. 109 
 
 Transplanting Crops. 
 
 This mode of propagating grain, though long known in the 
 philosophic world, has not hitherto attracted much the attention of 
 the fanner; yet it is considered by an intelligent author, to have 
 | a great advantage over the drill husbandry, as the root-scions can be 
 divided, and consequently their crowding each other may be pre- 
 vented ; and as there is a wonderful inciease of produce from a 
 single grain. It is in this way that a prodigious multiplicity of the 
 stems of wheat may be effected, by transplanting them, three or 
 four times, in the summer, autumn and spring, after they have been 
 sown 
 
 The effect of these operations, will appear in a striking point of 
 view, from an experiment tried by Mr. Charles Miller of Cambridge, 
 and recorded in the Philosophical Transactions. 
 
 He sowed some wheat on the 2d of June, 1766, and on the 8th of 
 August, one plant was taken up, separated into 18 parts, and 
 replanted. These plants were again taken up and divided, between 
 the middle of September, ano the middle of October, and produced 
 67 plants, and between the middle of March and the middle of 
 April, they produced 500 plants. The produce from one grain 
 was, j 
 
 Of ears, 21,009 
 
 Of grains, about 576,804 
 
 Quantity, 3| pecks. 
 
 » Weight, 47 lbs. 7 oz. 
 
 Dr. Darwin states a number of advantages to be derived from 
 this mode of transplanting corn ; and Mr. Bogle, who has paid 
 particular attention to this subject, observes, that he has known 
 instances of wheat being transplanted in September, and thence 
 monthly to the middle of May, which have all answered extremely 
 well. With early varieties, or spring wheat, it might be executed 
 still later. 
 
 This mode of propagating grain, should be kept in view on two 
 accounts ; first, that any valuable species of wheat might be more 
 rapidly increased ; and, secondly, in case of any very great scarcity , 
 transplanting would be by far the most effectual means of saving 
 seed-corn. Besides, though it may not become a general practice, 
 yet in cases where the ground is riot regularly covered, a farmer 
 may always find some places in his fields, whence plants may be 
 drawn, without doing any injury ; and the crop may thus be ren- 
 dered, not only more regular and uniform, but also more abundant, 
 and of a better quality, than where the vacancies are filled up with 
 spring wheat. 
 
 The transplanting of the Sweedish turnip is an excellenPpractice r 
 which has succeeded in Cheshire, Derbyshire, and Herefordshire, 
 and is found to answer, both for cleaning the crop more perfectly, 
 
110 ON REAPING. 
 
 and raising a greater produce. The seed is sown in the latter end 
 of April, in a garden. If the weather be favorable, the turnips 
 are ready to be transplanted early in June ; sometimes, however, it 
 is protracted owing to the season, until the middle or end of July. 
 The land is manured, and prepared, as if for drilled turnips ; and the 
 plants are set from twelve to eighteen inches apart in the row : the 
 greater the distance the weightier in general is the crop The 
 transplanted Swedes, are afterwards treated in the same manner as 
 the common drilled. When transplanted, it is of use to dip the m 
 roots in dung water. The produce is from 20 to about 30 tons per " 
 Statute acre. 
 
 On Reaping. 
 
 It is the opinion of experienced husbandmen, that wheat should 
 be cut down some days before it is fully or dead ripe. The grain 
 hardens well in the sheaf; — the sample is better, — and there is 
 nothing lost in measure, by this mode of management. The harvest 
 thus begins earlier, and its labors are more equally distributed. 
 
 Barley ought likewise to be cut before it is too ripe, other- 
 wise the straw becomes brittle, and that occasions much loss, by 
 the heads breaking off. 
 
 Though oats are reckoned a hardy grain, yet the more early 
 varieties, being liable to damage from high winds, or from exposure 
 to much wet, ought to be cut as soon as they are nearly ripe, in 
 order to lessen the risks to which they are exposed.* 
 
 Beans should be cut down, as soon as the eye has attained a deep 
 color, and if the weather be dry, instantly made up into sheaves. 
 The straw will thus be of triple value, and the grain of superior 
 quality. 
 
 So much for the culture of the crops before they are cut down. 
 The instruments by which this operation is effected are next to be 
 considered. 
 
 Various plans have been devised for cutting down crops of grain ; 
 as reaping by a sickle, or reaping hook ; mowing by a scythe, and 
 bagging. The plan of cutting "down corn by machinery, though it 
 has made some progress, has not yet been brought beyond the line 
 of occasional experiment. 
 
 * An experienced farmer, Mr. John Shirreff, states, that all sorts of grain 
 ought to be cut, whenever the straw immediately below the ear, is so dry, 
 that on t%isting it ; no juice can be expressed ; for then the grain cannot 
 improve, as the circulation of the juices to the ear is stopped. It matters not 
 that the stalk below is green. Every hour that the grain stands uncut, after 
 passing this stage, it is attended with loss. 
 
ON REAPIN6. 
 
 in 
 
 1. Reaping by the Sickle, or Reaping-Hoolc. 
 
 For districts in which a sufficient number of hands can be pro- 
 cured, reaping by the sickle, or the reaping-hook, are excellent modes 
 of cutting down the crop, if sufficient attention be paid to low 
 cutting. With careful reapers, there is very little waste ; — the heads 
 of the corn are all put in regular order; — and the crop placed in a 
 position favorable to threshing, either by the flail, or by ma- 
 chinery. 
 
 The sickles are jagged on the edge with teeth ; but reaping-hooks 
 are ground sharp and smooth. The former is preferred, as the 
 latter requires to be so often sharpened, as to occasion some waste of 
 time. Besides, the teethed sickle has the advantage of keeping the 
 corn better together, than the smooth one ; and in careless hands, 
 Some of the heads.are cut off and lost, in using the sharp reaping- 
 hook, when it enters among the crop, before the reaper has gathered 
 the corn with his hand. 
 
 Reaping by the sickle is j>erformed, sometimes by the day, at 
 other times by the acre, and sometimes by the harvest season ; but 
 the fairest mode is, by the work that is executed. With that view, 
 an agreement has been made, to give sixpence for every twenty-four 
 sheaves of wheat, (provincially a threave, hence the agreement is 
 called threaving,) each sheaf measures thirty-six inches in girth. 
 This is described as the most advatageous mode of cutting down the 
 crop, for all parties. Under this system, whole families, men, 
 women, and their grown up children, obtain employment. They 
 bring their provisions with them, remain the whole day in the field ; 
 the old teach the young to cut down, every one does something, every 
 one does something, and they are paid according to what they 
 perform. Much is done with alacrity and spirit, and a great quantity 
 of corn is cut down in a day, equally to the advantage of the 
 reapers, and of the farmer. 
 
 In order to train up reapers, it is a good practice, to put four or' 
 five of the most awkward or indolent, on a separate ridge, and to 
 ^ay them in proportion to three good ones on a ridge of the 'same 
 size ; but when they understand their business, the fewer on a riojge 
 the better, for' the more there are, the less work will be done. The 
 lazy, and the talkative, endeavor to save themselves, and to keep 
 the others idle, and it is difficult to ascertain, on whom the blame 
 ougrft to be laid. 
 
 It is a most essential object, to cut the crop very low, to prevent 
 both the waste of grain, and the loss of straw, the almost unavoid- 
 able consequences of high cutting. The additional quantity of 
 grain gathered into barns, will pay the expense, and the increased 
 quantity of muck is mostly clear profit ; because the mowing, or 
 bagging the haurn or stubbles, imperfectly supplies the place of close 
 cutting the crop. 
 
 Cutting corn when wet, ought to be cautiously avoided, as, when 
 §ut up in a dose sheaf, it cannot get dry. In bad harvests, or when 
 
112 ON REAPING. 
 
 corn is damp, the sheaves ought to be set up single, loosely tied near 
 the ear-fnds of the sttaw, and spread out circularly on their units, 
 or ends, to give t'nem a firm standing. 
 
 The sheaves ought to be of a moderate size, not exceeding nine 
 inches in diameter, or thirty inches in circumference, in wet 
 seasons, from six to ^jght inches in diameter is quite enough, and 
 inst Q ad of binding with two lengths of the corn made into a rop'fty 
 one is sufficient; nor ought the knee to be applied, when the sheaf is 
 bound, as the air is thereby totally excluded. The binder's arm will 
 compress the sheaf as much as it ought to be, provided the size be 
 such as is here recommended. 
 
 It is calculated, that seven reapers will cut down forty-eight 
 English acres in four weeks. The expense of cutting, binding, and 
 putting into shocks, varies from twelve shillings, to sixteen shillings 
 and eight-pence per English acre. Taking every expense into con- 
 sideration, if the reaping process can be duly executed, for fifteen 
 shillings per English acre, the farmer has no reason to be dissatisfied, 
 though in many cases, twelve shillings are sufficient. 
 
 2. Mowing by the Scythe. 
 
 This instrument is frequently made use of for cutting oats and 
 barley ; and in some districts of Kent, it is even used for wheat. 
 It is either plain, or furnished with a bow, or cradle, to assist in 
 laying the heads more regularly in one direction. The late cele- 
 brated George Culey maintained, that this was the completest mode 
 of cutting down the barley crop; that when properly mown, it 
 could be neatly tied up in sheaves, and co-tld be threshed without 
 difficulty, by a machine. Whenever the crop, however, is much 
 lodged, or irregularly broken down, or intewoven by squalls of wind, 
 or heavy rains, the scythe cannot act with efficacy, or even with 
 safety. The use of the scythe, therefore, is only admissible, when 
 the corn stands urpight, or with a regular inclination, or -nearly so, 
 in one direction. 
 
 A comparison has been made, between the expense of reaping 
 by the sickle, or cutting down by the scythe. By the sickle, it 
 would cost about twelve shillings per English acre, for barley, and 
 sixteen shillings for wheat. \Sy the scythe, it will be cut down at 
 least two shillings cheaper, and with from two to four additional 
 inches of straw, the manure from which, will be worth from five 
 to seven shillings to the farmer. 
 
 3. Bagging. 
 
 This is a practice, principally confined to the counties of Middle- 
 sex and Surrey, where it has been adopted, with a view of securing 
 an increased quantity of straw. This it does, to the a>u >unt of 
 about seven shillings per acre, in Devonshire, the crops are chopped 
 down, in a similar manner, so as to leave hardly any stubble. It is 
 
ON THE APPLICATION ©P STRAW. 11§ 
 
 done by a toothless reaping hook, of about twice the weight of a 
 common sickle, which is sharpened as often as is necessary. The 
 operation is performed by cutting the crop down by a succession of 
 blows, made within two or three inches of the ground. It is, in fact, 
 mowing with one hand, against the standing corn. By bagging, the 
 straw is cut much closer to the ground, than is generally done by 
 hand reaping. There is little or no difference of expense between 
 bagging and common sickle reaping, whilst it is equally expeditious. 
 Beans are usually bagged as well as wheat. The expense is gene- 
 rally about fifteen shillings per acre; but it varies from twelve to 
 twenty shillings, according to the bulk and condition of the crop. 
 
 The Flemish mode of cutting grain, by a stick with an iron hook, 
 and a short scythe, has been already described. It is only a small 
 deviation from bagging, or what in Herefordshire is called hacking, 
 by which a skilful laborer can do a statute acre per day. 
 
 Of the various Purposes to which Straw is applicable. 
 
 These may be considered under the following general heads: 
 1. Feeding stock ; — 2. Litter; — 3. Thatching; — and, 4. Miscella- 
 neous purposes, 
 
 1. Feeding Stock. — In former times this was the great object to 
 which straw was applied; almost every blade except what was 
 employed in thatching, was devoted to that purpose, and scarcely 
 any left to litter the stalls. The husbandry of the celebrated Baker 
 well was then much commended, who used no straw for litter ; but 
 if he had more than his own cattle could consume, would rather take 
 in those of his neighbours, and give straw and attendance for nothing, 
 than use it for litter. No species of dung was then valued, that had 
 not passed through the body of an animal ; and though, by littering, 
 more muck was made, yet the dung produced from straw, when 
 eaten, was considered most profitable. Bakewell, however, was 
 convinced, by experience, that he had adopted an erroneous system, 
 and latterly littered his stock amply. 
 
 But though the plan of feeding stock solely upon straw, cannot be 
 approved of, vet neither is the opposite extreme, that of expending the 
 whole straw, even that of pulse, in litter, deserving of approbation. 
 A moderate quantity of straw given to cattle, with turnips, or other 
 succulent food, contributes much to their health. The straw of 
 pulse, when properly harvested, with an adequate proportion of 
 corn, may be given with advantage to working horses, and may save 
 more expensive articles. Without some article of inferior quality, 
 rich food, in too great quantities, would become loathsome and 
 injurious. Dry food is advantageous, by its absorbing the fliiids in 
 
 u 
 
114 ON THE APPLICATION OF STRAW. 
 
 the stomach, by which that organ has greater power to act upon 
 them ; and though such food may not be so necessary for the c ake of" 
 the nourishment it affords, an animal, may thus.be enabled, to take 
 greater quantities of more nourishing aliment. Unless the stomach 
 and bowels be properly distended, digestion is but imperfectly accom- 
 plished, and the richest food, will not nourish an animal, with equal 
 success. 
 
 The price of hay, indeed, has become so enormous, that it enfor- 
 ces, to a certain degree, the consumption of straw ; nor can the 
 soiling system, so advantageous to the farmer, be carried to the same 
 extent, unless cattle and horses are partly fed with straw during the 
 winter season. A greater quantity of clover, may thence be em- 
 ployed in summer soiling, which otherwise must have been made into 
 hay, and consumed in winter, instead of straw. 
 
 The properties of the different kinds of straw, for feeding stock, 
 shall next be considered. 
 
 Wheat Sfraw. — On account of its strength, this sort of straw is 
 frequently cut into chaff, and given to horses, with their corn. The 
 chaff is likewise mixed with other food, in particular with potatoes, 
 and given to feeding and working cattle. Wheat straw is frequently 
 employed for litter, and sometimes for thatching. 
 
 Oat Straw. — This is considered to be the best fodder, when given 
 uncut. *t was formerly excellent feeding for stock, when raised on 
 land full of couch, and other natural grasses ; but since the intro- 
 duction of fallow, and horse-hoed crops, very little grass, compara- 
 tively, is now found in the straw of any kind of corn. In some 
 counties in England, they give oats in the straw, or corn and all, as 
 a species of fodder, which they call " cut meaty But that plan is 
 Condemned as slovenly and wasteful ; for the proportion between 
 straw and corn being so different', it is impossible for a farmer, to 
 do justice to his cattle or horses, by a process attended with so much 
 uncertainty. 
 
 Barley Straw. — When this straw is well harvested, it is much 
 relished by the stock, not being tough, consequently easily eaten ; 
 and so sweet, that cattle are particularly found of it. But it is 
 extremely diCcuIt ic> save it in any tolerable order, more especially 
 with clover, and its quality is much injured, when, instead of being 
 put in sheaves, it is spread on the ground, for the air tends to injure 
 every species cf fodder. 
 
 Bean Straw. — If well harvested, this straw forms a very hearty 
 and nutricious kind of food, for working horses and cattle, in the 
 winter season ; but it is said not to answer so well with carriage or 
 saddle horses, as it is apt to hurt their wind. As bean straw alone 
 is rather dry, a mixture of peas straw, particularly of white peas, 
 which is sweet and nourishing, improves the fodder. 
 
 Peas Straw. — The haum of white peas, if cut green, and dried 
 quickly, in the full vigour of its sap, is fodder of a superior quality, 
 and horses will thrive on it nearly as well as on hay. For sheep, 
 this food is so excellent, that on some farms, where they make a part 
 of the stock, peas are sown wholly on their account. The straw of 
 $arty white peas, applied to sheep, Mr. Young observes, is the most 
 
ON THE APPLICATION OF STRAW. 115 
 
 saluabte return made by straw. Peas haum, sometimes produces 
 ,a ton and a half per acre, and if well harvested will sell, according 
 to the price of hay, at from Al. to 71 10s. per acre, being often of 
 almost equal value to the grain itself. 
 
 Tare Straw or Hay. — Tares have sometimes produced from teri 
 ty twelve tons of green food, or rather more than two tons of hay 
 per acre ; that is, when they are not suffered to stand for seed, but 
 the whole crop is mown, partly for soiling and partly for hay, which 
 is of the highest quality. For the purpose of hay, the crop should 
 be mown as soon as the blossoms begin to fall off, or the pods to 
 form. They require a continuance of dry weather to be cured in 
 perfection ; but if well harvested, they are worth from 71. 10$. to 
 12/. or even 15/. per statute acre. 
 
 The rules respecting the consumption of straw in feeding, may be 
 considered as applicable to, I. Cattle; 2. Horses; 3. Sheep; and, 
 4. To some particulars of a general nature. 
 
 1. Cattle.— Straw, of good quality, may, at the commencement 
 of the feeding process, be given to cattle as an economical mode of 
 fattening them, accompanied by turnips; but in the more advanced 
 stages of that process, hay is so much superior, that it should, if 
 possible, be supplied. If straw be given for only a month or six 
 weeks in winter, it will be a great saving, in so expensive an article 
 as hay. In spring hay, from its being so closely packed, and less 
 exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, retains its nutritivejuices 
 much better than straw ; hence the former has greatly the advantage 
 over the latter, and is therefore to be preferred. When cattle are fed 
 with distillery offals, straw should be given them twice a day, with 
 the grains or wash ; for it has been found that without straw or hay, 
 cattle would not feed so well, owing to their not being able to chew 
 .die cud. 
 
 2. Horses. — It is disputed, whether working horses should be 
 fed in winter with straw or hay, though all parties admit, that during 
 the severe labor of the spring months, hay is essential. But peas 
 and bean straw, certainly make good fodder for horses, early in the 
 season ; though, if that kind of straw be injured by rain, white straw 
 must be given. With that food, and two feeds of corn, horses will 
 not only plough three quarters of an English acre per day, but are 
 usually full of health and vigour, when the sowing season comment 
 ces. In regard to horses that are not worked, it is a good practice^ 
 to throw the straw before them in the stall, before it is spread under 
 them, particularly if it is sweet and fresh. They always find some- 
 thing to pick out of it; and it makes a wholesome variety in their 
 diet. 
 
 3. Sheep. — There is no food of which sheep are fonder than, 
 peas straw ; and where circumstances are favorable to that crop, 
 peas ought to be cultivated, merely for the straw, from the advan- 
 tages that would thence be derived by the sheep farmer. Tare 
 straw would answer the same purpose, In Flanders, the straw of 
 beans is reckoned excellent for sheep, and to produce superior 
 mutton. 
 
116 ON THE APPLICATION OF STRAW. 
 
 4. General Rules. — The value of straw for feeding, depend* 
 upon the soil and climate. In regard to soil, straw from fertile land, 
 is much more nutritive than from land of inferior quality. As to 
 climate, it is asserted, that the straw of wheat, barley, and oats, 
 contains more sacchrine matter in the southern, than even in the 
 northern provinces of France, and that the superior sweetness of 
 the one over the other, may be ascertained by masticating it. In 
 good seasons, therefore, it must be more nutritious in this country, 
 than when they are unfavorable. 
 
 Straw keeps much better unthreshed, in a large stack with its 
 corn, than in a barn ; but straw, in whatever way it is kept, more 
 especially white straw, looses part of its value as fodder, after the 
 sharp dry breezes of the spring months have set in. It is seldom 
 given as fodder, unless to straw-yard cattle, after the month of 
 March. 
 
 Straw given to stock, should be constantly made use of as soon 
 after it is threshed as possible ; for if exposed to the iufluence of the 
 atmosphere, it becomes either musty, or too dry ; and, in that state, 
 cattle neither relish, nor thrive on it so well. If it must be kept a 
 length of time for fodder, it should be bound in trusses, in which 
 stale it is easier moved, lies in less room, and retains its strength 
 and flavor rather longer, than when loose ; or it may be secured in a 
 Stack properly built, trod down and covered. 
 
 There is certainly much nourishment in the heads of grain in 
 general, and particularly in the awns of barley ; but these require, 
 eithei to be steeped in cold water, or to have boiling water poured 
 upon them, before they are given to stock. Cow-keepers will give 
 even a higher price for the awns of barley, than for the heads of 
 wheat. 
 
 It is a useful practice to mix a portion of straw, particularly the 
 straw of oats, with the aftermarth of grass, or second crop of 
 clover, at the time of stacking it. The straw absorbs the grasses 
 and moisture as they exhale from the hay, by which the straw 
 acquires juices, and a flavor, which are agreeable to cattle ; the hay 
 which, in other circumstance, would be spoiled, is in this manner 
 cured, and the mixture is excellent food for stock ; while the harves* 
 ting of the grass, or clover crop, is thereby accelerated. 
 
 Some farmers give the best straw to the young stock, and the 
 inferior sort to oxen. Others, however, reverse the practice, on the 
 idea, that the older the cattle, the better food they require. Indeed 
 the best straw without the addition of turnips, is but miserable food 
 for oxen. The prudent method is, to give the inferior straw, in the 
 'beginning of winter, while there is abundance of turnips, to be eaten 
 with it. 
 
 In the consumption of straw as fodder, the inferior sorts should be 
 first made use of, and afterwards those of a better kind. It is neces- 
 sary that stock, when fed on so coarse an article as straw, should 
 liave an abundant supply of water at their command. # 
 
 It is disputed, where straw is the chief food for cattle, whether it 
 should be given sparingly, or in abundance. By the advocates for 
 tfce sparing system, it is maintained, that cattle may be satiated with 
 
ON THE APPLICATION OF STRAW. 1 IT 
 
 &raw, if served with it in too great plenty ; and that they do better, 
 when straw is regularly dealt out to them, which is more the case in 
 years of scarcity than in plentiful seasons, when it is thrown before 
 them in profusion. On the other hand, it is contended, that straw is 
 not rich enough to produce satiety, though, when cattle are tied up, 
 it may be a good plan to give them but little at a time, as any change 
 must be acceptable to them. But cattle in a straw-yard, require 
 fodder in profusion, that they may pick out the best, and leave what 
 they do not relish for litter. More straw should be given, when the 
 weather is wet, and less when it is dry ; and care should b*» taken, to 
 proportion the quantity of straw given, to the number of cattle in 
 the yard, in order that the dung may be properly prepared. 
 
 The straw of some varieties of wheat, has a pith resembling 
 rushes It has not yet been ascertained, whether the straw of those 
 kinds of wheat, be in any respect more valuable, than that of the 
 common sorts; but there seems little doubt, that the straw of 
 autumnal-sown wheat, is more harsh, and less agreeable to cattle, 
 than the straw of wheat sown in the spring. 
 
 It is remarked, that the straw of corn is weaker in countries where 
 the vegetation is rapid, as in Scotland, than in the southern counties 
 of England, where the growth is slower and more regular ; and 
 that the straw of- barley, sown in the month of March, or beginning 
 of April, grows shorter between the joints, and is much stiffer, than 
 the straw of the same crops, sown in the latter end of April, or the 
 beginning of May, which latter crops, in wet seasons, generally 
 fall down, while the former stand. This is a circumstance, 
 which is favorable to the practice of early sowing, in northern 
 climates. 
 
 The ancients were accustomed to prepare their straw for feeding' 
 stock, by keeping it for a considerable time, sprinkled with brine ; — 
 it was then dried, rolled up in bundles, and given to oxen instead of 
 hay. The addition of brine, or salt, was certainly an excellent plan, 
 and by a similar practice, the straw consumed in this country, where 
 it not for the obnoxious salt duties, might be greatly impioved. 
 
 2. Litter. — The use of straw, for littering or bedding stock,, 
 answers two purposes : 1. It keeps the animals warm and dry, and 
 enables them to repose in comfort ; and, 2. By the same means, 
 straw is mixed with the dung and urine of cattle, horses, &c. and 
 converted into a rich manure. 
 
 All the various sorts of straw answer the purposes of litter. 
 Some farmers prefer the straw of rye, othe'rs that of wheat, which 
 absorbs a great quantity of urine and moisture. The straw of peas 
 and beans, when well broken by threshing, makes soft bedding; but, 
 if well harvested, may be applied to feeding stock. Cattle cannot 
 be advantageously soiled on clover, and other articles, or fed on 
 turnips, without abundance of litter. 
 
 In the London markets, straw for litter is drawn straight in hand- 
 some trusses ; and if threshed in mills, is less saleable, on account of 
 its being more bruised, less sightly in the truss, and less durable in 
 Tire, tn object of some importance, where straw is so dear; at the 
 
J 18 ON THE APPLICATION OF STRAW. 
 
 same time, it is probable, that the abvantage of a softer bed for tjfe 
 horses, would more than compensate for the additional expense. It 
 is singular, that the ancients were accustomed to break straw upon 
 stones, for the purpose of rendering it more easily mixed with dung, 
 sooner dissolved, and better adapted for litter ; an operation which 
 is now so effectually done by means of the threshing-mill. 
 
 By some, littering, stock with straw, has been considered to be 
 unnecessary ; others contend, that all the straw of a farm ought to be 
 exclusively appropriated to that purpose, and none of it applied to 
 feeding stock : the truth seems to lie between these extremes. 
 
 In Arabia, where the finest horses in the world are kept, .no straw 
 is used as litter. In Sweden, and in Russia, instances are quoted, of 
 horses lying on boards, and of cattle standing and lying on a framing 
 of wood work, without any straw, or substitute for it as bedding. 
 Such plans, however, will not answer for horses, if exposed to severe 
 labor, as, in that case, they require rest, in the most advantageous 
 manner in which it can be given them. 
 
 It may likewise be observed, that the principal advantage of lit- 
 tering, with a view to manure, arises, from the straw absorbing the 
 urine, for which purpose it is certainly well calculated. But wherever 
 straw is scarce or dear, peat earth, or fine mould, might be advanta* 
 geously employed for the mere absorption of urine. Other substan- 
 ces also might be used for litter, as fern, shellings of oats, or small 
 shell sand, all of which have been found to answer. 
 
 Straw, however, is the fittest article for this purpose, for, by fer- 
 mentation, it is reduced into a gaseous state, and by moisture into a. 
 fluid state, and in either case, its whole substance is applicable as 
 food for plants. The more of that article, therefore, that can be 
 converted into manure, consistently with the other objects which 
 require the farmer's attention, so much the more will his interest be 
 promoted. 
 
 Mr. Young is of opinion, that it is impossible to raise sufficient 
 quantities of manure, more especially where soiling is practised, if any 
 straw be eaten ; and a number of the best farmers in Norfolk main- 
 tain, that all straw should be used as litter, and trodden into dung, 
 by animals feeding on much better food, as turnips, hay, or oil cake. 
 The principle is a good one, but it can never be generally carried 
 into effect. All farms, as now cultivated, do not produce turnips, 
 which' is the best, article to use for rotting straw, from the immense 
 quantity of urine it produces ; though there are many, in which that 
 trop is now unknown, where a greater or less quantity of that 
 valuable root, might be raised. In regard to hay, or oil cake, these 
 articles are too expensive, and often too scarce, to make the use of 
 them general ; and besides, such dry food, furnishes little moisture 
 to the dunghill, without which it cannot be properly fermented 
 
 It appears from the statements of the several eminent farmers, 
 that one ton of straw, if properly manufactured, will produce four 
 tons of dung; and as an English acre of grain, yields more than a 
 ton of straw, hence, on a farm where 300 acres are sown yearly, 
 7 00 of them may be manured from its own produce, at the rate of 
 
ON THE APPLICATION OF STRAW. 119 
 
 12 tons per English acre, without any extraneous manure, cultivated 
 under the four course rotation of, 1. Turnips; 2. Wheat, or Barley; 
 3. Clover ; and, 4. Wheat, or Oats. Where the clover is pastured 
 the second year, which is an excellent system, even less manure will 
 be found sufficient, and the produce of straw, will be more abundant, 
 during the remainder of the course. 
 
 As 1 2 tons of dung per English acre, are necessary, which would 
 require all the straw produced on the farm, according to its average 
 produce, means ought to be devised, without the aid of any extrane- 
 ous manures, to make up the deficiency, where a part of the straw is 
 applied to the feeding of stock. The greatest care ought, therefore, 
 to betaken, that the crop-be cut as low as possible ; while by the aid 
 of mould or peat earth,' much urine may be absorbed, that would 
 otherwise be lost. In this way stock are maintained with economy, 
 and the soil kept in a fertile state, from its own recources. 
 
 3. Thatching. — For many ages straw was the common material 
 for roofing farm buildings and cottages, and was formerly made use 
 of even in towns ; but the risk of fire, (to which whole villages have 
 "fallen a sacrifice from a single spark) ; — the loss sustained by vermin, 
 who shelter themselves in the straw; — the expense of additional 
 rates of insurance on thatched buildings, from Is. to even 3s. per 
 cent, in cases where they were considered to be doubly hazardous; — ■ 
 the increased difficulties attending making a- roof with straw, that 
 was threshed by .mills, and in a broken state ; — the practice of 
 covering buildings with slate or tiles ; — and the greater demand for 
 manure, in consequence of the improved state of agriculture, have 
 all contributed to diminish the quantity of straw used in thatching. 
 This is a fortunate circumstance for agriculture, as little straw can 
 be spared from litter, even for feeding stock, and still less for the 
 covering of houses. On this subject, Mr. Young very justly observes, 
 that thatched roofs, lessen the quantity of dung on a farm, to such 
 an extent, that they ought to be universall prohibited* Fen reeds, 
 and in mountainous districts, heath may be used, where slates or tiles 
 cannot be had on reasonable terms. 
 
 In the country of Somerset, wheat is seldom threshed with the 
 straw, but the ears are cut off, and the straws which are bound in 
 sheaves, tied very tight, are u: ed for thatching. 
 
 In the more northern districts of Scotland, they mix straw with 
 clay, and thus make a plastered roof, which consumes but little 
 straw, and is not liable to take fire. It requires, however, strong 
 rafters, &c. on which more durable materials might be placed. V/alls 
 of clay, mixed witrrstraw are not usual in several districts of Eng- 
 land and Scotland, for gardens, cottages, and even farm houses. 
 
 4. Miscellaneous uses of straw. — There are few articles which 
 are applied to a greater variety of purposes than straw. Besides 
 the uses above mentioned, it is employed for covering hay and corn 
 stacks ; — twisted into ropes, for draining ; — mixed with sea-weed in 
 a compost; — burnt for the purpose of obtaining potash ; — manufac- 
 tured into paper : — used in bottoming of chairs, — stuffing collars for 
 working horses, — and beds for the lower orders ; — packing glass, 
 
120 
 
 ON KITCHEN GARDENS. 
 
 china, and earthenware ; — bean straw is likewise used as a bottom 
 for roads ; — arid the straw of grain, and of wheat in particular, in 
 the manufacture of hats, bonnets, trinkets, and various ornaments, 
 by which numbers, who might otherwise find it difficult to subsist, 
 are furnished with the means of employment. 
 
 Private Kitchen Gardens. 
 
 To those who reside in the country, a well cultivated kitchen 
 garden is a most essential object, with a view to health, comfort, 
 and economy. 
 
 It requires attention to the following particulars: 1. Soil; 2. 
 Trenching; 3. Manures ; 4. Vermin; 5. Rotations; and 6. 
 Articles to be raised. 
 
 1. It is found that a sandy loam, is not only the best soil for a 
 kitchen garden, but that the smaller the grains of sand, of which 
 the soil is composed, the better, as by that means it is capable of 
 retaining a greater quantity of moisture, in dry seasons. A free 
 marl is likewise well calculated for garden culture. The addition of 
 a moderate quantity of clay, and of oxide of iron, is of much use in 
 promoting fertility. It is fortunate, however, when a garden contains 
 a variety of soils; as some vegetables require a strong and heavy 
 soil, and do not thrive in a light one. Where the subsoil is wet, 
 draining is indispensable. 
 
 2. Preparing the soil, and trenching it to the proper depth, is not 
 always sufficiently attended to in garden culture. The soil ought to 
 be from one foot and a half, to two feet and a half deep, particularly 
 where tap-rooted vegetables are cultivated. The roots can thus, 
 with greater facility, extend their fibres, in all directions, in search 
 of vegetable nourishment, and a reservoir is provided, for any 
 superabundant moisture, which may be occasioned by heavy rains, 
 where it is retained till wanted. 
 
 3. The species of manure must depend upon the soil. Rotten 
 dung is preferred by gardeners, as, in the course of fermentation, the 
 seeds of weeds, and the larvae of insects are destroyed ; and the 
 more putrid the dung, the greater effect it has in promoting the 
 rapid growth of the plant. Sea-weed, where it can be procured, is 
 an excellent manure for garden crops, in particular for onions. 
 Soapers' waste used in moderation by itself, or in a compost with 
 earth, is an excellent manure for garden soils. This substance, not 
 only destroys insects and their larvae, but, consisting principally of 
 calcareous matter, every species of vegetables is greatly improved in 
 quality, where it is applied Cowdung, mixed with water, is a good 
 manure, when frequently applied in a liquid state. 
 
ON LIVE STOCK. 121 
 
 4. Slugs and snails are very destructive in a garden. Slacked 
 lime, or sifted coal-ashes, spread on the surface, or laid in rows, in 
 various places, are useful in destroying them. 
 
 5. Skilful gardeners recommend attention to a rotation of crops, 
 and occasionally fallow portions of their gardens, or lay them down 
 with clover, which seldom fails to restore them to their former fer- 
 tility. The most experienced horticulturists are now agreed, that 
 even the currant, gooseberry, and raspberry quarters should be 
 changed every seven or eight years, and the strawberry ground 
 every four or five years. The chief market gardeners near Edin- 
 burgh, think it essential to adopt a certain rotation of principal 
 crops, to be afterwards stated. 
 
 6 With respect to the articles cultivated in kitchen gardens, 
 there are above eighty different sorts, raised even in Scotland, not- 
 withstanding its inferiority of climate ; the mere enumeration of 
 which, with some remarks on their nature and quality, and mode of 
 culture, would fill several pages, and must therefore be omitted in so 
 limited a work. 
 
 I. On the most desirable Properties of Live Stock. 
 
 Under the general term live stocJc, are comprehended, the various 
 Sorts of domesticated animals, which are employed by man as instru- 
 ments, for converting to his use, either by labor or otherwise, those 
 productions of the soil, which are not immediately applicable, to 
 supply his wants, in their natural state. Bakewell expressed the 
 same idea, when he described live stock as machines, for convert- 
 ing herbage, and other food for animals, into money. But mo- 
 ney, in fact, is only the sign of wealth, while live stock are real 
 riches. 
 
 The most desirable properties of live stock in general, may be 
 considered under the following heads : 1. Size; 2. Form; 3. Early 
 maturity; 4. Hardiness of constitution ; and, 5. Prolific quality; 
 to which may be added, with regard to those sorts which are destined 
 for food ; 6. A tendency to grow ; 7. A disposition to fatten ; and, 
 8. Lightness of offal. 
 
 1. Size. — Before the improvements introduced by Bakewell, the 
 value of an animal was entirely judged of by its bulk ; and if a great 
 size could be obtained, more regard was paid, to the price the animal 
 ultimately fetched, than to the cost of its food. Of late, since 
 breeders began to calculate with more precision, small, or moderate 
 sized animals, have been generally preferred, for the following 
 reasons : 
 
 16 
 
122 ON LIVE STOCK. 
 
 1. Small-sized animals are more easily kept; they thrive 0® 
 shorter herbage, and are thence more profitable, 2. Their meat is 
 finer grained, produces richer gravy, has a superior flavor, and is 
 commonly more nicely marbled, or veined with fat. 2. Large 
 animals are not so well calculated for general consumption, as the 
 moderate sized, particularly in hot weather. 4. Large animals 
 poach pastures more than small ones. 5. They are not so active, 
 require more rest- and collect their food with more labour. 6. Small 
 cows, of the true dairy breeds, give proportionately more milk than 
 large ones. 7- Small cattle may be fattened on grass solely, of even 
 moderate quality ; whereas the large, require the richest pastures, or 
 to be stall fed, the expense of which exhausts the profit of the 
 farmer. 8. It is much easier to procure well-shaped, and kindly- 
 feeding stock of a small size, than of a large one. 9- Small-sized 
 cattle, may be kept by many persons, who cannot afford, either to 
 purchase, or to maintain large ones ; and by whom the loss, if any 
 accident shall happen to them, can be more easily borne, 10. The 
 small-sized sell better ; — for a butcher will give more money for two 
 oxen of twelve stone each per quarter, than for one of twenty-four 
 stone. 
 
 In favor of the large-sized, it is on the other hand contended, 
 1. That without debating whether from their birth, till they are 
 Slaughtered, the large or the small one eats most for its size, yet on 
 the whole, the large one, will pay the grazier or farmer who fattens 
 him, as well for its food. 2. That though some large oxen are 
 coarse grained, yet, where attention is paid to the breed, (as is the 
 case with the Herefordshire,) the large ox is as delicate food as the 
 small one 3. That if the small-sized are better calculated for the 
 consumption of private families, of villages, or of small towns, yet 
 that large cattle, are fitter for the markets of great towns, and in 
 particular of the metropolis. 4. That were the flesh of the smalL- 
 sjsed ox, better, when fresh, yet the meat of the large-sized is un- 
 questionably more calculated for salting, a most essential object in a 
 maritime and commercial country, for the thicker the beef, the better 
 it will retain its juices when salted, and the fitter it is for long 
 voyages. 5. That the hide of the large ox is of very great conse- 
 quence in various manufactures. 6. That where the pastures are 
 good, cattle and sheep will increase in size, without any particular 
 attention on the part of the breeder ; large animals are naturally 
 therefore.the proper stock for such pastures. 7. That the art af 
 fattening cattle, and even sheep, with oil-cake, being much improved 
 and extended, the advantage of that practice would be of less conse- 
 quence, unless large oxen were bred, as small oxen can be fattened 
 with £rass and turnips, as well as oil-cake ; and lastly, that large oxen 
 are better calculated for working than small ones, two large oxen 
 being equal to four small ones in the plough or the cart. 
 
 Such are the arguments generally made use of on both sides of the 
 question ; from which it appears, that much must depend upon pas- 
 tures. iaste, mode of consumption, markets, &c. and that both sizes 
 have their advantages. The intelligent breeder, however, (unless 
 his pastures ar** of a nature peculiarly forcing,) will naturally prefer 
 the moderate sized, in the stock he rears. 
 
ON LIVE STOCK. 
 
 m 
 
 The late Mr. Davis of Longleat, one of the ablest agriculturists 
 this country has produced, has given some useful observations on the 
 subject of size. He laments that the attempts which have been 
 made to improve the breeds of cows, horses, and sheep, have pro- 
 ceeded too much upon the principle of enlarging the size of the 
 animal; whereas, in general, the only real improvement has been 
 made in the pig, and that was, by reducing its size, and introducing a 
 kind that will live hardier, and come to greater perfection at an earlier 
 age, His objections indeed to the using of large- heavy-heel'd black 
 horses, in preference to the smart, the active, and the really useful 
 breeds, merit particular attention. In some situations, the steepness 
 of the hills, and the heaviness of the soil, require more than ordinary 
 strength ; but in such cases, he maintains, that it would be better to 
 add to the number of horses, than to increase their size. Great 
 horses not only cost proportionable more at first than small ones, 
 but require much more food, and of a better quality, to keep up 
 their flesh. The Wiltshire carter also, takes a pride in keeping 
 them as fat as possible ; and their food, (which is generally barley^) 
 is given without stint. In many instances, indeed, the expense of 
 keeping a fine team of horses, amounts to nearly the rent of the farm 
 on which they are worked. They are purchased young when colts, 
 and sold at five or six years of age, for the London drays and wa- 
 gons. The expense of their maintenance is very seldom counterba^ 
 lanced by the difference of price, more especially as such horses are 
 gently worked when young, that they may attain their full size and 
 beauty. In ploughing light soils, the strength of a dray horse is not 
 wanted ; and in heavy soils, the weight of the animal does injury to 
 the land. 
 
 2 Form. — Though it is extremely desirable, to bring the shape 
 of cattle to as much perfection as possible, yet profit and utility 
 ought not to be sacrificed for mere beauty, which may please the 
 eye, but will not fill the pocket ; and which, depending much upon 
 caprice, must be often changing. 
 
 In regard to form, the most experienced breeders seem to concur 
 in the following particulars : 1. That the form or shape should be 
 compact, so that no part of the animal should be disproportioned to 
 the other ; and the whole distinguished by a general fulness and 
 rotundity of shape ; 2. That the chest should be broad ; for no 
 animal whose chest is narrow, can easily be made fat ; 3. That the 
 carcass should be deep and straight ; 4. That the belly should be 
 of a moderate size ; for when it is more capacious than common, in 
 young animals, it shews a diseased state, and in older ones, it is 
 considered a proof, that the animal will not return in flesh, in milk, 
 or in labor, the value of the extra quantity of food which it consumes ; 
 and, 5. That the head, the bones, and other parts of inferior value, 
 should be as small as is consistent with strength, and with the other 
 properties which the animal ought to possess The form must like- 
 wise be such, as to contain the greatest possible proportion of the 
 finer, compared to the coars j r and less valuable parts of the animal. 
 This, by selection, may be attained ; and thus the wishes of the 
 consumer may be gratified. 
 
124 ON LIVE STOCK. 
 
 The form of animals, has fortunately attracted the attention of an 
 eminent surgeon, : Henry dine,' Lsq. of London,; the substance 
 of whose doctrines are : 1. That the external form is only an indi- 
 cation of the internal structure; 2. That the iungs of an animal is 
 the first object to be attended tc, for on their size and soundness, the 
 health and strength of e:i animal principally depend ; 3. That the 
 external indication of ihe rize of tL-e !u: gs, are the form and size 
 of the chest, and its breadth is particular; 4. That the head should 
 be small, as by this the birth v: facilitated ;— as it affords other advan- 
 tages in feeding, &c.-^ r 'c.d cs it generally indicates that the animal is 
 of a good br^ed ; 5. That the length of the neck should be in pro- 
 portion to the size at tLe rnimak that it may collect its food with 
 ease ; and, £. That the muscles and tendons should be large, by 
 which an an -ma! is enabled to travel with greater facility. 
 
 It was formerly the practice, to estimate the value of animals by 
 the size of their bores. A larg* bone was considered to be a great 
 merit; and a fine honed animal, always implied great size. It is 
 now known that ti is doctrine was carried too far. The strength of 
 an animal coes not depend upon the bones, but on the muscles ; and 
 when the bones are disproportion? bly large, it indicates, in Mr. 
 Cline's opinion, an i nperiection in the organs of nutrition. Bakewell 
 strongly insisted on the advantage of small bones ; and the celebrated 
 John Hunter declared, tljat small Lones were generally attended with 
 corpulence, in all the various subjects he had an opportunity of 
 examining. A small bone, however, being heavier and more sub- 
 stantial, rcnuires as much nourishment as a hollow one, with a larger 
 circumference. 
 
 3. Early Maturity — Arriving soon at perfection, is a material 
 object for the breeder, as his profit must, in a great measure, depend 
 upon it. Whe . e animals, bred for the carcass merely, become fat at 
 an early age. they no* only return sooner the price of their food, 
 with prcJit to the feeder, but in general also, a greater value for their 
 consumption than slow feeding animals. This desirable property 
 greatly depeds on a mild and docile disposition ; and as this docility 
 of temper is much owing to the manner in which the animal is 
 brought up, attention to inure them early to be familiar, cannot be 
 too much recommended A tame breed also has other advantages. 
 It is not so apt to injure fences, cr to break into adjacent fields ; 
 consequently it is less liable to accidents, and can be reared, sup- 
 ported, and fattened at less expense. The property of early maturity, 
 in a populous country, where the consumption of meat is great, is 
 extremely beneficial- to tbfe public, as it evidently tends to furnish 
 greater supplies to the market ; and tLis propensity to fatten at an 
 early age, is a sure proof, tl.at an animal will fatten speedily at any- 
 other period of his life. 
 
 4. Hardiness of Constitution. — In the wilder and bleaker parts 
 of a country, the possession of a heardy and healthy constitution, is 
 a most valuable property in stock. Where the surface is barren, and 
 the climate rigorous, it is essential that the stock bred and maintained 
 there should be able to endure the severities and vicissitudes of the 
 weather, as well as scarcity of food, hard work, or any other 
 
ON LIVE STOCK. 125 
 
 circumstance in its treatment, that might subject a more delicate breed 
 to injury. In this respect, different kinds of stock greatly vary ; and 
 it is a matter of much consequence, to select, for different situations, 
 cattle with constitutions suitable to the place where they are to be 
 kept It is a popular belief, that dark colors are indications of 
 hardiness. In mountain breeds of cattle, a rough pile is reckoned 
 a desirable property, more especially when they are to be kept out 
 all winter. It enables them to face the storm, instead of shrinking 
 from it. Hardy breeds are exempted from various diseases, as 
 having yellow fat, also being lyery, or blackfieshed, so injurious to 
 stock. 
 
 5. Prolific Quality. — By this property is meant, that the females 
 of a breed, both bear more frequently than usual, and also have 
 frequently more than one at a birth. This property runs more 
 strikingly in sub-varieties, or individual families ; but by selection, 
 might probably be extended to the whole breed, in the more general 
 acceptation of that work This quality is partly owing, to some- 
 thing in the habits of animals, and partly to their previous good or 
 bad treatment. In breeding, not only the numbers, but the sex of 
 the offspring, in many cases, seem to depend upon the female parent. 
 Two cows produced fourteen females each in fifteen years, though 
 the bull was changed every year. It is singular that when they 
 produced a bull calf, it was in the same year. Under similar circum- 
 stances, a great number of males have been produced by the same 
 cow in succession, but not to the same extent. 
 
 6. A tendency to grow. — Among the qualities for which thorough- 
 bred cattle and sheep are distinguished, that of being good growers, 
 and having a good length of frame, is not the least essential. The 
 meaning of which is, that the animal should not only be of a strong 
 and healthy constitution, but while it gains flesh and condition, 
 should grow to a proper size. As specimens of rapid growth, a 
 steer of three years old, when well fed, will weigh from 80 to 90 
 stone, 14lb. to the stone ; and a two year old Leicester wedder, from 
 25 to 28lb per quarter, immediately after his second fleece is taken 
 from him. Animals who have the property of growing, are usually 
 straight in their back and belly ; their shoulders well thrown back, 
 and their belly rather light than otherwise. At the same time a 
 gauntness and paucity of intestines should be guarded against, as a 
 most material defect, indicating a very unthrifty animal. Being 
 too light of bone, as it is termed, is also a great fault. A good 
 grower, or hardy animal, has always a middling sized bone. A bull 
 distinguished for getting good growers, is inestimable ; but one whose 
 progeny takes an unnatural or gigantic size, ought to be avoided. 
 
 9- A disjjosition to Fatten. — This is a great object in animals 
 destined for the shambles. Some animals possess this property 
 during the whole progress of their lives, while in others, it only 
 takes place at a more advanced period, when they have attained 
 their full growth, and are furnished at the same time with a suitable 
 supply of food. There are in this respect other distinctions : 1. 
 Many kinds of cattle and sheep, which have been bred in hilly 
 countries, will becoaie fat on lowland pastures, on which the more 
 
126 ON LIVE STOCK. 
 
 refined breeds would barely live ; and, 2. Some animals take on 
 fat very quickly, when the proper food has been supplied, and some 
 individuals have been found, even in the same breed, who have in a 
 given time, consumed the least proportional weight, of the same 
 kind of food, yet have become fat at the quickest rate. Even in the 
 human race, with little food, some will grow immoderately corpulent. 
 It is probable owing to internal conformation, that this property of 
 rapid fattening is derived. 
 
 The advantages and disadvantages of fattening cattle and sheep, 
 at least to the extent frequently practised at present, is a point that 
 has of late attracted much public attention. 
 
 But any controversy on that subject, can only arise from want 
 of proper discrimination. Fat meat is unquestionably more nour- 
 ishing than lean, yet to digest this oily matter, they are required, on 
 account of its difficult solubility, a good bile, much saliva, and a 
 vigorous stomach ; consequently none, excepting those who are in 
 the most vigorous state of health, or who are employed in hard 
 labor, can properly digest it. Though fat meat, however, is unfit for 
 general consumption, yet experiments in the art of fattening animals, 
 are likely to promote useful discoveries ; and though, in the course 
 of trying a number of experiments, errors and excesses may be 
 committed, yet on the whole, advantage may be derived from the 
 knowledge thus to be obtained. As the bone also gains but little in 
 the fatting animal, and the other offal becomes proportionably less, 
 as the animal becomes more fat, the public has not sustained much 
 loss by over-fatted-animals. Few animals are fatted at more 
 expense to the farmer than the hog, yet to kill it when lean, is 
 exceedingly bad economy. An ox or cow, though the little flesh it 
 has may be of good quality, yet presents, when lean, little but skin 
 and bone; and if slaughtered in that state, would neither indemnify 
 the owner for the expense of breeding and maintaining it, nor benefit 
 the public. A coarse and heavy-fleshed ox, which would require a 
 very long time, and much good food to fatten, may be slaughtered 
 with most advantage, while rather lean. It is not however, so much 
 the extent of fat, as the want of a sufficient quantity of lean flesh, 
 of which the consumer complains ; for it cannot be doubted, that 
 the lean flesh of a fat animal, is superior in quality, and contains 
 morenourisnment, than any other meat. 
 
 Here it may be proper to mention, that indication of a tendency to 
 fatten, which is technically called handling well. The graziers and 
 butchers in various parts of the kingdom, had recourse to the hand, 
 and the feeling of the skin, or cellular membrane, for ascertaining a 
 disposition to fatten ; but since Bakewell directed the public attention 
 so much to breeding, that practice has become more generally known. 
 Handling cannot easily be defined, and can only be learnt by experi- 
 ence. The skin and flesh of cattle, when handled, should feel soft to 
 the touch, somewhat resembling that of a mole, but with a little more 
 resistance to the finger. A soft and mellow skin must be more 
 pliable, and more easily stretched out to receive any extraordinary 
 quantity of fat and muscle, than a thick or tough one. The rigid- 
 skinned animal, must therefore always be the most difficult to fatten. 
 
«N LIVE STOCK* 127 
 
 In a good sheep, the skin is not only soft and mellow, but in somtf 
 degree elastic. Neither cattle or sheep can be reckoned good, 
 Whatever their shapes may be, unless they are first rate handlers. 
 
 The improved short-horned breed, besides their mellowness of 
 skin, are likewise distinguished by softness and silkiness of hair. 
 Too great a length, however, ought not to be aimed at, since it is not 
 easy, in that case, to preserve a due proportion in the animal, without 
 which it cannot be considered perfect. 
 
 • 7. Lightness of Of ah — It is also of much importance, that an 
 animal solely bred for the shambles, should have as little offal as 
 possible, and consequently a greater proportion of meat applicable 
 as food for man. 
 
 II. On the principles of Improved Breeding. 
 
 The art of improved breeding consists, in making a careful selec- 
 tion of males and females, for the purpose of producing a stock, 
 with fewer defects, and with greater perfections than their parents 5 
 in which their mutual properties shall be combined, and their mutual 
 faults corrected. 
 
 The objects of improved breeding, therefore, are, to obviate 
 defects, and to acquire and to perpetuate desirable properties ; hence, 
 when a race of animals have possessed, in a gi*eat degree, through 
 several generations, the properties which it is our object to obtain, 
 their progeny are said to be icell-bred, and their stock may be 
 relied on. 
 
 It was upon this principle of selection, that Bakewell formed his 
 celebrated stock of sheep, having spared no pains or expense, in 
 obtaining the choicest individuals, from all the best kinds of long or 
 combing woolled sheep, wherever they were to be met with ; and 
 it cannot be doubted, that any breed may be improved in the same 
 manner, namely, that of putting the best males to the finest females. 
 After a superior breed, however, has thus been obtained, it is a point 
 that has been much disputed, whether it is proper to raise stocky 
 1. From the same family; or, 2. From the same race, but of 
 different families ; or, 3. From races entirely different. 
 
 1. Breeding from the same Family.— -This method is called 
 breeding in-and-in, or putting animals of the nearest relationship 
 together. Though this plan was for some time in fashion, under the 
 sanction of Bakewell's authority, yet experience has now proved, 
 that it cannot be successfully persevered in. It may prove beneficial 
 indeed, if not carried too far, in fixing any variety that may be 
 thought valuable, but on the whole, it is only in appearance. Under 
 this system, the young animal comes into the world, on compara- 
 tively, a very small scale. By keeping it fat from the first moment 
 of its existence, it is made to attain a greater size than nature 
 intended ; and its weight in consequence, will be very great, in 
 proportion to the size of its bones. Thus a generation or two of 
 animals of an extraordinary form, and saleable at enormous prices, 
 may be obtained ; but that does not prove that the practice is eligible, 
 
128 on live stock:. 
 
 if long persisted in. On the contrary if the system be followed up, 
 the stock get tender and delicate, they become bad feeders ; and 
 though they retain their shape and beauty, they will decrease in vigor 
 and activity, will become lean and dwarfish, and ultimately incapable 
 of continuing the race. The instances of this are numerous. The 
 celebrated breeder, Prin&ep, found that decrease of size unavoidable, 
 in spite of all his endeavors by keeping his young stock well, to 
 prevent it. Sir John S. Sebright tried many experiments by breeding 
 in-and-in and found the breeds uniformly degenerate. A gentleman 
 who tried the system with pigs, brought them at last into such a state, 
 that the females gave over breeding almost entirely, and when they 
 did breed, their produce was so small and delicate, that they died as 
 soon as they were born. Nay, Mr. Knight's experiments with 
 plants have fully convinced him, that in the vegetable, as well as in 
 the animal kingdom, the offspring of a male and female, not related, 
 will possess more strength and vigor than where they are both of the 
 same family. This proves how unprofitable such connexions are. 
 That is no reason, however, why a breeder may not manage a par- 
 ticular family of animals to great advantage, by shifting or changing, 
 instead of breeding directly from parents to offspring. 
 
 A change of seed, is in general advantageous in regard both to 
 animals, and vegetables. Hence many farmers are induced, not 
 only to change the seed of the kinds of grain they cultivate, but to 
 procure males, from the flocks and herbs of those who have the 
 same, or a similar breed with their own. It has been remarked, 
 that those farmers have in general the worst flocks, who breed from 
 rams produced on their own farms, and that an interchange of males 
 is mutually beneficial. 
 
 With respect to the doctrine, " that when you can no longer find 
 better males than your own, then by all means breed from them, for 
 that best can only beget best ;" it is ably refuted by an intelligent - 
 author, who has not devoted much attention to the art of breeding. 
 He observes, that there never did exist an animal without some defect 
 in constitution, in form, or in some essential quality ; and such defect, 
 however small it may be at first, will increase in every succeeding 
 generation, and at last predominate in such a degree, as to render the 
 breed of little value. Breeding in-and-in, therefore, would only 
 tend to increase, and to perpetuate that defect, which might be 
 eradicated, by a judicious selection, from a different family, in the 
 same race. 
 
 2. The breeding from different families, of the same race, is there- 
 fore a preferable system. When these have been for some time 
 established in different situations, and have had some light shades of 
 difference impressed upon them, by the influence of different climates, 
 soils, and treatment, it is found advantageous, to interchange the 
 males, for the purpose of strengthening the excellencies, and reme- 
 dying the defects of each family. On this principle, the celebrated 
 Culley continued, for many years, to hire his rams from Bakewell, 
 at the very time, that other breeders were paying him a liberal price 
 for the use of his own j and the very same practice is followed by the 
 most skilful breeders at present. M 
 
ON LIVE STOCK. 129 
 
 3. As to any attempt at improvement, by crossing two distinct 
 breeds or races, one of which possesses the properties which it is 
 wished to obtain, or is free from the defects which it is desirable to 
 remove, it requires a degree of judgment and perseverance to render 
 such a plan successful, as is very rarely to be met with. Indeed, 
 though such crosses may. by great attention, answer at first, yet it is 
 generally found, that great singularities attend such mixtures; and 
 in breeding bulls, though some of them may apparently do yet their 
 breed is not to be trusted .JThe first cross between a good short- 
 horned bull, and a good Kvloe cow, will make a good grazing 
 animal ; but by proceeding farther, disappointment will ensue, if a 
 regular stock be wanted. If such a cross is to be persevered in, the 
 male should always be of the same breed with the first. 
 
 Crossing with larger males from another country, is sometimes 
 attempted, with a view of enlarging the size of stock. But such 
 attempts should be made with the greatest caution ; for by a mistaken 
 practice, extensively pursued, irreparable mischief may be effected. 
 Where a particular race of animals has continued for centuries, it 
 may be presumed, thar their constitution is adapted to the soil and 
 climate. Any attempt, therefore, to increase the size of a native 
 race of animals, without improving their food, by which their size is 
 regulated, is a fruitless effort to counteract the laws of nature. In 
 proportion to their increase of size, by crossing, they become worse 
 in form, less hardy, and more liable to disease. The only satisfactory, 
 and judicious mode, of enlarging the size of any race of animals is, 
 by maintaining better the original stock of the country, more espe- 
 cially during their youth. In every case, where the enlargement of 
 the carcase is the object, the cross breed must be better fed than the 
 native parent. Hence, if a good stock can be otherwise obtained, 
 crossing ought to be avoided ; for it produces a species of mongrel ; 
 and it is more difficult to get rid of the imperfections thus introduced 
 into a breed, than is commonly imagined. 
 
 The eminent surgeon already alluded to, (Henry Cline, Esq.) is 
 of opinion, that any improvement of form by crossing, must entirely 
 depend, on selecting a well formed female, larger in size than the 
 usual proportion between females and males. The foetus will thus, 
 be better nourished, which is so essential to produce an animal with, 
 the most perfect form. Abund&nt nourishment is necessary from 
 the earliest period of its existence, until its growth is complete. 
 Upon this principle, the breeo. of English horses were improved, by 
 crossing them with diminutive stallions, Barbs, and Arabians. The 
 celebrated Clydesdale breed of horses in Scotland, originated from 
 the introduction of some large Flanders mares into that country ; 
 and our hogs have been improved, by crossing with the small Chinese 
 boars. Other experiments on the same principle, have also suceeded. 
 Mr. Spearman, an intelligent farmer in Northumberland, tried a 
 cross between the Kyloe or Highland bull, and the large short- 
 horned cow ; and during the experience of twenty years x found it 
 to answer. The plan recommended by Mr. Cline, has likewise been 
 most successfully practised by M. Vandergoes, near the Hague, who 
 )*as perhaps the finest stock ©f dairy cows in Holland. The excel- 
 
 17 
 
130 ON LIVE STOCK. 
 
 lence of his breed, he entirely attributes to his using none but young 
 bulls, who have not attained their full growth or size, and whom he 
 always parts with at three years of age. 
 
 The improvement of the fleece depends, however, upon the 
 male ; it being proved, that in the course of four or five generations, 
 using always the Merino ram, fleeces rivalling the Spanish may be 
 obtained, from ewes of British stock. 
 
 In regard to the period of commencing breeding, a cow in general, 
 should not produce a calf, at an earlier period than three years old. 
 A bull may be first used at fourteen or eighteen months. He then 
 shews most vigor, and more energy may be expected in his produce. 
 At two or three years old, they frequently become ungovernably 
 and are killed. Many contend, that the offspring of a bull, if welf 
 bred, becomes generally better till he reaches seven or eight years, 
 and indeed till his constitution is impaired by age. This doctrine, 
 however, does not agree with the practice of Mr. Vandergoes in 
 Holland ; nor can the question be finally decided, without a regular 
 course of experiments. 
 
 Some breeders maintain, that the offspring iake considerably more 
 after the male, than the female parent. It is believed, however, 
 that some parts of trie offspring take after the male, and some after 
 the female. If the female be small, and such a habit be permanent 
 in her family, the length of the legs of the offspring, will seldom be 
 influenced by the male, but much by the female parent in the womb, 
 and will not subsequently change. The width and depth, and con- 
 sequently the weight of carcase, will be greatly influenced by the 
 male ; and if he be of a large kind, the offspring will present great 
 weight in a small compass. This has been proved by crossing a 
 West-Highland, with a Herefordshire bull. The offspring have the 
 short legs of the West-Highland cow, -with the increased weight that 
 might be expected from a Hereford bull They are exceedingly 
 hardy, their flesh is of excellent quality, and they have, at two years 
 old, nearly the proportions of other stock at six. The females are 
 consequently ready to be fatted at two years old. The males require 
 to be one year older. 
 
 Among the rules of breeding, one is, that the young should be 
 brought forth at the season of the year, when there is usually a full 
 supply of suitable food. This is particularly necessary to be attended 
 to, on high and exposed situations, where tnere is little or no other 
 provisions than common pastures. Where this rule has not been 
 adverted to, a very great loss has been sustained. 
 
 Another rule in breeding is, never to fix on the ewes to be put to a 
 favorite ram, until the lambs got by him, the preceding year, have 
 been examined. The perfections and defects of his progeny, are 
 thus ascertained, and ewes are given him accordingly. By such 
 attention, and carefully selecting from the lambs, rejecting all 
 doubtful ones, a flock is kept in a constant state of progressive 
 improvement. 9 
 
 m 
 
ON LIVE STOCK. 131 
 
 III. On the proper Management of Stock in general. 
 
 This is a subject which can only, in this place, slightly be touched 
 upon. It is an object of very great consequence to every husband- 
 man, to expend, in the most economical and advantageous mariner, 
 the vegetable produce allotted for the maintenance of his stock, and 
 to bestow it chiefly on those, from whom he is likely to derive the 
 greatest and the earliest benefit. Notwithstanding many recent, and 
 truly valuable improvements, there still prevails, in regard to some 
 particulars, a sad mixture of profusion on the one hand, and penuri- 
 ousness on the other. The saving to the community, by a careful 
 attention to the feeding of live stock, would be great, and in times of 
 scarcity, would be incalculable. For the attainment of that object, 
 it would be necessary to pay regard to; J. The due preparation, 
 and frugal expenditure of their food ; 2. The appropriation of that 
 food to the different sorts respectively, according to the different 
 species and breeds of stock, — their different habits and degrees of 
 hardiness, — and the different degrees of exercise, and modes of 
 treatment to which they are subjected ; and, 3. The requisite at- 
 tention to the demands of different periods, the relative effects of 
 different seasons ; and the state of the animals themselves, in regard 
 to age, fatness, &c. 
 
 The following general rules, as to the management of stock, may 
 deserve attention. 
 
 1. Animals intended for the butcher, should be kept in a state of 
 regular improvement. The finer breeds are highly fed from their 
 birth, and almost always fat. With other breeds, and on pastures 
 of inferior quality, diis is neither necessary nor practicable. But in 
 every cae, the same principle of improvement should be adhered to, 
 and such animals ought never to be allowed to lose flesh, in the 
 hopes of afterwards restoring it by better feeding. 
 
 2. The size should never be above that which the pastures can 
 support in a thriving condition. The attempt to raise them to an 
 undue size, by crossing, has been already censured. In legard to 
 size, thef'stock of every kind, and of all the various breeds, should 
 be proportioned to the quaruitv, and the quality of their intended 
 food. 
 
 3. The best pasture should be allotted to that portion of the 
 stock which goes first to market ; the next in quality, to the breeders; 
 and the coarse pasture, to the inferior or growing stock. 
 
 4. Great care should be taken, not to overstock pasture, which is 
 attended with great loss to the farmer, and the community. This 
 ought to be particularly avoided in regard to young and growing 
 animals. If they are kept poor during one part of the year, they 
 will scarcely thrive during the remainder ; and when ill fed, will 
 never attain to their proper size and proportion 
 
 Lastly, the food, whatever it may be, should not be too suddenly 
 changed. It is seldom profitable, to bring lean animals immediately 
 from coarse, to rich pastures $ and a change from dry, to succulent 
 
132 6N LIVE STOCK. 
 
 food, and vice versa, should be gradually effected. A change of 
 pasture, however, of the same quality, tends to produce a greater 
 accumulation of fat. 
 
 It may be proper to add, that nature seems to have designed 
 different sorts of animals for different purposes. A breed of cattle, 
 equally well adapted to the butcher, to the dairy, and to the plough 
 or cart, is no where to be met with; and, so far as experience 
 enables us to judge, these properties are hardly consistent with each 
 other, and belong to animals of different forms and proportions. A 
 lieavy Leicestershire sheep, for instance, was never intended to 
 travel great distances, or to search for its subsistence, in a rugged or 
 mountainous country. The judicious breeder, therefore, will fix 
 upon one object to be principally attended to ; and he will endeavor 
 to rear that species of stock, the best suited to attain the object he 
 has in view, or, in other words, the most likely to pay the most 
 money, with the least food. That can only be obtained, by an 
 attention to the principles of breeding, and the practice of the most 
 eminent farmers who have excelled in the art. 
 
ON EMBANKMENTS IN SCOTLAND. 133 
 
 [from the ii vol. or sir john Sinclair's agricultural report.] 
 
 On the Embankment of Rivers. 
 
 Sect. I. — On protecting Land from the encroachment of Rivers ,■ 
 by defending and securing their Banks, dfc. 
 
 jCjl RIVER that flows in a confined channel, is apt to commit 
 ravages on the adjoining land, by the continued action of the stream 
 gradually breaking down, and carrying away the banks, where they 
 are of a soft, loose, and friable or penetrable nature. The danger 
 of the soil being carried away in floods, is increased or diminished, 
 according to circumstances ; such as, the form of the banks; the nninre 
 of the soil ; the rapidity of the current ; and the quantity of water 
 that, after floods, lodges on the margin of the banks, or falls over 
 them into the river. 
 
 When the banks of a river are perpendicular, or nearly so, if the 
 soil be of a sandy or mouldering quality, the danger of their being 
 washed down and carried away by floods is greater, than where they 
 slope gently, from the surface of the field, to the bed of the river. 
 But, if the soil and subsoil be of a clayey or adhesive loam, and the 
 current presses equally, and not more upon one part than upon 
 another, a simple and efficacious improvement may be made, by 
 sloping the bank so, that it forms an easy declivity, from the surface 
 of the field, to the beaV M the river. This slope soon becomes 
 closely coated with grass, and the water, by gliding gently along, 
 is in no danger of making a breach or encroachment, in any part 
 of it. 
 
 As a proof of this, it always appears, that wherever there is a 
 gradual slope upon the bank of a river, and the grass growing upon 
 it naturally, that the greatest flood makes no impression, nor does it 
 any injury, as the water passes over it gently, and not being confined 
 or opposed, has room to spread. On the contrary, when it conies^., 
 against a ragged or abrupt bank of earth, it soon undermines, and 
 brings it down in great quantities. This is so obvious to the 
 slighest o|||erver, that it is astonishing, so simple and easy a remedy 
 should not be resorted to, in all cases where the banks are of this 
 fast description. 
 
134 ON EMBANKMENTS 
 
 A stream of water having naturally a greater inclination to recede 
 from, than to surmount the obstacles it meets, it always takes an 
 angular or serpentine course ; and it is in consequence of the river 
 thus dashing from side to side, that injury is done to the banks. 
 Were a river to flow in a straight line, (which it would invariably do, 
 if not interrupted,) or even nearly so, it would make no encroach- 
 ment on its banks. 
 
 The most effectual remedy in snch cases, must therefore be, to 
 straighten the course of the stream. 
 
 This is an operation which, in respect of natural circumstances, 
 might in many cases be performed with little difficulty and expense, 
 and, where most essential, usually with the greatest facility. But 
 the smallest improvement of this kind, is in general rendered 
 impracticable, by minute divisions of property, and other attendant 
 causes. A river is considered to be so far a common subject, that 
 k while a proprietor is entitled to take every natural advantage of the 
 stream in passing, he is interdicted from executing any operation 
 upon it, which can prove injurious to the other individuals, who 
 possess land upon its banks. For example, if by ponds or dams, 
 he throw back the water upon a superior property, or by juttees, 
 direct its strength upon the opposite bank, or by straightening the 
 channel make the river rush with more than usual violence upon 
 the inferior lands; he will commit an injury in each case, of which 
 his neighbor has a right to complain. There is, in fact, in every 
 situation, such a collision of interests, that it is seldom possible to 
 reconcile them in any violent alteration on a river ; and, above all, 
 in so radical a one as that of straightening the channel. 
 
