UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA Scfe*«l of Library jS«sJ»me* UNIVERSITY OF N.C. AT CHAPEL HILL V 00034695125 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2012 with funding from University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill http://www.archive.org/details/howplantsgrowsimOOgray fltaitj} for §»»nj fUooU ano Common Spools. HOW PLANTS GROW, A SIMPLE INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL BOTANY. WITH A POPULAR FLORA, OR AN ARRANGEMENT AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON PLANTS, BOTH WILD AND CULTIVATED. ILLUSTRATED BY 500 WOOD ENGRAVINGS. By ASA GRAY, M.D., FISHER PEOFESSOE OF NATURAL HISTORY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY. NEW YORK: IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, & CO., Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1858. bv IVISON AND PHINNEY, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New York. mm. fart first. mow JPMHK ©2£©Wc Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow : they toil not, neither do they spin : and yet i say unto you, that even solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these. — Matthew vi. 28. 29. Our Lord's direct object in this lesson of the Lilies was to convince the people of God's care for them. Now, this clothing of the earth with plants and flowers — at once so beau- tiful and so useful, so essential to all animal life — is one of the very ways t in which He takes care of his crea- tures. And when Christ himself di- rects us to consider with attention the plants around us, — to notice how Z BOTANY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. they grow, — how varied, how numerous, and how elegant they are, and with what exquisite skill they are fashioned and adorned, — we shall surely find it profitable and pleasant to learn the lessons which they teach. Now this considering of plants inquiringly and intelligently is the study of Botany. It is an easy study, when pursued in the right way and with diligent attention. There is no difficulty in understanding how plants grow, and are nour- ished by the ground, the rain, and the air ; nor in learning what their parts are, and how they are adapted to each other and to the way the plant lives. And any young person who will take some pains about it may learn to distinguish all our common plants into their kinds, and find out their names. Interesting as this study is to all, it must be particularly so to Young People. It appeals to their natural curiosity, to their lively desire of knowing about things : it calls out and directs (i. e. educates) their powers of observation, and is adapted to sharpen and exercise, in a very pleasant way, the faculty of discrimination. To learn how to observe and how to distinguish things correctly, is the greater part of education, and is that in which people otherwise well educated are apt to be sur- prisingly deficient. Natural objects, everywhere present and endless in variety, afford the best field for practice ; and the study when young, first of Botany, and afterwards of the other Natural Sciences, as they are called, is the best train- ing that can be in these respects. This study ought to begin even before the study of language. For to distinguish things scientifically (that is, carefully and accurately) is simpler than to distinguish ideas. And in Natural History* the learner is gradually led from the observation of things, up to the study of ideas or the relations of things. This book is intended to teach Young People how to begin to read, with pleasure and advantage, one large and easy chapter in the open Book of Nature ; namely, that in which the wisdom and goodness of the Creator are plainly written in the Vegetable Kingdom.* * Natural History is the study of the productions of the earth in their natural state, whether minerals plants, or animals. These productions make up what are called the Three Kingdoms of Nature, viz. : — 1. The Mineral Kingdom, which consists of the Minerals (earths, metals, crystals, &c), bodies not endowed with life. 2. The Vegetable Kingdom, which comprehends Vegetables or Plants. 3. The Animal Kingdom, which comprehends all Animals. The natural history of the mineral kingdom is named Mineralogy. The natural history of the vegetable kingdom is Botany, — the subject of this book. The natural historv of the animal kingdom is named Zoology. BOTANY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. 6 In the First Part of this book we proceed to consider, under four principal heads or chapters, — I. How Plants Grow, and what their Parts or Organs are, Chapter I. Page 5. The Parts of a Plant, Section I. Page 5. How Plants grow from the Seed, " II- " 10. How Plants grow Year after Year, " III. " 23. Different Forms or Kinds of Roots, Stems, and Leaves, " IV. " 34. II. How Plants are Propagated or Multiplied in Numbers, Chapter II. Page 56. How Propagated from Buds, Section I. Page 56. How Propagated by Seeds, " II. " 58. Flowets : their Arrangement, their Sorts, &c, " III. " 58. Fruit and Seed, . " IV. " 77, III. Why Plants Grow ; what they are made for, and what they do, Chapter III. Page 85. IV. How Plants are Classified, Named, and Studied, Chapter IV. Page 93. Classification, — as to the Plan of it, Section I. Page 93. Names of Plants, " II. " 94. The Natural System of Classification in Botany, " III. " 96. How to study Plants by the Flora, in Part II., " IV. " 99. The Second Part of the book consists of a Popular Flora for Beginners, viz. a Classification and Description (according to the Natural System) of the Common Plants of the country, both Wild and Cultivated. Then follows a Dictionary of the peculiar terms which we have occasion to use in describing plants, or their parts, combined with a, full Index to Part I. Every science, and every art or occupation, has terms or technical words of its own, and must have them. Without them, all would be confusion and guess-work. In Bot- any the number of technical words which a young student need to know is by no means great, and a little diligent study and practice will make them familiar. The first and most important thing for the student is, to know well the general plan of a plant and the way it grows ; the parts plants consist of; the uses of the sev- eral parts ; their general forms, and the names which are used to distinguish them. This is all very interesting and very useful in itself; and it is indispensable for study-' ing plants with any satisfaction or advantage to find out their names, their propex\ ties, and the family they belong to ; i. e. to ascertain the kinds of plants. 4 BOTANY FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. Let the learners, or the class under their teacher, therefore, in the first place go carefully once through the First Part of the book, or at least through the first two chapters, verifying the examples and illustrations given, as far as possible, with their own eyes, and searching for other examples in the plants and flowers around them. Then they may begin to study plants by the Flora, or Second Part of the book, ac- cording to the directions given in the last section of Chapter IV. Whenever they meet with a word which they do not remember or clearly understand, they will look it out in the Index, and refer back to the place in the first part of the book where it is used and fully explained. Remember that every one has to creep before he can walk, and to walk before he can run. Only begin at the beginning ; take pains to understand things as you go on, and cultivate the habits of accuracy and nice dis- crimination which this study is eminently adapted to inspire. Then each step will render the next one easy ; you will soon make more rapid progress ; will be able to ascertain with facility the names and the structure of almost all common plants ; and will gradually recognize the various and interesting relationships which bind the members of the vegetable creation together in natural families, — showing them to be parts of one system ; varied expressions, as it were, of the thoughts of their Di- vine Author ; planned in reference to one another ; and evidently intended to enlarge and enlighten our minds, as well as to gratify oursenses, and nourish, clothe, warm, and shelter our bodies. So the study of Botany — the most fascinating branch of Natural History, especially for the young — becomes more and more interesting the more we learn of it, and affords a constant and unalloyed intellectual gratification. When young students have thoroughly mastered this little book, they will be well prepared to continue the study in the Lessons in Botany and Vegetable Physiol- ogy, and in the Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States, by the same author. The illustrations are referred to throughout by numbers, with " Fig." prefixed. The numbers occasionally introduced, within parenthesis-marks, and without any prefix, (as on p. 25, line 1, and p. 86, line 9,) are references to former paragraphs, where the subject, or the word used, has already been explained. %* The illustrations on the first page represent: — Fig. 1. Our commonest wild species of true Lily, viz. the Canada Lily. Fig. 2. The Chalcedonian Lily, a native of Palestine, with scarlet flowers, sup posed to be "The Lily of the Field" to which our Saviour referred in the Sermon on the Mount Fig. 3. Lilies of the Valley, not true Lilies, but belonging to the Lily Family. CHAPTER I HOW PLANTS GROW, AND WHAT THEIR PARTS OR ORGANS ARE. Section I. —The Parts of a Plant. 4. Morning-Glory. 1. Plants are chiefly made up of three parts, namely, of Root, Stem, and Leaves. These are called the plant's Organs, that is, its instruments. And as these parts are all that any plant needs for its growth, or vegetation, they are called the Organs of Vegetation. 2. Plants also produce Flowers, from which comes the Fruit, and from this, the Seed. These take no part in nourishing the plant. Their use is to enable it to give rise to new individuals, which increase the numbers of that kind of plant, to take the place of the parent in due time, and keep up the stock ; that is, to reproduce and perpetuate the species. So the Flower with its parts, the Fruit, and the Seed, are called the plant's Organs of Reproduction. 3. The different sorts of Lilies represented on the first page, and the common Morning- Glory on this page, show all the parts. 4. The Root (Fig. 4, r) is the part which grows downwards into the ground, and takes in nourishment for the plant from the soil. It commonly branches again and again as it grows : its smaller branches or fibres are named Rootlets. Real roots never bear leaves, nor anything besides root-branches or rootlets. 5. The Stem (Fig. 4, s) is the part which grows upwards, and bears the leaves and blossoms. At certain fixed places the stem bears a leaf or a pair of leaves. b HOW PLANTS GROW, i 6. Leaves (Fig. 4, /, I) are generally flat and thin, green bodies, turning one face upwards to the sky, and the other downwards towards the ground. They make the Foliage. 7. The Plant in Vegetation. We see that a plant has a body or trunk (in scien- tific language, an axis), consisting of two parts, — an upper and a lower. The lower is the Root : this fixes the plant to the soil. The upper is the Stem : this rises out of the ground, and bears leaves, which are hung out on the stem in the light and air. The root takes in a part of the plant's food from the soil : this the stem carries to the leaves. The leaves take in another part of the plant's food from the air. And in them what the roots absorb from the ground, and what they themselves absorb from the air, are exposed to the sunshine and digested ; that is, changed into something proper to nourish the plant. For there is no nourishment in earth, air, and water as they are ; but vegetables have the power of making these into nourishment. And out of this nourishment it prepares, the plant makes more growth. That is, it extends the roots farther into the soil, and sends out more branches from them, increasing its foothold and its surface for absorbing; while, above, it lengthens the stem and adds leaf after leaf, or shoots forth branches on which still more leaves are spread out in the light and air. 8. So the whole herb, or shrub, or tree, is built up. A tiny herb just sprouted from the seed and the largest tree of the forest alike consist of root, stem, and leaves, and nothing else. Only the tree lias larger and more branching stems and roots, and leaves by thousands. 9. The Plant in Reproduction. After having attended in this way to its nourish- ment and growth for a certain time, the plant sets about reproducing itself by seed. And for this purpose it blossoms. Many plants begin to blossom within a few weeks after springing from the seed. All our annuals, of which the Garden Morn- ing-Glory (Fig. 4) is one, blossom in the course of the summer. Biennials, such as the Carrot, Parsnip, Mullein, and the common Thistle, do not flower before the second summer ; and shrubs and trees, and some herbs, do not begin until they are several years old. 10. The object of the Flower is to form the Fruit. The essential part of the fruit is the Seed. And the essential part of a seed is the Germ or Embryo it con- tains. The Germ or Embryo is a little plantlet in the seed, ready to grow into a new plant when the seed is sown. Let us notice these organs one after the other, beginning: with AND WHAT THEIR PARTS ARE. 11. The Flower. Flowers are most interesting to the botanist; who not only ad- mires them for their beauty, the exquisite arrangement and forms of their parts, and the wonderful variety they exhibit, but also sees in the blossoms much of the na- ture or character of each plant, and finds in them the best marks for distinguishing the sorts of plants and the family they belong to. So let the student learn at once 12. What the Parts of a Flower are. A flower, with all the parts present, consists of Calyx, Corolla, Sta- mens, and Pistils. One from the Morning-Glory (Fig. 4,y*) will serve for an example. Here is one taken off, and shown of about the natural size, the corolla, Fig. 5, separated from the calyx, Fig. 6. The calyx and the corolla are the Floral Envelopes, or the leaves of the flower. They cover in the bud, and protect the stamens and pistils, which are the Essential Organs of the flower, because both of these are necessary to forming the seed. 13. The Calyx — a Latin name for "flower-cup" — is the cup or outer covering of the blossom (Fig. 6). It is apt to be green and leaf-like. 6 14. The Corolla is the inner cup, or inner set of leaves, of the flower. It is very seldom green, as the calyx commonly is, but is " colored," i. e. of some other color than green, and of a delicate texture. So it is the most showy part of the blossom. Fig. 5 shows the corolla of the Morning- Glory whole. Fig. 7 is the same, split down and spread open to show 15. The Stamens. These in this flower grow fast to the bottom of the corolla. There are five stamens in the Morning- Glory. Each stamen consists of two parts, namely, a Filament and an Anther. The Filament is the stalk ; the Anther is a little case, or hollow body, borne on the top of the filament. It is filled with a powdery matter, called Pollen. Fig. 9 shows a separate stamen on a larger scale : f, the filament ; a, the anther, out of which pollen is falling from a slit or long opening down each side. HOW PLANTS GROW, 1 16. The Pistils are the bodies in which the seeds are formed. They be- long in the centre of the flower. The Morning-Glory has only one pistil : this is shown, enlarged, in Fig. 8. The Rose and the Buttercup have a great many. A pistil has three parts. At the bottom is the Ovary, which becomes the seed-vessel. This is prolonged upwards into a slender body, called the Style. And this bears a moist, generally somewhat enlarged por- tion, with a naked roughish surface (not having any skin, like the rest), called the Stigma. Upon this stigma some of the pollen, or powder from the anthers, falls and sticks fast. And this somehow enables the pistils to ripen seeds that will grow. 17. Let us now look at a stamen and a pistil from one of the flowers of a Lily (like those shown on a reduced scale in Figures 1 and 2, on the first page), where all the parts are on a larger scale. Here is a Stamen (Fig. 9), with its stalk or Filament, f, and its Anther, a, discharging its yel- low dust or Pollen. And by its side is the Pistil (Fig. 10), with its Ovary, ov. ; and this tapering into a Style, st. ; and on the top of this is the Stigma, stig. Now cut the ovary through, and it will be found to contain young seeds. Fig. 11 shows the ovary of Fig. 10 cut through lengthwise and magnified by a common hand magnifying- glass. Fig. 12 is the lower part of another one, cut in two crosswise. The young seeds, or more correctly the 9 l0 bodies which are to become seeds, are named Ovules. In the Lily these are very numerous. In the Morning-Glory they are few, only six. 18. These are all the parts of the flower, — all that any flower has. But many flowers have not all these parts. Some have only one flower- cup or one set of blossom-leaves. Lilies appear to have only one set. Some have neither calyx nor corolla; some stamens have no filament, and some pistils have no style : for the style and the filament are not necessary parts, as the anther and the ovary and stigma are. These cases will all be noticed when we come to study flowers more particularly. Mean- while, please to commit to memory the names of the parts of the flower, Calyx, Corolla, Stamens, and Pistils, and the parts of these also, and learn to distinguish them in all the common blossoms you meet with, until they are as familiar as loot, stem, and leaves are to everybody. n AND WHAT T1IEIH I'AUTS AUK. 9 Lily-pods have three 10. Notice, also, that the calyx and the corolla, one or both, often consist of separate leaves ; as they do in the true Lilies. Each separate piece or leaf of a corolla is called a Petal: and each leaf or piece of a calyx is called a Sepal. 20. The corolla, the stamens, and generally the calyx, fall off or wither away after blossoming; while the ovary of the pistil remains, grows larger, and becomes 21. The Fl'llit. So that the fruit is the ripened ovary. It may be a berry, a stone-fruit, a nut, a grain, or a pod. The fruit of the Lily and also of the Morning- Glory is a pod. Here is the pod or fruit of the Morning-Glory (Fig. 4, fr. and Fig. 13), with the calyx remaining beneath, and the remains of the bottom of the style resting on its summit. And Fig. 14 shows the same pod, fully ripe and dry, and splitting into three pieces that the seeds may fall out. This pod has three cavities (called Cells) in it ; and in each cell two pretty large seeds, cells, as we may see in the ovary in the flower (Fig. 12), and many seeds in each. 22. Seeds. These are the bodies produced by the ripened pistil, from which new plants may spring. Here (Fig. 15) is a seed of Morning-Glory, a little enlarged. Also two seeds cut through lengthwise in two different directions, and viewed with a magnifying-glass, to show what is inside (Fig 16, 17). The part of the seed that grows is 23. The Embryo, or Germ. This is a little plantlet ready formed in the seed. In the Morning-Glory it is pretty large, and may readily be got out whole from a fresh seed, or from a dried one after soaking it well in hot water. In Fig. 16 it is shown whole and flatwise in the seed, where it is a good deal crumpled up to save room. In Fig. 17, merely the thickness of the embryo is seen, edgewise, in the seed, surrounded by the pulpy matter, which is intended to nourish it when it begins to grow. In Fig. 18, the embryo is shown taken oat whole, and spread out flat. In Fig. 19, its two little leaves are separated, and we plainly see what it consists of. It is a pair of tiny leaves on the summit of a little stem. The leaves (Fig. 19, c, c) are named Seed-leaves or Cotyledons ; the little stem or stemlet is named the Radicle, r. 10 HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SKKD. Analysis of the Section. 1.* Plants consist of two kinds of Organs : those of Vegetation ; what they are: 2. those of Repro duction; what they are, what their use. 4. The Root; what it is; rootlets. 5. The Stem; what it is, what it bears. 6. Leaves. 7. The Plant in Vegetation; action of the root, stern, and leaves: they change earth, air, and water into nour- ishment, and use this nourishment in growing. 8. Shrub or tree like an herb, only more extended. 9. The plant reproduces itself, by seed; blossoming. 10. Object of flowers, fruit, seed: all intended for producing the germ or embryo; what this is. 11. Flowers, why particularly interesting to the botanist. 12. What the parts of a flower are; Floral Envelopes; Essential Organs, why so called. 13. Calyx. 14. Corolla. 15. Stamens; what they consist of ; Filament; Anther; Pollen. 16. Pistils; how situated; parts of a pistil; Ovary, Style, Stigma; its use. 17. Stamens and pistil shown in another flower, and the parts explained: Ovules, what they are. 18. All these parts not always present; what ones often wanting. 19. Leaves of a corolla, called Petals; of a calyx, Sepals. 20. What becomes of the parts of a blossom. 21. Fruit, what it is, what it contains. 22. Seeds, wnat they are, what the part is that grow3. 23. Embryo or Germ; what it consists of: Cotyledons or Seed-leaves; Radicle or Stemlet. Section II. — Hoav Plants grow from the Seed. 24. Illustrated by the Morning-Glory. We now know what all the parts of a plant are ; that a plant, after growing or vegetating awhile, blossoms ; that flowers give rise to fruit ; that the fruit contains one or more seeds ; and that the essential part of a seed is the embryo or germ of a new plant. To produce, protect, and nourish this germ, is the object of the flower, the fruit, and the seed. The object of the embryo is to grow and become a new plant. How it grows, is what we have now to learn. 25. Life in a Seed. But first let us notice that it does not generally grow at once. Although alive, a seed may for a long while show no signs of life, and feel neither the summer's heat nor the winter's cold. Still it lives on where it falls, in this slumbering way, until the next spring in most plants, or sometimes until the spring after that, before it begins to grow. There is a great difference in this respect in different seeds. Those of Red Maple ripen in the spring, and start about the mid- dle of the summer. Those of Sugar Maple ripen in the fall, and lie quiet until the next spring. When gathered and laid up in a dry place, many seeds will keep alive for two, three, or several years ; and in this state plants may be safely transported * The numbers are those of the paragraphs. HOW FLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 11 all around the world. How long seeds will live is uncertain. The stories of seeds growing which have been preserved for two or more thousand years with Egyptian mummies, are not to be believed. But it is well known that Sensitive Plants have been raised from seeds over sixty years old. Few kinds of seeds will grow after keeping them for five or six years ; many refuse to grow after the second year ; and some will not grow at all unless allowed to fall at once to the ground. There is no way of telling whether the germ of a seed is alive or not, except by trying whether it will grow, that is, will germinate. 26. Germination and Early Growth. Germination is the sprouting of a plant from the seed. Having just illustrated the parts of a plant by the Morning-Glory, from the root up to the seed and the embryo in the seed, we may take this same plant as an example to show how a plant grows from the seed. If we plant some of the seeds in a flower-pot, covering them lightly with soil, water them, and give them warmth, or if in spring we watch those which sowed themselves naturally in the garden the year before, and are now moistened by showers and warmed by sun- shine, we shall soon see how they grow. And what we learn from this one kind of plant will be true of all ordinary plants, but with some differences in the circum- stances, according to the kind. 27. The seed first imbibes some moisture through its coats, swells a little, and, as it feels the warmth, the embryo gradually wakes from its long and deep sleep, and stretches itself, as it were. That is, the tiny stem of the embryo lengthens, and its end bursts through the coats of the seed ; at the same time, the two leaves it bears grow larger, straighten themselves, and so throw off the seed-coats as a loose husk ; this allows the seed-leaves to spread out, as leaves naturally do, and so the seedling plantlet stands revealed. Observe the wdiole for yourselves, if pos- sible, and compare with these figures. Fig. 19 is repeated from p. 9, and repre- sents the embryo taken out of the seed, straightened, enlarged, and the two leaves a little opened. Fig. 16 and 17 show how the embryo lies snugly packed away in the seed. Fig. 20 shows it coming up, the seed-leaves above just throwing off the coats or husk of the seed. Fig. 21 is the same, a little later and larger, with the seed-leaves spread out in the air above, and a root well formed beneath. And Fig. 22 is the same a little later still. 28. At the very beginning of its growth, the end of the little stem which first comes out of the seed turns downward and points into the earth. From it the root is formed, which continues downwards, branching as it grows, and burying itself 12 HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. more and more in the soil. The other end of the stem always turns upwards, and, as the whole lengthens, the seed-leaves are brought up out of the ground, so that they expand in the light and air, — which is the proper place for leaves, as the dark and damp soil is for the root. 29. What makes the root always grow downwards into the ground, and the stem turn upwards, so as to rise out of it, we no more know, than we know why newly-hatched ducklings take to the water at once, while chickens avoid it, although hatched under the same fowl and treated just ulicle or stemlet. , alike. But the fact is always so. And although we know not how, the why is evident enough ; for the root is thereby at once placed in the soil, from which it has to absorb moisture and other things, and the leaves appear in the air and the light, where they are to do their work. 80. Notice how early the seed- ling plant is complete, that is, becomes a real vegetable, with all its parts, small as the whole thing is (Fig. 21). For it al- ready possesses a root, to connect it with the ground and draw up what it needs from that ; a stem, to elevate the foliage into the light and air ; and leaves, to take in what it gets directly from the air, and to digest the whole in the light (as explained in the last section, Par. 7). That is, it already has all the Organs of Vegetation (Par. 1), all that any plant has before blossoming, so that the little seedling can now take care of itself, and live — just as any larger plant lives — upon the soil and the air. And all it has to do in order to become a fall-grown plant, like Fig. 4, is to increase the size of its organs, and to produce more of them ; namely, more stem with more leaves above, and more roots below. We have only to watch our seedling plantlets a week or two longer, and we shall see how this is done. HOW TLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 23 SI. The root keeps on growing under ground, and sending off more and more small branches or rootlets, each one adding something to the amount of absorbing surface in contact with the moist soil. The little stem likewise lengthens upwards, and the pair of leaves on its summit grow larger. But these soon get their full growth ; and we do not yet see, perhaps, where more are to come from. But now a little bud, called the Plumule, appears on the top of the stem (Fig. 22), just be- tween the stalks of the two seed-leaves ; it enlarges and unfolds into a leaf ; this soon is raised upon a new piece of stem, which car- ries up the leaf, just as the pair of seed-leaves were raised by the lengthening of the radicle or first joint of stem in the seed. Then another leaf appears on the summit of this joint of stem, and is raised upon its own joint of stem, and so on. Fig. 23 shows the same plant as Fig. 22 (leaving out the root and the lower part of the stem), at a later stage ; c, c, are the seed-leaves ; I is the next leaf, which came from the plumule of Fig. 22, now well raised on the second joint of stem ; and /' is the next, still very small and just unfolding. And so the plant grows on, the whole summer long, producing leaf after leaf, one by one, and raising each on its own joint of stem, arising from the summit of the next below; — as we see in £3 Fig. 4, at the beginning of the chapter, where many joints of stem have grown in this Avay (the first with a pair of leaves, the rest with one apiece), and still there are some unfolding ones at the slender young summit. 32. How t'.ic Seedling is nourished at the Beginning. Growth requires food, in plants as well as in animals. To grow into a plant, the embryo in a seed must be fed with vegetable matter, or witli something out of which vegetable matter can be made. When a plant has established itself,- — -that is, has sent down its roots into the soil, and spread out some leaves in the air, — it is then able to change mineral matter (viz. earth, air, and water) which it takes in, into vegetable matter, and so to live and grow independently. But at the beginning, before its organs are developed and established in their proper places, the forming plant must be sup- plied by ready-made vegetable matter, furnished by the mother plant. On this supply the embryo germinating from the seed feeds and grows, — just as the new- 14 HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. born animal does upon the mother's milk, or as the chick developing in the egg does upon the prepared nourishment the parent had laid up for the purpose in the yolk. 33. Tear open a fresh Morning-Glory seed, or cut a dried one in two, as in Fig. 17, and this supply will be seen, in the form of a rich and sweetish jelly-like matter, packed away with the embryo, and filling all the spaces between its folds. This is called the Albumen of the seed (that being the Latin name of the white of an egg) ; and this is what the embryo feeds upon, and what enables its little stemlet (Fig. 10, r) to grow, and form its root downwards, and carry up and ex- pand its seed-leaves (c,c) in the air, and so become at once a plantlet (Fig. 21), with root, stem, and leaves, able to take care of itself, just as a chicken does when it escapes from the shell. 34. This moist nourishing jelly would not keep long in that state. So, when the seed ripens and dries, it hardens into a substance like thin dried glue or gum, which will keep for any length of time. And whenever the seed is sown, and absorbs moisture, this matter softens into a jelly again, or gradually liquefies, and the seed-leaves crumpled up among it drink it in at every pore. A portion is con- sumed in their growth, while the rest is carried into the growing stemlet, thence into the root forming at one end of it, and into the bud (or plumule, Fig. 22) which soon appears at the other end of it, — supplying the materials for their growth. 35. Notice the same thing in Wheat, Oats, or Indian Corn. The last is the best example, because the grain is so large that all the parts may be clearly seen with- out magnifying. The abundant milk or soft and rich pulp of green corn is the same as the jelly in the seed of the Morning- Glory ; namely, it is the albumen of the seed, provided for the embryo (the chit or germ) to feed upon when growth begins. See Figures 44, 45, &c. This nourishing food (as we well know it to be) was produced b) r the mother-plant during the summer, was accumulated in the stalk at flowering-time, in the form of sugar, or syrup, was conveyed into the flowers and forming seeds ; a part was used to form the germ or embryo, and the rest was stored up with it in the seed, to serve for its growth into a plantlet the next spring. That it may keep through the winter, or longer, the sweet milk is changed into a starchy pulp, which hardens as the grain ripens into the firm and dry mealy part (or albumen), which here makes the principal bulk of the seed. But when sown, this meal softens and is slowly changed back into sugar again. And this, dissolved in the water the seed takes in, makes a sweet sap, which the 1IOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 15 embryo imbibes and feeds on as it sprouts. Tliat the meal or starch of the grain is actually changed into sugar at this time is clearly shown by malting, -which is merely causing heaps of grain to sprout a little, and then destroying the life of the embryo by dry heat ; when the grain (now malt) is found to be sweet, and to contain much sugar. 36. The nourishment which the mother-plant provides in the seed is not always stored up outside of the embryo. In many cases it is deposited in the embryo itself, most commonly in the seed-leaves. Then the seed consists of nothing but the embryo within its coats. Maple-seeds are of this sort. Fig. 24 represents a seed of Red Maple in the lower part of the winged seed- vessel, which is cut away so as to show it in its place. Fig. 25 is the seed a little magnified, and with the coats cut away, bringing to view its embryo coiled up within and filling the seed completely. Fig. 26 is the embryo taken out, and a little unfolded ; below is the radicle or stemlet ; above are the two seed-leaves partly crumpled together. Fig. 27 is the embryo when it has straight- ened itself out, thrown off the seed-coats, and begun to grow. Here the seed-leaves are rather thick when they first unfold ; this is on account of the nourishing matter which was contained in their fabric, and which is used mainly for the earliest growth of the radicle or stemlet, and for the root formed at its lower end, as Ave see in the next fig- a, the radicle or stemlet of the embryo ; b, b, the two seed-leaves ; By this time the little stock of nourishment is exhausted. But the plant, having already a root in the soil and a pair of leaves in the air, is able to shift for itself, to take in air, water, &c, and by the aid of sunshine on its foliage to make the nourishment for its future growth. In a week or two it will have made enough to enable the next step to be taken. Then a little bud appears at the upper end of the stemlet, between the two seed-leaves, and soon it shows the rudiments of a new pair of leaves (Fig. 28, d) ; a new joint of stem forms to support them (Fig. 29) ; this lengthens just as the stemlet of the embryo did, and so the plantlet gets a second pair of leaves, raised on a second joint of stem. ure (Fig. 23 c, the root). 16 HOW TLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. springing from the top of the first (Fig. 30). Meanwhile the root has grown deeper into the soil, and sent out branches. Having now more roots below, and, above, a pair of leaves besides the seed-leaves to work with, the seedling plant let all the sooner makes veg- etable matter enough to form a third pair of leaves and raise them on a third joint of stem (as in Fig. 31) ; and so it goes on, step by step. This nour- ishment in the embryo of the Red-Maple seed was a few weeks before in the trunk of the mother tree, as a sweet sap, that is, as Maple-sugar. 37. Variations Of tllC Plan Of Growth. In the Morning-Glory, after the pair of seed-leaves, only one leaf is found upon each joint of stem (see Fig. 23 and 4). In the Maple there is a pair of leaves to every joint of stem, as long as it grows. In the Morning- Glory the food in the seed, for the growth to begin with, was stored up outside of the embryo ; in the Maple it was stored up in it, that is, in its seed-leaves. The plan is evidently the same in both ; but there are differ- HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 17 ences in the particulars. While the same kind of plant always grows in exactly the same way, different kinds differ almost as much at the beginning as they do afterwards. The great variety which we observe among the herbs and shrubs and trees around us, — in foliage, flower, fruit, and everything, — gives to vegeta- tion one of its greatest charms. We should soon tire of plants or flowers made all after one exact pattern, however beautiful. We enjoy variety. But the bota- nist finds a higher interest in all these differences than any one else, because he discerns one simple plan running through all this diversity, and everywhere re- peated in different forms. Pie sees that in every plant there is root growing down- wards, connecting the vegetable with the soil ; stem rising into the light and air, and bearing leaves at regular places, and then blossoms, and that the parts of one kind of blossom answer to those of another, only differing in shape ; and he de- lights in observing how the tens of thousands of kinds of plants all harmonize with each other, like the parts of concerted music, — plainly showing that they were all contrived, as parts of one system, by one Divine Mind. 88. So in the beginning, in the growth of plants from the seed, although the general plan is the same in all, the variations are many and great. The plan is well shown in the two seedling plants which have served for illustration, namely, the Morning- Glory and the Maple. Let us now notice some of the variations, as exhibited in a few xery common plants. A great deal may be learned from the commonest plants, if we will only open our eyes to see them, and " consider how they grow," and why they differ in the way they do. Take, for instance, 39. The BCilll. Soak a bean in warm water (if a fresh one is not to be had) and remove the coats. The whole kernel consists p of an embryo, as seen in Fig. 32. And almost the whole bulk of this embryo consists of two thick pieces, c, c, which are the cotyledons or seed-leaves. We may make out the plan of the whole thing better by spreading these thick seed- leaves wide open, as in Fig. 33. Here the two thick seed-leaves are seen from the inside, c, c ; they are connected with the upper end of a stemlet, which is the radicle, r ; and above this already shows the bud or plumule, p. 40. So the embryo of the Bean is the same in plan as that of the Maple (Fig. 27), only the stemlet is much shorter in proportion, and the seed-leaves very much larger and thicker. What is the reason of this difference ? 18 HOW PLANTS GROW FKOJI THE SEED. 41. The seed-leaves of the Bean are thickened by having so much nourishment stored up in them, so much of it that they make good food for men. And the object of this large supply is that the plant may grow more strongly and rapidly from the seed. It need not and it does not wait, as the Maple and the Morning-Glory do, slowly to make the second pair of leaves ; but is able to develop these at once. Accordingly, the rudiments of these next leaves may be seen in the seed before growth begins, in the form of a little bud (Fig. 33, p), ready to grow and unfold as soon as the thick seed-leaves themselves appear above ground (Fig. 34), and soon making the first real foliage (Fig. 35). For the seeddeaves of the Bean are themselves so thick and ungainly, that, although they turn green, they hardly serve for foliage. But, having given up their great stock of nourishment to the forming root and new leaves, and enabled these to grow much stronger and faster than they otherwise could, they wither and fall off. It is nearly the same in 42. The Cherry, Almond, &c. Fig. 36 is an Almond taken out of the shell, soaked a little, and the thin seed-coat removed. The whole is an embryo, consisting of a pair of large and thick seed- leaves, loaded with sweet nour- ishment. These are borne on a very short radicle, or stemlet, which is seen at the lower end. Pull off* one of the seed-leaves, as in Fig. 37, and you may see the plumule or little bud, p, ready to develop leaves and stem upwards, Avhile the other end of the radicle grows downward and makes the root ; the rich store of nourishment in the seed- HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 19 leaves supplying abundant materials for the growth. A cherry-seed is just like an almond, only on a smaller scale. Fig. 38 is the embryo of a Cherry, with the very thick seed-leaves a little separated. Fig. 39 is the same developed into a young plantlet. Fed by the abundant nourishment in the seed-leaves, it shoots up its stem and unfolds three or four leaves before the Maple (Fig. 28, 29) or the Morning-Glory (Fig. 20-22) would have made any. It is the same in the Chestnut and the Beech. In these, as in the Cherry and the Bean, the thick seed-leaves, which make the whole kernel, come up, turn green, and become thinner as they give up their load of nourishment to the growing parts ; they evidently try to become useful green leaves ; but having been used for hold- ing nourishment, they remain too thick and clumsy for foli- age, and they soon die or fall off. But in 43. The Horsechesfnut, the Acorn, and the Pea, the seed- leaves are so very thick, and so heavily loaded, that they never undertake to serve any other purpose than that of feeding the other parts as they grow. So they remain in the shell or husk ; and, as they are not to rise out of the ground, there is no need for their stemlet, or radicle, to lengthen, except enough to get 20 HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. out of the seed, and let the root form from the lower end of it, while the plumule develops from its upper end directly into a strong leafy stem. Fig. 40 is an acorn cut through lengthwise. The whole kernel consists of a pair of very thick seed- leaves, loaded with starch, &c, and completely enclosing the very small and short stemlet, or radicle, seen at the bottom. Fig. 41 is the acorn with the seedling Oak growing from it ; the seed-leaves remaining in the shell, but feeding the strong root which grows downwards and the stem which shoots so vigorously upwards. 44. Acorns and horsechestnuts may not always be found germinating ; but in the Pea we have a familiar case of this way of growing, which may be observed at any season by planting a few peas. Fig. 42 is a pea with the seed-coat taken off, after soaking. Here the seed-leaves are so thick that the pair makes a little ball ; and the stout radicle or stemlet appears on the side turned to the eye. Fig. 43 shows the plantlet growing. The whole seed remains in the soil ; the plumule, well nourished by the great stock of food in the buried seed-leaves, alone rises out of the ground as a strong shoot, bearing an imperfect scale-like leaf upon each of its earlier joints, and then producing the real leaves of the plant, while the radicle at the same time, without lengthening itself, sends down three or four roots at once. So the whole plant is quickly established, and all the early growth is made out of food provided for it the year before by the mother plant, and stored up in the seed. One more illustration we may take from 45. Indian Corn. Here the food provided for the early growth is laid up partly in the embryo, but mostly around it. Fig. 44 is a grain cut through flat-wise ; Fig. 45, another cut through the middle across its thickness ; and Fig. 46, the embryo, or germ, of another grain, taken out whole, — which may readily be done in green corn, or in an old grain after soaking it for some time in warm water. The separate embryo is placed to match that which is seen, divided, in the seed ; r is the radicle ; p, the plumule ; and c, the seed-leaf or cotyledon, which in this plant is single ; while in all the foregoing there was a pair of seed-leaves. The greater part of the grain is the meal, or albumen, the stock of nourish- ment outside of the embryo. In germinating, this meal is slowly changed HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. 