 The case in which this measure may be recommended as most 
 expedient, is that of those mountain streams, which intersects the 
 haughs, or hollows between the different ranges of hills and high 
 lands. All these haughs possess soil of the richest kind, composed 
 of particles of earth washed down from the heights ; and they form 
 the most valuable portions of land, both in the low country and in 
 the highlands. But in consequence of the streams that intersect 
 them being allowed to roam at pleasure, a great portion of the soil 
 is in each instance unnecessarily lost, and what remains, is so 
 constantly liable to be broken up and destroyed, that the produce 
 of haugh lands rests altogether upon a most precarious tenure. To 
 explain these facts, it may be remarked, that when a stream is 
 permitted to wander at will through such hollows, it occupies, by its 
 devious course, four or five times the quantity of ground which it 
 would if carried in a straight line ; that in consequence of the 
 angular outline of the banks, the river strikes against them with 
 violence, and continually makes encroachments ; and that by the 
 circuitous direction of the stream, and the turbulence which that 
 occasions, the evil effects of every flood are greatty increased. 
 
 The advantages of straightening such a stream accordingly, are, 
 1 That a great addition of valuable soil will be obtained ; 2. That 
 the stream will be rendered more placid, less capable of cjping injury 
 to the banks, and less extensive in its inundations. 
 
IN SCOTLAND. 135 
 
 The execution of the operation is moreover much easier in this 
 than in other cases. The streams which take their course through 
 haugh lands, are in general nearly exhausted, sometimes entirely so, 
 during the summer months ; so that an alteration of the channel, at 
 that period of the year, may be accomplished with considerable 
 facility. And further, the soil, as well as substratum of haugh lands, 
 consists generally of loose and incohesive materials, which are easily 
 dug and removed. 
 
 The great object, in improving the course of a haugh stream, 
 should be, to lead it as straight forward as possible. If the haugh 
 be winding, or there be obstructions, which prevent a cut from being 
 made in a straight line from the entrance to the outfall, the stream 
 should be led from side to side of the haugh in straight reaches, 
 always endeavoring to make some prominent rock, or point of 
 sufficient firmness to resist the current, the vortex of each angle; or, 
 where such cannot be found, raising a bulwark of stones in its place : 
 or it may be led along the foot of the bank all the way, by which 
 means the haugh will be kept entire, and the natural bank will be a 
 barrier on the one side ; and the earth thrown out of the cut will be 
 sufficient to form an embankment on the other, and likewise to fill up 
 the old channel. 
 
 When a new channel is designed to be cut, its breadth may be 
 less than that of the old, while its depth ought to be greater ; because 
 the narrower and deeper a channel is, the water always flows with 
 greater ease and regularity. The lines of the intended banks being 
 marked out, the earth should first be dug out from the middle of the 
 inclosed space, to the full depth proposed ; and on each side, the 
 depth of the excavation should be gradually lessened, so as to form 
 a convexical slope to the tops of the banks, this form being of all 
 others the best fitted for diminishing the pressure of the water. 
 
 To secure the new banks against the action of the stream, they 
 should be carefully faced with stones or turf. The former compose 
 the best defence, and may in most cases be employed, as abundance 
 of stones is generally to be found on the banks of mountain streams. 
 At the bottom of the facing, the stones should be of the largest sort, 
 and sunk well into the ground, to prevent the water from undermining 
 the bank. In carrying up the rest of the wall, the stones should be 
 laid endwise, their inner ends pointing to the same centre like the 
 stones of an arch ; and earth or gravel, should be rammed firmly 
 behind, as the work proceeds. Between the stone-work, and the 
 green sward on the top of the bank, there should be several layers 
 of thick tough sods, which will not only serve to bind the stones 
 but make the junction of the work with the natural bank, smooth 
 and compact. When the whole facing is executed, the stones and 
 sods should be forcibly beaten into the bank with mallets and rammers 
 in order to make it more firm and secure. If any fissures still 
 appear, long splinters of stone should be driven in, which will not 
 only fill up the vacant spaces, but act as wedges to fasten and conso- 
 lidate the rest of the work. When sods are employed to make the 
 facing instead of stones, the foundation ought at all events to be 
 defended by large stones ; and it may also be proper to drive a 
 
136 ON EMBANKMENTS 
 
 single or double line of stakes into the bank, to prevent the current 
 from tearing away the sods. 
 
 in the case either of stone or turf facing, it has been useful to 
 scatter a quantity of course hay-seeds over them, as they vegetate 
 quickly, and tend greatly to fasten the work. The firmness of the 
 bank may also be considerably increased, by setting willows or other 
 aquatic plants along the top. 
 
 The most difficult branch of the whole operation, is that of leading 
 the stream out of the old into the new channel. When the mouth 
 of the new cut can be made to fall in with a bend of the old channel, 
 the change may be made with comparative ease, as the current will 
 flow into the new channel in a straight line. In this case, the 
 materials dug out in forming the mouth of the new cut, may be 
 sufficient, when thrown across the old stream, to turn jts course. 
 But if the alteration of the channel be abrupt, and the stream strong, 
 it will be requisite to raise a pier of stone upon the bank of the old 
 channel, to direct the current forward to the new one, a water-tight 
 dam being formed between the point of the pier and the new bank. 
 
 The materials dug out from the new channel, may either be 
 employed in filling up the old one, and thus facilitating its future 
 conversion into arable or -pasture land ; or if the stream be liable to 
 high floods, they may be used in erecting embankments on each side 
 of the new channel. 
 
 In the case of vale rivers, the expedient of straightening the 
 channel is equally advisable, though not so practicable, as it is upon 
 alpine streams, in the latter case, a cut three or four feet deep may 
 frequently suffice, and stones for erecting piers, and facing the banks^. 
 are found in abundance ; while in the former, a depth of from ten to 
 twenty feet is sometimes necessary, and stones are not obtained 
 without considerable difficulty. There may, nevertheless, often be 
 situations, where the extent of ground to be acquired by a new cut 
 through a valley, will amply repay every expense and trouble 
 attending the operation. 
 
 Of many similar instances, the following is one, where nearly 
 1000 acres have been secured in this way, at a very trifling expense; 
 and, as a particular description of it may be useful, in directing the 
 execution of operations of the same kind, it is given at length. 
 
 In the parish of Kilsyth, Stirlingshire, the riveif has its course for 
 upwards of four miles, over a plain of small declivity, and of a soft 
 loamy soil. It formerly straggled in many directions over this plain, 
 in a channel of very little depth. At every turn it took, it was 
 gorged up into a pool, and was overgrown with aquaitc vegetables. 
 At every flood, the whole valley presented the appearance of a lake; 
 the hay and corn harvests were frequently ruined ; and several fields 
 naturally of rich soil, were'rendered incapable of cultivation. 
 
 About the year 1793, Sir Archibald Edmoudston of Duntreath^ 
 Bart, who was proprietor of the lands, on the north side of the 
 river, for more than four miles, employed Mr. Witworth, an eminent 
 engineer, to form the plan of a new cut, sufficient at all times to 
 contain the waters of the river, and as nearly in a straight line, as- 
 the situation of the grounds, and the course of the river would 
 
IN SCOTLAND 137 
 
 admit. To induce the proprietors on the south side to join in this 
 useful undertaking, he generously offered to lay out two thirds of the 
 expense himself. So slow, however, are persons of unenlightened 
 minds in discerning their own interest, that only a few of them, at 
 that period, acceded to these advantageous terms. During the first 
 year, only about a mile and three quarters of the new cut were 
 executed. But the advantages of this partial improvement soon 
 became so obvious, that the greatest part of the conterminous heritors 
 concurred with Sir Archibald in prosecuting the plan, though not 
 altogether upon such liberal terms, as ajust sense of their own interest 
 might have dictated. Early in the course of the second year, the 
 cut was completed in the parish of Kilsyth. 
 
 The dimensions of this cut were varied judiciously, according to 
 the gradual increment which the river receives in iis course. For 
 the first mile from above, where the river is of considerable extent, 
 it is from eighteen to twenty feet wide at the surface, by ten to twelve 
 at the bottom. Throughout the second mile it is from twenty-two to 
 twenty-four feet wide at the surface, by fourteen or sixteen at the 
 bottom. Throughout the remaining part, it is about twenty-eight 
 feet at the surface, by sixteen to eighteen at the bottom. 
 
 The first part of this cut was undertaken by the contractor at 
 twopence per cubic yard, but he was only bound to lay down the 
 earth regularly at the distance of a yard from the cut. without any 
 obligation to form it into a regular sloping bank. It was understood 
 that the counterminous heritors would execute this part of the 
 operation. As they, however, proved negligent in this respect, it 
 was found necessary to enlarge the contract : and twopence farthing 
 per cubic yard was allowed for cutting, and for forming rhe bank. 
 The low rate at which this contract was entered into, may be 
 accounted for at this day. not merely from the facility of working in 
 a rich loam or clay, but chiefly from the well-known, and by many, 
 severely felt, depreciation of money from that period. Such a work 
 would not probably be now undertaken for less than fourpence per 
 cubic yard. The expense of the whole of this cut, through Kilsyth, 
 did not exceed £600. 
 
 ' The embankment on the sides of the cut is erected about three 
 feet from the brink, and is, for the most part somewhat more than 
 three feet in height. It may afterwards be raised, should it be found 
 necessary, a foot or two higher, leaving a water-course of between 
 thirty and forty feet in width, which could contain nearly double the 
 quantity of water that now runs. 
 
 The improvement, which has been now described, has been 
 productive of very important advantages in this naturally fertile 
 district. The declivity, or fall of the river, throughout the tract, is 
 about eighteen feet. The waters which formerly, in their crooked 
 course, were almost wholly stagnated, now run at the ordinary rate 
 of the declivity which is given them. They never overflow their 
 banks. Cattle can now pasture upon those grounds in which they 
 would have formerly been swamped. The surface of the water 
 being now, for the most part, four, and sometimes six feet below 
 that of the adjacent fields, this cut serves as a general drain to the 
 
 18 
 
138 ON EMBANKMENTS 
 
 whole valley; so that three hundred acres Of meadow may be 
 converted into arable land ; sixty acres of moss niay be converted 
 into meadow ; and five hundred acres of arable land are already 
 rendered of double value. 
 
 If the winding of a river cannot be altered, either from natural 
 obstacles, or from the opposing interests of proprietors; or the 
 expense of the alteration be such as to render it unprofitable, it then 
 becomes the duty of proprietors to consider, how far the subsisting 
 channel can be improved, so as to lessen the violence of the stream ; 
 or what means can be adopted, for guarding their own lands, without 
 injuring those of their neighbours. 
 
 As the impediments a river meets, are the cause of its being 
 turbulent, the first and most obvious thing to be done, is, to remove 
 all heaps of mud, stones, trees, or bushes, which are collected in the 
 channel, and obstruct the course of the water. 
 
 At those places where the river encroaches, the means which may 
 be used to defend the banks are various. In some instances, bul- 
 warks of stone, laid regularly in wooden frames, have been raised ; 
 but though some wooden frames facilitate the construction of the 
 work, they prove ultimately injurious to it; for, in consequence of 
 being alternately wet and dry, they soon rot and give way, leaving 
 wide gaps, through which the water enters and breaks up the em- 
 bankment. In some places, large sloping cauls of loose stones have 
 been employed ; but where the extent of the bank to be defended is 
 great, or timber scarce, such a bulwark is expensive, while it is at 
 best only temporary. 
 
 Another method has been recommended by Dr. Walker in his 
 Economical History of the Hebrides, as preferable to either of these. 
 " Form a single or double line of stakes in the bed, or on the bank 
 of the river, of the branches of trees. These stakes may be from 
 the thickness of one's wrist to that of a man's leg; they are to be dri- 
 ven into the soil between two and four feet deep, and reach above the 
 ground, or above the water, a little higher than the greatest flood. 
 They may be from six to twelve inches distant from each other, and 
 if there is a double row, they are to be placed in the quincunx 
 order." 
 
 " Such stakes thus situated, can neither be displaced nor shaken 
 by any force of water ; they stop and entangle every sort of refuse 
 brought down by the river; they intercept the mud and the gravel, 
 which gradually form a bank, and force the river to establish a barier 
 against its own incursions ; a barrier likewise far more efficacious 
 and more permanent, than any that can be formed by art, with earth 
 and stones." 
 
 It is an obvious property of this mode of defence against the 
 encroachments of rivers, that it is easily and quickly executed, and 
 at a mere trifle of expense. A single cart-load of such stakes, in 
 some situations, might effectually preserve many acres of rich land. 
 Every river, by'the above method, may be thus turned and directed 
 in its course at will. It would always be advantageous, if the stakes., . 
 employed in this way, were of the different sorts of willows. 
 
IN SCOTLAND. 139 
 
 (j These take root, grow and form a strong living fence against 
 the river But if stakes of willows cannot be provided, cuttings or 
 truncheons of willows ought to be sunk in along with the stakes, and 
 intermixed with them." 
 
 " For this purpose, the shrubby and low growing willows are 
 more proper than the mast willow, the osier, the crack willow, or 
 any others which urow up to a tree." 
 
 This mode of defence is judicious; but the difficulty of executing 
 U in a proper manner, may perhaps exclude it from general adoption. 
 To enable the piles to withstand the force of the river, they must be 
 sunk a greater depth into the ground than it is possible for any mallet 
 to drive them Dr. Walker mentions from two to four feet of depth 
 as sufficient ; but from the experience of others, it appears, that at 
 least eight or nine feet is necessary, to render the piles firm, and to 
 this depth they cannot be driven by any thing else than a pile engine, 
 which in many situations it is difficult, and in all circumstances 
 expensive, to procure. The inability of mallets to drive the piles, 
 was particularly shown by the experiments of Mr. Miller of Dal- 
 swinton, upon the river Nith in Dumfries-shire. In order to prevent 
 the encroachment of this river upon part of his property, he drove 
 in a number of piles at a little distance from the bank, and wattled 
 them with willows, branches, &c. The piles were driven with heavy 
 mallets apparently firm in the ground ; they continued so for some 
 months, till a heavy fall of rain having swelled the river, the piles 
 were undermined and carried away. 
 
 When there is an opportunity of executing a bulwark of piles 
 properly, the method adopted by Mr. Miller of wattling them with 
 willows, &c. will be extremely useful in intercepting the mud and 
 refuse brought down by the stream. 
 
 A more easy and effectual device, than any which has yet been 
 mentioned, for defending the banks of a river, is that of stone piers 
 orjuttees. The object of these is, to throw off the stream from 
 those places on which it threatens to make encroachments, to others 
 where it can commit no injury. 
 
 A jutty of this kind ought to be carried out in an oblique direction^ 
 so as to force the current gradually towards the intended point. 
 If formed too much at right angles with the stream, it will throw 
 the stream with violence on the opposite bank, from which it 
 will revert with double force upon the place immedine'y belo^ 
 the pier; so that instead of diminishing, it would increase the de* 
 structive effects of the stream. But if the jutty is pi t ced o Iiquely, 
 it will force the current gradually down the stream ; in which 
 position, one jutty may do more good, than several places impro- 
 perly at right angles. It may be further remarked, that when a pier 
 is abrubtly intruded into the natural channel, it requires from five to 
 ten times more strength of structure, than one which deviates 
 gradually from the direction of the water; in the one case there is 
 tioth the weight and force of the water, while in the other there Is 
 merely its weight to withstand. And, above all, it is important to 
 consider, that by making the pier in the direction prescribed, it 
 cannot occasion any injury to the opposite bank. 
 
140 ON EMBANKMENTS 
 
 The materials for constructing a guide of this nature, depend upon 
 the magnitude of the stream to be directed. If it be small, a ridge 
 of stones thrown looselv in may suffice : a barrier of this sort is 
 both cheap and effectual, and when injured by any extraordinary 
 flood, is easily repaired. When the land through which it passes, is 
 Very valuable, and in the vicinity of a town, and the river is large 
 and rapid, so that a pier of considerable height is necessary, it is 
 proper, if the expense be not excessive, to construct the pier of stone 
 and mortar. In other situations, where masonry is too expensive, 
 and the ground of less value, it may serve the purpose, to employ 
 casoons, formed with piles and planks, or strong cases of wicker- 
 work, and filled with small stones or gravel, in order to give them 
 stability, and these should be sunk along the edge of tire banks. 
 These last expedients have been* practised most successfully, on 
 several pajts of the river Spey, and by Mr. Skene, at Careston, on 
 the banks of the river South Esk. 
 
 As the Spey is one of the most rapid and impetuous rivers in 
 Scotland, and as the methods of embanking it have been various 
 and expensive, the following description of these operations, in its 
 course through the park of Gordon Castle, where it is most un- 
 governable may be useful in similar cases, and is given, from the 
 Agricultural Survey of the county of Banff. 
 
 "It is believed that the Spey first began to make encroachments 
 on the skirts of the park of Gordon Castle, in September 1768, by 
 the violence of the highest flood which tradition has kept on record. 
 The first kind of embankments which were thereupon attempted, 
 were expensive bulwarks of stone, built by the mason, but without 
 mortar. Their appearance, indeed, bespoke both efficiency and du- 
 ration ; but, like other fair appearances, " it smiled deceitful ;" and 
 notwithstanding the continuance of expensive operations, the river, 
 frequently levelling the works, maintained the contest with success, 
 and, on the whole, gained ground, when the opposing power was 
 placed under the direction of the late Mr. Smeaton, who, on a brief 
 survey, disapproved of all the costly bulwarks, and directed nothing 
 more expensive than mounds of stone, loosely thrown together, al- 
 most at random, from the bed of the river, with no other art than to 
 be raised higher than the water could, at any time, surpass, and to 
 form a sloping shore, shelving back from the channel of the river. 
 The embankments constructed on this principle, have been, almost 
 to a wish, successful. The river now is, as it were, entirely subdued; 
 and the highest floods, although their violence in a thaw be exaspe- 
 rated by heavy masses of floating ice, hastens harmless along, dash- 
 ing onwards directly into the sea. 
 
 " On some occasions, there has been a departure in practice from 
 Mr. Smeaton's theory, by forming a kind of mole of stakes, in colla- 
 teral rows, to the breadth of four or six feet, driven firm into the gra- 
 vel, by the powerful repeated strokes of an appropriate engine. The 
 stakes were bound together, near the top, by transverse bars, and 
 supported by stones, thrown in to fill up nearly all the vacuities. 
 This kind of embankment was more expensive than the former, al- 
 though the timber was furnished, without price, from the forest on the 
 
IN SCOTLAND. 141 
 
 other side of the park, and it was less efficient, because, instead of di- 
 minishing the power of the stream upon the gradual shelving of the 
 slope, it was increased by direct accumulation against the perpendi- 
 cular side of the mole; and, instead of adding any depositions of 
 gravel, and turning the channel thereby to a greater distance from the 
 shore, the toirent was brought to bear harder on the pile, and any 
 gravel, which had been left there before, was swept bare oft'. The 
 ordinary bed of the river, was established along the course of this 
 kind of pier ; and it somehow not admitting easily of repair, brought 
 the case into a worse state, almost, than it had been before. 
 
 " To render this'kind of mole efficient, therefore, it would be ne- 
 cessary, to add also the shelving slope of stone along the base of the 
 pile, forming that gradually rising shore, which the river itself, on 
 some occasions, exhibits, and which no power of the flood, thence- 
 forth, ever injures ; as if nature would thereby teach us, the only se- 
 cure mode of guarding against the robberies of the torrent." 
 
 When the pier consists of masonry, it has been found prudent, to 
 throw in a number of large rough stones against the foundation, in 
 order to prevent the stream from undermining it. Opposite to the 
 head and outer point of the piers, piles should also be driven into the 
 channel, to break the force of the water, and secure these important 
 parts of the work from dilapidation. 
 
 There is another evil that piers are exposed tq during floods, of 
 which it is proper, also, to take notice. When the river surmounts 
 the pier, the body of water which falls over, naturally scoops out a 
 pit in the ground behind, and undermines the precipice over which it 
 tumbles. This evil may be wholly removed, by raising the pier so 
 high, as to prevent any overfall ; but, this is a remedy too extreme to 
 be often advisable. The most prudent plan is, to endeavour to break 
 the strength of the fall, or to shield the ground from its violence. Fop 
 the former purpose, the back part of the pier may be made with a 
 shelving, or flatly inclined surface : for the latter, a strong convex 
 floor, paved with stone, may be made behind the pier, to receive the 
 fall of the water. Of the efficacy of this last method, Mr. Marshall* 
 gives a strong example. tl Some ten or twelve years ago," he says ? 
 " finding that the foundation of a sea-wall, (or strong stone-facing 
 against a wide open estuary, j over which a large body of water, in 
 times of floods, falls six or eight feet perpendicular, was constantly 
 under repair, though every known expedient had been used to coun- 
 teract the effect, I directed a convex floor, nearly in the form of at 
 shield, to be laid with strong rough stones, its margins being secured 
 with the largest stones, as butments to the arch ; the broad end of 
 the shield buts against the foundation of the wall, and receives the 
 water on its strongest part, the point gently declining to lead off the 
 water smoothly into the sea. It still remains perfectly firm ; per^ 
 haps, indeed, firmer than when it was first put down." This is a 
 ease, where, its being a protection from the sea : it required more par- 
 
 r 0n Landed Property . 
 
14& ON EMBANKMENTS 
 
 ticnlar strength, and, consequently, would be more expensive, than 
 what is necessary in the case of rivers. 
 
 The expedient of juttees, which has been already explained, is cer- 
 tainly preferable to any other mode of defending the banks of a rapid 
 river, both in point of ease and efficacy, and deserves tp be more gen- 
 erally adopted than it is. A strong instance of its superiority occur- 
 red # in the case of the river Nith, formerly mentioned. After the 
 pil^s which. Mr Miller raised had failed, he resorted to the use of 
 juttees, and found them to succeed completely. Those which he has 
 erected, have a convexical slope on the side next the current, in or- 
 der to diminish the pressure of the water ; and strong planks are also 
 firmly set on edge among the stones, their ends pointed towards the 
 river ; so that to commit the smallest injury, the stream must move 
 the whole body of stones on the line of each plank. 
 
 Where a river flows slowly, and its banks are of a soft earthy na- 
 ture, the mode of resisting encroachments should be different from, 
 and will be less expensive than, any which has yet been mentioned. 
 Let a large quantity of the smallest branches of trees, of broom, 
 whin, bramble, or such-like brush-wood, be placed in the river, near 
 the side where it threatens to encroach. If the river runs slow, they 
 require merely to be thrown in ; but, if its current is considerable, 
 they must be stuck into the bottom, and fastened with stakes, driven 
 through them into the sides of the bank This heap of rubbish, in- 
 tercepts the slime and mud of the river, which quickly accumulates 
 into the bank, and becomes a most effectual defence against any fur- 
 ther eneroachment in that quarter. 
 
 Such are the principal methods that have been successfully em- 
 ployed, for protecting and securing the banks of rivers in Scotland. 
 There may be other expedients, but these being of less efficacy, only 
 temporary in their duration, and impossible to recommend them to 
 practice, it is unnecessary to describe them. 
 
 J5ect. II. — On the embankment of low ground on the side of Ri- 
 vers, to prevent inundation. 
 
 In those wide and extensive regions that lie under a warm climate, 
 the rivers are generally periodical in their inundations, from the 
 rains falling only at certain periods of the year ; and the regularity 
 of the floods is greater in proportion, as the rivers are extensive in 
 their course. Thus, the Nile, the Niger, the Pegu, the Ganges, the 
 Euphrates, and the Plata, are distinguished for their regular and an- 
 nual floods. 
 
 In these cases, an inundation, instead of spreading ruin in its pro- 
 gress, is the source of> extraordinary benefit. The mud and slime 
 which it deposites, form a regular supply of the richest manure, the 
 soil is raised to the highest degree of fertility, and being constantly 
 recruited, can never be exhausted. The inhabitants too, beinjj al- 
 ways aware of the precise time at which the inundation will take 
 place, have it in their power, to provide against its doing injury, and 
 
IN SCOTLAND. 
 
 148 
 
 to prepare the grouird for receiving the nutriment with which the 
 water is stored. 
 
 Rut in countries like Scotland, which are narrow in extent, over- 
 spread with mountains, and exposed to a variable and humid climate, 
 the rivers are short in their progress, and liable to be suddenly swol- 
 len. A flood, then, invariably commits wide and severe ravages. 
 Sometimes it entirely strips the land of its vegetable soil ; at others, 
 covers it with a thick bed of sand and gravel. Not unfrequenrly the 
 water loses its usual course, and cuts a new channel through rich and 
 cultivated fieids ; and the most disastrous scene of all, is. to behold 
 Valuable crops, and sometimes herds of cattle, swept off by the flood. 
 
 " Wide o'er the brim, with many a torrent swell'd, 
 And the mix'd ruin of its banks o'erspread, 
 At last, the roused-up river pours along; 
 Resistless, roaring, dreadful, down it comes, 
 From the iiide mountain, and the mossy wild, 
 Tumbling through rocks abrupt, and sounding far i 
 Then o'er the sanded valley floating spreads, 
 Calm, sluggish, silent." 
 
 The flat Hanghs, (as they are called in Scotland) or low ground, 
 formed near the entrance, and on the sides of rivers, are, for the most 
 part, composed of the richest and most fertilized particles of earth, 
 brought down by the stream, from the adjacent country, through 
 which it flows These, from their situation, are often exposed to de- 
 vastation, by their banks being encroached upon, and carried away 
 in time of floods, whereby a portion of valuable soil is lost, and a bank 
 of sand, or gravel, lodged on the opposite side, in its stead. But, 
 besides the gradual injury which the adjoining land sustains, from 
 this operation of the current on the edge of the banks, (as has been 
 explained in Sect. I,) the surface of the whole fields, thus situated, is 
 exposed to inundation, when the river is swollen by the rain, and the 
 torrents which descend from the neighbouring heights ; often sweep- 
 ing away the crop, and deteriorating the soil, by the lodging of sand 
 and gravel at one place, and the carrying a>vay the mould at another. 
 A sudden and rapid flood, has also the effect of changing the course 
 of a river ; making it abandon the old, and take a new channel, 
 through part of the ground, perhaps more valuable, by its being better 
 cultivated, and, on that account, more loose, and easily acted upon 
 by the current. In this case, the loss is aggravated, by the old chan- 
 nel being a useless waste, in addition to the space occupied by the 
 new course which the water has taken. 
 
 Accounts of havoc committed by such inundations, abound in all 
 the county reports, and imperiously enforce the necessity of adopting 
 measures to prevent them. From the following detail of the evils 
 committed in one district, a judgment may be formed, of the general 
 loss sustained by the country : " The haughs of Isla," says the sur- 
 veyor of Perthshire, " from Ruthven bank to the mouth of that river, 
 a distance of ten miles, are exposed to inundations, which are great 
 and destructive. In the glens lying north of the Stormont, floods do 
 great havoc among the hay and other crops. In Athol, at Bun ran- 
 noch, in Glendochart, and Glenloehy, torrents from the mountains 
 
144 ON EMBANKMENTS 
 
 swell the rivers so suddenly, that they spread. far and wide, and, in 
 many places, beyond their banks, and frequently sweep oft' almost 
 the whole labours of the year. The Tay and the Earn, the Devon, 
 the Allan, and almost every river within low banks, which takes its 
 course through flat land, brings desolation on the finest fields, which 
 fie on its sides. 1 "* 
 
 In the northern counties of Scotland, inundations are not so fre- 
 quent as in the southern. The reason is, that where a channel is 
 rocky, which is the case with most of the highland rivers, it is gene- 
 rally deep, and the river seldom overflows its banks ; but where the 
 intersected strata is of a soft and gravelly kind, as in the low country, 
 the channel is invariably shallow, and quickly filled. 
 
 The manner in which inundations proceed, deserves particular at- 
 tention, because from observing this, we shall be the better enabled to 
 discover the proper remedy. u When a river swells," says the 
 learned BufTon, " its celerity uniformly increases, till it begins to 
 overflow the banks. From that moment its rapidity is checked, 
 which is the reason why inundations always continue several days ; 
 for, though the quantity of water should be diminished, after the com- 
 mencement of the inundation, it would, notwithstanding, continue to 
 overflow 5 because this circumstance depends more on the celerity 
 than the quantity of water. If it were otherwise, rivers would often 
 overflow their banks for an hour or two, and then retire to their chan- 
 nels, which never does happen. An inundation, on the contrary, 
 always lasts some days, supposing the rains have ceased, and less 
 water runs in the river, because the overflowing of waters diminishes 
 their celerity; and, consequently, although the same quantity of wa- 
 ter arrives not in the same time as formerly, the effect is the same, as 
 if a larger quantity had been brought down." 
 
 Further, it may be observed on the motions of water, that, mathe- 
 matically speaking, if a river runs on a bottom having an equal de- 
 scent, the velocity of the water will increase, the farther it runs. 
 Thus, suppose the descent to be one foot per n He, after the first mile, 
 the water will have acquired a velocity of eight feet per second ; after 
 four miles, its velocity would be sixteen per second ; and at the end 
 of sixteen miles, it would run at the rate of thirty-two feet per se- 
 cond ; its velocity, at A every point, being the same as would be ac- 
 quired by a body falling the same perpendicular height. These 
 rules, with regard to the motion of rivers, cannot, however, be so 
 accurately observed, on account of the perpetual obstruction the wa- 
 ter meets with against the sides and bottom of the channel they flow 
 in, which counteract the power of gravity, and reduce the water to an 
 uniform motion, where the declivity of the bottom and sides are regu- 
 lar. Supposing a given quantity of water is to be carried off, the 
 smaller the descent, the width and depth, or section of the river, must 
 be the greater ; for the water, running in a large body, and slower, 
 meets with a less proportional obstruction from the sides and bottom. 
 Also, supposing the same quantity to be discharged, the larger the 
 body it runs in, and the slower the motion, the more liable its course 
 is to be obstructed by stones, mud, weeds, &c. 
 
IN SCOTLAND 145 
 
 Larj*e and deep rivers run sufficiently swift, and discharge vast 
 quantities of water, with a descent of one foot per mile. 
 
 Small rivers and large burns require about two feet per mile. 
 Small burns scarcely keep a free course under four feet per mile. 
 
 When a cut or channel, therefore, is to be made for a river or 
 stream of water, through a tract of level ground, it is preferable to 
 make it deeper at the lower extremity, in order to give a greater de- 
 scent upon (he bottom all the way, than to make a broad and less 
 deep channel all the way upon a less descent ; for the former method 
 is attended with less expense of digging, and better calculated to keep 
 an open course. 
 
 From this explanation, it is obvious, that the leading principle of 
 all operations, to prevent a river from overflowing, should be, to in- 
 crease and preserve its celerity. 
 
 For this purpose it may be first observed, that it is much better to 
 deepen, than to widen a channel. A contrary advice is given by 
 some writers,* but, it is apprehended, without a sufficient attention to 
 circumstances. If a river were always equally full, there can be no 
 doubt, that to widen its channel, would prove a most effectual method 
 to confine it within its banks. But, as the quantity of water is con- 
 stantly fluctuating, the widening of the channel would produce the 
 following bad effects: 1. That when the stream happened to be 
 small, it would scoop out a winding bed for itself in the middle of the 
 channel ; and upon swelling, would follow the direction of this bed, 
 and, thereby, strike with violence against the banks. 2. That by- 
 lessening the depth of the river, its celerity would be diminished, and 
 its liability to overflow, of course, increased. For it is an establish- 
 ed fact, that celerity depends less upon the declivity of the channel, 
 than upon the weight of water. The importance of this objection is 
 confirmed by this remarkable fact, that when once a river acquires a 
 great celerity, it will both preserve it while running through a level 
 country, and even surmount heights, without spreading much to a 
 side, or, at least, without producing an inundation of any moment.f 
 3. That by diminishing the celerity of the river, it would be more 
 liable to be warped and impeded, as a greater quantity of sulliagfc 
 would thus be deposited in the channel. 
 
 At the same time, a caution must be given against carrying the 
 principle, here laid down, to an extreme. It is as pernicious to pen 
 a river within too narrow bounds, as it is to give it too lar^e an ex- 
 panse. The width of the channel, therefore, should be such as will 
 admit the water to flow freely, and maintain a proper velocity. 
 
 To deepen the channel of a river, all the means which have been 
 recommended for defending banks from encroachments, the removal 
 of obstructions, and the erection of bulwarks to prevent the stream, 
 from spreading, will be found extremely conducive. In some instan- 
 ces, these operations may even preclude the necessity of embanking. 
 
 Where rivers flow through a very flat country, and, consequently, 
 their current is less rapid, their overflowing, instead of being destruc- 
 tive, pften produces beneficial effects, by depositing mud and other 
 
 * Beatsor, &c. t Baff«» •» Hirers. 
 
 is 
 
14$ £N EMBANKMENTS 
 
 rich sediment, which tends to fertilize the soil in a very high degree. 
 Wh^re this is the case, embankment has a double advantage \ for, by 
 means of sluices, a portion of the water can be admitted at the upper 
 side, and retained at pleasure ; by which means, the influence of its 
 effects can be regulated as circumstances require. Those large ri- 
 vers, that flow through valleys of wide expanse, have always a 
 lengthened and crooked course, occasioned by the frequent changes 
 that take place, by floods acting against the soil of which the low 
 ground is composed. To make new and straight channels for such 
 rivers, would be the most effectual improvement; but this, in many 
 cases, would be attended with an expense, much greater than the ad- 
 vantages to be gained. In others, however, it would be advisable, to 
 straighten such parts as are very crooked, where the length of cutting 
 would be short, and the expense moderate By this means, the 
 length of embankment would be shortened and kept in a straight line, 
 which is a great desideratum. Indeed, the line of embankment 
 should be kept as straight as possible, even if the course of the river 
 be crooked ; for it is against the bends and turns, that the water has 
 greatest weight, and is most apt to burst the bank. The loss of this 
 ground, by its being excluded from culture, is counterbalanced by the 
 security which it provides, in giving the water more room, and, con- 
 sequently, lessening its force and pressure. 
 
 In all smaller streams, or Bums (as they are called in Scotland,) 
 Straightening, widening, and deepening the channel, is the first and 
 greatest improvement; and, in many cases, these operations alone 
 may be sufficient to confine the whole body of water in a flood, and 
 so render an embankment, or further defence, unnecessary. If the 
 capacity of the channel is not sufficiently enlaiged by these means, 
 the width between the embankments will require to be the greater, 
 and their height, and breadth at the base, the more. By examining 
 the flood-marks, and measuring their height, that of the embankment 
 may be ascertained ; but, it should always be raised from one to two 
 feet higher than the greatest flood ; for the materials of which it may 
 be formed, subside considerably, and that according to their height. 
 In general, it will be found, that rivers which flow freely, and have 
 no interruption in their course, even during the greatest floods, do 
 not rise more than five or six feet above their ordinary level ; so that, 
 in most cases, a bank of six or seven feet in elevation, will be per- 
 fectly adequate. 
 
 The slope of an embankment, should always be greater towards 
 the river, than to the land side, in order to avoid that lateral pressure, 
 which is so destructive, when the bank is formed too upright. The 
 sloping of the bank is of great use, in rendering it firm and secure; 
 as it makes the resistance indirect, and, of course, lessens the pres- 
 sure of the stream. On the north side of the Tay, between Errol 
 and Invergowrie, there are some old embankments of stone, which 
 lise nearly in a perpendicular line from the water. From being built 
 in this injudicious manner, they have been found so insufficient, that 
 it has been necesssry to erect piers or juttees, to protect them frorra 
 the violence of the current. 
 
JN SCOTLAND, 14# 
 
 The base of an embankment, should be three times the breadth of 
 its height ; and its width at top, should be one-third of that height, 
 The line of embankment, should be kept at a proper distance 
 from the edge of the river bank ; and the stuff of which it is 
 formed, should all be taken from the land-side, to prevent break- 
 ing and loosening th^ surface on that next the river, which would 
 expose it to encroachment from the current If th* j re be any 
 heights in the fields adjoining, within a short distance, the earth 
 may be partly taken from these, and from the cut that may be 
 necessary at the back of the embankment, for receiving the sur- 
 face water from the fields. The earth from this cut, should be re- 
 moved with a gradual slope backwards, so as to give an easy descent 
 from the surface to the bottom of the drain. All trees and brush- 
 wood, should be removed from the space betwixt the embankment 
 and the stream, to give* no interruption to the current, or to throw the 
 force of the water against the mound. Any tree or bush, in thr line 
 of the bank, should be removed by the root ; otherwise, it may shake 
 and keep the mound loose at that place, and give admission to the 
 water, A wooden frame, of the exact shape and size of the bank, 
 should be made, that the workmen may execute it with accuracy ; 
 for it is of consequence to have the mound formed regularly, and as 
 even and smooth as possible, that the water may meet with no ob- 
 struction, nor take hold of any inequality on the surface of the side 
 next it. In constructing the bank the earth should b< well trampled 
 and beaten down with heavy mallets, and that part of it of the firm- 
 est consistence, should be u^ed on the side next the river. That side, 
 should be faced with well-swarded turf, as soon as the slope is finish- 
 ed. It may be necessary to pin down the lowermost layers of turf, 
 and to water them, (if a dry season,) that they may adhere the more 
 firmly, and prevent the grass from decay. The side next the field, 
 may be sown with grass-seeds, and these may also be thrown upon 
 the other side, to close the interstices between the turfs, and to thick- 
 en the sward. 
 
 In executing an embankment, it should always be begun at the up- 
 per end, and proceeded with downwards ; finishing, if possible, the 
 portion of work for the day, in case of any sudden swell of the river 
 injuring it, if left irregular and not completed.. It is not necessary, to 
 found the bank any lower tlun the adjoining surface ; the turf only 
 may be taken off, which will be useful in covering the slope, and the 
 earth will unite more readily than it would do otherwise. A scarce- 
 merit of two 01 three feet, must be left between the edge of the em- 
 bankment, and the trench that is cut along the back of it. A paling 
 should be erected along the inner side of the scarcement, to prevent 
 cattle from going up., trampling upon, and breaking down the bank, 
 till it be fully consolidated, and swarded with grass. 
 
 Embankments are usually executed by contract, and may cost 
 from fourpence to sixpence the cubic yard. The contractor, for the 
 sake of greater security in the execution of the work, should be bound 
 to uphold it for the first two years. 
 
 All the water that may collect in the fields adjoining, should only 
 have one outlet through the embankment to the river, at the lowest 
 
14$ ON EMBANKMENTS, &C. 
 
 point, and that, by a pipe or square box of wood, with a valve or ticl, 
 fixed to the mouth of it by hinges on the upper side. The valve ill 
 shut in floods, to exclude the river, and the pressure of the land water 
 will open it when the flood subsides. I 
 
 It is improper to sow or plant any tree, hedge, or shrub that takes 
 deep root, or grows to any height, on the sides, or top of the embank- 
 ment ; for by these, the earth would be loosened, the water admitted, 
 and the mound shaken and carried away. If the seeds of rushes, 
 flags, or tussilago be sown, these will bind the surface, and "prevent 
 the water from making impression upon it. 
 
 Holes made by moles or mice, are also dangerous, on account of 
 their admitting the water into the bank, and should, therefore, be im- 
 mediately closed up. 
 
 Lastly, when the smallest breach appears, it should be instantly 
 remedied ; for, if the water once takes hold o( a broken space, it is 
 sometimes difficult to stop its progress. For these purposes, it is ne- 
 cessary to make a frequent inspection, where works of this kind are 
 on an extensive scale. 
 
 On the river Spey in Badenoch, the meadows on the estates of 
 Belville and Inverishie, that were formerly overflowed and inundated 
 by every flood, are now embanked in the most complete and secure 
 manner, according to the description that has just been given; 
 whereby above a thousand acres of land, are now rendered safe and 
 productive. On the Gordon and Findlater estates, much might be 
 done in the same way. On the Forth, Tay, Don, Beauly, Nith, ( ar- 
 ron, Earn, Isla, South Esk, &c. a great deal of land has been also 
 embanked in an effectual manner ; and on these, as well as many 
 other rivers in Scotland, the extent of land that might be preserved 
 and improved by this means, would amount to many thousand acres. 
 
 [For further explanation, the reader is referred to the plates accompanyiug 
 the 2d vol. of Sir J. Sinclair's Agricultural Report.] 
 
CULTIVATION OF RICE. 149 
 
 MEMOIR 
 On the 'Cultivation of Rice in India, 
 
 By Monsieur Logaux de Flaix. 
 Translated by Wm. Washington. 
 
 J. O prepare the land well, is the first axiom in Agriculture; to 
 make the best preparation possible, for the reception of the seed, is 
 the constant study and rare of the Hindoo- Agriculturist. The first 
 preparation is, to extirpate and burn all the weeds and remains of the 
 last year's crop. These agriculturists are fully convinced of the 
 importance of burning all the vegetables found on the ground. This 
 is what they deem a renewal of the earth. In effect, the fire, accord- 
 ing to the Hindoos, is useful, not only in destroying, without great 
 trouble, the roots of herbs and plants, but it is acknowledged, that 
 the action of this element so enriches the earth, as to render it unne- 
 cessary, either to manure or to leave the land fallow, and that it de- 
 stroys insects. Besides, these cultivators know, by long experience,, 
 that the ashes of plants contribute with water, to fertilize land. 
 
 It is to this constant practice, that we are to attribute the little la- 
 bour which the rice fields require, as well as their other fields. 
 
 These cultivators, who may be justly entitled the eldest of the hu- 
 man family, and the first agriculturists of the world, have equally re- 
 cognized the good effects of scattering salt over their land, or mois- 
 tening it, when planted, with sea-water. This salutary practice is 
 expiessly recommended by these cultivators, as calculated to increase 
 the product of the crop. This process is generally followed in that 
 vast region of the world, which we call the East-Indies. 
 
 Mr. Cossigny, in speaking of the Chinese cultivation, says, he has 
 seen the Chinese flow their fields, with salted water taken in at flood 
 tide. I will allow, that salt, by its caustic quality, is prejudicial to 
 some plants ; but this is only when employed in too great quantities, 
 or when it cannot be tempered by natural or artificial irrigations, 
 more or less frequent, according to circumstances, such as the tempe- 
 rature of the climate, the nature of the cultivation, that of the plants, 
 and the quality of the earth. But, I will observe, that salt is indis- 
 pensably necessary to the culture of rice, particularly when it grows 
 in such fields as can be inundated. 
 
 The experience of twenty years, during which time I resided in 
 India, enables me to speak positively. After having burnt all the 
 weeds and trash, and salted the land they commence putting the 
 land in order, by working it. I think it here necessary to observe^ 
 
150 ON THE CULTIVATION 
 
 that the Hindoos do not attach any very favourable ideas to deep 
 digging ; faithful to this principle, they never turn their ground to a 
 greater depth than four or five inches. They look to the water for 
 the success of their cultivation; and their hopes are well-founded. 
 The fields are divided into squares or parrallelograms, and ploughed 
 and harrowed. The rice is then sown, broadcast. Theriede-^ 
 signed for seed, ought to be well soaked, so that the weight of the 
 grain might sink it in the ground, for the field should be inundated to 
 the depth of eight or ten inches. They keep the water on, renewing 
 it at pleasure, according: to the dryness of the weather. 
 
 The Hindoos are the best cultivators of all the inhabitants of the 
 East-Indies. Their constant usage is, to soak all their grain for seed 
 in a strong brine, for the space of fourteen or fifteen hours, in order 
 that it might germinate quickly. The rice, thus soaked, germinates 
 on the second day. This practice, I believe, to be very useful for 
 all grain. The rice is taken up and transplanted from the fifteenth, 
 or at least, the twentieth day, and is cut twenty-four hours before it 
 is taken from the seed-bed-. 
 
 In Piedmont and Milan, this^transplantation takes place too late. 
 This tardiness is injurious to the vegetation and production of rice; 
 the stalks are then seven or eight inches high. 1 think it important 
 to remark, that rice, when transplanted* produces much more than 
 when left to grow in the same field where it was planted. 
 
 A crowd of experiments prove this assertion ; and I will here re- 
 mark, that having a second re-planting after the transplantation, I 
 produced more than a fourth beyond the usual product. But, this 
 advantage is illusory ; the rice is not so good, and it does not pay for 
 the trouble. Before transplantation, the land should be watered sev- 
 eral days, and the rice left in small tufts of three or four stalks toge- 
 ther, about twelve or fourteen inches apart. 
 
 One curious circumstance concerning rice, is the rapid growth of 
 its stalks, elonga'ting themselves in proportion to the depth of the 
 water. This vegetation is so rapid, as to be seven or eight inches in 
 a night ; but the product is not so good as ordinary. Except die 
 irrigation which the rice requires every three or four days, and some- 
 times oftener in very hot weather, this cultivation demands no labour 
 whatever, ever}' thing being then left to nature ; an advantage arising 
 from the preparation of the land, all the seeds of grain, parasitic 
 plants, or bad weeds, being removed. 
 
 The Hindoo cultivators use much less seed, whether of rice, or any 
 other grain, than they do in Europe. It is a fact, that ten or twelve 
 pounds of rice, furnished a biga of land ; whereas in Piedmont, they 
 take fifty pounds to a smaller extent of ground. The rice remains on 
 the ground three or four months. 
 
 Harvest. — Inventors of all the sciences and arts, the Hindoos have 
 made precious and exact observations on Agriculture, the first and 
 most useful of all arts. They are in the practice of changing the 
 water of the rice field, as soon as the flower of the plant is passed, as 
 
 * Sir John Sinclair makes the same remark respecting all drilled grain crops. 
 —"(Sit Code of Agriculture.) 
 
€>F RICE IN INDIA. 151 
 
 soon as its silver colour is changed to that of the star of day, which 
 they revere and call the father of the harvest and of life. Every day 
 after that epoch, they diminish gradually the water, and renew it as 
 soon as the grain is formed, so that the stagnant water can run ofl 
 before the plant is entirely dry. It is by this wise plan, that the ma- 
 turity of the grain is accelerated, and the straw prevented from rot- 
 ting. With the reaping hook it is harvested four or five inches below 
 the panicle or ear; the rest of the stalk is left to vegetate. Ten or 
 fifteen days after this, the straw is harvested for cattle. 
 
 Rice, in India, is not subject to any kind of malady, neither whilst 
 growing, or after harvest. Allowing it to remain in the rough, it 
 can be preserved ten, twenty, or even fifty years. Indeed I have 
 heard it said, it has been prese ved for a century. 
 
 Rice, by its excellent and nutritive quality, is the favourite nourish- 
 ment of more than half the globe. The Hindoos prefer it to any 
 other kind of food. It is the cause of the innumerable population of 
 that part of the globe. But the rice which the Hindoos eat, is differ- 
 ently prepared from that in Europe. They cook it in the rough, 
 before it is cleaned, under the impression that it is more wholesome, 
 and of a better taste ; and I think they are in the right. To prepare 
 it in this way, after having fanned it, they throw it into a pot of boil- 
 ing water, and it is taken out as soon as the water recovers its ebulli- 
 tion, and left to drain until it becomes quite dry. In this state it is 
 passed into a hand-mill, where the upper stone is very light, or 
 pounded with a wooden pestle, to take off the husk. This work is 
 done by females, placed opposite to each other ; they turn the mill, 
 or beat the rice, which is fanned frequently, until the husk is gone ; 
 this rice, thus prepared, serves for a bread which the Hindoos call 
 ape, and different kinds of pastry. 
 
 The Hindoos, who follow simplicity in all their machinery, clean 
 their rice by means of a simple machine, easily wrought and econo- 
 mical. The mill is wrought sometimes by two, and other times, by 
 four men. It cleans, in one day, with the aid of two men, two hun- 
 dred kilogrames, equal to five hundred quintals; it does not break 
 the grain as the machines do, which are used in Europe for the same 
 purpose. [Here follows the description, accompanied by a plate, .] 
 The chaff is used in feeding cattle, but it is mostly used in forges, 
 where it is of the greatest utility. It is used to accelerate the fusion 
 €>f metals, in the same way as borax and resin act upon gold and sil- 
 ver ; mixed with charcoal, it gives an astonishing activity and inten- 
 sity to the fire, containing a great deal of inflammable oil ; it pene- 
 trates and softens metals, calcines the earthy and heterogeneous 
 parts, and contributes to their malleability. 
 
 Rice is, generally, cultivated in such fields as can be watered, it 
 being the most preferable mode. There is, therefore, only one va- 
 riety, which is cultivated on dry land ; this is called grondeli. This 
 variety requires less water than any other ; it is soaked in strong 
 brine for thirty hours, before it is planted. The Hindoos never fail 
 to irrigate r^eir Innds, and it is to this method that they owe their 
 rich and abundant crops. 
 
152 ON THE CULTIVATION 
 
 Rice is a light and wholesome food, better fitted for invalids than 
 wheat ; it is so easily prepared, that in less than three hours, it can 
 be cleaned, cooked, and served upin sufficient quantities for a whole 
 company of grenadiers. Rice, when parched, detaches itself from 
 the chaff by the action of the fire ; in this state, the grains swell and 
 resemble flower, which are white within, and reddish without It is 
 called by the Hindoos pari, and is given to children as we give them 
 bons or sugar-plumbs ; it is also yerv useful in diseases generally, 
 and particularly bowel complaints 
 
 Rice is so much easier transported, and also safer than bread, that 
 it becomes a precious aliment for soldiers and sailors. The habitual 
 usage of the Hindoo is, to prepare a kind of bouillon drink of rice- 
 water, which they call cange, which is very nourishing. This rice- 
 water or cange, also serves as a menstrum for the composition of in- 
 delible ink, which retains its colour for ages ; it is also employed in 
 the fabrication of gunpowder. The charcoal moistened with this 
 bouillon, becomes stronger and more easily ignited. A fact of which, 
 I am convinced by many trials with this bouilion. The Hindoo 
 weavers prepare the chains of such stulls, whether silk or cotton, as 
 they have to weave ; it starches the threads better, and m.re econo- 
 mically than the paste which is used in Europe. It is acknowledged, 
 that rice-water is superior to starch. This cange is used in Italy, to 
 prepare their laces and silks. 
 
ON PLAINS OF TUSC\NT. 
 
 FfROM SIMONDE's AGRICULTURE OF TUSCAHy.} 
 
 % 
 
 The Plains of Tuscany* 
 
 15S 
 
 E^ 
 
 I VF.RY traveller in Italy, must be struck with the appearance of 
 its plains, which are very liitle like those of Champagne, or the other 
 parts of France, and in which one perceives, instantaneously, the 
 effect of water and its depositions, in the muddy sediment of a lake, 
 at the bottom of the hollow of a mountain in whirh that sediment is con- 
 tained. The waters that formed the lake, have opened to themselves a 
 channel, through which they have disappeared ; but the mud or slime 
 deposited by then during a period of ages, remains a smooth and uni- 
 form surface, exhibiting, manifestly, the f rmer presence of the water. 
 It is not very long since the plain of Persia, eleven or twelve mi'es 
 loner, and seven or eight miles wide, underwent this revolution ; the 
 waters of a marsh or swamp extended, in the sixteenth century, to the 
 very gates of the town, and filled this fertile basin. By degrees it 
 was drained, and a finishing hand was put by Peter Leopold, to this 
 conquest of its waves : he opened a drain to the marshes of Fucec- 
 chio, which his predecessors had closed for the sake of establishing a 
 fishery * 
 
 This deposit* of mud in the plain, has created a fertility that cannot 
 be described. Its uniform depth is from seven to eight feet : be- 
 neath which is a layer of gravel or quick sand, impregnated with wa- 
 ter to such a degree, as makes it imp'-ssible to keep it long fronj 
 springing up : it is, therefore, very difficult and expensive to lav the 
 foundations of any building This soil i of a greyish-yellow, li^ht, 
 friable, not gritty, but easily mixed vith water, and not separable 
 therefrom without difficulty. This quality, added to its fertility, has 
 obtained for it among the natives of that district, the name of terra 
 grass'f — rich mould. 
 
 Some of these rich spots, however, are not productive, and the de- 
 fect arises from another characteristic of these plains of Italy — that 
 of being always below the level of the rivers by which they are over- 
 
 * It is a little singular that this word, whether as a substantive or verb* is not 
 to be found in any good dictionary ; but custom sanctions it. 
 
 20 
 
154 ON PLAINS OF TUSCANY. 
 
 flowed, and which are confined, and, as it were, suspended between 
 very high banks. As soon as the traveller discovers a knoll planted 
 with tall poplars, he may be assured, that he has -a river before him. 
 The bank of the Pescia of Collodi, is higher than the highest neigh- 
 bouring houses ; yet, on the side of the river, it is scarcely ten feet 
 above the river's bed The banks of the Arno, in the approach to 
 Pisa, are elevated in a very different degree. As the sea of Tuscany 
 is, of itself, too high to receive the rivers that empty themselves into it, 
 particularly during the prevalence of a south wind, which drives them 
 back, it has been found necessary. to raise very high embankments on 
 these rivers, to prevent their overflowing the adjacent country, when 
 they cannot be discharged into the sea Subsequently, it has be- 
 come necessary to raise these banks from time to time, either because 
 the sediment deposited by the river, elevates its bed, or because the 
 Mediterranean sea appears to gain a higher level, so as to threaten, at 
 some future period, a general inundation of the plains of Italy, some 
 of the richest of which are below its level It has also become ne- 
 cessary, to restrain by a canal, all the rivers that empty themselves 
 into the Arno and the Serchio, for the purpose of regulating their de- 
 scent, so as to admit of their being received into these streams. Even 
 the lakes are surrounded by high banks ; and, notwithstanding their 
 immensity and solidity, when ruins are too abundant, or the course of 
 the rivers opposed by a south wind, these banks give way, inundate 
 the plain for many miles, and are the more destructive, because their 
 waters, in spite of every attempt to give them vent, find no outlet, 
 either into the rivers or the sea. 
 
 But, these inundations are not the only damage that these waters 
 occasion in the plains of Tuscany ; for, as the level of the waters is 
 always above that of the plains, these waters penetrate through all the 
 banks, resist whatever is opposed to them, and, in spite of the efforts 
 of industry, render marshy and unproductive grounds that seem cal- 
 culated by nature, to be eminently fertile. In soils moistened, or, as 
 the Tuscans say, chilled by this leakage of the banks, the vines and 
 mulberry trees, after yielding, for several successive years, fruits ot a 
 saltish taste, are attacked by rot. and soon perish. Corn, too, either 
 rots in the earth, or soon after it has sprung up ; a casualty which oc- 
 curs in all low lands, and. in most seasons, defeats all the planter's 
 efforts, if, after abandoning the seed sown in autumn, recourse is 
 bad to another planting in spring, he is not more fortunate, the effect 
 of so much moisture is agrain felt in the vitiated flavour of the produce 
 of the soil, so as to nake it unfit for feeding even the cattle ; nothing, 
 therefore, remains, but to aoandon fields from which the owner can 
 receive no return. 
 
ON PLAINS OF TUSCANY. 165 
 
 The Combletsy* or Warping. 
 
 Arthur Young, while travelling in Italy, heard of the Colmate or 
 fktmbl&s, the onty known method of restoring the fertility of land 
 rendered cold and swampy by water. It is probable, that finding 
 this process inapplicable to the agriculture of England, he paid little 
 attention to it ; at least, the account he gives of it is altogether erro- 
 neous. The Combkis are, however, the greatest and noblest of all 
 the results of agricultural science. 
 
 T!ie rains of Italy are so violent, that they wash away the soil of 
 the mountains ; waste and dissolve the schistus which forms the nu- 
 cleus of that soil ; and swell up the rivers with a fertile sediment* 
 These rivers, which, generally, resemble a small stream of water in 
 an immense plain of gravel, become, after a heavy rain, immense tor- 
 rents of mud. They soon spread themselves over beds that do not 
 seem made for them, rise to a considerable height, and press violently 
 against banks that a traveller would suppose useless or unnecessarily 
 strong. This muddy deposit (limon) too commonly disregarded and 
 lost, is carried to the mouths of the rivers where it accumulates, in 
 such masses as nearly to prevent all discharge of the rivers into the 
 sea. How noble, then, was the idea of forcing these rivers to depo- 
 sit on the plains they had overflowed, the sediment that impeded their 
 course, and thus to repair the ravages they had committed ! It 
 appeared practicable to surround these moist grounds with banks rais- 
 ed upon their surface, similar t > those by which all the rivers of Italy 
 are. inclosed ; to admit the river through an opening in the upper 
 part of its bed, so that, where it was most highly charged with mud, 
 it might make its way into the inclosure prepared for it, form a sort 
 of lake there, and deposit on the soil all that sediment with which its 
 waters abounded. When the waters became clear in consequence of 
 this deposit of sediment, and the river was nearly dry, its channel 
 was opened from below, and the clear water thus suffered to escape. 
 Three or four inches of this slime is sometimes deposited in one ex- 
 periment ; the operation is repeated as often as possible in the course 
 of the year, and continued for several successive years ; at the end 
 of which, the land is almost always sufficiently raised to prevent the 
 river, even in a time of inundation, from overflowing this spot, or, at 
 least, from forcing into it so much water, as would make it worth 
 while to recur to the procers* of deposition.'!" It is, by this time, ren- 
 dered useless, as well as impossible, to continue it. As soon as the 
 plain is thus elevated above the ordinary bed of the river, the latter, 
 instead of rendering the soil humid, serves as a drain for it. The 
 fertility of the soil thus artificially created, is almost incredible A, 
 spot in my neighbourhood, sown for the first time about two years 
 
 * A word not found in any French dictionary. 
 
 t The word deposition, in this sense, however common and eyea necessary, 
 jbas no place in any English dictionary of authority. 
 
156 £N PLAINS OF TUSCANY. 
 
 ago, yielded one hundred and twenty-five measures of grain for every 
 five measures of seed, twenty five for one.) 
 
 In order to make a comble*, ( or fictitious soil of this sort") it is ne- 
 fiecessary to be near a river, of which the slime or deposit is of a fer- 
 tilizing nature, tor some rivers deposit gravel only, or sand It is ne* 
 ce.^sary, too. that the river have a sufficient descent, or that it extend 
 sufficiently along the adjoining lands, to be capable cf receiving, by a 
 Iow« r sluice, the water taken in through an upper. It is further ne- 
 cessarv, that the undertaker of this mode of fertilization be possessed 
 of energy, industry, and great capital. The bank that incloses the 
 comblee last made by the Vjarquis Ferroni, near Pellavista, has a cir- 
 cuit of nearly three miles. Its breadth is such as that the road 
 around the " mbJet passes < ver the summit of the embankments, and 
 has on each side a border of poplar trees When the comblee is ter- 
 minated, this embankment will be suffered to remain for the purpose 
 of furnishing carpenters' stuff. It is true, th-=t there is no necessity 
 for proceeding on so large a scale, and, perhaps, several small ^clo- 
 sures may be preferable to a single large one. The bank of a large 
 comblee is proportionally less long, because the relation of the cow- 
 tour to the surface, is regulated by the breadth of the latter. On the 
 Contrary, in the smaller comblee 8, the banks require less height and 
 less depth ; the volume of water to be sustained by them, being less 
 considerable. 
 
 The finest comblees of Tuscany are those of the Val di Chiana, 
 which have rendered this marshy district the most fertile of the whole 
 State. These were undertaken by the Knights of St Etienne. Se- 
 condly, those { the comblees) of the plain of Pisa, the work of a con- 
 vent of the Chartreux, or rather of their steward or overseer, who, 
 from the power he has thus created over the waters, has obtained the 
 name of Neptune. Thirdly, those of the Marquis Ferroni, in thf* 
 Val de JNievoli, near the marsh of Fucecchio. 
 
 Method of Watering, (Arrosemens.) 
 
 Hydraulics and agriculture are, in Italy, very closely connected. 
 Recourse has been had to all possible means of draining such lards 
 as have no natural descent or slope ; of hindering overflow by rivers 3 
 of "'uch the mouths appeared to be higher than the intermediate 
 parts of their course ; of draining marshes situate below the level of 
 the adjoining waters: lastly, of compelling rivers to raise the soil of 
 lands that they would, otherwise, make wholly worthless. But the 
 Italians have displayed equal industry and sagacity in their manage- 
 ment of these waters, for the purpose of watering the adjoining lands. 
 The art of restraining and directing them at pleasure ; the immense 
 expense and prodigious labour employed on this object; and the ad- 
 vantage taken of the slope in the surface of the land, have been car- 
 Tie 1 by them to a degree of perfection, that strangers cannot too muck 
 admire. 
 
ON PLATNS OF TUSCANY. 157 
 
 To watPf the-lands, it is necessary to open two large canals, which 
 bran* h cut into an infinity of small ones. The channel <jf admission 
 (is iiin lagma receives the river-water at the most elevated 
 Sb< i << nducts them with the least possible inclination; keeps them 
 elevated considerably above the river, and causes them to produce 
 the irrigation necessary to fertility The channel of discharge, lo 
 Acolo, dug below the level of the high grounds, receives all the super- 
 fluous water, as -well from rain as from the artificial supply ; prevents 
 its stagnating on the land, and re-conveys them to the river at the 
 lowest point of its bed. The great nicety of watering, ■ onsists in 
 keeping the water first admitted, as> high as the le el of that part of 
 the river will permit, anrj to excavate the channel of discharge in 
 su:h a way, as to leave such an inclination as will prevent stagnation, 
 ana admit of its falling again into the stream from which it was first 
 taken. This caution is necessary, because the slope of the plain is 
 so trifling, that it must be strictly economised, anu no part of it lost. 
 
 To effect the greatest possible difference between the elevated 
 point of the river where the water is admitted, and the lower point 
 where it is discharged, the channel of admission is frequently opened 
 at some spot in the mountain, where the declivity of the river is con- 
 siderable. •' In the canal of Pescia, the opening made is at a height 
 ©f six miles above the plain ; along the whole of this course, the wa- 
 ter advances in the gora* very much above the level of the valley that 
 that is to be irrigated. It is true, that the expense necessary to effect 
 this great elevation of the water, is not solely with a view to agricul- 
 tural purposes. The gora has been thus elevated, in order to foi m u 
 succession of falls, each of which works a water-mill. The stream 
 intended to water the plain of Pescia, serves, before it reaches that 
 spot, to turn upwards of twenty paper-mills, many corn-mills, oil- 
 mils, and silk-mills — so that the last fall, below the town, brings them 
 to a level with the bed of the river at that spot." 
 
 1 he works necessary for conducting the canal half-mountain high ? 
 are very great. The declivity is sometimes so great, as to make \t 
 necessary, not only to form a channel of brick-work, instead of ex- 
 cavating it on the mountain's surface ; but, also, to supoort this by 
 a wall which, for a distance of two hundred yards, is at least twenty 
 feet high. In another part, the canal is supported by arcades, ten or 
 twelve feet above the ground, like a Roman aqueduct. These noble 
 works show how far water may be rendered subservient j but it is not 
 often that Agriculture requires such. 
 
 Of the three canals in the neighbourhood of Pescia, each contains, 
 commonly, about thre* feet of running water. In order to keep them 
 full, the two rivers are suffered, in summer, to become dry ; and as 
 two canals have their source in Pescia itself, one to the right, and the 
 other to the left, it is often necessary to make the water flow, alter- 
 nately, in one only of the two,. 
 
 The canal is inclosed between two low walls,(not above a foot high)- 
 anr'< has sluices in various pans of it I hese sluices are lew, and 
 force the water to rise ; :■• r passes fiver them; a part of the water is 
 thus driven into streamlets on each side of the sluices, by which it m 
 
158 ON PLAiNS OF TUSCANY. 
 
 Conducted to the lands. The owner admits the water thus brought, 
 to him, in a shallow ditch, dug in the highest part of his land; and, 
 in order to bring it to the level of his fields, interposes other sluices. 
 As each field is separated from the adjoining one try a ditch, the ,va- 
 ter is made to pass from one to another, by means of small sWne 
 bridges, or in wooden troughs. The water is admitted into the fields, 
 from the highest spot; and as they are divided into beds (plate- 
 band'es) of three or four feet wide, the water is introduced, siiccei* 
 sively, into the branches between the beds. As there is little or no 
 slope, it progresses slowly, and is absorbed by degrees, till the earth 
 is completely moistened ; so that a person, who might suppose that 
 he could walk dry-footed in the centre of one of these beds, would 
 sink, at once, far above his ancles. If the*water flows too rapidly in 
 the trenches, in consequence of too great a slope, it is checked by a 
 few spadefuls of earth, which cause it to penetrate effectually If, on 
 the contrary, there is not slope enough, the weight of water from be- 
 hind, serves to advance what is ahead. It cannot stagnate in the 
 trench, unless the labourer, unskilful or awkward, neglects to observe 
 the natural slope of the ground, and endeavours to force the water in 
 a contrary direction ; nor can this blunder ever be repeated, alter the 
 first season of his being supplied in this manner. 
 
 This mode of watering, is abundantly sufficient to moisten the 
 roots of the plants ; and the crust formed on the surface of the beds, 
 prevents a too quick evaporation. But, when the object is to water 
 slips (semis > seed-beds, or young plants, which require that the en- 
 tire surface of the ground shall be moist, the gardener places himself 
 in the trench, from whence, with a large wooden shovel, he scatters 
 the water as it advances to him, from right to left, and thus abun- 
 dantly furnishes the moisture requisite to the beds around him. 
 
 Letting off Water. 
 
 Whenever the waters are suffered to remain too long in the earth, 
 the roots of plants must perish. This is daily experienced in flower- 
 pots, and is not less true of fields and gardens. Land, therefore, 
 must he well drained by ditches, and those ditches must have an easy 
 and sufficient vent. The gores raised above the land, and every me- 
 thod of watering, as well as river banks, would serve merely to ren- 
 der the land marshy, if the ditches did not receive the moisture that 
 exudes through the sides of the canal, as well as that which remains 
 after the watering has been completed, and that the land discharges 
 in the process of becoming dry. The slope of these ditches, must be 
 sufficient to prevent any stagnation in them. 
 
 When the land permits the construction of a fall in the canal of 
 admission, immediately adjoining the sluice or lock by which the wa- 
 ter enters, this same canal or ditch may answer the double purpose of 
 furnishing the water in the highest part of the fields, and of receiving 
 b. 1 >w the fall, what is discharged by the ditches by which the fields 
 sre drained. In this manner, an advantage is gained from that part 
 
0N PLAINS OF TUSCANY. 159 
 
 ef the land which would have been appropriated to the canal of dis- 
 charge. But it becomes necessary to dig a ditch for this express pur- 
 pose, whenever, for want of a slope in the ground, it is essential to 
 economise the descent of the water. In general, it is evident that 
 land cannot be well watered, unless it has a sufficient declivity ; this 
 declivity is not, indeed, always perceptible, because a single field, or 
 even a whole estate, may be perfectly level. Lands adjoining these 
 nuy be much lower ; and, as this takes place somewhat irregulariy, 
 the irregularity is attributed either to chance, or to the greatei or less 
 depth 03 the ditches ; instead of being, as it ought to. be, attributed to 
 a declivity that actually exists. 
 
 As we advance, however, into the plain, this declivity really ceas- 
 es, and then irrigation becomes impossible. The waters must be 
 drained from the bottoms of the ditches, and cannot be raised to a 
 level with the surface of the land. Manual labour, indeed, will effect 
 this in part : the water may be bailed from the ditch into the trench. 
 This takes place, and is effected quickly enough ; but they do not, in 
 Italy, as with us, use watering-pots, a mode of applying moisture, 
 which two hours of sunshine render completely inefficacious. Nor 
 do they dig reservoirs for rain-water ; for these would not last during 
 the summer, and might, materially, tend to corrupt the air. But, in 
 some of the plains, where there are springs of water, as those of Pisa 
 and the Val d'Elsa, they dig large wells, from which they extract 
 water by means of a puiscrand '.-, or water wheel, turned by a horse. 
 These springs are generally so abundant in the plains, that ihe pui- 
 serandes furnish as much water as a stream. 
 
 The abundance of water thus furnished to their plants, is, doubt- 
 less, the reason that they are watered without injury even in the hot- 
 test weather; the gardeners apply it at all hours, both of day and 
 night, without the least bad consequence. Their custom is, to water 
 their vegetables, meadows, or grass lands, every eighth day (except 
 the seed b ds, semis') particularly young onions or other bulbous 
 plants, which require to be watered once in twenty -four hours. In 
 preparing land for seed they also let in water when it is very dry; 
 but let it remain afterwards for two or three days, before a spade is 
 put into it. 
 
 According to the best measurement that I have been able to make, 
 that part of the plain of Pescia that is watered, contains from four to 
 eight hundred yards in breadth, by four or five miles in length. Al- 
 most the whole extent of this ground is laid off into gardens ; for the 
 town of Pescia supplies vegetables to almost one fourth of Tuscany, 
 particularly to the great cities of Florence and Leghorn. The envi- 
 rons of Lucca are also cultivated as kitchen gardens, so far as they ad- 
 mit of being watered ; which is also the case with a small part of the 
 plain of Pistora. In general, there is hardly any part of Tuscany, 
 where agriculture, upon a large scale, receives this sort of water cul- 
 ture ; it is devoted almost wholly to garden grounds, to the exclusion 
 «f corn and forage. 
 