21 into sugar, and dissolved in the water which is absorbed from the ground ; the coty- ledon imbibes this, and sends it into the radicle, r, to make the root, and into the plumule, p, enabling it to develop the set of leaves, wrapped up one within another, of which it consists, and expand them one after another in the air. Fig. 47 shows a sprouting grain, sending down its first root, and sending up the plumule still rolled together. Fig. 48 is the same, more advanced, having made a whole cluster of roots, and unfolded two or three leaves. Nourished abundantly as it is, both by the maternal stock in the grain, and by what these roots and leaves obtain and prepare from the soil and the air, the young corn gets a good start, is ready to avail itself of the summer's heat, to complete its vegeta- tion, to blossom, and to make and lay up the great amount of nourishment which Ave gather in the crop. 46. The Ollion. The cotyledon in Indian Corn, and most other plants which have only one, stays under ground. In the Onion it comes up and makes the first leaf, — a slender, thread-shaped one, — and in- deed it carries up the light seed on its summit. In Indian Corn, all the early joints of stem remain so short as not to be seen ; although later it makes long joints, carrying up the upper leaves to some distance from one another. In the Onion, on the contrary, the stem never lengthens at all, but remains as a thin plate, broader than it is long, with the roots springing from one side of it and the sheathing bases of the leaves covering it on the other. . 47. Number of Cotyledons or Seed-Leaves. Indian Corn (Fig. 46) and all such kinds of grain-plants, the Onion, Lilies, and the like, have only one seed-leaf or cotyledon to their embryo ; therefore they are called Monocotyledonous Plants, and the embryo is called monocotyledonous, — a long word, meaning "with one cotyledon." 48. The embryo of the Morning-Glory (Fig. 19), of the Maple (Fig. 27), Bean (Fig. 32-34), Almond, Peach, and Cherry (Fig. 36-38), Oak (Fig. 40), 22 HOW PLANTS GROW FROM THE SEED. Pea (Fig. 42), and of all such plants, is dicotyledonous, that is, has a pair of cotyledons, or seed-leaves, which is what the word means. Therefore all such plants are called Dicotyledonous Plants. 49. Pine-trees, and plants like them, generally have more than two cotyledons, in a circle ; so their embryo is said to be poly- cotyledonous ; meaning " with several or many cotyledons." Pig. 49 is a magnified view of a Pine-seed, divided lengthwise, and showing the long and straight embryo lying in the middle of the albumen. The slender lower part is the radicle or stemlet ; the upper part is a cluster of cotyledons or seed-leaves, in a close bundle ; three of them can be seen as it lies, and there are as many more behind. Pig. 50 is this embryo as it comes up from the seed, its cotyledons (six in number) expanding at once into a circle of slender, needle-shaped leaves. 50. It is a pity these three words are so long ; for the pupil should fix them thoroughly in his memory ; because these differ- ences in the embryo, or plantlet in the seed, run through the whole life of the plant, and show themselves in many other differences which very strikingly distinguish one class of plants from another. Let it be re- membered, therefore, that Monocotyledonous Plants, or Monocotyledons, are those which have only one cotyledon or seed-leaf to their embryo. Dicotyledonous Plants, or Dicotyledons, are those which have a pair of cotyledons or seed-leaves to their embryo. Polycotyledonous Plants, or Polycotyledons, are those which have more than one pair of cotyledons or seed-leaves to their embryo. Analysis of the Section. 24. Flowers produce Fruit; this, the Seed; of this the essential part is the Embryo which grows. 25. It is alive; but lies dormant awhile. How long seeds may live. 26. Germination, the beginning of growth; what is needful for it. 27. What takes place, illustrated from the Morning-Glory. 28. How the stemlet grows by lengthening, and carries up the seed-leaves: how the root is formed and grows downwards. 29. Instinct of each part to turn in its proper direc- tion; and why. 30. The little seedling a complete plant in miniature; its parts. 31. How it goes on to grow: growth of the root; rootlets; of the stem. The Plumule or Bud. Development of the stem piece by piece, each with its leaf. 32. How the seedling is nourished nt the beginning. Growth requires food. 33. How this is sup- plied by a deposit in the seed; Albumen. 34. It is kept in a solid form until the embryo starts, and is HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. 23 then dissolved, turned into sugar, &c, and feeds the plantlet. 33. This illustrated in Wheat and Indian Corn. 36. Or else the same nourishment is deposited in the embryo itself, in its seed-leaves; illustrated by the Maple. 37, 38. Variations of the same plan of growth in different plants. The Maple compared with the Morning-Glory. 39-45. A great abundance of food stored up in the embryo causes a rapid and strong growth; illustrated by the Bean; 42. by the Cherry, Almond, &c; 43,44. by the Horsechestnut, Acorn, Pea, &c; in these the seed-leaves do not come up in germinating; why. 45. In Indian Corn; the stock of food partly in the strong embryo, partly outside of it. 46. The Onion; its seed-leaf lengthens and comes up, but the stem never lengthens at all. 47. Number of cotyledons or seed-leaves in different kinds of plants; Monocutyledonous. 48. Dico- tyledonous ; Polyeotyledonous. 50. These differences always accompany other differences in the plant; Monocotyledonous, Dicotyledonous, and Polycotyledonous Plants. Section III. — How Plants grow Year after Year. 51. They GiOW Oil as tliey Began. The seedling has all the organs that any plant has, — even the largest and oldest, — excepting what belongs to blossoms : it has all it needs for its life and growth, that is, for vegetation. It has only to go on and produce more of what it already has, — more roots beneath to draw up more moisture from the soil, and more stem above, bearing more leaves, exposing a larger surface to the light and air, in which to digest what is taken in from the soil and the air, and turn it into real nourishment, that is, into the stuff which vege- tables are made of. So, as fast as a young plant makes new vegetable material, it uses it for its growth ; it adds to its root below, and to its stem above, and unfolds a new leaf or pair of leaves on every joint. Each joint of stem soon gets its full length, and its leaf or pair of leaves the full size ; and now, instead of growing, they work, or prepare nourishment, for the growth of the younger parts forming above. 52. Simple Stems. In this way, piece by piece, the stem is carried up higher and higher, and its leaves increased in number ; and the more it grows, the more it is able to grow, — as we see in a young seedling, beginning feebly and growing slowly for a while, but pushing on more and more vigorously in proportion to the number of leaves and roots it has produced. In this way, by developing joint after joint, each from the summit of its predecessor, a Simple Stem is made. Many plants make only simple stems, at least until they blossom, or for the first year. The Lilies, figured on the first page, and corn-stalks, are of this kind. Fig. 51 is a sort of diagram of the simple stem of Indian Corn, divided into its component pieces, to show how it consists of a set of similar growths, each from the summit 24 HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. of the preceding one. There are old trees even, which consist of a simple, un- branched stem. Palm-trees, such as our Southern Palmetto (Fig. 79) are of this kind. But more commonly, as stems grow they multiply them- selves by forming 53. Branches, or side-shoots. These are formed both by roots and by stems. Roots generally branch much sooner than stems do. See Fig. 4, 20, 80, &c. 54. Roots send off their branches from any part of the main root, or start from any part of a stem lying on or in the soil ; and they have no particular arrangement. 55. But the branches of stems spring only from particular places, and are arranged on a regular plan. They arise from the Axil of a leaf and nowhere else, except, in some few pe~ culiar cases. The axil (from a Latin word meaning the armpit) of a leaf is the hollow or angle, on the upper side, where the leaf is attached to the stem. As branches come only from the axils of leaves, and as leaves have a perfectly regular and uniform arrangement in each particular plant, the places where branches will appear are fixed beforehand by the places of the leaves, and they must follow their arrangement. In the axils, commonly one in each, branches first appear in the form of 56. Buds. A Bud is an undeveloped stem or branch. If large enough to have its parts distinguishable, these are seen to be undeveloped or forming leaves ; and large buds which are to stand over winter are generally covered with protect- ing scales, — a kind of dry, diminished leaves. 57. Terminal Bud. So the plumule or first shoot of the embryo (see Fig. 22, &c.) is a bud. But this first bud makes the main stem, and its growth, week after week, or year after year, carries on the main stem. Palms (as Fig. 79) grow in this way, by this bud only. Being always on the end of the stem, that is, terminating the stem, it is called the Terminal Bud. 58. Axillary Buds. But the buds which are to form branches appear on the sides of the stem ; and since they are situated in the axils of the leaves, as just ex- THE ARRANGEMENT OF BRANCHES. 25 plained (55), they are named Axillary Buds. (See Fig. 52, 53.) These buds grow into branches, just as the first or terminal bud of the seedling grows to make the main stem. 59. The Arrangement of Brandies, therefore, follows that of the axillary buds, and this that of the leaves. Now leaves are placed on the stem in two principal ways ; they are either alternate or opposite. They are al- ternate when they fol- low one after another, there being only one to each joint of the stem, as in Morning- Glory (Fig. 4, all after the seed-leaves), and in the Linden or Bass- wood (Fig. 52), as well as the greater part of trees or plants. They are opposite when there are two leaves upon each joint of stem, as in Horsechest- nut, Lilac, and Maple (Fig. 31, 53) ; one leaf in such cases being always exactly on the opposite side of the stem from its fellow. Now in the axil of almost every leaf of these trees a bud is soon formed, and in general plainly shows itself before summer is over. In Fig. 52, a, a, a, a, are the axillary buds on a twig of Bass- wood, — they are alternate, like the leaves, — and t is the terminal bud. Fig. 53, a twig of Red Maple, has its axillary buds opposite, like the leaves ; and on the very summit is the terminal bud. Next spring or sooner, the former grow into al- ternate branches ; the latter grow into opposite branches. These branches in their turn form buds in the axils of their leaves, to grow in time into a new generation of similar branches, and ?o on, year after year. So the reason is plain why the branching or spray of one tree or bush differs from that of another, each having its own plan, depending upon the way the leaves are arranged on the stem. GO. The spray (or ramification) of trees and shrubs is more noticeable in winter, 26 HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. when most leaves have fallen. Even then we can tell how the leaves were placed, as well as in summer. We have only to notice the leaf-scars : for each fallen leaf has left a scar to mark where its stalk separated from the stem. And in most cases the bud above each scar is now apparent or conspicuous, ready to grow into branches in the spring, and showing plainly the arrangement which these are to have. Here, for instance, is a last year's shoot of Horsechestnut (Fig. 54), with a large terminal bud on its summit, and with very conspicuous leaf-scars, Is; and just above each is an axillary bud, b. Here the leaves were opposite each other ; so the buds are also, and so will the branches be, unless one of the buds on each joint should fail. Fig. 55 is a similar shoot of a Hickory, with its leaf-scars (I s) and axillary buds (b) alternate, that is, single on the joints and one after another on different sides of the stem ; and these buds when they grow will make alternate branches. Gl. The branching would be more regular than it is, if all the buds grew. But there is not room for all; so only the stronger ones grow. The rest stand ready to take their place, if those happen to be killed. Sometimes there are more buds than one from the same axil. There are three placed side by side on those shoots of Red Maple which are going to blossom. There are several in a row, one above another, on some shoots of Tartarean Honeysuckle. 62. The appearance of plants, the amount of their branching, and the way in which they continue to grow, depend very much upon their character and duration. Co. The duration Of Plants of different kinds varies greatly. Some live only for a few months or a few weeks ; others may endure for more than a thousand years. The most familiar division of plants according to their duration and character is into Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees. 64. Herbs are plants of soft texture, having little wood in their stems, and in our climate dying down to the ground, or else dying root and all, in or before winter. 65. Shrubs are plants with woody stems, which endure and grow year after y6ar, but do not rise to any great height, say to not more than four or five times the MODE OF LIFE IN ANNUALS AND BIENNIALS. 27 height of a man. And if they reach this size, it is not as a single main trunk, but by a cluster of stems all starting from the ground. 66. Trees are woody plants rising by a trunk to a greater height than shrubs. 67. Herbs are divided, according to their character and duration, into Annuals, Biennials, and Perennials. 68. Animals grow from the seed, blossom, and die all in the same season. In this climate they generally spring from the seed in spring, and die in the autumn, or sooner if they have done blossoming and have ripened their seed. Oats, Barley, Mustard, and the common Morning-Glory (Fig. 4) are familiar annuals. Plants of this kind have fibrous roots, i. e. composed of long and slender threads or fibres. Either the whole root is a cluster of such fibres, as in Indian Corn (Fig. 48), Barley (Fig. 56), and all such plants ; or when there is a main or tap root, as in Mustard, the Morning-Glory, &c, this branches off into slen- der fibres. It is these fibres, and the slender root-hairs which are found on them, that mainly absorb moisture and other things from the soil ; and the more numerous they are, the more the plant can absorb by its roots. As fast as nourishment is received and pre- pared by the roots and leaves, it is expended in new growth, par- ticularly in new stems or branches and new leaves, and finally in flowers, fruit, and seed. The latter require a great deal of nour- ishment to bring them to perfection, and give nothing back to the plant in return. So blossoming and fruiting weaken the plant very much. Annual jflants usually continue to bear flowers, often in great numbers, upon every branch, until they exhaust themselves and die, but not until they have ripened seeds, and stored up in them (as in the mealy part of the grain of Corn, &c, Fig. 44, 45) food enough for a new generation to begin growth with. 69. Biennials follow a somewhat different plan. These are herbs which do not blossom at all the first season, but live over the winter, flower the second year, and then die when they have ripened their seeds. The Turnip, Carrot, and Parsnip, the Beet, the Radish (Fig. 57), and the Celandine, are familiar examples of bien- nial plants. 70. The mode of life in biennials is to prepare and store up nourishment through the first season, and to expend it the next season in flowering and fruiting. Accord- ingly, biennials for the first year are nearly all root and leaves ; these being the organs by which the plant works, and prepares the materials it lives on. Stem 28 HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. they must have, in order to bear leaves ; for leaves do not grow on roots. But what stem they make is so very short-jointed that it rises hardly any ; so that the leaves seem to spring from the top of the root, and all spread out in a cluster close to the ground. As the plant grows, it merely sends out more and more branches of the root into the soil beneath, and adds more leaves to the cluster just above, close to the surface of the warm ground, and well exposed to the light and heat of the sun. Thus consisting of its two working organs only, — root and leaves, — the young biennial sets vigorously to work. The moisture and air which the leaves take in from the atmosphere, and all that the roots take from the soil, are digested or changed into vegetable matter by the foliage while exposed to sunshine ; and all that is not wanted by the leaves themselves is generally carried down into the body of the root and stored up there for next year's use. So the biennial root becomes large and heavy, being a storehouse of nourishing matter, which man and animals are glad to use for food. In it, in the form of starch, sugar, mucilage, and in other nourishing and savory products, the plant (expending nothing in flowers or in show) has laid up the avails of its whole summer's work. For what purpose ? This plainly appears when the next season's growth begins. Then, fed by this great stock of nourishment, a stem shoots forth rapidly and strongly, divides into branches, bears flowers abundantly, and ripens seeds, almost wholly at the expense of the nourishment accumulated in the root, which is now light, empty, and dead ; and so is the whole plant by the time the seeds are ripe. 71. By stopping the flowering, biennials can sometimes be made to live another year, or for many years, or annuals may be made into biennials. So a sort of biennial is made of wheat by sowing it in autumn, or even in the spring and keep- ing it fed down in summer. But here the nourishment is stored up in the leaves rather than in the roots. 72. The Cabbage is a familiar and more striking example of a biennial in which the store of nourishment, instead of being deposited in the root, is kept in the MODE OF LIFE IN PERENNIALS. 29 leaves and in the short stem or stalk. These accordingly become thick and nutri- tious in the Cabbage, just as the root does in the Turnip, or the base of the short stem alone in Kohlrabi, or even the flower-stalks in , the Cauliflower ; all of which belong to the same family, and exhibit merely different ways of accom- plishing the same result. 73. Perennials are plants which live on year after year. Shrubs and trees are of course perennial. So are many herbs ; but in these only a portion gener- ally survives. Most of our perennial herbs die down to the ground before winter ; in many species all but certain separate portions under ground die at the close of the year ; but some parts of the stem con- taining buds are always kept alive to renew the growth for the next season. And a stock of nour- ishment to begin the new growth with is also pro- vided. Sometimes this stock is laid up in the roots, as for instance in the Peony, the Dahlia (Fig. 58), and the Sweet Potato. Here some thick l'oots, filled Dahiia-roots. with food made by last year's vegetation, nourish in spring the buds on the base of the stem just above (a, a), enabling them to send up stout leafy stems, and send down new roots, in some of which a new stock of food is laid up during summer for the next spring, while the exhausted old ones die off; and so on, from year to year. 74. Sometimes this stock of food is laid up in par- ticular portions of branches of the stem itself, formed under ground, and which contain the buds ; as in the Ground Artichoke and the Potato. Here these parts, with their buds, or eyes, are all that live over winter. These thickened ends of stems are called Tubers. In Fig. 59, a is a tuber of last year, now exhausted and Ground -Artichoke. 30 HOW PLANTS GROW YEAR AFTER YEAR. withering away, which grew in spring by one of its buds to make the stem (b) bear- ing the foliage of the season. This sends out some branches under ground, which in the course of the sea- son thicken at the end as they receive a stock of nourishment prepared by this year's foliage, and become new tubers (c, a forming one ; d, d, well-grown tubers of the season), to live over winter and make the next year's growth. 