160 FOURCROY ON THE 
 
 [edinburg farmer's magazine.]' 
 
 w 
 
 Tourwoy on the Philosophy of Vegetation. 
 
 Part III. — On the Influence of Manure?, on Vegetation. 
 
 J[ the former division, it was shown, that pure single earths, pro- 
 pi ily or chemically so named, do not directly serve the purposes of 
 vegetation That water was the only suhstance which, by itself, was 
 capable of mpporting vegetable life, although it even did not supply 
 all the principles or elements necessary for ?he full growth and ferti- 
 lity of plant?. ; insomuch, that most of these fed only upon water, are 
 either very weakly in their vegetation, or do not perfect their fruits 
 and seeis. Although it has been long believed, that plants receive 
 their nourishment through their leaves, which they absorb from the 
 air of the sunounding atmosphere; so that they seem capable of 
 growing by means of the water, light, he t, oxygen gas, and other 
 elastic aeriform fluids, c ntained in the ordinary atmosphere ; yet, 
 from the whole series of agricultural facts and experiments, it is fully 
 ascertained, that by much the greater part of the nourishment of 
 plants, in general, is extracted from the earth or soil in which they 
 grow ; and that this has great influeuce upon their condition, their 
 vigour, the rapidity of their growth, and on the nature, taste, and fla- 
 vour of their fruits and other productions. 
 
 ft has long been observed, that, in supplying plants with the 
 principles necessary for th j ir growth und perfection, the soil in time 
 becomes exhausted, and that it then becomes necessary to restore t© 
 it what hss been lost. Hence it has been concluded, that something 
 must have passed from the soil into the growing plants ; that this 
 something necessarv to vegetation, was gradually wasted or extract- 
 ed from the soil ; and that, to restore its vegetative powers, it was re- 
 quisite to replace this loss. The addition or restoration of this nour 
 ishine vegetative substance to the soil, constitutes manure. Nature 
 perpetually furnishes the example of this incessant necessity, to re- 
 place the continual loss experienced by the soil, in consequence of 
 the growth of those vegetables by which it is penetrated and covered. 
 
PHILOSOPHY OF VEGETATION. l&i 
 
 Every year, that which has been absorbed from the soil by tne 
 growth of plants, is restored again, by means of the remains of those 
 plants which die: these remains accumulate on the surface, rot, and 
 become decomposed, end form successive layers of mould or vegeta- 
 ble earth, in which the germs of new plants are successively develop- 
 ed, and from which their young roots extract the elements of vegeta- 
 tive .nourishment. 
 
 3. In consequence of this natural succession, those parts of the 
 earth that are covered oy trees, and by plants of various kinds, grow- 
 ing every wheie under their shade, become gradually covered, to 
 greater or less depths, with a stratum of vegetable mould, owing to 
 which these parts retain feitility for a long while. In the stratum of 
 fertile mould, after cleaning away and cultivating the sites of ancient 
 forests, layers, slips, and seeds of various kinds acquire a rapid and 
 luxuriant growth. Hence, in consequence of the successive deposi- 
 tion of ages, the almost inexhaustible fertility of the lands which have 
 been reclaimed in various parts of the immense forests of America, 
 where the cultivators begin by cutting duwn or burning the ancient 
 vegetable inhabitants, to make way for the growth of several useful 
 plants, which do not thrive in our more temperate or cold climates. 
 
 4. In imitation of the process of nature, when soil has become ex- 
 hausted of its nourishing juices, or vegetative powers, by means of 
 too long continued or too luxuriant vegetation, the agriculturist, by 
 stirring up the ground with the plough or other implements, inserts 
 into, or mixes with it, the corrupted remains of vegetable or animal 
 matters, which are termed manures These, for the most part, are 
 composed of straw which has served as litter to animals; and which, 
 being impregnated with their dung and urine, are thrown into heaps, 
 that (hey may heat, ferment and rot, so as to become what is termed 
 muck.* Leaves of trees, impregnated in the same manner, heaped 
 up, heated, fermented, softened, decomposed, and rotted, are like- 
 wise employed for the same purposes. Bones of animals, horns, 
 even wood cut into pieces, or bruised into powder, are often employ- 
 ed as manures in some countries In some, human ordure, long kept, 
 is used as manure ; sometimes ever preserved till it has changed into 
 a pulverulent, dry, inodorous substance. 
 
 5. With the same views, men of knowledge, in conducting exten- 
 sive improvements of exhausted or impoverished land, placing upon 
 them numbers of animals, chiefly sheep, effect the process of manur- 
 ing in a large way, and very suddenly. These animals, finding suffi- 
 cient nourishment up »n the ground, return much more to the soil than 
 they take from it, by dropping their solid and fluid excrements, or by 
 means of the grease of their fleeces, and their perspirable matter 
 when they lye upon the earth This mode of manuring the soil, cer- 
 tainly requires a first outlay of considerable value ; but it largely re- 
 
 * I have chosen this word to imply rot'en dung. — R. r. r. 
 
 t This seems to hint at folding ; but, at any rate, is much below the modern 
 bu b ndry\ which improves hy alternate crops of turnips and clover, eaten oa 
 Che ground, producing large profits while improving. — H. r. r. 
 
 21 
 
162 TOURCROY ON THE 
 
 pays the expense in after produce. The whole plan of this proce- 
 dure turns upon the reciprocal conversion of vegetable into animal 
 substance, and the latter again into the former. 
 
 6. True science has long been ignorant respecting the cause of ac- 
 tion of these manures In the old chemistry, this was attempted to 
 be explained upon a theory of salts and stimulants, which modern 
 discoveries have shown to be altogether absuib and gratuitous. Thus, 
 recent agricultural experiments have completely proved, that the in- 
 troduction of real salt into the soil, instead of promoting vegetation, 
 actually injures the growth of plants. Modern pneumato-chemical 
 an :i lysis has supplied more exact ideas respecting the influence of 
 man tires upon vegetation, by showing that the substance of plants is 
 composed of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and sometimes azot, and of 
 sulphur and phosphorus, without taking into consideration lime, si- 
 lex, md potass. Hence, since these are the only elements in the 
 composition of the substance of plants or vegetable matter, it evi- 
 dently follows, that these only are necessary for their growth. 
 
 7- This reasoning is sufficient to open our road to a knowledge of 
 the mode of action, or theory of manures. In effect, all these pri- 
 mary elements are found in abundance, in those compound substan- 
 ces already mentioned, from which muck or manure is prepared. 
 Hydrogen is so very abundant in these, that it often escapes in form 
 of gas, during their decomposition. Carbon shows itself, by the 
 black colour which rotten dunghills acquire, and in the darkness of 
 the mould into which they are finally converted. What is called 
 dunghill- water, is chiefly water holding carbon in solution, as may be 
 seen by its deposition when long kept. It likewise contains ammo- 
 niac and other animal substances, which, however, are only to be 
 considered as extraneous admixtures. Carbonic acid gas is constant- 
 ly escaping from vegetable mould. Thus, these compound masses 
 contain every thing necessary for supplying nourishment to plants, 
 and in such abundance, as to make it perfectly easy to explain how 
 Vegetation should be so luxuriant, and the growth of plants so rapid, 
 in soils mixed with these manures. 
 
 8. From thence, likewise, and by comparing the influence of the 
 soil, and that of the air, upon the quick growth, and vigourous vege- 
 tation of plants, we may judge that the soil contributes largely, in 
 Consequence of the manure with which it is provided, and that the 
 to its of plants absorb greedily the alimentary materials from the ma- 
 nured soil, in a liquid form ; while, on the other hand, very little 
 nourishment is conveyed to plants through their leaves ; which, in 
 teality, are rather the transpiratory emunctories, or organs of excre- 
 tion. It is likewise sufficiently proved by observation, that water is 
 almost the common vehicle for conveying earths, carbonic acid, car- 
 bon and hydrogen, into the organs of plants ; and, for this reason, 
 "water is so indispensably necessary in the soil in which their roots 
 are placed. In these processes, water exerts two actions ; it assists 
 the slow and progressive decomposition of the vegetable and animal 
 ■substances composing the manures, dissecting, as it were, their ele- 
 
PHILOSOPHY OF VEGETATION. 163 
 
 ments from each other ; and it conveys these, when decomposed, 
 into the absorbent vessels of the plants. 
 
 9- Manures, or those organic matters which form them, by the 
 mixture of their particles, with the particles of earths strictly so call- 
 ed, because furnishing nourishment to the roots of plants, exert ano- 
 ther action which is auxiliary, and not less useful to vegetation. 
 These manures undergo a constant fermentation, by which they are 
 attenuated, divided and decomposed ; and, as this fermentation ne- 
 cessarily produces an increase of heat or temperature, it must greatly 
 promote vegetation. Mould peculiajly rich in vegetative nourish- 
 ment, such as those employed in the beds and frames of market gar- 
 deners, and botanical gardens, and which contain considerable quan- 
 tities of horse-dung and spent tan bork, become so warm, that the 
 hand discovers a considerable heat in them above the external tempe- 
 rature. Hence, in these, many plants can be cultivated, which will 
 not thrive in our ordinary soils, in which they would either languish 
 or perish altogether. 
 
 10. Agriculturists are perfectly aware, that, if they employ dung 
 not rotted, or too little fermented, they would occasion a too hasty 
 vegetation, dangerous to our climate, in which, delicate plants, too 
 easily forced up, would be readily nipped or killed by the cold. 
 Hence the care which they exert, that their muck may not be too 
 fresh or too strong, lest it occasion a too violent heat in the earth or 
 soil by its subsequent fermentation Hence they have great reason 
 in saying, that raw or unfermented dung is too hot for use. Manures 
 ferment so powerfully, that alkaline, calcareous and ammonical ace* 
 tites. may be extracted from them by elixation ; and we can even de- 
 tect the presence of acetous acid, in fermenting dung, by means of 
 pouring on some stronger acid, which disengages a strong odour of 
 vinegar. 
 
 11. Another effect of manures, discovered by Ingenhousz, is the 
 power they seem to exert upon the atmosphere, from which they ab- 
 sorb oxygen, and its consequent transmission into the absorbent ves- 
 sels of the roots of plants. When vegetable mould, or soil mixed 
 with manure, is exposed to contact of air in a close vessel ; the air, 
 after some time, is found to have lost part of its oxygen; and, at 
 length, the oxygen is entirely obsorbed This, even, is one of the 
 best methods of procuring the azotic gas of the atmosphere, in a state 
 of purity from oxygen gas. Although Humboldt believes that he 
 has ascertained this property, of absorbing oxygen, in the pure 
 earths, especially alumine and magnesia ; it is almost doubtless, that 
 it must be more powerful in such as are mixed with vegetable mat- 
 ters ; and that these, in manures, act upon the oxygen like combusti- 
 ble bodies, having a strong tendency to become oxvdated; and that 
 from these oxydes, the roots of plants carry off the oxygen, after they 
 have penetrated the absorbent vessels, in a state of solution in water. 
 
 12. Oxygen, thus fixed and precipitated from atmospharic air by 
 manures, certainly acts a part of more or less importance in v» > ta- 
 tion; whether we consider it as serving to invert the carbon f the 
 manure into carbonic acid, so useful to the growth of plants, when 
 
164 ON THE PHILOSOPHY, &C» 
 
 conveyed to them dissolved in water; or when, on the otiier band* 
 we take into consideration the great effect produced upon vegetable 
 nutrition, by means of dilute oxi-muriatic acid, mixed with the sod in 
 which they grow. Pajot-Descharmes, who successfully applies che- 
 mistry to the processes of manufacture, observes, that excessively di- 
 lute oxi-muriatic acid, even much exhausted by several successive 
 bleaching operations, very greatly accelerated the growth of plants in 
 a garden which he had watered with that liquid. Comparing this 
 fact with the observtions of [nijenhousz and Humboldt, already men- 
 tioned, we discover clearly, that the absorption of oxygen is one of 
 the most useful and most fertilizing effects of manure. 
 
 13. From these facts, so luminously explained by modern chemi- 
 cal knowledge, the effects produced by labouring and frequenth stir- 
 ring the earth, are readily understood. This operation of fallow is 
 Strongly recommended by all experienced and judicious agricultur- 
 ists. It is evident that, in stirring the land to a certain depth, not 
 only is it rendered lighter, more mellow, more divided, and more pe- 
 netrable ; but, in this operation, numberless insects and weeds, which 
 infest and exhaust the soil, are destroyed ; manure, which has been 
 buried, is brought buck towards the surface, and is distributed uni- 
 formly through all parts of the soil, to nourish the roots of future 
 crops, and is restored to places which had been exhausted by preced- 
 ing ones. By continually exposing fresh surfaces of the soil to the 
 air, these matters which have a tendency to become oxydated. are 
 placed so as to acquire oxygen from the atmosphere; by augmenting 
 the absorption of oxygen in the soil, its vegetative power is increased 
 proportionally to the frequency in changing its exposed surfaces ; by 
 this, the flow and imperceptible combustion, which forms the princi- 
 pal part of the influence of air, is multiplied. 
 
 14. Formerly, even near »ur own days, when, in the imperfection 
 of physical knowledge, mankind were satisfied with such hypotheti- 
 cal reasonings as then constituted all theory, these effects produced on 
 the soil by the influence of the air, were vaguely explairied by the 
 supposition of certain salts, which they conceived to be deposited in 
 the soil during the processes of fallowing. In those days, science 
 had not acquired that exact and accurate knowledge, concerning the 
 nauire of air, and the Composition of vegetable substances, which now 
 throw so clear a light on the natural processes of vegetation, and the 
 influence of manures, and agricultnral operations. 
 
FOURCROY ON VEGETATION. 165 
 
 Fart IV. — Of the Influence of Light on Vegetation* 
 
 It is a long established fact, that the solar light has an obvious and 
 powerful influence on veg> tation. All plants seem to seek for light, 
 as they evidently lean or grow towards that side from which it shines. 
 This may be observed where bulbous plants are reared on chimney- 
 pieces, or similar situations, whence they uniformly bend towards the 
 the windows. It is likewise obvious in forests or thickets, where 
 trees, growing close together, rise straight upwards in search of liyht; 
 the more vigorous overstep the weaker, and, at length, kill them \ 
 whereas trees growing singly, or at large intervals, spread out to con- 
 siderable breadth Hence, when it is wanted to have timber long 
 and straight, the trees ought to be closely planted, and vice versa. 
 
 When growing plants are covered by wooden boxes, having a few 
 fissures so as to admit air, they bend towards the cracks in search of 
 light. Such as grow in vaults, subterraneous places, or mines, always 
 stretch out towards the air pits, and grow along the passages which 
 admit any portion of light, however feeble\ 
 
 All vegetation that takes place in the dark, is accompanied by phe- 
 nomena, that clearly prove the powerful effects of light, from the 
 marked difference between such as enjoy that influence, and those 
 which are deprived of its operation ; as is manifest in those weakly 
 plants that happen to grow beneath stones, among thick tufts of moss 
 in the subterraneous passages of mines, or when purposely reared in 
 vaults or other dark places. In all such situations, vegetables ac- 
 quire a weakly, soft, and aquetous texture ; their stems and branches 
 are slight, herbaceous, feeble, and almost devoid of taste, odour, or 
 colour ; their fibres, saturated with too much water, as if dropsical, 
 never acquire a woody texture ; their taste is always watery and in- 
 sipid, and they never acquire any full aromatic odour or perfume. 
 Such plants are termed etiolated or blanched. 
 
 Exactly similar effects are produced when the leaves of plants 
 wrap up and cover each other from the light ; whether this be in con- 
 sequence of natural sheaths, or when the leaves are folded upon each 
 other by art ; as in lettuces, succory, cardoons, and other plants, tied 
 up by gardeners on purpose to blanch them ; and in cabbages, sa- 
 voys, and the like. In all of these, the external leaves which enjoy 
 the light are perfectly green, while those within, naturally or artifi- 
 cially covered up and involved in dark'. ess, are branched or etiolaied 5 
 they are thereby rendered white, soft, delicate, and tender, and lose 
 the taste and flavour of the native plant in its green state, or retairr 
 these very slightly. 
 
 Such plants, on the contrary, as receive the most direct influence 
 of light in the equatorial regions, abound in firm, hard, woody fibres, 
 are highly coloured, strong tasted, and powerfully aromatic. Be- 
 tween the tropics is the native seat <>f hard woods, dark coloured, and 
 often almost woody leaves, volatile oils, resins, camphor, aromatic^ 
 
166 FOURCROY ON VEGETATION. 
 
 and spices ; in short, of all the strongest tasted and most powerfully 
 medicinal plants, and of all the most terrible vegetable poisons. This 
 difference is very strongly evinced in our temperate climes, by the 
 difference between the qualities of such plants as grow in the open 
 air, receiving the whole influence of the light ; and in their artificial 
 cultivation, where light is carefully kept from them, as already no- 
 ticed. 
 
 The influence of light is^even manifested by the effects of lamps 
 upon growing vegetables, according to the curious experiments of 
 Tessier at Paris, and of Humboldt at Berlin. By those of Humboldt, 
 it would seem, that the presence of some other elastic fluids may, in 
 part at least, make up for the absence of light, as will be noticed in 
 the sequel. It is, however, certain, that, by sufficient multiplication 
 of artificial light, the phenomena of vegetation dependent upon solar 
 light, may be more or less nearly imitated. 
 
 The causes of those effects of light upon vegetation, are not hither- 
 to accurately ascertained by actual experiment, at least, not sufficient- 
 ly to remove all doubt. Some suppose, that the changes produced 
 on growing vegetables by light, are, in consequence of that element, 
 entering into actual combination with this substance. Others believe, 
 that the light merely contributes to the decomposition of water and 
 carbonic acid present in plants, thereby producing the fixation of the 
 hydrogen from the water, and of the carbon from the carbonic acid, 
 and the disengagement of oxygen from both, which flies off in the 
 state of oxygen gas. In the sequel, substantial reasons will appear 
 for considering the latter of these opinions to be most consonant to 
 fact. 
 
 In whatever way it may operate, it is perfectly ascertained, that 
 the following effects are produced on vegetables by light. 1. They 
 have their temperature augmented. 2. Their power of absorption is 
 increased. 3. The septic decomposition of their elements is resist- 
 ed. 4. They acquire colour. 4. The production of oily, aromatic, 
 and acrid substances or juices is promoted. 6. The disengagement 
 of oxygen gas is occasioned. In general, their vegetative powers are 
 rendered more active and vigorous. 
 
 Part VI. — Of the Influence of Water on Vegetation. 
 
 The usefulness of water to vegetation is so obvious and striking, 
 that most naturalists have considered it to be the primum mobile of 
 growth in plants, and the most useful material which enters into their 
 composition. This opinion has prevailed since the experiments of 
 Van Helmont, Boyle, and Duhamel; in which trees were made to 
 grow in pure water for several years j and confirmed by the expert 
 
FOURCROY ON VEGETATION. 167 
 
 ilients of Tillet, which prove, that the nature of the soils in which 
 seeds germinate, is almost of no importance, and that they require 
 hardly any thing besides water for their growth and nourishment. 
 All the experiments of naturalists and husbandmen unite in proving 
 the vast utility of water, and the superior importance over every other 
 material, for promoting vegetation; the explanation of which fact has 
 very much employed the attention of the learned. 
 
 To prove this principal influence, and vast usefulness of water on 
 vegetation, to the accurate, but necessarily limited, experiments of 
 philosophers, the equally authentic and extensive experience of the 
 fertility of moist situations, the rich production of irrigated meadows, 
 and the superior productiveness of lands that are situated upon brooks 
 and rivulets, over such that are dry and arid, may all be cited. To 
 these may be added, the astonishing fertility of Egypt, owing to the 
 inundations of the Nile, justly considered by the natives as the gift of 
 heaven. Thus, the experience ol practical agriculture, and of the 
 productions of different countries, afford incontestlble proofs of the 
 influence of water on vegetation ; and these facts may be most use- 
 fully multiplied by further observation. We have a further confirma- 
 tion of this interesting fact, in the industrious market gardeners of 
 Paris, who force the soil to give out uninterruptod and astonishingly 
 abundant crops of vegetables, by continually fertilizing the ground 
 by means of vast quantities of water. 
 
 To explain the influence of water on vegetation, it is necessary to 
 inquire into its manner of acting upon the various organs .of plants. 
 It certainly passes into their substance through their roots. When 
 the roots of a withered, dry and shrivelled plant are placed in water, 
 it recovers its freshness and vigour, and renews its vegetation. Co- 
 loured liquor perceptibly penetrates and rises up through the vessels 
 of the young and white radical fibres, to which it communicates co- 
 Jour. Every tree or planet grows and passes through its vegetative 
 functions, with more or less vigour, in proportion as its roots are less 
 or more furnished with moisture. This water, absorbed by the roots, 
 passes up through the stems into all parts of the plant. It partly ex- 
 udes from the leaves, which return it to the atmosphere ; and the 
 more abundant the production of this transudation, in consequence of 
 the heat and solvent power of the air, so much the greater is the ab- 
 sorption of water by the siooj 
 
 This germination, if not exclusively, is partly produced by means 
 of water, is perfectly obvious. Seeds, before they can germinate, 
 must necessarily absorb water; and for this purpose, must be placed 
 in moist earth, or some other wetted substance, or upon a moist sur- 
 face of some kind. Every perfectly dry situation entirely prevents 
 any degree of germination. It does not seem, however, that this 
 process can be produced by the influence of water alone ; or that 
 seeds entirely .immersed in water can germinate. It is even believed, 
 that the seeds of aquatic plants require, in the first place, to rise to 
 the surface of the water ; whence some of them, after germination, 
 sink to the bottom, that they may fix their roots in the mud. It re- 
 quires to be considered, whether water penetrates into the substanr* 
 
168 FOUnCROY ON VEGETATION. 
 
 of vegetables only by the seeds during germination, and by the roots 
 during the subsequent process of vegetation; or whether it may pe- 
 netrate by other means ? 
 
 Most inquirers into the physiology of vegetation, have considered 
 the leaves of plants as possessing absorbent pores and vessels, by 
 whu:h they absorbed the water which separates from the atmosphere 
 in form of dew; that this absorption took piece chiefly in the nighty 
 and during misty or dewy weather, and might, in part at least, supply 
 the place of absorption by the roots, when the ground was very dry. 
 In support of this opinion, they cite the excellent observations of 
 Bonnet, respecting the difference between the two surfaces of leaves; 
 po urn iked, both in their structure and functions, that when the under 
 surface is laid upon water they reman fresh, or even vegetate ; 
 whereas, if the upper surface is laid upon water they shrivel aid die, 
 or at least continue fresh a much shorter time than in the other posi- 
 tion Hence, they conclude, that the under surface of leives is ab- 
 sorbent, and inhales moisture ; wnile the upper surface, on the con- 
 trary, exhales. But we do not perceive by what power the atmos- 
 pherical moisture can thus be made to penetrate, or how it can be 
 enabled, without pushing back the fluids contained in the vessels of 
 the plant, to penetrate into the vessels already occupied by those 
 fluids, without having recourse to the supposition of a vacuum, which 
 is by no means proved.* 
 
 In whatever manner, or by whatever passage, water may insinuate 
 into the vessels of vegetables, it is at lnast certain that it continually 
 passes through them, penetrating into all their organs, and to every 
 point of their substance, and is perpetually renewed ; that this circu- 
 lation and renewal are necessary to the life of vegetables, as the vi- 
 gour and quickness of vegetation are nearly proportional to the quan- 
 tities of water absorbed. Since, by the introduction of water into 
 vegeiables, its presence in their vessels, and its circulation or passage* 
 through them, plants evidently grow, it remains to inquire in what 
 way water is useful for their nutrition ; and we proceed to state, how 
 far this has hitherto been ascertained by the present state of scientific 
 discovery. 
 
 Water, which filtrates through the roots of plants, carries along 
 with it every thing that it finds in the soil, and which it is capable of 
 dissolving. In this first point of consideration, water becomes the 
 vehicle for carrying into the substance or organs of plants, every ali- 
 mentary substance that is contained in the earth or soil in which they 
 grow. 
 
 It has, of late, been thoroughly proved, that water, impregnated 
 with certain soluble gases, is greatly more conducive to vegetation, 
 than water deprived of air, by boiling or other means. Hence, snow 
 water, which reabsorbs the air it had lost by congelation, during its 
 gradual meeting, and which sinks, thus aerated, into tjie around, to 
 
 * The fact, not withstanding this reasoning, is certain. A man in a warm- 
 bath, though bis vessels are ali full, mo- assured y ^ives we ght. Tri obstruct- 
 ed deglutition, people have been actually nourished by baths of strong broths. 
 
fcOURCROY ON VEGETATION. 169 
 
 water the loots of plants, produces such quick and remarkable 
 Vegetation in early spring. Hence, likewise, the water, from gentle 
 showers. Having acquired a high saturation of air in descending 
 through the atmosphere, equally covering and gradually penetrating 
 the soils, very actively contributes to the growth of plants. Hence, 
 vegetation is much less promoted by water from pit-wells or cisterns, 
 than by water which has run for some distance above ground, so as 
 to be saturated with air. 
 
 The different substances in the soil, which are susceptible of con- 
 tributing to vegetable nourishment, being in a dry or solid state, are 
 incapable of penetrating by the roots into the organs of plants, 
 unless by the agency of water either suspending those substances in 
 a state of extremely minute division, or by true chemical solution, 
 anj thus carrying the particles of those various matters within the 
 Substance of plants, so as to serve for their nourishment. Hence, in 
 proportion to the quantity of water which is supplied to, and ab- 
 so. i by plants, their nourishment from those other matters which 
 it co.iveys must be the more abundant, ft will be afterwards seen, 
 that even silicious earth, is carried, by means of water, into the 
 substance of plants, as that element is> found in the analysis of vege- 
 tables, after the separation of the soluble, saline, inflammable, and 
 other materials of their composition. 
 
 In thus entering peipetually into the vessels of vegetables, to 
 which it carries the various substances necessary for augmenting their 
 component materials, and causing their growth and increase, it is 
 obvioui that water fills, distends, swells, and lengthens those vessels 
 or canals; supporting and preserving the cellular and vascular plexus 
 of their structuie, by a proper distension of their parts. Htnce, in 
 long droughts, or when burnt up by scorchij^g winds, or the two fierce 
 action of the sun's rays, plants become withered or faded, their leaves 
 supple, hanging down and ready to fall offhand threatened with speedy 
 death ; but, on the supply of sufficient moisture, they quickly tevive, 
 recover their erect posture and healthy appearance, and resume their 
 growth with more vigour than before. 
 
 Water obviously enters undecomposed into the substance of plants, 
 and constitutes one of their constituent elements, forming the basis- 
 of the sap, and of all the juices which they contain, and serving to 
 hold in solution their^icids, salts, extractive matters, mucilages, and 
 other substances, to be afterwards enumerated. So far only was the 
 use of water known to the older chemists, who even conce-ved it to 
 exi^i in a solid state in several vegetable productions. But modern 
 chemical science has pointed out still more extensive uses of water 
 in the economy of growing vegetables. 
 
 From the observations of Lavoisier and Berthollet, and the expe- 
 riments of Ingenhousz, in which leaves, immerced in water and 
 exposed to the sun, were found to give out oxygen gas, it has been 
 believed that water was decomposed in the vessels of plants, and 
 particularly in those of their leaves ; that this decomposition was 
 assisted by the influence of light, especially by that of the sun ; and 
 that, by this decomposition, the hydrogen of the water was fixed in 
 the plants, contributing to the formation ©f their eils, extractive 
 
176 ON THE FIRST PRINCIPLES 
 
 matters, and colouring substances ; while a part of its oxygen wa^ 
 fixed, at the same time, to constitute their various oxyds, as sugar, 
 mucus, fecula, and others, and their peculiar acids : the greater 
 portion of this oxygen of the water, after separation from its hydro- 
 gen, being dissolved by the caloric of the light, assumes the form of 
 ga» or air, and escapes, often with considerable rapidity, from the 
 surface of the plants, more especially of their leaves. 
 
 By this discovery of the decomposition of water in the leaves of 
 vegetables, through the influence of the solar rays, the great useful- 
 ness of water in vegetable economy, and a source of the two principal 
 component elements of vegetable substances, are ascertained. We 
 thus learn how the salubrious atmosphere is perpetually renewed by 
 the mechanism of vegetation, which restores to it, by what may be 
 termed decombustion, the oxygen of which it is continually deprived 
 by many causes of an opposite nature. By the knowledge of this 
 simple phenomenon, we are enabled to explain a number of facts 
 and complicated circumstances, which were formerly unknown, or at 
 least the connexion of which with physical science was not under- 
 Stood. 
 
 It must not however be concealed, that this decomposition of 
 Water by the leaves of living vegetables, assisted by the influence 
 of solar light, is denied by some modern philosopheres. Their 
 reasons will be brought forward and considered in the sequel of this 
 
 On the first Principles of Agriculture, 
 
 As every trade and profession must now-a-days have its axioms, 
 postula, or first principles, in order to give it a scientific dress among 
 other crafts, it is highly reasonable, that the art of agriculture, 
 which is now almost completely reduced to a science, should also be 
 permitted to assume its first principles. Without* the knowledge of first 
 principles, nothing can be expected from any of the practitioners of 
 agriculture worthy of attention, their practice being merely a copy 
 from that already established, if not some gross deviation perhaps 
 from the beated track, by means of some erroneous idea of their 
 own conceiving. Men, acquainted with first principles, will never 
 deviate from them, while they find them correct : perhaps they may 
 try some experiment consistent with them and succeed. This, 
 then, is the foundation from which we are to expect a rational 
 system of agriculture, adapted to all the varieties of soil, climate, 
 and seasons, with which it must ever be connected. 
 
 It is true, that, by means of great attention to, and a careful and 
 judicious imitation of, good farmers, a man of mean talents is 
 
OP AGRICULTURE. 171 
 
 sometimes known to make a tolerable figure in this line.— He may 
 raise good crops ; and good crops are no bad criterion of good 
 farming Indeed, a man, otherwise a blockhead, at least one who 
 has no notion of first principles, often excels those who adhere to 
 them with scrupulous exactness ; but this must be only where the 
 knowing man wants the talent of strict application. This talent is 
 an essential requisite for a farmer ; indeed it is indispensable in 
 every occupation where success is desired. 
 
 The general principles, upon which the success of agriculture 
 depends, are, 
 
 1. Without draining wet land, no improvement. 
 
 2. Unless land thus drained, is properly cleaned, the object of 
 draining is frustrated, and that in proportion as this operation is 
 executed. 
 
 3. Manures will always fail in producing the desired effect, in 
 proportion as draining and cleaning are neglected. 
 
 4. Early sowing always produces shorter and sthTer straw than 
 late sowing, and that in exact proportion to the times, when not 
 affected by extraneous circumstances. 
 
 5. The various species of seed-corn are adapted to various soils, 
 situations, seasons, and other circumstances. 
 
 6 Picking and propagating the best heads of the most approved 
 kinds of grain and seeds, is the surest method of preserving them 
 undegenerate. 
 
 Draining — This article has been amply discussed by able hands, 
 and Elkington's mode of draining is universally known. Almost 
 every field has its own peculiar circumstan *es ; and the general idea 
 of intercepting the spring is an established principle in this art. But 
 sometimes, when there is not sufficient descent to allow the drain 
 to be cut as low as some deep sand or water gravel, where the 
 springs lye, a few pits (to be afterwards filled with stones), or 
 some holes by the boring irons, will have a surprising effect in 
 raising the water into that drain, otherwise to ebb to reach the 
 springs, and thereby carry it off. It is not my design, in this 
 place, to enter into the minutiae of draining, but to introduce it as 
 a first principle in farming. 
 
 Without draining, no improvement. — Without it, no other opera- 
 tion can be effectual to the end proposed. When land is gorged 
 with water, it cannot be cleaned. No labour is sufficient to doit, 
 except in a very uncommon drought ; — in some soils, not even then : 
 and when land is not clean, it is impossible to suppose that dung, 
 lime, or any other kind of manure, can have its full effect. Dung- 
 will promote the natural grasses more than any kind of grain which 
 may be sown ; and these, although the land is sown with artificial 
 grass seed, will still thrive, and render the ground completely fit for a 
 summer fallow immediately after dirty lea oats. 
 
 Cleaning. — This article requires the farmer's constant attention, 
 and by this alone can be rendered effectual. Early ploughing is 
 of much importance ; and it is impossible to be too early at summer 
 fallows, when spring sowing is over. As I at present speak chiefly 
 of land in the second stage of improvement, it must not be con- 
 
3 72 $N THE FIRST PRINCIPLES 
 
 sidered so clean as in future it may be expected. We shall suppose 
 the land of a free nature, but extremely dirty by means of its late 
 moist state previous to draining; and that it has been capable of 
 carrying one or two crops of oats, in order to reduce its surface 
 sward ; and is now under summer fallow. Every farmer may 
 plough to his own mind, according to the nature of the soil, and the 
 grass he has to destroy : but, in general, light ploughing is sufficient 
 to kill grass, which generally runs near the surface ; and then, 
 Jbefore the manure is applied, a strong furrow is of much use, to mix 
 new earth with the dung. At the same time, some s ils will not admit 
 ©f a strong furrow, unless in the spring, before the moisture is 
 exhausted. In such situations, harrowing, rolling, and gathering 
 grass roots frequently after every ploughing, is essentially necessary ; 
 but it is not my design to teach either ploughing or harrowing. 
 
 Manures. — N either is it my design to treat of the nature and 
 properties of manures, and how they operate upon land, so as to 
 produce better crops ; — whether by communicating to the soil the 
 vegetable food which they contain ; — whether by enabling it to 
 attract nourishment from the atmosphere, — or by enlarging the 
 vegetable pasture which it contains^ — or by dissolving that which the 
 soil already contains, so as to prepare it for entering the roots of 
 plants. These are philosophical inquiries, not essentially connected 
 with the present business Upon this subject, there are various 
 theories, some of which are extremely rational, and others extremely 
 absurd. Concerning the salts, which are an essential ingredient of 
 dung, it is certain they cannot evaporate ; but the oil and watery 
 parts certainly will. We have a good illustration of this hypothesis, 
 in the operation of the sun upon salt water. In warm climates, the 
 sun exhales every thing from salt water, when exposed to its influ- 
 ence, except the salt itself. In this way the inhabitants of such 
 climes obtain that commodity. It is even gathered upon rocks, 
 which the sea has abandoned after lodging a part of its water upon 
 their exposed surfaces. But, when exposed in a more equal and 
 Tegular manner, on an even surface, it is much sooner and more 
 easily obtained. 
 
 When dung is carried to a field of summer fallow and spread out 
 green (as it ought to be), till the act of fermentation has completely 
 ceased, the oils must evaporate. But, as experience teaches us, that 
 no material difference can be discerned between that which has been 
 spread and that which has not, we must conclude, that the oils 
 become fixed as soon as the dung dries ; and that the essential quali- 
 ties of the dung are thereby preserved, and ready to exert themselves 
 as soon as mixed with the soil. 
 
 Early sowing produces less straw than late sowing, and that in 
 exact proportion to the times (cceteris paribus ,). — The knowledge 
 of this principle, which has not been discovered, at least not attended 
 to, till within the last twenty years, is of much importance to the 
 farmer. Before it was known and practised, the hazards of sowing 
 land in a very high state of cultivation was very great. Oats or 
 Jbarley sown in such condition, at the usual period of seed time as 
 formerly, viz. oats, late in March, and Barley about the term qi 
 
OF AGRICULTURE* 1 1$ 
 
 Whitsunday, would have been often entirely ruined by being too 
 strong. English barley (commonly from Lincolnshire) and Dutch 
 and many other early kind of oats, were adopted without changing 
 the time of sowing : and as these have a tendency to produce shorter 
 straw, they were found of much advantage in securing a full crop 
 without lodgiug. But it is found that any of our oats sown earlv, pro- 
 duce a shorter and differ straw, which has the same effect. Early 
 oats, however, are still much in vogue, The Lincoln barley is al- 
 most out of repute It is well known to some farmers, that the com- 
 mon Scotch barley is the best substitute for it, — as, when sown early, 
 its straw becomes shorter, much stiffer, and less apt to lodge. Po- 
 tato oats are a new species introduced within these very few years; 
 and are said to be natives of South America. It appears they were 
 first imported into some of our Midland counties of Scotland, in a 
 quantity extremely small ; and that they obtained thar name from the 
 circumstance of their arriving in a package of potatoes. This a va- 
 luable kind of oats in point of meal, yielding two or three pecks per 
 boil more than the Angus, which, in every other respect, we reckon 
 our best oats. They appear to be again loosing ground in the esti- 
 mation of some people. They are more apt than any other kin J to 
 keep the soil, like wild outs, and thereby to annoy the succeeding 
 crops. It seems to be apprehended that, were they to be frequently 
 shaken and ploughed in dry, that they would be as, great a weed too. 
 They seem to have another disadvantage, which in the present cir- 
 cumstances of our labour, is not a small one. They ripen along 
 with the wheat ; and that article being now more than ever the chief 
 object of the farmer, it is in danger of occasioning very serious 
 consequences as to the time of cutting that crop. Potato oafs 
 are always extremely apt to shake, and seldom fail to drop in shear- 
 ing. All kinds of early oats are fit only for fine land, or land in a 
 high state of cultivation ; but upon inferior land, they are the best, 
 when a bad season has thrown the seedtime too far back for common 
 ones. Blainsley oats are our native early, and have a finer meal as 
 well as finer straw ; but they seem mostly out of favour at present. 
 These several varieties of oats and barley afford the farmer great ad- 
 vantages in securing his grass-seeds^ as well as his corn crop, in 
 certain seasons and situations 
 
 As to spring wheat, the dwarf kind, which is known to produce 
 short straw, and is an excellent flourishing kind, is also advan- 
 tageous in the above circumstances ; and as it has a natural tenden- 
 cy to produce short straw, it ought certainly, upon rich soils, to be 
 preferred in winter. 
 
 Picking out the best heads of the most approved grain, is the 
 best method of preserving the species from degenerating. It must 
 be evident to every one, that grain has a constant tendency to dege- 
 nerate. But whether its species suffers or not, it must, by a thou- 
 sand circumstances, be so blended and mixed with other kinds, and 
 even with different grain, that it requires frequently to be renewed 
 by picking and propagating the best heads. This is found by expe- 
 rience to be the surest method of preserving the grain ; and so differ- 
 ent is the produce of the earliest and most vigorous ears from that oi 
 
174 ON RECLAIMING 
 
 the poor diseased ones, that it has generally obtained some name t* 
 distinguish it from that even of its own kind. 
 
 O/i Reclaiming Salt Marshes. 
 
 Dear Sir — Your letter of the 30th ult. enclosing a communica* 
 tion from Dr. Holmes on the subject of reclaiming marshes, was sent 
 to me a few days ago, by our mutual friend Mr. Haines. Having 
 been very much engaged for the last ten days past, I could not soon- 
 er comply with your request. Nothing, I assure you, could afford 
 me greater pleasure than to contribute my humble mite towards the 
 laudable object, which you have manifested so much zeal and ability 
 in promoting u the improvement of the agriculture of our country. " 
 The interchange of opinions, and the communication of practical 
 results upon so important a subject as agriculture, cannot fail to pro- 
 duce the most beneficial effects to the country at large. Individuals 
 are constantly making changes and improvements. To know the 
 course and termination of these trials may induce similar experiments, 
 or operate as a warning to the most sanguine dispositions to avoid 
 the expense and mortification attendant upon defeat. Our agricul- 
 tural works afford us a great deal of valuable information upon al- 
 most every subject connected with the art. But I know none which 
 treat upon the subject of embanking marshes. Besides, their publi- 
 cation being periodical and at distant periods of time, and their cir- 
 culation limited, I consider your journal, affording as it does con- 
 stant and almost daily information, as an invaluable acquisition to 
 the enterprising part of the community ; and permit me here to ten- 
 der you my thanks for the information and pleasure, which I have 
 derived from the perusal of your interesting paper. 
 
 I am happy to perceive that intelligent individuals of enterprise 
 and wealth, are directing their attention to a subject of the greatest 
 consequence to the welfare of the Atlantic States, the reclaimation 
 of cultivation upon the seaboard of the most valuable portion of our 
 domains. The immense tracts of marsh to be found all along the 
 coast, and on our rivers, could not fail, when thoroughly recovered, 
 to produce the richest and most inexhaustible arable and pasture 
 grounds. This fact although not generally known or admitted, is 
 nevertheless true, and one of the greatest importance, especially 
 when taken in connexion with their proximity to an eternally increas- 
 ing market. Of what consequence is it to the farmer in the inte- 
 rior, if he can raise 100 bushels of corn to the acre, or three tons of 
 the best timothy, if he can procure for the one only ten or fifteen 
 dollars, and for the other perhaps not ten dollars. Agriculture when 
 pursued with a view to profit, will never succeed remote from a 
 
SALT-MARSHES. 
 
 175 
 
 taiarket. And hence the importance of .converting, if possible, every 
 acre of water land on the sea board, from Georgia to Maine, into 
 tillable ground. And I am ready to venture the assertion, that no 
 well directed and well executed design of converting salt-marsh into 
 fresh meadow, if conducted upon proper principles and firmly per- 
 sisted in, has ever failed. Failures, no doubt, are numerous, but 
 they are the failures of ill judged and improperly executed designs, 
 and not the fault of the land itself. A badly constructed dyke, 
 grounds not drained sufficiently deep, after being dyked, owing to a 
 want of fall in the tides or other causes ; and finally, the preceding 
 objections out of the question, a want of judgement or diligence in 
 the cultivation of the soil, must produce disappointment. But where 
 the work have been made to exclude the water, and the grounds 
 within are well drained and well cultivated, there is hardly a possi- 
 bility of a failure. For ordinary marsh contains all the necessary 
 ingredients of the most perfect soil. Its composition, invariably to 
 a certain extent and almost wholly consists of the same materials as 
 the alluvials of the interior ; a deposition of vegetable and animal 
 matter, with a due proportion of the sediment or wash of the river ; 
 and, I conceive, it can differ from them in no essential particular, 
 excepting that in the first instance they are saturated with salt water. . 
 If this be excluded and the previously mentioned process be pursu- 
 ed, there is not a doubt but what the sun and rains of heaven will 
 speedily convert it into beautiful land. 
 
 When we reflect that in Holland, England, France, Denmark 
 and Italy, for ages past and at immense expense, the enterprising 
 and indefatigable have pushed their improvements into the very 
 Ocean itself, and converted the grounds beneath into the most valu- 
 able portion of their respective dominions — there cannot exist a 
 doubt upon the subject. The vast labour performed and immense 
 expense incurred in Europe could not, we know, be borne by the 
 the adventurer in this country, where lands are, as yet, cheap and 
 labour dear. But in the vicinity of large towns or a market, and 
 where the expense to be incurred would be comparatively small, 
 there could not, I feel persuaded, be a more safe productive improve- 
 ment. It is true there exist, at present, many dreadful forebodings 
 of the imposibility of converting those offensive wastes, those deso- 
 late regions, into wholesome districts and blooming fields, but they 
 are idle ; they are founded on ignorance or envy, or have been creat- 
 ed by partial defeats or illiberal conjectures. The contrary has been 
 proven to the conviction of thousands, and thus, is the goodness and 
 bounty of the Creator displayed, in rewarding the toils and solici- 
 tude of the enterprising and persevering. 
 
 The destruction of a dyke from the violence of a tornado, is no 
 more an argument against the principle or practice of dyking, than 
 the prostration of a dwelling or a field of grain by the same tempest, 
 is evidence of the particular displeasure of the Deity, or of the folly 
 of the husbandman. It cannot be pretended that the works of art 
 any more than the productions of nature ; are or can be, exempted 
 from the operation of natural causes. 
 
170 OiN RECLAIMING 
 
 It is proper, however, to remark that the inexperienced who un- 
 dertake improvements of this description, usually defeat iheir object,* 
 in the first instance, by making the dykes too small As it is com- 
 monly considered an experiment, as likely to fail as to succeed, the 
 projector naturally feels a relu< tancein venturing a large expenditure 
 upon so uncertain an object — hence the many disheartening failures, 
 on it first trial, by the breaking in of the bank alone. 
 
 But I fear I am in danger of exhausting your patience; and yet, I 
 have a great deal to say in reply, to the numerous questions pro- 
 pounded by your intelligent correspondent I shall answer them in 
 order as far as my experience enables me, and with as much brevity 
 as possible. 
 
 First. — i Have reclaimed marshes succeeded in the productions of 
 artificial grasses, where not more than 20 or 24 inches of fall could 
 be commanded at any time ; and where during the prevalence of 
 particular winds which maintain an unusual and protracted eleva- 
 tion of the tides, not more than half that fall can be had for several 
 days in succession ?' 
 The first question I am unable to answer. — We consider it neces- 
 sary to drain full three feet, and my impression is that five feet would 
 be better than three. Our grounds are drained three and a half and 
 four feet, and we have observed uniformly, that the best and deepest 
 drained lots^ were the most productive — where the tides fall no low- 
 er than two feet below the level of the marsh, wind mills might be 
 made use of to great advantage. 
 
 2d. — * Have reclaimed marshes been made valuable for grass, 
 c whose surface consists almost entirely of a mass of fibrous roots to 
 c the depth of eight or nine inches ; and if so, was the turf pared off' 
 i and burnt, or was it permitted to undergo a gradual decomposition, 
 ( after the natural grass was destroyed ?' 
 
 3d. — 6 In grounds thus covered with turf, has the plough been 
 
 * used to prepare them for the reception of grass seeds ; or has it 
 ( been found sufficient to tear the surface with harrows, and then to 
 ; sow the seed ? ? 
 
 I shall couple my answers to both. Our grounds consist of clay, 
 blue mud, mellow ground and tough roots. When we commenced 
 ploughing, the marshes in many places, consisted entirely of tough 
 roots, to the depth of from 4 to 20 feet, and yet this ground by 
 ploughing, in 36 months from the time of embanking, produced 
 from one to two tons of timothy hay to the acre — and upon somelotg 
 only harrowed with a strong ironed toothed harrow, we had nearly 
 as good grass, the same season. But we prefer the plough, for when 
 the sod is once fairly broken, you may consider the land as in a di- 
 rect road to permanent improvement. These experiment were made 
 upon the most inveterate salt-marsh. 
 
 4th — ' May it not be received as a tolerably correct standard, by 
 c which to ascertain the value of marsh soil, that the neaier it ap- 
 i proaches to pure blue mud, or, in other words, the shallower the 
 
 * superficial stratum of roots, the better it is ? ? 
 
 We prize the blue mud very highly, and it is the general opinion, 
 where it is found, that there the soil is the best. But our turf grounds 
 
SALT-MARSHES. IT?- 
 
 jsq called in contradistinction to the blue mud) after having been 
 ploughed awd cropped two seasons, have turned into earth, and be- 
 came beautiful mould, resembling garden ground. I had as fine 
 whf-it and rye as any in this country, this season, upon this descrip- 
 tion oi land; and had corn also. But the ground was well drained* 
 The recovery of marshes, I conceive, depends upon two achieve- 
 ments only, the exclusion of the floods and the deep draining of the 
 land. Where these are effectually done the cultivation of the soil 
 will naturally follow. 
 
 5th. — ' In reclaimed marshes, whose situation does not admit of 
 ' any permanent current of fresh water through their ditches, and 
 4 where, of course, during periods of drought similar to that of the 
 
 * late summer, the salt water which passes through the sluices, occu- 
 pies the bottom of their ditches in an undiluted state, will grasses 
 succeed ? ? 
 
 This question, I am unable positively to answer. 
 
 6th — i Are there any sluices or trunks, with valves opening tch 
 
 * wards the salt water, so tight as not to admit some salt water ?' 
 
 7th — * What is the best plan of their construction ? ? 
 
 As our tracts of marsh are large, one containing 1000 and the 
 ©ther 300 acres, they require large sluices, as well as a- number of 
 them ; we have seven, and all of the same dimensions. Being made 
 with great care, they effectually exclude the tides. The following 
 we have found to be the best construction. A sill-piece 24 feet or 
 25 feet long, of pine or hembock, a foot square, is sunk, with its 
 ends in the marsh to the depth required — into this two gate posts 9 
 feet long, are morticed, with a beam across at the height of 4 feet, 
 so as leave the race 4 feet clear — two other upright pieces of the same 
 dimensions as the gate posts, are also let into the sill at 4 feet from 
 the gate posts, and a cap-piece as heavy as the sill, surmounted on 
 the top to bind the whole fivame. Long planks, l£ inch pitch pine 
 are found to answer best, are now driven into the mud, (so as to be 
 nailed against the cap) from the edge of the gate posts on either side, 
 to the extremity of the upright — in order to make the work more 
 secure, these are usually doubled. The race way is now spiled with 
 the same kind of plank, on each side of the sill-piece, and driven 
 as low as the maul will force them — after which the floors, about 4 
 feet long on either side, are laid, and for the greater security, they 
 too are spiled at the outter end. Such a sluice, with a gate that fits 
 well, will not leak a barrel in a tide — if chips or grass get between 
 the jaws and the gate, they are removed when the tide falls, but a 
 common wicker grating, will effectually prevent accidents of this 
 sort. 
 
 8th — i Has it been observed, that when high tides prevail several 
 s days in a dry time, and when the excavations, so common upon 
 
 * the surface of many marshes, are laid dry by the evaporation of 
 
 * their water, that an oozing of salt water takes place through the 
 
 * deep fissures made by the sun in the mud of their bottoms, so as 
 
 * sometimes to cover them two or three inches deep, in the lowest 
 
 * narts ? ? 
 
 23 
 
178 ON RECLAIMING 
 
 I have no recollection of having observed any thing of the kind. 
 
 9th — ' Does not the mud upon the outside of nil banks receive 
 c deep fissures, whilst their moisture is evaporating by the heat of 
 c a summer's sun ?' 
 
 Unquestionably — but where the dyke is large, the effect will not 
 be injurious. 
 
 10th — ' Is it common or necessary to fill up these cracks with ad» 
 c ditional soft mud plastered over them, or are they permitted 10 fill 
 6 up by the gradual pulverization of the mud on the surface by a win- 
 
 * ter's frost ?' 
 
 It is necessary, upon all occasions to keep the bank in order ; if 
 these openings endanger it in the least, they should unquestionably 
 be repaired immediately. 
 
 1 lth — * What length of time will be required, where the banks 
 ( and sluices are completely tight, to freshen and prepare very salt 
 1 marsh, for grass seeds ?" 
 
 12th — * Will this process be accelerated by loosening the surface 
 
 * with a plough ; and has this operation been tried ? ? 
 
 I must beg leave to refer to my reply to the third inquiry. 
 
 13th — ' At what distance apart are the interior draining ditches 
 
 * usually opened in marshes not boggy, or even soft upon their sur- 
 *• face ; and what are the common dimension of ditches, esteemed 
 ' effectual, and sufficient for the purpose they were intended ?' 
 
 There is not, nor can be a rule to govern in this case. The judg- 
 ment of the proprietor must determine — our lots vary in size from 
 one to ten acres — care should always be taken whether the lot is 
 small or large, that it be well drained, for unless it is well drained, 
 nothing will grow well upon it ; our great leading drains are eight 
 feet broad and four feet deep. The lateral ditches from five to six 
 broad, and three deep, with only space enough at bottom to scour 
 them advantageously. 
 
 14th — < Are not small superficial drains of an angular shape, like 
 i the ditches, one foot wide and seven or eight inches deep, very ser- 
 i viceable in grass lands made upon marshes ?' 
 
 They might be, I should suppose where the land is perfectly fresh- 
 ened, but I doubt if they would before — the foul and noxious water, 
 unfriendly to all kinds of vegetation, can only be removed by deep 
 drains. 
 
 1 5th — e In what manner do the most approved bankbuilders, dis- 
 e pose of their superficial sods in embanking a marsh, whose surface 
 c is composed of turf?' 
 
 Bankers always, I believe, face their mound with these sods, cut 
 with some care and laid up with some caution. They brace the 
 work and hold the soft mud until the whole settles into proper form. 
 
 16 — i Is it necessary in very solid marsh, to allow more than four 
 c or five feet, from the edge of the ditch to the commencement of the 
 c base of the bank, which is not required, from its situation, to have 
 1 more than eight feet base and four feet elevation ; especially when 
 t the water upon the outside is perfectly salt, and no muskrats appre- 
 i hended ?' 
 
SALT-MARSHES. 179 
 
 17th — ' Is it not invariably improper to open two ditches, one on 
 6 each side of, or near to, the bank ? Or, in other words, is it not 
 c to obtain the mud, with which the bank is constructed, from a sin- 
 4 gle exterior ditch ?' 
 
 Where the mud is solid and there is no ditch on the inside, I see 
 no objection to cutting within five feet of the bank; but 1 would by 
 no means, cut deeper, so near, than one spit of mud ; nor would I 
 on any account, matae a ditch on either side of the bank, not even 
 on the outside. We leave thirty feet, and sometimes forty, between 
 the bank and river, and cut the mud promiscuously, always avoid- 
 ing deep holes for fear of the rat ; and where the bank is made with 
 the above care, there is not the least danger from them. 
 
 18th — i Do the artificial grasses in reclaimed marshes upon the sea 
 ' board, invariably perish when inundated accidentally for six or eight 
 1 hours by salt water, very little diluted, and where little or no rain 
 i has fallen to saturate the earth with fresh water, immediately be- 
 ( fore such casuality ?' 
 
 I presume not ; it is said they do not ; where such casualties have 
 happened, it is represented that the most beneficial effects have fol- 
 lowed. 
 
 19th — * Are not grasses considered essentially the growth of fresh, 
 ' unsalted ground, much more capable of sustaining life and vigour 
 
 * after such inundations of salt water, than is generally imagined, 
 ' especially in old meadows having a condensed growth of timothy ? J 
 
 20th — i Is there any one of the artificial grasses endowed in a su- 
 ( perior manner, with the power of resisting the injurious effects of 
 i salt water ?' 
 
 I am unable even to give an opinion, upon these two subjects. 
 
 21st — ' Is it not much more difficult find hazardous, for these rea- 
 ' sons, to attempt the reclamation of marshes situated immediately 
 1 contiguous to the water of the ocean : and do not breaches fre- 
 ( quently occur in banks from violent tempests, or from the perfora- 
 ( tions of muskrats ?' 
 
 It is both difficult and hazardous, and unless the works be made 
 sufficiently strong, I consider it an idle undertaking. If the marsh 
 be overflowed with water ever so salt, and the perpendicular rise of 
 the water over it were twenty feet, there cannot exist a doubt, I 
 conceive, but what a dyke might be constructed to keep the tide out, 
 and that the land might afterwards be drained The expense, no 
 doubt, would exceed the profit ; but then, I think it could, never- 
 theless, be done and be made fine land of. 
 
 22d — * Is not salt water frequently admitted through the valve of 
 the sluices, which are prevented from closing by extraneous bodies 
 being occasionally lodged in them ?' 
 
 23d — ' What precautions are found most effectual to prevent these 
 i accidents ?' 
 
 Answered in 6 and J. 
 
 24th — < What meadows have been inundated by the late violent 
 
 * tempest ? Were their banks broken down, or did the water over- 
 1 flow, without destroying them V 
 
180 ON RECLAIMING SALT-MARSHES. 
 
 Our's were overflowed in September — 300 acres were flooded a 
 foot deep, by the breaking in of the dykes in two places ; owing to 
 springs of fresh water, near the fast land under the bank; the storm 
 was frightfully severe, and the tide rose higher than had been remem- 
 bered for fiity years. The breaches in the bank were almost imme- 
 diately repaired, but the tides, owing to the continued violence of 
 the winds, could not fall and the grounds remained, in consequence, 
 overflowed two days; after that it gradually disappeared, and the 
 fourth day the surface was ayain bare. What little timothy the 
 drought spared the salt water has not affected injuriously, and the 
 grain sown since the flood, is of a good colour and looks thrifty. 
 
 I am really ashamed of this letter, and yet I could not make it 
 less tedious for the details of such a communication are enough to ex- 
 ha (St the patience of ordinary readers. Such alone, I presume, as 
 feel an immediate interest in these minute particulars, will bear with 
 its prolixity. It is to these only, that such letters can be supposed 
 to possess any interest. If, therefore, any of your readers can ex- 
 tract from all I have said, sufficient to guard him against a single ex- 
 pensive error, I shall be recompensed for my trifling exertion; and 
 you, my dear sir. will find ample compensation in the reflection that 
 you were the instrument of it. I desire, most ardently desire, that 
 my favorite theory should obtain proselytes ; I feel a conviction, that 
 the subject I have been treating of, will attract increased attention 
 from the public, until every acre of villainous sunken bog in the 
 country shall be reclaimed and converted into the richest arable and 
 pasture grounds. The subject is one of the greatest importance to 
 every state bordering on the Atlantic, and my only regret is, that 
 yo'i had not applied to some one, not more disposed, but more ca* 
 pable of furnishing the desired information, than 
 
 Dear sir, your obedient servant. 
 
 SAMUEL SWARTWOUT. 
 
im 
 
 ON COTTON. 
 
 ON COTTON. 
 
 Nature of Soil. 
 
 XF prime high land, of which the original growth has been oak 
 and hickory has beep laying out in a pasture, and has not been cul- 
 tivated for a number of years, it is consequently more or less bound, 
 and ought to be ploughed up, or turned with the hoe. Cotton having 
 a tap root, and a number of fibrous ramifications, requires the land 
 to be made mellow, or the plant will not thrive When the land is 
 naturally loose the turning up may be avoided, and the sooner the 
 ground is listed the better. In land just cut down, it would be ad- 
 visable to plant corn and peas, the first year, it will most probably 
 bring a large crop of both, which it would not do in cotton from the 
 quantity of sour juice constantly oozing out from the roots of the 
 trees recently cut down, which is unfavourable to the growth of 
 cotton, for the plants cannot thrive where any sourness prevails. 
 Corn and peas will live and flourish where cotton will not even grow. 
 One advantage of planting it the first year in corn and peas is, that the 
 planter will have moretim^to spare in lopping up the trees, to which 
 he ought to bend all his attention and force, that it may be prepared 
 for cotton the next year. The land also gets freed of many impuri- 
 ties, unfavourable to the growth of cotton. 
 
 Mode of Planting. 
 
 In prime land, the bed or ridges ought to be five feet apart, and 
 as high and broad as possible, particularly if the land is low, which 
 must be well drained, otherwise it will be always in a sobby state, 
 creating sourness by the influence of the sun operating upon it ; in 
 which case the plant always assumes a sickly appearance — the 
 contrary effect takes place, where the land is well drained. Another 
 disadvantage arising from want of good draining, is that the cotton 
 invariably takes the rust. A prime negro can ridge or bed up for his 
 clay's work, one quarter and a half quarter of an acre, and make the 
 bed as high as requisite. The planting in holes at eighteen inches 
 apart, is preferable to drilling, as the thinning can be made with more 
 regularity, and the labour less ; when the cotton is young, you will 
 have only the spots where the cotton stands, to hand weed, which frj 
 drilling, must be done throughout the whole length of the bed. 
 
182 QN COTTON. 
 
 Time of Planting. f 
 
 The best time for planting, is the latter end of March, or as soon 
 after as you think the weather suitable. Cotton planted earlier, is 
 apt to be much hurt in its first coming up, by the unsettled weather, 
 which often takes place in that month. Cotton planted too early, 
 and once injured by frost or cold raw dews, will never come to that 
 early perfection, that it would have done, had it been planted later, 
 and not injured at all. 
 
 Quantity of Seed. 
 
 • 
 
 One bushel to the acre is generally planted ; and in digging the 
 hole, let the negio be instructed to make two chops with his hoe, 
 that there may be plenty of room for scattering the seed, and in the 
 thinning a choice of distance : leave at the last thinning the two 
 plants that are to remain, at as great a distance as possible, to give air 
 and promote growth. 
 
 First Thinning. 
 
 When the seed is well up, and the plants about two inches high, let 
 each negro be provided with a short bat or stick, leaving his hoe at 
 home, to break what clods may be found on the cotton bed ; pull up 
 from the centre of each hole, as many plants as you can hold between 
 your three fingers and thumb, leaving about ten or a dozen standing; 
 let the negro be directed to stir with his hand, the* earth around 
 the remaining plants, in the same manner as is done with cabbage 
 plants ; each negro can go through five or six quarter acres per day. 
 The difference will be immediately perceptible, the plants assuming a 
 lively, vigorous appearance, particularly if favoured shortly after, 
 with a small shower of rain. Nothing promotes the growth of cotton 
 in its young sta;e more than early thinning and stirring the earth 
 around the roots with the hand. 
 
 Second Thinning. 
 
 In your second thinning, which ought to be as soon as you can 
 possibly get to it, the plants now growing apace, leave about 
 seven or eight in ea: h hole, observing the same process of stirring 
 and putting dirt around the roots with the hand. In this thinning, 
 the hoe can be made use of to haul down the cotton bed, if grassy, 
 and to break up what clods may have been left. 
 
ON COTTON. 
 
 Caution against Worms, 
 
 183 
 
 Should there be any apprehension, however, of worms attacking 
 ihe cotton, which is very common at this stage of the plant, I would 
 strongly recommend extreme caution in the thinning, or if the worm 
 he actually among the cotton, not to thin it at all, but to supply 
 immediately what is cut down, and to make fr^e .use of the hoe, in 
 keeping the field clean of grass, and by all means to attend to put- 
 ting dirt around the roots, which tends so much to invigorate, and 
 hasten them out of the wav of the worm. 
 
 Third Thinning. 
 
 The season favourable, and now advanced, the plants well grown, 
 and the danger of the ravages of the worm removed; I would re- 
 commend to make a general and last thinning, leaving in each hole 
 two plants, as wide apart as possible, and this being your second 
 hoeing, the negro must be directed to haul up the bed, and to con- 
 tinue doing so in all the future hoeings, covering the grass completely. 
 Attention to keeping the fields clean of grass, is of the utmost conse- 
 quence in its early stage, once neglected in that state it never as- 
 sumes that lively, vigorous appearance it would have done, had it 
 been well attended. Continue hoeing while there is grass in the field, 
 and be particularly careful in your last hoeing, that the grass be com- 
 pletely destroyed, for should it get up again, while you are picking- 
 cotton, the bottom pods wi[l rot, and it is then too late to use the hoe. 
 Another bad effect arises from neglecting your last hoeing, it is actu- 
 ally sowing seeds which will come up in the next year, and make 
 your fields very grassy. A field well attended, has every advantage, 
 the plants continue to flourish, putting out constantly fresh blossoms, 
 and bringing to greater and earlier perfection, those already put out. 
 Neglect produces a contrary effect, and impresses the planter with 
 an idea that the land is faulty, when the cause springs from himself. 
 
 Picking of Cotton. 
 
 The picking of cotton generally taking place about the beginning 
 of September, it will be necessary to have each negro provided with 
 an osnaburg bag which is slung over his neck or shoulders, for the 
 purpose of putting the cotton in as he picks it in the field, and like- 
 wise in an osnaburg sheet about the size of a blanket, which is placed 
 in a convenient spot near to where he is picking, and as his small bag 
 gets full, he empties into the sheet, and carries home in the afternoon. 
 In picking cotton, the negro must be directed to guard as much as 
 possible, against a small leaf, which when dry, often intermixes with 
 the cotton, and never can be got rid of 5 thereby injuring the sale. 
 
184 ON COTTON. 
 
 The general average in a good opening is from forty-five to fifty 
 weight eacli negro per day. Your next object of consideration is your 
 scaffolds, on which your cotton is to be spread, when bought from 
 the field, I would recommend their being unconnected with, but con- 
 tigous to the cotton house, and to be made tour feet wide, each 
 scaffold, so that the negro can with ease reach over, and turn the cot- 
 ton ; in case of rain, it is easily thrown into the cotton house. Spread 
 your cotton as thin as possible that the sun may penetrate the quicker, 
 it then requires but one sun. 
 
 Your gin house where the cotton is ginned I would strongly recom- 
 mend to be remote from your cotton house, or any .other building. 
 The many dreadful accidents of fire that may arise from the least 
 carelessness or inattention are too obvious to say much about. It 
 would be advisable to keep only as much cotton in the gin house as 
 you are going to gin that day. 
 
 Much success has attended the cultivation of cotton on River 
 Swamps, particularly the green seed, or short staple, which can be 
 with more certainty calculated upon, from its early maturity, the 
 frost cannot affect it. Some years ago I planted forty-five acres of 
 my reclaimed marsh in the black seed, which yielded 41 £ bags of 
 300 weight each. The next year an early frost in October destroy- 
 ed my prospects, and not more than ten or twelve bags, were made 
 from the same land, most of which, w r as of a very inferior quality 
 both in staple and colour. The green seed cotton having crept in 
 among the planters upon the sea board, induced me among others to 
 venture one hundred and fifteen acres, in my marsh land ; the sea- 
 son was favourable and the frost kept off to a late period, I sent to 
 market 149 bags which by weight averaged 503lbs. of saw ginned 
 cotten to every acre. I continued its cultivation, until within a few 
 years, when the disease called the rot made its appearance, and has 
 risen to a very alarming degree. Many attempts have been made 
 to discover its origin, and -means devised to arrest the ravages of this 
 destructive plague, but as yet, as far as I have heard, all have failed. 
 Among the various experiments I caused a great many small fires to 
 be made upon stumps in various parts of my fields, and a sufficient 
 quantity of powdered roll brimstome put thereon, creating a disa- 
 greeable suffocating smell ; so great was the smoke and vapours aris- 
 ing, that had it been an animal, it must, I think, have perished. 
 These fires, or rather smokes were regularly ordered to be made up 
 every evening at sun down, and persisted in for a length of time, 
 but all to no purpose, so great was the devastation, that from the 
 same 115 acres, only thirteen bags were produced This falling off, 
 and no hope of cure, obliged me to resort to the highland, where I 
 have been planting black seed ever since. 
 
 The treatment I observed with regard to attendance in my marsh 
 land., was the same as recommended above on highland, with the excep- 
 tion, that about three weeks previous to setting my crop, the land was 
 ridged or bedded up and immediately flooded deep enough to destroy 
 vegetation, and kept so until the day before I was ready to plant, 
 when the water was returned to the river, leaving the land, with every 
 
ON MANURES. 185 
 
 particle of vegatation destroyed, and exhibiting a jet black appearance, 
 when 1 commenced my operations in setting the crop. 
 
 If you think the substance of the above communcatio 1 worth in- 
 sertion in your paper, and that it will throw one ray of light upon the 
 subject, and be at all serviceable to 4gricola, jun. or other planters, 
 it will afford me pleasure to suppose that I have been instrumental in 
 furnishing it. 
 
 P. S. That I may not mislead, I beg leave to observe, that when 
 the tide lauds are a stiff clay, they must be pulverised with a ploughs 
 flooding such land, would be altogether improper, and the very object 
 of pulverization being destroyed by it. 
 
 On Manures. 
 
 A Bountiful Providence has placed every where, substances 
 which form a manure for the soil ; but man must not expect to set 
 still, and that manna will drop into his mouth. His faculties and 
 reason were given him for exertion, and materials are placed within 
 his reach, to enable him by their exercise, to improve his condition. 
 In the first place then, let every farmer mark out a small spot, from 
 twenty to forty feet square, according to the size of his farm; this 
 spot should be dug down from two to four feet deep, and the earth 
 should form a bank round it ; a few stout oak posts with crochets 
 should be planted in a line along the middle of this pit, and shorter 
 ones should be placed at the sides, to receive strong poles, on which 
 to erect a shed of common clap-boards. Having thus cheaply made 
 a shelter for your manure, which at once secures it from the sun, from 
 ram, and from water running into it, while by removing a few of the 
 boards, you can admit them when necessary ; the next step is to 
 bring to it a quantity of top earth or sods, and if your soil be stiff, a 
 quantity of sand. These substances should be mixed and a layer of 
 one foot thickness should be spread over the bottom of the pit ; then 
 cut down and collect all weeds (before they seed) about your fence 
 and farm, and. spread another layer of them, of the same thickness, 
 over your former one; then collect dead leaves, by scraping the sur- 
 face of the adjacent woods, and spread another layer of them ; sprinkle 
 this last layer with all the ashes and soot you can collect about 
 the farm ; next go into your stable and cattle yard ; collect all the 
 animal manure they contain, and lay on another layer of this dung; 
 ovtrthis spread a layer of bad fodder, waste straw, sweepings of your 
 yard, particularly after rain, and any kind of rubbish about your 
 24 
 
T8(> 0N MANURES. 
 
 buildings. You will find that your compost heap will uow be raised 
 about five feet: but as this will p'robably settle, as decomposition 
 takes place, to about three feet, you must begin again with your 
 layers, and proceed until your pit is filled up. Should your soil be 
 very stiff, it would be adviseable to sprinkle two or three inches of 
 sand or gravel between each of the layers, as one great recommenda- 
 tion of this plan is, that you may suit your manure to the nature or 
 your soil. Should it on the contrary be light, sandy and porous, a 
 layer of loamy clay should be occasionally introduced. 
 
 This mode of making compost manure, requires but one part out 
 of five of stable manure, to create a fermentation through the whole 
 mass. Should it not speedily commence, you have only to remove 
 some of the boards during the first rain, and the moisture and the 
 heat will soon produce the desired effect. All the materials for the 
 compost heap, should be placed ready round your pit before you 
 commence, as perhaps it may be adviseable to mix the substances a 
 little together, and not let them lay in such detached layers. Should 
 the heap become very hot, the quality of compost will be injured; 
 unless you open the mass in dry weather. A very valuable addition 
 to a compost heap, is pond or creek mud, where it can he obtained, 
 together with the deposits of leaves and other trash, found in 
 lagoons ; and your committee will enumerate some of the materials, 
 most of which are within the re.ch of us all, which they recommend 
 to be collected and prepared for composts. 
 
 It is presumed as a matter of course, that every one who calls him- 
 self a farmer, carefully saves all the dung from his stock of all kinds ; 
 to increase this, your horses' stalls, and the sheds or yards of your 
 cattle and sheep, should be kept constantlv littered with either corn- 
 stalks, refuse straw or fodder, dried leaves or shavings. This will 
 both increase and preserve your stable manure. The materials for 
 a compost heap, may be made of sand or gravel ; sods or top earth 
 from lanes and hollows; green weeds of all kinds; (and rag or hog 
 weed is excellent) dried weeds and leaves ; ashes and soot; sweep- 
 ings of yards, and all kinds of rubbish ; saw dust from mills : creek 
 mud and pond trash ; rotton wood and bark; tanner's bark and 
 offal ; house and kitchen offals of all kinds. 
 
 Let not the farmer be misled by opinion that these necessary 
 operations will consume too much of his time ; lot him seriously set 
 himself to work in hauling materials to his manure pit. and he will 
 himself be surprised to find how easily and how soon compost is 
 made when he has a little stable manure before hand. 
 
 It is believed that one man and one boy with a horse and cart will, 
 in less than one week, create a mass of compost sufficient for five 
 acres of land, and how many idle weeks do we all spend. It will 
 be recollected also, that the greater part of this work can be perform- 
 ed at leisure times; the most proper and convenient for us, appears 
 to be immediately after laying by our drill crops, as the vegetables 
 will then be in full luxuriance, and we have some weeks of leisure. 
 In forming your compost, the manure from your sheep yard cmd 
 poultry houses must not be forgotten, and as these are of a hot and 
 fermenting nature, they should be over those layers least likely to de- 
 
ON OYSTER SHELLS. 18? 
 
 compose without their aid. From six to ten or twelve weeks is sufc 
 llci"r< ! . with proper management, to reduce the compost heap to a con- 
 ditioh fit for application, and on emptying your manure piles, care 
 should be taken to turn and mix the heap as much as possible. 
 
 On Oyster Shells. 
 
 Fresh oyster shells when ground, become valuable manure — » 
 they convey not only animal, saline and calcarous matter to the land, 
 but mechanically separate its parts. In England and Pennsylvania, 
 they are frequently so applied. It is not more absurd to prescribe 
 the same-nostrum for all diseases, than to apply the same manure to 
 every soil. 4 skilful farmer consults the constitution of his land, as- 
 certains its constituent parts, and endeavours to supply its deficiencies 
 by artificial means. If it require lime in its caustic state, he will 
 burn marine shells, and thus obtain one of the most pure, and active 
 limes which nature can afford, not only without sand, but free from 
 all deleterious matter with which stone-lime is frequently combined. 
 It is obvious that if the shells shall have been long exposed to the at- 
 mosphere, the animal and saline particles will have escaped, leaving 
 nothing but calcareous matter to operate upon the ground — shells; 
 which have been so exposed are more cheaply reduced to powder by 
 fire, than by any other means ; and for the purposes of caustic lime, 
 they should be selected always. It has been found that recent shells, 
 or those which have been roasted before exposure in the kiln, become 
 black, and so difficult to be slaked, that they remain beneath the soil, 
 unaltered for a season and often more. It is probable that the ani- 
 mal matter distributed throughout their pores, when exposed to sud- 
 den heat becomes carbonized, and thus excludes the moisture necessa- 
 ry *o reduce them. The chemical agency of lime in exciting fertility 
 has been so fully explained by Sir Humphrey Davy, its sensible ef- 
 fects upon soils are now so completely established by practical men, 
 that there is scarcely a farmer who is ignorant of its excellence, yet 
 half of the value is generally lost through inattention to the time and 
 mode of its application. 
 
 If you are clearing, land, or can by other means obtain brush 
 conveniently, throw it in a pile, and over it put a quantity of shells, 
 then set fire to the brush, add more brush and more shells alternate- 
 ly, until all are in the mass. 
 
 The whole mass will soon take fire and the oil in the shells will 
 hasten the combustion. A pile of two or three thousand bushels writ 
 
188 ON FLEMISH HUSBANDRY. 
 
 burn about twenty-four hours, when they will be in a state to crum- 
 ble when trod on ; they may now be carted out on the land, and 
 ploughed in at the rate of from three to five hundred bushels to the 
 acre. In the course of two or three years, they will be perfectly mix- 
 ed with the soil ; and are believed to be much more beneficial than 
 when reduced to lime, as a large proportion of the oily parts still re- 
 main. 
 
 It is also believed, that shells reduced to a powder by means of a 
 mill would be still more beneficial to the sand land than those which 
 are burnt. 
 
 Flemish Husbandry. 
 
 Sir — Much has been said in praise of English husbandry, it b-'ii 
 well known fact, that this vaunted system is surpassed in many coun- 
 tries which do not possess equal natural advantages In Scotland.., 
 agriculture has progressed at least half a century beyond that of Eng- 
 land, where the soil and climate is far more congenial to the produc- 
 tions of the earth than the " bleak mountains of Caledonia." But 
 no where in the world is the contrast so marked as that between the 
 Flemish and English mode of cultivation. 
 
 The average produce of a crop of wheat, in England, is twenty- 
 four bushels per acre. In Flanders it is thirty-two bushels. In En- 
 gland, the system of fallows almost universally prevails. In Flan- 
 ders, it has been unknown from time immemorial ; two crops, in many 
 cases three, being uniformly raised annually upon the same field. The 
 following comparative tables, as exhibited in " Vanderstracten's 
 sketch of the Flemish system," shew clearly and correctly its supe- 
 rior advantages over that of England. 
 
 Produce of the English farmer, accord- 
 ing to the Norfolk course, for the same 
 period. 
 
 Wheat, 24 bush per acre, 3 crops 
 
 Barley, 32 do. do. 3 do. 
 
 Turnips, 3 do. 
 
 Clover, 3 do. 
 
 Produce of the Flemish Farmer, from 
 one acre, for 12 years. 
 
 Wheat, 32 bush, per acre, 4 crops 
 
 Barley, 60 do. do. 4 do 
 Flax, hemp, coleseed and 
 
 potatoes, 4 
 Roots and vegetables for the 
 
 food of cattle, 10 do. 
 
 In 12 years, 22 crops In 12 years, 12 crops 
 
 The immense difference in favour of the produce of Flanders, 
 does not arise, as might be supposed, from its possessing a better na- 
 
ON FLEMISH HUSBANDRY* 198 
 
 tural soil, or a milder climate than England, but entirely from the 
 different mpde of cultivation, pursued in these two countries. At no 
 very distant period, the fields of Flanders, now so productive, were 
 little else but loose sand and gravel, whereas the soil of England, 
 was always naturally fertile, and in part, lies under a more southerly 
 parallel than Flanders. 
 
 The rich, abundant and healthy crops obtained by the Flemish far- 
 mers, may be traced to the following causes : 
 
 1st. The abundance and judicious application of manure. 2d. Dig- 
 ging all the lands on their farms with the spade every six or three 
 vears. . 3d. The complete extirpation of weeds and noxious roots. 
 4th. Regular and repeated hoeing. 5th. A careful choice, and alte- 
 ration, of grain and seeds for sowing. Cth. An improved rotation 
 of crops. 
 
 " The whole secret (observes Vanderstracten) respecting the supe- 
 riority of Flemish agriculture, consists in this : the farmers procure 
 plenty of food for their cattle — food, which, excepting clover, is raised • 
 from the same lands which have already yielded their crops of grain, 
 &c. They keep the greatest possible number of cattle, feed them 
 in the stables plentifully, and render their food palatable. They col- 
 lect the greatest possible quantity 6f manure, of which they preserve 
 the fertilizing salts by a suitable progress of fermentation. They 
 weed their grounds thoroughly and repeatedly. They totally extir- 
 pate noxious plants and roots, every six or every three years, by 
 digging all the lands on their respective farms — an operation by 
 which they revert to the surface a stratum of fiesh soil, that for three 
 or for six years has been absorbing the salts of manure as they fil- 
 trated to the bottom of the roots ; a stratum of soil which has pro- 
 duced no crop during the same period. They, moreover, dress their 
 grounds to the precise poin\ of perfect pulverization. These are ines- 
 timable advantages, which cannot be obtained by any plough what- 
 ever: hence the drift of the Flemish adage — " Never to let the naked 
 ground lie open to the sun in summer for more than three days." 
 
 " In truth, to say that there exists a vast province, in which the 
 price of lands has been quadrupled within fifty years, and which is 
 neither placed under a more favourable climate, nor enjoys a greater 
 fertility of soil, than England ; from which fallows in general have 
 been banished from time immemorial; in which the greater part of 
 the lands produce in nine years at least fifteen harvests, of which 
 those of grain yield, one year with another, as high as thirty-two 
 bushels of wheat per acre ; those of barley, sixty bushels ; and those 
 of oats, ninety bushels ; and where the borders of the fields are plant- 
 ed with trees, in such numbers that by their sale the proprietors ac- 
 quire every forty years, a sum of money equal to the soil ; to say 
 this, appears, to other than English readers, to repeat a tissue of 
 fables.* The less informed attribute this anterupted succession 
 of harvests to the inexhaustible fertility of the soil ; but intelligent 
 
 * In Flanders, -wheat yields twenty; rye, twenty -six; barley, twenty-six; 
 and oats, forty, for one. Wheat holds only the fifth rank in value'in the 
 harvest of Flanders. In Fingland, wheat never yields more, on an average, 
 
190 ON FLEMISH HUSBANDRY. 
 
 and well informed travellers attribute it, on the contiary, and with 
 the best reason, to the indefatigable industry of the inhabitants, and 
 to a highly improved mode of culture, of the details of which they 
 are themselves ignorant, and which besides, from their complication, 
 and the great variety of the productions of the soil, require a profound 
 study, of many years duration, to which few of them have either 
 the inclination or the leisure to apply." 
 
 This correct, though " birds eye" view, of Flemish husbandry, 
 merits farther amplification, in order to furnish distinct data to the 
 intf-l!gei«t and enterprising agriculturist. My subsequent communica- 
 tions will be directed to that subject. 
 
 Respectfully, yours. 
 
 GEO. HOUSTON 
 
 Flemish Husbandry. 
 
 Sir — I shall now, as promised, give some details, respecting the 
 Flemish mode of cultivation. 
 
 1. Manure. — A Fleming spares no cost* nor labour to obtain this 
 necessary article. What his domestic arrangements do not produce, 
 he supplies in the neighbouring towns and villages; but it is chiefly 
 upon his :attle he relies. Of these he rears an immense number : five 
 times more, in proportion, than is done by the English farmer, by 
 which he obtains at least triple the quantity of dung. He is equally 
 careful to preserve the liquid portions of this manure, which .contain 
 flie greatest proportion of fertilizing juices. For that purpose, the 
 
 than ten or eleven for one; barley, something less than ten to one; and oats 
 only between eight and nine for one. In some highly ameliorated farms in the 
 county of Suffolk, Arthur Young reports a produce of thirty-six bushels of 
 •wheat, and sixty-four bushels of barley, to the acre ; and that in the county 
 of Kent, soils of middling quality, equally ameliorated, yield per acre, fifty- 
 two bushels of wheat, and the same quantity of barley. But in Flanders, 
 there are soils which yield much more than this — namely, seventy-two bushels 
 of wheat, 120 of barley, 128 of beans, and 72 of coleseed These, however, 
 are extreme cases, which do not effect the general question of comparative 
 growths ; while, however, they show that the amelioration of land, in any 
 ^ouutry, is calculated greatly to increase its productiveness. 
 
 * It is within my knowledge, (says Vanderstracten) that villages of 6000 
 acres of surface expend, in the purchase of dung and other manures, more than 
 26,000Z. sterling, basides the enormous quantity of dung from their own 
 cattle. This expense is immense, but it is returned with the greatest usury.. , 
 
ON FLEMISH HUSBANDRY. 191 
 
 stalls and stables where the cattle are kept, are paved with a cement 
 impervious to water; a precaution by which no part of the urine of 
 the animals is lost; while dung pits to which there is a communica- 
 tion by little channels from the cattle stalls and privies, are formed 
 and lined with the same cement, to receive this valuable deposit. 
 This liquid manure is commonly reserved to enrich the ground during 
 the second and third year's cropping, and abundance of the more 
 solid manure having been spread the first year of the course. 
 
 Nor is the Flemish farmer indifferent to the conversion of weeds, 
 waste straw, and-other vegetable matter into manure. These he 
 collects, and disposes in such a manner as to produce fermentation, 
 by which the whole mass is decomposed and converted into a fertiliz- 
 ing substance. 
 
 2. Digging. — Under this head I shall content myself with the fol- 
 lowing quotations from Vanderstracten's survey. 
 
 "In Flanders, before the introduction of the operation of digging, 
 few lands, or rather none, had a stratum of vegetable mould of 
 eighteen inches deep. It is art and industry which have created this. 
 The greater part of her beautiful fields were then only moving 
 sands, or soils even still more ungrateful. Observe then the methods 
 which were used to raise them to their fertility. In the beginning 
 they were dug to a smaller depth, and upon the moving sands was 
 spread a great quantity of dung, of which the grosser parts, as well 
 as the straw, which was mixed with them, were decomposed into 
 fertile soil. It was the same with the grain and stubble left by the 
 crops, with the noxious weeds and roots. All those vegetable re- 
 mains began to give fertillity and consistence to the sands ; and in 
 proportion to the fertility and consistence which the soil acquired, the 
 spade was pushed to a greater depth. The sand, of which the 
 spade increased the vegetable stratum, was already no longer barren, 
 because it was enriched with the juices of the dung, which the rain 
 had carried below the depth to which the spade had not yet reached. 
 The abundance of dung and the annual supply of vegetable matter, 
 changed, in the end, this moving sand into the blackest mould, 
 which can possibly be seen in some places of a depth of eighteen 
 inches, and in others of two feet ! 
 
 " The methods taken with the other soils, more ungrateful still, 
 were nearly the same. The amelioration which the Flemish agricul- 
 ture produces soils almost sterile, is annually visible ; but, in all 
 cases, the greatest possible degree of fertility can only be the work of 
 time. This amelioration, however, may be produced very rapidly 
 in soils which have, at their commencement only four inches of vegeta- 
 ble mould, and which repose on a stratum of good earth, though 
 rendered as hard as a rock by the plough share. A. similar low stra- 
 tum existed in Flanders, before the introduction of digging. 
 
 " Periodically, every three, four, or seven years, the spade, in 
 Flanders, raises upon the surface a stratum of earth, which, under 
 the stratum that has produced the crops, has enjoyed a fallow of 
 three, four, or seven years, and, in consequence, has y bided no 
 crop itself ; a stratum already fertilized in some degree, by the de- 
 
192 ON FLEMISH HUSBANDRY. 
 
 composition of the weeds which grow upon it till the moment when 
 it was buried, and enriched with the salts of the dung, caused by 
 the rains to filtrate, during the interval, through the upper stratum. 
 This stratum may, therefore, inconsequence, be regarded as a vir- 
 gin earth, possessing the most extreme degree of fertility, through 
 the manure it has received, and to which more is now to be added. 
 
 " The operation of digging, especially in light soils, is performed 
 with great rapidity. A good workman can dig in the space of a day, 
 the twenty-fifth part of an acre, to the depth of eighteen inches at 
 one stroke of the spade. He thus buries the upper layer, and brings 
 to the surface the lower layer, which has produced no crop for three 
 or for seven years, nor the same crop for six or for fourteen. 
 
 I shall embrace the earliest opportunity of resuming this interests 
 ing subject. 
 
 Yours respectfully 
 
 GEO. HOUSTON. 
 
!0N THE AGRICULTURE OF TUSCANY. 193 
 
 |Vrom sitonoe's agriculture of tuscany.J 
 
 Agriculture of Tuscany. 
 
 XL Section — On the Assolements. 
 
 Tf 
 
 HE assoiement, or regular rotation of crops, forms one of the 
 most interesting parts of the agriculture of Tuscany ; this rotation 
 continues either during three years, and then the ground is planted 
 live times; or four years, when it is planted seven times without ever 
 being left in tallow. — The three year's course is as follows: 1st. 
 Wheat followed by lupins in the Autumn. 2d. Wheat followed in 
 Autumn by turnips or any other forage crop. 3d. Indian corn, mil- 
 let or sagine, (Holcus Sorgpm, Linn.) The four year's course con- 
 sists of— 1st. Wheat succeeded by French beans, (Haricots) inter- 
 mixed with Indian corn. 2d. Wheat with lupins in Autumn. 3d. 
 Wheat with forage in Autumn. 4th. Indian corn followed by millet 
 or sagine. 
 
 XIV. Section. 
 
 On turning in lupins as a manure. As soon as the wheat harvest 
 Is finished, the ridges into which the land, had been previously 
 thrown are divided into two parts, and a small harrow which is cal- 
 led by the inhabitants Spianuccio, is drawn over each second ridge, 
 while the other remains untouched until the whole field is passed over. 
 The lupin lupinus albus, (Linn.) which is sown on the fields thus 
 prepared, is a leguminous annual plant, which grows to the heighth 
 of two or three feet, and requires no support ; on the contrary, al- 
 though its stalk puts forth a great number of branches, each is hard, 
 strong, and of a very woody fibre ; the flowers, which are of the 
 size, form and nearly of the colour of those of the bean, are gather- 
 ed together in large clusters at the end of each branch — and the long 
 pods which succeed them contains the lupins, resembling large peas 
 flattened. The lupins are planted in the month of August or Sen- 
 25 
 
194 AGRICULTURE OF TUSCANY. 
 
 tember, on such of the ridges as have been harrowed, and are cove?- 
 ed in with the hoe. The ordinary moisture of the plane is sufficient to 
 make them germinate and grow ; they are, however, commonly re- 
 freshed by seasonable rains which assist their vegetation. The lupin 
 is generally well grown by the montji of October, which is the* seed 
 time for wheat, for which it is intended to prepare the land. When 
 it has grown to the height of fifteen inches, it is ploughed in, and left 
 to rot in the land, possessing more than any other plant yet known, 
 the property of fertilizing by the decomposition of its leaves. The 
 same operation of the plough, which buried the lupin, prepares the 
 ridge for the seeding of corn, which is then covered with a hoe ; 
 this operation of burning the lupin to fertilize the earth is what is 
 called by the Italians the sovercii or rovescii; it shows great knowledge 
 of the best principles of Agriculture and succeeds wonderfully in fer- 
 tilizing the earth The peasants sow sometimes different plants for the 
 same purpose, among others, they sow beans, but none rot so thorough- 
 ly or so fast as the lupin, nor possesses the .power of fertilizing in so 
 high a degree. When it is heated in an oven or large kettle, so as 
 to destroy its vegetation, it becomes the most powerful of all ma- 
 nures ; it is said that three or four pounds of these lupins, buried 'at 
 the foot of an olive tree, or a fruit free that is decaying, will restore 
 it to all its health and vigour. Careful gardeners use it. but always 
 in very small quantities, to manure their orange trees, instead of 
 horse manure — and produce from it surprising effects. 
 
 XV. Section. — Haricots, or French Beans* 
 
 Sometimes instead of lupins which enrich the earth, such farmers 
 as have an abundance of manure, sow after the first year, French 
 beans which impoverish it. They are intermixed with some grains of 
 Indian corn to support them, instead of sticks and branches. The 
 kind of beans which bears the drought best, and is alone proper to be 
 planted after harvest, is marked with an eye about the germ, from 
 which it is called faggiuole dall occhio. When these are planted, 
 the course of cropping continues four years, because it is not until 
 the year following, that in which the beans are planted, that the farmer 
 can sow the lupin for fertilizing the earth, by burying which, is con- 
 ceived by all to be absolutely necessary. 
 
 Second year — Fourrages. 
 
 After wheat harvest of the second year, the land is turned up a- 
 fresh, in the months of July and August, and the forage crop is 
 planted in September. The two kinds of forage crops most" in use, 
 are a mixture of lupins, flax, turnips, and the annual trefoil, or lu- 
 pinella ; it may appear strange to observe flax ranked among the fo- 
 rage crops, but its grain is very abundant, and easily gathered, the 
 plant endures the winter extremely well, grows quickly, and fur- 
 
AGRICULTURE OF TUSCANY. 195 
 
 nishes an abundance of leaves, of which the cattle are fond. As 
 the lupin grows much faster than the flax or the turnip, it is pulied 
 up at the end of Autumn. When it is well grown, and after being 
 washed, it is given to the cattle who are fond of it — notwithstanding 
 its bitterness. The flax and the turnips, which are choaked by its 
 growth, prosper as soon as it is taken away ; during the winter, these 
 last are drawn as they are wanted. The flax is mowed in the spring, 
 and towards the middle or end of May, all has disappeared. A- 
 mqng the turnips that are planted^ not one half ripen, being relied 
 upon, more for their leaves, than for their roots, in the nourishment 
 vi cattle. There are many varieties in Lucca ; those that are culti- 
 vated are large and long, and of a yellow skin, such as the turnips, 
 which are called English turnips. In the planes of Pescia. they, are 
 large, flat, and coloured red and rose, the produce of the seed re- 
 moved from one place to another, does not resemble the plant from 
 which the seed was taken. 
 
 In Parma and Milan, more turnips are planted, than in Tuscany ; 
 in the two provinces, with the exception of the rice fields, the as- 
 solement is for two years, and consists of wheat, turnips, aud Indian 
 ' corn ; or if it is prolonged to three years, it is in order to plant beans 
 or turnips, twice in the course of the third year, for the purpose of 
 burying them in the nature of thesevercio. The prodigious quantity 
 of turnips, which covers these rich provinces, must have been very 
 agreeable to Arthur Young, when he travelled over them. The lu- 
 pinella, or annual trefoil, (trifolium incarnatum, Linnsei,) is one of 
 the most beautiful plants, which is cultivated as a forage crop 5 its 
 beautiful carnation oblong flowers, the deep color of its foilage, and 
 the vigour of its vegetation, make it the ornament of the fields ; it is 
 planted in September, and rrjowed between the middle of April, and 
 the middle of May, sometimes it is intermixed with lupins, which 
 are taken up in Autumn, its forage is more abundant than that of the 
 #ax ? but it is mowed only once. 
 
 Third year — Indian Corn, 
 
 After the forage crop is gathered in, the ground is completely 
 turned up with the spade ; this work is commenced about the middle 
 of April and is continued during the month of May ; the preparation 
 of the ground with the spade, always precedes the planting of the 
 Indian corn, which constitutes the crop for the third year. It is 
 planted during the three months of April, May and June,' although 
 it is sometimes planted as late as July, on moist spots, but there it is 
 of a particular variety, which grows more quickly but produces less, 
 and is called sessantino, because it ripens in sixty days. Indian corn 
 planted in the plane, about the end of April, suffers little from 
 drought provided it has rain about the beginning of July, which 
 most commonly happens. The corn is planted on large ridges with 
 hoes, and although it is scattered with a great deal of econjmy, more 
 is nevertheless put in, than is suffered to remain — this done to pro- 
 vide against the attacks of insects, which often destroy it, as soon as 
 
19& OBSERVATIONS ON FLAX 
 
 it begins to sprout — when it is out of harms way, the superfTuous 
 plants are taken out, and each plant is removed from the other about 
 ten or eleven inches on the rows, but each row is distant abouttwenty 
 inches or two feet— it is moulded up twice during its growth j while \t 
 is growing it furnishes an abundant and excellent forage, of which the* 
 cattle are very fond The Indian corn is a great resource to the peo- 
 ple, and furnishes an excellent aliment. ^ixed with wheat in bread,- 
 it gives the bread a reddish yellow appearance, but does not injure 
 the taste. The peasantry live chiefly on Indian corn, either in the 
 shape oifarinatciy or pollenta. To mnkefarinata, the meal is thrown 
 into a kettle or porridge pot, containing boiling water and season- 
 ed with butter, oil, or broth, (couillon,) and salt; it is then stired for 
 five or six minutes, when the fire is withdrawn. It is served up as a 
 soup, or thick couilli 7 the pollenta is made like the fari.na.ta, but 
 without grease, and is more thick, so that in withdrawing it from the 
 fire, it should be a solid consrstency ; it is then cut with a thread, 
 and placed on a gridiron over burning coals for some minutes. 
 These two modes of using the Indian meal, have the advantage of 
 rendering very little bread necessary ; for this substance, without 
 having too much taste, has nevertheless enough to render it palatable, 
 without any other accompanying food It is probable that it would 
 be more nourishing, if it was better cooked, for the labouring people 
 complain, that it fills them without strengthing them, while on the 
 other hand count Rumford remarks that Indian corn, well prepared^ 
 is the most wholesome and nourishing of all grains. 
 
 Observations on the Manner of Treating Flax in Ireland. 
 
 Soil. — In selecting soil for the cultivation of flax in Ireland, the best 
 and the richest can be procured is always preferred, but from the 
 number of persons engaged in that branch of agriculture, such is not 
 always to be had. The country likewise presents so great a variety 
 of soils, and the article being grown in small quantities, by poor 
 persons, who are of necessity governed by local circumstances, that 
 no rule can be named for the exact quality of ground under flax til- 
 lage, and it may be found growing in wheat, barley, and oats stub- 
 ble, and sometimes in lea-ground, but more frequently after a pota- 
 to crop, which is generally preferred to any other. 
 
 Preparation of the Soil—It does not appear that there is any given 
 rule followed in Ireland, for the preparation of the soil for flax culti- 
 vation, e> ery person pursuing his own plan, some ploughing deep, 
 others lig(||ly, some sow under the harrow in potato ground, without 
 ploughing, whilst others plough two or three times, and more pre-, 
 pare with the spade. 
 
IN IRELAND. 197 
 
 Sowing. — The seed sowed in Ireland is of various kinds, Riga, ' 
 Dutch, English, Home-saved, and American ;* in the South-West 
 provinces, the latter mostly prevails, and is decidedly the worst of 
 any name, as it is subject to fall at every blast of wind, or heavy 
 shower, and often brings with it a long twining weed, highly injuri- 
 ous to the plant ; it is also subject to mildew, or, as it is termed, to 
 fire! As to the quantity sown to the acre, it varies in every district, 
 according to the quantity of the soil, and description of seed ; no 
 given rule can therefore be named, but on the data, of all ground be- 
 ing equally suitable ; four bushels to the plantation acre is calculated 
 on the quantity necessary. The time cf sowing varies greatly, often 
 from the end of March, to the first and sometimes second week in 
 June. , 
 
 Pulling. — In Ireland it is generally believed that flax should not 
 be allowed to arrive at maturity, in order to render it fine and soft 
 for the manufacture of linen ; under this impression the cultiva- 
 tors pull it green, and in nine cases out of ten, take it at once with 
 "the capsule or seed on it to the steeping pool. 
 
 That the seed of the flax grown in Ireland, for a series of vears 
 past, would, if properly attended to, have added considerably to the 
 profits to the cultivator, may be estimated on a view of the follow- 
 ing extracts^ from the returns made to the Linen Board, and from 
 
 '* In Pennsylvania the previous crop for flax culture is Indian corn, after 
 which the ground is lightly ploughed, once only, in the month of March fol- 
 lowing ; the seed is sown early in April, and the crop pulled in the middje of 
 July. The twining weed that grows with flax in America, is there called 
 wild buck wheat. 
 
 f If, instead of suffering the seed capsules to go to waste, by throwing them 
 prematurely into the steeping-pool, they were allowed to ripen, it occurred to 
 me, that they might turn to account in a way that would have many advan- 
 tages ; for the seeds being known to contain a large quantity of oil, and as the 
 expressed oil is used for the purpose of making an inflamable gas, now com- 
 ing into extensive use for affording light, we might render unnecessary the 
 previous process of pressing out the oil, and prepare the gas directly from the 
 capsules. Impressed with this idea, I requested of my friend, Mr. Donovon, 
 Professor of Chemistry, to the Apothecaries' Hall in Dublin, to make the ex- 
 periment; which he most obligingly performed and found that the capsules, 
 when exposed to destructive distillation, afforded the usual products of vege- 
 tables similarly treated. Pyroligenous acid, tar, and carburetted hydrogen, 
 were produced, as in other cases, but with this difference, that the gas, which, 
 under ordinary circumstances, burns blue, was so far changed with the va- 
 pour of volatilised held in chemical solution, that it,burned white, and possess- 
 ed a tolerable degree of illuminating power. There was also a faint blue light 
 surrounding the white : but there can be, m my opinion, but little doubt, that 
 3iad the capsules been sufficiently ripe, and the oil fully developed in the sefcds, 
 the light would have been perfectly white. 
 
 i Returns of flaxseed sown in Ireland for the last ten years: 
 
 Year. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 1812, 
 
 73,088 
 
 1817, 
 
 57,5jJ7 
 
 1813, 
 
 52,404 
 
 1818, 
 
 83,312 
 
 1814, 
 
 01,903 
 
 1819, 
 
 77,755 
 
 1815, 
 
 91,444 
 
 1820 
 
 91,728 
 
 1816, 
 
 93,695 
 
 1821, 
 
 80,785 
 
 763,641 
 This flax, if treated according to the practice in the Netherlands, would 
 have produced, at the most moderate rate of calculation in that country, of 
 
198 OBSERVATIONS ON FLAX 
 
 •which it appears that a sum scarcely credible has been lost to the 
 country. 
 
 Rippling. — In taking the capsule from the flax plant in Ireland, 
 where it is but partially done, the process is performed with ma- 
 chines, somewhat similar to those used in Holland, but not made on 
 so regular a plan as they are in that country, where those implements 
 are as carefully laid by, after the flax season, as any other farming 
 utensil. 
 
 Steeping. — For this very necessary process there is no settled 
 rule : the growers of flax, as in the case of preparing the soil, fol- 
 lowing each his own plan; whilst in the Netherlands, where flax is 
 the best prepared, generally speaking, of any in Europe, one settled 
 rule is adopted, and uniformly practised. 
 
 in Ireland, flax is steeped in every description of water that may 
 be met with, without regard to the situation or dimensions of the pools, 
 and it may be seen, in many instances, several feet under water, in 
 bog-holes, whilst in other cases it is laid in running streams, near the 
 surface, subject to floods and partial dryness; and it rarely happens, 
 that two flax-growers follow one method of steeping in every particu- 
 lar ; generally speaking, in placing the sheaves in the steeping-pool, 
 no order is observed, but they are all promiscuously thrown in, often 
 in large bundles of various sizes, and thus it lies, heads and points 
 together, crowded and pressed down with stones, sticks, or sods, &c. 
 by which means the discharge from the upper bundles frequently 
 lodges on those below, and stains them in that irregular manner so 
 much complained of. Again, the quantity of resin contained in the 
 bole, so unnecessarily left on the plant, not only adds considerably to 
 the general discharge of coloring matter, but also retards the fermen- 
 tive process ; to these injurious practices may be added, the bad ef- 
 fects arising from the partial exposure of the plant in the steeping- 
 pool to the influence of the air, those parts on which the stones.. &c. 
 rest, to keep it down, being covered, whilst all the rest is exposed. 
 
 In taking flax from the steep, in many cases, great neglect occurs, 
 the sheaves not being washed before grassing, and it often happens, 
 that the middle ones, on which the mucilage from the upper sheaves 
 had rested, are exposed to the air in that state, and thus become in- 
 crusted with the drops of the coloring matter discharged : of the ill 
 effects arising from the improper treatment of flax in this process, in 
 many parts of Ireland, but particularly in the West and South, we 
 have innumerable instances, and daily complaints are made by the 
 Northern bleachers of the difficulty they find in bringing to an even 
 color, linen manufactured in the provinces of Munsterand Connaught. 
 This fact has been stated to me by many of the most respectable mer- 
 chants in the trade since my return from the Netherlands, and I am 
 satisfied, that unless the process of steeping flax, as practised in that 
 country, be generally introduced into the South and West of Ireland, 
 the cultivation of flax cannot be advantageously carried on, or exten- 
 ded, so as to become an article of commerce^or can the lioens made 
 
 20 bushels to the English acre, 15,272,820 bushels of seeds, and which valued 
 at the low rate of 10s. per bushel, or £3 10s, per hogshead, would amount to 
 £7,636,410. 
 
IN IRELAND. 199 
 
 from flax, prepared as it is at present in those provinces, be as well 
 finished for any purpose as if they were manufactured from flax pro- 
 perly steeped. 
 
 Drying. — The fuel used to dry flax in many parts of the South 
 and West of Ireland is turf, which, like almost every other vegeta- 
 ble, gives out in combustion, pyroligneous acid and empyreumatic 
 oil, both of which are highly coloured ; and in cases where flax is 
 badly steeped, and the mucillage not discharged, or strained by im- 
 pregnated water, the acid and oil from the turf may be found to act 
 as mordants, and so fix the colours, that the most experienced bleach- 
 er cannot completely eradicate them from linen made of flax so treat- 
 ed. — The difficulty of discharging stains in Jinen, the manufacture 
 of the South and fVest, is well known to many of the factors in the 
 Linen Hall in Dublin. 
 
 Breaking and Scutching. — In Ireland those processes are per- 
 formed in various ways, sometimes by Mill Machinery, with break- 
 ers and scutchers, and in other cases with every variety of hand imple- 
 ment that can be procured, often of the most simplest kind, and such as 
 contribute much to the labor of the worker, and proves ineffectual in 
 execution. In Munster and Connaught, those imperfect implements 
 are most in use, and, until within the last few years, scutching machine- 
 ry by power was unknown in those places. In Ulster, scutch mills 
 are in very general use; that which moves vertically is most ap- 
 proved of in that quarter, because it is said to take less power, and 
 is less expensive than that with the horizontal motion ; the latter 
 however are in general use in Scotland; but it seems as yet a matter 
 of doubt in both countries which ot the plans is the best, so much 
 depends on the skill of the workmen, the state of the flax and its 
 quality. — It is, however, necessary to remark that no description of 
 machine, whether worked py hands or by moving power, can be 
 peratively useful, if the flax be not well prepared in every previous 
 process. 
 
 Observations on the of Treatment of Flax in the Netherlands, 
 
 Soil. — The soil preferred by the cultivators of flax in the Nether- 
 lands is a deep loamy clay, or what they term (fat land) free from weeds, 
 and capable of giving wheat, which is in almost every case the pre- 
 vious crop ; except when land after producing madder is to be had, 
 which is esteemed the best of all ; but the cultivation of that plant, 
 being rather limited, it is rarely to be met in quantity, compared with 
 wheat stubble ; it is, however, a general practice in that country, 
 never to sow flax but in rich, good ground, 
 
200 OBSERVATIONS OK-. FLAX 
 
 Preparation of the soil. — The mode usually followed in the- 
 Netherlands of prepaYing ground for flax, if from wheat-stubble, 
 (the general previous crop) is, after reaping, to have it immediately 
 tig lit y ploughed, and let to lie in fallow until the ensuing springy 
 when it is again lightly ploughed, preparatively to the sowing of the 
 seed; but if grown after a madder crop, the custom is to give a light 
 ploughing in spring, a little before sowing. 
 
 Sowing. — With respect to the seed sown in Holland and Zealand, 
 it is invariably either Riga, or home-saved, none other being used ; 
 the latter is sown for two, sometimes three seasons, in succession, 
 never longer, and, at the end of that time, Riga seed is again 
 sown ; but some of the rich and judicious flax boers, every year, sow 
 a small parcel of Riga seed, so as to keep up a constant succession of 
 fresh. When selecting seed for sowing, either of Riga ,or home-saved, 
 the most scrupulous attention is paid to procure it of the best and 
 cleanest kind. As to the quantity sown in any given portion of ground, 
 much depends on the quality of the soil, and the age of the seed, which 
 experience alone can determine 5 but as well as I could collect infor- 
 mation from the boers on this subject, comparing their measurement 
 with the English and Irish acre, the quantity sown bears a due pro- 
 portion to that of Riga seed usually sown in England and Ireland. 
 The time of sowing is generally between the end of March and mid- 
 dle of April. 
 
 Pulling. — In the Netherlands, and in France, flax is always 
 allowed to arrive at maturity, and is never pulled particularly in 
 Holland and Zealand, until the seed is perfectly formed, and the 
 capsule brown and hard, so as to be easily disengaged from the stalks; 
 when in that state it is pulled, and at once made into small sheaves, 
 which are placed in stocks of eight to the stock ; the root ends on 
 the ground, projecting, and the heads meeting at the top in such a 
 manner as to present the entire of them to the influence of the air; in 
 this way it remains eight, ten. and sometimes fourteen days, according 
 to the state of the weather ; should occasionly rain fall during this 
 time, it is considered of great service to wash off the impurities and 
 withered leaves that attach to the plant when ripening. 
 
 Ripping. — When the flax is sufficiently dried, it is carried to the 
 barn, and the process of taking off the seed immediately commences; 
 this operation in the Netherlands is chiefly done by ripples or iron 
 pins, about sixteen inches long, and one inch square at the bottom, 
 gradually narrowing to the top, and formed into squares; the pins 
 are fastened in a block of timber, above four inches thick, eighteen 
 inches wide, and made in the form of an octagon, the upper part 
 sloped off, so as to let the boles run down to the floor; those pins 
 are set at about a quarter of an inch asunder, thirty of them in each 
 block, which is fastened by means of two staples and wedges, to a 
 two-inch plank, that rest on trestles of a sufficient height for grown 
 persons to sit on whilst rippling ; two usually work at the same ripple, 
 sitting opposite each other, and drawing the flax alternately through 
 the teeth. During this process, great care is taken not to let it slip 
 through the hands, so as to entangle the root ends, which in every 
 process are kept as even as possible. When the seed is discharged 
 
IN THE NETHERLANDS. 1201 
 
 the flax is again made into small sheaves, and, in every instance^ 
 bound together by platted cords three and a half feet long, made of 
 strong rushes, that usually last for years, and are carefully put up 
 'from one. season to another; when the entire quantity of flax prepar- 
 ed for rippling has undergone that operation, the boles are immedi- 
 ately run through a very coarse screen, sufficiently open to admit 
 every particle of waste or dirt to pass through, so that they remain 
 free of all impurities. The waste discharged in this manner is used 
 by bakers in heating ovens, and the bole, by being thus cleaned, re- 
 mains safe, and the seed can be kept for any time required. The 
 mode most approved of for taking the seed from the bole, is to thrash 
 it, which is done by a flail, the handle of which is similar to a com- 
 mon one, but the working part is not more than half the usual length, 
 about four inches diameter; the hulls, after the seed is discharged > 
 are sold at the rate of two pence the sack, for feeding cattle in the 
 winter ; they are chiefly bought by Brabant farmers, who mix them 
 with various other vegetables and carrots, which they grow with 
 their flax, in ground suitable ; and I have seen, in Brabant particu- 
 cularly, numerous fields, with flax standing to dry, and the peasan- 
 try weeding carrots that had grown with it, and which appeared in a 
 prosperous state. 
 
 Steeping. — This process, being the most important one which flax 
 undergoes, and on which its value in a great measure depends, claimed 
 my most serious attention, and occupied me for a considerable time, 
 hi observing it in detail, as performed by various steepers, and with 
 flax the growth of different places. In general the steeping pools in 
 Holland are similar to what are known in Ireland as trenches of wa- 
 ter to drain and divide low grounds, such as abound in various parts 
 «f the South and West provinces, particularly where the soil is best 
 suited for the growth of flax, and most like that of Holland and Zea- 
 land. Those trenches, in (he summer months are grown over with 
 light grass and weeds, which are cut a little before steeping time, 
 from the edges of the bank only, leaving the middle of the trench 
 undisturbed. Previous to steeping, a sod or mud bank is thrown 
 across each end of that portion of the trench required, which is 
 seldom more than sixty to eighty yards. In making those banks the 
 mud for a distance of eleven to twelve feet from each, is drawn with 
 iron scrapers from the bottom and middle of the trench, and sloped 
 against each of them, leaving a space of water free from weeds and 
 mud, sufficient to put in a set of sheaves, and admit of a pool eight 
 to ten feet between the cross bank and last layer of flax. The steep- 
 ing pool being thus prepared, a bundle of sheaves is opened, and 
 eight of them laid in with small light forks, with which they are as 
 regularly placed, as if laid with a line, each sheaf being put down 
 with the root end towards the cross-bank, and the top end towards 
 the bottom of the pool; when the first layer is down, a second and 
 third set of eight sheaves is put in, the root end of every layer meet- 
 ing the hands of the former one, and all placed in an oblique direc- 
 tion. When three layers, or twenty-four sheaves, (which is always 
 the number put in at a time,) are laid, the steepers, who are provided 
 with scrapers and forks, draw from the bottom ojf the trench, mud, 
 
 ?6 
 

 202 OBSERVATIONS ON FLAX &C. 
 
 slime, weeds, &c &c. just as it comes to hand, and which they 
 place, to the thickness of six to eight inches, on the flax, leaving 
 only as much of the last layer uncovered, as may be sufficient to 
 receive the first layer of the next, and for which room is made by the 
 removal of the mud, slime, &c. used as a covering for the former 
 layer. In laying on the mud. great care is taken to plaster it together, 
 and so combine it as to exclude the air and light completely from the 
 flax.* The entire quantity being thus placed in the pool, nothing 
 appears but a surface of mud. The next operation is to throw from 
 that part of the trench not wanted a sufficient quantity of water to 
 cover the entire mass to the depth of six to eight inches; although 
 the mode of throwing the water into the steeping-pool is done by a 
 simple contrivance, it is nevertheless worthy of observation, as it 
 abridges labour, and saves time, points duly appreciated by the 
 working classes in Holland. This business is performed by means 
 of a triangle made of slight poles, placed across the trench near one 
 of the banks; from the centre of the triangle is suspended, by a 
 slight cord, a shute or oblong box capable of containing about five 
 to six gallons, and which lies a small depth in the water ; to the shute 
 is attached a long handle, with which the steeper works it, and so 
 throws the water into a cut made in one co* ner of the cross-bank, by 
 which it is conveyed over the mud ; when this is done, the flax 
 remains from six to thirteen days, according to its quality, the 
 temperature of the weather, and in some cases the properties of the 
 water and mud; and I witnessed myself the taking out of flax grown 
 in Holland and Zealand, some of which had been steeped in seven 
 days, whilst others required fourteen to prepare it. It is here neces- 
 sary to observe, that the flax growers in the Nethrelands carefully 
 watch the flax during the steeping process, particularly after the fifth 
 day, when they once in every twenty-four hours take out a sheaf 
 with a fork, and examine it; if not sufficiently steeped, it is carefully 
 replaced and covered. When the flax is found sufficiently steeped, 
 it is drawn out with great care by forks, beginning with the sheaves 
 last laid in, one sheaf only being taken out at a time, which is turned 
 over into the water to disengage the mud from it, when it is gently 
 washed in the pool, and left at the end of the cross-bank for that 
 purpose; after washing, it is laid in rows by the side of the pool to 
 drain, from which it is spread on the grass, where it remains until 
 the cultivator finds it ready for breaking, for this process, there is no 
 defined time, every farmer judging for himself when his flax should 
 be raised; but it is the uniform practice in those parts of the Nether- 
 lands and France where I have been, to grass all flax after steeping j 
 no regard whatever is paid to the situation of the steeping pools as to 
 aspect; those which I saw in various places lay in every direction; 
 nor did it appear to me to be of any moment, in consequence of the 
 total exclusion of the light and air by the covering of mud, &c. 
 When removing the flax from the field to the barn, or store, it is 
 
 * Only one set of layers of sheaves in depth is put in each steeping - pool at a 
 time, it being found injurious to the flax to let the discharge of mucilage from one 
 parcel blend with another. About one foot of water is in the pool when the 
 flax is laid in. 
 
ON SALT A3 A MANURE. 203 
 
 again made into small sheaves nearly of an equal size, twelve of 
 which are bound together similarly to what they were when going to 
 be steeped. 
 
 Drying. — Should the flax which has been raised from the grass be 
 found partially damp, which often happens in Holland, it is dried, 
 or rather aired, on what is called a kiln, but which is merely a brick 
 building in an open space, about twelve feet long, with a slight brick 
 wall in the centre, and projecting walls at each end, about three and 
 a half feet deep. The fire pit which runs the length of the entire 
 building, is from two to three feet under the surface of the ground ; 
 the fuel used is always the shoves and other waste that drop in scutch- 
 ing, which is kept continually stirring, so as to throw a regular and 
 gentle heat to every part of the plant, which lies across strong rods 
 that rests on each end of the projecting walls ; when the flax can be 
 cleaned without this process, it is so done ; but when necessary, it 
 is performed with the greatest care; immediately after the flax is 
 sufficiently aired, it is put in a small building air-tight, where it re- 
 mains until it cools: putting flax in this building after airing, is, I 
 believe, what gave rise to the idea of its being stoved in Holland 
 previous to cleaning, as I could not learn in the course of my in- 
 quiries on that subject, that such a practice had ever existed. 
 
 Breaking and Scutching. — In the Netherlands, flax is always 
 broken and scutched by hand machines, for the most part with 
 breakers and scutchets, similar to those known in many parts of 
 England, where flax is much grown, and known also in some parts 
 of Ireland. In one part of Flanders, a hand machine, is used, and 
 it appears to be very applicable to those districts where flax is grown 
 in small quantities, and does not arrive to that length and strength 
 of staple, produced in the rich grounds of many parts of Munsten 
 In no instance, however, could I discover that any kind of machinery 
 worked by moving power was ever used in Holland; but it is worthy 
 of remark, that throughout the Netherlands, the flax plant is so care- 
 fully attended to, in every operation, that it breaks and dresses with 
 great facility, and comparative ease, and presents a more finished 
 and better article, than is to be found in most other countries. 
 
 On Salt as a Manure. 
 
 Sir — As agricultural occurrences turnup, I mention them, that 
 we may preserve them; for use, or consideration. A Mr. George 
 Redd of Frederick county Virginia, called on me with a little 
 pamphlet he has published; entitled "A late discovery &c. relative 
 to fertilizing poor and exhausted lands " &c. 1 found this "late dis- 
 
ZU4 ON SALT AS A MANURE. 
 
 covery,? consisted in the use of common salt as a manure, applied 
 in small quantities. His means of discovery were, at first the acci- 
 dental observations of the moisture produced by salt in the driest sea- 
 sons; and the great resort of earth worms, to places on which pickle or 
 salt had been thrown. I know that those worms are attracted to such 
 places ; but if they remain but a short time there, they die. I told 
 him, that when a boy, it was my habit to sprinkle salt, or salt and 
 watfr, in dry seasons, to cause the assemblage of earth worms, and 
 furnish myself with bait for angling; and I was never disappointed. 
 I related my frequent experiments with salt, on acres divided into 
 square perches, at rates from twenty bushels to half a bushel per 
 acre : and my frequent top dressing in every way.* And although I 
 found the smaller quantities the most successful, I had still doubt3 
 about its general utility, as a manure of any certain efficacy. I read 
 to him, from page 171 of our memoirs, the opinion I there give in 
 these words. " It is not well ascertained that common salt (muriat 
 of soda) is a manure. If it is, it acts by its septic quality, when ap- 
 plied in small quantities." His exclamation was — " Then it is a ma- 
 nure, and acts as thou hast supposed, I know it by numerous facts, 
 and profitable experiments." He is not a farmer by profession ; and 
 his pamphlet shows him not to be acquainted with principles of the 
 art. His theories are heteredox and whimsical. Among other im- 
 proprieties, he proposes the mixture of salt with gypsum ; — decidedly 
 ruinous to both. He has a small farm ; but is a mechanic ; — I think 
 in wire work His facts are worthy of attention. He ploughs in 
 the fall ; or, if practicable, in the winter, and early in the spring. 
 There he falls in with my experience ; and probably this may be the 
 secret in a great measure, of part of his success. The strewing the 
 salt must be before vegetation begins in the spring; and never to ex- 
 ceed one bushel per acre, either in substance or diluted with water, 
 and mixed with two bushels of" virgin mould where fallen trees had 
 lain and rotted, or from marshy land, or slackened ashes." The 
 compound must be dry and friable. His average per acre seems to 
 be three pecks of salt, mixed in the compound, so as to facilitate its 
 being the better and more equally strewed. He applies it to all vege- 
 table products ; whether on the farm, or in the garden. And he gives 
 instances of happy effects in the orchard; and on all fruit trees He 
 deepens his spots where Indian corn is planted ; and puts therein a 
 table spoonful of salt, or a handful of the mixture. He is a friend to 
 moderate steeping of grain in weak salt and water, for seed ; but not 
 to brines, strong, or long continued, as steeps. He has applied the 
 Salt or mixture to cotton, with great success; and says, " The same 
 mixture will answer equally well for wheat, rye, com and tobacco." 
 Also hemp and flax are benefitted by either the salt alone, or the mix- 
 ture. It does not succeed on clay soils, not well pulverized. He 
 gives instances of great improvement by sowing a bushel of salt per 
 acre, or that quantity in his compound, on grass lands. He told me 
 that Lord Fairfax in Virginia practised this many years ago on ti- 
 
 *These experiments were made, and often repeated, more than 30 years ago. 
 Occasionally I have since tried some of them. But I have Dever been encon. 
 raged to pursue the practice to any great extent. 
 
ON THE TAIL MEDOW OAT GRASS. 205 
 
 mothy grass, and doubled its product ; as he was informed by an old 
 servant of that nobleman. I give you this account from his pamphlet 
 and conversation. He reprobates all applications of salt in targe 
 quantities; as being as injurious, as are the smaller portions benefici- 
 al. He top dresses with salt, or the compound, at the rate mentioned, 
 all crops of either spring or winter grain ; and prefers strewing it in 
 moist weather. He says that others in his neighbourhood are in the 
 practice, which is gaining much credit among those who adopt it. I 
 think it best to make trial of his suggestions, though his panacea 
 seems good for too many things ; and have no reason, from his ap- 
 pearance, to doubt the verity of his facts. Be they ever so apparent- 
 ly improbable, the experiment will cost little, of either labour or ex- 
 pense. The gantelope I ran, in early life, under the lash of prejudice, 
 when, almost alone, I began to disseminate the uses and efficacy of 
 small quantities of plaister of Paris ; has taught me never to treat 
 with neglect or contempt, relations of experiments in husbandry ; 
 though they may appear improbable, or be unaccountable : especial- 
 ly when test is easy, and cheap, Lord Dundojiald condemns salt in 
 large quantities; but mentions the profitable use of sea water ; in 
 which there is only one bushel and a half of salt to the ton. Darwin 
 is opposed to the use of salt as a manure. Nothing can exceed the im- 
 provement made by the hay of our salt marshes, applied as manure. 
 Plaister will not succeed, where this hay is used. 
 
 An old farm-servant reminds me of a remarkable fact. He was 
 employed in my experiments with salt ; and scattered it in broad 
 stripes across the fields, in various quantities. The salted stripes were 
 visible at great distances, especially in winter; being free from hoar 
 frosts, or slight snows ; when all other parts were covered. Nor 
 would severe frosts operate so much on them, as on other parts. They 
 continued open, dry, and free from frost, when all the surrounding- 
 grounds were deeply and'firmly frozen. He says I strewed salt round 
 fruit trees ; to keep off frosts, and increase their vigor. But in some 
 cases, having salted too heavily . the trees were injured. In others, it 
 appeared to be very salutary. 
 
 I am, sir, your obedient servant, 
 
 RICHARD PETERS 
 
 On the Tall Meadow Oat Grass. 
 
 A new kind of imported grass seed has lately been received here 
 from New- York, called the Tall Meadow Oats, which is said to be 
 preferable to any other grass in the United States. It is described by 
 Dr. Henry Muhlenburg of Lancaster, in Pennsylvania, as follows : 
 
 " This grass is of all others the earliest, latest, and best gr is for 
 green fodder and hay 5 it blossoms about the middle of May with red 
 
m 
 
 206 CORRECTIVES OF ILL-CONSTITUTED SOILS. 
 
 Clover, and the seed ripens a month after. It grows best in a Clover 
 soil, and rises to a height of from five to seven feet — it ought to be cut 
 for hay in blossom, about the end of May. The seed may be sown 
 in the fall or spring, with or without grain, and must be-brushed in or 
 lightly harrowed. If mixed with Clover, it will make good upland 
 meadow. Horned cattle prefer this grass to all others, but some horses 
 do not relish it green. It must be pastured or cut at least three times 
 in a season. If suffered to grow old, it will become straw like : when 
 intended for hay it must be salted "* 
 
 A few years since I procured a bushel of the seed, but it almost 
 wholly failed. I have lately procured from Thornburn's seed store 
 in New- York some good seed, which I have planted, and it has come 
 up well — our horses are very fond of it green. It ripens so early, the 
 seed will shell out and be lost, if not carefully attended to. The seed 
 sown in May or June, may produce seed the next fall ; if not, it will 
 be prepared to seed next June. It is said it will do well for ten years 
 or more without ploughing it up. 
 
 I take the liberty to send you herewith a quart of the seed, and re- 
 quest you to distribute it, in small quantities, among the members of 
 the Society, if any should wish it. It is commonly sown in rows in 
 gardens the first year ; half a gill or a gill will be sufficient to begin 
 with. It is said to be spreading fast in the State of Pennsylvania, and 
 the neighbouring States ; it will be forwarder there than in Massachu- 
 setts. It was imported from Germany, and will undoubtedly flourish 
 in any part of the United States. If it answers the description, it will 
 be a valuable acquisition to the country — but perhaps you are already 
 supplied. 
 
 I am, with respect and esteem, your humble Servant, 
 
 JUSTIN ELY. 
 
 Correctives of Ill-Constituted Soils. 
 
 The following are simple and efficacious correctives of some bad 
 ingredients in soils, or the excess of some good constituent ; the pre- 
 sence of which frequently disappoints even the skilful cultivator, when 
 either the true cause is not suspected, or an appropriate remedy is 
 not known. 
 
 1. A farmer with a great portion of common skill is often baffled 
 by Iron in its acid combinations. If on washing the specimen of ste- 
 rile soil, it is found to contain the salts of Iron, Sulphate of Iron, or 
 any acid matter, it may be ameliorated by a top-dressing of quick 
 lime ; which converts the sulphate of iron (copperas) into a manure. 
 
 * Willick's Domestic Encyclopedia, Aaaer. Edit. Vol. II, part 2, page 19 1. 
 
CORRECTIVES OF ILL-CONSTITUTED SOILS. 207 
 
 2. If there be an excess of pure calcareous matter (chalk of lime) 
 in a soil, its constitution may be improved by turning in, in a green 
 state, some of those vegetables which possess the greatest quantity of 
 acid ; also by the application of sand or of clay, with a small propor- 
 tion of oxide of iron (blacksmith's sweepings) not exceeding one twen- 
 tieth part. The same object may be obtained by irrigating with any 
 calybeate water (water containing iron) or by the addition of peat con- 
 taining vitriolic (i e. sulphuric) salts ; both which are calculated to 
 turn lime or chalk into gypsum.* See under vii. 5. why gypsum is 
 sometimes beneficial and sometimes not 
 
 3. When an excess of carbonate of lime (charcoal united to lime) 
 requires the quality of the soil to be modified, gypsum applied as a 
 manure, also oxide of iron as a corrective, seems to produce the very 
 best effects. Carbonate of lime is mild lime in combination with 
 charcoal absorbed from decayed vegetable or animal matter. The 
 diversified effects of lime as a manure -are explained under vii. 1. 
 
 4. Soils redundant in sand are benefited by a top-dressing of peat 
 or other vegetable matter, or of decayed animal matter, or by a mix- 
 ture of clay. Also if the sand be not calcareous, by marie. 
 
 5. An excess of vegetable matter is to be removed either by burn- 
 ing, (See iii. Paring and Burning) or by the application of earthy 
 materials. The fundamental step in the improvement of peat land, 
 or a hog or marsh, is draining. Soft black peats, after being diained, 
 are often made productive by the mere application of sand or day, as 
 a top-dressing : sand is greatlv to be preferred. When peats are acid, 
 or contain ferruginous salts, calcareous matter is absolutely necessa- 
 ry in bringing them into cultivation. When they abound in the roots 
 and. branches of trees, the wood must either be grubbed up and car- 
 ried off, or destroyed by burning ; so when the face of peat is incum- 
 bered by living plants containing much woody fibre, and therefore not 
 proper to be ploughed in the ground, the field must be cleared by one 
 of the same methods/!" 
 
 6. Where there is a redundancy of clay in a soil, (and if thf quan- 
 tity of clay exceed one sixth of the general mass, it is desirable to re- 
 duce the proportion) one of the best dressings which can be applied 
 is a mixture of sand and mild lime ; the rubbish of mortar containing 
 both these materials, is an excellent thing to improve the telture of 
 clayey soil. Clay appears to receive no improvement from lime 
 alone. Sea-sand may be used alone with good effect. It vould be 
 also highly beneficial to introduce as much fermented dung or decay- 
 ed vegetable matter as would entitle the land to the denomination ot 
 of a loam. 
 
 * Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, p- 141, 226. t Ibid, p, 142, 
 
20& or* MILLED 
 
 Millet. 
 
 I'. 
 
 I herewith send you a bushel of millet for seed, which you may 
 present to the " Fredericksburg Agricultural Society," or dispose of 
 in such manner as you think proper. 
 
 I am engaged in a pretty extensive course of experiments to ascer- 
 tain the comparative value of this grain, the results of which I shall 
 hereafter make public. In the mean time, for your information, I 
 will state a lew facts with regard to it. 
 
 One acre and half of very indifferent land, such as could not pro* 
 duce, as a maximum crop, more than fifteen bushels of corn per acre, 
 yielded of millet the present year, thirty one and a half bushels — 
 twenty-one bushels per acre. The excessive drought which dimi- 
 nished my corn crop, nearly haif, appeared to have no injurious ef- 
 fect upon the millet. # The conclusions, I think, may fairly be drawn, 
 that millet, ceteris paribus, is much more productive than corn, and 
 no wise liable to injury from the drought of our summer months. 
 Perhaps, my opinion is premature. 
 
 The weight of millet is fifty-five and a half pounds per bushel, and 
 by the best possible test, viz. the scales, I find that of the husk or out- 
 er covering to be thirteen and a half per centum — leaving a net of for- 
 ty-eight pounds to the bushel nearly. 
 
 To ascertain its nutricious qualities, I took two pigs of equal 
 weight; (viz. one hundred and ten pounds) and put them in separate 
 enclosures, and fed the one on boiled millet and millet meal, and the 
 other en corn prepared in the same manner. In fifteen days I killed 
 them. The net weight of that fed on millet was one hundred and two 
 pounds, and that of the other eighty-six pounds. Thus the usual de- 
 ductions being made, the first gained 28 and two thirds pounds 
 and the other twelve and two thirds pounds in fifteen days. An ox 
 taken fibm the yoke and fed five weeks on equal of corn meal and 
 millet neal, when slaughtered a few days since, was prime beef, 
 weighing five hundred and sixty-five pounds net. 
 
 For stock of any kind I am prepared to say, that millet is as good or 
 better thin any grain of which we are in possession. It should be 
 planted early in April, in rows four feet distant, and one foot or fif- 
 teen inches apart in the drill. It requires about as much work as corn 
 
 The meal of millet is an excellent substitute for chocolate, and I 
 send you a small parcel for trial. Boil two or three spoonfuls in three 
 pints of water, add thereto one pint or somewhat less of milk, and a 
 piece of butter, the size of a nutmeg ; decant and sweeten to suit the 
 palate. I think it the best substitute with which I am acquainted, 
 " prepared rye" not excepted. 
 
 I hope some of your agricultural friends will be disposed to culti- 
 vate a little millet next year, should that be the case will you request 
 them to inform me by letter of their success. I am anxious that a 
 fair trial should be made with it in different soils. I am sanguine in 
 the belief, that it will be no unimportant desideratum in rural and do- 
 mestic economy. 
 
FORCE OF WORK HORSES, &C. 2Q9 
 
 JfEOM RADCUFf's AGRICULTURE OF FLANDERS. 3 
 
 Force of Work Horses and Manner of Feeding, 
 
 Eight horses perform the entire work of the 200 acres, and are 
 in the highest possible condition. They are of the most compact 
 kind of Flemish horse, and do not exceed 15£ hands in height; 
 chiefly roan and chesnut in color. As the banks of the river supply 
 good hay, in this district they are indulged with that species of food, 
 which is not the case in other parts of Flanders \ but they aw^ajso 
 fed upon straw, chiefly of rye, and upon oats with chopped straw in 
 every feed, and after every feed, a bucket of water, richly whiten- 
 ed with rye, or oatmeal. A vessel of this composition is in every 
 stable; nor are the horses suffered to have any other drink. The 
 quantum of food in 24 hours for each horse, in winter, is 15 lb. of 
 hay, 10 lb. of sweet straw, and 8 lb. of oats; in summer, clover is 
 substituted for hay; the other feeding remains the same; and the 
 white water is never omitted : on this they place a chief reliance. 
 The allowance of oats is but moderate, and yet the horses are in su- 
 perior condition : the chopped straw contributes much to this, in 
 converting, by the mastication necessary, every grain of corn to 
 nutriment. The use of it is so universally approved throughout 
 Flanders, that in every town it is sold by retail, and if generally 
 adopted with us, it could not fail to improve f he condition of work- 
 ing horses, and lessen the expense of their provender.- 
 
 In Flanders, a farmer will work fifty acres with two horses; and 
 by the regularity of his care and keep, will preserve their condition. 
 In Ireland, the great wheat farmer of Fingal, upon a similar extent, 
 will keep four times the number, fed more expensively, but not so 
 judiciously, always over-worked and always poor. Some of these 
 farmers, upon 100 acres, keep sixteen horses in their employ, ami 
 there have been instances of three-fourths of that number being lost 
 within the year by hardship and disease. By these means the profits 
 of a farm are consumed without benefit to the farmer; and what 
 would reasonably support and enrich him, is squandered upon supers 
 numerary horses. This special circumstance, not the high rent, keeps 
 the tenant in indigence and difficulty. If landlords interfered to pro- 
 cure for their tenantry a good description of working horse, and en- 
 tourage them to use him properly, and feed him well, it would tend 
 
 - . 27 ' 
 
 
 ■ 
 
216 QUESTIONS ON THE DAIRY. 
 
 more to their advantage than any abatement they can give. Upon 
 the farm of Vollandre, the management was in all points to be ap- 
 proved : economy prevailed in every respect, except in the applica- 
 tion of manure; the occupier was in comfort and affluence, and yet 
 his rent was near 40s. by the plantation acre, and his taxes triple 
 those of the Irish farmer. The difference is to be found in establish- 
 ed system, skilful management, and unceasing industry. 
 
 Upon the farm of which we have been speaking, all the crops 
 yield a great return — too much so to be stated as the average of a 
 district ; the succession^ however, is pretty generally the same. 
 
 The answers of Mr. Van de Foes, President of the Commissioners 
 of Agriculture in South Holland, to questions of the Right 
 Honorable Sir John Sinclair, Bart. Respecting the dairy of 
 Mr. Van de Poes. 
 
 Q. 1st. The number of cows ? 
 
 A. Sixty-four of all ages 
 
 Q. 2d. How is the milk disposed of? in making butter? or. 
 cheese ? or feeding veal ? 
 
 A. The total produce of the milk is sold wholesale, and being 
 carried to the Hague in copper vessels, immediately after the cows 
 are milked, is retailed there by the purchasers. 
 
 Q 3d. What is the most profitable management ? 
 
 A. For those within reach of great towns, the most profitable 
 mode is to sell the milk; — but for those at a distance, the making of 
 butter and cheese is more productive. 
 
 Q. 4th. What quantity of milk is given by one cow, by the day, 
 the week, the month, the year, upon an average of twenty cows ? 
 
 A. Forty cows well fed, and well taken care of, may give from 
 200 to 250 pints of milk* by the day, during the entire year. 
 
 t According to the calculation of the Commission of Agriculture of 
 the Province of South Holland, one good cow produces 78 lbs. of 
 butter, and 180 lbs. of cheese, in six summer months. 
 
 Q. 5th. How are the cows fed in summer and in winter ? 
 
 A. In summer they feed in the pastures day and night : in winter, 
 they are fed with hay, turnips, carrots, grains from the breweries, 
 cakes of linseed, bean-meal, &c. &c. 
 
 Q. 6th. What is the best age of a bull, and why? 
 
 A. A bull well kept, well fed from a calf, and of good blood, is fit 
 to serve cows generally at on.e and a half, or two years old; and this is 
 considered the best age, as those more advanced are heavy and 
 
 * This, on an average of the Flemish pints, of different districts, would be 
 121 quarts English per day, which, from 40 cows, would be but about 3 quarts 
 from each cow This, even for the year round, seems but a triffling produce. 
 The reporter is not aware whether there is any difference between the pint of 
 Flanders and that of the Hague 
 

 ON fHE FIELD PEA. ^ 211 
 
 wicked. The cow served by an aged bull is more likely to miss be- 
 ing in calf; and if impregnated, is more liable to suffer inconvenience 
 with respect to the foetus. 
 
 Q. 7th. At what age are bulls sold or dismissed ? 
 
 A. At the age of two, or two and a half years, they are replaced 
 by younger bulls. 
 
 Q. 8th. Is it an advantage that the tails of cows should be tied by a 
 cord, and raised high up? and why ? *, 
 
 A. Cleanliness requires that their tails should be fixed in this man- 
 ner, otherwise they acquire dirt, and communicate it to the milker's. 
 
 Q. 9th. How is butter made? with the entire milk, or only with 
 the cream? — Is it sometimes saved with sugar and saltpetre? — Is it 
 washed ? — How is butter milk consumed ? 
 
 A. In the greatest part of Holland, they make butter of the 
 cream only: they wash it very much, and save it with salt. There 
 is a great demand for butter milk — what is not sold, serves to fatten 
 pigs, and feed calves. 
 
 Of the skimmed-milk, they make cheese with a material called 
 Komyude Kaas. In some parts of Holland, where less butter is 
 made, they make a rich cheese with entire milk. 
 
 Here terminates the answers of Mr. Van de Poes, which relate to 
 the dairy. In the Island of Cadsand, a gentleman very willing to 
 communicate, but not versed in that kind of information, mentioned 
 generally, his having remarked, that in dairying districts, the best 
 kept cow-stables, were strictly attended to in point of cleanliness and 
 temperature. He spoke of having drank coffee with the cow-keeper 
 in the general stable, in winter without the annoyance of cold, of 
 dirt, or any offensive smell. 
 
 In FJanders, they preserve in their cow-stables the temperature of 
 the month of May. 
 
 In Mr. Roper's well-cond/icted establishment, in Ireland, consist- 
 ing of nearly two hundred cows, the thermometer is kept at sixty de- 
 grees, and it is considered, that any variation from that temperature 
 tends to reduce the quantity of milk. 
 
 The Reporter regrets extremely, that he had not the opportunity 
 of detailing from personal inspection, the practice of the chief dai* 
 ries in Holland. 
 
 The Field-Pea. 
 