75. Because they live under ground, these tu- bers are commonly sup- posed to be roots ; but they are not, as any one may see. Their eyes are buds ; and the little scales behind the eyes answer to leaves ; while roots bear neither buds nor leaves. The fibrous roots which grow from these subterranean branches are very different in appearance from under-ground stems, as is plain to see in the Potato-plant. Fig. GO shows a few of the real roots, as well as several branches of the stem, with potatoes form- ing in all stages at their tips. Fig. 61 is one of these form- ing potatoes magnified, show- ing a little scale behind each eye which answers to a leaf. Fig. 62 is a part of a slice through an eye, more magnified, to show that the eye is really a bud, covered with little scales. MODK OF LIFE IN PKUI.NXIAI.S. 31 7G. In pome perennial herbs, prostrate stems or branches under ground are thickened with tins store of nourishment tor their whole length, making stout Rootstocks, as they are called; as in Sweet Flag, Solomon's Seal (Fig. 63), and Iris, or Flower-de- Luce (Fig. 64). These are perennial, and grow on a little way each year, dying off as much behind after a while ; and the newer parts every year send out a new set of fibrous roots. The buds which rootstalks produce, and the leaves or the scales they bear, or the scars or rings which mark where the old leaves or scales have fallen or decayed away, all plainly show that rootstocks are forms of stem, and not roots. The large round scars on the root- stock of Solomon's Seal, which give the plant its name, (from their looking like impressions of a seal,) are the places from which the stalk bearing the leaves and flowers of each season has fallen off in autumn. Fig. 63, a is the bud at the end, to make the growth above ground next spring; b, is the bottom of the stalk of this season ; c, the scar or place from which the stalk of last year fell ; d, that of the year before ; and e, that of two years ago. 77. Finally, the nourishment for the next year's growth may be deposited in the leaves themselves. Sometimes it occupies all the leaf, as in the Houseleek (Fig. 65) and other fleshy plants. Here the close ranks of the thickened leaves are wholly above ground. Sometimes the deposit is all in the lower end of the leaf, and on the ground, or un- derneath, as in common Bulbs. Take a White Lily of the gardens, for example, in the fall, or in spring before it sends up the stalk of the season (Fig. 66). From the bottom of the bulb, roots descend into the Houseleek soil to absorb moisture and other matters from it, while, above, it sends up leaves to digest and convert these matters into real nourishment. As fast as it is made, this nourishment is carried down to the bot- 3 32 HOW PLANTS GROW YEAIi APT Eli VICAR. mm torn of each leaf, which is enlarged or thickened for containing it. These thick leaf-bases, or scales, crowded together, make up the bulb ; all but its very short stem, concealed within, which bears these scales above, and sends down the roots from underneath. Fig. 67 shows one of the leaves of the season, taken off, with its base cut across, that the thickness may be seen. After having done its work, the blade dies off, leaving the thick base as a bulb-scale. Every year one or more buds in the centre of the bulb grow, feeding on the food laid up in the scales, and making the stalk of the season, which bears the flowers, as in Fig. 1, 2. 78. An Onion is like a Lily-bulb, only each scale or leaf-base is so wide that it enwraps all within, making coat after coat. n ll 79. In shrubs and trees a great quantity of nourishment, made the summer before, is stored up in the young wood and bark of the shoots, the trunk, and the roots. Upon this the buds feed the next spring ; and this enables them to develop vigorously, and clothe the naked branches with foliage in a few days ; or with blos- soms immediately following, as in the Horsechestnut ; or with blossoms and foliage together, as in Sugar Maple ; or with blossoms before the leaves appear, as in Red Maples and Elms. The rich mucilage of the bark of Slippery Elm, and the sweet spring sap of Maple-trees, belong to this store, deposited in the wood the previous summer, and in spring dissolved and rapidly drawn into the buds, to supply the early and sudden leafing and blossoming. 80. In considering plants, as to "how they grow," it should be noticed that all of them, from the Lily of the field to the tree of the forest, teach the same lesson of industry and provident preparation. No great result is attained without effort, and WHY THEY GROW SO VIGOROUSLY IX SPRING. 33 long preceding labor. Not only was the tender verdure which, after a few spring showers and sunny days, is so suddenly spread out over field and forest, all pre- pared beforehand, — most of the leaves, even, made the summer before, and snugly packed away in winter-buds, — but the nourishment which enables them to un' fold and grow so fast was also prepared for this purpose by the foliage of the year before, and laid up until it was wanted. The grain grows with vigor, because fed with the richest products of the mother plant, the results of a former year's vegeta- tion. The Lily-blossom develops in all its glory without toil of its own, because all its materials were gathered from the earth and the air long before, by the roots and the leaves, manufactured by the latter into vegetable matter, and this stored up for a year or two under ground in the bottoms of the leaves (as starch, jelly, sugar, &c), and in many cases actually made into blossoms in the dark earth, where the flower-buds lie slumbering in the protecting bulb through the cold winter, and in summer promptly unfold in beauty for our delight. Analysis of the Sectiorie 51. The seedling is a complete plnnt on the simplest scale ; in growth it m3rely increases its parts, and multiplies them in number, as fast as it makes materials for growth. 52. Simple stems, how formed and carried up, piece by piece. 53. Branches : 54. of Roots, how they differ from those, 55. of Stems. Where these arise from ; in what form they appear. 56. Buds, what they are. 57. Terminal Bud, what it makes. 58. Axillary Buds ; why so named ; what they make. 59. How branches are arranged, and what their arrangement depends upon: alternate; opposite. 60. The spray and buds of shrubs and trees in winter; Leaf-scars. 61. Why branches are not as regular and as many as the buds or leaves. 62, 63. The Duration and Character of Plants as affecting the way they grow. 64. Herbs. 65. Shrubs. 66. Trees. 67. Herbs are annuals, biennials, or perennials. 68. Annuals ; their mode of life ; character of their roots, intended only for absorbing; duration, &c. 69. Biennials ; how defined ; examples. 70. Character of their roots, and illustrations of their mode of life ; the first year, food made and stored up ; the second year, food expended, for what pur- pose. 71. How biennials may sometimes be made perennial, and annuals biennial. 72. The store of food may be kept in the leaves, or in the stems above ground ; Cabbage, &c. 73. Perennials ; what they are ; mode of life of perennial herbs from year to year ; accumulation of food in roots. 74. Accumulation of food in under-ground branches ; Tubers, as of Ground Artichoke. 75. Potato illustrated. 76. Accumulation in whole stems or branches under ground ; Rootstocks. 77. Accumulation of food in leaves, above ground, as in Houseleek ; or in the bottoms of leaves, usu- ally under ground ; Bulbs ; as of Lily, and, 78. of Onion. 79. Food, how stored up in shrubs and trees, and for what purpose ; used in leafing and blossoming in spring. 80. A lesson taught by vegetation. 34 HOW PLANTS GKOW. Sectiox IV. — Different Forms or Kinds of Roots, Stems, and Leaves. 81. The Organs of Vegetation, or those that have to do with the life and growth of a plant, are only three, Root, Stem, and Leaf. And the plan upon which plants are made is simple enough. So simple and so few are the kinds of parts that one would hardly expect plants to exhibit the almost endless and ever-pleasing diver- sity they do. This diversity is owing to the wonderful variety of forms under which, without losing their proper nature, each of these three organs may appear. 82. The study of the different shapes and appearances which the same organ takes in different plants, or in different parts of the same plant, comparing them with one another, is called Morphology, and is one of the most interesting parts of Botany. But in this book for young beginners, we have only room to notice the commonest forms, and those very briefly, — although sufficiently to enable stu- dents to study all common plants and understand botanical descriptions. Those who would learn more of the structure and morphology of plants should study the Lessons in Botany. SI. Of Roots. 83. Tile Root is the simplest and least diversified of the three organs. Yet it exhibits some striking variations. 84. As to origin, there is the primary or original root, formed from the embryo as it grows from the seed, and the branches it makes. Annuals, biennials, and many trees are apt to have only such roots. But when any portion of their stems is covered by the soil, it makes secondary roots. These are roots which spring from the sides of the stem. Every one knows that most stems may be made to strike root when so covered and having the darkness and moisture which are gen- erally needful for roots. Perennial herbs and most shrubs strike root naturally in this way under ground. All the roots of plants raised from tubers, rootstocks, and the like (74-76), are of this sort, and also of plants raised from slips or cuttings. In warm and damp climates there are likewise many 85. Aerial RoolS, namely, roots which strike from the stem in the open air. In summer we often find them springing from the joints of the stalks of Indian Corn, several inches above the soil. Some of these reach the ground, and help to feed the plant. In the famous Banyan-tree of India aerial roots on a larger scale strike from the spreading branches, high up in the air, grow down to the ground and into it, KINDS OF ROOTS. 35 and so make props or additional trunks. Growing in this way, there is no limit to the extent of the branches, and a single Banyan will spread over several acres of ground and have hundreds of trunks all made from aerial roots. 86. Aerial Rootlets, or such roots on a small scale, are produced by several woody vines to climb by. English Ivy, our Poison Ivy, and Trumpet-Creeper are well- known cases of the sort. 87. Air-PlailtS. Roots which never reach the ground are also produced by certain plants whose seeds, lodged upon the boughs or trunks of trees, high up in the air, grow there, and make an Epiphyte, as it is called (from two Greek words meaning a plant on a plant), or an Air-Plant. The latter name refers to the plant's getting its living altogether from the air ; as it must, for it has no connection with the ground at any time. And if these plants can live on air, in this way, it is easy to understand that common vegetables get part of what they live on di- rectly from the air. In warm countries there are many very handsome and curious air- plants of the Orchis family. A great number are culti- vated in hot-houses, merely fixed upon pieces of wood and hung up. They take no nourishment from the boughs of the tree they happen to grow upon. 88. FarasitiC Plants are those which strike their roots, or what answer to roots, into the bark or wood of the species they grow on, and feed upon its sap. The Mistletoe is a woody parasitic plant, which engrafts itself when it springs from the seed upon the branches of Oaks, Hickories, or other trees. The Dodder is a com- -jilantaof Llie Orct 36 HOW PLANTS GROAV. raon parasitic herb} consisting of orange-color or whitish stems, looking like threads of yarn. These coil round the stalks of other plants, fasten themselves by little suckers in place of roots, and feed upon their juices. Living as such a plant does by robbing other plants of their prepared food, it has no leaves of its own, except little scales in their place, and has no need of any. 89. Shapes and Uses Of Roots. Common roots, however, grow in the soil. And their use is to absorb moisture and other matters from the soil, and sometimes to hold prepared food until it is wanted for use, as was explained in the last section (70, 73). Those for absorbing are Fibrous roots, namely, slender and thread-shaped, as in Fig. 48, 56, and generally branching. Very slender roots of the sort, or their branches, are called Rootlets ; and these do most of the absorbing. The roots of annuals are mostly fibrous, as they have nothing to do but to absorb; and so are the smaller branches of the roots of shrubs, trees,, and other plants. Fleshy roots are those of herbs which form a thick and stout body, from having much nourishment deposited in them. They belong particularly to biennial herbs (69), and to many pe- rennials (73). Some sorts have names according to their shapes. The root is a Tap-root, when of one main body, and tapering downwards to a point; as that of a Carrot (Fig. 71), and of a seedling Oak (Fig. 41). And a tap-root is Conical, when stout, and tapering gradually from the upper end to a point below ; as a carrot (Fig. 71), parsnip, or beet. Spindle-shaped, when thicker in the middle, and tapering upwards as well as downwards, like a radish (Fig. 57) ; and Turnip-shaped, or Napiform, when wider than long, or with a suddenly tapering tip, as a turnip (Fig. 70). Roots are Clustered or Fascicled when, instead of one main root, there are several or many of about the same size ; as in Indian Corn (Fig. 48), and other grain (Fig. 56). Here the clustered roots are fibrous, being for absorbing only. When such roots, or some of them, are thick and fleshy, as they are Avhen used as storehouses of food, they become Tuberous. The roots of the Dahlia, for in- stance (Fig. 58), are clustered and tuberous, or tuber-like. KINDS OF STEMS AND BRANCHES. 37 § 2. Of Stems. 90. Forms Or Kinds Of Stems. Differences in the size and consistence of stems, such as distinguish plants into herbs, shrubs, and trees, have already been noticed, in paragraphs 64, 65, and 66. A stem is Herbaceous, when it belongs to an herb, that is, has very little wood in its com- position, and does not live over winter above ground: Shrubby, when it belongs to a shrub, or is woody : Arboreous or Arborescent, when the plant is a tree, or like a tree ; that is, when it is tall and grows by a single trunk. 91. The peculiar straw-stem of a grass or grain is named a Culm. It is gen- erally hollow, except at the joints, which are hard and solid ; but in Indian Corn, Sugar-Cane, and some other Grasses, it is not at all hollow. 92. As to the mode of growth or the direction it takes in growing, the stem is Erect or Upright, when it grows directly upwards, or nearly so : Ascending, when it rises upwards at first in a slanting direction : Declined or Reclined, when turned or bent over to one side : iJecumbent, when the lower part reclines on the ground, as if too weak to stand, but the end turns upwards more or less : Procumbent or Trailing, when the Avhole stem trails along the ground : Prostrate, when it naturally lies flat on the ground : Creeping or Running, when a trailing or prostrate stem strikes root along its lower side, where it rests on the ground : Climbing, where it rises by laying hold of other objects for support ; either by tendrils, as in the Pea, Gourd, and Grape-Vine ; or by twisting its leafstalks around the supporting body, as in the Virgin's Bower; or by rootlets acting as holdfasts, as in the Ivy and Trumpet-Creeper (86) : Tunning, when stems rise by coiling themselves spirally around any support, as in the Morning-Glory (Fig. 4), Hop, and Bean. 93. Several sorts of branches are different enough from the common to have particular names. Indeed, some are so different, that they would not be taken for branches without considerable study. Such, for instance, as 94. Thorns or Spines. Most of these are imperfect, leafless, hardened, stunteu branches, tapering to a point. That they are branches is evident in the Hawthorn and similar trees, from their arising from the axil of leaves, as branches do. And on Pear-trees and Plum-trees many shoots may be found which begin as a leafy 38 IIOW PLANTS GROW. branch, but taper off into a thorn. Prickles, such as those on the stems of Roses and Brambles, must not be confounded with thorns. These are growths from the bark (like hairs or bristles, only stouter), and peel off with it ; while thorns are connected with the wood. 95. Tendrils, such as those of the Grape-Yine, Virginia Creeper (Fig. 72), and the Melon or Squash, are very slender, leafless branches, used to enable certain plants to climb. They grow out straight or nearly so until they reach some neighboring support, such as a stem, when the end hooks around it to secure a hold, and the whole ten- dril then shortens itself by coiling up spirally, so draw- ing the growing Tendrils uf Virginia Creeper. ShoOt nearer tO tllC supporting object. When the Virginia Creeper climbs the side of a building, the face of a rock, or the smooth bark of a tree, which the tendrils cannot lay hold of in the usual way, their tips expand into a flat plate (as shown in Fig. 73, the ends of a tendril magnified), which adheres very firmly to the surface. This enables the plant to climb up a smooth surface by tendrils, just as the Ivy and Trumpet-Creeper climb by rootlets (8G). 96. Peduncles or Flowei'-Stalks are a kind of branches, or stems, as is clear from their situation. They are either a continuation of the stem, as in the Lily of the Valley and the Chalcedonian Lily, represented on the first page ; or else they rise out of the axil of a leaf, as in the Morning-Glory (Fig. 4). Plainly, whatever comes from the axil of a leaf must be of the nature of a branch. So 97. Buds, that is axillary buds, are undeveloped branches, as already explained in paragraphs 55 to 58. 98. The following kinds of branches are all connected with the ground in some way, and most of them act in such a way as to make new plants. KINDS OF STEMS AND BRANCHES. 39 99. A Stolon is a branch which reclines on the ground, or bends over lo it, and strikes root (Fig. 74). Currant-bushes spread naturally by stolons, and so does White Clover. The gardener imitates the process where it does not naturally occur, or facilitates it where it does, by bending branches to the ground, and pinning them down, when they strike root where they are covered by the soil, and then the branch, having leaves and roots of its own, may be separated as an independent plant. In this way the gardener multiplies many plants by layering which he cannot so readily propagate by seed. 100. A Rlllllier (Fig- 74) is a very slender, thread-like, leafless stolon, much like a tendril, lying on the ground, and rooting and budding at the point ; so giving rise to a new plant at some distance from the parent, and connected with it during the first year. But the runner dies in winter and leaves the young plant independent. The Strawberry-plant affords the most familiar illustration of runners. Each plant or offshoot, as soon as established, sends out runners of its own, which make new plants at their tip. In this way a single Strawberry-plant produces a numerous progeny in the coui - se of the summer, and establishes them at convenient dis- tances all around. 101. A SuckCi' (Fig. 74) is a branch which springs from a parent stem under ground, where it makes roots of its own, while farther on it rises above ground into a leafy stem, and becomes an independent plant whenever the connection with the parent stem dies or is cut off. It is by suckers that Rose and Raspberry bushes multiply and spread so "by the root," as is generally said. But that these subter- ranean shoots are stems, and not roots (though they produce roots), will plainly appear by uncovering them. 102. All Offset is a short branch, next the ground or below its surface, like a short stolon or sucker, bearing a tuft of leaves at the end, and taking root where this 40 HOW PLANTS GROW. rests on the soil ; as in the Houseleek (Fig. 65), where one plant will soon produce a cluster of young plants or offsets all around it. 103. A Rootstocli is any kind of horizontal stem or branch growing under ground. Slender rootstocks occur in the subterranean part of the suckers of Poses, of Pepper- mint, or of Canada Thistle, and of Quick-Grass or Couch-Grass (Fig. 75), which spreads so widely, and becomes so troublesome to farmers. They are well distinguished from roots by the leaves which they bear at every joint, in the form of scales, and by the buds which they produce, one in the axil of each scale. These buds, which are very tenacious of life, are what renders the plant so exceedingly difficult to destroy. For ploughing and hoeing only cut up the rootstoek into pieces, each with a tuft of roots ready formed and with a bud to each joint, all the more ready to grow for the division. So that the attempt to destroy Quick- Grass by cut- ting it up by the roots (as these shoots are called), unless the Rooistuck r amck- g rass. pieces are carefully taken out of the soil, is apt to produce many active plants in place of one. .104. Thickened or fleshy rootstocks, such as tho?e of Solomon's Seal (Fig. 63) and Iris (Fig. 64), have already been illustrated (76). 105. A Tuber is a rootstoek thickened at the end, as already explained in the Potato and Ground Artichoke (74, 75, Fig. 59, 60). The eyes of a tuber are lively buds, well supplied with nourishment for their growth. 106. A Corm or Solid Btilb, as of Gladiolus and Crocus (Fig. 76), is a sort of rounded tuber. If well covered with thick scales it would become 107. A Bulb. This is a (mostly subterranean) stem, so short as to be only a flat plate, producing roots from its lower surface and above covered with thickened scales, — as was fully explained in the last section (77). 108. Bulbs are scaly, as in the Lily (Fig. 66), when the comof crocus.withbud. scales are narrow ; or coated, as an onion, when the scales enwrap each other, and form coats. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF STEMS. 41 109. BlllbletS are little bulbs, or fleshy buds, formed in the axils of leaves above ground, as in the Bulb-bearing Lily. Or in some Leeks and Onions they take the place of flower-buds. Falling off, they take root and grow into new plants. 110. TllC Internal Structure Of Stems. Plants are composed of two kinds of ma- terial, namely, Cellular Tissue and Wood. The former makes the softer, fleshy, and pithy parts ; the latter forms the harder, fibrous, or woody parts. The stems of herbs contain little wood, and much cellular tissue ; those of shrubs and trees abound in the woody part. 111. There are two great classes of stems, which differ in the way the woody part is arranged in the cellular tissue. They are named the Exogenous, and the Endogenous. 