 There is a very general mistake, in this part of the country, res- 
 pecting the culture of the Jield-pea. It is supposed to require much 
 labor, and it is conceived that they must be sown in drills, and stuck. 
 True it is that, like beans, when sowed in drills, and hoed, they 
 
'■ 
 
 w 
 
 212 ON OAT PASTURE, 
 
 produce more abundantly; and so will any plant. But there is no 
 more expense, or labor, in the usual mode of cultivation, than with 
 oats. They are sown in broadcast; and harrowed in, in the direc- 
 tion of the furrows. When ripe they are cut with the scythe, or that 
 and the cradle, if they stand up well; raked up when dry, and 
 stacked, or housed. They are threshed in the common way ; and 
 cleaned in the common fan, nothing is equal to them for rotting a 
 sod ; and in Europe they are often sown on a ley, with one plough- 
 ing; for the purpose of rotting it, as well as for the crop. They 
 delisht m light soils the most ; but will grow in others. They are 
 ascertain a crop, as the grains in common use. Pease often fail, as 
 do other crops. But when appearances are against them, they may 
 be ploughed in, as green manure, to profitable account. When they 
 perfect their crop, or when ploughed in, they do not fail to meliorate 
 the soil. Beans are best for heavy soils; but they do not often suc- 
 ceed here. Pease are in great demand, for ships provisions, or ex- 
 portation; when split, or whole. Chopped or ground for cattle, 
 they exceed oats, either for milk, or fatting. Hogs are fond of them; 
 and they may be given io fatting, or stock swine. But the former 
 must be finished off with Indian corn ; which makes the bacon of 
 this country superior to that of Europe^ Horses are fed on pease in 
 England, and other countries. 
 
 Leguminous Plants are those whose seeds are enclosed in pods. 
 Every species of the pea and pulse kind are Legumes. They shade 
 and cover; there tap, or main roots strike deep ; and do not prey 
 upon or exhaust the vegetable mould, as do plants shallow set, and 
 entirely fibrous. Exposing to the influences of the atmosphere sur- 
 faces porous and extensive, they draw from the air their chief supplies. 
 They probably give to the earth, a balance beyond their receipts from 
 it j which, by their shade and cover, they enable it to retain. 
 
 ' R. PETEPv^ 
 
 ' # JEM* ' *• S%t&® 
 
 On Oat Pasture, and Improvement of Soils. 
 
 t 
 
 It is generally acknowledged, that the best land may be reduced 
 to sterility, from an injudicious rotation of crops .It remains in a great 
 measure to be proved, whether a farm, which from bad management 
 had been rendered barren, can be restored to its pristine fertility, by 
 a treatment, not beyond the reach of every farmer, (nor without the 
 farm ) who possesses the land, free from incumbrances, which are 
 nearly equal to the supposed value of his worn out farm. 
 
 When an inquirer examines the publications of those who have 
 given the results of their experiments, it appears not only practica- 
 ble, but easy: frequently however, some circumstance is not men- 
 
AND IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS. 218 
 
 lioned in the communication, or something not attended to by the 
 reader, who intends to make the same successful experiments, but 
 rails, from the causes stated. 
 
 The; Rockland farm, exhibited a subject for experiment, as it had 
 not only been reduced by cropping, but generally, became a common 
 for every animal, to take what remained of the scanty natural, but 
 coarse herbage; having read in various books the result of sowing 
 plaister and clover, it was presumed, that sowing plaister and clover, 
 would be the extent of the expenses required to fertilize the fields, 
 in a few years ; — a few experiments, proved that the plaister and 
 clover seed were both lost, as no one could at any season of the year, 
 point out what field, or upon what part of the field they had been 
 deposited, unless where the briars and bushes had been eradicated. 
 
 It should however have been mentioned, that the soil was general- 
 ly a cold or heavy clay, some blue, white, light brown and a tew 
 spots of red clay, loaded with hard,blue stone and rocks, chiefly 
 quartz, mixed with iron and copper. Some of the experiments 
 were made with plaister, others were made by top-dressing with 
 lime, at the rate of twenty-five, to thirty bushels per acre: the lime 
 was brought 20 or 25 miles from the kiln, and laid on the field at 25 
 cents per bushel : it was formed into a bed of about half a foot thick 
 and covered with earth, ploughed and thrown over it, before it was 
 slacked, that all the phosphoric principle disengaged by the water, 
 might be united with the earth which it covered ; a heavy harrow was 
 afterwards passed over it, so soon as the shell was reduced to powder ; 
 the bed of lime and earth, was then frequently turned by the plough 
 and harrow, until the whole assumed the appearance, and smell, 
 of soapers ashes, containing about ten parts of common soil, to one 
 of lime. It was then carted, and spread regularly over the field, 
 and in every instance it gave a return of clover, equal to ten load of 
 stable manure to the acre. The idea of mixing the lime and earth, 
 was suggested from spreading the refuse mortar of lime and sand 
 gathered from about buildings and laid upon the field, the efTect of 
 which I observed was more immediate than any equal quantity of 
 lime: though mixtures of lime and earth, were equally so, — in both 
 cases, the lime was completely pulverized, and the sand and earth, 
 broke up the communication of lime with lime, and the succeeding 
 rains carried the fertilizing principle of the lime, as from a seive, 
 into the soil where it was spread, — it completely divided the soil, 
 rendering that open and warm, which before was compact, and too 
 cold for the roots of the grain to live in. 
 
 The whole soil which before felt dead under foot, became so elas- 
 tic that persons of observation by walking over the field in the night, 
 distinctly told how far the lime and earth compost extended. The 
 colour of the soil was likewise changed into that of chocolate. 
 
 These effects presented several ideas, which had not occurred to 
 me before: viz. That any thing which would separate the particles 
 of the soil, and admit the air, would render these cold and heavy 
 clays, warm and fertile; — that free intercourse of air, would carry off 
 the acid ; to meet this, ploughing in the fall was adopted, and found 
 successful j one half of a field six years ago was ploughed in the win- 
 

 214 ON OAT PASTURE 
 
 
 ter, the other half ploughed in the spring, that part which was plough* 
 ed in the spring, has never brought grain, or grass equal to the other. 
 Jt should have been observed, that the field had not been ploughed 
 for upwards of 20 years, and of course a great body of rubbish and 
 roots were ploughed in, after the briar-hook, and grubbing-hoe had 
 smoothed the surface. Spreading of manure in the autumn, from the 
 compost bed has also been introduced with universal success, b >th 
 upon grain and grass fields, the lye or salts, of the manure, being car- 
 ried into the soil by the rains upon the breaking up of the frosts, 
 which have in some measure prepared the soil to receive it. High a- 
 gricultural authorities, even bottomed on accurate observation, are 
 opposed to the practice of spreading out manure in autumn; amongst 
 these we find the justly celebrated Lord Kaims, in his gentleman far- 
 mer, a work upon first principles, and deservedly of the highest au- 
 thority. A departure from his judgment is only to be allowed, where 
 facts would censure silence; nor should his name have been mentioned, 
 unless to avoid the charge of writing without attending to what has 
 been said on that subject: it is no conclusive objection that " the 
 strength of the manures, will be carried off by winter rains, or ex- 
 hausted by the frost :" are not the warm showers more so and are not 
 the exhalations more copious in a warm than in a cold temperature ; 
 is the descending of the sap in trees no monitor, as to the season for 
 spreading out manures, and about the operations of nature, for renew- 
 ing, and invigorating, the process of vegetation. 
 
 Briar-bushes, and all vegetable substances have been covered up 
 with earth, rotted and used with the same success, as stable manure, 
 and so far, and so long, as they separate parts of the soil and admit 
 the air, they fertilize and change the colour of the mould. These 
 experiments tested by frequent repetition, have laid a foundation for 
 experiments less expensive, and equally fertilizing, for the produc- 
 tion of grass and grain. Ploughing and sowing, for the purpose of 
 producing pasture, and accumulation of vegetable soil have been 
 adopted: for this purpose wheat, rye, Indian corn, (maize,) buck- 
 wheat and oats have been sown upon fields ploughed, which were 
 incapable of producing any crop; none of those grains, have pro- 
 duced pasture and vegetable soil equally valuable, to that from the 
 oats: where the others have failed, its roots have pierced, disarmed 
 and vanquished 'the inhospitable soil and rendered it fertile; the' 
 winter ploughing is continued, and the oats are thrown in, as early 
 as the season will allow, some times even in February, either upon what 
 has been ploughed in autumn, or in the fields which were in corn the 
 preceeding fall. In general they afford early pasture, and when 
 they are reploughed in July and August, and sown again with oats, 
 they furnish excellent pasture from early in September, until late in 
 December, during that season when all other pasture is generally 
 dried up. The first sowing of oats only gives about two months pas- 
 ture, but the roots and remaining herbage affords a manure for the 
 second sowing, and this always yeilds four months valuable pasture, 
 which no other course known to me will afford. In September, 
 October, November and December, considerable attention, is re- 
 quired, to preserve the young clover, which the field will be able to 
 
■> 
 
 AND IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS. 215 
 
 saisein the second year of the oat pasture: if sown with the oats in 
 spring, the cattle should never be put in while the ground is too 
 moist, as they would destroy and tread it into soil: and sometimes 
 dry seasons are also highly injurious to the clover. When the clover 
 is sown with the second sowing of oats, the same care is required to 
 prevent its being trodden in by the live stock, for this purpose it is 
 always necessary to have a spare field of old pasture, which they will 
 feed upon in wet weather, and which they would not relish in dry 
 weather. To guard against a dry season it is most proper never to 
 pasture the oats, where the clover is sown, so much, as to prevent the 
 herbage of the oats, from giving shade to the clover. So soon as a 
 field will produce clover luxuriantly, there is no farmer at a loss how 
 to make his field as rich as he pleases and having got them into good 
 heart, it will be his interest to put them in such rotation, as shall in- 
 crease the vegetable soil and consequent fertilility of his lands. 
 
 It is almost unnecessary to mention, what will make its way 
 to the understanding of every farmer, viz. The many advantages 
 gained from treating his barren field this way. 
 
 1st. Early and late sweet pasture from such fields, which other- 
 wise produced a scanty coarse herbage unpalatable to every animal. 
 
 2d. Immediate reward for his labor ; the stock are supported by it 
 within two months from the time seed is sown : the two returns give 
 six months green food ; he is not however to depend upon it for all 
 his summer pasture. 
 
 3d. Perhaps it is one of the most effectual means to root out gar- 
 lick, because what have escaped the plough in the spring, are eaten 
 down with the pasture from the first sowing of oats, and prevented 
 from going into seed ; the ploughing in July and August expose so- 
 many of its bulbs to the sun that few shoots are to be found in oats 
 sown for fall pasture. 
 
 4th. It is an easy and profitable way of clearing grain-fields from 
 every species of injurious'weeds ; as it will convert them into vege- 
 table soil, and enable the farmer to raise whatever grain or grass he 
 shalljudge most suitable to the soil. 
 
 5th. It will save the expense of a fruitless summer fallow, and 
 the green herbage will aid the dairy. 
 
 6th. It enriches the farm from within itself, and no expense is re- 
 quired beyond the reach of any farmer : by rising one hour earlier, 
 and working one hour later than usual, for two weeks, he may 
 plough and sow two acres, as an experiment. The pasture will 
 recompence his labor, while his soil is greatly improved; it is equal- 
 ly evident, that the fertility of the soil is acquired,- partly from the 
 roots of the oats, opening the soil and introducing the air and 
 warmth of the sun, and partly from accession of vegetable soil, 
 produced from the decomposed roots of such pasturage; but even 
 before the roots are converted into soil, they produce the most bene- 
 ficial effects. Those from the spring sowing, retain the moisture, 
 and supply the summer sowing with it. The roots from the fall pas- 
 turage, being full of sap, introduce winter frosts every where, into 
 the soil, which swelling with the congealation, separates the parti- 
 cles j for it is to be observed, that roots while the stem is eaten down 
 
2 lb' 
 
 »by the stalk, do not become hard but are more numerous, than when 
 th? plant is matured into grain. It is however necessary to sow at 
 least double the quantity of seed, to that required for crops of grain, 
 the pasture being so much thicker, and the increase of vegetable soil 
 from the decayed roots so much the greater. 
 
 ft is not to be expected, that one or two repetitions of the series of 
 oat pasture, will make the soil equally rich as a common dressing of 
 stable manure, which from a farm of 100 acres, will not in general 
 extend over more than 10 or 15 acres ; this gives to one acre nearly 
 the vegetable soil produced from 7 or 10 acres. — It is to be remem- 
 bered, that the object proposed was to render worn out, or barren 
 fields productive; and in no case have I found a field, which was not 
 after two years oat pasture, capable of producing clover, and receiv- 
 ing the gypsum with evident advantage. So soon as a field produces 
 . clover, no one is at a loss, how to produce advantageous crops after- 
 wards It is in every ones power, to estimate what the ploughing and 
 seeding per acre of oat will cost, and according to circumstances, so 
 %ill the expenses be, but in general where the expenses are high, the 
 value oi' the pasture is equally so, and if even granted that the cost of 
 ploughing, and seeding, shall be double in value to the pasture pro- 
 duced, let the comparative value of the field be estimated, before the 
 course was begun, a waste, or worn out field, and what it is now, 
 when the course is completed and laid down in clover, timothy or or-> 
 chard grass. 
 
 It will be of the first importance to have at least two fields, other- 
 wise if the cattle are constantly upon the same field it will not be 
 found so productive, and in wet weather, they should be turned into 
 some field where the herbage was too hard in dry weather. It will 
 be eaten greedily by the cattle after they have been satiated with the 
 soit blades of the oats; under this management, beeves have been 
 fatted for family use and taken off in December, without any grain. 
 It is observed that the oats scour at first, but the free use of salt, 
 readily corrects the complaint, and in no pasture do they rise faster 
 in flesh; and the juces of their meat uncommonly geateful. 
 
 The fields which have been in corn the preceeding year, have al- 
 so been sown in the spring; without being reploughed, and have 
 clone equally well, except upon heavy clays, when the spring has 
 commenced with heavy rains, which have rendered the soil too com- 
 pact to be opened, even with a heavy brake harrow, drawn by four 
 horses. The fields from the oat pasture the foregoing autumn, have 
 . also been sown, without reploughing, when the spring has set in 
 without much rain, after severe frost; not only the oat pasture, but 
 also the clover sown therewith, have answered well. 
 
 Oats have also been sown amongst the hills, and drills of corn, af- 
 ter it has received the last dressing. It has succeeded, without any 
 visible injury to the. corn, provided, care has been taken not to injure 
 the roots, by the plough or harrow at the time the oats were sown. 
 
 It has been inquired, are not all crops of oats exhausting, if so, 
 how can two sowings of oats in the same year render the soil fertile ? 
 it is granted, if oats shall be matured into seed they will certainly 
 exhaust, but if cut off, while in the blade, they, and all culmiferous 
 
AND IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS. 217 
 
 plants, will fertilize. The experiment was made with Indian corn, 
 sown broad-cast, cut twice and carried to the stable, and a crop of 
 turnips taken off the ground the same season : the manure was laid 
 on before the corn was sown, but none was given when the turnip 
 seed was put in. 
 
 Another way in which oats fertilize, appears to be from increase of 
 vegetable soil ; this is within the view of every observer; the remains 
 . of (he pasture ploughed in, particularly in July and August is speedi- 
 ly decomposed, its tenderness and moisture aiding the dissolution. 
 But dry stubble and husky roots are difficultly decomposed, nor do 
 they produce so much carbonic or coally matter in the soil, which 
 chemists say decomposes the water, rind produce the air required to 
 promote vegetation As the vegetable is produced from air and wa- 
 ter, and not from earth, which seems to be no more than the labora- 
 tory where the process of vegetation commences, and finally serve 
 asu matrix to hold one part of the plant, while the other parts are 
 raised aloft, in quest of superior aid, to complete the inscrutable 
 operations of the vegetable fabric. 
 
 It has also been inquired, will this process of oat pasture fertilize 
 every where? It is answered, that where the soil and climate are the 
 same, the effects will be the same also. A description has been 
 given of the soils, where the experiments were made, and are still 
 going on. If experiments of the same nature shall be made upon 
 a different soil and climate, the result will be different, and more or , 
 ie$s favorable, according to circumstances, and for which the prac- 
 tice now mentioned, cannot in justice be rendered accountable. If 
 my shoe fit my foot, I am warranted to say, it will suit a foot uf the 
 same size and shape every where; let no one conclude, that it will 
 fit a foot of larger or less size or different form, but I must confess 
 that passing over things equally obvious, I have run into numerous 
 and expensive errors. 
 
 But when it is inquired upon what evidence it is to be received— 
 the reply is at hand, living evidences, are at command of every one 
 who chooses to make the trial, let him however, be on his guard, 
 against suffering himself to take a crop in place of the spring pasture 
 oats. 
 
 If it shall still be inquired, how does the oat pasture fertilize? It 
 may be also observed that the constant verdure and green herbage 
 prevent the rays of the sun from parching the soil and depriving it of 
 its moisture and air, both of which are highly necessary to vegeta- 
 tion. The double portion of juicy vegetable matter arising from the 
 two crops of pasture in the same summer, being every where united 
 with the common soil partly me< hanically and partly chemically, 
 renders the soil capable of retaining, sufficient moisture and elastic 
 air, to make it open and warm, and by which the soil does not be- 
 come thicker by going downward, but actually expands, or rises, so 
 as to give a furrow, considerably deeper, than formerly, over im- 
 moveable rocks. Some years ago, a field in view of the farm-house, 
 .marked the broad rocks, during the course of every crop ; they are 
 now covered with so much soil, that they are seldom observed. 
 The two plouchings also contribute to the increase of the air in the 
 28 
 
21 1 ON OAT PASTURE, &C. 
 
 soil, without which no soil can be fruitful, there being no vegetation 
 in vacuo. Tull's horse-hoeing husbandry, was introduced under the 
 idea, that the pabulum of plants was pulverized earth ; the fact dai- 
 ly before us is, that pulverized earth, retains the moisture and air, 
 as the handmaids of vegetation, some experiments have lately been 
 made, the results of which favor these remarks, viz. " that soils 
 afforded quantities of air by distillation, somewhat corresponding to 
 the ratios of their values." 
 
 Inclosed I have sent soils in the state they were found before the 
 Courses mentioned were introduced. 
 
 No. 1 . A sample of the unimproved soil about three inches deep. 
 
 No. 2. A sample of the same soil four inches deep, improved by 
 the lime compost two years. 
 
 No. 3 A sample two inches deep, from the field in its exhausted 
 state. 
 
 No. 4. A sample three inches deep from the same field, which 
 was once sown in pasture oats, and has been one year in grass, sown 
 after the oats, which did not take well, partly owing to the late sea- 
 son when it was sown; and partly owing to the seed having been in- 
 jured, and the soil still cold. *' 
 
 No. 5. A sample two inches, from an exhausted field. 
 
 No. 6. A sample four inches, from the same field after pasture 
 Oats, which was followed by wheat, a poor crop, and succeeded by 
 oats a middling crop, with clover which yeilded a considerable 
 Swarth last season ; when the clover is ploughed in it will be follojv- 
 ed by pasture oats.* 
 
 * The samples of soils sent by Mr. Young, exhibited the most marked differ- 
 ence The progress from absolute sterility, to rich mould, might be traced 
 by the appearance of colour in the several parcels. I, with great pleasure^ 
 bear testimony on the subject of Mr. Young's improvements. In the years 
 1806 and 1808, I saw cattle feeding in good pasture and good crops of grain, 
 and grass growing in fields, which in 1804, I thought totally irreclaimable 
 from briars, garlick roots, and original poverty of soil. Where manure is at 
 hand, and capital in the possession of the cultivator to purchase it, any soil 
 may be rendered fertile; but Mr. Young affords the best example of good 
 farming, viz. enriching a naturally poor soil, and restoring fertility to exhaust- 
 ed land, by returning thereto its own produce raised with the least possible 
 expense. 
 
 A 
 
 j | 1 1 ft|| 
 
 4 
 
ON MANURE? 
 
 [>rom cooper's domestic ehcyclopebia.^ 
 
 ,219 
 
 ■ 
 
 On Manure. 
 
 JjJ. \NURE, denotes any substance employed for improving land, 
 whether by remedying its natural poverty, or by correcting its too 
 great stiffness, looseness, or other qualities unfavourable to vegeta- 
 tion. 
 
 [The following general observations on manure, may furnish more 
 accurate ideas than commonly prevail on the subject. 
 
 Writers on agriculture, ignorant for the most part of the physiolo- 
 gy of animals, as well as vegetables ; have usually considered and 
 treated of plants, as inanimate beings; they are not so. Every 
 plant is the production of an organized seed, endued with the pro- 
 perty of* vegetable life, and of being acted upon by appropriate sti- 
 muli. This vegetable life is originally excited and subsequently con-* 
 tinued by the application of what may be called natural stimuli, 
 much in the same manner as in animals. Thus the pollen of the 
 pointal received by the chive, and propagated to the seed vessel, im- 
 pregnates the seed, and excites the action of the living fibre, which 
 afterward proceeds according to the laws of organization peculiar to 
 each plant. This action is continually renewed by the application 
 of vegetable food, by means of which the germ is dilated till the 
 plant arrives at its full growth. All this is perfectly analogous to the 
 impregnation of the animal germ in the ovarium and its subsequent 
 growth to full size and age. 
 
 In animals the muscular fibres have the property of contracting on 
 being irritated, (irritability as it is called,) so have vegetable fibres; 
 the sensative plant, the hedasyrum, the dionea muscipula of Caro- 
 lina ; the phenomena of plants growing in a dark place and turning 
 to the light, are proofs of this, if not of voluntarity. The separated 
 twigs of hedasyrum are irritable like a separated muscle. Mr. How- 
 ard has lately discovered the same property in the pollen on the , 
 application of alcohol. (Transactions Linn. Society, London.) 
 
 Animals have feeling, perception, or sensibility, and the power of 
 voluntary motion. So (as some think) have plants. The facts ad- 
 duced by Percival, Smith and Darwin, and the whole class of phen- 
 omena relating to their search of food and propagation of their 
 
220 ON MANURE^ 
 
 species, seems to render this probable. To which may be added the 
 habits and customs of the parasite plants. 
 
 Animals, though perfect in all their parts, may be stinted in their 
 growfh, by too small a quantity of food and by other means ; and this 
 dimunition will affect the size of their offspring. The case is precise- 
 ly the same with plants. By a plenty of food, and favourable situa- 
 tions, animals may be increased in size. So may vegetables. By 
 breading from selected couples of a large size, the size of the animal 
 offspring is increased. Hereon was founded the successful practice 
 of the greatest cattle breeder in England Mr. Bakewell, of Dishly ; 
 and the same set of experiments has been repeated with equal success 
 on plants by Mr Cooper, of Ne ^'-Jersey. Mr. Bakewell increased 
 the flesh on particular bones of his cattle, and propagated this propen- 
 sity. Mr. Cooper has in like manner, propagated not merely in- 
 crease of size, but increase of size in particular parts of the plant t 
 and propensities to the earlier vegetation. 
 
 In animals, appetite may be provoked and digestion assisted by 
 the artificial stimuli of what physicians call condiments, salt, pepper, 
 wines, acids, bitters, &c. Such also is the property of vegetables. 
 Their hands, mouths, and stomachs, are in the soil ; and by the 
 application of artificial stimuli, such as lime, common salt, alkalies,, 
 plaister of Paris, &c. their roots may be excited to want, to seek, 
 to take in, and to digest more nutriment than they would otherwise 
 take in. 
 
 Animals may be surfeited with too much nourishment. So plants 
 will die, if set in a mere dung heap. Animals may be poisoned. 
 So may plants. Every metalic combination, for instance, except 
 oxygenated and carbonated iron,* the calx of manganese (and lead,!) 
 and in small quantities, being poisons to the vegetable. 
 
 By the artificial stimuli of condiments, animals may be excited too 
 much, and indirect debility will ensue. So is it with plants. In like 
 manner excess of these artificial stimuli will take away their benefici- 
 al effects, as half a pint of wine may assist, when a bottle will injure 
 digestion. Thus from the experiments of Sir John Pringle, and Dr. 
 Watson (Bishop of Landaff,) it appears that a small quantity of salt 
 is a septic to the animal fibre, and a manure to vegetables ; while a 
 large quantity is the domestic antiseptic of cookery, and destroys ve- 
 getation altogether. So in the experiments of Judge Peters, two bush- 
 els of gypsum will produce a luxuriant crop, and six or eight will pre- 
 vent it. 
 
 In animals, when parts of muscular or other fibres are weak, dis- 
 eased, and dying, artificial stimuli can be applied to excite an action 
 in the living and healthy parts, by which the dead are separated and 
 sloughed off. So in plants, the artificial stimulus of those substances, 
 which are not manures in the sense of affording nourishment to the 
 
 * This combination was found highly useful as a manure by Mr. Joseph 
 Whitten of Kent, Lichfield county, Connecticut, for all garden vegetables. Ft 
 answered better for Indian-corn, than either ashes or gypsum. See Med. 
 Rep. vol. II. page 440.— Dr. Mease 
 
 t Sir J. Banks was unable to make arenaria verna grow in his garden, until 
 he procured the dross of lead, and surrounded the plant with it. See Ander- 
 son's Recreations, vol- I. — Dr. Mease. 
 
..<*,. Off MANURE. 221 
 
 plants, but only exciting a stronger and more healthy action in the 
 living fibre ; will kill the weak and diseased roots, while they invigo- 
 rate the more healthy. This is the mode of action (in part) of lime, 
 gypsum, salt, &c. usually classed among manures, but which do not 
 enter into the composition of the plant itself. 
 
 Animals are resolvable into lime, gases and phosphoric acid. 
 There is no peculiar animal earth. The phenomena of marine ani- 
 mals, the experiments of Vauquelin on the production of lime in 
 the hen, and some other facts, make it probable that the lime of the 
 bones, as well as their phosphoric acid, is the product of animaliza- 
 tion. Vegetables are resolvable into gases and fixed alkali by fire; 
 by putrefaction their alkali is decomposed, and escapes in the form of 
 volatile alkali, for no fixed alkali is found on the incineration of 
 vegetables which have undergone completely the putrefaction process. 
 Both vegetables and animals contain in their fluids, accidentally, 
 unessential quantities of iron, manganese, and neutral salts, Thus 
 the blood contains iron, the serum and urine, microcosmic and phos- 
 phoric salts with the bases of lime, soda and volatile alkali. So m 
 plants, nitre is found in borage, in nettles, '&c. and ozalites in some. 
 Hence it appears that the component parts of vegetables are very 
 nearly the same; indeed the gases into which they are each resolva- 
 ble form nineteen-twentieths of their weight We are aware of the 
 experiments and observations, as yet inconclusive, of Vauquelin, 
 Girtanner, Humboldt, and Lampadius, on the decomposition of al- 
 kalies and earths by means of oxygen ; and although they are not yet 
 satis factor}'', we may fairly assert the probability of the conversion 
 of lime into alkali, and that the difference of organization alone, 
 makes that to be lime in an animal which is alkali in a vegetable. 
 
 Again ; Animal fibres are made from plants. So true is the scrip- 
 ture exclamation, that all flesh is grass ! An ox and a sheep are made 
 up of vegetables, and so are we who devour them. Nothing is nou- 
 rishment to an animal, but what was originally a vegetable. In like 
 manner, nothing is nourishment to a vegetable, but what enters into 
 the permament composition of a vegetable. We find that large 
 plants grow in pure sand, (Van Helmont,) in sand and clay, in 
 common clay, in lime-stone, lime-stone and sand, lime-stone and 
 clay, and in all the combinations of these common earths: but we 
 do not find that these earths, or any one of them, are permament 
 and essential parts of the composition of a plant, any more than of 
 an animal. In a human body of 2001b. weight, may be found 
 about the fourth or fifth of an ounce of common salt, and perhaps 
 the same proportion of gypsum may be founcl in clover ; but these 
 are accidental parts of composition. Hence manures of nourish- 
 ment are distinguished from manures of stimulus, and from mechanic- 
 al manures; and we are taught, that every vegetable and animal 
 substance, when decomposed, furnishes pabulum to vegetable, and 
 that every such substance so decomposed is a manure of nourishment, 
 and that nothing else is, or can be. It may be taken for an axiom, 
 that from man to a cabbage or a lichen, nothing can be converted 
 into a nourishment for the living fibre, but what has been a perma- 
 nently component part of living fibre before. 
 
222 ©N MANURE, v. 
 
 There are other properties of vegetables similar (rather than anaj» 
 ogous to th >se of animals, which the necessary brevity of this com= 
 pilation will not admit. It may be observed, however, that plants, 
 like animals, may be transplanted from one climate and soil to an- 
 other, provided the difference be not very great, and care be taken to 
 accustom them gradually to the change. Indeed, vegetables like ani- 
 mals, will accustom themselves to the change in a generation or two ? 
 provided the difference be not above 8 or 10 degrees of latitude, or 
 of mean temperature. The range is not yet ascertained. 
 
 On the preceeding properties of vegetables and their analogies to 
 animals, may all the agricultural doctrine of manures be well found- 
 ed. These analogies have been remarked by others, but their appli- 
 cativm in this respect has not been heretofore sufficiently observed. 
 
 Animals (lifer from vegetables in having a more extended sphere 
 of locomotion. The animal (except in cases nearly zoophytical,) 
 can move the whole of his body from one place to another; a plant 
 can only move its root, fibres, and its branches. The convolvuli, 
 and other parasite plants, are in some degree an exception, but the 
 general rule is, that the "immoveable centre of a plant's situation is 
 the place where the germ falls, or the seed or plant is set with intent 
 that it should remain. Hence the use of that kind of manuring 
 which consists in the admixture of soils of various depths and adhe- 
 sion, fop the mechanical purpose of keeping the plant steady. 
 II. Of climate and soil. 
 
 No experiments have been made to ascertain with precision the 
 bounds of laiitude or temperature which prohibit the naturalization 
 of exotic plants. In t ranee, Young has marked the limes of the 
 maize and the vine culture. In this country maize grows tolerably 
 well from latitude 42, and beyond it to Georgia. Wheat is not so 
 good and productive south of Virginia, as in the middle states. 
 The latitudes of cotton and rice are not yet exactly ascertained. 
 Coffee has not yet had a fair trial in our southern states, nor the su- 
 gar cane. Much indeed yet remains to be done in this respect, and 
 much is doing by the British government in the West-Indies. 
 
 Agriculturists have many vague denominations of soil, such as 
 loamy, marie, sandy, lime-stone, gravelly, stoney, poor light soil, 
 rich black soil. These are tolerably descriptive in a general way • 
 but as the theory of the art improves, we shall need more accuracy. 
 Of the primitive earths, none need be noticed under this section, 
 but silex or sand ; argil or clay ; and calx or lime. The others have 
 never been yet found in sufficient quantity to produce any notable 
 effect, except in the hilrtful quality of magnesia when combined with 
 lime, first noticed by Mr. Tennant. It is evident that for the 
 mechanical purpose of increasing or lessening adhesion, supporting 
 the plant and admitting is fibres to shoot more freely ; clay, sand, 
 and lime-stone are mutually manures to each other, acting mechanic- 
 ally by their mixture. Thus in Chesire and Norfolk, in England, 
 the clay and marl pits furnish an excellent and permament manure to 
 the sandy soil above. 
 
 But it is not merely the mechanical mixture of soils that may be 
 useful j for the experiments ©f M# D'Arcet and M. Farboni have 
 
©N MANURE. 223 
 
 shewn us that in the temperature of L00° of Fah'r. different earths 
 have different capacities for retaining moisture; so that by 'he judi- 
 cious aduiixtures, this valuable property in <.oils may be increase*) or 
 diminished; and as none of the earths are found perfectly pure in 
 soils, (clay, for instance, retaining 66 per cent, of sand without 
 losing is distinctive character) a field is opened for ascertaining i his 
 property in different admixtures and combinations. Foi iVir. Wedie- 
 wood discovered that earths would chemically combine in the moist 
 
 way. . . |# .* 
 
 Beside the tenacity of soils, and their capability of retaining mois- 
 ture, their depth is also to be considered by the cultivator, dome 
 plants have long tap-roots, such as rhubard, liquorice, carrots, mad- 
 der, &c. These are evidently unfit for any soils, but of loose adhe- 
 sion and considerable depth. Equally preposterous would it be to 
 use the soil like the Genesee flats, of twenty feet deep of rich mould, 
 for grasses that spread upon the surface. Again, where soils are na- 
 turally sandy, dry, and arid, and the climate warm, plants should be 
 selected, whose roots penetrate deep and beyond the influence of at- 
 mospheric evaporation. Thus, in this country as in the South of 
 France, lucerne, (medica) and chicory ( cichorium intubus ) would 
 be luxuriant where no other grass would grow. 
 
 We come now to consider (in this sketch III) the mode of accele- 
 rating the growth and increasing the size of plants. 
 
 This is done by manures. Hitherto, every substance added to 
 the soil or to the plant while growing, which effected, or was m^ant 
 to effect these purposes, was called a manure. But, from what has 
 been said, manures ought to be considered in at least three divisions. 
 1. Manures of nourishment. 2. Manures of stimulous S. Mechan- 
 ical manures. 
 
 Manures of Nourishment. Five different theories have been start- 
 ed on this subject. 
 
 1. Practical men have for ages discovered the use of dung in agri- 
 culture, and hence the common and oldest theory was, that the juices 
 of decomposed animal and vegetable substances were the chief pabu- 
 lum of plants. 
 
 2. Van Helmont's experiment suggested water as the pabulum, 
 but although some plants will live, none will flourish in mere water. 
 The French experiment of the decomposition of water, and the dis- 
 covery of the excretion of oxygen seem to give countenance to this 
 theory. 
 
 3. Dr. Hunter, of York, in his Georgical Essays, persuaded 
 the world for some time, that oil was the pabulum of vegetables. 
 But neither his theory nor his practice succeeded. 
 
 4. Dr. Priestly, who had more right to form theories and conjec- 
 tures than any man living, (because he has furnished more facts of 
 extensive application in chemical philosophy than any other man,) 
 suggested that phlogiston was the pabulum. Some experiments df 
 Arthur Young, made in consequence of this supposition, tend to 
 support it. But though in all probability inflammable gas may be 
 converted into nutriment to vegetables, yet it is far from being true 
 that this is the ©nly gas which can. The gases that escape from a 
 
224 ON MAN XJRt. 
 
 dunghill are surely entitled to consideration ; but, of these, infiain- 
 mable air or hydrogen is but a small part : azote, carbonic acid, al- 
 kaline air, carbon, and carburctted hydrogen, and perhaps sulphur, 
 dissolved in alkaline air, are parts of the products of this decompos- 
 ed mixture. We know too, that oxygen, carbonic acid, electricity, 
 and the galvanic fluid, seem to aid vegetation to a certain degree ; 
 but the action of all these gases and fluids are more satisfactorily ac- 
 counted for, on the doctrine of stimulus, than of pabulum, unless 
 where carbon enters into their composition. That oxygen is not nu- 
 triment, is clear, from its being an excretion of plants in a healthy 
 state, and in vigorous action, under the influence of the sun, as 
 Dr. Priestley, and afterwards M. Ingenhouz discovered. It is 
 evident, from numerous experiments, that plants take up watery 
 fluids and juices; but there is no experiment that shews us, that they 
 take up air of any kind, though they excrete it. Hence, although 
 these fluids may contain the elements of phlogiston, or the»combina- 
 tions of phlogiston, this latter cannot of itself be taken as the food 
 of plants. Both plants and animals are resolvable into gases, of 
 which phlogiston may be a part, but there is some thing else which 
 feeds and dilates the muscles of animals and the leaves of .trees. 
 
 5. Dissatisfied with former theories, Mr. Kirwin has proposed car- 
 bon or charcoal as the food of plants ; and declares his opinion that 
 if charcoal could be rendered soluble in water it would be the most 
 efficacious manure. It is true that charcoal is found in the incinera- 
 tion of all undecomposed vegetables, and that they most probably 
 contain much pure carbon, but they contain also much alkali, 
 much oxygen, much azote, nitrogen, &c; nor is there any fact 
 to prove that charcoal (or the oxyde of carbon) is either souble 
 in any liquid, or taken up as charcoal by any vegetable, or de- 
 composed by any natural process;* soot as a top dressing is a 
 tolerable manure in England, but its use may be accounted for 
 from the saline substances it contains. Whatever be the pabulum of 
 vegetables, appears from every fact hitherto known, to be generally 
 exhibited in the form of a liquid. That liquid may contain, and 
 indeed does generally contain, (if dung be employed) the bases of 
 hydrogen, of fixed and volatile alkali, as well as azote, carbon, oxy- 
 gen, and unascertained compounds of these. Hence it appears 
 that, whatever theory of ingenious speculators be adopted as the 
 simple and homogeneous pabulum of vegetable bodies in a living 
 state, the old theory and the old practice must, and ought to pre- 
 vail, namely, that the staple manure of nourishment is dung (i. e.) 
 decomposed animal and vegetable substances ; and although it may 
 be of use by dung-heaps to aid this decomposition, yet even in an 
 undecomposed, or partially decomposed state, this gradual decom- 
 position amounts in the end to the same thing. This is applicable 
 to ground-bone, woollen rags, horn shavings, &c. All the differ- 
 ence is that time is gained by the artificial and complete decomposi- 
 tion of these substances, but at the loss of substance. 
 
 [* Arthur Young has shewn that carbon or charcoal may be dissolved in a 
 boiling alkaline solution, which then becomes the most powerful of all manures . 
 Annals of ^gr.—T. C.} 
 
ON MANURE. 225 
 
 Manures of stimulus. Whatever accelerates the growth, or in- 
 creases the size of the plant, and does not actually enter into the 
 composition and substance of the vegetable, can only be considered 
 as a manure, by stimulating the healthy fibre of the plant, by des- 
 troying the dead and decaying fibres, and by assisting the decompo- 
 sition of the undecomposed animal and vegetable substances dis- 
 persed through the soil. It is thus that gypsum or plaister of Paris 
 acts, being the most efficacious septic among the neutral saline sub- 
 stances. Of these manures of stimulus, none are as yet in common 
 use but lime, gypsum, and common salt. 
 
 Lime is, limestone deprived of its water and carbonic acid by fire. 
 In this state its stimulating powers are obviously much greater, than 
 in its natural and neutral state of limestone. But even pounded 
 limestone is a promoter of vegetation on clayey and sandy lands, 
 and this earth appears to be a specific stimulus to white clover, and 
 perhaps to the potato. Hereto may be referred the rubbish of old 
 buildings, and marl, which is clay with about one half of limestone. 
 
 Common salt. This, until the duty of two thousand per cent, in 
 England, was a very common manure in Cheshire ; the facts relat- 
 ing to it, in this point of view, are collected in Watson's Chemical 
 Essays. In this country gypsum is much cheaper. 
 
 Gypsum, plaister of Paris, ritriolated lime, or sulphat of lime. 
 This has not been certainly found in any plant, but by [V? Model, 
 accidentally, in rhubarb*, even this we suspect to be a fallacy for 
 the characters of gypsum were not then well ascertained. A bout 
 two bushels per acre to clover or corn seems to be a full quantity. It 
 slowly attracts the moisture from the air, and dissolves gradually 
 When strewed on the ground. It comes here from France and the 
 bay of Fundy, and has also been lately found in New-Hampshire 
 a.jd on Lake Erie. There is also some in Maryland on the Chesa- 
 peake, about one hundred miles below Baltimore, at Cayuga Lake 
 in the Genesee, and in the SulpHur Spring (so called) on the road 
 from Canadaraqua to Geneva: at Abingdon also, in Virginia, gyp- 
 sum usually accompanies the salt formation as in the Genesee coun- 
 try. As it is not a component part of any plant, either in wh< If or 
 in its own component parts, it cannot act upon healthy vegetables 
 but as a stimulus, and upon diseased and dead ones, by its septic 
 power. Experiments remain to be tried as to other manures of this 
 description. 
 
 Mechanical manures. Their action is giving depth by new addi- 
 tion; in giving tenacity by mixture, as clay with sand, or, vice 
 versa; in giving capacity to retain moisture, on the principles sug- 
 gested by the experiments of Fabroni and D'Arcet, is too obvious 
 to require further elucidation. 
 
 buch are the ideas that occur as throwing some light on the theory 
 of this complicated and most important subject, and suggesting the 
 rationale of the application of manures in cases not hitherto well 
 understood. 
 
 Gypsum particularly deserves attention, considering that it has 
 effected almost a complete revolution in the agriculture of Pennsyl- 
 
 * Journ. de Phys. vol. 6. page 14. 
 
 29 . ' • 
 
226 ON MANURE. 
 
 vania. Many thousand acres of land hitherto barren, have beea 
 converted into excellent pasture -round, by its surprising influence. 
 Even the products of land, tolerably good, have been doubled, and 
 in some instances treble rl by using it. The theory of its action was 
 not until lately understood. Judge Peters, of Philadelphia, who 
 firs' collected the opinions of our farmers on the subject of the gyp- 
 sum as a manure, ventured to suggest, that the vitriolic acid was the 
 fertilizing principle of this manure. The chemists of our country 
 either did not assent to the theory, or laughed at it. A fact however 
 has been communicated by Mr. Livingston, formerly our minister in 
 Prance, whirh would induce a belief in the theory. 
 
 In an excursion says Mr. Livingston, " I lately made into Flan- 
 ders, I observed, at some distance from the road, several large beds 
 of earth, that appeared to me to emit smoke and flame, which two 
 m mi were tending. I stopped the post chaise, and went to examine 
 ii I found that ir was pyrites sufficiently impregnated with sulphur 
 t /urn when dry. This was laid in beds and set on fire. They en- 
 deavoured to extinguish the fire when the ashes became of a red colour* 
 If it burned longer, it became black., and the quality was not so good. 
 This earth, so burned, was easily reduced to powder, by a wooden 
 mallet: and, in this state was carried on the back of asses forty or 
 fifty miles as a manure, and was used particularly for grass at the 
 rate of about six bushels to the acre. The seed grain was-also covered 
 with it as with gypsum in our country. This circumstance induces 
 me to believe, that the sulphuric acid is, both in this and in gypsum, 
 the fertilizing principle, and may suggest many other ways of apply- 
 ing that cheap material to the purposes of agriculture. Is is very 
 presumable that in this very slow combustion, the sulphuric acid is 
 absorbed by the ashes, or other earths, while the inflamable matter 
 is dissipated ; and, that the union of the alkali and the acid forms a 
 salt not unlike in its chemical relations, the gypsum, or peihaps one 
 that is more soluble, more impregnated with the acid. Perhaps dilu- 
 ted vitriolic acid, directly applied, would be found equally useful, or 
 rendered more valuable by being combined with wood ashes, when 
 native gypsum could not be conviently had. If I rightly recollect, 
 Duhamel mentions that sulphuric acid scattered over weeds with a 
 view to destroy them, made them grow with additional vigour. 
 From the place where they were burning the earth, I proceeded to 
 the ore bed, which I examined, and found the earth very similar to 
 what I have seen on my own estate at Clermont, and which may in- 
 deed be found in many black meadows. Pyrites abounds in the 
 United states; every farmer, therefore, ought to examine their estates 
 for this substance with great care, as in all probability many of them 
 contain treasures of this kind, of which the proprietors have hitherto 
 been entirely ignorant. 
 
 [I have tried without success, to dilute sulphuric acid and sulphur, 
 and I disincline to the value of Mr Livingston's observations. — 
 T. C] 
 
 For the purpose of supplying adult vegetables with nourishment, 
 ve should first consider, says Or Darwin, what kinds of matter are 
 Knost prevalent or most necessasy in their composition : what of these 
 
ON MANURE. 227 
 
 substances they can absorb without previous decomposition : and 
 lastly, how to expedite fh^ decomposition of vegetable and animal 
 substances on, or in the soil, like the digestive processes in the 
 stomachs of animals; we may thus become acquainted with the 
 sources and the management of manures. 
 
 Vegetables by analysis afford three essential principles, carbon or 
 the oxyd of charcoal; hydrogen or inflamable air; and oxygen or 
 pure air: the proportion of which, vary, according to the agents 
 which have occured to its development, and according to the matrix 
 which received and assimdated them, in order to . reate those combi- 
 nations which are varied almost to infinity, by their forms and pro- 
 perties, and known by the terms »f salt, oil, and mucilage. It ap- 
 pears, therefore, needless to seek those combinations in the different 
 substances which are used as manure, when we wish to determine the 
 nature of them, and explain their manner of acting in vegetation, 
 because supposing it true, that these salts, these oils, these mucil- 
 ages, exist in their combined state, nothing but their constituent ele- 
 ments above mentioned, can possibly have any action. 
 
 The substances which enter into the composition of plants, are, 
 therefore, nothing but products of the decomposition of air and wa- 
 ter, and the combinations of the constituent principle, of these two 
 fluids, determined by their power which presides in the seed, and 
 which thence has passed into the plant. 
 
 Manure is usually divided into four classes, viz. Animal, Vegeta- 
 ble, Fossil, and Fluid. 
 
 I. Animal Manures comprehend the several parts of animals, 
 such as their fat, dung, urine, &c. 
 
 1. Dung. Having already pointed out the general properties of 
 dun£, under that a; tide, we shall only observe, that the excrementi- 
 tious matter of privies is supposed to exceed every other kind of ma- 
 nure, during the first year it is applied; in the second, its beneficial 
 effects are less evident; and, in the third year they almost entirely 
 disappear. The quantity necessary for land in a good condition is, 
 bv Mr. Middleton, computed to be about two loads per acre, annual- 
 ly; which, in his opinion, will always preserve its fertility. He 
 farther remarks, that exhausted ground may be perfectly restored, 
 by laying on four or five loads of night-soil per acre, for the first 
 year; after which, two loads annually will be found amply sufficient 
 to keep the land in the highest degree of cultivation 
 
 The matter of privies is known to be a most valuable manure. 
 In China and Japan, there are laws to prevent its waste. The cultiva- 
 tors prefer it to the manure from horses and cattle, as it does not con- 
 tain the seeds of weeds, and is much stronger than stable manure. 
 
 If the privies of families were lined with cement, (which see) so 
 as to retain the moisture, (the most enriching part); and if earth, 
 fine sifted coal ashes, but more especially fresh slacked lime were 
 frequently thrown in the privies, all disagreeable and unwholesome 
 smells would be prevented, and the quantity and value of the com- 
 post greatly increaseed. By this management, its removal would 
 be also rendered inoffensive to those employed. 
 
Z2H ON MANURE, 
 
 From Simonde's View of the Agriculture of Tuscany, a very in- 
 teresting work, it appears, that night-soil is as highly prized there, 
 as in China and Japan ; but he remarks the very disagreeable effluvia 
 which exhales from it when spread upon the ground. It should never 
 be used, except when joined with earth or vegetable matters, in the 
 proportion of one to five or six. 
 
 2. Fish — Herrings, pilchards, and mackerel, afford an excellent 
 manure; being chiefly used in those parts of Britain where they are 
 caught in the greatest abundance, and seldom fail to procure rich 
 crops 
 
 3. Bones, to which we refer. 
 
 It may be here stated, in addition to what Dr. Willich says on the 
 utility of this article as a manure : that in mgland, the grinding of 
 bones for the farmer is now a trade. Bones mixed in a heap of lime 
 will soon be reduced to powder, but the fa* mer should observe ,vhe- 
 th<-T the same beneficial effect would result from the use of the bones 
 thus treated, as when powdered by the mill. An experiment, upon 
 a small scale, may be easily made. 
 
 [Bones, moreover, contain a great quantity of gelantine even in 
 their dry state. This decomposes gradually. So that ground bones, " 
 or bone-dust, is a most valuable top- dressing. Latterly even human 
 bones have been imported into England from Germany. — T. C] 
 
 4. Urine is well calculated for manure: it is so far preferable to 
 dun^, as no seeds of weeds are deposited in the ground with the for- 
 mer ; and, if the land be well watered with this fluid, such irrigation 
 will be attended with the best effects. 
 
 5. Horn Shavings. 
 
 6. The clippings or scraps of skins and hides (being the refuse of 
 furriers and curriers; are of great utility on land intended to be sown 
 with wheat or barley. They should be scattered by hand on the soil, 
 and speedily ploughed in; because any peices, left on the surface, 
 are immediately devoured by crows *nd dogs. The proper quantity 
 of this manure is^ two or three quarters per acre, which should be 
 scattered a short time before seed is committed to the ground : such 
 chippings are peculairly calculated for light dry soils, but are seldom 
 productive of any benefit to wet or clay lands 
 
 7. Sheep's trotters, and fellmonger's cuttings, are employed on 
 similar soils, though in the proportion of from 20 to 40 bushels per 
 acre. They should likewise be ploughed in, to prevent the depreda- 
 tions of dogs and crows. 
 
 8. The soiled or damaged locks of wool, or trimmings of sheep, 
 deserve to be more generally known as a fertilizing article: they are 
 at present chiefly used in England, for ameliorating the hop-grounds. 
 
 9. IV ) alien rags are an excellent manure : but, instead of being 
 collected in a heap, similar to a dunghill, they ought to be cut in- 
 to small peices in a paper mill; strewed by hand; and ploughed in, 
 three months before wheat or barley is commonly sown : the usual 
 quantity is from six to ten cwt. per acre ; though, in some parts of i -ng- 
 land, a ton weight is spread on each acre, every third year, for hops. 
 On account of retaining their moisture, such rags are eminently adapted 
 to dry, gravelly, or chalky soils ; the fertility of which will thus be 
 
ON MANURE, 229 
 
 considerably increased, especially during dry seasons. The only 
 obstacle to their more general adoption, appears to be the apprehen- 
 sion entertained by many farmers, of catching the small-pox by 
 chopping and scattering the rags; but, since the virulence of that 
 disorder may be subdued by vacination, those fears are certainly 
 groundless. 
 
 II. Vegetable Manures are either whole plants, or parts of vege- 
 tables, together with their ashes, &c. which are sometimes ploughed 
 in, while growing, and are afterwards burnt, or otherwise decom- 
 posed. 
 
 1. Wheat-straw, according to Mr. Bordley, is a very valuable ar- 
 ticle; but it ought to be ploughed in, "when it is muck-wet from 
 soaking rains that have softened it ;" for, if it be turned into the 
 ground under les% favourable circumstances, it is seldom of any ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 2. Weeds, such as dock-root, cabbage stocks, the roots of couch- 
 grass, &c. are of great service: hence Dr. Darwin pertinently re- 
 marks, that they should not be improvidently thrown into the high- 
 way, or consumed by fire, as too frequently happens : on the contra- 
 ry, if laid on the ground in heaps, occasionally turned over, and 
 covered with soil, they will inevitably perish, and speedily ferment, 
 on account of the sugar and mucilage which they contain. The de- 
 composition of weeds is still more effectually accelerated, on adding 
 quick or newly burnt lime, by which they are rapidly converted into 
 a most valuable manure. For this purpose, Mr Henry Brown, an 
 ingenious chemist, directs a layer of green vegetable matter to be 
 formed, about one foot in thickness, on which a very thin stratum of 
 pulverized lime is to be scattered; and such alternate layers are to be 
 continued till the pile is of a sufficient height. When these mate- 
 rials have lain together for a few hours, a dissolution of parts will 
 commence; and, in order to' prevent the inflaraation of the whole 
 mass, a {exv sods, or a small portion of fresh vegetable matter, 
 ought to be added. In the course of twenty-four hours, the process 
 will be complete, when a quantity of excellent ashes will be ready to 
 be laid on the land. Weeds and vegetables of every description, if 
 used green, will answer the same purpose, and thus be productive of 
 double advantage to the farmer; because they may not only be col- 
 lected at a small expense, but will, in a few years, render his farm 
 more valuable, by exterminating all noxious plants. 
 
 3. Sea-weed is a valuable manure for garden-grounds, and de- 
 stroys every kind of vermin. The best is cut from the rocks on the 
 sea coast; but, as this marine vegetable is frequently thrown on 
 shore, it may be useful to state, that the better kind resembles the 
 haulms of peas; an inferior sort is known by its long, shrub-like 
 stalk : they may be either spread on the land, in a fresh state, or 
 previously laid up in heaps, and suffered to putrefy. 
 
 Sea-weed is much used on the sea-coast of New- York, as a ma- 
 nure. 
 
 River, or pond-weeds, and especially the Rivcr-eonferva, arc 
 equally beneficial ; being particularly calculated for turnips or wheat, 
 if ploughed in upon a sandy soil ; but they produce no effect on land 
 
239 ON MANURE. 
 
 th^t abounds with springs, , or is liable to inundation: the quantity 
 laid on varies from twelve to fourteen loads per acre. 
 
 v 'on -roerahle benefit lias likewise been derived from lurning [•■ vet- 
 ches, bui-k wheat, or rape, upon old-ploughed lands, which are rhus 
 greatly improved. Turnips, when injured by the frost, mav also 
 be employed as a valuable manure; because they are believed to pre- 
 vent the germination of seeds contained in weeds, which enter the 
 ht ps of dung; and, when stirred among the latter, promote their 
 put refaction 
 
 4 the ashes of fern, stubble, peat, &c. of which we have al- 
 ready treated in our first volume. 
 
 5. Peat is not sufficiently known as an article of manure. It is 
 usually employed in a burnt state, for a top-dressing ; but as it is 
 formed of the solid parts of morasses, and consists of vegetable 
 fibres, more or less decomposed, it may be laid on clayey soils with 
 the greatest advantage. Dr. Darwin remarks that peat ought to be 
 considered as an inestimable treasure to the farms in its vicinity : he 
 suggests the propriety of throwing it previously into heaps, either 
 with or without the addition of lime; then exposing it to the air, and 
 draining the water from it, in orde< to expedite its decomposition. 
 [Peat is found in abandance on the Delaware about 3 miles from Phil- 
 adelphia, and thence upward. — T. C] 
 
 "Peat, or Moss [i.arth, is a valuable manure. From experiments 
 made with alkaline salts ( potash) and peat, says Dundonald, it can 
 be asserted, [? T C] that the effects of such a mixture, weight 
 for weight, are equal, if not superior to those of dung. 
 
 Peat, when intended to be used as a manure, should be dug up at 
 the depth of two or three feet from the surface, in small peices, and 
 left exposed to the air for three or four months, or till the dry weather 
 of summer, or the frosts of winter, render it convenient to carry it 
 away. 
 
 From a meadow dressed with forty loads per acre, with a com- 
 post, made of three fourth parts of peat earth, and one fourth part 
 of dung, greater and more lasting crops of hay were produced, than 
 from the like quantity of the best dung 
 
 The most beneficial preparations or combinations of peat will be 
 found to be : 
 
 Peai-earth, with dung or urine, 
 
 Ditto, with alkaline salt, or potash. 
 
 Ditto, with lime. 
 
 When the soil d- es not contain a due proportion of calcareous 
 matter, (as old meadows,) the two last are preferred, until it shall 
 have received a due proportion of this article, so indespensably ne- 
 cessary to produce sweet herbage. 
 
 One hundred pounds of alkaline salt or potash, are sufficient to 
 saturate peat-earth enough to top-dress an acre." 
 
 In order to prepare peat with lime to the greatest advantage. Lord 
 Dundonald directs fresh lime, complete] v slacked, to be mixed with 
 5 or 6 times the weight of peat, which should be moderately humid. 
 
 The heat will be moderate, and not sufficient 10 convert the peat 
 into carbonaceous matter, or to throw off, in a state of flxable air> 
 
ON MANURE. 231 
 
 the acids therein contained The proportion of lime should be rare- 
 fully attended to, and the mixing of the two substances performed 
 under a shed as too much rain or too great exposure to air, will pre- 
 vent the due action of the lime upon the peat. 
 
 This preparation is peculiarly favourable to the growth of clover, 
 and short sweet pasture grasses Alkaline salts are of much gi> ter 
 importance than lime, to mix with peat, as the peat is by them, 
 rendered completely solublr. 
 
 6. Rape-cake, which is obtained after expressing all the oily par- 
 ticles from rape- seed, ft affords, when pulverized, an useful manure 
 for wheat. Rape-dust is equally serviceable as a top dressing for 
 turnips; and should be spread on the land in proportion of 10 cwt. 
 per acre. 
 
 7- The bark of oak, or rather tanner's waste, which has been 
 suffered completely to putrefy, affords an excellent manure for cold, 
 stiff, clay-soils ; one load being more efficacious than a double quan- 
 tity of the richest dung. If oak bark be designed tor grass-land, it 
 ought to be spread shortly after the 29th of September, that the win- 
 ter-rains may wash it into the ground : for, if applied in the spring, 
 it will burn the grass, and exhaust rather than ameliorate the soil, 
 for that season. On the contrary, if intended for corn-fields, it 
 should be spread immediately before the last ploughing, in order 
 that it may be turned down, so as to come in contract with the early 
 fibres or roots of the corn ; because, when lying too near the surface 
 during the winter, it unnaturally hastens vegetation; and, with the 
 approaching spring, the young buds of the grain perish from the 
 severity of night-frosts. 
 
 III. Fossil Manures consist of various kinds of earth, sand, chalk, 
 marl, &c. all which, in a greater or less degree, contribute to the 
 amelioration of land. See Crag, Clay, Chalk, Gypsum, Lime, 
 Marl, and Sand, t 
 
 1. Coal-ashes are of extensive utility as a manure. [Very doubt- 
 ful T. C] They are particularly adapted to clay-lands, for correct- 
 ing their cold, ungenial quality ; but they should not be ploughed in 
 too deep. These ashe> may likewise be employed as a top-dressing 
 for clover, on dry chalky lands, over which they ought to be scattetv 
 ed in the months of March or April, in the proportion of from 50 to 
 60 bushels per acre : they have also been advantageously spread on 
 sward or grass-lands, either in the winter, or during the spring. 
 
 2. Soot, which will be discussed in its alphabetical place. 
 
 3. Clay, when previously calcined or burnt, improves cold, wet, 
 sandy soils; and has be^n found very serviceable to close, stiff lands. 
 The excellence of this manure is very conspicuous in the North Ri- 
 ding of Yorkshire, where the ground is so sandy as to produce, 
 with any other manure, only r^e: with clay, it yeilds abundant 
 crops of oats, barley, &c. The usual proportion, laid on meadow, 
 pasture, or corn lands, is from ten to twelve Joads per acre : and so 
 permanent are its fertilizing properties, that it becomes unnecessary 
 to repeat the operation of claying, for the period of forty-five years. 
 
 4. Hand, to which we refer. [Clay i*> a mechanical manure for 
 .sand, aiding it to retain moisture, and manure, and to steady the. 
 
232 ON MANURE. 
 
 roots of vegetables growing in it, and to prevent it being blown 
 away. Vice versa, sand is a mechanical manure for clay soils. 
 
 5. Salt is justly asserted to be one of the most grateful manures to 
 vegetation, as cattle are not only more healthy but fatten more speedi- 
 ly on pastures, where it has been properly scattered. It is of great 
 utility for raising turnips, as well as for producing abundance of 
 corn; the straw being strong; the grain t hin-hulled, heavy, and on 
 the whole, better than that from any other manures. Besides, it sweet 
 ens sour pastures; improves and increases the herbage; while it 
 destroys all noxious insects. The proper quantity is from 12 to 16 
 bushels per acre; for, if a large proportion be used, its beneficial 
 effects will be diminished, and vegetation be eventually destroyed. 
 
 IV. Fluid Manures comprehend Water; Oil-Compost; Mud 
 and all liquid matters that are employed with a view to ameliorate 
 land. 
 
 Under the article of Irrigation, we have treated of the utility of 
 water, and pointed out the best manner of applying it to the soil; 
 we shall, therefore, at present, only remark, that the liquor of 
 farm-yards has been successfully tried on meadows, and wheat- 
 fields, both of which are thus rendered uncommonly fertile. This 
 fluid may also be used with great advantage for land sown with bar- 
 ley, oats, or other grain; but, if it be intended for grass-land, it 
 ought to be sprinkled on them only during the winter, when the rains 
 wash the saline particles into the soil ; or early in the spring, when 
 the ground is laid up for hay ; because no cattle will feed on grass, 
 while the salt or dung adhere to the blade. Farther, it will be ne- 
 cessary to convey this ameliorating liquor to the field during dry 
 weather, when the dung-water in the reservoirs is of a deep-brown 
 colour, and strongly impregnated with salt Thus, the land may be 
 irrigated as often as occasion may require; and the pools kept con- 
 stantly empty, for the reception of fresh fertilizing matter. 
 
 As manure promotes the growth of plants; as its fermentation 
 and warmth disposes the soil for the more easy admission of nour- 
 ishing moisture from the air ; and as it thus eventually contributes to 
 the support of and comfort of mankind, the manner in which it is to 
 be applied, merits some attention. 
 
 Every kind of manure, Mr. Bordley justly observes, ought to be 
 carefully collected, duly sheltered, and ploughed in, as speedily as 
 possible after it has been carried to the fi eld; the implements and 
 labourers being ready on the spot. He directs the loads to be ranged 
 in lengths; the dung to be spread and immediately ploughed in, 
 "line by line;" because it more readily dissolves in the ground when 
 newly covered, and its whole strength is thus secured to the soil. 
 
 This is an important direction, for which there is much room. 
 
 Where the manure collected in heaps is to be ploughed under clay- 
 ey soils, that are liable to become too solid and impenetrable to the 
 fibres of wheat, or other plants; and also, where potatoes, or simi- 
 lar bulbous roots are intended to be turned in, with a view to pro- 
 duce a crop beneath the soil ; Dr. Darwin conceives the most advan- 
 tageous method of using such compost would be, to bury it before it 
 is perfectly decomposed ; for it will thus prevent the surface of the 
 
ON MANURE. 233 
 
 fand from becoming too firm : and, notwithstanding the putrefaction 
 will consequently be somewhat retarded, vet the fertilizing sub- 
 stances will in the end totally decay, and afford to the roots an equal, 
 though more gradual, portion of nourishment. The most proper 
 seasons for ploughing or turning in such manures, Dr. Darwin agrees 
 with Mr. Bordley, to be immediately before the seeds are sown, or 
 the roots are set : because the atmospheric air, which is buried with 
 the dung, in consequence of its union with carbon in the interstices 
 of the earth, gradually evolves a genial heat, that greatly promotes 
 vegetation. 
 
 With respect to those manures, which are spread on the surface of 
 grass or other land, and which are called top-dressings, the most 
 favourable season for applying -them appears to be early spring; 
 when they should be spread over the soil in a state of coarse powder, 
 or in small lumps which cohere but slightly; because the vernal 
 showers will then wash them into the soil, so that the young stems of 
 grass may easily penetrate. 
 
 " The application of top-dressing, as observed by Lord Dundon- 
 ald, has been too little attended to, in consequence of farmers being 
 unacquainted with the advantages resulting to the ground, when con- 
 verted from pasture to arable, by previously promoting the most lux- 
 uriant growth of perennial grasses. By assisting vegetation, and in- 
 creasing the vigour of perennial plants, their roots are made to strike 
 deeper down, and improve the staple of the soil: with annual plants 
 the same benefit is not to be expected, as their growth and decay are 
 limited to one season ; were manures exclusively applied, under a 
 system of convertible husbandry, to grass grounds, the lands would 
 regularly be broken up, in due rotation of cropping; and there can 
 be no doubt, but that a greater quantity of corn (grain) and herbage 
 would annually be produced; and it is very probable that wljeat and 
 other grain would be less subject than at present to diseases, many 
 of which, there is reason to believe, are occasioned by the immediate 
 application of dung previously to sowing. The anicles most gene- 
 ally used in Scotland, as top-dressings, are lime mixed with rich 
 black mould; lime mixed with peat, peat-ashes, coal-ashes, and 
 soot. 
 
 As, however, the proper mode of collecting and preserving ma- 
 nures is attended with considerable expense, the most economical 
 manner of distributing it, requires no common skill. This object is 
 in a great measure attained by the drill-husbandry, the principal ad- 
 vantage of which consists in putting the manure into drills. Mr. 
 Parkinson (in his Experienced Farmer, vol. i page 32) directs such 
 driils to be made at the distance of two feet from each other: thus, 
 he sows wheat, peas, beans, and cabbages; from the result of 
 which this intelligent cultivator maintains, that four loads per acre 
 in the drill-husbandry, are equal to sixteen loads in the usual way of 
 spreading it over the whole of the field. 
 
 30 
 
2&4 ON LIME. 
 
 [jFROM COOPER'S DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPEDIA, J 
 
 On Lime. 
 
 JLjTME, a white, soft, friable substance, prepared of marble, chalk, 
 or other caleareous earth, by burning them in a kiln. 
 
 The common form in which lime-stone is found, is that of com- 
 bination with the carbonic acid The lime is obtained, in a caustic 
 state, by exposure to a high degree of heat, whereby the carbonic 
 acid is driven off in the state of gas, or air. It is then called quick- 
 lime, and in that condition, is employed in husbandry and the arts. 
 After having been deprived of its fixed air, the lime is constantly, 
 though slowly, regaining it from the atmosphere, and all other 
 bodies with which the lime comes in contact, and capable of furnish- 
 ing it. According to Mr. Kirwan, 100 parts of quick-lime, absorb 
 about 28 of water; and to regain its full proportion of air from the 
 atmosphere, it requires a year or more, if not purposely spread out. 
 
 [A ton of lime-stone ought to be reduced in the kiln, to 1 100 wt. : 
 otherwise it is not sufficiently burnt. It will regain two-thirds of the 
 lost weight by exposure to air for a week or ten days. — T. C ] 
 
 Pure lime-stone, says Dr. Anderson, when fully calcined and 
 slacked is reduced to a fine impalpable powder of a bright white, 
 that feels soft between the fingers, without the smallest tendency t© 
 grittiness. When it has any colour, it proceeds from iron, or other 
 foriegn matters in the composition. 
 
 The chief uses of lime are, 
 
 1. ^\s an ingredient in mortar to cement brick or stone buildings y 
 for which purpose, being divested of its humidity, and its pores be- 
 ing at the same time opened by the action of the fire, it is so eminent- 
 ly calculated, that it may be easily reduced to powder, and mixed 
 with sand or other matters. 
 
 2. As a manure, it is of the most extensive utility; we shall, 
 therefore, concisely state the properties of the best lime-stone, as 
 well as the proportionate quantities in which it is to be spread on 
 Ian Is; and at the same time point out those soils that are really 
 ameliorated, and likewise such as receive no benefit from its applica- 
 tion. 
 
 Formerly an opinion generally prevailed, that the most efficacious 
 lime for manuring lands, was produced from the hardest calcareous 
 stones, which most intimately approached the nature of marble: 
 modern experience, however, has amply refuted this supposition. 
 It appears, indeed, that there are two sorts; namely, magnesian 
 and calcareous lime-stone $ the latter of which is attended with the 
 
ON LIME. 235 
 
 most beneficial consequences, while the former is highly injurious to 
 land. This remarkable fact was first published by S, Tennant, t,sq. 
 in the u Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society" for 
 1799; who, being informed of the opposite nature of the two spe- 
 cies, made various experiments, in which their respective properties 
 were clearly ascertained. 
 
 [All the lime-stone of primitive formation, contains magnesia: 
 all white marbles, contain about JO percent, of magnesia. Vlr. 
 Tennant's remark applies only to quantity : he is mistaken as to 
 quality. You must put less of the magnesian lime on your land by 
 about one-third, than of common lime. — T. C] 
 
 The barren, or maymesian lime, is found in various parts of Eng- 
 land, but especially in the county of Nottingham, where a quarry 
 of it is worked to the extent of thirty or forty miles ; alsd in the 
 counties of Derby and Northumberland, in the latter of which it is 
 known by the characteristic name of hot, in contradistinction to the 
 mild, or calcareous lime, that abounds in all parts of Britain. We 
 regret that we cannot enter into a detail respecting Mr. Tennant's 
 important discovery; the particulars of which are recorded in the 
 volume above mentioned. The magnesian lime may be further dis- 
 tinguished from that made of pure calcareous stone, by its slow and 
 difficult solfition in acids 
 
 When burnt, it is called quick-lime, and should be spread as speed- 
 ily as possible, immediately before the plough ; so that the greater 
 part may be slacked in the soil. The proportion used, depends 
 much on the custom of the country ; but should more properly be 
 adapted to the nature of the land. In the county of York, thirty- 
 six bushels only are carted on an acre ; in Wales, a quantity some- 
 what larger ; in Ireland, from five to six hundred bushels are spread 
 on every English statute acre ; and in various parts of England, very 
 small portions are injudiciously scattered : for it is the opinion of the 
 most experienced agriculturists, that three or four hundred bushels 
 «it the least (if the price be not too high) should be allowed to each 
 acre .* especially when the soil has long been in an uncultivated state. 
 One good liming is, in such cases, decidedly preferable to small 
 quantities frequently repeated. 
 
 [It depends on the kind of soil : stiff clays require the greatest 
 quantity. — T. C ] 
 
 In common situations, however, where the land does not abound 
 in putrescible matters, and is not vitiated by acids, Mr Young is of 
 opinion, that 1 60 bushels per acre, will produce a considerable ef- 
 fect : but, on stiff strong clays, he thinks at least double, or triple, 
 that quantity ought to be allowed. 
 