112. For examples of the first class we may take a Bean-stalk, a stem of Flax, Sunflower, or the like, among herbs, and for woody stems any common stick of wood. For examples of the second class take an Asparagus-shoot or a Corn- stalk, and in trees a Palm-stem. These names express the different ways in which the two kinds grow in thickness when they live more than one year. But the difference between the two is almost as apparent the first year, and in the steuis of herbs, which last only one year. 113. TllC Endogenous Stem. Endogenous means "inside- growing." Fig. 77 shows an Endogenous stem in a Corn- stalk, both in a cross-section, at the top, and also split down lengthwise. The peculiarity is that the wood is all in separate threads or bundles of fibres running lengthwise, and scattered among the cellular tissue throughout the whole thickness of the stem. On the cross-section their cut ends appear as so many dots; in the slice lengthwise they show themselves to be threads or fibres of wood. Fig. 73 is a similar view of a Palm-stem (namely, of our Carolina Palmetto, of which whole trees are represented in Fig. 70). It shows the endogenous plan in a stem several years old. Here the bundles of wood are merely increased very much in number, new threads having been formed throughout intermixed with the old, and any in- crease in diameter that has taken place is from a general distention or enlargement Endogenous Stems. 42 HOW PLANTS GROW. of the whole. Such sterns may well enough be called inside-growers, because their wood increases in amount, as they grow older, by the formation of new threads or, fibres of wood within or among the old. 114. Moreover, endogenous stems are apt to make few or no branch- es. Asparagus is the only common example to the contrary ; that branches freely. But the stalks of Corn and other grain, and those of Lilies (Fig. 1, 2) and the like, seldom branch until they come to flower ; and Palms are trees of this sort, with perfectly simple or branchless trunks, rising like col- umns, and crowned with a tuft of conspicuous and peculiar foliage, which all comes from the continued growth of a terminal bud. 115. The Exogenous Stem is the kind we are familiar with in ordi- nary wood. But it may he observed in the greater part of our herbs as well. It differs from the other class, even at the be- ginning, by the wood all occupying a certain part of the stem, and by its woody bundles soon appearing to run together into a solid layer. This layer of wood, whether much or little, is always situated around a central part, or pith, which has no wood in it, being pure cellular tissue, and is itself surrounded by a bark which is mainly or at first entirely cellular tissue. So that a slice across an exoge- nous stem always has a separate cellular part, as bark, on the circumference, then a ring of wood, and in the centre a pith ; as is seen in Fig. 80, representing a piece KINDS AND FORMS OK LEAVES. 43 of Flax-stem magnified; and also in Fig. 81, which shows the same structure in a woody stem, namely, in a shoot of Maple of a year old, cut both crosswise and lengthwise. 11G. The difference becomes still more marked in stems more than one year old. During the second year a new layer of wood is formed outside of the. first one, between it and the bark ; the third year, another layer outside cf the second, and so on, a new layer being formed each year 81 Exogenous stems. 81 outside of that of the year before. The increase is all on the surface, and buries the older wood deeper and deeper in the trunk. For this reason such stems are said to be exogenous or outside-growing (from two Greek words which mean just this), a new layer being added to the wood on the outside each year as long as the tree or shrub lives. And so the oldest wood, or Heart-wood, is always in the centre, and the newest and freshest, the Sajy-ivood, at the circumference, just beneath the bark. 117. The heart-wood is dead, or soon becomes so. The sap-wood is the only active part ; and this, with the inner bark, which is renewed from its inner face every year, is all of the trunk that is concerned in the life and growth of the tree. 118. Plants with exogenous or outside-growing stems, especially those that live year after year, almost always branch freely. All common shrubs and trees of the exogenous class make a new set of branches every year, and so present an ap- pearance very different from that of mo.:t of those of the endogenous or inside- growing class. § 3. Of Leaves. 119. Leaves exhibit an almost endless variety of forms in different plants; and their forms afford easy marks for distinguishing one species from another. So the different shapes of leaves are classified and named very particularly, — - which is a great convenience in describing plants, as it enables a botanist to give a correct idea of almost any leaf in one or two words. We proceed to notice some of the principal kinds. 120. Their Parts. A leaf with all its parts complete has a Blade, a Footstalk, and a pair of Stipules at the base of the footstalk. Fig. 82 shows all three parts 44 HOW PLANTS GROW. in a Qtrince-leaf: b, the blade; p, the footstalk ; and st, the stipules, looking like a pair. of little blades, one on each side of the stalk. But many leaves have no stipules ; many have no footstalk, and then the blade sits directly on the stem (or is sessile), as in Fig. 138. Some leaves even have no blade; but this is uncommon; for in foliage the blade is the essential part. There- fore, in describing the shape of leaves, it is always the blade that is meant, unless something is said to the contrary. 121. Leaves are either simple or compound. They are simple when the blade is all of one piece ; corn- pound, when of more than one piece or blade. ' Fig. 1 28 to 1 32, and 1 33, are examples of compound leaves, the latter very compound, having as many as eighty- one little blades. 122. Their Structure and Yeining. Leaves are com- posed of the same two kinds of material as stems (1 10), namely, of wood or fibre, and of cellular tissue. The woody or fibrous part makes a framework of ribs and veins, which gives the leaf more strength and toughness than it would otherwise have. The cellu- lar tissue forms the green pulp of the leaf. This is spread, as it were, over the framework, both above and below, and supported by it ; and the whole is protected by a transparent skin, which is termed the Epidermis. 123. Ribs. The stouter pieces or timbers of the framework are called Ribs. In the leaf of the Quince (Fig. 82), Pear, Oak (Fig. 120),&c. there is only a single main rib, running directly through the middle of the blade from base to point ; this is called the Midrib. But in the Mallow, the Linden (Fig. 83), the Maple (Fig. 84), and many others, there are three, or five, or seven ribs of nearly the same size. The branches of the ribs and the branchlets from them are called 124. YeittS and MnktS. The former is the general name for them ; but the finest branches are particularly called Veinlcts. Straight and parallel veins or fine ribs, like those of Indian Corn, or of any Grass-leaf, or of the Lily of the Valley (Fig. 3, 85), are called Nerves. This is not a sensible name, for even if in some degree like the nerves of animals in shape, they are not in the least like them in use. KIXOS AND FORMS OE LEAVES. 45 Nor are what we call veins to be likened particularly to the bloodvessels of ani- mals. But this name is not eo bad ; for the minute fibres which, united in bun- dles, make up the ribs and veins, are hollow tubes, and serve more or less for con- veying the sap. 125. As to the veining, or the arrangement of the framework in the blade, leaves are divided into two classes, viz. : 1st, the Netted-veined or Reticulated, and, 2d, the Parallel-veined or Nerved. 126. Mtcd-Yeilicd or Reticulated leaves are those in which the veins branch off from the rib or ribs, and divide again and again, and some of the veins and veinlets run into one another, so forming reticulations or meshes of network throughout the leaf. This is shown in the Quince-leaf (Fig. 82) ; also in the Linden or Basswood (Fig. 83), and the Maple (Fig. 84), where the finer meshes appear in one or two of the leaves. 127. Netted-veined leaves belong to plants Avhich have a pair of seed-leaves to their em- bryo (48), and stems of the exogenous structure (115). That is, these three kinds of structure, in em- bryo, stem, and leaf, generally go together. 128. Parallel- veined or Nerved leaves are those in which the ribs and veins run side by side without branching (or with minute cross-veinlets, if any) from the base to the point of the blade, as in Indian-Corn, Lily of the Valley (Fig. 85), &c, or sometimes from the midrib to the margins, as in the Banana and Calla (Fig. 86). Such parallel veins have been called Nerves, as just explained (124). Leaves of this sort belong to plants with one cotyledon to their embryo (47), and with endogenous stems (113). Netted-veined Leaves of 84. Maple 46 HOW PLANTS GROW. 120. Parallel-veined leaves, we see, are of two sorts;— 1. those with the veins or nerves all running from the base of the leaf to the point (Fig. 85) ; and, 2. thosa where they mostly run from the midrib to the margin, as in Fig. 86. Netted-veined leaves likewise are of two sorts, the Feather-veined and the Radiate-veined. 1 30. Feather-reined (al- so called pinnately veined) leaves are those in which the main veins all spring from the two sides of one rib, viz. the midrib, like the plume of a feather from each side of the shaft. Fig- ures 82, 88-97, 120, 122, &c. represent feather-veined leaves. 1 3 1 . Radiate- Veined (al- so called palmatehj veined) leaves are those which have three or more main ribs ris- ing at once from the place where the footstalk joins the blade, and Commonly diverg- Parallel-veined Leaves ing, like rays from a centre ; the veins branching off from these. Of this sort are the leaves of the Maple (Fig. 84), Mallow, Currant, Grape- Vine, and less dis- tinctly of the Linden (Fig. 83). Such leaves are generally roundish in shape. It is evident that this kind of veining is adapted to round leaves, and the other kind for those longer than wide. 132. Shapes of Leaves. As to general shape, the following are the names of the principal , c orts. (It will be a good exercise for students to look up examples which fit the definitions.) Linear ; narrow, several times longer than wide, and of about the same width throughout, as in Fig. 87. Lance-shaped or Lanceolate ; narrow, much longer than wide, and tapering up wards, or both upwards and downwards, as in Fig. 88. Oblong ; two or three times longer than broad, as in Fig. 89. KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 47 Oval ; broader than oblong, and with a flowing outline, as in Fig. 90. Ovate ; oval, but broader towards the lower end ; of the shape of a lien's egg cut through lengthwise, as in Fig. 91. Orbicular or Round ; circular or nearly circular in outline, as in Fig. 93. Linear. Lance- shaped Hean-shapec!. Of these the comraon- Spatulat 133. Some leaves taper downwards more than upwards, est forms are the Oblanceolate, or Inversely lance-shaped ; that is, shaped like a lance with the point downwards, as in Fig. 94. Spatidate ; roundish above, and tapering into a long and narrow base, like the old form of the apothecary's spatula, Fig. 95. Obovate, or Inversely ovate ; that is, ovate with the narrow end at the bottom of the leaf, as in Fig. 96. Cuneate or Wedge-shaped ; like the last, but with the sides narrowing straight down to the lower end, in the shape of a wedge, as in Fig. 97. 134. Of course these shapes all run into one another by imperceptible degrees in different cases. The botanist merely gives names to the principal grades. Inter- mediate shapes are described by combining the names of the two shapes the leaf in question most resembles. For example : — Lance-linear, or linear-lanceolate, means between linear and lance-shaped. Lance-oblong, or oblong-lanceolate, means between oblong and lanceolate in shape. Ovate-lanceolate, between ovate and lance-shaped ; and so on. 135. Or else a qualifying word may be used, as somewhat ovate, slightly heart- shaped, and the like. Thus, Fig. 92 is ovate in general form, but with the base a little notched, i. e. somewhat heart-shaped. It is one of the kinds which depend upon. 48 HOW rLANTS GROW, 136. The shape at the base. This is concerned in all the following sorts : — Heart-shaped, or Cordate; when of the shape in which a heart is painted, the base having a recess or notch, as in Fig. 98. Kidney-shaped, or Reniform ; like heart-shaped, but rounder, and broader than long, as in Fig. 99. Auricled, or Eared ; having a small projection or lobe on each side at the base, like a pair of ears, as in Fig. 101. Arrow-shaped, or Arrow-headed ; when such lobes at the base are pointed and turned backwards, like the base of an arrow-head, as in Fig. 100. Halberd-shaped, or Hastate ; when such lobes point outwards, giving the whole blade the shape of the halberd of the olden time, as in Fig. 102. Shield-shaped, or Peltate ; when the footstalk is attached to some part of the lower face of the blade, which may be likened to a shield borne by the hand with the arm extended. Fig. 104 represents the shield-shaped leaf of a Water-Penny- wort. Fig. 103 is the leaf of another species, which is not shield-shaped. A comparison of the two shows how the shield- shaped leaf is made. 137. As to the Apex or Point, we have the following terms, the first six of which apply to the base as well as to the apex of a leaf: — Pointed, Taper-pointed, or Acuminate ; narrowed into a tapering tip, as in Fig. 105. Acute ; ending in an acute angle, Fig. 106. Obtuse ; ending in an obtuse angle, or with a blunt or rounded apex ; as in Fig. 107. Truncate ; as if cut off square at the apex, as in Fig. 108. nd-Hdney- shaped. Id-shaped. KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 49 JRetuse ; Laving a blunt or rounded apex slightly indented, as in Fig. 109. Emarginate, or Notched ; as if a notch were cut out of the apex ; Fig. 110. Obcordate % or Inversely heart-shaped ; that is, with the strong notch at the apex instead of the base, as in Fig. Ill and the leaflets of White Clover. Cuspidate ; tipped with a rigid or sharp and narrow point, as in Fig. 112. Mucronate ; abruptly tipped with a short and weak point, like a small projection of the midrib, as in Fig. 113. Awned, Aivn-pointed, or Aristate ; tipped with a long bristle-shaped appendage, like the beard {aion) of Oats, &c. Pointed. Acule. Obtu Obcordate. Cuspidate. Muc 138. As to the margin, whether whole, toothed, or cut, leaves are said to be Entire ; when the margin is an even line, as in Fig. 99 to 102. Toothed; when beset with teeth or small indentations ; of this there are two or three varieties, as, Serrate or Saw-toothed ; when the teeth turn forwards, like those of a saw, as in Fig. 114. Dentate ; when they point outward, as in Fig. 115. Grenate ; when scalloped in- to broad and rounded teeth, as in Fig. 116. Wavy (Repand or Undulate)', when the margin bends slightly in and out, as in Fig. 117. Sinuate ; strongly wavy or sinuous, as in Fig. 118. Incised or Jagged ; cut into deep and irregular, jagged teeth or incisions, as ia Fig. 119. This leads to truly 139. Lobed or Cleft Leaves, &c. •• those with the blade cut up, as it were, into part3, i. e. lobes or divisions. In a general way, such leaves are said to be lobed ; and the Dentate. Crenate. Wavy 50 HOW PLANTS GROW. number of projecting parts, or lobes, may be expressed by saying hvo-lobed, three- lobed (Fig. 121), &c., according to their number. Or, more particularly, a leaf is Lobed ; when the pieces are roundish, or the incisions open or blunt, as in Fig. 120, 121; and Cleft; when cut about half-way down, with sharp and narrow incisions, as in Fig. 122, 123 ; and so two-cleft, three-cleft, five-clef % &c, according to the number. Parted ; when the cutting extends almost through, as in Fig. 124, 125. And we say two-parted, three-parted, &c, to express the number of the parts. Divided ; when the divisions go through to the base of the leaf (as in Fig. 127), or to the midrib (as in Fig. 12G), which cuts up the blade into separate pieces, or nearly so. 120 122 Ki 125 Pinnate!; 140. As the cutting is always between the veins or ribs, and not across them, the arrangement of the lobes depends upon the kind of veining. Feather-veined leaves have the incisions all running in towards the midrib (as in the upper row of figures), because the principal veins all spring from the midrib ; while radiate or palmately veined leaves have them all running towards the base of the blade, where the ribs all spring from the footstalk, as in the lower row of figures. So those of KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 51 the upper row are called pinnately lobed, cleft, parted, or divided, as the case may be, and those of the lower row palmately lobed, cleft, &c. The number of the lobes or pieces may also be expressed in the same phrase. Thus, Hepatica has a pal- mately three-lobed leaf (Fig. 121) ; the Red Maple a palmately five-cleft leaf (Fig, 84), and so on. 141. In this way almost everything about the shape and veining of a leaf may be told in very few words. How useful this is, will be seen when we come to study plants to find out their names by the descriptions. 142. All these terms apply as well to the lobes or parts of a leaf, when they are themselves toothed, or lobed, or cleft, &e. And they also apply to the parts of the flower, and to any flat body like a leaf. So that the language of Botany, which the student has to learn, does not require so very many technical words as is commonly supposed. 143. Compound Leaves (121) are those which have the blade cut up info two or more separate smaller blades. The separate blades or pieces of a compound leaf are called Leaflets. The leaflets are generally jointed with the main footstalk, just as that is jointed with the stem, and when the leaf dies the leaflets fall off separately. 144. There are two kinds of com- pound leaves, the pinnate and the palmate. 145. Pinnate leaves have their leaflets arranged along the sides of the main footstalk, as in Fig. 128, 129, 130. 146. Palmate (also called Digitate) leaves bear their leaflets all at the very end of the footstalk; as in Fig. 131. 147. There are several varieties of pinnate leaves, The principal sorts are:—- Abruptly pinnats. 52 HOW PLANTS GROW. Interruptedly pinnate, when some of the leaflets of the same leaf are much smaller than the rest, and placed between them, as in the Water Avens. Abruptly pinnate, when there is no odd leaflet at the end, as in Honey-Locust, Fig. 130. Odd-pinnate, when there is an odd leaflet at the end, as in the Common Locust (Fig. 128) and in the Ash. Pinnate with a tendril, when the footstalk is prolonged into a tendril, as in Fig. 129, and all of the Pea tribe. 148. Pinnate leaves may have many or few leaflets. The Bean has pinnate leaves of only i3i. Palmate leaf, of 5 leaflets. three leaflets. 149. Palmate leaves generally have few leaflets ; there is not room for many on the very end of the footstalk. Common Clover has a palmate leaf of three leaflets (Fig. 136) ; Virginia Creeper, one of five leaflets (Fig. 72), as well as the Buckeye (Fig. 131) ; while the Horsechestnut has seven, and some Lupines from eleven to seventeen. 150. Twice or Thrice Compound Leaves are not uncommon, both of the pinnate and of the palmate sorts. While some leaves of Honey-Locust are only once pinnate, as in Fig. 130, others are doubly or twice pinnate, as in Fig. 132. Those of many Acacias are thrice pinnate. Fig. 133 represents one of the root-leaves of Meadow-Rue, which is of the palmate kind, and its general footstalk is divided into threes for four times in suc- cession, making in all eighty-one leaflets ! When a leaf is divided three or four times, it is said to be decompound. This is ter- nately decompound, because it divides each .:„, * 4. ±1. I3 2 - A twice-pinnate leaf of Honey-Locust time into threes. KINDS AND FORMS OF LEAVES. 53 151. leaves without Distinction of Footstalk and Blade, or with no very obvious distinction of parts. Of this kind, among several others, may be mentioned, — ,-y r . S/ \ Needle - shaped leaves, such as those of Pine-trees and Larches (Fig. 134). These are long, slender, and rigid, and often with little if any distinc- tion of sides. Awl-shaped or Subulate leaves are those which from a broadish base ta- per into a sharp and rigid point, like Ternately decompound, or four limes compound leaf. one sort of those of the Red Cedar and Arbor Vitae (Fig. 135, those on the larger branchlets). Those on other branchlets, as at a, are shorter, blunt, and scale-shaped. Thread-shaped or Filiform leaves ; round and stalk-like, as those of the Onion. Equitant leaves, like those of Iris (Fig. G4), which are folded together lengthwise, as may be seen at the base, where they override each other. They grow upright, with their faces looking horizontally, instead of having an upper and a lower surface, as most leaves edle-shapsd leaves irl-shaped le a, Ac do. 54 HOW PLANTS GROW. 152. Stipules, as already explained (120), are a pair of appendages at the base of the leaf, one on each side. These often grow fast to the base of the leafstalk, as they do in the Rose and in Clover (Fig. 136; st 9 the stipules). Or they may join with each other and form a kind of sheath round the stem, as they do in the Buttonwood and in Polygonum (Fig. 187). Many leaves have no stipules at all. In many cases they fall otf very early, especially those that serve for bud-scales, as in Magnolia. 153. The Arrangement of Leaves on the stem has already been explained as to the two principal ways (59). Leaves are either Alternate, when they follow each other one by one, as in the Morning-Glory (Fig. 4) and the Linden (Fig. 83) ; or Opposite, when in pairs, that is, two on each joint of stem, one opposite the other, as in Maples (Fig. 84). To these may be added a third, but less common arrangement, viz. the Whorled ; where there are three, four, or more leaves on the same joint of stem, forming a circle or whorl; as in Madder and Bedstraw (Fig. 137'). variety of the opposite mode. But this is only a Analysis of the Section. 81. Vegetation very simple in plan, very diversified in particulars. 82. The study of the forms of the organs is Morphology. 83-89. Roots, their forms and kinds. 84. Primary or original; secondary; how they originate. 85. Aerial roots. 86. Aerial rootlets. 87. Air-Plants ; how they live. 88. Parasitic Plants, their economy. 89. Shapes of roots : fibrous; fleshy; the principal sorts. 90. Forms or kinds of stem; herbaceous, shrubby, arboreous. 91. Culm or straw-stem. 92. Direc- tions or positions of stems. 93. Peculiar sorts. 94. Thorns or Spines, how shown to be branches ; ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION. 55 Prickles. 95. Tendrils. 96. Peduncles or Flower-stalks. 97. Buds. 98. Branches connected with the ground. 99. Stolons. 100. Runners. 101. Suckers. 102. Offsets. 103. Rootstocks. 104. Fleshy Rootstocks. 105. Tubers. 106. Corms. 107. Bulbs; 108. scaly and coated. 109. Bulblets. 110. Internal Structure of Stems; Cellular Tissue; Wood. 111. The two classes of stems. 112. Ex- amples, both in herbs and trees. 113. Endogenous stem; how its wood is arranged. 114. External appearance and growth. 115. Exogenous stem; common wood. 116. How it increases in diameter year after year: Sap-wood and Heart-wood. 117. The latter dead, the former annually renewed. 118. External appearance and mode of growth. 119. Leaves ; their varieties, why useful to learn. 120. Their parts : Blade, Footstalk, Stipules. 121. Simple and Compound. 122. Structure and Veining of leaves: woody or fibrous part; cellular tissue or green pulp ; Epidermis or Skin. 123. Ribs. 124. Veins and Veinlets; Nerves, so called. 125. Two kinds of veining. 126. Netted-veined or Reticulated. 127. Class of plants that have this kind of veining. 128. Parallel-veined or Nerved ; class of plants that have this kind of veining. 129. Both kinds of two sorts. 130. Feather-veined or Pinnately veined. 131. Radiate-veined or Pal- mately veined. 132 Shapes of leaves enumerated; as to general outline. 133. Those that taper downward. 134, 135. Intermediate shapes, how expressed. 136. Shapes depending upon the base. 137. Forms of apex. 138. As to margin or toothing, &c. 139. Lobing or division. 140. How this is related to the veining; how both the kind of lobing and the number of parts may be expressed, 141, so that a short phrase will describe the leaf completely. 142. All the various terms apply as well to other parts, as to calyx, corolla, petals, &c. 143. Compound Leaves ; Leaflets. 144. The two kinds. 145. Pinnate leaves. 146. Palmate or Digitate. 147. Varieties of pinnate leaves. 148. Number of leaflets. 149. Also of palmate leaves ; why their leaflets are generally fewer than those of pinnate leaves. 150. Twice or thrice compound and decompound leaves. 151. Leaves without distinction of blade and footstalk ; Needle-shaped ; Thread-shaped ; Awl- shaped; Equitant. 152. Stipules; often united with the footstalk, or with each other. 153. The arrangement of leaves on the stem: the three modes, viz. alternate, opposite, whorled. CHAPTER II. HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED OR MULTIPLIED IN NUMBERS. Section I. — How Propagated from Buds. 154. Plants not only grow so as to increase in size or extent, but also multiply, or increase their numbers. This they do at such a rate that almost any species, if favorably situated, and not interfered with by other plants or by animals, would soon cover the whole face of a country adapted to its life. 155. Plants multiply in two distinct ways, namely, by Buds and by Seeds. All plants propagate by seeds, or by what answer to seeds. Besides this, a great number of plants, mostly perennials, propagate naturally from buds. 156. And almost any kind of plant may be made to propagate from buds, by taking sufficient pains. The gardener multiplies plants artificially in this way, 157. By Layers and Slips Of Cuttings. In laying or layering, the gardener bends a branch down to the ground, — sometimes cutting a notch at the bend, or remov- ing a ring of bark, to make it strike root the quicker, — and covers it with earth ; then, after it has rooted, he cuts off the connection with the parent stem. Thus he makes artificial stolons (99). Plants which strike root still more readily, such as Willows, he propagates by cuttings or slips, that is, by pieces of stem, containing one or more buds, thrust into the ground or into flower-pots. If kept moist and warm enough, they will generally strike root from the cut end in the ground, and develop a bud above, so forming a new plant out- of a piece of an old one. Many woody plants, which will not so readily grow from slips, can often be multiplied 158. By Grafting or Budding. In grafting, the cutting is inserted into a stem or branch of another plant of the same species, or of some species like it, as of the Pear into the Quince or Apple ; where it grows and forms a branch of the stock (as the stem used to graft on is called). The piece inserted is called a scion. In grafting shrubs and trees it is needful to make the inner bark and the edge of the wood of the scion correspond with these parts in the stock, when they will grow together, and become as completely united as a natural branch is with its parent stem. In budding or inoculating, a young bud, stripped from one fresh plant, is inserted under the bark of another, usually in summer; there it adheres and gen- HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 57 erally remains quiet, as it would have done on the parent bough, until the next spring, when it grows just as if it belonged there- ISO. The object of all these ways of artificial propagation from buds is to pre- serve and to multiply choice varieties of a species which would not be perpetuated from seed. For as the fruit of all the natural branches is alike, so it remains essentially unaltered when borne by branches which are made to grow as artificial branches of another plant, or to take root in the ground as a separate plant. The seeds of an apple or other fruit cannot be depended upon to reproduce the very same sort of apple, — that is, an apple of the very same flavor or goodness. The seeds will always reproduce the same species, but not the individual pecidiarities. These are perpetuated in propagation from buds. This kind of propagation is there- fore very important to the cultivator. It takes place naturally in many plants, 160. By Stolons, Offsets, Runners, or Suckers, in ways which have already been described (99 to 103, and Fig. 74). These are all forms of natural layering, and they must have taught the gardener his art in this respect. For he merely imitates Nature, or rather sets her at Avork and hastens her operations. Also, 161. By Tubers (74, 75, Fig. 59, 60). These are under-ground branches with lively buds, well charged with prepared nourishment, rendering them more inde- pendent and surer to grow. Potatoes and Ground-Artichokes are familiar illus- trations of the kind. They are propagated year after year by their buds, or eyes, being very seldom raised from the seed. Each annual crop of tubers is set free at maturity, by the death of all the rest of the plant. 162. By Corms, Bulbs, and Bulblets; as explained in paragraphs 77 and 106 to 109. Fig. 76 shows a corm or solid bulb of Crocus, which itself grew by feeding upon its parent, whose exhausted remains are seen underneath : it has already pro- duced a crop of buds, to grow in their turn into another generation of corms, con- suming their parent in the process. Bulbs produce a crop of nevv bulbs from buds in the axils of some of their scales. Tulips, Daffodils, and Garlics propagate very freely in this manner, not only keeping up the succession of generations, but multi- plying greatly their numbers. Analysis of the Section. 154. Plants multiply as well as grow. 155. In two ways; all plants by seeds, many by buds. 156. Most kinds may be propagated by buds artificially. 157. By Layers and Slips or Cuttings. 158. By Grafting or Budding. 159. Object gained by this mode of propagation. 160. It takes place naturally, by Stolons, Offsets, &c. 161. By Tubers. 162. By Corms, Bulbs, and Bulblets. 58 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. Section II. — How Propagated by Seeds. 1G3. Propagation from buds is really only the division, as it grows, of one plant into two or more, or the separation of shoots from a stock. Propagation from seed is the only true reproduction. In the seed an entirely new individual is formed. So the Seed, and the Fruit, in which the seed is produced, and the Flower, which gives rise to the fruit, are the Organs of Reproduction (2). 164. Every species at some period or other produces seeds, or something which answers to seeds. Upon this distinction, namely, whether they bear true flowers producing genuine seeds, or produce something merely answering to flowers and seeds, is founded the grand division of all plants into two series or grades, that is, into Pilenogamous or Flowering Plants, and Cryptogamous or Flow- erless Plants. 165. CryptOganiOUS 01' FlowcrleSS FlaiilS do not bear real flowers, having stamens and pistils, nor produce real seeds, or bodies having an embryo ready formed in them. But they produce minute and very simple bodies which answer the purpose of seeds. To distinguish them from true seeds, they are called Spores. Ferns, Mosses, Lichens, and Seaweeds, are all flowerless plants, reproduced by spores. 166. PhccnogamoUS or Flowering Plants are those which do bear flowers and seeds; the seed essentially consisting of an embryo or germ, ready formed within its coats, which has only to groAv and unfold itself to become a plant; as has been fully explained in the first and second sections of Chapter I, 167. Flowerless plants have their organs too minute to be examined without much magnifying, and are too difficult for young beginners. The ordinary or Flowering class of plants will afford them abundant occupation. We are to study first the Flower, then the Fruit and Seed. Section III. — Flowers. § 1. Their Arrangement on the Stem. 168. Inflorescence is the term used by botanists for flower-clusters generally, or for the way blossoms are arranged on the stem. Everything about this is governed by a very simple rule, which is this : — 169. Flower-buds appear in the same places that common buds (that is, leaf- buds) do ; and they blossom out in the order of their age, the earliest-formed first, FLOWERS I THEIR ARRANGEMENT ON THE STEM. 59 and so on in regular succession. Now the place for buds is in the axils of the leaves {axillary buds, 58), and at the end of the stem {terminal bud, 57) : so these are also the places from which flowers spring. Fig. 138 is a Trillium, with its flower terminal, that is, 'from the summit of the stem. Fig. 139 is a piece of Moneywort, with axillary flow- ers, i. e. from the axils of the leaves. The Morn- ing-Glory (Fig. 4) also has its flowers axillary. 170. Solitary Flowers. In both these cases the blossoms are solitary, that is, single. There is only one on the plant in Trillium (Fig. 138). In Fig. 139, there is on- ly one from the same axil ; and although, as the stem grows on, flowers appear in succession, they are so scattered, and so accom- panied by leaves, that they cannot be said to form a flower-cluster. 171. Flower-Clusters are formed whenever the blossoms are more numerous or closer, and the ac- companying leaves are less con- spicuous. Fig. 140 is a cluster (like that of Lily of the Valley, Fig. 3) of the kind called a raceme. On comparing it with Fig. 139, we may perceive that it differs mainly in having the leaves, one under each blossom-stalk, reduced to little scales, which are inconspicuous. In both, the flowers really spring from the axils of leaves. So they do in all the following kinds of flower-clusters, until we reach the Cyme. 172. The leaves of a flower-cluster take the name of Bracts, These are gen- erally very different from the ordinary leaves of the plant, commonly much smaller. and often very small indeed, as in Fig. 140. In the figures 141 to 144, the bracts ai*e larger, and more leaf-like. They are the leaves from whose axil the flower arises. Sometimes there are bracts also on the separate flower-stalks (as on the lower ones in Fig. 140) : to distinguish these we call them Bractlets. 138 Terminal Flower. \xillary Flowers. GO HOW PLANTS ARK l'KOPAGATED. 173. The flower-stalk or footstalk of a blossom is called a Peduncle (96). the flowers in Fig. 138, 139, &c. are peduncled or stalked. But in Fig. 141 they are sitting on the stem, or sessile. 174. In clusters we need to distinguish two kinds of flower-stalks ; namely, the stalk of the whole cluster, if there be any, and the stalk of each blossom. In such cases we call the stalk of the cluster the Peduncle, and the stalk of the individual flowers we name the Pedi- cel. In the Lily of the Valley (Fig. 3, as in Fig. 140), there is the peduncle or general flower-stalk (which is here a continuation of the main stem), and then the flowers all have pedicels of their own. 175. Kinds Of Flower-Cluster.. Of those which bear their flowers on the sides of a main stalk, in the axils of leaves or bracts, the prin- cipal kinds are the Raceme, the Corymb, the Umbel, the Head, and the Spike with its varieties ; also the Panicle. In the head and the spike the flowers are sessile. In the others they have pedicels or footstalks of their own. 176. A Raceme is a cluster with the blossoms arranged along the sides of a main flower-stalk, or its continuation, and all on pedicels of about the same length. A bunch of Currant-blossoms or berries, ° .no or the graceful cluster of the Lily of the Valley (Fig. 3, 140) are good illustrations. Fig. 142 shows the plan of the raceme. Notice that a raceme always blossoms from the bottom to the top, in regular order ; because the lower buds are of course the oldest. 177. A Corymb is a flat-topped or convex cluster, like that of Hawthorn. Fig. FLOWERS : THEIR ARRANGEMENT ON THE STEM. 61 143 shows the plan of it. It is plainly the same as a raceme with the lower pedicels much longer than the uppermost. Shorten the body, or axis, of a corymb so that it is hardly perceptible, and we change it into 178. All Umbel, as in Fig. 144. This is a cluster in which the pedicels all spring from about the same level, like the rays or sticks of an umbrella, from which it takes its name. The Milkweed and Primrose bear their flowers in umbels. 179. The outer blossoms of a corymb or an umbel plainly answer to the lower blos- soms of a raceme. So the umbel and the corymb blossom from the circumference towards the centre, the outer flower-buds being the oldest. By that we may know such clusters from cymes. 180. A Head is a flower- cluster with a very short body, or axis, and without any pedi- cels to the blossoms, or hardly any, so that it has a rounded form. The Button-bush (Fig. 145), the Thistle, and the Red Clover are good examples. 181. It is plain that an umbel would be changed into a head by shortening its pedicels down to nothing ; or, contrarily, that a head would become an umbel by giving stalks to its flowers. 182. A Spike is a lengthened flower-cluster, with no pedicels to the flowers, or hardly any. Fig. 141 gives the plan of a spike ; and the common Mullein and the Plantain are good examples. A head v/ould become a spike by lengthening its axis. A ra- ceme would become a spike by shortening its pedicels so much that they could hardly be seen. The Catkin and the Spadix are only sorts of spike. 183. A Catkin or Anient is a spike with scaly bracts. The flowers of the Wil- low, Poplar, Alder, and Birch (Fig. 146) are in catkins. u2 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 184. A SpadiX is a spike with small flowers crowded on a thick and fleshy body or axis. Sweet-Flag and Indian-Turnip are common examples. In Indian-Tur- nip (Fig. 147) the spadix bears flowers only near the bottom, but is naked and club-shaped above. And it is surrounded by a peculiar leaf or bract in the form of a hood. 185. Such a bract or leaf enwrapping a spike or cluster of blossoms is named a Spathe. 186. A set of bracts around a flower-cluster, such as those around the base of the umbel in Fig. 144, is called an Involucre. 187. Any of these clusters may be compound. That is, there may be racemes clustered in racemes, making a compound raceme, or corymbs in corymbs, or umbels in umbels, making a compound umbel, as in Caraway (Fig. 148), Parsnip, Parsley, and all that family. The little umbels of a compound umbel are called Umbel- lets ; and their involucre, if they have any, is called an Involucel. 188. A Panicle is an irreg- ularly branching compound flower-cluster, such as would be formed by a raceme with its lower pedicels branched. Fig. 149 shows a simple panicle, the branches, or what would be the pedicels, only once branched. A bunch of Grapes and the flower-cluster of Horsechestnut are more compound panicles. A crowded compound panicle of this sort has been called a Thyrse. 189. A Cyme is the general name of flower-clusters of the kind in which a flower always terminates the stem or main peduncle, and each of u<1 Spathe 148 npoum 1 . Umbel, FLOWERS : THEIR PARTS. 63 its branches. The plan of a cyme is illustrated in the following figures. Fig. 150, to begin with, is a stem terminated by a flower, which plainly comes from a terminal bud or is a terminal flower. Fig. 151 is the same, which has started a branch from the axil k » \ . k * * * k . of each of the uppermost leaves ; each of these ends in a flower-bud. Fig. 152 is the same, with the side branches again branched in the same way, each branch ending in a flower-bud. This makes a cluster 150 ,51 152 Plan of the Cyme. looking like a corymb, as shown in Fig. 143 ; but observe that here in the cyme the middle flower, a, which ends the main stem, blossoms first ; next, those flowers marked b ; then those marked c, and so on, the centre one of each set being the earliest ; while in the corymb the blossoming begins with the outermost flowers and proceeds regu larly towards the centre. The Elder, the Cornel, and the Hydrangea (Fig. 169) have their blossoms in cymes many times branched in this way ; that is, they have compound cymes. 190. A Fascicle is only a close or very much crowded cyme, with very short footstalks to the flowers, or none, at all, as the flower-cluster of Sweet- William. § 2. Forms and Kinds of Flowers. 191. The Paris of a Flower were illustrated at the beginning of the book, in Chapter I., Section I. Let us glance at them again, taking a different flower for the example, namely, that of the Three-leaved Stonecrop. Although small, this has all the parts very distinct and regular. Fig. 153 is a moderately enlarged view of one of the middle or earliest flowers of this Stonecrop. (The others are like it, only with their parts in fours instead of fives.) And Fig. 154 shows two parts of each sort, one on each side, more magnified, and separated from the end of the flower-stalk (or Receptacle), but standing in their natural position, namely, below or outside a Sepal, or leaf of the Calyx ; then a Petal, or leaf of the Corolla ; then a Stamen; then a Pistil. 64 HOW PLANTS ARK PUOPAGATED. Stamen. Pistil. 192. This is a complete and regular, yet simple flower; and will serve as a pat- tern, with which a great variety of flowers may be compared. 193. When we wish to designate the leaves of the blossom by one word, we call them the Perianth. This name is formed of two Greek words meaning " around the flower." It is convenient to use in cases where (as in the Lilies, illustrated on the first page) we are not sure at first view whether the leaves of the flower are calyx or corolla, or both. 194. A Petal is sometimes to be distin- guished into two parts ; its Blade, like the blade of a leaf, and its Glaxo, which is a kind of tapering base or foot of the blade. More commonly there is only a blade ; but the petals of Roses have a very short, nar- row base or claw ; those of Mustard, a longer one ; those of Pinks and the like, a narrow claw, which is generally longer than the blade (Fig. 308). 195. A Stamen, as Ave have already learned (15, 17), generally consists of two parts ; its Filament and its Anther. But the filament is only a kind of footstalk, no more necessary to a stamen than a petiole is to a leaf. It is therefore sometimes very short or wanting ; when the anther is sessile. The anther is the essential part. Its use, as we know, is to produce pollen. 196. The Pollen is the matter, looking like dust, which is shed from the anthers when they open (Fig. 159). Here is a grain of pollen, a single particle of the fine powder shed by the anther of a Mallow, as seen highly magnified. In this plant the grains are beset with bristly points ; in many plants they are smooth ; and they differ greatly in appearance, size, and shape in different species, but are all just alike in the same species ; so that the family a plant belongs to can often be told by seeing only a grain of its pollen. The use of the pollen is to lodge on the stigma of the pistil, where it grows in a peculiar way, its inner coat projecting a slender thread Sepal. Sepal. FLOWERS : THEIR NATURE. 