 If lime be applied without any other manure, it is said to exhaust 
 the most fertile particles of the soil. Some agriculturists, therefore, 
 suggest the propriety of forming small heaps, and covering them 
 with earth : as soon as the soil has, by its moisture, slacked the lime, 
 the heaps are to be opened, and as much dung buried in each as the 
 earth will cover. A more economical and judicious method, is that 
 stated by Mr. Andrews, in the 4th volume of Annals of Agricul- 
 ture. He directs about 140 loads, (each containing 40 bushels,) of 
 
236 ©N LIME. 
 
 moist dung to be heaped up in the month of December, when 2GG 
 bushels of lime are to be well incorporated. The whole is then suf- 
 fered to lie for three months, after which the heap is to be well stirr- 
 ed; when the harvest is completed, the compost is to be spread on 
 a pea stubble, and ploughed in for barley ; but, if the season should 
 not favour the purpose, he directs these labours to he performed after 
 the firsi frost that occurs. Mr Andrews farther observes that, in 
 consequence of such management, his barley-crops have, upon an 
 average of twelve years, amounted annually to four quarters and six 
 bushels per acre. 
 
 The advantages arising from this treatment are, 1. The total des- 
 trucnon of the seeds of weeds, so that the land on which this mix- 
 ture hrid been spread, was uniformly the clearest : and, 2. The in- 
 creased fermentation of the dung, by which its fertilizing properties 
 are snore speedily excited. Lastly, the expense of the lime was to 
 him 106. per acre : and its beneficial effects continued for four years. 
 
 The soils peculiarly susceptible of improvement, by means of lime, 
 are: 
 
 1. Rich black or brown friable crumbling loams, which abound 
 with vegetable matter ; its general putrescency being accelerated by 
 the lime, such land is so greatly ameliorated as to yield crops, which 
 they could never have produced by the application of any other 
 manure. 
 
 2. On low, rich, drained meadows, that have formerly been bogs, 
 and the black soil of which abounds with vegetable fibres. 
 
 3. On old sheep-walks, heaths, and commons, which have been 
 under grass for time immemorial, and are first to be converted into 
 arable lands ; but lime will not be of any advantage, after they have 
 been cultivated for several years. And, though such manure will 
 produce favorable effects upon old lay soils, abounding in vegetable 
 particles, yet when the latter are putrified by liming, and exhausted 
 by repeated cropping, it will be of no service. 
 
 4. On moory, boggy, mountainous land ; according to Dr. Hun- 
 ter, on black peat-earth. In his opinion, lime prevents the sponta- 
 neous 'growth of heath, produces a new family of vegetables, 
 especially white clover. He farther remarks, that the greatest im- 
 provements ever made on moors, in any country, have probably 
 been effected by means of lime. There prevails, however, a diver- 
 sity of opinion on this subject, which we are unable to reconcile. 
 In the 16th vol. of the Transactions of the Society for Encourage- 
 ment of Arts, &c. Thomas Davis, Esq. (steward to the Marquis 
 of Bath,) states that though lime is the only proper manure for such 
 soil, which is thus qualified to produce crops of corn for the first 
 three or four years, after converting it into arable or meadow land; 
 yet this manure loses its amoliorating properties in the course of ten 
 years (during which time the vegetable roots, according to Dundon- 
 ald's Theory, might be supposed to have been dissolved:) and he 
 never found a second liming to be productive of any beneficial effect. 
 
 §. On all other waste soils that have been over-run for ages with 
 furze, heath, broom, fern, bushes, cr wood; and which, though 
 
ON LIME. 237 
 
 richly stored with vegetable food, have contracted an acidity, in con- 
 sequence of their long rest, and the spontaneous growth of roots. 
 
 On the contrary, lime is of little service on poor, light and thin 
 soils; or such as are on a quarry of lime or other stone, especially 
 after they have borne crops for a considerable number of years. 
 Nor is it productive of any advantage on strong, stony land; or wet, 
 cold loams, which have not been sufficiently drained; or similar 
 clays that are tenacious of moisture; but Mr. Arthur Young is of 
 opinion, that large quantities of well-drained lime, laid on very stiff 
 clay, would be attended with a favourable effect ; though he candid- 
 ly adds, that it never has- been tried to his satisfaction. 
 
 [Oyster-shells are frequently burnt into lime, to lay on land. 
 They are a better manure when ground without burning, owing to 
 the remains of animal matter in them. A good lime compost is the 
 following: spread on any platform undercover, 6 inches of mould, 
 then 3 inches of well burnt lime, slack it with water in which com- 
 mon salt is dissolved, to the amount of l£ lbs. of salt to each bushel 
 pf lime : cover it with 6 inches more of mould. Before laying it on 
 the land, turn and mix this compost heap, and lay three hundred 
 bushels of it on each acre. — T. C.] 
 
 Quick-lime is also of great utility in rending rocks and stones ? 
 when mixed with gunpowder, in the proportion of one pound of the 
 former, well dried and pulverised, to two pounds of the latter. 
 This singular property of lime was discovered, and is related, by H. 
 D. Griffith, Esq. in the 8th vol. of the Transactions of the Bath 
 and West of England Society ; where he states, that the mixture 
 above specified, caused an explosion with a force equal to three 
 pounds of gunpowder : hence in those operations, one-third of the 
 expense may be saved. 
 
 It has been said in a late French publication, that the mixture of 
 salt with lime for white-washing, is an Egyptian practice ; and that 
 experiments were made at the Prytaneum in Paris, to prove the ad- 
 vantages derived from it. The philosophers who accompanied 
 Buonaparte to Egypt, were more observant than those who visited 
 the United States during the American war; otherwise, the know- 
 ledge of the effect of mixing salt with lime-wash, in rendering walls 
 on which it is put, smooth and glossy, which is familiar to every no- 
 table housewife in the United States would not have been concealed^ 
 until last year, from the European world. 
 
 Lime-water was formerly and deservedly in great repute as a sol- 
 vent of the stone, and a remedy in scrophulous affections ; [and to 
 the amount of a pint a day, taken at thrice, in dyspepsia. T. C] 
 It has likewise been used both externally and internally for cutaneous 
 eruptions ; though we by no means approve of its indiscriminate use, 
 which may be attended with dangerous effects On account of its 
 astringent properties, this preparation has also been successfully pre- 
 scribed in cases of diabetes, or immoderate flow of urine ; and other 
 disorders proceeding from the laxity or weakness of the solids. At 
 present, it is chiefly used for washing foul or ill-conditioned ulcers. 
 
 The theory of the action of lime upon soils, is by no means set- 
 tled ; [it appears to be only a manure of stimulousj not a pabulum, 
 T. C.J 
 
238 QN SOIL. 
 
 * 
 
 [EXTRACT FROM AN* ADDRESS OF THE HON. TIMOTHY PICKERING; TO THE MASSA- 
 CHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.] 
 
 On Soil. 
 
 Tf 
 
 HE first object which claims the farmer's attention, is the na- 
 ture or ronstitution of the soil. The next embraces the means of 
 enriching it and preserving its fertility. That intimate mixture of 
 clay and sand which is called loam, is the most desirable soil, as be- 
 ing already prepared for every operation in agriculture. A stiff clay 
 demands opening by the addition of sand and other materials ; and a 
 sandy soil requires the addition of clay. But calcareous earth is 
 considered as essential to give to soils the capacity of attaining the 
 highest degree of fertility. Few soils, indeed, are wholly destitute 
 of calcareous matter, though it may be invisible to the eye : but very 
 few possess so large a portion of it as would be salutary. There can 
 be little danger, therefore, of applying it to excess in Massachusetts, 
 where so little in any form has been found. Lime-stone is the 
 great source of calcareous matter. But this is of various qualities. 
 Very little of it is purely calcareous. Some lime-stones in Great- 
 Britain have been found to contain eleven parts in twelve of sand. 
 Of such lime, if sixty bushels were spread over an acre of ground, 
 five bushels only of calcereous matter would be applied. To know 
 then the constitution of the lime he uses, is important to the farmer; 
 and not less to the mason in preparing his mortar, which will require 
 the addition of more or less sand, according to the composition of 
 the lime. All marles contain calcareous matter, and are of greater 
 or less value, according to the proportion which this bears to the 
 clay, sand, or other substances mingled with it. All shell fish will 
 supply this material. In some parts of the United States, remote 
 from lime-stone, oyster-shells are burnt to obtain lime for building • 
 and in all seaport towns where many oysters are used for food, their 
 shells will be found in quantities deserving the neighbouring farmer's 
 attention ; and if raised in piles, mingled with wood, may be burnt to 
 lime. Of the vast improvements of the lands in Scotland, within 
 the last forty or fifty years, lime has been the basis: and the use of 
 it the first step towards rendering the application of manures, strict- 
 
0N SOIL. 239 
 
 ly so called, highly productive. There they will lay from fifty to 
 two hundred or more bushels on an acre. In Pennsylvania, where 
 lime has been long and extensively used twenty to fifty bushels to the 
 acre has been found sufficient, and safer than any larger quantity, at 
 least in the first application. A remarkable instance of the benefi- 
 cial use of lime, though only at the rate of twenty bushels to the 
 acre, well merits a recital. The experiment was made on a field of 
 ten acres, for which the farmer had provided two hundred bushels 5 
 but it being his first essay in using lime, it so happened that the 
 whole quantity was disposed of when he had gone over nine acres. 
 Indian corn was planted ; and the crop was very great. The 
 next year, the field was fallowed, and at seed time sown, a part 
 with wheat and a part with rye; and good crops were produced. 
 " In the Spring (says the farmer) I sowed it with clover and timothy 
 (Herdsgrass) and put two bushels of plaster on an acre ; and had as 
 great a crop of clover as could grow : it lay three weeks before the time 
 of mowing." He adds — " The lime and plaster did all this : for no 
 land could be poorer before. .Where I laid no lime I got no clover, 
 although I put on the plaster."* The kind of soil in which lime 
 operated so powerfully, is not mentioned : but probably it was clay- 
 ey; a very common soil in the country where this land lay. An- 
 other like instance occurred in the Delaware state, on a clay farm, 
 on which plaster produced no effect until the land was limed.f 
 While lime operates very beneficially on strong clays, it is said to be 
 still more useful on lighter soils. To ascertain its effects on any 
 lands, will require but little time and a small expense. A single 
 cask of lime will be sufficient for a number of comparative experi- 
 ments If a few adjoining rods of land be set apart for the purpose, 
 and the lime, by slacking, brought to a fine powder, it may be even- 
 ly spread on the several small strips, in different proportions, ' at the 
 rate of twenty and any greater number of bushels to the acre. 
 Then, by raking, or harrowing, mix the lime with the surface soil, 
 and plant each strip equally and uniformly with Indian corn. One 
 equal strip, tilled and planted exactly as the others, but left unlimed, 
 will enable the experimenter to see what advantage may arise from 
 liming. In the next year the effects of lime in its respective propor- 
 tions may be mrther tested, by sowing the same strips with equal 
 quantities of one sort of grain and of grass seeds. 
 
 In like manner, small experiments may be made to try the effects 
 of clay on light sandy or gravely loams, and of sand on stiff clays. 
 The clay should be carried on and spread, and lie on the surface dur- 
 ing the winter, to break and moulder by the alternate frosts and 
 thaws, that it may be more effectually mixed with the soil. 
 
 As to the manner of applying lime, I am satisfied the best is that 
 recommended and practised where lime has been most extensively used; 
 that is, to slake it with water, and as soon as it falls to a fine powder 
 and is cool, to spread it evenly over the land, and with the harrow 
 mix it with the soil : its greatest utility depending on its intimate in* 
 
 * Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society of Agriculture, Vol,I 7 page 193 
 $ Ibib, Vol U, page 1.87, 
 
240 ON SOIL. 
 
 corporation. In liming extensively, the lime is often, perhaps most 
 commonly, carried on and dropped in small heaps to be slaked by the 
 moisture of the air : but it should be carefully attended to, that it 
 may be spread as soon as it is slaked; or there will otherwise be 
 danger of its settling in lumps, which may never again be duly pul- 
 verised. 
 
 If the application of lime be, as is represented, so important to 
 the great and permanent fertility of the soil, (and of this I entertain 
 no doubt,) while the knowledge of the fact is all that is essential for 
 the practical farmer to know; something more is desirable to satisfy 
 inquisitive minds ; and if the reason for using lime, or its mode of 
 operating, cbuld be shown, it would give confidence to the husband- 
 man, while it gratified the philosophical inquirer. 
 
 -A gentleman who is reputed to be one of the greatest chemists of 
 the'age (Sir Humphrey Davy) informs us that " when lime, whether 
 freshly burnt or slacked, is mixed with any moist fibrous matter, 
 there is a strong action between the lime and the vegetable matter, 
 and they form a kind of compost together, of which, a part is solu- 
 ble in water :" — that "by this kind of operation, lime renders mat- 
 ter which was before comparatively inert, nutritive ; and as charcoal 
 and oxygene (vital air) abound in all vegetable matters, it (the quick- 
 lime) becomes at the same time carbonate of lime," that is, it is re- 
 stored, by again combining with carbonic acid or fixed air, to the 
 state in which it existed before it was burnt, except its being reduced 
 to powder. Again he says — " Mild lime, powdered lime-stone, 
 marles, or chalks (for chalk is a lime-stone) have no action of this 
 kind upon vegetable matter; by their action they prevent the too 
 rapid decomposition of substances already dissolved ; but they have 
 no tendency to form soluble matters." He then remarks, that 
 "chalk, marie, or carbonate of lime, will only improve the texture 
 of the soil; or its relation to absorption; acting merely as one of its 
 earthy ingedients. Quick-lime when it becomes mild, operates in 
 the same manner as chalk; but in the act of becoming mild, it pre- 
 pares soluble out of insoluble matter." Again he says — "All soils 
 are improved by mild lime, and sands more than clays. 
 
 While quick-lime, according to this celebrated chemist, is so use- 
 fully applied to land abounding in fibrous matter, to effect its speedy 
 dissolution, he says its application should be avoided, where a soil 
 contains much soluble vegetable manure ; as it either tends to decom- 
 pose the soluble matters by uniting to their carbon and oxygene, so 
 as to become mild lime, or it combines with the soluble matters, and 
 forms compounds having less attraction for water than the pure vege- 
 table substance. 
 
 But an ingenious writer, under the signature of Agricola, in Nova- 
 Scotia, says, that notwithstanding all these precautionary fears, the 
 offsprings of chemical creation, the British farmer is mostly in a ha- 
 bit of applying quick-lime to all sorts of soils. And he assigns an 
 adequate reason, that caustic lime cannot remain any length of time 
 in the ground, without passing into a carbonate and becoming mild. 
 This writer offers different reasons for the beneficial operation of 
 lime ; that it is capable of absorbing not only that quantity of carbo- 
 
dN soil. 241 
 
 mc acid which it possessed in its natural state (being 45 parts in 100) 
 but an additional quantity; and can form what chemists call hyper- 
 carbonate. This, he says, is highly soluble in water: which ac- 
 counts for the admission of lime into the structure of plants; and 
 that this excess of carbonic acid adheres very loosely to its base (the 
 mild lime) and is liberated without any extraordinary degree of heat. 
 The carbonic acid, a most important article of vegetable food, is 
 copiously evolved in the putrefactive process of manures; the calca- 
 reous earth fixes and prevents its escape — forms with it a hypercar- 
 bonate, and readily imparts it, in union with water, towards the 
 nourishment of the crops. It is supposed to do more; it unites with 
 the carbonic acid floating in the air ; and when there is a scarcity of 
 aliment in the soil, it seizes and secures this food in the atmosphere, 
 and afterwards disperses it, according to the calls and necessities of 
 vegetation. Hence the necessities of keeping lime on the surface. 
 It is then ready to intercept, and combine, with the carbonic acid 
 which is generated by the fermentation of the putrescent matter lying 
 at lower depths, and to attract the same gas (the carbonic acid) from 
 the sourrounding air. 
 
 I confess myself much better satisfied with the observations of 
 Agricola, in accounting for the operations of lime, than with the so- 
 lution offered by Sir Humphrey Davy. If the statement of the 
 former be correct, we can see a reason for the long continuance of 
 the beneficial effects of lime on land ; for although it is not itself 
 food for plants, it is constantly employed in collecting and imparting 
 to them that food, from the sources which have been mentioned. 
 Does not the reasoning of Agricola also indicate the cause why lime 
 benefits sands more than clays ? The latter are opened and render- 
 ed lighter by its application : and to destroy their too great tenacity, 
 seems to be a main advantage gained by liming clay soils 5 whereas 
 sandy soils are already sufficiently porous. t 
 
 31 
 
$%2r ON CORK. 
 
 £from cooper's domestic encyclopedia.'} 
 
 On Corn. 
 
 Cc 
 
 ^/ORN Indian. Zea Maize. In the United States, two kinds of 
 Indian corn, or maize, are commonly cultivated. The gourd seed- 
 eorn. (so called from its resemblance to the gourd seed) and the yel- 
 low corn : the seed of which is plump and round. The former kind 
 is generally raised in the states of North and bouth-Carolina, and 
 Georgia ; and the latter, in the more northern states. In some of 
 the states, a white plump grain is also raised for the common and ex- 
 cellent dish homany. The late Mr. Bartram informed Dr. Mease, 
 that he saw in the Creek nation of Indians, a small corn in general 
 use, which consisted almost entirely of flour, and was easily pul- 
 verised ; he thinks the most pleasant corn cakes he ever ate, were 
 made of this kind of corn. The agent of the general government 
 with the Creeks would render service to the state, by circulating this 
 corn in different parts of the union. 
 
 Corn in England is the general term, for all kinds of grain, but in 
 the United States, by corn, is always meant, Indian corn, ( Zea 
 Maize,) and to this, it is proposed to confine the present additional 
 observations. 
 
 In the United States, the greater part of a field of corn, in some 
 seasons, is destroyed by birds, and ground squirrels. To prevent 
 this loss, Mr. James Graham, of New- York, says, (Trans. Argri. 
 So. New-York) he finds no plan so successful, as that of tarring the 
 seed, in the following manner. Put as much corn as you expect to 
 plant the next day, into warm water in the evening; the ensuing 
 morning drain off the water; then pour on as much hot water as will 
 cover it, and immediately after, throw in tar, at the rate of about 
 one pint to a bushel, stir the tar through the corn, until the grains 
 appear to be uniformly coated with the tar, then put it into a basket 
 to drain: after the water has ran off, throw it into a large tub or 
 trough, and stir among it as much ashes, lime, (slacked) or gypsum, 
 (plaister of Paris) as will adhere to the grain ; by which means they 
 will easily separate from each other, and may be as conveniently 
 planted, as if they had never been tarred. Mr. Graham prefers 
 
ON CORN. &43 
 
 gypsum, to either lime or ashes, as it will not be so likely to injure 
 the finders in planting, and does also, in equally small quantities, 
 more powerfully promote vegetation. 
 
 The precaution of soaking the corn before applying the tar, is 
 highly necessary, as the coat of tar and gypsum would otherwise, 
 (especially in dry seasons) prevent it from absorbing moisture suffi- 
 cient to produce vegetation 
 
 It is important too, in all cases where corn has been ^soaked, to 
 plant it immediately after the plough, when running the cross furrows* 
 
 Mr. G. has experienced the good effects of thus preparing seed- 
 corn, principally in preventing the ravages of crows and black birds, 
 the most common enemies of our spring crops, but has no doubt that 
 it will be found equally beneficial in preserving them from others, 
 such as ground squirrels, &c, 
 
 Birds are, however, not the only enemies to corn which the far- 
 mer has to contend with. M. Peters observes, that the cut-worms, 
 or grubs, destroy many of the young shoots above ground. A de- 
 coction of hellebore, mixed with sulphur, soot, and a little nitre (salt- 
 petre) is equally offensive to vermin : and if the seed, after being soak- 
 ed in this mixture, is encrusted with plaister, it remarkably forwards 
 the growth, 
 
 Replanting of corn, according to Mr. Peters, seldom answers well. 
 Transplanting of plants raised in the gardens, or in any clear and rich 
 corner of the field, is much more eligible. This is easily managed, 
 by sowing in drills, a small quantity of corn, at the time of planting 
 the field. If the plants are not wanted, the loss or trouble is inconsi- 
 derable. Plants may also be had from hills in which too many seeds 
 have been dropped. It is too common to have more plants in a hill 
 than are profitable. Three at most are sufficient. Although the 
 places where the corn is dropped are called hills, the old practice of 
 hilling is for the most part, abandoned. The necessary use of the 
 hoe is not admitted, but the plough is chiefly used to earth and tend 
 the corn. Great attention to destroy the suckers, which draw off the 
 supplies, both from plants and ears. 
 
 After several experiments, in order to find the most advantageous 
 method of planting corn, Mr. Spurier, of Delaware, found the follow- 
 ing exceeded all others. 
 
 He prepared his land, by ploughing it in autumn, in single 
 boughts ; in the spring he harrowed it down as smooth as possible, 
 and ploughed it; then harrowed it again, and marked out the fur- 
 rows at eight feet distance: in these furrows he dropped the seed sin- 
 gle, at about the distance of every foot ; his cart loaded with manure 
 from the compost heap, followed in the alley between, and covered 
 the seed in the furrows, about three or four inches thick, with the 
 manure. This was done almost as expeditiously as in the commoa 
 way, covering it with mould by the hoe. 
 
 . By this method, the plants came soon up, and flourished very vigo- 
 rously. When the plants were about six inches high he ploughed be- 
 tween, taking the mould from the plants, throwing it up in a ridge in 
 ihe t middle of the alley, and with a hand hoe, cut up the weeds and 
 
244 ON CORN. 
 
 supeifluous plants. If they are left at two feet distance in the rows r 
 thev will be thick enough. 
 
 The next ploughing, he took the mould from the middle, throw- 
 ing it up to the plants. Every time of ploughing, he used the hand 
 hoe to stir the ground between the plants, and to destroy the weeds. 
 The third ploughing he did as the first, throwing up the mould in the 
 middle of the alley. This is of more use than a person would 
 imagine, for it admits the influences of the air and dews to penetrate 
 to the roots. 
 
 The fourth ploughing, which was the last, he managed as the 
 second, by throwing up the mould to the stalks of corn. If this last 
 ploughing could be so contrived, as to be done early in the morning, 
 before the sun has exhaled the dew, it would bring those riches in 
 the ground, which would afford a double nourishment. The land, 
 upon which Mr. Spurrier tried this experiment, was between a loam 
 and a clay. ' 
 
 Sands and light lands will not require so many ploughings. 
 
 A gentleman of Philadelphia county had his seed-corn soaked in 
 the black water of a dung heap, and in which some salt-petre was dis- 
 solved : when planting, he added a small handful of gypsum to each 
 hill, when up he put on a little more, and when the ears were about 
 to set, a small quantity wa^ again added. His crop was very abun- 
 dant, as we witnessed ; and was the more remarkable, as the field 
 had been worn out by bad management. In rich ground, however, 
 the application of all these strong stimulants to the grain may prove 
 injurious, -by causing too great a growth of the stalk. The second 
 application of the gypsum may in such cases be omitted. 
 
 Indian corn is commonly planted in the beginning of May, in Penn- 
 sylvania, but if the ground be rich, and gypsum used as a manure, 
 and the season should prove favourable, the stalk will grow so tall by 
 harvest, and the roots so numerous, that it will be difficult to plough 
 among them. A dded to this, the farmer will not have time to attend 
 to the corn, and as the season at harvest is commonly dry, it may 
 suffer from neglect: a judicious farmer, therefore, of Philadelphia 
 county, plants his corn the end of May, and thus is enabled to give 
 it the last ploughing after harvest. He also soaks and rolls the corn in 
 slacked lime., to prevent the birds picking the grains; and finds the 
 practice successful. Mr. Peters approves highly of this practice of 
 ploughing after harvest, if it be done when the weather is moist. 
 In a drought, it is rather dangerous. He adds, " It requires a good 
 tilth to keep down weeds. Nothing requires more clean farming, 
 than corn, which is seldom ploughed often enough. 
 
 A plain farmer informed the editor, that he made the following ex- 
 periments on the comparative effects of different manures for corn. 
 
 He manured different parts of the same field of corn, with dung of 
 cows, horses and hogs : and the ashes of blackberry bushes and other 
 briers cut down from the fence side : the ground manured with the 
 ashes produced an earlier and better crop, than any other part of 
 the ground The hog-dung produced the next best crop. He put 
 two shovels full of the ashes to each hill of corn. These facts, 
 
ON CORN. 245 
 
 which are the result of a laudable wish in a plain farmer to ascertain 
 an important point, deserve attention. 
 
 The following account of two crops of corn, deserves to be uni- 
 versally known, as an incitement to the spirit of emulation and in- 
 dustry among farmers. 
 
 Mr. John Stevens, of Hoboken, New-Jersey, and Mr. D. Ludlow, 
 Westchester, betted 55 guineas upon the superiority of their crops 
 of corn. Mr. Stevens ploughed his ground three times before plant- 
 ing, and before the last ploughing, put on 700 horse cart loads of 
 street manure ; he planted in double rows at 5 £ feet asunder, and 
 dibbled each grain. To do this with expedition and acuracy, he 
 bored two rows of holes in a peice of board four feet long, so as to 
 form equilateral triangles, the sides of which were seven inches, 
 thus; 
 
 Into these holes he drove pegs, about 3£ inches long. As the 
 corn was dropped into these holes, made with this machine, a man 
 followed with a basket of rotten dung with which he filled them up. 
 Then came on the carts, out of which the rows were sprinkled with 
 a coat of street manure. During the season the crop was suckered 
 three times. The intervals were repeatedly ploughed, and the rows 
 kept perfectly clean of weeds by hoeing and hand weeding. The 
 produce of the crop was as follows : — 233 2-thirds measure full of 
 corn in the ear. A measure full contained one bushel and a half and 
 one pint of shelled corn; 233 2-thirds give consequently 354 bush- 
 els and 6 quarts, or 118 bushels and 2 quarts per acre. Mr. Stevens 
 is confident, that he would have had considerably more corn, had not 
 his crop suffered very greatly by a thunder storm, which laid the 
 greater part of it down at the time the ears were setting. ' 
 
 Mr. Ludlow planted in continued rows, four feet asunder, and 
 eight inches from stalk to stalk in the rows, and manured with 200 
 horse-cartload of street dirt. His crop was as follows : 
 
 Total, 182 measures of corn in the ear. Shelled corn in full mea- 
 sure, one bushel and a half and four quarts, which in 182 give 295 
 bushels and 12 quarts, or 98 bushels and 14 quarts per acre. 
 
 These are truly noble crops, and do honour to the industry and 
 agricultural skill of the cultivators. 
 
 A friend says, in New-Jersey, it has been found, that corn plant- 
 ed after clover cut in May, and the stubble ploughed yields an abun- 
 dant crop. There can be no reason why the same good effect ought 
 not to follow a clover lay for corn, as for wheat, the experience of 
 which is so familiar to us, in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Mr Bordley directs to cut up the corn stalks close to the ground, 
 near the end of September, with sharp hoes, having first stripped 
 the blades and cut off the tops, but always leaving the ears on: and 
 to pile the stalks and corn in a pyramidal form in small parcels, to 
 cure. A friend found some years since, that by thus exposing his 
 corn to the frost, it ripened better than if permitted to remain stand- 
 ing in the field, as is commonly practised. 
 
246 OS CORN. 
 
 Darwin also says, that the frosty nights of autumn in Scotland, 
 contribute to ripen the late crops of that cold climate : he supposes 
 the frost converts the mucilage of the grain sooner into starch. 
 
 Mr. Bordley makes the following excellent remarks : Observing 
 much irregularity in the standing maize in the rows, I caused the 
 seed after listing and crossing, to be carefully placed dose to the 
 landside of the furrows : not dropt in the careless scattering manner 
 usual. The corn thus grew straight, and admitted the plough to 
 pass near the plants. 
 
 The following highly valuable observations are by Joseph Coopei, 
 Esq. of ISew-Jersey, and doubtless will receive serious attention 5 
 they tend to prove what perfection may be attained by continued 
 care and attention, while at the same time, they shew the absurdity 
 of the common opinion of the necessity for changing seed. 
 
 :{ In or about the year 1772. a friend sent me a few grains of a, 
 small kind of Indian corn, the grains of which were not larger than 
 goose shot, which he informed me, by a note in which they were 
 enclosed, were originally from Guinea, and produced from eight to ten 
 ears on a stalk. Those grains I planted, and found the production 
 to answer the description, but the ears small, and few of them ripe 
 before frost, I saved some of the largest and earliest, and planted 
 '♦them between rows of larger and earlier kinds of corn, which produ- 
 ced a mixture to advantage ; then I saved seed from stalks that 
 produced the greatest number of the largest ears, and first ripe, 
 which I planted the ensuing season, and was not a little gratified to 
 find its production preferable, both in quantity and quality, to that 
 of any corn I had ever planted. This kind of corn I have continu- 
 ed planting- ever since, selecting that designed for seed in the manner 
 I would wish others to try, viz When the first ears are ripe enough 
 for seed, gather a sufficient quantity for early corn, or replant- 
 ing, and at the time you would wish your corn to be ripe generally, 
 gather a sufficient quantity for planting the next year, having parti- 
 cular care to take it from stalks that are large at bottom, of a regular 
 taper, not over tall, the ears set low and containing the greatest num- 
 ber of good sizeable ears of the best quality ; let it dry speedily, and 
 from the corn gathered as last described, plant your main crop, and 
 if any hills should be missing, re-plant them from the first gathered, 
 which will cause the crop to ripen more regularly than is common 5 
 this is a great benefit. The above method I have practised many 
 years, and am satisfied it has increased the quantity and improved 
 the quality of my crops beyond the expectation of any person who 
 has not tried the experiments. The distance of planting corn, and 
 number of grains in a hill, are matters many differ in ; perhaps dif- 
 ferent soils may require a difference in both these respects ; but in 
 every kind of soil I have tried, I find planting the rows 6 feet asunder 
 each way, as near as right angles as may be, and leaving not more 
 than three stalks in a hill, produces the best crop. The common 
 method of saving seed corn by taking the ears from the heap, or crib, 
 is attended with two disadvantages: one is, the taking the largest 
 ears which have generally grown one on a stalk — this lessens the pro- 
 
ON CORN. 247 
 
 Auction ; the other is, taking ears that have ripened at different times, 
 which causes the production to be the same." 
 
 [In the choosing of seed, choose 1st. the best in kind : 2. the ri- 
 pest; 3. ears that have all ripened earliest, if you want an early 
 crop. You should take as much pains to select your seed grain as 
 your seed cattle or horses. T. C] 
 
 If twenty loads of good manure can be afforded for an acre, it- 
 should be spread on the land and ploughed in : if no more than half 
 of that quantity, it will be best to put it in holes. In the former 
 case, it usually comes up better, suffers less by drought, and worms; 
 and the land is left in better order after the crop In the latter case, 
 the plants are more assisted in their growth in proportion to the 
 quantity of manure. If the manure be new dung, burying it under 
 the furrows is by far the better method. 
 
 The right time of seeding the ground may be from the first to the 
 third week in May; or a little sooner or later according to the dryness 
 of the soil, and the forwardness of spring. The farmers have a rule 
 in this case, said to be borrowed from the aboriginals, which is, to 
 plant corn when the leaves of white oak begin to appear. But so 
 much time is commonly taken up in planting this corn, it being 
 tedious work to dung it in holes, that it will be necessary to begin in 
 the driest part of the field a little earlier than this rule directs. 
 
 Shell the seed gently by hand, that it may not be torn or bruised at 
 all, rejecting about an inch at each end of the ear. And, if any corns 
 appear with black eyes, led them also be rejected, not because they 
 will not grow at all, the contrary being true, but because the black- 
 ness indicates, either some defect in drying, or want of perfection in 
 the grain Put three, or at most four corns in what is called a hill, 
 and let them not be very near together; for the more the roots crowd 
 each other, the more they will prevent the growth of each other. 
 
 If planting a second time should become necessary, by means of 
 the destruction of the first seed, or if planting be delayed on any ac- 
 count till the beginning of June, then it will be proper that the seed 
 should have warm water poured on it. Let it not soak more than 
 a quarter of an hour, and be cooled speedily, and planted before it 
 dries. The corn will be forwarded in its growth by several days. 
 The seed should be covered with about two inches of earth. 
 
 To prevent birds and vermin from pulling up the corn, steep some 
 corn in a strong infusion of Indian poke, or refuse tobacco, and- 
 sprinkle it over the ground before the corn is up. White threads 
 stretched over a field of corn, will prevent crows from alighting upon 
 it. But I doubt whether this will deter any other birds 
 
 A handful of ashes, or a table spoonful of gypsum on each hill, 
 will stimulate the plants, and have a tendency to prevent their being 
 annoyed by worms. Some lay it on just before the first, or second 
 hoeing. It wils have a better effect in preventing worms, if laid on 
 before the corn is up. But it is commonly designed to answer chiefly 
 as a top-dressing ; and for this purpose it would answer better near 
 the third hoeing ; for then the plants want the greatest degree of nou- 
 rishment, as they begin to grow very rapidly. Two dressings, to 
 answer the two purposes, would npt be amiss. 
 
248 ON CORN. 
 
 When the plants are three or four inches high, the plough must 
 pass in the interval, making two furrows in each, turned from the 
 rows ; and then the weeds killed with the hand hoe, and a little earth 
 drawn about the plants. This operation we call weeding. 
 
 In about half a month after, plough again, but across the formed Tur- 
 rows, and turn the furrows towards the rows. Then with he ; and- 
 hoe earth the corn as much as it will bear. This is called moulding 
 or half-hilling. 
 
 When the plants are about knee-high, and before they send out 
 their panicles, or spindels, give them the third and last hoeing. 
 The best way is to plough one furrow in an interval, both ways. 
 The cultivator with two mould-boards would be better for this work 
 than the common horse-plough, as it would throw the mould equally 
 towards each row, and save labour in hand-hoeing. The ground 
 would thus be cut into squares, and the hills almost completely form- 
 ed. In finishing them, care should be taken that they be not made 
 too high, or steep, that they may not divert the water which falls in 
 rains from the roots. When hills are too much raised, they also pre- 
 vent the warm iufluence of the sun upon the lower most roots, by 
 too great a thickness of earth ; in consequence of which, the plants 
 are put to the exertion of sending out a new set of roots, at a suitable 
 distance from the surface. 
 
 Some think high hills are needful to make the corn stand up- 
 right. 1 never could perceive the advantage of it. But I am confi- 
 dent it is oftener broken by winds when the hills are uncommonly 
 high, which is a greater evil than its leaning half way to the ground, 
 if indeed that be any evil at all. 
 
 The farmer who wishes for a large crop of this corn, should not 
 annoy it with running beans, or pumpkins ; the former, by winding 
 round the stalks and ears, cramp them in their growth, and some- 
 times bend them down to the ground, by their weight; the latter, by 
 their luxuriant growth, rob the hills of much vegetable food, and by 
 their thick shade, shut out the influence of the sun from the roots of 
 the corn. 
 
 At the second and third hoeings, all the suckers should be buried 
 under the soil ; not broken off, as is the common practice, because 
 this wounds the plants. If the suckers be suffered to grow, they sel- 
 dom or never produce fair and perfect ears ; and they rob the ears 
 on the main stalk of their nourishment. I mention the second and 
 third hoeings, because the suckers will not all appear till the third ; 
 and the sooner they are destroyed the better the crop will be. 
 
 Instead of the common method of planting, if your land be rich, 
 easy to till, and free from obstacles, I should think it would be best 
 to plant corn in the drill method, the rows being of the same distance 
 as in the common way, placing the corn about five inches asunder. 
 I have found by experiment, that a gt eater quantity of corn may be 
 produced in this method, than in hills; and the labour is but little, if at 
 all, increased. In a small field where the dung had been evenly 
 spread, and ploughed in, I planted one row thus, the rest being in 
 the common way ; and it yielded at harvest, one eighth part more 
 
ON CORN. %>*& 
 
 com by measure than either of the two nearest rows, the corn being 
 eqiMily ripe and good. 
 
 When there is reason to apprehend that the ground will prove too 
 moist for this crop, it will be advisable to plough it into narrow ridges, 
 and seed each ridge with one or two rows, as shall be found most 
 convenient. Some of the finest crops that I have known, have been 
 raised in this method. 
 
 When a season is at all wet, this would be the best culture in almost 
 any soil, unless the very driest be excepted. 
 
 There is a kind of ridging, which would be very proper for this 
 plant, not only on account of drying the soil, but that the land may 
 have an alternate resting, or fallowing, between the rows. In the 
 common method of plain ploughing, it commonly happens that a 
 hill stands precisely in the place of a hill of the preceding year. 
 When this is the case, the plants will receive less nourishment than 
 if the hill had a new situation. That each hill may always have 
 this advantage, let a ridge be formed by two furrows, turning part 
 of a row of hills on each side, so as to meet each other, in the last 
 year's interval: then small ridges will be formed on which the rows 
 sliall be planted. If dung be first spread over the ground most of it 
 grill be buried where it should be, in the bottom of the ridges. At 
 the time of weeding, the remainder of the old hills may be turned 
 towards the rows. With such a mode of culture, land could not 
 soon be exhausted, even by a successive cropping with maize. 
 
 The uses to which this invaluable plant is applied in the United 
 States are well known. The articles of diet into which it enters as 
 a component part, are various and important Alone, it is served up 
 in several forms, all of which are excellent. As a strong nourishing 
 food for horses and swine, it is probably superior to any other grain. 
 Many articles will fatten animals, but it is corn alone upon •which 
 we depend for obtaining that solidity in the fat and muscle which are 
 so valuable in slaughtered animals. Experience proves that corn 
 broken by a mill, will go one-third further in feeding beasts, than 
 when given whole. The stalks and blades of corn, if carefully 
 stacked and cut, have been found good food for horses. By a pow- 
 erful cutting box, the stalks and blades were cut small, and given 
 sometimes alone, and sometimes with oats, and were observed to 
 increase the spirits and flesh of the animal in every sensible manner. 
 The reason is evident ; the stalks, especially the two lower joints, 
 abound with sugar, and was extracted during our revolutionary war ; 
 and sugar is one of the most nutritious principles in nature. Consi- 
 dering the importance of the use of the stalks, it is truly melancholy 
 , to see acres covered with them, in winter, in some parts, instead of 
 having them housed for the cattle. In the Venetian territory, ac- 
 cording to the late Dr. Scandella, the blades of corn are pulled, 
 dried, and given to cattle without injury to the crops of corn, and 
 Mr. Bordley says, he stripped 150 hills of corn, and cut off the tops 
 when the corn was not hard, without any difference being observed 
 between the stalks so treated, and the rest of the field Dr Scan- 
 della also states, that corn is sown broad cast, upon highly nmnured 
 places near the stable, and when it reaches its highest growth, and 
 
 32 
 
258 ON CHICORrUM INTUBUS. 
 
 the tassels begin to wither, the stalks are cut down morning and 
 evening, and given to the cattle in the stables. These facts may be 
 useful to those who want fodder, and have corn, but barlev straw or 
 hay, ought to be cut wiih green corn, or blades and tops, to prevent 
 the beasts from becoming haven. It has already been said that the 
 cebs of corn are chopped fine by mills for cattle in Lancaster county. 
 
 Chicorium Intubus. 
 
 CHICORIUM INTUBUS. Wild endive; which, by the ex-< 
 periments of Mr. Wakefield, and others in England, seems of pro- 
 digious consequence for the supply of summer feed It has been 
 sown broad cast, but appears to answer best in drills. It has yield- 
 ed from 20 to 40 tons of green fodder per acre. In America it 
 would be particularly suitable for summer feed, as the roots seek 
 nourishment from a great depth. 
 
 This root is perennial and has generally been regarded in the light 
 of a noxious weed ; it has, however, for several years past, been cul- 
 tivated in France as food for cattle. In Lombardy, it is sown, mix- 
 ed with other herbs of pasture, and cut three or four feet. It is 
 reputed there to increase both the milk and the flesh of cattle, and f 
 be very nutritious when made into hay. Horses eat it greedily ; and 
 it is an important object for summer soiling, both for them and cat- 
 tle. It is also freely eaten by sheep. 
 
 Chicory defies drought, being of early growth. The stalks are 
 so thick and stiff as to support themselves against winds and the hea- 
 viest rains. The most severe cold does not injure them. The 
 quickness of growth renders it very valuable, because it furnishes 
 abundance of salutary fodder at a season when green food is scarce. 
 It has been found to grow seven inches in three weeks, whilst sain- 
 foin and burnet grew only four inches Two cuttings may may made 
 of it the first year, and three or four, according to the season, every 
 year after, in May, July, August and October, or in May, July 
 and October, never letting it stand till it becomes hard and sticky : 
 or it may be cut continually, by beginning again when the whole 
 piece is gone over, and thus yield a constant supply of fresh food du- 
 ring seven or eight months, 
 
 The produce is said to be superior, upon the whole, to that of 
 Lucerne, in the proportion of three to one. A piece of ground 
 sown with chicory, was found to yield, by the acre, the year of sow- 
 at two cuttings, July the 24th, and October the 17th — 19 tons, 
 4 cwt. Second year, at three cuttings, May 21st, July 24th, and 
 December 3d — 38 tons, 9 cwt. And the average produce of four 
 years, was near thirty tons. 
 
ON CABB4*E. 251 
 
 [I consider the Wild Chicory, or Succory, Chicorium Intubus. as 
 the best of plants calculated for the summer feed of horses and cows, 
 when cut and given in the farm-yard. It can be cut four times 
 a year. Its roots furnish the very best substitute for coffee yet 
 known. They should be cleaned, put into the oven when the bread 
 is taken out, and left to cool. Repeat this. Use one half Chicory, 
 so treated, with one half coffee. I speak from personal knowledge 
 of this plan, in both respects. T. C] 
 
 The leaves of the cultivated chicory, endive, when blanched, 
 form an ingredient in early spring salads. 
 
 On Cabbage. 
 
 CABBAGE, or Braasica, L. a genus of plants comprisiug six- 
 teen species, of which the following are the principal : 
 
 1. The campestris, or field cabbage, which is also a native, and 
 grows on the sea-shore near Dover. The severest winters do not in- 
 jure this plant, which becomes peculiarly useful when every other 
 species is destroyed. It is more generally known under the name of 
 the cauliflower, and its culture has been much improved in Britain, 
 where it has become a source of national wealth; the greater part of 
 Europe being supplied thence with seeds, and, till lately, Kolland 
 almost wholly with plants. 
 
 2. The Napus, or rape, or coleseed cabbage, which is indigenous, 
 and also reared in various parts of England, especially in the Isle of 
 Ely, for its seed, from which the rape-oil is extracted : the refuse is 
 called oil-cake, and is useful for the fattening of oxen, and other cat- 
 tle. The most piercing frost effects not this hardy plant, which, in 
 severe winters, is of no small service in feeding ewes; when, from 
 the intenseness of the cold, the ground is so frozen that no turnips can 
 be taken up. In the county of Norfolk, the cakes are broken to pie- 
 ces and strewed on the land as manure, for which purpose it is consi- 
 dered particularly efficacious. The cultivated variety, though it has 
 a stronger taste, may be eaten like the turnip. 
 
 3 The rapa, or turnip cabbage. This is a native of Britain, 
 and grows principally in corn-fields : it is eaten either boiled, or 
 roasted, or raw, generally with the addition of pepper. The im- 
 portance and value of this species, for the fatting of cattle in parti- 
 cular, have not been generally known or ascertained till within these 
 few years. The soil intended for planting, ought to be manured and 
 tilled in the same manner as for the common turnip, the necessary 
 extent of old p isture ground being previously breast-ploughed and 
 burnt. The land should be dug as shallow as possible, and the 
 ashes turned in: about midsummer, or sooner, should the weather 
 
252 ON CABBAGE. 
 
 be favourable, the plantiug ought to be commenced ; two perches , 
 if well stocked with plants, being sufficient to supply an acre. 
 
 Independently of the utility of this plant as a fodder for cattle du- 
 ring the winter season, it has been much recommended as a sea-store, 
 from the facility with which it may be preserved on ship board : and 
 as it furnishes an agreeable and wholesome food for sailors on long 
 voyages, at a time when every other fresh vegetable is entirely spoil- 
 ed. 
 
 4. The oleracea, or sea-colwort, sea-cabbage, or common cabbage, 
 is also indigenous, and grows principally on cliffs near the sea-cost. 
 Early in the spring, this species is preferred to those that are cultivat- 
 ed ; but, when gathered on the sea-cost, it is requisite that it be boil- 
 ed in two waters, to deprive it of its saline taste. The roots may be 
 eaten like those of the preceding species : but they are by no means 
 so tender. All the various kinds of garden cabbage in use at our ta- 
 bles, originate from this The red cabbage is chiefly used for pickling. 
 In some countries, the white cabbage is buried in autumn, when full 
 grown, and is thus preserved during the whole winter.* They are 
 cut in pieces by the Germans, who, mixing them with some aromatic 
 herbs and salt, press them closely down in a tub, where they soon 
 ferment, and are eaten under the name of sauer kraut. 
 
 Dr. Darwin observes that Sea-Cale is much esteemed for the de- 
 licacy of its ta$te, which is superior to most kinds of broccoli. 
 It appears that this species of cabbage should be sown the latter end 
 of March, or the beginning of April, in drills, and afterward, earthed 
 up. In autumn, it should be transplanted into high beds, one 
 row of roots in each bed, about a foot asunder; and, in winter, it 
 should be covered up. The beds should be made in dr} 7 ground, 
 and the produce will not be fit for the table till the third year after 
 sowing. The year before it is cut for eating, it must be covered^ in 
 the beginning oT winter, first with stable-dung, which may be pre- 
 vented from pressing on it, by placing a few sticks in the form of a 
 cone over each root ; it should then be covered with long litter to the 
 height of two or three feet. About the beginning of January it may 
 be gathered, and the cutting continued till May, one bed being kept 
 under another. It should be boiled, and sent up on toast like aspa- 
 ragus. 
 
 To this species also belong those varieties of the brassica, denomi- 
 nated the turnip-rooted cabbage, and the drum-headed cabbage. The 
 former is generally supposed to have been brought from Lapland, and 
 is found to be well calculated for uplands and wolds. It delights in a 
 dry, sandy, mixed soil, which is prepared in the same manner as for 
 turnips. The seed is usually sown in the beginning of June, and 
 yieids so abundantly, that half a pound of it, if sown in a seed bed 
 two or three perches square, will produce plants sufficient to stock an 
 acre. But if they run too much to stalk, care must be taken to trans- 
 plant them, and that to check their luxuriant vegetation. This plant 
 is very hardy, and its bushy tops furnish a most excellent and abun- 
 dant food for cattle during the spring. It is principally raised for 
 
 * See Withering, page 592 
 
ON CABBAGE. 253 
 
 feeding oxen, cows, hogs, and horses ; but, if given to sheep timing 
 winter, it occasions a species of white flux, of which, however, they 
 soon recover on a change of food; and which is seldom, if ever, atten - 
 ded with any dangerous consequences. 
 
 The drum-headed cabbage is usually sown on a bed towards the end 
 of February or March; but sometimes also in August, in which case 
 the plants are set out in November, and tiansplanted in July. A 
 hardy variety, of a deep green colour with purple veins, and of the 
 same size as the drum-head, has been produced from this cabbage, 
 by planting it altenately with the red kind ; and when the pods were 
 completely formed, by cutting down the red and leaving the other for 
 seed. 
 
 5. The muralis, or wall-cabbage, which is usually found on old 
 walls and rubbish. This plant is a native of Britain ; all its parts are 
 considerably acrid, and have a rank, disagreeable smell : it is, therefore 
 never cultivated. 
 
 6. The Ai])ina, or Savoy. This is an exotic, and is chiefly pro- 
 pagated for winter use; beiny generally preferred when nipped by the 
 frost. It is sown towards the latter end of April, and the culture of it 
 varies but little from that pursued with respect to the common white 
 cabbage ; the only difference being, that the latter species may be set 
 more closely together than the former; for, if planted in close places, 
 it is subject to be almost consume i by caterpillars or other vermin. 
 
 To these species may be added the Scotch cabbage, so denomi- 
 nated from being more particularly cultivated in Scotland, where it 
 constitutes a very considerable article of food for cattle. The varie- 
 ty introduced into England a few years since, is the green Scotch 
 cabbage, which will grow extremely well on moor-lands, and, if cut 
 just before the frost sets in, and hung up under cover, form* a food 
 so peculiarly agreeable to cattle, that, when once they have tasted it, 
 they will rarely relish any other. 
 
 There is another species of the Brassica, denominated the mow- 
 ing cabbage (choux a fouclier.) It appears to be a native of Ger- 
 many, but has been cultivated with considerable success in France, 
 both as a pulse for mankind, being free from the bitter herbaceous 
 taste of the other cabbages, and as a fodder equally good and abun- 
 dant for cattle. This plant is reared from seed, and will admit of 
 being cut four, five, or six times in the year it is sown; after which 
 it is left for the winter. In the month of February it shoots forth, 
 when its leaves may be cut again; in April it begins to grow up, and 
 produces stalks and seed, which may be gathered in June. During 
 the first year of its growth, this plant does not send forth any 
 stalks; its leaves appearing to rise immediately out of the ground, 
 from •which circumstance it may be cut like grass, and dried in a 
 similar manner for hay. It will also yield oil, as good as that of 
 cole and poppy seed. 
 
 To produce early Cabbages, — In the spring, as soon as the sprouts 
 on the cabbage-stalks have grown to the length of a plant fit for sett- 
 ing, cut them out with a small slice of the stalk, about two inches long: 
 and, if the season permit, plant them in a garden, and the usual care 
 will produce good cabbages. 
 
254 ON BUCK-WHEAY. 
 
 A gentleman in the vicinity of Philadelphia pursued the following 
 plan. He sowed his seed in August, and set out the plants in au- 
 tumn, letting them remain out all winter. If very cold, covered them 
 with straw; of 500 plants, 300 commonly lived and headed verv ear- 
 ly : the rest answered for greens. 
 
 From the earliest stage of its growth, the cabbage becomes the prey 
 of a variety of insects, none of which is more formidable than the ca- 
 terpillar. When young, its principal enemy is theChrysomela sana- 
 toria, or turnip-fly, and as it approaches nearer to maturity, the Pa- 
 pilio Brassica, or cabbage-butterfly. To expel the former, Dr. Wi- 
 thering directs the ground to be strewed with soot. He alsq 
 adds, that if the plants be whipped with the gieen boughs of alder, 
 [elder,] the latter will not touch them. — With respect to caterpillars, 
 it has been recommended as a certain remedy for the mischief they 
 cause, that all the borders of the ground, where it is intended to plant 
 cabbages, be sown with hemp; and, however the vicinity may be in- 
 fested with those insects, the ground enclosed will be found to be per- 
 fectly free from them; no vermin will approach it. 
 
 Mr. Bordley advises to plant a cabbage in the step, between two 
 hills of corn, (maize) as the shade may be favourable to them. 
 
 [Cabbages are a very profitable article of field culture in strong 
 land, as a food for cattle. The kind proper for this purpose, is the 
 large Scotch cabbage — f C] 
 
 The highly beneficial effects experienced from pickle cabbage, on 
 long voyages, is well known. 
 
 On Buck-Wheat. 
 
 BUCK- WHEAT, Sarrasin, the Polygonum fagopyrum, L. a 
 species of the Persicaria, also called snake-weed, bucke, branks, 
 Franch-wheat or crap. As this useful plant requires no botanical 
 description, we shall here proceed to state its most approved method 
 of culture, and important uses in agriculture; both subjects being 
 intimately connected. 
 
 Buck-wheat was introduced into Europe nearly four centuries since, 
 and according to Gerald's Herbal, cultivated in England about the 
 year 1597- 
 
 It is a native of the northern parts of Asia. During the last 
 thirty years, it has excited the attention of able agriculturists, who 
 have furnished us with the following result of their experience. 
 This grain delights in a mellow, dry, loose, sandy soil, but does not 
 thri- e so well in h free, loamy stonebrash, and should never be sown 
 in wet, poachy ground. It requires little or no manure, but frequent 
 
©N BUCK-WHEVf. 255 
 
 sun-shine. On heaths newly ploughed up. the turf of which has 
 been burnt, or that have been manured with wood ashes, its vegeta- 
 tion is luxurient The proper season for sowing is the last week in 
 July. A shower of rain, after the seed is harrowed in, greatly pro- 
 motes its growth, and it generally appears above ground in five or 
 six days. 
 
 Buck-wheat is in flower throughout the summer, and would yield 
 much larger crops, if all the grains would uniformly ripen, and could 
 be collected at the same time. About half a bushel is sown on each 
 acre, in this country ; and the Germans calculate sixty pounds weight 
 to every hundred square rods of land. From seven to eight weeks 
 only are required for bringing it to maturity, and it produces from 
 twelve to twenty fold. In this state it affords an excellent substitute 
 for hay ; and it is affirmed, that the German farmer obtains, at less 
 expense than by mowing and drying the whole, in the usual way, ten 
 times the quantity of corn. 
 
 Another variety of this grain was, about a century ago, introduced 
 into Germany, and has lately also been cultivated in Britain, known 
 by the name of Siberian buck-wheat. It possesses considerable ad- 
 vantages over the former; because it is not only a fourth part heavier 
 in the grain, but also most palatable, and, in this respect, resembles 
 rice. It thrives in the poorest soil, is not affected by cold, and being 
 more disposed to branch out and spread its stalks, requires scarcely 
 one half of the seed necessary for the culture of the preceding species. 
 From repeated experiments, made in England, it appears that 
 the culture of buck-wheat ought, in many cases, to be adopted in 
 preference to a summer fallowing; as the crop produced is not only 
 so much clear gain, but also affords a considerable quantity / of straw 
 for fodder and manure; besides which, it is a more advantageous 
 preparation for the next crop. There will be sufficient time to sow 
 the land with buck-wheat after spring feedings, or a crop of turnip- 
 rooted cabbage, or vetches. When sown in July, buck-wheat is an 
 excellent sheltering crop to clover; and two crops of this grain have, 
 in favourable years, been obtained from the same land. Mr. Arthur 
 Young, in the sixth volume of the " Annals of Agriculture" has 
 inserted an instructive paper, communicated by the Rev. R. Moseley, 
 (Sept. 11th, 1786) from which we learn the following valuable facts : 
 That three crops were sown on the same ground, between autumn 
 and autumn, with only three ploughings, namely, winter tares in Sep- 
 tember, with one ploughing, which were reaped early in the succeed- 
 ing summer ; then immediately buck-wheat was sown, after one plough- 
 ing and harrowing; in September the buck-wheat was ploughed in, and 
 wheat was sown on this one ploughing the crop of which was great. 
 Thus, says Mr. Young, as the spring advances, and the sun becomes 
 powerful enough to exhale the humidity of the land, the crop also ad- 
 vances and screens it from the action of his beams. The weeds in 
 the soil vegetating with the young tares, are either strangled by their 
 luxuriance, or cut off with them, before they produce seed. This 
 crop is cleared from the land so early, that the soil would remain ex- 
 posed to the sun for three months, in the most scorching heat of the 
 summer $ and, if thus left exposed, the three ploughings would be 
 
256 ON BUCK-WHEAT. 
 
 hurtful to the soil, except that they might destroy "some weeds. 
 Hence to give one ploughing immediately, and harrow in buck-wheat, 
 saves expense; and the growing herbage shades the earth, when it 
 most requires to be protected : by this management, a dressing of ma- 
 nure is gained at the cheapest possible rate. In short, to introduce 
 a system more complete is not in the power of science 
 
 It appears to be undecided, whether buck-wheat improves or im- 
 poverishes the soil. There can be no doubt that it will produce the 
 latter effect, like all plants that are suffered to run to seed; and, on 
 the contrary, that it renders the soil more fertile, when ploughed in, 
 before the seeds are formed. [This is an excellent method of manur- 
 ing for a full crop, but it ought to be turned in by Ducket's plough. — 
 T.C.] 
 
 Hogs feeding upon this vegetable are very liable to scabby erup- 
 tions. 
 
 Buck-wheat should be sown thin, because the top blossoms are 
 very apt to be burnt by the sun, in which case the under ones will be 
 saved, as they spread out and protect one another from the sun. If 
 sown thick, the plants cannot throw out under branches. If the 
 grain stands, when ripe, it may be cradled ; but when it has fallen, 
 the scythe must be used, and the crop permitted to lie three days, 
 then raked while the dew is on, to prevent the grain shedding: then 
 threshed by horses. 
 
 Buck-wheat answers very well with clover. Sow the huck-wheat 
 first and harrow : then sow the clover seed, and let the roller follow im- 
 mediately. In this way the land will be sown even, and the ground 
 made level for the cradle. The advantages of the buck-wheat are, 
 that it preserves the moisture of the land, in case a dry season should 
 follow; shelters the clover till the month of October, when the 
 buck-wheat is cut : after which the sun can no longer injure the clo- 
 ver, but gives it a due portion of warmth, and pushes it forward 
 until the cold of winter locks up all vegetation. 
 
 With respect to the question, whether the buck-wheat is, or is not 
 an exhauster of the soil, a positive answer may be given. A field 
 intended for barley, was partly sown with buck-wheat, and when in 
 blossom in September, it was ploughed in ; and the other part of the 
 field was left fallow until seed time. In the succeeding season, the 
 barley growing on the part in which the buck-wheat had been 
 ploughed, was evidently superior to that which grew on the fallow 
 part. This experiment, made by a plain farmer, on the German- 
 town road, with a laudable view of determining the question, leaves 
 no room to doubt, that buck-wheat tohen ploughed in, when in full 
 blossom, acts as an excellent green dressing manure. 
 
 The straw of buck-wheat is but little esteemed. Sheep, however, 
 feed on it. It also makes good manure when thrown into the farm- 
 yard. 
 
 For culinary purposes, also, the grain of the buck-wheat is used 
 in various forms, and affords a nutritious meal, which is not apt to 
 turn sour on the stomach. Mixed with barley, it is, in Tuscany, 
 baked- into bread, which possesses the property of retaining its 
 moisture much longer than that of pure wheat, and though of a 
 
ON BOORCOLE. 257 
 
 darker colour, it is equally nourishing. In Germany, a very palata- 
 ble grit, or a granulated meal, serving as an ingredient in pottage, 
 puddings, &c. is prepared of* buck-wheat; and if the seed be pure, 
 the produce of each bushel is ten pecks In the electorate of Bran- 
 denburgh, not only ale and beer is brewed from a mixture of it with 
 malt, but likewise a very excellent, spirit of a blueish shade is obtain- 
 ed by distillation ; the flavour of which resembles that of French 
 brandy. The taste and colour of stale beer, which may be much im- 
 proved by adding a small quantity of the flour of this grain. 
 
 Buck-wheat reduced to flour, mixed with water, and a little yeast, 
 will rise in the course of two hours, if placed near a fire; and be- 
 ing then baked upon a hot iron, previously greased, forms very plea- 
 sant cakes, which when buttered, constitute part of the diet of many 
 persons in the United Stales during the winter. By depriving the 
 grain of its husk before grinding, the flour is rendered white, and is 
 much esteemed. 
 
 From the fresh blossoms of these plants, Dambourney dyed wool, 
 prepared with bismuth and tin, of a beautiful brown colour ; and, 
 from the dried flower-bundles, different shades of green. Those of 
 the Siberian species, in particular, yielded a fine yellow, which, on 
 boiling the wool still longer in the dye, changed into a golden tint, 
 and at length assumed a brilliant yellow. 
 
 [Buck-wheat ferments easily, hence in Pennsylvania for winter 
 use, distillers now take one-third rye, one-third corn, one-third buck- 
 wheat : but the spirit is not so good as when nothing but rye is used. 
 It is the most unwholesome grain that can be given to horses : and 
 from the quantity of butter used with it, the most extravagant grain 
 used for the table in our country — T. C.J 
 
 On Boor cole. 
 
 BOORCOLE, is a species of the Brassica, L. and generally cul- 
 tivated in the open fields like turnips, cabbages, or the turnip-rooted 
 cabbage. 
 
 It is one of those hardy plants, the leaves of which may be cut 
 without detriment to its growth, and will produce a new crop in the 
 course of a month or six weeks. 
 
 According to an experiment made by Mr Baker in the year i 763, 
 an Irish acre of fallow ground, which was planted with boorcole, at 
 the distance of two feet, and hoed in the Tullian method, produced 
 plants which weighed about five pounds ten ounces each, on an ave- 
 rage, and the whole produce of an Irish acre was 40,096 pounds. 
 
 It should be observed, that the land must be manured, and in a 
 high state of tillage, for the cultivation of this plant, which, if kept 
 
 33 
 
258 ON THE COMMON VETCH. 
 
 constantly hoed, will grow very luxuriantly, and, in the hottest wea-^ 
 ther, be infinitely more brittle in the leaves than any other cultivated 
 in gardens, which is a certain indication of being a healthy plant* 
 It is worthy of the attention of the farmer, or grazier, on account of 
 the rapidity of its growth, and he pr» perty of withstanding the ef- 
 fect of severe frosts, while it affords an excellent vegetable for the ta- 
 ble, and may be used with advantage for feeding sheep. 
 
 Mr. Baker farther observes, that sheep should not bp suffered to 
 depasture so long upon a crop of boorcole, as to injure the,stalks 9 
 because its future growth will be checked, by depriving it of the 
 sprouting leaves. 
 
 On the Common Vetch, 
 
 THE sativa, Common Vetch, Fetch, or Tare, thrives in dry 
 meadows, pastures, and corn-fields, where it flowers from April to 
 June. This species is one of the most valuable of the vetch kind, 
 and is divided into three varities, namely : 
 
 1. The Summer Vetch, is raised from a seed, which is usually- 
 sown towards the end of March, or early in April, in the proportion 
 of 8 to 10 pecks per acre, broad-cast; though when drilled, half 
 that quantity is sufficient, and the crop will be greatly superior. This 
 variety is chiefly propagated and used for weaning lambs and sheep, 
 as well as for soiling horses and cows ; its seeds afford an excellent 
 food for pigeons. Bees obtain a copious supply of honey from the 
 young leaves of this plant, which are marked with black, and the 
 spots of which contain a delicious saccharine juice. 
 
 2. The Winter Vetch, is sown in the month of September, in the 
 same proportion as the preceding sort; a small quantity of beans, or 
 (which is preferable) of black oats, being intermixed, to support the 
 plants; which are generally covered with long dung, to preserve them 
 from the frost This variety is subservient to the same purposes as 
 the summer vetch, when ploughed into chalk-lands in the month of 
 3May, it serves as excellent manure for wheat intended to be sown in 
 the succeeding autumn In the county of Gloucester, (England) the 
 winter vetch is cultivated as pasturage for horses, and is eaten off so 
 early, as to admit of turnips being raised in the same year. 
 
 3. The Pebble Vetch, is sown in the spring, but it is seldom culti- 
 vated ; because it is less hardy than either of the preceding varieties, 
 and does not produce an equal quantity of fodder. 
 
 The following paper on the benefit arising from the cultivation of 
 vetches, as a summer fallow crop, is by Mr. R. R. Livingston. 
 
 " The introduction of a plant unknown to our soil and climate, and 
 its relative value, and in countries in which it has been naturalised, is 
 
QN THE COMMON VETCIT. 259 
 
 •iJways important to agriculture, either as it presents the farmer a new 
 object worthy of his attention, or as it keeps him flora entertaining 
 false ideas of its value, and wasting his time and money upon one 
 that will not repay his expense. 
 
 " Having observed that vetches, or as they are sometimes called, 
 tares, were cultivated in Britain and in many other parts of Kuropej 
 either for seed or forage, 1 procured from Lngland nine bushels, 
 six of which are called spring, and three of winter vetches 
 
 " 1st May, 1794. Ploughed and cross-ploughed one acre of rye- 
 stubbles ; the land, a light loam, inclining to sand, upon a sandy 
 bottom, soil much worn out; the preceding crop was summer rye. 
 After harrowing fine, I sowed three bushels of spring vetches. — ' 
 When they were up, spread six bushels of gypsum. About one-fifth 
 part of the field was on a declivity and very poor ; here the crop 
 was thin, yet low and short, the rest of the land was finely covered 
 with a thick, close crop. The vines matted in each other, insomuch 
 that the plants moulded at the bottom. When in full blossom they 
 were cut, about the 20th August; they yielded two large wagon- 
 loads of hay, "which I compute at 25 cwt. The provender appear- 
 ed to me remarkably succulent, and extremely well calculated for 
 cows and sheep. Mine was applied to the use of the latter, but not 
 having been at my farm since the winter set in, I can give no ac- 
 count of its application. 
 
 Second Experiment. 
 
 " Soil, a loose, slaty gravel, mixed with clay, being a dry hil- 
 lock, containing one acre exclusive of some part in wood. In 1793, 
 bore buck-wheat: ploughed twice last April, and first of May sowed 
 three bushels of vetches; strewed over them when they made their 
 appearance, six bushels oi gypsum. These were designed for seed, 
 but the summer proving wet they continued growing all through the 
 season, the seed at the bottom moulding and dropping out, while 
 they blossomed at the top so that I could not tell when to cut them. 
 They stood till October; when stretched out the plants were four and 
 five feet long, but generally moulded below; when threshed, 1 only 
 got from them three pecks of seed of a very indifferent quality. 
 
 " Upon comparing these experiments with the usual increase in 
 England, it appeared to me that the quantity of forage obtained was 
 not inferior to what a similar soil would have produced there, and of 
 course that our climate is not unfavourable to the culture, provided 
 we can render them more productive of seed ; which I can hardly 
 doubt. My error was, I believe, in sowing them too thick, and 
 jnanuring with gypsum, which makes ewary plant on which it ope- 
 rates, run to haulm. The wetness of the season also contributed to 
 this evil, which may, I hope, be corrected by a little more experi- 
 ence and care. 
 
 " Upon this head, however, we are authorised to say little, but 
 that this experiment has failed, so far as relates to the production of 
 seed j but that the general health and vigour of the plant gives us rea- 
 
26© * ON THE COMMON VETCH. 
 
 son to hope that future experiments may be more succesful. If this 
 should be the case, and we can with facility raise our own seed, (its 
 common product in England being 25 to 30 bushels to the acre) this 
 plant will be extremely useful to those farmers who want a compe- 
 tent proportion of meadow, and indeed in another point of view to 
 every farmer. 
 
 " If cut for forage it comes sufficiently early to plough and sow 
 wheat, for which I should think it the best of all preparations. The 
 ground is so well covered that every weed is stifled ; the' air at the 
 roots is stagnant, and the plant being of that succulent kind which 
 feeds much upon the atmosphere, I think it cannot fail to add to the 
 fertility of the soil. Mine appeared so mellow and free from weeds 
 when the vetches came off, that I was tempted to sow the piece with 
 lucerne, which looked very fine and promising when the winter set 
 in. 
 
 " Our indian corn comes off too late for wheat, it is, therefore, 
 usual with us to fallow it with a summer crop of oats and a small 
 proportion of flax ; this I believe to be bad husbandry, as the corn 
 is an exhausting crop, so is oats, and in this way the ground is al- 
 ways growing worse, and as it is seldom rich enough to bear wheat 
 after oats, we generally summer fallow for wheat, which is rendered 
 by that means a very expensive crop. On the contrary, if we fol- 
 lowed our corn with vetches, we should be able to put wheat in the 
 same ground ; and if clover is sown over the wheat in the spring 7 
 and permitted to continue only two years, and* then followed by corn, 
 the labour of farming will be diminished, and the fertility of the 
 land increased by the double operation of these leguminous crops on 
 the air, and in the quantity of manure that will be furnished by the 
 additional stock they enable the farmer to keep. As this subject, so 
 well understood in Europe, has hardly been attended to here, I will 
 state the profit and loss of two farmers, each cultivating (besides 
 their meadows) one hundred acres of arable, one in the usual mode 
 of this country, and the other by the intervention of vetches and 
 clover. 
 
 COMMON AGRICULTURE, 100 ACRES. 
 
 Profit per acre. 
 20 acres of Indian corn, 35 bushels at 4s. - - - - 7 
 20 — Oats on corn ground of the preceding year, 20 
 
 bushels at 2s. 200 
 
 20 — Summer fallow, 000 
 
 20— Wheat 10 bushels, at 8s. - - 4 
 
 20 — Wheat stubble in pasture, --020 
 
 100 — Five years, yield per acre, £ 13 2 
 
 Expenses per acre for Jive acres. 
 