65 Stylo. Ovar, . which sinks into the pistil, somewhat as a root grows down into the ground, and reaches an ovule in the ovary, causing it in some unknown way to develop an embryo, and thereby become a seed. 197. As to the Pistil, we have also learned that it consists of three parts, the Ovary, the Style, and the Stigma (16); that the style is not always present, being only a stalk or support for the stigma. But the two other parts are essential,- — the Stigma to receive the pollen, and the Ovary to contain the ovules, or bodies which are to become seeds. Fig. 156 represents a pistil of Stonecrop, magnified ; its stigma (known by the naked roughish surface) at the tip of the style ; the style gradually enlarging downwards into the ovary. Here the ovary is cut in two, to show some of the ovules inside. And Fig. 157 shows one of the ovules, or future seeds, still more magnified. 198. Nature Of the Flower. In the mind of a botanist, who looks at the philosophy of the thing, A flower answers to a sort of branch. True, a flower does not bear much resemblance to a common branch ; but we have seen (90—109) what remarkable forms and ap- pearances branches, and the leaves they bear, occasionally take. Flowers come from buds just as branches do, and spring from just the same places that branches do (169). branch intended for a peculiar purpose. While a branch with ordinary leaves is intended for growing, and for collecting from the air and preparing or digesting food, — and while such peculiar branches as tubers, bulbs, &c. are for holding pre- pared food for future use, — a blossom is a very short and a special sort of branch, intended for the production of seed. If the whole flower answers to a branch, then it follows that (excepting the receptacle, which is a continuation of the flower-stalk) — The parts of the flower answer to leaves. This is plainly so with the sepals and the petals, which are commonly called the leaves of the blossom. The sepals or calyx-leaves are commonly green and leaf-like, or partly so. And the petals or eorolla-leaves are leaves in shape, only more delicate in texture and in color. In many blossoms, and very plainly in a White Water-Lily, the calyx-leaves run into In fact, a flower is a 06 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. corolla-leaves, and the inner corolla-leaves change gradually into stamen?, — show- ing that even stamens answer to leaves. 198 a . How a stamen ansAvers to a leaf, according to the botanist's idea, Fig. 158 is intended to show. The filament or stalk of the stamen answers to the footstalk of a leaf; and the anther answers to the blade. The lower part of the figure represents a short filament, bearing an anther which has its upper half cut away ; and the summit of a leaf is placed above it. Fig. 159 is the whole stamen of a Lily put beside it for comparison. If the whole anther corre- sponds with the blade of a leaf, then its two cells, or halves, answer to the halves of the blade, one on each side of the midrib ; the continuation of the filament, which con- nects the two cells (called the connective), answers to the midrib ; and the anther generally opens along what answer to the margins of a leaf. 199. It is easy to see how a simple pistil answers to a leaf. A simple pistil, like one of those of the Stonecrop (Fig. 154, 156) is regarded by the botanist as if it were made by the folding up inwards of the blade of a leaf, (that is, of what would have been a leaf on any branch of the common kind.) so that the margins come together and join, making a hollow closed bag, which is the ovary ; a tapering summit forms the style, and some part of the margins of the leaf in this, destitute of skin, becomes the stig- ma. To understand this better, compare Fig. 160, represent- ing a leaf rolled up in this way, with Fig. 156, and with Fig. 161, which are pistils, cut in two, that the interior of the ovary may be seen. It is here plain that the ovules or seeds are at- tached to what answers to the united margins of the leaf. The particular part or line, or whatever it may be, that tho ovules or seeds are attached to, is called the Placenta. 200. Varieties or Sorts of Flowers. Now that we have learned how greatly roots, stems, and leaves A T ary in their forms and appearances, we should expect flowers to exhibit great variety in different species. In fact, each class and each family of plants has its flowers upon a plan of its own. But if students understand the general plan of flowers, as seen in the FLOWERS : THEIR FORMS AND KINDS. 67 Morning-Glory, the Lily (Fig. 1-12), and the Stonecrop (191), they will soon learn to understand it in any or all of its diverse forms. The principal varieties or special forms that occur among common plants will he descrihed under the families, in the Flora which makes the Second Part of this hook. There stu- dents will learn them in the easiest way, as they happen to meet with them in collecting and analyzing plants. Here we will only notice the leading Kinds of Variation in flowers, at the same time explaining some of the terms which are used in describing them. 201. Flowers consist of sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils. There may be few or many of each of these in any particular flower ; these parts may be all separate, as they are in the Stonecrop ; or they may be grown together, in every degree and in every conceivable way ; or any one or more of the parts may be left out, as it were, or wanting altogether in a particular flower. And the parts of the same sort may be all alike, or some may be larger or smaller than the rest, or differently shaped. So that flowers may be classified into several sorts, of which the following are the principal. 202. A Complete Flower is one which has all the four parts, namely, calyx, corolla, stamens, and pis- tils. This is the case in all the flowers we have yet taken for examples ; also in Trillium (Fig. 138, reduced in size, and here in Fig. 1G2, with the blossom of the size of life, and spread open flat). 203. A Perfect Flower is one which has both sta- mens and pistils. A complete flower is of course a perfect one ; but many flowers are perfect and not complete ; as in Fig. 163, 164. 204. An Incomplete Flower is one which wants at least one of the four kmds of organs. This may happen in various ways. It may be Apetalous ; that is, having no petals. This is the case in Anemony (Fig. 163), and Marsh-Marigold. For these have only one row of flower-leaves, and that is a calyx. The petals which are here wanting appear Complete flo Incomplete flower of Anemony. 68 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. in some flowers very much like these, as in Buttercups (Fig. 238) and Goldthread Or the flower may be still more incomplete, and Naked, or Achlamydeous ; that is, without any flower-leaves at all, neither calyx nor corolla. That is the case in the Lizard's-Tail (Fig. 164), and in Willows. Or it may be incomplete by wanting either the stamens or the pistils ; then it is 205. An Imperfect or Separated Flower. Of course, if the stamens are wanting in one kind of blo.:- som there must be others that have them. Plants with imperfect flowers accordingly bear two sorts of blossoms, namely, one sort Staminate or Sterile, those having stamens only, and therefore not producing seed ; and the other Pistillate or Fertile, having a pistil but no good sta- mens, and ripening seed only when fertilized by pollen from the sterile flowers. The Oak and Chestnut, Hemp, Moonseed, and Indian Corn are so. Fig. 165 is one of the staminate or sterile flowers of Indian Corn ; these form the " tassel " at the top of the stem : their pollen falls upon the " silk," or styles, of the forming ear below, consisting of rows of pistillate flowers. Fig. 166 is one of these, with its very long style. The two kinds of flowers in this case are Monozcious ; that is, both borne by the same individ- ual plant ; as they are also in the Oak, Chestnut, Birch, &c. In other cases Diwcious ; that is, when one tree or herb bears flowers with stamens only, and another flowers with pistils only ; as in Willows and Poplars, Hemp, and Moonseed. Fig. 167 is a staminate flower from one plant of Moon- seed, magnified ; and Fig. 168, a pistillate flower, borne by a plant from a different root. There is a third way : some plants produce what are called Polygamous flowers, that is, having some blossoms with pistils only or with Moonseed Flowers. FLOWERS : THEIR FORMS AND KINDS. 69. stamens only, and others perfect, having both stamens and pistils, either on the same or on different individuals. The Red Maple is a very good case of this kind ; the two or three sorts of flowers look- ing very differ- ently when they appear in early spring ; those of one tree having long red stamens and no good pis- til, those of other trees having con- spicuous pistils, in some blossoms with no good sta- ins c Hydrangea. mens at all, in others with short ones. There are also what are called abortive or 206. Neutral Flowers ; having neither stamens nor pistils, and so good for nothing except for show. In the Snowball of the gardens and in richly cultivated Hydran- geas all the blossoms are neutral, and no fruit is formed. Even in the wild state of these shrubs, some of the blossoms around the margin of the cluster are neu- tral (as in the Wild Hydrangea, Fig. 169), consisting only of three or four flower-leaves, very much larger than the small perfect flowers which make up the rest of the cluster. Also what the gardener calls Double Floivers, when full, are neutral, as in double Roses and Buttercups. These are blossoms which by cultivation have all their stamens and pistils changed into petals. 207. A Symmetrical Flower is one which has an equal number of parts of each kind or in each set or row. FUlx " This is so in the Stonecrop (Fig. 153), which has five sepals in the calyx, five petals in the corolla, ten stamens (that is, two sets of stamens of five each), and five pistils. Or often it has flowers with four sepals, and then there are only four 70 nOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. petals, eight stamens (twice four), and four pistils. So the flower of Trillium (Fig. 1 62) is symmetrical ; for it consists of three sepals, three petals, six stamens (one 1-1 before each sepal and one before each petal), and a pistil plainly composed of three put together, having three styles or stigmas. Flax affords an- other good illustration of symmetrical flowers (Fig. 170) : it has a calyx of five sepals, a corolla of five petals, five stamens, and five styles. In such flowers, and in blossoms generally, the parts alter- nate with each other ; that is, the petals stand be- fore the intervals between the sepals, the stamens, when of the same number, before the intervals be- tween the petals, and so on. 208. An Unsymmetrical Flower is one in which the different organs or , 73 sets do not match in the number of their parts. The flower of Anemony, Fig. 163, is unsymmetrical, having many more stamens and pistils than it has calyx-leaves. And the blossom of Larkspur (Fig. 171) is unsym- metrical, because, while v [^~-^^i0/ Larkspur - it has five sepals or leaves in the calyx, there are only four petals or co- rolla-leaves, but a great many stamens, and only one, two, or three pistils. The sepals and petals are dis- played separately in Fig. 172; the five pieces marked * are the sepals ; the four marked p are the petals. 209. A Regular Flower is one in which the parts of each sort are all of the same shape and size. The flowers in Flax (Fig. 170) and in all the examples pre- ceding it are regular. While in Larkspur and Monkshood we have not only an unsymmetrical, but FLOWERS : THEIR FORMS AND KINDS. 71 210. An Irregular Flower ; that is, one in which all the parts of the same sort are not alike. For in the Larkspur-blossom one of the sepals bears a long hollow spur or tail behind, which the four others have not ; and the four small petals are of two sorts. The Violet-blossom (Fig. 173) and the Pea-blossom (Fig. 351) are symmetrical (except as to the pistil), but irregular. Fig. 174 shows the calyx and the corolla of the Violet above it displayed ; s, the five sepals ; p, the five petals. One of the latter differs from the rest, having a sac or spur at the base, which makes the blossom irregular. So far, most of the examples in this section are from 211. Flowers With the parts all distinct, that is, of separate pieces; — the calyx of distinct sepals, the corolla of distinct petals (i. e. Polypetaluus) . the stamens dis- tinct (separate, &c), and all the parts growing in regular order out of the receptacle, in other words, inserted on the receptacle. These are the simplest or most natural flowers, the parts answering to so many leaves on a b short branch. But as in Honeysuckles (Fig. 389) the leaves of the same pair are often found grown together into one, so in blossom-leaves, there are plenty of 212. Flowers with their parts united or growiv together. The flower of Morning- Glory (Fig. 4) is a good example. Here is the ca- lyx of five separate leaves or sepals (Fig. 17G) ; but in the corolla (Fig. 175) the five petals arc com- pletely united into a cup, just as the upper leaves of Honeysuckles are into a round plate. Then, in Stramonium (Fig. 177), the five sepals also are united or grown together almOSt tO their tips intO a Morning-Glorjr. Stramonium. cup or tube ; and so are the five petals likewise, but not quite to their tips ; and the five teeth or lobes (both of the calyx and of the corolla) plainly show how many leaves there really are in each set, When this is so in the corolla, it forms what is called a 72 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 213. MonopetaloilS corolla ; i. e. a corolla of one piece. It is so called, whether it makes a cup or tube with the border entire, as in Morning-Glory (Fig. 175), or with the border lobed, that is, the tips of the petals separate, as in Stramonium ( Fig. 177), or even if the petals are united only at the bottom, as in the Potato- blossom (Fig. 182). The same may be said of a calyx when the sepals are united into a cup, only this is called Monosepalous. A mo- nopetalous corolla (and so of a calyx) is generally distinguishable into two parts, namely, its Tube or narrow part below, and its Border or Limb, the spreading part above. It is regular when all sides and lobes of it are alike, as in Fig. 175, 177, &c. It is irregular when the sides or parts are different or unequal in size or shape, as in Sage, Dead- Nettie (Fig. 181), the common Honeysuckle, &c. It is Tubular, when long and narrow without a conspicuous border, as in Fig. 178, or Trumpet-shaped ; tubular, gradually enlarging upwards, as in Trumpet-Creeper and Trumpet-Honeysuckle (Fig. 178) ; Funnel-shaped or Funnel-form (like a funnel or tunnel) ; when the tube opens gradually into a spreading border, as in Morning-Glory (Fig. 175) and Stramoni- um (Fig. 177) ; Bell-shaped or Gampanidate ; when the tube is wide for its length and the border a little spreading, like a bell, as in Hare- bell (Fig. 179). Salver-shaped; when a slender tube spreads suddenly into a flat border, as in Phlox (Fig. 180). Wheel-shaped or Rotate ; same as salver-shaped, with the tube very short or none, as in the corolla of the Potato (Fig. 182) and the Nightshade (Fig. 183). Labiate or Tiro-lipped ; when the border di- vides into two parts, or lips, an upper and a lower (sometimes likened to those of an animal 182 ,83 with gaping mouth), as in Sage, Dead-Nettie (Fig. 181, and the like. This is one of the irregular forms of monopetalous corolla, and the commonest. FLOWERS : Til KIR FORMS AND KINDS. 73 214. Stamens united are also common. They may be united by their filaments or by their anthers. In the Cardinal-flower (Fig. 184), and other Lobelias, both the anthers (a) and the filaments (/) are united into a tube. So also in the Pumpkin and Squash. Botanists use the following terms to express the different ways in which stamens may be connected. They are Syngenesious, when the anthers are united into a ring or tube, as in Lobelia (Fig. 184 a), and in the Sun- flower, and all that family. Monadelphous (i. e. in one brotherhood), when the filaments are united all into one set or tube, as in Lobelia (Fig. 184y*), and the Mallow Family (Fig. 185) ; also in Passion-flowers and Lupines (Fig. 187). 184. Lobelia. Diadelphous (in two brotherhoods), when the filaments are united in two sets. Fig. 186 shows this in the Pea, and the like, where nine stamens are combined in one set and one stamen is left for the other. Triadelphous (in three brotherhoods), i83. Maiiow. when the filaments are united or collected in three sets, as in the Common St. John's-wort or Hy- pericum (Fig. 297); and Polyadelphous (in many brotherhoods), when combined in more than three sets, as in some St. John's-worts. 215. Pistils united are very common. Two, three, four, or more grow together at the time of their formation, and make a Compound Pistil. Indeed, wherever there is a single pistil to a flower, it is much oftener a compound pistil than a simple one. But, of course, when the pistils of a flower are more than one, they are all simple. Pistils may be united in every degree, and by their ovaries only, by their styles only (as they are slightly in Prickly-Ash), or even by their stigmas only (as in Milkweeds), or by all three. But more commonly the ovaries are united into one Compound Ovary, while the styles or stigmas are partly separate or distinct' Three degrees of union are shown in these figures. Fig. 188, two pistils of a Saxi- frage, their ovaries united only part way up (cut across both above and below) 74 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. Fig. 189, pistil of Common St. John's-wort, plainly composed of three simple ones, with their ovaries completely united, while their slender styles are separate. Fig. 190, same of Shrubby St. John's-wort, like the last, but with the three styles also grown together into one, the little stigmas only sepa- rate ; but as it gets older this style generally splits down into three, and when the pod is ripe it also splits into three, plainly showing that this compound pistil consists of three united into one. On turning now to Fig. 8 and Fig. 10 to 12 on the same page, it will be seen that the pistil in Morning-Glory and in Lily is a compound one, made of three united even to their stigmas. This is shown externally, by the stigma being some- what three-lobed in both. And it becomes perfectly evident on cutting the ovary in two, bringing to view the three cells (Fig. 12, as in Fig. 189, 190), each an- swering to one simple ovary. 21G. So compound ovaries generally have as many cells as there are simple pistils or pistil-leaves in their composition ; and have the placentas (199) bearing the seeds all joined in the centre : that is, the placentas or compound placenta in the axis. But sometimes the partitions or divisions between the cells vanish, as in Pinks : then the compound pistil is only one-celled. And sometimes there never were any partitions ; but the pistil was formed of two, three, or more open pistil-leaves grown together from the first by their edges, just as petals join to make a monopetalous corolla. Then the ovules or seeds, or the placentas that bear them, are parietal, that is, are borne on the parietes or wall of the ovary. Fig. 191 is the lower part of a compound ovary, with three pa- rietal placentas or seed-bearing lines ; and Fig. 192 is a diagram, to explain how such a pistil is supposed to be made of three leaves united by their edges, and these edges bearing the ovules or seeds. th placentas FL0WEK3 : TI1EIK FORMS AND KINDS. Vo Half of a Cherry-blossom. 217. Flowers with one set of Organs united with another. The natural way is, for all the parts to stand on the receptacle or end of the flower-stalk, — the stem-part of the hlossom (191). Then the parts are said to be free, or to be inserted on the receptacle. So it is in the Buttercup, Lily, Trillium (Fig. 162), Flax, &c. But in many flowers one set of organs grows fast to an- other set, or, as we say, is inserted on it. For instance, we may have the Petals and Stamens inserted on the Calyx, as in the Cherry and all the Rose family. Fig. 193 is a flower of a Cherry, cut through the middle lengthwise, to show the petals and stamens growing on the tube or cup of the calyx. The meaning of it is that all these parts have grown together from their earliest formation. Next we may have the Calyx cohering or grown fast to the Ovary, or at least its cup or lower part grown to the ovary, and forming a part of the thickness of its walls, as in the Currant and Gooseberry, the Apple and Hawthorn. Fig. 194 is a flower of Hawthorn cut through Hair of a Hawthom-biossom. lengthwise to show this. In such cases all other parts of the blossom appear to grow on the ovary. So the ovary is said to be inferior, or, which is the same thing, the calyx (i. e. its lobes or border) and the rest of the blossom, superior. Or else we say " calyx coherent with the ovary" which is best, because it explains the thing. Stamens inserted on the Corolla. The stamens and the corolla generally go to- gether. And when the corolla is of one piece (i. e. monopetalous, 213), the stamens almost always adhere to it within, more or less ; that is, are borne or " inserted on the !95. Morning-Glory. 76 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. corolla." Fig. 195 is the corolla of Morning-Glory laid open, to show the stamens inserted on it, i. e. grown fast to it, towards the bottom. We may even have the Stamens inserted on the Style, that is, united with it even up to the stigma. It is so in the Orchis family. 