 Indian corn, ploughing, &c. 200 
 
 Oats, twice ploughed, -*------- 100 
 
 .£3 
 
ON THE COMMON VETCH. 261 
 
 Profit per acre. 
 
 Brought forward, - £3 00 
 
 Harrowing, and seed, and sowing, and harvesting, - 14 
 
 Summer fallow, ..- 110 
 
 Wheat seed and harvesting, ------- 100* 
 
 Rent on five acres at 4s. a year, 100 
 
 Balance of profit on one acre in five years, or on five 
 
 acres in one year, --------- 518 
 
 £13 2 
 
 Profit on farming by intervention of Fallow crops instead of 
 Fallow. 
 
 20 acres Indian corn, 700 
 
 do. Vetches 25 cwt. at 2s. 6d. 326 
 
 do. Wheat 12 bushels, ------- 4 1§ 
 
 do. Clover 25 cwt. at 2s. 6d. 3 2 6 
 
 do. Clover the same, -------- 326 
 
 Five year's produce of one acre, or one year's of five, 
 
 c£21 3 6 
 
 Expenses, 
 
 Indian corn, -------------200 
 
 Ploughing corn-ground for vetches, ------0100 
 
 Seed three bushels, and sowing, &c. -----012 
 
 Cutting and making hay, ---------080 
 
 Vetch stubble ploughed one for wheat, seed, and 
 
 harvesting, ----------- 1 ]0 
 
 12 lb. clover-seed and sowing, ------- 0, 15 
 
 Mowing clover, paid by the second crop, - - - - 
 
 Rent 20s. or 4s. a year, ---------10 
 
 £6 15 
 
 To balance of profit per acre in five years or on 
 
 five acres in one, --------- 14 86 
 
 <£21 3 6 
 
 " Thus while one farmer makes one ll. 3s. 5d. a year per acre, 
 <ipon his hundred acres, clear of expense, the other makes 21, 17s. 
 4d.; the one gets little better than 100, while the other gets nearly 
 300 a year. In the above statement I have given one farmer credit 
 for two bushels of wheat more than the other, since I am persuaded 
 that the vetch crop will improve the ground more than the difference; 
 as the dung given to the corn will not be exhausted by the interven- 
 tion of an oat crop before the wheat is sown. To this profit should 
 also be added the continued advance in the improvement of the crop 
 by the one mode of husbandry, and the continued decrease by the 
 exhausting the land in the other. 
 
262 ON THE COMMON VETCH. 
 
 " The fallow farmer has no fodder which the rotation crop fanner 
 does not possess, except the straw of his oats, which we will value 
 at half a ton of hay per acre ; he then has from his oats on 
 
 20 acres, - Tons 10 
 
 The fallow crop farmer from 20 acres vetches, - 25 
 
 From 40 acres clover, ------.- 50 00 
 
 75 
 Deduct oat straw, 10 O 
 
 Superiority to fallow crop farmer, - - - - Tons 65 
 
 " He can thus winter at one ton a head, 65 head of cattle more 
 than the fallowing farmer, and as each of these will afford at least six 
 loads of dung, he will be able to carry out yearly 390 loads of dung 
 more than the fallowing farmer: besides that he has one exhausting 
 crop less, it will be easy to see what difference this must make in 
 a few years in the produce of a farm, and how much more it would be 
 than I have rated it at. We often ask with astonishment, how the 
 British farmer can afford to pay a guinea an acre rent ? The diffi- 
 culty is solved if we examine the above statement; since the differ- 
 ence between fallowing and establishing a rotation of crops amounts 
 to more than the difference of our rents and theirs ; besides that, 
 their produce must be reckoned at a higher price. 1 know there are 
 some stiff soils on which it would be difficult to establish the rotation 
 I mention; but this should be no argument against it where the soil 
 will admit of it, particularly as clover and vetches may be intro- 
 duced with a certainty of success, even if the ground should be 
 naturally poor, by the addition of only four bushels of gypsum to 
 the acre, which will indeed add l6s. a year to the accruable ex- 
 pense; but it will at the same time, in all probability, add near a ton 
 to the produce. I have gone into this digression for the benefit of 
 farmers into whose hands our publications may fall, and who have 
 not had an opportunity of examining the great improvements that 
 have of late years been made in Britain, by the introduction of clo- 
 ver and fallow crop, instead of fallow. I would not be understood 
 to confine my observations to vetches, which have not been sufficient- 
 ly tried in this country. [They should be tried here for the same 
 purposes they are used in England, viz. for soiling horses, as green 
 food in the spring and beginning of summer, and, 2dly, as a crop to 
 be ploughed in as a manure. Buck-wheat is so employed by good 
 farmers in Pennsylvania; Ducket's plough should be used for the 
 purpose. — T. C] Potatoes, carrots, or peas, sown thin, and cut 
 green for provender, may answer the purpose, but above all, clover. 
 If this last is the only crop to be brought into the rotation, thp sys- 
 tem must be changed to the following course : 1st, Corn, 2d, Barley 
 and Clover; 3d, Clover ; 4th, Clover; 5th, Wheat on one plough- 
 ing ; by this means a crop of clover will be substituted to a fallow. 
 The wheat on a clover lay will require but one ploughing, and will 
 
SN RICE. '263 
 
 fellow two improving crops The dung which will be applied to the 
 corn, will serve to bring forward the crop of barley, 01 oats, if that 
 should be preferred to barley; clover will do well with either. 
 
 " I have now in the ground one acre of winter vetches : this looked 
 extremely well last December, but as I have not seen them since, I 
 know not whether they will stand our winters: the result therefore of 
 this experiment must make the subject of a future communication." 
 Trans. New-York Agricultural Society. 
 
 On Rice. 
 
 RICE, or Oryza, a genus of plants consisting, according to Lin- 
 naeus, of only one species, viz. the saliva, or Common Rice; though 
 later botanists enumerate three or four species, each of which is divi- 
 ded into two varieties. It is a native of Ethiopia, and the ir.ast-In- 
 dies, where it is cultivated to a considerable extent; as it constitutes 
 the chief food of the inhabitants. They divide it into six kinds, 
 which, however, may be reduced to the following two varieties, 
 namely, 1. Mountain-rice, that grows on dry, elevated, soils, ma- 
 nured with ashes ; but, as the crops often fail, it is of a higher price 
 than the next sort, and little known in Europe ; though its grains are 
 finer, whiter, more palatable, and may be longer preserved. Late- 
 ly, this variety has with success been cultivated in Tuscany. 2. 
 Marsh-rice, which is the usual kind sown in low, swampl^ districts, 
 that may be easily inundated by means of sluices. Of this produc- 
 tive grain, large quantities are annually imported into Britain, and 
 other parts of Europe ; where it is highly esteemed for puddings and 
 other culinary preparations. 
 
 The following directions respecting the water culture of Rice, 
 are furnished by one of the most successful cultivators of that article, 
 in the state of South-Carolina. 
 
 Begin to plant about the 25th March, trench shallow and wide, 
 and scatter the seed in the row ; make 72 or 75 rows in a task, and 
 sow two bushels to an acre. 
 
 1st. Hoe about the end of May, when the rice is in the fourth 
 leaf; then flood, and clear the field of thrash. If the planting be 
 late, and you are likely to be in grass, flood before hoeing ; but hoe- 
 ing first is preferable. The best depth to flood is three or four in- 
 ches. It is a good mark to see the tops of the rice just out of the 
 water: the deep places are not to be regarded ; the rice will grow 
 through in three or four days. Observe to make a notch on the 
 frame of the trunk, when the water is at a proper depth: if the 
 yains raise the water above the notch, or it leaks out, add, or let off 
 accordingly. This is done by putting a small stick in the door of 
 
264 ON KiCE. 
 
 the trunk, about an inch in diameter; if scum or froth appear in 
 eight or ten days, freshen the water, take off the trunk doors, run 
 off the water with one ebb, and take in the next flood: then regulate 
 as before. Keep the water on about fifteen or seventeen days, ac- 
 cording to the state of the weather; that is, if a hot sun fifteen days, 
 if cool and cloudy, seventeen days, counting from the -day the field 
 is flooded : then leak off with a small stick for two days, then run 
 off the whole, and keep the field dry. In four or five days after, 
 hoe the second time, stir the ground whether clean or not, and comb 
 up the fallen rice with the fingers. Keep dry and hoe through the 
 field. Hoe the third time and pick clean. This will be about the be. 
 ginning of July. Then flood as you hoe. Let the water be the same 
 depth as before. If any grass has escaped, it must be picked in the 
 water after it shoots out. This is called the fourth hoeing, but the 
 hoe is never used except for some high places or to clean the dams. 
 If the rice is flaggy and likely to lodge, flood deep to support it, and 
 keep it on until fit to harvest. 
 
 For a particular account of the introduction of rice into South- 
 Carolina, and of the mode of cleaning it, the reader is referred to 
 " Drayton's View of South-Carolina." 
 
 Mr. Bordley informs us that he raised rice many years since, in 
 the dry sandy soil of Annapolis ; and even "in a clay loam or upland 
 in Talbot, Maryland, the produce whereof was good in quality and 
 quantity." The experiment might be tried in New Jersey, in shel- 
 tered situations, with greater prospect of success. The time of sow- 
 ing is early in the spring after frost. 
 
 A friend concerned in rice planting in South-Carolina, was in 
 Amsterdam in 1784, and examined all the various specimens of rice 
 to be found in that great emporium of commerce. He saw the rice 
 of every country, in which it was cultivated, except that of Brazil, 
 and was gratified by finding that the American rice was superior in 
 size and whiteness to all he had an oportunity of seeing. 
 
 Rice is, in the opinion of Dr. Cullen, preferable to all other grain, 
 both for its abundant produce, and the large proportion of nutriment it 
 affords. Hence, different methods have been devised, of cooking or 
 dressing it in the most economical manner. Thus, if a quarter of a 
 pound of rice be tied loosely in a cloth capable of holding five times 
 that quantity, and then slowly boiled, it will produce above a pound 
 of solid food; which, eaten with sugar, or boiled milk, forms a very 
 palatable dish. And, if an egg, together with a quarter of a pint of 
 milk, a small quantity of sugar, and grated nutmeg, be added, it will 
 afford a more agreeable pudding than those prepared either of wheaten 
 flour, or bread. One of the best preparations of this grain, how- 
 ever, especially for invalids, is its mucilage ov jelly; which may be 
 obtained by boiling two ounces of fine rice-flour, with a quarter of a 
 pound of lump sugar, in a pint of water, till it becomes an uniform 
 gelatinous mass: on being strained through a cloth, and suffered to 
 cool, it constitutes a salubrious and nourishing food. 
 
 [To boil rice; put it in very clear cold water; after washing it 
 well, let simmer and boil gently, till it has imbibed as much water as 
 if will take up: pour it on a cullender, let all the water drain away, 
 
©N RICE. 265^ 
 
 wash it by pouring water on it, return it to the pot, and let it steam 
 till it is dry. Rice .nay be made to imbibe any nutritious fluid. It is 
 excellent, with aisins, sugar, sweetmeats, &c. It is the cheapest 
 nutriment known : .it contains 96 per cent, farina. — T. C.J 
 
 Rice also forms an excellent ingredient in preparing Bread: and, 
 as we hive already given a concise account of the methods in which 
 it may be advantageously used, we shall now subjoin two recipes, by 
 way of supplement. For this purpose, it is directed in the first vol. 
 of the Report of the Society for increasing the Comforts of the 
 Po >/*, to boil a quarter of a pound of rice till it become perfectly 
 soft: when it should be drained on the back of a sieve In a cold 
 state, it is to be mixed with three quarters of a pound of flour, a tea- 
 cupful of yeast, a si miliar portion of milk and a small spoonful of 
 sait. This composition should be suffered to stand for three hours, 
 at the expiration of * which it must be kneaded, and rolled in a little 
 flour, so as to render the outside sufficiently dry to be put into the 
 oven. In an hour and a quarter it will be baked, and produce t lb. 
 14 >z. of good white bread; which, however, ought not to be eaten 
 till lit has been kept 48 hours. 
 
 In a late volume of the Journal des Sciences, des Lettres, et des 
 Arts, we meet with an essay on making bread from rice alone. 
 The first step directed to be taken, is the reduction of the rice into 
 flour, by grinding it in a mill; though, if such machine cannot be 
 procured, it may be effected in the following manner: Let a certain 
 quantity of water be heated in a saucepan, or other vessel ; when it 
 nearly boils, the rice must be thrown into it, and the whole taken off 
 the fire, closely covered, and the grain suffered to macerate for 
 twelve hours. The water is then to be poured off; and, when the 
 rice is drained, and completely dried, it must be pulverised (it is not 
 stated by what means) and passed through a very fine siev?. 
 
 The grain being thus converted into flour, a sufficient quantity is 
 to be put into the kneading-trough: at the same time, a. little rice 
 should be separately boiled in water, till a thick and glutinous decoc- 
 tion be obtained. While this liquor is still lukewarm, it ought to be 
 poured on the i ice-flour, and both should be well kneaded together, with 
 a proper quantity of leaven, or of yeast, and also with a small por- 
 tion of flour; in order to impart to the whole a greater degree of 
 consistence. Next, the dough is to be covered with warm cloths; 
 and, when it is sufficiently risen (the oven having been heated during 
 that interval,) it should be poured into a tin stew-pan, furnished, 
 with a long handle, and covered with a sheet of paper, or with a cab- 
 bage-leaf. The pan is then pushed forward into that part of the oven 
 where it is intended to be baked, and expeditiously inverted. A 
 proper degree of heat will prevent the paste from spreading, and 
 cause it to retain the form of the vessel. In this manner ? pure rice-* 
 bread may be made ; which, when drawn out of the oven, is said to 
 acquire a fine yellow colour, similar to that of pastry glazed with 
 the yolks of eggs. It is very wholesome and agreeable, but looses 
 its good taste if it be suffered to become stale. 
 
 With respect to the properties of rice, we shall only observe, that 
 « is uncommonly nutritive, and may with great benefit be taken in 
 
 u 
 
266' ON RICE. 
 
 diarrhoeas, dysenteries, and similar disorders. In some persons it 
 is apt to produce flatulency and costiveness ; hence it will, in general, 
 be advisable to eat this grain with the addition of a little cinnamon, 
 caraway, or similar spices, to prevent these effects ; especiall) in 
 those whose digestion is slow, or who are naturally of phlegmatic habits. 
 
 [Farina by oxygeneation is convertible into sugar ; Vauquelin 
 could not however convert rice into saccharine matter. Mr. Alfred 
 Dupont, of Wilmington Delaware, succeeded in my laboratory un- 
 der my direction : not more than 4 per cent, of residum was obtain- 
 ed. Might not not a portion of ground rice, be added to rye in dis- 
 tilling for whiskey ? — T. C.J 
 
 Rice is so important an article, that we add the following account : 
 
 The rice plant has an erect, simple, round, and jointed stem. Its 
 leaves are narrow and pointed ; and its flowers appear in a kind of 
 bunch at the extremity, somewhat resembling, but more compact, 
 than an ear of oats. 
 
 It is said that America is indebted for this grain to a small bag of it 
 which was formerly given as a present from a Mr. Dubois, treasurer 
 of the Last-India company, to a Carolina merchant 
 
 A wet and morassy soil and hot climate appear in general neces- 
 sary to the cultivation of rice. The parts of the farms or planta- 
 tions in which it is grown are usually so situated as to admit of being 
 flooded ; and in many places reservoirs of water formed for this pur- 
 pose. These reservoirs have sluices by which the rice fields may be 
 inundated at pleasure. In reaping the crop the laborers generally 
 work knee deep in water and mud; and as the rice is cut, the 
 sheaves are put on drays, which follow the reapers, and are thus 
 carried out to be spread on dry ground. The rice thus produced 
 has the name of marsh-rice, and is that which is chiefly exported to 
 Europe. 
 
 In some of the mountainous parts of the East-Indies rice is culti- 
 vated on the sides of hills, where it can only be watered by rain. It 
 is sown, however, at the beginning of the rainy, and reaped in the 
 beginning of the dry season ; so that, in fact, it has nearly all the 
 advantages of being watered which the marsh-rice possesses. This 
 kind is denominated paddy gunung, or mountain-rice, and has been 
 cultivated with success in Tuscany. Its grains are whiter, finer, 
 and more palatable than those of the marsh-rice. 
 
 After the harvesting of rice, the next process is to free the grains 
 from the husk in which they are enveloped. There are several ways 
 of doing this. In some places they are pounded in large mortars, 
 and afteruards winnowed. In others large cylindrical pestles are 
 lifted by a wheel worked by oxen, between which one person sits 
 and pushes forward the rice to be beaten, whilst another carries it off' 
 to be winnowed, and supplies fresh parcels. The inhabitants of 
 several parts of the East throw it into hot water, by which the grains 
 are slightly swelled, and thus burst through the husk In the Island 
 of Ceylon, and in some parts of this country, a hollow place about 
 a foot in depth and nine or ten yards in diameter is dug in the ground- 
 This is filled with corn, which is trodden by oxen driven round it 
 until the grain is cleared. The Sacred and other writings inform us 
 
ON RICE. 2&1 
 
 that this was the mode which the ancients adopted for the same pur- 
 pose with other species of grain. In the East-Indies the general ap- 
 pelation of rice is paddy. 
 
 No kind of grain is so generally adopted for food in hot climates 
 as rice. The inhabitants of many parts of the East subsist almost 
 wholly upon it ; and large quantities are annually imported into Eu- 
 rope, where it is highly esteemed for puddings and numerous other 
 culinary preparations In a scarcity of other grain rice may be used 
 with considerable advantage as an ingredient in bread Indeed, on 
 account of its cheapness, it claims attention as a general article of 
 sustenance for the poorer classes of society ; since it is well known 
 that a quarter of a pound of rice slowly boiled, will yield more than 
 a pound of solid and nutritive food. For the fattening of poultry 
 boiled rice has been adopted with success, and would be more gene- 
 rally used than it is, were in not for an unfounded and very extraor- 
 dinary notion that it tends to make them blind 
 
 The inhabitants of the East draw from rice a vinous -liquor ^ 
 which is more intoxicating than the strongest wine, and an ar- 
 dent spirit called arrack is also made from it. The latter is chiefly 
 manufactured at Batavia and at Goa on the coast of Malabar ; and is 
 said to be distilled from s mixture of the wort or infusion of rice and 
 of toddy, or the juice of the cocoa-nut tree, to which other ingre« 
 fiUentSj and particularly spices^ are added. 
 
* 
 
 268 AGRICULTURE IN ITALY. 
 
 ^EXTRACT FROM RIGBy's AGRICULTURE OP ITAtY^j 
 
 Cultivation of a Farm* 
 
 &UT it is now time to draw your attention to the practical cultiva;- 
 lion of the farm, which I purpose to describe to you. 
 
 There are sixty acres, of which fifteen are meadow : the rest is ara- 
 ble, and principally sown with grain ; and nearly ten acres of these 
 are sown with clover. This crop, in addition to the hay, feeds eight 
 oxen and thirteen cows, or young stock, of which two are young bulls, 
 and an ordinary horse, wholly employed in going to market and 
 threshing corn ; in all twenty two heads of cattle, about one to each 
 acre of feed, including grass and clover. The horned cattle are of 
 the breed of Querci which abound throughout the south of France, 
 Dauphiny, and Savoy. They are taller, and have shorter horns, but 
 they have the same characteristic marks, the seme clear fawn colored 
 hair, the same difference in figure between the male and female; the 
 cow being small, and of an ugly shape, while the ox is large and mus- 
 cular, but still not well formed. 
 
 Though there is a very large quantity of cattle in Piedmont, the 
 farmers have not learned, after the example of the Milanese, to derive 
 much advantage from their milk. Their cows are not good milkers : 
 the rearing and fatting of their stock, are, therefore, more estimated. 
 In this farm a pair of oxen is, thus, brought up every year : in the third 
 year they begin to plough with them at light work; and in the fourth 
 and fifth year they do the strongest work : at five years old they are 
 fatted, and sometimes sell from a thousand to eleven hundred francs, 
 and this proves one of the farmer's greatest profits ; they are fatted with 
 poutitre,* and finish with maize flour. For the cultivation, in short, of 
 forty -five acres, two pair of oxen, four or five years old, are employed 
 to do the work of two ploughs; a pair of three years old, to do lighter 
 work, and two pair of steers, and a strong horse which threshes the 
 corn and goes to market. 
 
 Each plough thus works thirty-two acres in the season. You have 
 yourself, some years ago, so well described the excellent Piedmont 
 
 * Pouture. I have not been able to ascertain the meaning of this word: it is 
 toot to be found in any French Dictionary 1 have had access to; there is no word 
 resembling it in Barreti's Italian Dictionary, nor could an intelligent native of 
 France, and who is a perfect master of the language, discover its signification. 
 
AGRICULTURE IN ITALY. 
 
 269 
 
 jilough, and the skill with which the active laborers manage it, that it 
 would be superfluous to repeat it here. I cannot, however, avoid 
 mentioning to you the method they have acquired ol executing, with 
 a single plough, all the work necessary for putting in the grain and 
 earthing up the plants, for which, in England, so many implements 
 have been invented. Nothing can be more perfect or neater than the 
 hoeing and moulding up the maize, when in full growth, by a single 
 plough, with a pair of oxen, without injury to a single plant, while all 
 the weeds are effectually destroyed. 1 can also, assure you that the 
 potatoes, which I so much admired at Hoswyl, were not better man- 
 aged than a field of twenty acres which 1 examined at Mandna and 
 which were cultivated by the plough only. 
 
 The course of husbandry is usually of four years. 
 First year - - - Maize, with manure. 
 French beans. 
 Hemp. 
 Second year - - Wheat. 
 Third year - - Clover, ploughed up after the first mowing, 
 
 and left fallow. 
 Fourth year - - Wheat. 
 
 This system may be considered among the most productive, and 
 the continued fertility of the soil, notwithstanding the repeated corn 
 crops, proves that it may be persevered in unremittingly. This is, 
 however, much owing to the abundance of manure produced by mow- 
 ing the grass lands three times in the year, and which is wholly con- 
 sumed on the arable land. 
 
 In this series to maize is considered as a preparatory crop ; all the 
 manure is reserved fork, and the hoeing and moulding up the earth 
 keep the land perfectly clean. Nothing can be so excellent as the 
 crop which preceds and that which follows it. The plants arranged 
 in right lines, and majestically displaying their yellow flowers, add in- 
 discribably, to the beauty of the fields of Italy. 
 
 The produce of maize is considerable j and it contributes more 
 than any other article to the maintenance of almost the whole coun- 
 try population of Piedmont, who eat it under a variety of forms. 
 In cultivating it, they mix a considerable number of French beans, 
 of different sorts, and a quantity of hemp. 
 
 The crop of maize is harvested in September, and the land imme- 
 diately prepared for putting in wheat. It is sown on narrow ridges, 
 and earthed over by the plough, the land being clean, and having 
 been manured in the spring. No further attention is paid to it until 
 harvest, which takes place from the beginning of July. 
 
 As soon as the corn is dry, by being placed in heaps under the 
 porticos of the court, and in the hot month of August, it is threshed 
 on the floor prepared at the lower part of the court. Instead of get- 
 ting it out by a number of miserable horses, as is the wretched practice 
 in Provence, or leaving it for a year to be devoured by mice, as is 
 the absurd custom at Paris; it is threshed by a cylinder, drawn by a 
 horse, and guided by a boy, while the laborers turn over the straw 
 with forks. This process lasts nearly a fortnight $ it is yet quick 
 and econimical, and completely gets out the grain. 
 
1 '^ m 
 
 210 AGRICULTURE IN ITALY. 
 
 The clover is sown in the spring, on the wheat : the quick vegeta- 
 tion of Italy brings it into flower the first autumn, and it affords a 
 good cut in October; after which it serves with the meadows for au- 
 tumnal feed. In the spring it assumes a fresh verdure, grows rapidly, 
 and is mown once, but the intense heat not admitting a second cut, it 
 is immediately ploughed in, and the land has the benefit of a fallow, 
 with three ploughings before the wheat is again sown. 
 
 Thus in the course of four years, there are three crops for the sup- 
 port of man: one fallow and two crops for the cattle. To these 
 must be added the crop of hemp, which is sometimes considerable ; 
 that of silk, wine, of vegetables, of fruit, the produce of the farm yard, 
 and the profit of rearing and fatting stock. 
 
 From these details it appears that a farm of sixty acres supports a 
 familv of eight or nine persons ; that it maintains twenty-two heads of 
 cattle, of which two oxen, a cow, and two pigs, are fatted every year ; 
 that the produce of silk amounts, at least, to twenty-five Louis d'ors ; 
 that more wine is made than the consumption takes off; that the crops 
 of maize and French beans almost maintain the laborers ; and that 
 nearly the whole crops of corn may be carried to market, as well as a 
 considerable quantity of the inferior articles of provision. It will 
 hence be obvious, that in no part of the world are the economy and 
 management of the land better understood than in Piedmont, and this 
 explains the phenomenon of its great population, and immense export 
 of provisions.* 
 
 It is well known that the daries, in the vicinity of the Po, pro- 
 duce the Parmesan cheeses; the consumption of which is so great 
 all over Italy. These meadows are the most fertile in the world ; 
 being watered, they produce three, and sometimes four crops of hay- 
 in a season. But subsivided into an infinite number of parcels, and 
 occupied by a great number of individuals, there are few who can 
 singly support a dairy, because the making of cheese requires a 
 quantity of milk, which is the produce of, at least, fifty cows. To 
 effect this the Lombards have, for some time, formed societies 
 among their neighbours, to make their cheese in common. • Twice a 
 day, the milk of fifty or sixty cows belonging to the Society, is sent 
 to the principal house, where the dairy man takes an account of each 
 person's proportion ; he also keeps an account current with each, 
 which is settled every six months, and discharged by a proportionate 
 share of cheese. 
 
 This excellent method has been adopted in Switzerland, and has 
 been described, in detail, in an ingenious work published in Geneva, 
 by Mr. Charles Lulling and it is desirable that it should be exten- 
 sively known, as there are few situations in which it might not be 
 advantageously adopted. 
 
 * The part of the estate which borders on the canal, is ahomestall meadow, 
 watered by irrigation, and in which vegetation is so vigorous that it is mowed 
 three times in a season. The plants which grow in it are, avena elatior, oat 
 grass, meadow fox-tail, ray grass, plantain, and different trefoils. 
 
 t This work, entitled Des Associations rurales connues on bwisse sous le 
 !Nom de Fruiti£res ? may be had at Geneva and Paris of J. J. Paschou<L 
 
AGRICULTURE IN ITALY. 271 
 
 The breed of horned cattle is also different in the neighborhood of 
 Placenza ; we no longer seethe large fawn-coloured oxen, with short 
 horns, as in Piedmont; but the fields are covered with beautiful *:ows, 
 of grey-slate colour, with slender legs, cylindrical carcase, bright 
 eyes, and long well turned horns. This breed is evidently produced 
 by a continued cross between the Hungarian and that of the small 
 Cantons in Switzerland. 
 
 This admirable Hungarian race is found, without mixture, in the 
 south of Italy, and they produce the best oxen existing, but the 
 cows are bad milkers : and the Lombards, for a long while, have 
 found the necessity of crossing them, to remedy this fault, so as to 
 obtain from their pastures all they are capable of producing. Thus, 
 from a period, the date of which is not ascertained, two thousand 
 cows pass annually over Mont St Gothard, and are distributed 
 through Lombardy, bringing a principle of amelioration which pre- 
 serves, in the breeds of Italy, all the qualities which render them val- 
 uable. 
 
 These Swiss cows are not, themselves, of the Berne breed, known 
 in France, and distinguished by their bright colours, and good shapes. 
 Those of the smaller Cantons, judging by their dull colour, their long 
 horns, and their slender shapes, appeared to me to be derived from 
 the Hungarian breed, improved by the climate, the food, and the care 
 taken of them. These mix well, therefore, with the Italian breed, 
 having both the same origin. 
 
 The farms are let, as in Piedmont, on leases, at half the produce; 
 but the cultivation is somewhat different. The pastures include a 
 larger share; and maize, in a considerable portion of the land, gives 
 way to hemp and winter beans. The course of husbandry is nearly 
 as follows : 
 
 First year - - - r '1aize and hemp — manured. 
 
 Second - - - - Wheat. 
 
 Third - - - - Winter beans. 
 
 Fourth - - - - Wheat — manured. 
 
 Fifth - - - - Clover ploughed in after once mowing. 
 
 Sixth - - - - Wheat. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Parma they have begun to cultivate tobac - 
 co, and with considerable success ; and it is sown the first year in- 
 stead of maize and hemp. 
 
 This course is still more productive than that of Piedment; but the 
 soil is richer, and, in consequence of the dairies, more highly manur- 
 ed ; for it admits of being manured every third year, while in Pied- 
 mont it is only once in four years. 
 
 I shall enlarge no further on this admirable succession of culture, 
 which gives four corn crops in six years, one of hemp, and one of 
 food for cattle. This quick succession, it may be observed, is so 
 well arranged, that the fertility of the soil is, at no time, deteriora- 
 ted, whde it admits the requisite preparatives, and the cleaning the 
 land, by hoeing at regular intervals. 
 
 The winter beans seem the only crop meriting particular notice. 
 Within a few years they have been successfully introduced into the 
 neighborhood of Geneva ; that is to say, into a climate where the 
 
*272 AGRICULTURE IN ITALY. 
 
 winters are more severe. The beans. endure them without injury, 
 may be introduced into the northern countries, where they may be- 
 come a valuable article in agriculture : being well adapted to fill up 
 vacant spots in various crops. 
 
 The winter bean resembles the spring bean, in plant, flower, and 
 seed. It is sown in the beginning of September, and it must acquire 
 strength in the autumn to support the severity of the winter. The 
 stem withers and dies under the snow, and during frost; but early in 
 the spring several new stems shoot from the bottom, which flower in 
 May, and the seeds ripen in July. 
 
 The culture is very simple ; after a manured crop of wheat, the 
 earth is turned in by a single ploughing, and moulder by exposure 
 to the weather. The beans are put into the ground early in Sep- 
 tember, either sown broad cast and harrowed, ploughed in, or drill- 
 ed in lines, which admits of their being horse hoed in the spring, 
 otherwise they must be hand hoed in April. 
 
 The crop being harvested in July, there is time to prepare the land 
 for wheat, which follows it, and usually succeeds well. 
 
 This culture, adapted to open and clayey soils unfavorable to the 
 growth of roots, accord well with the different periods of ploughing 
 and sowing, and keeps up the fertility of the soil. It includes every 
 desirable circumstance, and I have no doubt will extend rapidly. 
 
 Such is the slight sketch I have given you of the agriculture and 
 crops of that part of Lombardy, which extends along the right bank 
 of the Po, that is to say, of a part of the first region of agriculture, 
 which I pointed out in ray first letter. 
 
 This culture, it would seem, is principally directed to the produc- 
 tion of food, and, except silk and hemp, there are no articles for the 
 manufacture. The result of this abundant production of food, is an 
 immense population ; no part of which is employed in manufacture, 
 because they are not possessed of the necessary material. 
 
 In going to Lodi, in the road to Cremona, we pass over the most 
 beautiful part of the Milanese. The soil is so fertile and so well wa- 
 tered in this province, which bears the name of Lodesan, that they 
 have relinquished the growth of corn for that of the indigenous plants 
 which the land produces spontaneously. These meadows, constant- 
 ly irrigated, are mowed, and spring again four times in the same year; 
 their produce is superior to the richest corn, for I never saw grass so 
 thick and so high It is composed of the common grases, of trefoils, 
 of plants with large leaves, and a great many ranunculuses, whose 
 yellow flowers spread a peculiar brilliancy over the tint of the fields. 
 An immense number of cows feed on this herbage; during the sum- 
 mer they are fed in the stables, on the produce of two crops cut green; 
 the others are made into hay for the winter food ; m autumn they are 
 allowed to feed on the last growth in the season. 
 
 The farms in the Milanese are not large. Iu a soil so productive 
 and so dear, the land is necessarily much divided, but they are more 
 extensive than in Tuscany ; there are many farms from fifty to a hun- 
 dred acres; because grass culture requires less labour and care than 
 fruit, garden, or corn crops. They require also less capital, and the 
 produce is not so liable to accidents ; and for this reason the pro* 
 prietors and metayers in the Lodesan are equally enriched. 
 
AGRICULTURE IN ITALY, 278 
 
 One of the principal sources of expenditure, in their culture, is the 
 annual purchase of cattle, for by an inexplicable singularity of nature, 
 the cows of the third generation lose their quality of good milkers, in 
 the midst of the most nourishing food. It is necessary, every year, to 
 obtain some from Switzerland. All the horses employed in the coun- 
 try come, also, from the mountains of Helvetia. The capital of the 
 flocks belongs to the proprietors, but they are maintained at the ex- 
 pense of the metayer. 
 
 The soil of the whole country is divided into parcels of two or three 
 acres, on account of their being near the canals, which separate 
 them: and by the simple lowering of the sluices, the whole land, 
 which is perfectly level, may he inundated. These frequent irriga- 
 tions would deteriorate the grass, if it were not refreshed by a thick 
 coat of manure every three years, while it remains in pasture. In 
 * spite of this powerful means of amelioration, the meadows will deteri- 
 orate in course of time. The umbelliferous plants, the angelicas and 
 ranunculases, flourish at the expense of the trefoils and the grasses. 
 The soil is no longer irrigated ; it is ploughed and cleaned in autumn, 
 to sow hemp upon it the following spring. This is the only way in 
 which the weeds, in this land, can be extirpated. The stems of the 
 hemp attain a prodigious height, and when they are taken off, in or- 
 der to take the advantage of the fertility of the soil, they plant vegeta- 
 bles in autumn, to prepare it for sowing oats upon it in the spring. 
 The straw of these oats grows to six or seven feet high, and moves in 
 waves from the influence of the wind ; wheat is lastly sown after the 
 oats, under the expectation that the soil, weakened by the preceding 
 crops, would not make it too vigorous. Maize is usually planted 
 the following spring 5 and a second crop of wheat succeeds it, and 
 finishes the course. 
 
 The land is then left to itself, and a crop of grass immediately 
 springs up without any seeds being sown. In the winter it is ma- 
 nured, and the new meadow is thus, again, spontaneously formed. 
 As soon as the new turf is become diick, the sluices are opened, and 
 it is irrigated with the water of the adjoining canal. 
 
 The sa^le meadow commonly continues fifteen years, and the 
 course of the crops five only. The culture of the Milanese includes 
 thus twenty years, in the following series : 
 
 First year - - Hemp, followed by vegetables. 
 
 Second - - - Oats. 
 
 Third - - - Wheat, followed by vegetables. 
 
 Fourth - - - Maize. 
 
 Fifth- - - - Wheat. 
 Fifteen years natural grass, manured every third year, and mown 
 1 our times a year. 
 
 In these twenty years sixty-seven crops are produced on the same 
 land. Sixty-one for the use of cattle, five for the food of man, and 
 one only for his clothing. I should think there is not a country on 
 the globe which gives such a proportion of agricultural crops. 
 
 To obtain them, the land is, however, manured only five times 
 in twenty years, but this is done largely and contrary to the univer- 
 sal practice; the manure is solely applied to the meadows, and 
 
274 AGRICULTURE IN ITALY. 
 
 never to the ploughed land. This method forms the distinctive mark 
 of this peculiar economy, and can be attributed only to the supera^ 
 bundant fertility of this rich province. 
 
 In a farm, where I stopped, near Marignano, of a hundred acres, 
 I found that the proportion, between the arable land and the mea- 
 dows, was about thirty acres under the plough and seventy acres in 
 grass. Th^ metayer kept a hundred cows, and some animals for 
 draft, on the sevcnt acres of meadow. He estimated the average 
 return of each cow at, two hundred francs, and thus obtained, from 
 his dairy, a gross revenue of twenty thousand francs. He reckoned 
 the arable crops at only half of the grass, and the produce of his 
 thirtv acres at only six thousand francs. i he gross produce of this 
 farm was then twenty-six thousand trancs, or two hundred and sixty 
 francs per acre This sum is equally divided between the proprietor 
 and the metayer. The proprietor, out of his moiety, is to pay the 
 taxH- and the charges of irrigation, and the metayer deducts the 
 whole expense of cultivating the land from his share. 
 
 You may judge, from this, that the art of culture is very easy in 
 this part of Lombarly ; it consists in taking advantage of the great 
 fertility of the soil, and obtaining, with little exertion, immense 
 crops The merit of this system is due to the inventor of the exten- 
 sive plans of irrigation, applied to the whole country between the 
 Tessin and the A<nge. 
 
 ( >ne can scarcely conceive how they could connect together and 
 direct, in a single plan, so extensive a net-work of canals; for it is 
 obvious, that each separate part had relation to the whole, that the 
 flowing and distribution of the water might be every where adaptecj 
 to the form of the ground. There are several systems of canals, 
 which have no connection with each other, as each takes its source 
 from a different lake ; from each of which proceeds a principal canal, 
 which they call the soveriegn : it is formed for the double purpose of 
 the interior navigation and to convey the water to each of the irrigat- 
 ing canals connected with it These different canals belong, some 
 to government and some to capitalists, but never to proprietors of 
 land near the livers; for they can never divide any part of the 
 couise of a canal. The owners of the canal let to them the use of 
 the water, at a certain price, and in ascertained proportions The 
 laws and a special court of appeal secure to the one the undisputed 
 poss ssion, and to the other the use. 
 
 1 he canals of Lombardy are not lined with bricks as those in Tus- 
 cany. On account of the great quantity of water, they are formed 
 of very large dimensions. Lines of oziers are planted on the banks 
 of the canal to keep the soil firm. Behind these, cuttings of elders 
 and willows are put into the ground intermixed with large planta- 
 tions of poplars. The last trees must be planted at considerable dis- 
 tances from each other, as their heads are not pyramidal, like the 
 cypress. Their stems, also, do not bend as the indigenous poplar of 
 France, but they rise almost out of sight, like the birch tree, and 
 like it extend their large branches. It is a long time since all these 
 canals were formed, and the plantations have since had time to grow 
 and become old. Hence the motion of the stream has formed small 
 
AGRICULTURE IN ITALY. 216 
 
 sinuosities and hollows, resembling the natural course of rivers.— 
 The wiliovvs, planted on their banks, are become broken trunks, 
 covered with mosses, which, clothed with ivy an! convolvulus, 
 overhang the surface of the river. The poplars raise their symmetri- 
 cal trunks above these masses of verdure, like a colonade, whose 
 proportions, though unequal, are very large. This scene, taken to- 
 gether, is very striking; individually, it is pleasing and cheerful. 
 
 Towards the west of Lodesan, and on the banks of the Tessin, 
 we quit this beautiful country of meadow and shade. Naked plains 
 open to the view. Few habitations, and little activity, are seen 
 here. The verdure is, throughout, alike pale and discolored.— 
 These fields are appropriated to the rich culture of rice. 
 
 In the slight fall, which draws the water of the lake to the Po, 
 are some low grounds, where the water does not run off An in- 
 genious person, they say he was a Dutchman, proposed to employ 
 the stagnate water of these low grounds in the cultivation of rice. 
 The experiment succeeded, which is not often the case. 
 
 The spot appropriated to this culture is divided into a great num- 
 ber of canals, lined with banks of turf. The water, here, is per- 
 fectly stagnate, under which grow water liliies, displaying, at the 
 surface the useless decoration of their flowers. These canals, form- 
 ed with great regularity, inclose squares of two or three acres, se- 
 cured on all sides by dykes. The sluices admit the water into them, 
 and when once admitted, it has no outlet 
 
 The rice grows at the bottom, some inches below the surface of 
 the water. The plant resembling barley in the spring; like it, it 
 has a knotty stem, a small ear, and a long beard Not so high as 
 wheat, its straw is of a more dry texture, and of a paler tint. It 
 never bends, or turns on one side; and the wind, in shak/ng it. pro- 
 duces a rattling and continued sound, like that which is heard among 
 reeds in stormy weather. 
 
 The culture of rice is extremely simple. The water is let off 
 the land after harvest ; the rice is then sown after a single ploughing, 
 and without any other preparation ; the sluices are not opened to in- 
 undate the land, until the rice is a few inches high. It grows like an 
 aquatic plant, always under the water. In this way it completes its 
 growth, and the sluices are not opened to let off the water until near 
 the period of it* maturity, to allow the land some time to dry, that 
 the harvest men may go into the squares and reap the crop. They 
 tie them into small sheaves, which lie heaped together some time be- 
 fore they, are threshed The ground remains dry until it is again 
 ploughed for another sowing of rice. 
 
 This plant is cultivated three years successively, on the same 
 land ; no manure is carried on during this time The water would 
 destroy its quality, and it is alone sufficient for the purposes of vege- 
 tation. But after three following crops, the soil is exhausted, and 
 requires light, air, and rest. It is left uncultivated, and the humidity 
 of the soil produces the spontaneous growth of the plants adapted to 
 its situation. It is manured, and then only, on the new turf, and 
 for two years a most abundant crop of hay is obtained, though but 
 •f an inferior quality. 
 
276" AGRICULTURE IN ITALY. 
 
 The rice course is, thus, five years ; three of which are in rice 
 und two in natural grass. During these five years the land is ma- 
 nured but once, at the time when it is not under water. 
 
 Could you suppose there is a breed of sheep adapt ed by nature, 
 or rather naturalized to these wet places, feeding only on the water 
 plants which grow in the rice stubbles, and the grass which covers 
 the banks. This breed of sheep is strong, healthy, and fruitful; 
 the *\res always producing two, and sometimes three lambs at a 
 birth. No other animal could feed on these boggy lands without sinking 
 in them ; and Providence seems to have allowed this peculiarity, to 
 shew that there is not a place on the earth, which may remain 
 desert, nor a plant which may not become food to some beings in the 
 creation. 
 
 The produce of a crop of rice is estimated at double that of an 
 equal crop of wheat. This rich revenue is repeated three successive 
 years on the same land, and the interval which is necessary to give 
 the land rest, produces forage. The rent of rice grounds is higher, 
 because they require little labour, not often repeated, nor expensive. 
 The profit, therefore, has been such that the owners have not been 
 willing to divide it with a metayer. The rice grounds are let at fix- 
 ed rents, about a hundred and sixty francs an acre, and even at this 
 enormous rent, the farmers have often made large fortunes. 
 
 Italy uses only oxen in its agriculture ; I did not see a single horse 
 haimessedto a plough. Oxen have two incontestible advantages over 
 horses ; they take no more capital, and perform their work more 
 economically than horses, for they have not, like them, any ex- 
 pense for shoeing, for harness, or any annual loss on their capitaL 
 This saving is, at least, one hundred and twenty francs a year on 
 each pair of cattle ; a considerable sum in a country cultivated for 
 half of the produce by the metayers, who are always poor, and 
 have no ready money. 
 
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 277 
 
 ['from Buchanan's journey through the Mysore.] 
 
 State of Agriculture in India, 
 
 H 
 
 LAYING assembled some of the most sensible gaudas of the ash- 
 la gram tallies, in the presence of the lower officers of revenue, who 
 were recommended to me as the men best acquainted with country 
 concerns, I examined them, both at my tents and on the field, concer- 
 ning their practices in agriculture ; and the following is the result of 
 my inquiries. 
 
 Three kinds of ground. — The grounds are of three kinds ; wet 
 land, or that watered artificially, and producing what are called wet 
 crops, or grains; dry field, or that which receives no artificial supply 
 of water, and which produces dry crops, or grains; and gardens. 
 
 Soils. — The soil of the ashta gram is considered as of four differ- 
 ent kinds, the fertility of which is great according to the order in 
 which they are enumerated First, a very black soil containing a 
 large proportion of clay. Secondly, a very red soil, containing also 
 a large proportion of clay. These two sometimes contain a few 
 small pebbles, or loose rounded stones, without injuring the quality of 
 the land. Thirdly, a light brown coloured soil, with a large propor? 
 tion of sand. This also may contain loose nodules of stone without 
 injury to its quality. Fourthly, that consists of much sand, and an- 
 gular nodules of stone so compacted that the plough penetrates it 
 with difficulty. 
 
 Watered crops. — The articles which the ashta gram farmers cul- 
 tivate in wet grounds are rice, sugar-cane, udu, hessaru, wulP ellu r 
 and tadaguny Of these rice is the one of by far the greatest im- 
 portance. 
 
 Two crops, — The farmers of the ashta gram have annually two 
 crops on their wet grounds ; one crop grows during the rainy season, 
 and is called hainu, and also the male crop, being supposed to be the 
 stronger ; the other crop is called cant, and female, and grows in the 
 dry season. The grounds are of course formed into terraces, quite 
 level, and surrqunded by little banks for the purpose of irrigation. — 
 The plots of watered ground, owing to the considerable declivity of 
 the country, are very contracted, and irregular in shape : but by 
 means of small channels leading from the grand canals, or from res- 
 
278 
 
 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 
 
 ervoirs, they can, at the pleasure of the cultivator, be either filled 
 with water, or allowed to be dry 
 
 Irrigation. — The tanks or reservoirs not being numerous in the 
 ashtagram, and the canals being completely filled from the river in 
 the rainy season only, the hainu crop of rice is by far the most co- 
 pious. The small supply of water in the dry season is reserved 
 chiefly for the sugar-cane. If attention were paid to construct res- 
 ervoirs for the preservation of the water that is lost from the canals 
 in the rainy season, much of the ground would annually give two 
 crops of rice. 
 
 Different manners of sowing rice. — Throughout India there are 
 thiee modes of sowing the seed of rice, from whence arise three kinds 
 of cultivation. In the first mode, the seed is sown dry on the fields 
 that are to rear it to maturity : this I call the dry seed cultivation. 
 In the second mode, the seed is made to vegetate before it is sown ; 
 and the field, when fitted to receive it, is reduced to a puddle : this 
 I call the sprouted cultivation. In the third kind of cultivation, the 
 seed is sown very thick in a small plot ot ground ; and, when it has 
 shot up about a foot high, the young rice is transplanted into the 
 fields where it is to ripen: this I call the cultivation by trans- 
 planting. 
 
 Different kinds of rice. — I attempted to ascertain, whether the 
 different kinds of cultivated rice ought to considered as different spe- 
 eies, or merely as varieties ; but I soon found, that for a traveller this 
 was impracticable. Among the natives, even with such as speak the 
 same language, the greatest confusion prevails; for the same name, in 
 different parts of the country, is applied to distinct kinds of rice j 
 while in one village even the same kind of rice acquires two or more 
 names, from a dissimilar season, or mode of cultivation. Thus in 
 the ashta grams, the same kind of rice, when raised in the earn crop, 
 is called doda cassery ; which, when raised, in the hainu crop, is 
 called doda but la Although I by no means presume to be certain, 
 yet, from the dissimilitude of appearance, and from the difference of 
 soil, cultivation, and time of coming to maturity, required by the va- 
 rious kinds of rice I am inclined to think, that the oryza satvm of 
 Linnaeus actually comprehends several species, as distinct as the 
 different kinds of bar'ey, or hordeum, that are cultivated in Europe. 
 
 Hainu crop of rice. — The hainu cultivation of rice, being here 
 the principal crop, shall engage the chief part of our attention. 
 
 Selection of modes of cultivation. — The higher fields are cultiva- 
 ted after the dry seed manner of sowing; the lower grounds are reser- 
 ved for the sprouted and transplanted cultivations. By far the most 
 common seed used is the doda bufta, a coarse grain, like that wiiich a 
 in Bengal, is by the English called cargo rice. 
 
 Dry seed — In the hainu crop, the following is the management of 
 the dry seed cultivation : from the 14th of February till the 23d of 
 May, plough twice a month ; having, three days previous to the first 
 ploughing, softened the soil by giving the field water. After the 
 fourth ploughing, the field must be manured with /lung, procured 
 either from the city or cow house. After the fifth ploughing, the 
 field must be watered, either by rain, or fr<»m the canal; and three 
 days afterwards the seed must be sown broad-cast, and then covered 
 
AGRICULTURE JN INDIA. 21$ 
 
 hy the sixth ploughing. Any rain that happens to fall for the first 
 thirty days after sowing the seed, must be allowed to run off by a 
 breach in the bank which surrounds the field ; and should much rain 
 fall at this season, the crop is considerably injured. Should there 
 toave been no rain for the first thirty days, the field must be kept con- 
 stantly inundated, till the crop be ripe; but if there have been occa- 
 sional showers, the inundation should not commence till the 45th day. 
 Weeding, and loosening the soil about the roots of the young plants 
 with the hand, and placing them at proper distances, where sown too 
 close, or too far apart, must be performed three times; 1st, on the 
 45th or 50th day ; 2dly, 20 days afterwards ; and 3dly, 15 days after 
 the second weeding. These periods refer to the crops that require 
 seven months to ripen. In rice which ripens in 5£ months, the field 
 must be inundated on the 20th day ; and the ueedings are on the 
 20th, 30th, and 40th days. 
 
 Sprouted seed. — In the hainu crop the following is the manner of 
 conducting the sprouted-seed cultivation The ploughing season 
 occupies from the 23d of June till the 22d of July. During the whole 
 of this time the field is inundated, and is ploughed four times; while 
 at each ploughing, it is turned over twice in two different directions, 
 which cross each other at right angles. This I shall call a double 
 ploughing. About the. (22nd July) the field is manured, immediately 
 gets a fifth ploughing, and the mud is smoothed by the labourer's feet. 
 All the water, except one inch in depth, must then be let off, and the 
 prepared seed must be sown in broad-cast. As it sinks in the mud, 
 it requires no labour to cover it. For the first twenty-four days, the 
 field must once every other day have some water, and must after- 
 wards, until ripe, be kept constantly inundated The weedings are 
 on the 25th, 35th, and 50th days. In order to prepare the seed, it 
 must be put into a pot, and kept for three days covered with water 
 It is then mixed with an equal quantity of rotten cow-dung, and laid 
 in a heap, in some part of the house entirely sheltered from the wind. 
 The heap is well covered with straw and mats : and at the end of 
 three days, the seed, having shot out sprouts about an inch in length., 
 is found fit for sowing. This manner of cultivation is much more 
 troublesome than that called dry-seed : and the produce from the 
 same extent of ground is nearly equal ; but the sprouted-seed culti- 
 vation gives time for a preceding crop of pulse on the same field, 
 and saves a quarter of the seed. 
 
 Transplanted rice. — Two distinctions are made in the manner of 
 cultivating transplanted rice : the one called diy-plants; and the other 
 called wet-plants. For both kinds low land is required. 
 
 Dry seedlings. — The manner of raising the dry seedlings, for the 
 hainu crop, is as follows : labour the ground at the same season, and 
 in the same manner, as for the dry seed crop. On the 24th of May, 
 give the manure, sow the seed very thick, and cover it with the plough. 
 If no rain fall before the 8th day, then water the field, and again on 
 the 22d ; but, if there are any showers, these waterings are unne- 
 cessary. From the 45th till the 60th day, the plants continue fit to 
 be removed. In order to be able to raise them for transplanting, t&e 
 Held must be inundated for five days, before they are plucked, 
 
28Q AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 
 
 The ground on which the dry seedlings are to be ripened, is plough- 
 ed four times in the course of eight weeks, commencing about the 7th 
 of June; but must, all the while, be inundated. The manure is given 
 before the fourth ploughing. After this, the mud having been 
 smoothed by the feet, the seedlings are transplanted into it, and from 
 three to five plants are stuck together, into the mud, at about a span 
 distance from the other little branches. The water is then let off for 
 a day : afterwards, the field, till the grain is ripe, is kept constantly 
 inundated. The weedings are performed on the 20th, 35th, and 
 45th days after transplanting. 
 
 Watered seedlings. — The manner of raising the wet-seedlings, for 
 the transplanted crop in the hainu season, is as follows : from the 
 14th February to 14th March plough the ground three times while 
 it is dry. On the 24th of May. inundate the field ; and in the course 
 of fifteen days plough it four times. After the fourth ploughing 
 smooth the mud with the feet, sow the seed very thick, and sprinkle 
 dung over it : then let off the water. On the 3d, 6th, and 9th days, 
 water again ; but the water must be let off, and not allowed to stag- 
 nate on the field. After the 12th day, inundate until the seedlings 
 be fit for transplantation, which will be on the 30th day from sow- 
 ing. 
 
 The cultivation of the field into which the seedlings are transplant- 
 ed, is exactly the same as that for the dry seedlings. 
 
 The plot on which the seedlings are raised produces no crop of 
 pulse ; but various kinds of these grains are sown in the fields *that 
 are to ripen the transplanted crop, and are cut down immediately 
 before the ploughing for the rice commences. The produce of the 
 transplanted crop is nearly equal to that of the dry seed cultivation ; 
 and on a good soil, properly cultivated, twenty times the seed sown 
 is an avarage crop. 
 
 Manner of preparing rice for use by soaking. — There are two 
 manners of making paddy* into rice; one by boiling it previously to 
 beating; and the other by beating alone. The boiling is also done 
 in two ways. By the first is prepared the rice intended for the use of 
 the rajas, and other luxurious persons. A pot is filled with equal parts 
 of water and paddy, which is allowed to soak all night, and in the 
 morning is boiled for half an hour. The paddy is then spread out 
 in the shade for fifteen days, and afterwards dried in the sun for two, 
 hours. It is then beaten, to remove the husks. Each grain is bro- 
 ken by this operation into four or five pieces, from whence it is called 
 ayda nugu aky, or five piece rice. When dressed, this kind of rice 
 swells very much. It is always prepared in the families of the rajas, 
 and is never made for sale. The operation is very liable to fail ; and 
 in that case the rice is totally lost. 
 
 By boiling. — Rice prepared by boiling in the common manner is 
 called cudapal aJcy, and is destined for the use of the sudras, or such 
 low persons as are able to procure it Five parts of paddy are put 
 in a pot with one part of water, and boiled for about two hours, till 
 it is observed that one or two of the grains have burst. It is then 
 
 * Paddy means rough rice. 
 
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 
 
 spread oat In the sun for two hours; and this drying is repeated on 
 the next day ; after which the paddy is immediately -beaten. Ten 
 parts of paddy, by this operation, give five parts of rice, of which 
 one part goes to the person who prepares it, for his trouble. Ten 
 seers of paddy are therefore equal in value to only four seers of rice. 
 
 Without boiling. — The rice used by the Brahmans, and called 
 hasky ady, is never boiled. On the day before it is to be beaten, the 
 paddy must be exposed two hours to the sun. If it were beaten im- 
 mediately after being dried, the grain would break, and there would be 
 a considerable loss. Even with this precaution, many of the grains 
 break; and, when these are separated from the entire rice to render 
 it saleable, the hasky aky sells dearer than cudapat aky, in propor- 
 tion of nine to eight. 
 
 Manner of beating. — The beating is performed chiefly by women. 
 They sometimes, for this purpose, use the yata, which is the same 
 with the danky of Bengal ; or a block of timber fastened to a wooden 
 lever, which is supported on its centre. The woman raises the block 
 by pressing with her foot on the far end of the lever, and by remov- 
 ing her foot allows the block to fall down on the grain. The more 
 * . common way, however, of beating paddy, is by means of a wooden 
 pestle, which is generally about four feet in length, and three inches in 
 diameter, which is made of heavy timber, and shod with iron. The 
 grain is put into a hole formed in a rock or stone. The pestle is first 
 raised with the one hand, and then with the other ; which is very 
 hard labour for the Hindu women, who in general are rather deli- 
 cately formed 
 
 Different crops in one year. — So far as I have observed in Mysore, 
 ground once brought into cultivation for rice, is universally consider- 
 ed as arrived at the highest possible degree of improvement ; and all 
 attempts to render it more productive by a succession of crops, or by 
 fallow, would be looked upon as proofs of insanity. Where there is 
 a supply of water, the farmers in general think, that the best plan of 
 cultivation is to sow one crop of rice, immediately after another has 
 been reaped ; and in many parts, favoured with a supply of water, 
 three crops of rice are every year regularly produced. In the ashta 
 grams, however, there is no such land ; and though some parts each 
 year give two crops of rice, by far the greater f)art of the irrigated 
 lands have too small a supply of water to ripen two crops of rice 5 
 and the farmer must content himself with one crop of that valuable 
 article, and another of the same kind of pulse, or other dry grain. Even 
 this crop is frequently prevented by some of the operations attending 
 the cultivation of rice, as I have had several times occasion to men- 
 tion ; but still it is of considerable importance. The articles of which 
 it consists are udu> hessaru y wulV ellu and tadagany. 
 
 The udu is of two kinds ; chic'udu; and dod'udw, or little, and 
 large udus. 
 
 The ckic'udu seems to be a variety, with black seeds, of the 
 phaseolus minimoo of Dr. Roxburgh. From the seaon in which it 
 ripens, it is also called car'udu. It is cultivated as follows: the 
 ploughing commences ten days after the feast sivaratri, which this 
 vear happened on the 12th of February, and lasts for fifteen days, or 
 
 36 
 
ZbZ AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 
 
 until the 9th of March Previous to the first ploughing, if there has 
 not recently been any rain, the field must have a little water, and then 
 it is three times ploughed The seed is sown immediately before the 
 third ploughing, by which it is covered. This crop obtains neither 
 water, manure, nor weeding. The straw, when ripe', is pulled up by 
 the roots, stacked for three days, dried two days in the sun, and then 
 trodden out by bullocks. The flour, made into cakes, nud fried in oil, 
 is here a common article of diet. It is also mixed with rice flour, and 
 made into white cakes called doshy, which are also fried in oil, and 
 are a favourite food The straw is reckoned pernicious to cattle. It 
 is thrown on the dunghill, and serves to increase the quantity of ma- 
 nure. The grain is always preserved in the mudy, or straw bag. 
 
 Dod'udu. — The dod'udu, or great udu r is called also hain'udu. I 
 had no opportunity of examining it in a state proper for ascertaining 
 its place in the botanical system; but I have no doubt of its being the 
 phaspolus minimoo of Dr. Roxburgh. It is cultivated and managed 
 exactly like the other kind ; but the first ploughing is on the 8th day 
 after the swarna gauri vrata, which this year happened on the 23d 
 of August. The sowing season is 15 days afterwards ; that is, about 
 the 15th of September. The straw is equally pernicious to cattle, 
 but the grain is reckoned better than that of the chic'udu. 
 
 Phaseolus mungo. — The hessaru is the phaseolus mungo of the*- 
 botanists. It is of one kind only, but is cultivated both as a hainu 
 and as a caru crop ; in both of which the manner of cultivation 
 is exactly the same as that of the udus. The straw, being equal- 
 ly unfit for cattle, is reserved for manure. The grain is dressed as 
 curry. 
 
 Dolichos catsjang. — The tadaguny is the dolicho's catsjang of 
 Linnaeus, who has here introduced a most barbarous appellation. 
 The green pods, and ripe grain, are both made into curries, as is usu- 
 al here, by frying them in oil with tamarinds, turmeric, onions, capsi- 
 cum, and salt. Horses eat the grain; but the straw is only useful as 
 manure. 
 
 Sesamum. — WulV ellu is the sesamum orientate ; and one kind on- 
 ly "Tscultivated here. The indicum, however, is to be met with in 
 some places not far distant, and is called the phulagana ellu. It is 
 raised exactly like the car } udu. cut down when ripe, and stacked for 
 seven days. It is then exposed to the sun for three days, but at^night 
 is collected again into a heap ; and, between every two days drying in 
 the sun, it is kept a day in the heap. By this process the capsules 
 burst of themselves, and the seed falls down on the ground. The 
 cultivators sell the greater part of the seed to the oil-makers. This 
 oil is here in common use with the natives, both for the table and for 
 unction. The seed is also made into flour, which is mixed with ja- 
 gory, and formed into a variety of sweet cakes. The straw is used 
 for fuel and for manure. 
 
 Ragy, or the cynsurus corocanus, kinds. — The ragy, by Linnaeus 
 is named cynosurus corocanus. The decany Mussulmans call it ra- 
 gy The farmers reckon three kinds of it* which, however, are 
 only varieties; the cari, kempu, and huluparia: all Irfc equally 
 productive ; but the third, when nearly ripe is very apt to shake 
 
t 
 
 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 
 
 the seed. In the vicinity of Seringapatam, it is not customary to 
 keep the kinds separate ; in the same field all the three are sown 
 intermixed ; but in some places, at no great distance, more attention 
 is paid to the quality of the grain. 
 
 Cultivation. — The ploughing commneces whenever the first occasi- 
 onal showers in the spring have softened the soil sufficiently to receive 
 the plough. From that period till the 5th of June, the field is plough- 
 ed from four to six times, according as it may be found clean or foul. 
 The dung is then given, and ploughed into the soil. When the rains 
 begin to be heavy, the seed is sown broad-cast, and covered by the 
 plough. The field is then smoothed with the hallvay. which is a 
 harrow, or rather a large rake drawn by two bullocks. Then, if 
 sheep are to be had a flock of them is repeatedly driven over the field, 
 which is supposed to enable it to retain the moisture ; and for this 
 purpose bullocks are used, when sheep cannot be procured. INext 
 day, single furrows are drawn throughout the field, at the relative 
 distance of six feet. In these is dropt the seed of either avaray or 
 (ovary, which are never cultivated by themselves ; nor is ragy ever 
 cultivated, without being mixed with drills of these leguminous plants. 
 The seed of the avaray or tovary is covered by the foot of the person 
 who drops it in the furrow Fifteen days afterwards, the cuntay^ 
 or bullock-hoe, is drawn all over the field ; which destioys every 
 young plant that it touches, and brings the remainder into regular 
 rows. On the 35th day the cuntay is drawn again, at right angles 
 to its former direction. On the 45th day it is some times drawn 
 again ; but, when the two former ones have sufficiently thinned the 
 young corn, this third hoeing is not necessary. At the end of the 
 second month, the weeds should be removed by a small iron instru- 
 ment called vjary. According to the quantity of rain, the ragy ri- 
 pens in from three to four months. The avary ano/ tovary do not 
 ripen till the seventh month. The reason of sowing these plants 
 along with the ragy seen^ to be, that the rains frequently fail, and 
 then the ragy dies altogether, or at least the crop is very scanty ; but 
 in that case the leguminous plants resist the drought, and are ripened 
 by the dews, which are strong in autumn. When the ragy succeeds, 
 the leguminous plants are oppressed by it and produce only the small 
 •return : but when the ragy fails, they spiead wonderfully, and give a 
 very !onsiderable return. 
 
 Use of ragy in diet. — The crop of ragy is by far the most impor- 
 tant of any raised on dry field, and supplies all the lower ranks of so- 
 ciety with their common food. Among them, it is reckoned the most 
 wholesome and invigorating food for labouring people; and in every 
 country, most fortunately, a similar prejudice appears to prevail, the 
 most common grain being always reckoned the nourishment most fit 
 for the labourer. Habit seems to be able to render every kind of 
 grain sufficiently wholesome; but the stomach is not able, without in- 
 convenience, to bear a change. Hence the labourer, accustomed to 
 live on the cheapest grain of the country finds it agree with his sto- 
 mach; but he becomes disordered when first compelled or induced to 
 try another food. He therefore very naturally concludes, that his 
 usual fare is the most wholesome; while, for similar reasons, a labour- 
 er from another country will justly reprobate it. My Bengal and 
 
284 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 
 
 Madras servants, who have been accustomed to live upon rice, look 
 upon the ragy as execrable food, and, in fact, would experience great 
 inconvenience were they compelled to live on it. 
 
 Ragy harvest. — The ragy is reaped hy the sickle, and the straw 
 is cut within four inches of the ground. For three days the handfuls 
 are left on the field; and then, without being bound up in sheaves, 
 are stacked, and the whole is well thatched. At any convenient time 
 within three months, it is opened, dried two days in the sun, and then 
 trodden out by oxen. The seed, having been thoroughly dried in the 
 sun, is preserved in straw mudies. The remainder is put into pits 
 or hagays; where, if care has been taken to dig the pit in a dry soil; 
 it will keep in perfect preservation for ten years. 
 
 Manner of preparing ragy for use. — Ragy is always ground into 
 flour, as wanted, by means of a handmill, called vicacallu. In this 
 operation it loses nothing by measure ; so that a candaca of ragy is 
 reckoned to contain as much nourishment as two candacas of paddy. 
 The flour is dressed in various ways. The most common are, a kind 
 of pudding called sangutty, and two kinds of cakes, called ruly and 
 dosky, both of which are fried in oil. 
 
 Straw of ragy. — For all kinds of cattle, the ragy straw is here 
 reckoned superior to that of rice, My Madras bullock-drivers dispute 
 the point ; but I am inclined to think that they are wrong ; for the 
 people here have much experience of both kinds of straw, while the 
 Madras people are only accustomed to that of rice, or at least have 
 never seen the ragy straw used except in our camps, where many 
 causes contributed to render the mortality among the cattle very 
 great. 
 
 Avaray, or dolichos lablab. — The avaray is probably what Lin- 
 naeus, from an indecent Chinese word, calls by the barbarous appel- 
 lation of dolichos lablab. This, however, is doubtful. Dr. Rox- 
 burgh calls it dolichos spicatus. By the decany Mussulmans it is 
 called bullar. When ripe, the legumes are nearly dry. The plant, 
 having been cut, and for one day exposed to the sun, is beaten with 
 a stick to separate the seed. That which is designed for seed is pre- 
 served in mudies ; while that for consumption is kept in pots, and 
 used in curries. The straw is eaten by all kinds of cattle except 
 horses. 
 
 Tovary, cytisus cajan. — The tovary is the cytisus cajan of Lin- 
 naeus. It is cut when almost dry, then put up in heaps ; and on the 
 day after, it is opened to dry in the sun. The grain is beaten out 
 with a stick; and that intended for sowing must be preserved in a 
 straw mudy. It is used in curry. After the seed has been thrashed 
 cattle eat the husk of the legume. The straw is used for fuel. 
 
 Ragy soil. — The best soil for the cultivation of these three articles 
 is the black soil, or eray bumi ; which yields a crop ofragay every 
 year, and even without manure will give a considerable return ; but, 
 when it can be procured, dung is always given. After a crop ofjola, 
 ragy does not thrive ; but jola succeeds after a crop of ragy. The 
 next best soil for ragy, and the one most commonly used, is the cab- 
 hay, or red soil. In this also it is frequently cultivated without dung; 
 but it requites to be manured at least once in two or three years. In 
 marulu and daray soils, it every year requires dung. If these sorts 
 
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 285 
 
 have been cultivated with horse-gram, the ragy will not grow in them 
 without a huge quantity of manure. Two or three years rest are 
 said by some to improve the ground for one crop of ragy ; after 
 which it returns to its usual state. But the advantages of this fallow 
 are two inconsiderable to induce the farmers to practice it commonly, 
 and most of them are altogether insensible of the benefit to be derived 
 from this part of agriculture 
 
 Jola, or the holcus sorghum. — Jola is the next most conside- 
 rable dry crop. It is the holcus sorghum of Linnaeus. It is of- 
 ten sown for fodder; for when the crop is not uncommonly good, 
 the grain is no object. It is cut, and given to the cattle at a time 
 when ragy straw is not to be procured. Previously to being given 
 to cattle, however, it must be dried, as the green straw is found to be 
 very pernicious. There are two kinds of jola ; the white, and the 
 red. When they are intended to be cut for the grain, these are sown 
 separately ; as the red kind ripens in three months, while four are re- 
 quired to ripen the white jola. In those parts of the ashta gram ta- 
 lucs which are remote from the city, the grain is generally preserved ; 
 but near Seringapatam, where the demand for fodder is greater, and 
 where the jola is commonly cultivated with a view to furnishing that 
 article, the two kinds are often sown promiscuously. A red ragy 
 soil is preferred for it, and crops of ragy and jola are generally taken 
 alternately, the crop of ragy having an extraordinary allowance of 
 dung. The jola requires less rain than the ragy, and admits of a se- 
 cond crop of huruli being taken after it ; and thus, in the course of 
 two years, there are on the same ground three crops. In Phalguna 
 and Chaitra, from the 14th of February to the 22d of April, they 
 plough from five to seven times. If a crop of ragy has preceded, 
 there is no occasion for manure to the jola ; but, when two crops of 
 this succeed each other, the last must get some dung, which is put 
 on before the last ploughing. After a heavy rain in Vaisakha, from 
 the 23d April to the 23d May, the seed is sown broad-cast, and co- 
 vered with the plough. When the young plants have appeared above 
 ground, the field must be cleared with the cvntay, or bullock-hoe ; 
 and this operation must be repeated on the thirtieth and forty-fifth 
 days. If it be intended merely for fodder, these hoeings are unne- 
 cessary, and the seed is sown very thin, as mentioned in the list; 
 but then, should it by chance succeed, and be allowed to ripen, the 
 produce will be very great. Where it is intended from the first to be 
 allowed to ripen, the quantity of seed sown is one half more, or 
 one gallon and three hundred and thirty -eight thousandths of a gallon 
 for an acre ; in which case 80 fold being the average return, the pro- 
 duce of an acre is the same as mentioned in the list, or 15£ bushels. 
 If it be intended for fodder, thejola is sown about the middle of Chai- 
 tra, or the 9th of April, and cut down in Ashada, or from the 23d of 
 June till the 23d of July. The straw is not so good as that of ragy, 
 but is here reckoned better than that of paddy. 
 
 Chica cambu, or holcus spicatus. — The chica cambu is the holcus 
 spicatus of Linnaeus. During the spring, plough six times; about 
 the 13th of Jyaishta, or 5th of June, put on the dung, and plough 
 again ; when the heavy rains commence, sow broad-cast, and plough 
 in the seed. In drills with the cambu some people put avaray$ 
 
286 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 
 
 others do not. On the tenth day hoe with the cuntay, once length* 
 ways, and once across the field. It must be carefully protected from 
 the birds, when approaching towards ripeness, which happens in 
 three months and a half. The ears are first removed, and then the 
 straw is cut down close to the ground. It makes excellent thatch, 
 and is also eaten by cattle, but is not much esteemed as fodder. The 
 ears are kept in a heap for three days, then trodden out by oxen, and 
 cleaned by a fan, or moram. The seed intended for sowing, after 
 being well dried in the sun, is preserved in mudies. That intended 
 for consumption, is kept in canajas, or store-houses, but cannot be 
 preserved long. It is made into flour for cakes, and for sangutty, 
 or pudding. If sown on the two good soils, it requires no dung; but 
 on the two bad soils manure is absolutely necessary. Repeated 
 crops of this grain do not exhaust the ground, and ragy thrives after 
 it. 
 
 Shamy, or panicum miliare. — Shamy is the panicum miliare of 
 Lamarck. It is never sown on the eray or black clay, and rarely 
 on the cabbay, or red soil ; the two worst qualities of land being con- 
 sidered as sufficietly good for such a crop. In the spring the field is 
 ploughed five times. At the commencement of the heavy rains it is 
 sown broad-cast, and the seed is covered by a ploughing. Even in 
 the worst soil, there is no absolute necessity for dung ; but when any 
 can be spared, the crop will doubtless be benefitted by manure. It 
 ripens without further care in three months, is cut close to the ground , 
 and gathered into stacks. Five or six days afterwards it is spread on 
 a thrashing floor, and the grain is trampled out by oxen. That in- 
 tended for sowing is dried in the sun, and tied up in straw mudies. 
 The remainder is preserved in canajas. It is sometimes boiled 
 whole, like rice; at others, ground into flour for cakes. All kinds 
 of cattle eat the straw, which is also esteemed the best for stuffing 
 pack-saddles. 
 
 Harica, or paspalum frumenticum. — The harica is the paspa- 
 lum frumenticum of Dr. Roxburgh. As it is found to injure the suc- 
 ceeding crop of ragy, it is never cultivated on the best soil, and rare- 
 ly on that of the second quality. It is commonly followed by a crop 
 of horse gram, and is seldom allowed any manure. In the spring 
 plough five times. The dung, if any be given, must be put on before 
 the last ploughing. When the heavy rains commence, sow broad- 
 cast, and plough in the seed: next day form drills oftovary in the 
 same manner as with ragy. When the sprouts are a span high, hoe 
 with the cuntay, once longitudinally and once across the field. Next 
 week weed with the ujary. It ripens in six months; and, having 
 been cut down near the root, is stacked for six days. It is then trod- 
 den out by cattle. The seed reserved for sowing must be well dried 
 in the sun. The remainder is preserved in the canqja, but does not 
 keep long. It is both boiled like rice, and made into flour for dress- 
 ing as sangutty. or pudding. The stiaw is eaten by every kind of 
 cattle; but, of all the fodders used here, this is reckoned the worst. 
 
 Navonay, or panicum italicum. — Navonay is the panicum itali- 
 cumot' Linnaeus. There are two varieties of it cultivated; the one 
 called ghidu, or short; and the other jota, or long, and doda, or 
 •reat. Unless a quantity of dung can be spared, it is never sown on 
 
t 
 
 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA* 287 
 
 the two worsts soils. On the two best soils it requires no manure, 
 and does not injure the succeeding crop ofragy. In the spring, 
 plough six times. When the heavy rains commence, sow, and plough 
 in the seed It requires neither weeding nor hoeing, and ripens in 
 three months. Cut it close to the ground, and stack it for eight days ; 
 then spread it to the sun for a day, and on the next tread out the grain 
 with oxen. The seed for sowing must be well dried in the sun, and 
 preserved in a mudy. The remainder is kept in the canaja. It is 
 made into flour for sangutty, or pudding, and is also frequently boil- 
 ed whole, like rice; for which, according to my taste, it is the best 
 succedaneum that the country affords. The straw is used for fodder, 
 but is not good. The join naovnay is sometimes put in drills with 
 ragy, in place of the avaray or tovary. 
 
 Huruli, or dolichos biftorus. — Huruli is much cultivated. It is 
 the dolichos biftorus of Linnaeus, the horse gram of the Madras En- 
 glish. There are two varieties ; the red, and the black: but here 
 the two are always sown intermixed. In the last half of Srivana, 
 from the 5th to the 20th August, plough three times. Sow broad- 
 cast, with the first rain of Bhadrapada, which commences on the 21st 
 of August. It requires no manure, and the seed is covered by a 
 fourth ploughing. In three months it ripens without farther trouble, 
 and is then pulled up by the roots, and stacked for eight days : after 
 which it is spread in the sun to dry, and next day is trodden out by 
 oxen. The seed for sowing must be well dried in the sun, and pre- 
 served in mudies : the remainder is kept in pots, or in the canaja. 
 It is used for human food, either dressed as curry, or parched ; but 
 the chief consumption of it is for cattle, both horses and bullocks. 
 The straw is an excellent fodder, and is preferred even to that of ra- 
 gy. It is generally sown on the two worst soils, in fields that are 
 never used for any thing else ; but it also follows as a second crop 
 after jola; or, when from want of rain the crop of ragy has failed, 
 the field is ploughed up, and sown with horse-gram. In this case, 
 the next crop of ragy will be very poor, unless it be allowed a great 
 quantity of manure In places where the red and black horse grams 
 are kept separate, the black kind is sown from twelve to twenty days 
 later than the other. 
 
 Carlay, or cicer arietinum. — Carlay is the cicer arietinum of 
 Linnaeus. On the banks of the Ganges, this grain is the common 
 food given to horses, and is very well fitted to make them fat and 
 sleek, but it does not seem to invigorate. In the peninsula it is too 
 ^ear to be given as food for horses, and indeed, even for men, is con- 
 idered as a delicacy. There is only one kind of it that is commonly 
 sown as a second crop, after jola ; but it requires the richest black 
 soil. When sown alternately with ragy, it seems neither to injure 
 nor improve the ground. It has no manure. From the 15th of Sra- 
 vana till the 10th of Bhadrapada, that is, from the 5th till the 29th of 
 August, plough five limes. The seed is then placed in rows, every 
 way distant from each other a span. Each row is then covered by a 
 turrow drawn with the plough. In three months it ripens without fur- 
 ther trouble ; it is then pulled up by the roots, and stacked for a week. 
 It is afterwards opened to tfilhmn for five or six days, 'and then trod*- 
 
2S8 
 
 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 
 
 den out by bullocks. The grain intended for seed must be dried in the 
 sun, and preserved in a mudy. The common way of prepa ring cur- 
 lay for food is by parching it. The straw is used for camels only, 
 and is their favourite food. 
 
 JIarulu, or Ricinus Palma Christi. — Harulu is the ricinus pahna 
 christi of Linnaeus. In the nshta gram two varieties of it are com- 
 mon ; the chica, or little harulu, cultivated in gardens ; and the doda 
 or great harulu, that is cultivated in the fields, and the plant of 
 which I am now to give an account. In the spring, plough five 
 times before the 8th of May. With the.first good rain that happens 
 afterwads, draw furrows all over the field at a cubit's distance; and 
 having put the seeds into these at a similar distance, cover them by 
 drawing furrows close to the former. When the plants are eight in- 
 ches high, hoe the intervals by drawing the cuntay first longitudi- 
 nally, and then transversly. When the young plants are a cubit 
 and a half high, give the intervals a double ploughing. The plant 
 requires no manure, and in eight months begins to produce ripe fruit. 
 A bunch is known to be ripe by one or two of the capsules bursting ; 
 and then all those which are ripe are collected by breaking them off 
 with the hand. They are afterwards put into a heap, or large bas- 
 ket; and the bunches, as they ripen, are collected once a week, till 
 the commencement of the next rainy season, when the plant dies. — 
 Once in three weeks or a month, when the heap collected is suffici- 
 ently large, the capsules are for three or four days spread out to the 
 sun, and then beaten with a stick to make them burst. The seed is 
 then picked out from the husks, and either made by the famdy into 
 oil for domestic use, or sold to the oil makers. 
 
 Castor-oil. — The following is the process for making castor-oil, 
 # which is used by the farmers : the seed is parched in pots' containing 
 about a seer, which is somewhat more than a quart It is then beat- 
 en in a mortar, by which process balls of it are formed. Of these 
 from four to sixteen seers are put into an earthen pot, with an equal 
 quantity of boiling water, and boiled for five hours; during which 
 care must be taken, by frequent stirring, to prevent the decoction 
 from burning. The oil now floats on the surface, and is decanted off' 
 into another pot, in which it is boiled by itself for a quarter of an 
 hour. It is then fit for use, and by the last boiling is prevented from 
 becoming rancid. After the oil has been poured from the seed, the 
 pot is filled up with water, which is again boiled, and next day the 
 decoction is given to the buffaloes, by which their milk is said to be 
 remarkably increased. The boiled seed is mixed with cow-dung, 
 and formed into cakes for fuel. The dry stems of the plant are alsoj ^ 
 used for the fire. The oil is that which we call castor-oil, and at 
 Seringapatam is commonly used for the lamp It is internally taken 
 as a purgative ; and the sudras, and lower casts, frequently anoint 
 their heads with it, when they labour . under any complaint which 
 they attribute to heat in the system. It is cultivated on the two best 
 qualities of lana\and on the better kinds of morula. When the 
 same piece of ground is reserved always for the cultivation of this 
 plant, the succeeding crops are better than the first ; when cultivated 
 alternately with ragy, it seems neithe^-lo improve nor injure the 
 soil for that grain. 
 
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. KVV 
 
 Hiits' dlu, or ram tila. — Hufs ellu' or the foolish-oil-plant, is 
 a Species hitherto undescribed by botanists. It is the ram tila of the 
 Mussulmans. Near Seringapatam it is most commonly sown after 
 join, as a second crop. When that lias been reaped, plough four 
 times in the course of eight days. Toward the end of Sravana, or 
 about the middle of August, after a good rain, sow broad-cast, and 
 plough in the seed. It requires neither manure nor weeding, and ri- 
 pens in three months. It is cut near the root, and stacked for eight 
 days. Then, having been for two or three days exposed to the sun, 
 die seed is beaten out with a stick, and separated from fragments of 
 the plant by a fan. The seed is kept in pots. Part of it is parched, 
 and made into sweet -meats with jagory; but the greater part is sold 
 to the oil-maker for expression. This oil is used in cookery, but is 
 reckoned inferior to that of sesamum. The sterns are a favourite 
 food of the camel ; but are disliked by the bullock, though want often 
 forces this animal to eat them. When not used as a second crop af- 
 ter jola, it is always sown on the two poorer soils. 
 
 Indian hemp, goni, or crotalaria juncea. — At Bangalore, as well 
 as in all the neighbouring country, Goni is a considerable article of 
 manufacture. It is a coarse, but very strong sack-cloth, from 18 to 22 
 cubits in length, and from half to quarter of a cubit broad ; and is made 
 from the janupa, or crotalaria juncea. It is divided into three 
 kinds, which differ in value according to their strength, and to the 
 closeness to the fabric. The same people, who are a particular cast 
 of men, cultivate the plant, and carry on the manufacture, until the 
 goni be fit for sale ; the price of the hemp cannot therefore be ascer- 
 tained, as it is not sold in that state. T4ie goni-maker hires from 
 some farmer as much high ground as he thinks will raise a quantity 
 of janupa sufficient to employ his family to manufacture in one year. 
 The soil ought to be red or black, like the best kinds used for the cul- 
 tivation of ragy. It is allowed no manure ; and the seed is sown 
 broad-cast on the ground, without any previous cultivation, at the 
 season when the rains become what the natives call male, that is to 
 say, when they become heavy. After being sown, the field is plough- 
 ed twice, once lengthwise, and once across ; but receives no farther 
 cultivation. At other times the janupa is cultivated on rice-ground 
 in dry season; but it must then be watered from a canal, or reservoir. 
 It requires four months to ripen, which is known by the seeds having 
 come to full maturity. After being cut down, it is spread out to the 
 sun, and dried. The seed is then beaten out by striking the pods 
 with a stick. After this, the stems are tied up in large bundles, about 
 two fathoms in circumference, and are preserved in stacks, or under 
 sheds. The bundles are taken out as wanted, and put in the water, 
 at which time their bands are cut, and the stems being opened out, 
 are kept down to the bottom by stones or mud. According to cir- 
 cumstances, they require to be kept in the water from six to eight 
 days. They are known to be ready, when the bark separates easily 
 from the pith. It is then taken out of the water, and a man 
 taking it up by handfuls, beat them on the ground, and occasionally 
 washes them until they be clean ; and at the same time picks oui wsth 
 his hand the remainder of the pith, until nothing except the bark be, 
 
 37 
 
290 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 
 
 left. This is then dried, and being taken up by handfuls, is beateft 
 with a stick to separate and clean the fibres. The hemp is then 
 complete]- ready, and is spun into thread on a spindle, both Ly the 
 men and women. The men alone weave it, and perform this iabour 
 in the open air with a very rude loom. 
 
 Articles raised on watered grounds. — On the first division of the 
 Watered-lands, rice is the greatest crop; and, when there is pleiity of 
 water, the same ground in the course of the year gives two crops, 
 whi: h, from the respective times of harvest, are called kartika and 
 vaisakha crops. The former, provided two crops are taken, is the 
 most productive: but, if the kartika be omitted, th; vaisakha gives 
 a greater return than the kartika alone would have given ; not, how- 
 ever, equal to the produce of both crops. The quality of the grain in 
 both crops is the same For the reasons mentioned at volar, the 
 vaisakha crop although raised in the dry season, is the one most re- 
 gularly taken. For this crop all the kinds of rice may be sown; for 
 the kartika crop the bill/ sanabutta, and cari chaningy, are never. 
 Sown; as with rain they are apt to lodge. The soil used for tripetty- 
 sanabutta, bify-ct>amugy, cari chaningy and puf-rajah, is marulu, 
 or sandy The others require a clay, which in the low grounds is al- 
 ways black. i he red soil is always confined to the rising grounds, 
 and is therefore never cultivated for rice, except when it can be wa- 
 tered by machines; and, if the water be more than 3l£ feet liom the 
 surface, these are never used. Two men and four oxen can, by 
 means of the machine called capily, supply an acre and a halt of 
 ground with water sufficient to raise a crop of rice. One set works 
 four or five hours in the inprning; and the other as much in the eve- 
 ning. In the day the men do little jobs : but the cattle do no other 
 work. When this machine is used, the government does not divide 
 the crop with the farmer; but, on account of his extraordinary labour, 
 takes a fixed rent of four seeds, or else contents itself with one quar- 
 ter of the produce. Sixteen seeds may, therefore, be considered as 
 the average crop of this country ; but th n the seed, it must be obser- 
 ved, is sown very thick Little rice is, however, watered by ma- 
 chinery; and the kinds chosen are those which require the shortest 
 time to come to maturity. 
 
 NadavUf or transplanted crop. — The seed, which is preserved in 
 -cotays. or straw bags, is then put with its covering into water, 
 where it soaks a whole night. Next day it is kept in the wet bag, 
 and on the third day it is found ready for sowing, having pushed 
 forth small sprouts. The field is sown on the third day after the 
 leaves have been put in, being covered to the depth of one inch with 
 water. The seed is sown broad -cast, and excessively thick, or at 
 the rate of forty -eight candacas of seed for one candaca of land. 
 This serves to transplant into thirty-two candacas ; so that one cari" 
 data and a half of seed are required for a candaca of land, or two 
 and four-tenth bushels for an acre. On the day after sowing the 
 seed the field is drained. Every other day, for four times, it is cov- 
 ered in the morning with water, which is let off again at night: after- 
 wards it is kept con&tantlv inundated, deeper and deeper as the 
 plants grow. The proper time for transplanting is between the* 
 
AGRICULTURE IN INBIA. 291 
 
 thirtieth and fortieth days ; bat poor people are often compelled, by 
 want, to protract the operation until between the fortieth and fiftieth 
 days, which injures their crops. In a few days after the seed is 
 sown, the fields in which the seedlings are to ripen ar° inundated for 
 three or four hours ; then ploughed once; then inundated f>»r eight 
 days ; then ploughed a second time, having been previously drained J 
 and at similar intervals they must get a third and fourth ploughing^ 
 with intervening inundations: so that the fourth ploughing must be 
 on the twenty-fourth day. The field is then kept inundated until 
 the rice is going to be transplanted; and. superfluous water hiving 
 been let off, the mud is then ploughed a fifth time, and smoothed 
 with a plank (/? irtimba) drawn by oxen. The seedlings are trans- 
 planted into it in the course of that and the following day The seed- 
 lings, after being plucked, may be preserved in watei five days be- 
 fore they are planted. After having been transplanted, they are al- 
 lowed water, for the first time, on the fifth dav. This water is drain- 
 ed as soon as the field has been filled ; and for the next eight days it 
 is allowed to run in at one side of the field, and out at another. The 
 field is kept afterwards constantly inundated, except on the day when 
 it is to be weeded, which is the fortieth after it has been transplanted. 
 When the ears are full and from their weight begin to incline, the wa- 
 is let off in order to ripen the grain The rice is cut down close by 
 the ground, and immediately afterwards is put up into stacks, with- 
 out having been bound in sheeves. Next day it is threshed by stri- 
 king handfuls of it against the ground. The straw is then exposed to 
 the sun for three days, and then trodden by oxen, in order to procure 
 the remaining grain. That intended for seed is exposed four or five 
 days to the sun, and is then tied carefully up in bags of straw. A 
 plough, with one man and four oxen, is said to be able to cultivate 
 only one candaca of land ; and to the amount of five candaca* of 
 rough rice is required for extra-labour at seed-time and harvest, and 
 for other small charges. 
 
 The cai varapu, or sprouted seed cultivation, is as follows. In 
 the month after the 13th of July, the field is watered, and then 
 ploughed. Afterwards it has three other ploughings in the course of 
 twenty-four days, and in the intervals it is inundated, ft is then water- 
 ed for four days, ploughed a fifth time, and smoothed with the plank 
 drawn by oxen. The seed is prepared in the same manner as for the 
 other mode of cultivation, and is sown broad-c st, at the rate of one 
 candaca to one candacaAnnd, or of one bushel and six tenths to 
 an acre. For the first three days it has no vater, after which once 
 in three days, for four times, it is watered an hou )n the thirtieth 
 and forty -fifth days the weeds are removed, the field having at both 
 times been drained. The crop is afterwards managed exactly as in 
 the transplanted cultivation It is allowed no manure. 
 
 Division of rice lands. Ubayum — In Velater there are a few 
 spots of land, watered by perennial streams, that annually produce 
 three crops of rice. The greater part of the vallies give two crops : 
 the first by means of the rain in the south-west monsoon; and the se- 
 cond by means of the easterly rains, and of the small streams which 
 wind Kojjh the vallies, and are forced out upon the low grounds 
 by means of dams. About the end of January, these streams dry up, 
 
ZSZ AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 
 
 but the supply of water is sufficient to bring the second crop to matu- 
 rity. The lower parts of the vallies are called ubvyurn lanus; but the 
 whole does not produce two crops. This term signifies sperfectly 
 level ground ; and in some places the water lies so deep on it, that 
 one crop only can be procured. 
 
 Palealil. — The higher borders of the vallies, which are too much 
 elevated to receive a supply of water from the rivulets, but which are 
 sufficiently level to admit of being inundated in the rainy season, are 
 called palealil, and annually produce only one crop. Mr. Wye 
 thi ks that the quantity of this does not amount to more than a 
 twentieth part of the dhanmurry, or rice-ground. The land which 
 is higher than that called palealil is parum, and in this neigh- 
 bourhood pays no land-tax. 
 
 Different methods of cultivation. — The three usual modes of cul- 
 tivating rice are here in use. When the seed is sown without prepa- 
 ration, the cultivation is called podiwetha, i. e. dry-sowing; when 
 before sowing, it is sprouted, it is called wet-sowing, or cheiu-wethaj 
 and when it is transplanted it is called nearra. 
 
 Different crops. — From the months in which the crops ripen, the 
 first is called canni. and the second macara. The first is the most 
 productive, in a proportion of 3 to 2; but, owing to its being cut in 
 the rainy season, the grain is often injured. 
 
 U et-sowing in palealil. — In the palealil, or higher parts of the le- 
 vel land, the most common cultivation is the sprouted-seed. When, 
 however, any fields of the ubayum or low-land come up thin, the 
 young rice is pulled up, and transplanted into a palealil field ; and 
 there still remains time for having two crops on the former. On j»a- 
 lealilland the following kinds of rice are cultivated. 
 
 Navara - a 2£ months crop. Average produce 5 seeds 
 Watun -4 - - - -7 or 8 
 
 Calii -4 - - - - 7 or 8 
 
 Caruma 3*S - - -7 
 
 Ari modun 3 - - - - 7 
 
 Tuapunarin 4 - - - - 7 
 
 Cheru modun 3 - . - - 7 
 
 Art caruma 5 - - - - 5 
 
 Hill-rice. — For the modun, or hill-rice, the^arwm is ploughed three or 
 four times between the 14th of July and the 13th of August. After- 
 wards, for eight times, it is ploughed once a month. Between the 
 11th of April and the 11th of May it is ploughed four or five times 
 and before the last is manured with ashes and dung. At the end of 
 this period, the seed unprepared is sown broad-cast, and covered with 
 the plough When the rice is about a foot high the weeds ought to 
 be removed by the hand ; but in general this is much neglected. In 
 ninety days it is ripe. The ears are then cut, and the straw is imme- 
 diately ploughed down for sesamum. 
 
 Chaktam, or wheel for raising water. — On the way I examined a 
 machine, by which the natives remove superfluous water from their 
 rice-grounds, when there is no level, by which these can be drained. 
 It is '-tiled rhacRram, or the wheel. The arms of the wheel are 3 
 feet long, and 14 inches broad, and are supported in a case, con- 
 
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 
 
 293 
 
 sisting of planks, and supported by four feet. That part of 
 the case which is farthest from the centre of the wheel, being 
 placed towards the bank inclosing the field; so that the upper part ot 
 the segment of a circle that lines the bottom of the Case, is on a level 
 with the top of the bank; while all the lower part of the case is im- 
 mersed in the water ; it is evident, that each arm of the wheel moving 
 will force out, by the opening, the volume water contained between the 
 lines, and the segment of the circle. The wheel is moved by six men 
 who support themselves on slight Bamboo stages, and push the upper 
 arms of the wheel with their feet. Two sets relieve each other, 
 and three chakrams, or 36 men, will, in the course of a day, cleat ten 
 porays of three feet of water. The ten porays are one and a third 
 acre and the quantity of water thrown out is 174,800 cubical feet.* 
 
 A Table of the different varieties of Rice cultivated in India, and 
 ike produce per acre. 
 
 \ | MONTHS. 
 
 PRODUCE. 
 
 ■Hotny Caimbute, - - - - 
 
 Arsina Caimbute, - - - - 
 
 Doda Butta, - - - - - - 
 
 Cari Chaningy, - - - - - 
 
 Bili Sanabutta, - - - - - 
 
 Cari Sunabutta. - - - - 
 
 Pishanum, ------ 
 
 Jeda Mulligy, - - - - - 
 
 Dara Raga Sumbava, - - - 
 Gumdie Mulligy, - - - - 
 
 Cago cultivated on lands im- } 
 pregnattd vrith salt inunda- > 
 lions, ------ \ 
 
 5 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 54 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 ' 
 
 
 
 59 bushels. 
 47 do. 
 44 do. 
 44 do. 
 55 do. 
 66 do. ' 
 96 do- 
 96 do. 
 80 do. 
 80 do. 
 
 00 do. 
 
 ■ See 2d vol. of Buchanan's Journey, for the plate. 
 
294 ON THE COMMON POTATOE. 
 
 [Vrom cooper's domestic enclyclopedlaJ 
 
 On the Common Potatoe. 
 
 Jl OTATOE, the common, or salanum tuberosum, L. a valuable root, 
 originally a native of South- America, whence it was introduced into 
 Ireland ; and subsequently into Great-Britain, about the commence- 
 ment of the 17th century. 
 
 There are numerous varieties of the potatoe, which are cultivated 
 both for culinary purposes, and for the feeding of cattle 
 
 The common mode of planting potatoes is, by setting the small 
 Toots entire; or by cutting the larger ones to pieces, and reserving 
 one eye or bud to each. 
 
 [But the best mode upon the whole appears to be this: choose your 
 potatoes for planting of a moderate size, rather large than small, for 
 there is no good reason to be assigned for breeding from diminutive 
 parents. Cut your potatoes in to sets, two eyes to a set: throw away 
 without hesitation into the hog trough all the inferior and diminutive 
 eyes, choosing your sets from the middle of the potatoe. Do not cut 
 the potatoe down the middle. 
 
 If your soil be stiff and wet, plough it in ridges: if sandy and dry, 
 plough it flat Plough it deep Plant your sets in drills marked out 
 by the plough or the hoe. The plants should be dibbled in, six inches 
 deep, on long dung, scattered not sparingly, along the drills : then 
 covered with about 4 inches of mould 
 
 The drills should be in threes]^£5^a foot apart: the plants should 
 be 8 inches a part, with an interval, on each side of each set of three 
 drills, of two feet, which will admit of horse-hoeing between the sets 
 of drills, and of hand weeding between each drill, 
 
 To have a good crop, you must not spare dung, or spare labour in 
 weeding. Some persons prefer setts of four or five drills instead of 
 three : or where horse-hoeing is not convenient, the intervals ma) be 
 reduced to one foot between each set of drills for the convenience of 
 hand weeding; but upon the whole, 1 he method here first proposed 
 is us rood hs any. Forty loads of dung per acre will pay better than, 
 a less quantity. 
 
BN THE COMMON POTATOE. ^95 
 
 If small potatoes are wanted for feeding, the sets may be at 6 inches 
 apart, rind the rows at 9 inches : but the method here first proposed, 
 ad nits what is essential, accurate weeding, and suficient air to circu- 
 late between the plants. — T. C] 
 
 Besides the depredations of worms, grubs, and various other in- 
 sects, to which potatoes are subject in common with other vegetables, 
 there is a disease termed the curt, that peculiarly affects these roots ; 
 and for which ingenious agriculturists have endeavoured to account 
 by various conjectures. By some it is considered as a species of 
 blight, but it is more generally attributed to one or more of the follow- 
 ing causes: 1. Frost, either before, or after the sets, &c. have been 
 planted. 2. The planting of such sets, from unripe potatoes. 3. 
 From, not placing them at a sufficient depth. 4. From putting them 
 in exhausted lands. 5. By the fhst shoots of the sets having been 
 broken off previously to planting; in consequence of which, the semi- 
 nal plant is incapacitated from sending forth other shoots sufficiently 
 vigorous to expand 6. To a white grub, that preys upon the roots. 
 7- To the propagation of shoots, sets, eyes, &c. constantly from the 
 same variety, and on the same land,, so that the p» tatoes degenerate, 
 and at length yield indifferent crops. 8. Over dunging 
 
 In the 8th volume of the Transactions of the Society for the en- 
 couragement ofArts,8zc. we meet with an interesting communication 
 en the curl, by Mr. W. Hollins, who divides the disease in three 
 different stages, viz. 
 
 1. The half curt, in which the leaves of the plant are somewhat 
 long, and slightly curled : they produce however, tolerable <rops, if 
 the summer be not too dry ; otherwise the potatoes will be small and 
 watery. 
 
 2. The full curl: in this stage the plants seldom exceed the height 
 ©f six or seven inches ; speedily attain maturity, and decay. 'The 
 potatoes are, in general, less than a nutmeg ; 'of a dusky-red colour; 
 and are extremely unwholesome as an article pf food. 
 
 3. Corrupted potatoes, the vegetative power of which is almost 
 destroyed, never appear on the surface of the ground The seed will be 
 found at Michaelmas in a state apparently as fresh as when it was 
 first set ; a few small potatoes, perhaps, growing from the parent 
 root. 
 
 This accurate observer attributes the curl, first, to late setting h\ 
 rich soil, succeeded by a hot, dry summer: in consequence of which 
 the flower falls off ; the seed is exhausted in feeding the plant ; 
 and few potatoes appear. Should moist weather occur in au- 
 tumn, the plants, after being earthed, will blow a second time, and 
 a plentiful crop of potatoes will be produced. These are, in his opi- 
 nion, pefectly wholesome as food ; but. being generated from the 
 stalk of the plant after the seed has been exhausted, their vegetative 
 power is defective, and the plants that proceed from them will ne- 
 cessarily be curled. 
 
 The second cause of this disease, Mr. Hollins attributes to the for- 
 cing of potatoes, by setting them in too rich a soil. H is preventive 
 method consists in planting them early, in ridges about one yard 
 apart, having previously spread a little manure in the trench. They 
 
29tJ ON THE COMMON POTATOE 
 
 are to be set in a triangular form, five or six inches distant, and co- 
 vered with soil to an equal depth : thus they will be protected from 
 the heat of the sun, incase the weather be too dry, while they re- 
 main sufficiently apart for receiving the full benefit of the air. When 
 the plants have attained the height of six or seven inches, he directs 
 them not to be earthed up, but to be occasionally weeded. By this 
 simple method, roots will be formed in due season, and grow gradu- 
 ally ; and, as the stalk will decay at the proper time, the sap will be 
 left in the potatoe, and become a seed, possessing a perfect power of 
 vegetation; so that the plants raised from it will be wholly exempt 
 from the curl. 
 
 From the authorities collected by the British Board of Agricul- 
 ture, on the subject of potatoes, it appears, that the curl is very apt 
 to appear in potatoes, planted in ground which has been manured 
 with lime, vmod-ashes, or coal-ashes ; and that it never appears in 
 those raised in mossy land. The Lancashire planters even send their 
 favourite potatoes to the mossy grounds to recover, after they have 
 caught the distemper. This is an invaluable fact, [if true, T C] 
 for the owners of mossy land, of which the farmers near Elizabeth 
 town, and New^Brunswick, New-Jersey, should profit. 
 
 There prevails another opinion respecting this disease, namely, 
 that it is contagious ; but such notion has been ably combated in the 
 2d. volume of Communications to the Board of Agriculture ; where 
 it is observed, that whatever tends to render a crop poor and weakly 
 is very apt to produce the curl : hence, the disease probably origi- 
 nates entirely, or in a great measure, from the following causes ; 
 1. Land, altogether unfit for potatoes. 2 Imperfect culture. 3. 
 Small roots; or too small a proportion of strong roots. 4. Sets, ta- 
 ken from roots that have sprouted early, and the germs of which have 
 been rubbed off. 5. Too small, as well as too large a quantity of 
 dung. 6. Too deep, or too shallow planting. 7. Every external 
 impediment that may injure new plants. 8. Too stiff ground, or 
 such as has been pressed down too closely on the sets. 9. An unfa- 
 vourable state of the weather, while the crop is young. The result 
 of the writer's inquiries briefly is, that, if the curl be not a disease, 
 but merely an incidental debility, it may be prevented by diligent 
 attention to all those circumstances ; which, according to experience, 
 are essential to the cultivation of potatoes. 
 
 It is difficult to decide, amid this difference of opinion among prac- 
 tical agriculturists; but as these roots materially contribute to the 
 comfort of mankind, we have discussed the object at some length; 
 and shall now concisely state those remedies which have been suc- 
 cessfully adopted. These are, changing the seed, raising new kinds 
 from the seed, or apple of the plant ; or renewing the same sorts 
 again from the same seed. Salt is said to be an excellent preventive 
 against the depredations of the grub. 
 
 Beside the curl, potatoes are liable to two other disorders, viz. the 
 scab, which consists of excescences that arise in very dry seasons f 
 and the canker, which is occasioned by small cavities, that appear in 
 wet weather. These defects have been conjectured to be in s me 
 measure the cause of the curl ; and they increase, according to ihu 
 
ON TttE COMMON POTATOE. 297 
 
 length of time the potatoes remain in the earth, after the roots have 
 attained maturity. 
 
 The proper time for digging up potatoes is in the dry weather oC 
 autumn, when the leaves and stems begin to decay. If they are cul- 
 tivated on a small scale, this work is performed by means of a three 
 pronged fork, furnished with flat tines ; but, when raised in fields, 
 the roots are turned up by a plough, the coulter of which is taken out, 
 to prevent them from being cut. After those which appear on the 
 surface are collected, a pair of drags is passed over the whole, in or- 
 der to separate and expose such as may adhere to the clods. 
 
 In the report on the agriculture of the county of Hereford, drawn 
 tip for the British board of agriculture, is a description of an excellent 
 implement, invented by Mr. Yeldall, for taking up potatoes, having 
 fourprongs, or barbs of iron, with a fang, in the form of a double mould- 
 board plough, drawn by three horses or four oxen. It enters the 
 ground, under the bed of potatoes, and throws the whole to the sur- 
 face. A plate may also be seen in the publication of the Board of 
 Agriculture, on potatoes 
 
 The potatoe is one of the most valuable roots for culinary uses: 
 when boiled, it forms a principle article of food, and serves partly as 
 a substitute for bread. [Mixed with wheaten flour, fermented with 
 yeast, and properly baked, it makes a wholesome and nutritious loaf: 
 the most economical method of preparing these roots, we have alrea- 
 dy stated. 
 
 Potatoes are likewise serviceable in fattening hogs: but, if the 
 latter be designed for bacon or hams, it will be advisable to mix gra- 
 dually four bushels of ground peas, with an equal quantity of the 
 boiled roots ; which portion will it is affirmed fatten an animal of 
 twelve stone. In a boiled state they may also be given to poultry 
 with similar effect. 
 
 In a very interesting paper on the culture of potatoes, which is in- 
 serted in the l6th volume of the Trans, of the Soc. of Arts{\79^>) 
 by Mr. Harper, we find the following facts : 
 
 " That when either beasts or pigs have been feed with flour and 
 potatoes, after a time, they will abate in their eating; when if all the 
 hull or bran be taken out of the flour, they will both make up better 
 and in nearly one half of the time that they would, if the bran was 
 left in. 
 
 2. There is a great profit in feeding geese, turkeys, and fowls, of 
 every sort, with potatoes and meal mixed; they will fatten in 
 nearly one half of the time that they will with any kind of corn, 
 or even meal by itself. The potatoes must be bruised fine, while 
 they are hot, and the meal added, when the mess is about to be given 
 to them. Potatoes answer for farm-houses equally as well as for feed- 
 ing cattle.' 7 
 
 Mr. Bordley, in his excellent Notes on Husbandry, 2d edition 
 page 189 to 184, has incontestibly proved the superiority of pota- 
 toes, as food for beasts, over Indian corn, both in respect to cheap- 
 ness and the quality of nourishment afforded by both articles. 
 
 Mr. Somerville says that the fattening of hogs by potatoes is much 
 hastened, bv mixing a small quantity of anv astringent substance 
 
 3§ 
 
2^8 ON THE COMMON POTATOE. 
 
 among the potatoes, especially if they shew the least tendency 
 to purging. A little alum, or Armenian bole, may be used. — He- 
 port of the Board of Agriculture on potatoes, page 143 ? 
 
 From the experience of Mr. Bartley (secretary to the Baik Agri- 
 cultural Society) which he has detailed in a late pamphlet, it ap- 
 pears that sheep are very fond of potaioes, and that they thrive 
 rapidly upon them. Boiling certainly increases their nutritious 
 quality : this advantage may be easily obtained, and at a cheap rate, 
 by employing the boiler of Mr. T. Kirk, which is described under 
 the head Water, in Cooper's edition of Domestic Ency> ''opedia. 
 
 [To boil potatoes for cattle, wash your potatoes quite free from 
 dirt, with a birch broom at the pump trough ; fill a hogshead with 
 them ; let the bottom of the hogshead be pierced with auger holes ; 
 the top put on loosely, as a loose cover. Prepare an iron boiler, 
 of diameter equal to the bottom of the hogshead ; set it, with a fire- 
 place, underneath, and a chimney on one side, the top of the boil- 
 er even with the ground ; enclose it with an oak rim, about an inch, 
 higher than the rim of the boiler. Fill the boiler with water ; make 
 a fire under it : fix the hogshead within the oak rim over the boiler, 
 the lv ttom over the water. Boil the water ; the steam will percolate 
 through the potatoes, and dress them. When sufficiently steamed, 
 roll off that hogshead, and roll on another. 
 
 I have seen this in operation, at a large dairy-farm of 120 cows, 
 near Liverpool, with great satisfaction. The cows were fed with, 
 boiled [steamed] potatoes and a little salt, in winter, and with chico- 
 ry (succory, chicorium intubus, wild endive,) cut four times in the 
 season, during summer. — T. C] 
 
 A kind of whiskey is distilled from these roots, which might be 
 made very profitable. A fine size may be prepared from potatoes, 
 which will answer all the purposes of that in common use. particu- 
 larly for whitening ceilings and walls With this intention, any 
 quantity of newly made potatoe-starch should be boiled into a paste , 
 a sufficient portion of which ought to be mixed with the whiting, af- 
 ter the latter has been diluted with water. The coat thus prepared 
 is much clearer, retains its whiteness longer, and is less liable to 
 crack or scale than such as is mixed with animal glue. There is an- 
 other economical way of employing the water expressed from pota- 
 toes, in the processes of making starch or size. This liquor is use- 
 ful for washing linen, whether plain or coloured, silk hankerchiefs, 
 stockings, &c. without the aid of any ley or soap: it is said to im- 
 prove rather than to diminsh the tint, while it restotes their original 
 brightness, and imparts a degree of stiffness to silk stuffs, which 
 cannot be obtained by the common method of cleaning them It 
 deserves, however, to be remarked, that no discoloured or other- 
 wise damaged roots must be used for this purpose. 
 
 Potatoes being of such extensive utility, various expedients have 
 been contrived, with a view to preserve them. The most common 
 method is, that of piling them up, after they have become dry, in 
 heaps resembling the roof of a barn, covering them closely with 
 straw, in such a manner as to meet in a point at the top j and then 
 slightly spreading them over with mould, which is beaten down with 
 
ON THE COMMON POTATOES ^9§ 
 
 « spade. Some husbandmen make holes in the sides and top of the 
 eh th, in order that the air, arising from the natural heat of the roots, 
 may evaporate ; and, as soon as the steam ceases, the cavities ate 
 filled up, to prevent the effects of frost*>r rain Another mode con- 
 sists in depositing them in pits, and covering them with dry straw, 
 or with the haulm of the roots ; by which management, if their sur- 
 face be perfectly dry, at the time they are put in, potatoes may long 
 be preserved in a sound state. 
 
 In Pennsylvania, potatoes are commonly kept in a vault, under 
 the bank leading to the threshing floor of the barn : and from the 
 equable temperature of the heat therein, they are preserved very- 
 well, neither freezing nor vegetating. When necessary, the Sussex 
 county plan, mentioned in the Report of the Board of Agriculture*, 
 may be adopted. Holes are dug in the side of a hill, six yards wide, 
 ten feet deep, and of an indeterminate length ; carts from the field 
 unload at top, and they are taken out at the bottom, which opens to 
 the slope of the hill, where a wall is built with a door. When full, 
 a stack of stubble or straw is built over the hole, wide and large 
 enough for security against all frosts. In this manner the effluvia of 
 the roots, rising through the stubble, does not occassion their rotting 
 from heat. 
 
 A mode of keeping potatoes, was lately and successfully tried by 
 the Bath and West of England Society ; and which certainly is less 
 complex than that before described. It consists simply in slicing 
 potatoes, without taking off the rind or skin, and afterwards drying 
 them in an oven or kiln. The roots thus prepared will remain sweet 
 for almost any length ot time 5 the Society sent some to Jamaica in a 
 barrel; which had been four years from Britain, and, on their re- 
 turn, were found not 10 be in the least degree effected. 
 
 The propriety of this method of preserving potatoes, would seem 
 to be confirmed, by the following communication, taken from the 
 London Commercial and Agricultural Magazine; the communication 
 is signed " A West-India sea captain," and dated " Liverpool, 
 March 24, 1802. 
 
 " I have made some effort of late years, towards improving and 
 extending the common methods of preserving stores on board ship : 
 and a result of a few of them 1 take the liberty of sending to you, 
 for the use of your publication, if esteemed worthy of notice. 
 
 " Finding the potatoe the most useful of all vegetables, I have had 
 recourse to every possible means of preserving it, I have found this 
 root most effectually preserved by slicing and gently baking it. Af- 
 ter this process it will keep sweet for years. And in this state it is 
 very serviceable to eat as bread, to boil for various purposes or to be 
 ground into flour, which may be mixed in wheaten flour, for many 
 salutary and profitable uses. I have a hand mill on purpose to grind 
 these potatoe slices, and likewise to grind biscuits. I have always 
 been careful in selecting a dry mealy potatoe for this use, particularly 
 that species distinguished by the name of champions. 1 always or- 
 der the peel of the potatoes to be scraped off, and the eyes clearly ta- 
 ken out (in the same manner as every judicious cook prepares this 
 root for the table) prior to their being sliced, and dried or baked ; 
 
300 ON THE COMMON POTATOET 
 
 and this will remove that strong flavour and smell of the potato?, 
 which would otherwise prevail in the flour. Due care should, in this 
 case, likewise be taken in the selection of dry and seasoned casks for 
 the reception of this food ; especially if intended to be kept for a long 
 voyage; and to ensure a certainty of continuance of dryness, I have 
 generally packed this preparation in, what is almost the driest thing 
 in nature, the husks of oats, or what is called meal-seeds, which may 
 be procured in abundance in any of the northern parts of England, or 
 wherever oat-meal is made." 
 
 M. Baume of France, has invented a very convenient machine 
 for the purpose of grinding potatoes to make starch, or to obtain 
 flour from them ; a plate of which may be seen in the Repertory of 
 Arts, or in the volume on potatoes, published by the British Board 
 of Agriculture. To those who wish to pursue the grinding potatoes 
 as a business, the machine will be found highly advantageous. For 
 domestic purposes, a large grater will be sufficient. 
 
 Method of dressing watery Potatoes. — Washrthe potatoes clean 3 
 put them in a covered pot, without any water, on a slow fire ; the 
 heat very soon draws out sufficient water to stew them in, and the 
 potatoes so managed are dry and mealy, though the same boiled in 
 the common way are so wet as to be scarcely eatable. In Yorkshire 
 (Eng.) if the potatoes are boiled in water, the women drain it off, 
 when they are supposed to be boiled thouroughly, then steam them 
 over the fire, till they are dry, and begin to split. 
 
 [To boil Potatoes. — Put them in cold water with the top of the 
 pot loosely on. Let them boil gradually in water that will just keep 
 them covered ; when the water has boiled, put on the cover close^ 
 and continue boiling them for some time longer, till they are soft. 
 Pour off the water, and let the potatoes drain in a culle nder. Then 
 put them in the pot again without water, and drive off the moisture 
 till they split.— T. C] 
 
 \Potatoe Starch — Grate the potatoes : wash them till the water 
 comes off clear, preserving the white sediment, which is the starchy 
 it keeps longer than wheat flour — T. C] 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 ORIGINAL LETTERS. 
 
 LETTER XV. 
 
 On Cotton Planting. 
 
 Edisto-Island, July 30th, 1825. 
 
 DEAR SIR, 
 
 JLOUR letter of the 21st inst. has been duly receiv- 
 ed, and I now embrace the opportunity that my con- 
 valescence affords, of replying to the several queries, 
 which you did me the honor of submitting to my con- 
 sideration. 
 
 Query \st. What preparation do you give your, 
 land before you begin to plant ? 
 
 Answer. If the land is new, after being thoroughly 
 burnt, cleared, and ditched, it is laid out into quarter 
 acres. The lines on which the beds are to be made, 
 and which are usually five feet apart, are then well 
 
OUZ ON COTTON PLANTING'. 
 
 turned up with the hoe. The land is never listed, but 
 ridged only. If the roots are numerous, it requires 
 two able bodied labourers to do one task effectually, 
 and oft-times three are necessary. In old lands, broom 
 grass is known to be a nuisance, and therefore, inva- 
 riably burnt. With regard to crab grass, I would re- 
 mark, that we use every effort to bury it in December, 
 but should that be impracticable, and the usual period 
 of out-door labour has arrived, the majority of our 
 planters incline to the opinion, that, on high land, the 
 application of fire is necessary ; but, if possible, the 
 hoe should be forthwith resorted to, with a view of 
 covering the ashes, which, when fresh, are highly es- 
 teemed as a manure. There is one serious disadvan- 
 tage in not destroying, at this season, when very thick, 
 this herbaceous, or in fact, any other kind of vegetable 
 matter. Decomposition takes place precisely at the time, 
 when the plant is peculiarly tender, and in need of 
 every natural and artificial stimulant. As the grass 
 rots, the space which it occupied, becomes sometimes 
 suddenly narrowed and contracted, thereby creating a 
 vacuum between it and the cotton roots; and, if great 
 care is not exercised in immediately filling the void, 
 b> pushing down the earth with the hand, the plant 
 withers and frequently dies. This operation is tedi- 
 ous, and we seldom can spare the labour to perform 
 it effectually. Our manures are strewed above the 
 listings, though a few planters of experience and judg- 
 ment prefer placing them above, when pulverized* 
 
 Query °2d. When do you begin to plant? 
 
 Answer. This depends on the season, but generally 
 about the 25th of March. 
 
 Query 3d. Do you select your seed, and how do 
 you know the best seed ? 
 
 Answer. We believe that the pods first gathered, 
 yield the earliest cotton, and produce the longest and 
 strongest staple. The soundest seed is from the mid 
 die ol the staik ; and the finest cotton from the upper 
 
ON COTTON PLANTING. 305 
 
 fruit. The small and the large very black, and per- 
 fectly clean seed, many of us consider inferior. The 
 best is the light black, or dark brown, with a little wool 
 at the small end. 
 
 Query %>th. What quantity of seed to the acre, and 
 what preparation before sowing ; do you steep ? 
 
 Answer. About om bushel to the acre. No other 
 preparation before sowing than removing the false seed,] 
 We never steep. 
 
 Query 5th. How many rows to the task, or quarter 
 acre ? 
 
 Answer. If the land is poor, about 24 — if rich, 18"; 
 averaging in a field about 21 rows. 
 
 Query 6th. How many stalks on the row ? 
 
 Answer. In very fertile ground, from 60 to 80 — In 
 Weak soils, from 120 to 140 stalks. 
 
 Query 1th. How many acr< s to the hand ? 
 
 Answer. We have hitherto planted 4 acres to the 
 band, but in consequence of the exhausted state of our 
 fields, and the difficulty of assisting, with manure, so 
 large a quantity, three and one half acres will proba- 
 bably be the maximum cultivated hereafter — manuring 
 the whole. 
 
 Query 8th. High or low beds ? 
 
 Answer. In order to diminish the labour of cultiva- 
 tion, and to prevent the seeds of grass and weeds from 
 vegetating too quickly, the beds are raised high, and 
 with full round sides. Of a wet season, the action of 
 the sun on ridges that are small and sharp pointed, 
 scalds the roots, and thus diseases the plant. In a pe- 
 riod of drought, the same cause, produces an effect* 
 equally deleterious. 
 
 Query 9th. How often do you hoe, and when do 
 you begin ? 
 
 Answer. We seldom or never hoe oftener than five 
 or six times. After the first operation, in which we 
 endeavour to preserve the original size of the ridge, 
 the earth is drawn to the top of the bed, twice in sue- 
 
304 ON COTTON PJLANTINGi 
 
 cession ; taking care, that at the second working, the 
 dirt is not thrown so high as to come in contact with 
 the stalk. A little dirt is unquestionably beneficial, 
 and this object is subsequently attained, by scattering 
 with the hand, only such a portion, as will speedily 
 become dry. Too much wet earth, and the power of 
 the vertical sun on the tender fibres of the plant, are 
 apt to generate a scalding heat, which produces a dis- 
 ease, technically called sore-shins. In the infancy of 
 our crops, the more frequently they are worked the bet- 
 ter, but after the plant exhibits the appearance of put- 
 ting out freely of fruit, we rarely ever disturb the bed, 
 otherwise than when it is necessary to remove with the 
 hand or a chop of the hoe, the large grass that may re- 
 main. We begin to hoe, and I would observe, that at 
 every operation, the weeds and e;rass, on the top of the 
 ridge, are hand-picked, about the 25th of April, and end 
 about the 15th of August, after this period, it is a fun- 
 damental error, and often times attended with destruc- 
 tive consequences to continue your field labours. 
 
 Query IQt/i. What is the size of your hoe ? 
 
 Answer. 10, 11 and 12 inches — Frenchay and 
 Crawley's. 
 
 Query 11th, Do you ever plough, and what kind 
 or kinds of plough do you prefer ? 
 
 Answer. It is but very recently since ploughs have 
 been introduced here, and from the lightness of our 
 soils, it is not probable, that they will be extensively 
 used for cotton. 1 imagine, however, that in the cul- 
 tivation of our provision crops, they will soon be found 
 to be invaluable. 
 
 Query 12th. How many acres do you plant in a 
 day? 
 
 Answer. We seldom exceed three-fourths of an 
 acre to the hand a day. 
 
 Query ISth. How do you cover your seed ? 
 
 Answer. In rough and cloddy ground, we cover 
 with the hoe — in light land, we sometimes use the 
 
ON COTTON PLANTING. 305 
 
 foot, but generally, small pieces of wood, about 12 in- 
 ches in length, 6 inches in width, and 2 inches thick. 
 
 Query \&th. Do you ever top your cotton, and 
 when ? 
 
 Answer* The practice of topping is not common, 
 though it has repeatedly been done, with decided ad- 
 vantages, between the 15th of August, and the 15th 
 of September. As far as my experience extends, the 
 remark of Taylor, in his Arator, on this subject, has 
 been proved to be correct. " Topping," says he, 
 " should take place when the cotton has disclosed as 
 much bloom, as it may have time to bring to perfec- 
 tion. Useless bloom, which it will continue to throw 
 out, if permitted, will impoverish the crop, and impair 
 the quality of the wool." We are now engaged in a 
 series of experiments, testing the efficacy of the Decor- 
 ticator, and should their results be satisfactory, which 
 we think is more than probable, it will' afford me plea- 
 sure, at some future period, to communicate them to 
 you. 
 
 Query 15th. Do you ever hoe down ? 
 
 Answer, Never. 
 
 Query 16th. When do you begin to thin your cot- 
 ton, and how often ? 
 
 Answer. On this all important subject, I am unable 
 to furnish you with any fixed and definite principles 
 on which to act. Our method of thinning depends 
 entirely on the health fulness of the plant, and the state 
 of the weather. There are, however, one or two lead- 
 ing points, upon w 7 hich we are all agreed, and Irom 
 which we never deviate. At the first hoeing, a little 
 is taken out, but without reference to any regular rule. 
 At the second, the stalks are separated about two or 
 three inches, but never so far, as not to allow theui 
 mutually to assist each other by the shade which their 
 leaves afford. After this, as soon as the want of a 
 more free circulation of air becomes obvious, a j\ duc- 
 ^tion of the number on a row is necessary. When the 
 39 
 
$06 ON COTTON PLANTING. 
 
 plants have assumed a thick external coat, and the 
 first signs of" fructification begin to evolve, the thin- 
 nine: is carried to a considerable extent. By the 25th 
 of June, our labour, in this respect, is at an end. It 
 a pur a s to us, the general error i«, that too many stalks 
 arc destroyed at first, and when they are strong 
 and vigorous, too many are suffered to remain ; and at 
 that interesting age too, when the iiuobstrueted influ- 
 ence of solar and atmospheric action is vitally impor- 
 tant. Personal observation alone, however, can fur- 
 nish the grand criteria, which this momentous branch 
 of the system of cotton cultivation imperiously require. 
 I am satisfied, that to the want of experimental know- 
 ledge, on this point, is to be attributed, more than to 
 any other single cause, the difference between the pro- 
 duct of adjoining fields. 
 
 Query \lth. When do you begin to pick, and what 
 do } on pick to the hand ? 
 
 Answer, We commence picking about the 20th of 
 August, and when the cotton is well blown, we gather 
 from 50 to 70 lbs to the hand. More could be har- 
 vesred, but from the great care, which we deem it ad- 
 visable to exercise in this operation, the above is a fair 
 statement. 
 
 Query 28th. What is your mode of preparing, do 
 you handle it much, or expose it to the sun ? 
 
 Answer. The first and most essential matter is, to 
 gather it, as perfectly divested of dirt, dried leaves, and 
 yellow particles, as possible. This is a sine qua non. 
 At an early hour of the morning, the labourers, stand- 
 ing around a low scaffold (for th; y are never permitted 
 to be on it) re-examine their respective sheets, and in 
 this employment, they are generally engaged, from one 
 half to two hours. The cotton is then spread, and suf- 
 fered re remain on the scaffold about three hours, or 
 until it is deprived of the dampness, that is sensible to 
 the touch. If the weather is very dry, the cotton is 
 seldom suaned, for it is an obvious error to rob it, by 
 

 ON COTTON PLANTING. $07 
 
 undue exposure of its oleaginous qualify. A few old 
 negroes attend to the duty of spreading, housing and 
 in further cleansing it of its impurities. When the 
 season of preparing it for market arrives, a certain 
 number of labourers, if necessary, is detailed for ano- 
 ther examination, and from their hands, the rottjon is 
 passed to the whipped from whence it is conveyed to 
 the gin. The quantity ginned by a prime negro is 28 
 pounds nett. With a view of preventing the sound 
 seed from passing through the interstices of the rollers, 
 oak wood is exclusively used. This is esteemed a 
 preventive, if the least caution is observed. In the 
 rear or above the ginners, are receptacles for the stone 
 cotton. The moaters are females, and their day's la- 
 bour is from 30 to 40 lbs. They >it before a frame, 
 the lower part of which is covered with pieces of 
 wood, half an inch i* width, and about one-eighth of 
 an inch apart. Above them are boxes for the recep- 
 tion of their cotton, which, when inspected, is deposit- 
 ed in a closet, within the moating room. The next 
 day, one or two careful negroes re-examine, on a small 
 frame, for the bag. The cotton, thus prepared, is pas- 
 sed by them to the packer, who performs his duty in 
 an apartment attached to the house. The cotton is 
 well handled before it is ginned, but very little after- 
 wards. 
 
 Query \9th. Do} 7 ou use the Whipper? 
 
 Answer. We do, and consider it not only as a va- 
 luable labour saving machine, but as capable of effect- } 
 ing, what could not properly and advantageously be 
 performed by the hand. 
 
 Query 20th. What kind of gin do you prefer, and 
 how propelled ; has the wind mill succeeded ? 
 
 Answer We use the treadle gin only. The want 
 of another power, or a less ted ous process of separat- 
 ing the seed from the wool, may be considered a desi- 
 deratum in the rural economy of the cotton growing 
 States. The wind- mill has not succeeded. 
 
30$ ON COTTON PLANTING. 
 
 'Query 21st. What rotation do you observer 1 
 
 Answer. The subject of a rotation of crops is just 
 h* winning to excite our attention. I am satisfied of 
 the correctness of the principle that originally led to 
 its suggestion, but, as yet, no facts have transpired, 
 Worthy of communication 
 
 Query 22d. What manures do you prefer? 
 
 Answer. For high and loose sandy soils, salt mud, 
 green marsh or rushes. For low close lands, fresh 
 cotton seed, pine trash, marsh or rushes, rotted in a 
 cow -pen. -™ 
 
 Query 23d. What quantity of manure to the acre ? 
 
 Answer. Of salt mud, from 40 to 60 cart loads — 
 cotton seed, about 80 bushels — marsh, &c. from the 
 cow-pen, from 250 to 330 bushels — green marsh or 
 rushes, about 6 or 8 inches thick, and 12 inches in 
 width. 
 
 Query 2Ath. How many cart loads can be carried 
 out in a day ? 
 
 Answer If the manure is mud, one mule cart can 
 carry out 20 loads a day, if the distance does not ex- 
 ceed 600 yards, and provided a labourer is engaged in 
 chopping and pulverizing it for the cart. Of the ma- 
 nures from the cow-pen, a like quantity can be con- 
 veyed the same distance, if the same means are used. 
 
 Query 25th. Do you find rice to succeed on your 
 high lands ? 
 
 Answer. We have never accurately tested the fact. 
 
 Query 26th. What do you call a good crop of cot- 
 ton to the acre, and to the hand ? 
 
 Answer. 160 lbs. of white cotton to the acre, and 
 640 lbs. to the hand. 
 
 Query 21th. Do you use lime for manure, or 
 ground oyster shells ? 
 
 Answer. We have never used either. 
 
 I have thus Sir, endeavoured to comply with your 
 request, so far as my state of health, and the few lei- 
 
ON COTTON PLANTING. 309 
 
 sure moments I have had, would permit. If, at any 
 time hereafter, you should be desirous of obtaining 
 further information, touching the agriculture of this 
 section of the State, I need not assure you, that my 
 services are perfectly at your command. 
 
 Very respectfully, 
 
 Your obedient 
 
 Servant, 
 WHITEMARSH B. SEABROOK. 
 William Washington, Esq. 
 
 Chairman of the Committee on 
 
 Publications, A. S. S. C. 
 
 LETTER XVI. 
 
 On Guinea Corn. 
 
 The following letter is from a most respectable and 
 successful Cotton Planter, on the subject of Guinea 
 Corn, we regret that the modesty of the writer will 
 not suffer us to disclose his name. 
 
 Liveersy, July 18ih, 1825. 
 
 " I Received by last mail your letter, requesting in- 
 formation as to the culture audi produce of Guinea Corn, 
 
310 ON GUINEA CORN. 
 
 which I give with pleasure as far as my little experience 
 goes. The culture from hoe and plou&h, astotimt of 
 planting, distant e of the rows apart and tillage, is rhe 
 same as for Indian corn, a bushel will plant eight or ten 
 acres, scattering the seed in the drills, as turnips; and 
 covering lightly.* It grows slowly and looks discou- 
 raging for about two months or till knee high, and then 
 it grows surprisingly fast and is very hardy when a- 
 bout six inches high I chopped it across with the hoe, 
 leaving two stalks together 10 or 12 inches apart from 
 the next two. It received no other work from the hoe 
 till laying by, and that done in the manner for Indian- 
 corn. I observed it to fire a little on the poorest spots 
 last year, so that it might be prudent to thin to single 
 stalks on weak land. It begins to show heads early in 
 July and by the middle of Augusta part will be ripe » 
 by the middle of September the bulk of the crop will 
 be ripe; ir continues to put out new heads and to ripen 
 till severe frost. The earliest corn produces the most, the 
 earlier therefore it is planted the better. It is ripe when 
 the grain generally is brown and hard, and is gathered 
 by cutting off the stem to the grain and is carried out of 
 the fields in baskets; a hand cuts and carries to the 
 wagon, if convenient from 10 to 15 two bushel baskets ; 
 this of course depends on the quantity ripe at a time, 
 for at the first cutting, where the ripe heads are tew in 
 a place, they do less. The gathering is tedious, and in- 
 terferes with picking cotton. It must be spread over the 
 bam floor thin, or kept stirred as it is very liable to 
 heat till trie green stem dries. It is easily threshed out. 
 I generally half thresh it, sending the ear part to the 
 mules and horses, the other is given to the negroes as 
 Indian corn, and in same quantity, and they are equal- 
 ly, indeed more willing to receive it ; they prepare it in 
 several ways, but generally by bating it and boiling it 
 as rice. 1 i^(\ my mules and horses on it, all the fall 
 
 "* It is said to be very difficult to set a Crop. 
 
ON GUINEA CORN. • 311 
 
 and winter, and they thrive well; it is rather hard for 
 he digestion of cattle It yields an immense crop of 
 blades but leaf is coarse. The mules however, I never 
 observed to dislike it. I found it so ifficult to gather 
 and sun in such a thicket as the field presented, that I 
 have done it but one year, feeling some doubt too if it 
 did not diminish the productiveness of the late shutes. 
 As to production 1 believe it to furnish more food for 
 man and beast per acre than any other grain, planted 
 early in very rich land and in a warm climate ; and I 
 hazard the opinion that it is capable of producing as 
 near 200 bushels as one. I am as confident as I can be 
 of that which I did not measure, that my crop in 1823 
 exceeded 100 bushels for every acre planted. One seed 
 puts out a main stem and several others, each stem 
 bears a large ear and at each leaf in the main stem a 
 shute puts out which bears an ear. I have counted 
 28 heads or ears from one grain, and they must have 
 beenequal tosixears of Indian Corn. The stalk has 
 much of the sacharine juice of the cane in it, and is fine 
 food for cattle, throughout the winter, where cut as fod- 
 der. I haVe planted only one kind of land which is a 
 rich alluvial isinglass river bottom, lying so low as to be 
 effected by almost every swell in the river, though natu- 
 rally a dry soil. It will not be injuired by an overflow- 
 ing that would kill Indian corn. I believe I have said 
 more than may be necessary on the subject. I have a 
 fine field of 8 acres and if not destroyed by the fresh I 
 will try and ascertain the produce of an acre and in- 
 form you of it. 
 
 It is heavier than any other grain, exceeding the best 
 wheat by ten pounds in the bushel, and the superfine 
 flour made from it may be used for most of the purpo- 
 ses to which wheat flour is applied. I am unacquainted 
 with its productiveness on poor land. 
 
312 ON LIME. 
 
 LETTER XVII. 
 
 O71 Lime. 
 
 Letter to John Hume, Esq. President of the Agricul- 
 tural Society, on the application of Lime to Marsh 
 Land, and an experiment on the culture of the 
 Sweet Potatoe : by John Middleton, Esq. 
 
 Charleston, February 21st, 1825. 
 SIR, 
 
 IN some of my marsh rice-fields, there are spots of 
 ground so impregnated with salt Or alum, as not to 
 produce any thing. The last spring I applied lime, at 
 the rate of 100|bushels the acre, to some of the parts af- 
 fected, and made at the rate of two and a half barrels 
 to the acre; the other part of the field yielded three 
 barrels more. 
 
 The spots where no lime was used, yielded nothing 
 as usual. The rice would germinate and die. In 
 some cases it would come up and then die, either du- 
 ring or after the point flow, In others, it would live in 
 an unhealthy state, until the long flow. There are 
 some spots that will not produce any thing. 
 
 I have limed one spot, and will communicate the 
 . result at a future period. 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 JOHN MIDDLETON. 
 
<|N POTATOES.. 
 
 BETTER XVIII. 
 
 On Potatoes. 
 
 Charleston, February 21st, 1825. 
 SIR, 
 
 IN April last I planted eighteen alternate rows of 
 Potatoes, with whole and cut seed. 
 
 The nine rows of the whole seed produced fourteen 
 bushels of large and three of small Potatoes. The 
 cut produced eight bushels of large and four of small. 
 Thus the product of the whole seed exceeded that of 
 the cut by five bushels. 
 
 At the same time, by request of Mr. Allston, I 
 planted the same number of contiguous rows, with seed 
 sent by him from Mrs. Horry's plantation. 
 
 The whole seed yielded four bushels of large and 
 two of small Potatoes; the cut two bushels of each— 
 in favour of the whole seed, two bushels. 
 
 The eighteen rows planted with seed grown by my- 
 self, produced nineteen bushels more than those that 
 were sown with the seed sent by Mr. Allston. 
 
 This experiment certainly proves the superiority of 
 the whole over the cut, and the necessity of a selection 
 af seed. 
 
 Your obedient servant. 
 
 JOHN MIDDLETON. 
 
 41 
 
514 < t>N RICE; 
 
 LETTER XIX. 
 
 On Rice. 
 
 " Richmond, (St. John's Berkley) Aug. 4th, 1825. 
 
 Dear Sir, 
 
 AS many of the queries contained in your last 
 letter have already been fully answered, I shall confine 
 myself to such as appear most important, and answer, 
 as correctly and as fully as the limits of a letter will 
 allow, numbering each to correspond with the order 
 in your letter. 
 
 1st — -The land should be well banked and drained, 
 the trunk on the flood-gates put down to low-water 
 mark, and perfectly tight, so as not to leak water; 
 for it is impossible to make a full crop of rice without 
 the land is dry when you wish it so. 
 
 2nd — I trench shallow, and scatter the rice in the. 
 trench, about two and a half or three inches, in the 
 drills, and cover it lightly with a batten. 
 
 3rd — I do not give the rice the point-flowing for it 
 makes the stalks very small, and it does not recover it 
 for a long time ; and I do not recollect that I ever saw 
 a full crop of rice made that was point-flowed ; for it 
 always gets grassy, before it recovers from the water, 
 and the land gets dry enough for the hoe. 
 
 4th — I always regulate the flowings by the appear- 
 ance of the rice, and not the number of days ; for 
 much depends on the weather, and the order the land 
 
GN RI£E. 
 
 315 
 
 13 in; — as lone; as the rice thrives and looks perfectly 
 green, the water can be kept on ; but as soon as I find 
 that it begins to eet a little yellow, and not improving, 
 I let off the water as soon as possible, always observ- 
 ing to change the water previous to letting it off. This 
 change takes place in the appearance of the rice from 
 fifteen to thirty days after the water is put on. 
 u 5th — T§* most critical period in the growth of rice 
 is from the time the first water is let off and the form- 
 ing of the first joint. The rice should be well hoed 
 once or twice, as soon as the land gets dry after the 
 first long-flowing, and all the grass pic ked out care- 
 fully. Upon the hoeing and picking depends the good 
 or bad product of the field, and should be commenced 
 on the last of May, or the first of June, so as to have 
 the rice clean of grass, and the land well pulverised 
 ten or fifteen days previous to its forming the first joint. 
 As soon as that is done, I find that the rice improves 
 very fast, and will soon begin to form the first joint, 
 when it will be fit for the joint-flowing, which should 
 be put on the same depth as before. It the rice is not 
 clean of grass, and well hoed before it begins to form 
 the first joint, it seldom produces a good crop. 
 
 6th — I begin to plant as early as possible after the 
 loth of March, and prefer early planting to late, and 
 think much advantage is gained by early planting, in 
 getting rid of birds, both in the spring and autum, in 
 avoiding the gales of September, and keeping ahead 
 of grass throughout the season, and make a better 
 crop than late planting. 
 
 7th — I have known rice to make a crop which was 
 planted on the 15th of June. 
 
 8th— Rice that is grassy in the beginning of the sea- 
 son, will recover and make a full crop, if it is well 
 cleaned of grass, and the land well pulverised with the 
 hoe fifteen or twenty days before it forms the first 
 joint. 
 
316 
 
 0N RICE. 
 
 9th — If rice is grassy in the beginning of the season, 
 and I cannot hoe it, I put on the water before the giuss 
 gets ahead of the rice, and keep it on fifteen or twenty 
 days. I have made a good crop from rice that was 
 managed in this way, but it must be hoed and cleaned 
 of grass before the joint is formed. 
 
 10th — I would not give husky lands as much water 
 as clay lands. 
 
 11th — The best method to get clear of volunteer 
 rice is to pick it with the hand, before it shells in the 
 field, and flow the field as soon after harvest is over 
 as possible, so as to sprout the shelled rice that remains 
 before frost, when the water should be let off, and the 
 stubble burnt off as soon as it gets dry enough, so that 
 the birds may destroy what remains. 
 
 I am, sir 9 yours respectfully, &c. 
 
 JORDAN MYRICK. 
 
 TVS. 1 change my seed -rice every other year. 
 
 William Washington, Esq. 
 
 Chairman of the Committee on 
 
 Publications, A. S. S. C. 
 
 THE END. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF N.C. AT CHAPEL HILL 
 
 00027778263