218. Gymnospermous or Open and Naked-seeded Pistils. This is the very peculiar pistil which belongs to Pines, Spruces, Cedars, and all that family of plants ; and it is the simplest of all. For here the pistil is an open leaf or scale, bearing two or three ovules on its upper or inner surface. Each scale of a Pine-cone is an open pistil, and the ovules, instead of being enclosed in an ovary which forms a pod, are naked, and exposed to the pollen shed by the stamen-bearing flowers, which falls directly upon them. Fig. 196 is a view of the upper side of an open pistil or scale from a forming Larch-cone, at flowering-time, showing the two ovules borne on the face of it, one on each side near the bottom. Fig. 197 is the same grown larger, the ovules becoming seeds. When ripe and dry, the scales turn back, and the naked seeds peel off and fall away. 219. Plants which have such open scales for pistils accordingly take the name of Gymnospermous or Naked-seeded. The Pine family is the principal example of the kind (see p. 201). All other Flowering plants are Angiospermous, that is, have their ovules and seeds produced in a seed-vessel of some sort. Analysis of the Section. 1C8. Arrangement of Flowers, or Inflorescence. 169. Situation of Flower-buds : terminal and axil- lary. 170. Solitary flowers. 171. Flower-clusters. 172. Bracts and Bractlets. 173, 174. Flower- stalks: Peduncle and Pedicels. 175. Kinds of flower-clusters. 176. Raceme; order of opening of the blossoms. 177. Corymb. 178. Umbel. 179. Comparison with Eaceme, &c. 180. Head. 181. Com- parison with the Umbel, and, 182. the Spike. 183. Catkin or Ament. 184. Spadix. 185. Its Spathe. 186. Involucre. 187. Compound Clusters: Umbellets; Involucel. 188. Panicle; Thyrse. 189. Cyme. 190. Fascicle. 191. Flowers: their part? illustrated by the Stonecrop: 192. A pattern flower. 193. Leaves of flower or Perianth. 194. Petal; its Blade and Claw. 195. Stamen; its parts. 196. Pollen ; its structure and use. 197. PistiJ ; its parts. 198. Nature of the flower; its parts answer to leaves. 198 a . How a stamen answers to a leaf. 199. How a pistil answers to a leaf : Placenta. 200. Sorts of Flowers : one general plan : 201. Varied in several ways. 202. Complete flower. 203. Perfect flower. 204. Incomplete flower: apetalous; naked. 206. Imperfect or separated flowers: Btamiuate or sterile :, pistillate or fertile ; monoecious, dioecious, or polygamous. 206. Neutral flowers. FRUIT. It 207. Symmetrical flowers. 208. Unsymmetrical flowers. 209. Regular flowers. 210. Irregular flowers. 211. Flowers with the parts distinct. 212. With their parts grown together. 213. Monopetalous corolla, &c. : its varieties in form. 214. Stamens united; syngenesious, monadelphous, diadelphous, tviadelphous, and polyadelphous. 215. Pistils united into a Compound Pistil: illustrations. 216. Those with two or more cells and placentas in the centre; of one cell with placentas parietal or on the walls. 217. Flowers with one set of organs united with another; as petals and stamens with the calyx; the tube or cup of the calyx with the ovary; stamens with the corolla; or with the style. 218. Gymnospermous or Naked-seeded Pistil of Pines, &c. 219. Division of plants on this account. Section IV. — Fruit and Seed. § 1 . Seed- Vessels. 220. After the flower comes the Fruit. The ovary of the flower becomes the Seed-vessel (or Pericarp) in the fruit. The ovules are now seeds. 221. A Simple Fruit is a seed-vessel formed by the ripening of one pistil (with whatever may have grown fast to it in the flower, such as the tube of the calyx in many cases, 217). Simple fruits may be most conveniently classified into Fleshy Fruits, Stone Fruits, and Dry Fruits. 222. The principal sorts of fleshy fruits are the Berry, the Pepo, and the Pome. 223. A Berry is fleshy or pulpy throughout. Grapes, tomatoes, gooseberries, currants, and cranberries are good ex- amples. (Fig. 198 shows a cranberry cut in two.) Oranges and lemons are only a kind of berry with a thicker and leath- ery rind. 224. The Pepo or Gourd Fruit (such as a squash, melon, cu- cumber, and bottle-gourd, Fig. 199) is only a sort of berry with a harder rind. 225. A Pome or Apple-Fruit is the well-known fruit of the Apple, Pear, Quince, and Hawthorn. It comes from a compound pistil with a coherent calyx-tube (that is, from such a flower as Fig. 194), and this calyx, 198. Berry. 78 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. growing very thick and fleshy, makes the whole eatable, part or flesh of the fruit in the haw and the quince. The real seed-vessels in the quince (Fig. 201 *, apple (Fig. 200), and the like, consist of the five thin, parchment- like cells of the core, containing the seeds. In the quince, all the flesh is calyx. But in the pear and apple the flesh of the core, viz. all inside of the circle of greenish dots which are seen on cut- ting the apple across (Fig. 200), belongs to the receptacle of the flower, which here rises so as to surround the real seed-vessels. Cutting the apple lengthwise, these dots come to view as slender greenish lines, separating what belongs to the core from what be- longs to the calyx : they are the vessels which in the blossom belong to the petals and the stamens above. In the haw, the cells become thick and stony, and so form a kind of 226. StOlie-Fl'Uit or Drupe. Plums, cherries, and peaches (Fig. 202 ) are the commonest and best examples of the stone-fruit. It is a fruit in which the outer part becomes p ^! e fleshy or pulpy, like a berry, while the inner part becomes hard or stony, like a nut. So the Stone (or Putamen, as the botanist terms it) does not belong to the seed, but to the fruit. It has the seed in it, with coats of its own. 227. Dry Fruits are those that ripen without flesh or pulp. They are either dehiscent or indehiscent. Dehis- cent seed-vessels are those which split or burst open, in some regular way, to discharge the seeds. Indehiscent seed-vessels are those that remain closed, retaining the seed until they grow, or until the seed-vessel decays. All stone fruits and fleshy fruits are of course indehiscent. 228. The sorts of indehiscent dry fruits that we need to distinguish are the Akene, the Grain, the Nut, and the Key. 229. The Akene includes all dry, one-seeded, closed, Aken °- small fruits, such as are generally mistaken for naked seeds ; such, for instance, as the little seed-like fruits of Buttercups. (Fig. 203 is one of these, whole, a good deal enlarged ; Fig. 204, one with part of the wall cut away.} FRUIT. 79 205 Nul and CuyMe That they are not seeds is plain from the way they are produced, and from their bearing a style or stigma, at least when young. They are evidently pistils ripened ; and on cutting them open, the seed is found whole within (Fig. 204). 230. A Grain (or Caryopsis) is the same as an akene, except that the thin seed- vessel adheres firmly to the whole surface of the seed. Indian corn, wheat, rye, and all such kinds of grain are examples. 231. A Nut is a hard-shelled, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, like an akene, but on a larger scale. Beechnuts, chestnuts, and acorns (Fig. 205) are familiar examples. In all these the nut is surrounded by a kind of involucre, called a Cupule or Cup, which, however, is no part of the fruit. In the Oak, the cupule is a scaly cup ; in the Beech and Chestnut, it is a kind of bur ; in the Hazel, it is a leaf-like cup or covering ; in Hop-Hornbeam, it is a thin and closed bag. The fruit of the Walnut, Butternut, and the like, is between a drupe and a nut, having a fleshy outer layer. 232. A Key or Key-Fruit (called by botanists a Samara) is like an akene or nut, or any other indehiscent, one-seeded fruit, only it is winged. The fruits of the Ash (Fig. 206) and of the Elm (Fig. 207) are of this kind. That of the Maple consists of two keys partly joined at the base, both from one flower (Fig. 208). 233. Dehiscent Fruits, or dry fruits which split or burst open in some regular way, take the general name of 234. Pods. These generally split lengthwise when ripe and dry. Pods formed of a 'simple pistil mostly open down their inner edge, namely, that which answers to the united mar- gins of the pistil-leaf. Compare Fig. 160 with Fig. 209 : the latter is the simple pod of a Marsh- Marigold open after ripening, and the seeds fallen, so becoming a leaf again, as it were. Some such pods also split down the back as well as down the inner side ; that is, along what answers to the midrib of the leaf; as do pea-pods (Fig. 211). 208 Pair of Keys 80 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. 235. A Follicle is such a simple pod which opens clown one side only. The pods of Peony, Columbine, and Marsh-Marigold (Fig. 210) are follicles. 236. A Legume is a pod of a simple pistil, which splits into two pieces. It is the fruit of the Pea or Pulse family. Fig. 211 is a legume of the Pea, open, separated into its two valves. 237. A Capsule is the pod of any compound pistil. When capsules open regularly, they either split through the partitions, or where these would be, as in the pod of St. John's- wort (Fig. 212) ; this divides them into so many follicles, as it were, which open down the inner edge : or else they split open into the back of the cells, as in the pods of the Lily, the Iris (Fig. 213), &c. 238. The pieces into which a pod splits are called its Valves. So a follicle (Fig. 210) is one-valved ; a legume (Fig. 211), two-valved ; the cap- sules in Fig. 212 and 213, both three-valved, &c. 239. Two or three forms of capsule have peculiar names. The principal sorts are the Silique, the Silicle, and the Pyxis. 240. A Silique (Fig. 214) is the pod of the Cress family. It is slender, and splits into two valves or pieces, leaving behind a partition in a frame which bears the seeds. 241. A Silicle or Pouch is only a silique not much longer than broad. Shepherd's Purse ; Fig. 21 6, the same :r\ \ If / with one valve fallen. 242. A Pyxis is a pod which opens crosswise, the top separating as a lid. Fig. 217 shows it in the Common Purslane ; the lid falling off. s.i.que. snide. ' 243. There remain a few sorts of fruits which are more or less compound or complex. They may be 217. f 7 u%. classed under the heads of Aggregated, Accessory, and Multiple fruits. Capsules, opening. Fi<2\ 215 is the silicle of FRUIT. 81 244. Aggregated FrilitS are close clusters of simple fruits all of the same flower. The raspberry and the blackberry are good examples. In these, each grain is a drupelet or stone-fruit, like a cherry or peach on a very small scale. 245. Accessory Fruits are those in which the flesh or conspicuous part belongs to some accessory (i. e. added or altered) part, separate from the seed-vessel. So that what we eat as the fruit is not the fruit at all in a strict botanical sense, but a calyx, receptacle, or something else which surrounds or accompanies it. Our common checkerberry is a simple illustration. Here the so-called berry is a free or separate calyx, which after flowering be- comes thick and fleshy, and encloses the true seed- vessel, as a small pod within. Fig. 218 shows the young pod, partly covered by the loose calyx. Fig. 219 is the ripe checkerberry, cut through the middle lengthwise, the calyx now thick, juicy, and eatable, and enlarged so as to enclose the small, dry pod. 246. A Rose-hip (Fig. 220) is a kind of accessory fruit, looking like a pear or a haw. But it consists of the tube of the calyx, lined by a hollow receptacle, which bears the real fruits. or seed-vessels, in the form of bony akenes. Fig. 221, a rose-hip when in flower, cut through length- wise, shows the whole plan of it : the pistils are seen attached to the sides of the urn-shaped receptacle, and their styles, tipped with the stigmas, project a little from the cavity, near the stamens, which are borne on the rim of the deep cup. 247. A Strawberry is an ac- cessory fruit of a different shape. Fig. 222 is a forming one, at flowering time, divided lengthwise : below is a part of the calyx ; above this, a large oval or conical receptacle, its whole surface covered with little pistils. In ripening this grows vastly larger, and becomes juicy and delicious. So that, in fact, what is called a berry is only the receptacle of the flower, or the end of the flower-stalk, grown very large and juicy, and not a seed-vessel at all, but bearing plenty of one-seeded dry seed-vessels (akenes, 229), so small that they are mistaken for seeds. Rose-hip. 82 HOW PLANTS ABE l'UOl'AGATKD. 248. Multiple FruilS are masses of simple or accessory fruits belonging to differ- ent flowers, all compacted together. Mulberries (Fig. 223) are of this sort. They look like blackberries, but each grain belongs to a separate flower ; and the eatable pulp is not even the seed-vessel of that, but is a loose calyx grown pulpy, just like that of Checker- berry, and surrounding an akene, which is generally taken for a seed. The pine-apple is much like a mulberry on a large scale. A fig is a multiple fruit, being a hollow flower-stalk grown pulpy, the inside lined by a great number of minute flowers. 249. So, under the name of fruit very different things are eaten. In figs it is a hollow flower-stalk ; in pine-apples and mulberries, clusters of flower-leaves, as well as the stalk they cover ; in straw- berries, the receptacle of a flower; in blackberries, the same, though smaller, and a cluster of little stone-fruits that cover it; in raspberries, the little stone-fruits in a cluster, without the receptacle. In eheckerberries, quinces, and (as to all but the core) apples and pears, we eat a fleshy enlarged calyx ; in peaches and other stone-fruits, the outer part of a seed-vessel ; in grapes, gooseberries, blueberries, and cranberries, the whole seed-vessel, grown rich and pulpy. 250. Tbe CoilC of Pine (Fig. 224) and the like is a sort of multiple fruit; Each scale is a whole pistillate flower, con- Pilch . r ^ 4 e C o„e. sistingof an open pistil leaf, ripened, and bearing on its upper face one or two naked seeds, — as explained at the end of the last sectionals, 219). Fig. 225 shows the upper side of one of the thick scales taken off, bearing one seed ; the other, removed, is shown, with its wing, in Fig. 226. § 2. Seeds. 252. A Seed is an ovule fertilized and matured, and with a germ or embryo formed in it. 253. In the account of the growth of plants from the seed, at the begmning of the book (Chapter I. Section I.), seeds have already been considered sufficiently SEEDS. 83 for our purpose. As the pupil advances farther in his botanical studies, he will learn much more about them, as well as about fruits and flowers, in the Lessons in Botany, and other works. 254. A seed consists of its Coats and its Kernel. Besides the true seed-coats, which are those of the ovule, an outer loose covering-, generally an imperfect one, is occasionally superadded while the seed is growing. This is called an Aril. Mace is the aril of the nutmeg. The scarlet pulpy covering of the seeds of the Strawberry-tree and the Staff-tree or Waxwork is also an aril. 255. The Seed-Coats are commonly two, an outer and an inner ; the latter gen- erally thin and delicate. The outer coat is sometimes close and even, and fitted to the kernel, as in Morning-Glory (Fig. 227) ; some- times it is furnished with a tuft of long hairs, as in Milkweed (Fig. 229), or else is covered with long woolly hairs, as in the Cotton-plant, where they form that most useful material, Cotton-wool. In some cases the outer coat is extended into a thin border or wing, as in the Trumpet-Creeper (Fig. 228). Catalpa-seeds have a fringe-like wing or tuft at each end. The seeds of Pines are winged at one end (Fig. 226). All these tufts and wings are contrivances for rendering such seeds buoyant, so that, when shed, they may be dispersed by the wind. Thistle-down, and the like, is a similar con- trivance on the fruit or akene. 256. The seed is often supported by a stalk of its own, the Seed-stalk. Where the seed separates, it leaves a mark, called the Scar or Hilum. This is conspicu- ous in a bean and a pea, and is remarkably large in a horsechestnut. 257. The Kernel is the whole body of the seed within the coats. It consists of the Embryo, and of the Albumen, when there is any. 258. The Albumen is a stock of prepared food, for the embryo to live upon at the outset, in those cases where it has not a similar supply laid up in its cotyledons (32-35, 45). In Fig. 17, 44, and 49, the seeds have albumen. In Fig. 25, 32, 40, and 42, they have none, but the whole kernel consists of 259. The Embryo, or rudimentary plantlet in miniature, the body in the seed which grows. To this the seed, the fruit, and the blossom are all subservient. The albumen of the seed, when there is any, is intended to nourish the embryo when it '84 HOW PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED. grows, until it can provide for itself; the seed-coats to protect it, especially after it is shed ; the seed-vessel, to protect it and to nourish it while forming ; the stamens and pistil, to originate it. 260. The embryo consists of its Radicle or original stemlet, from one end of which the root starts, from the other the stem is continued ; also of one or more Cotyledons or Seed-leaves, and often of a Plumule or bud for continuing the stem upwards. How the embryo grows into a plant, was fully explained at the com- mencement of this book. Analysis of the Section. Fruits are § 1. Table of Kinds of Fruit. Puragr. 1. Simple: seed-vessels of one pistil, ....... 221 2. Aggregated: clusters of seed-vessels all of the same flower, . 244 •] 3. Accessory : the flesh, &c. external to and separate from the pistil, 245-247 4. Multiple: composed of the simple or accessory fruits of more than one flower, ......... Simple Fruits are Fleshy Fruits (222), such as the Stone-Fruits, or the . / Berry, | Pepo, ' Pome, f Indehiscent, 228, 248 223 224 225 226 229 230 231 232 Dry Fruits, 227, { Dehiscent, or Pods, 233, Drupe, f Akene, J Grain, 1 Nut, I Key, Of a Simple j Folliolk,235 Pistil, I Legume. 236 f Capsule, 237 of a Compound j Silique, 240 Pistil, j Silicle, 241 [ Pyxis, 242 Angiospermous, or closed, 219, 248. Gymnospermous, or naked-seeded, 218, 219, .... Cone, 250 §2. Seeds. — 252. What a seed is. 253. Its nature already considered. 254. Its' parts ; Aril occasionally met with. 255. Its coats, and the appendages, wings, &c. 256. Seed-stalk, and scar. 257. Kernel. 258. Albumen, sometimes present; its office. 259. Embryo, to which all the other parts of the seed, the fruit, and the flower are subservient. 260. Parts of the Embryo: Radicle, or Stem 'et; Cotyledons, or Seed-leaves; Plumule, or Dud. Multiple Fruits are CHAPTER III. WHY PLANTS GROW, WHAT THEY ARE MADE FOR, AND WHAT THEY DO 261. We have now become acquainted with all the organs of plants, both those concerned in their life and growth, or vegetation, and those concerned in multiplying •their numbers, that is, in reproduction. The first being the root, stem, and leaves ; the second, the flowers (essentially the stamens and pistils), with their result, fruit and seed. We have learned, also, how plants grow from the seed, produce part after part, branch after branch, and leaf after leaf, and at length blossom and go to seed. We see that plants, with their organs, that is, instruments, are a kind of liv- ing machines at work ; and it is now time to ask, Hoiv they operate, What they bring to pass, and What is the object or the result of their doings. Such questions as these, young people, with their curiosity awakened, would be likely to ask, and they ought to be answered. To understand these things completely, one must know something of chemistry and vegetable anatomy,* — which Ave do not propose here to teach. But a general account of the matter may be given in a simple way, which shall be perfectly intelligible, and may give a clear idea of the purpose which plants were created to fulfil in the world, and how they do it. Let us begin by considering 262. TllC Plant ill Action, Take any living plant, — it matters not what one, — and consider what it is doing. For greater simplicity, take some young plant or seedling, where vegetation goes on just as in a full-grown herb or tree, only on a smaller scale. The plant is 263. Absorbing, or drawing in what it lives upon, from the soil and the air. This is moisture, air, and other matters which the rain, as it soaks into the ground, may have dissolved on its way to the roots. It is by the roots, lodged in the damp soil, that most of the moisture which plants feed upon is taken in, and with this they always get some earthy matter. This earthy matter makes the ashes which are left after burning a piece of wood, a leaf, or any part of a plant. Moisture is * After studying this chapter, the pupil will be ready to learn more of the subject in the Lessons in Botany and Vegetable Physiology. Lessons 22, 23, 24, and 25 treat of Vegetable Anatomy; and Lessoa 26, of the Plant doing its work. 86 WHY PLANTS GROW, also absorbed by the leaves, either from drops of rain or dew, or from the vapor of water in the air. Air is largely absorbed by the leaves, and some also by the roots, either as dissolved in water, or else directly from the crevices and pores of the soil, which are filled with air. 264. Plants absorb their food by their surface. Animals have an internal cavity, — a stomach, — to hold their food ; and from the stomach it is taken into the system. Plants have nothing of this kind. They absorb their food by their sur- face, — by the skin, as it were ; and when very young and with the whole sur- , face fresh and thin, by one part almost as much as another. But as they grow older and the skin hardens, they absorb mostly by their fresh rootlets and the tips of the roots, and by the leaves, — the former spread out in the soil, the latter spread out in the air. For while the skin or bark of the older parts of the roots is hard- ening, new tips and rootlets are always forming in growing plants, with a fresh sur- face, which absorbs freely. And as to the leaves, they are renewed every year (even evergreens produce a new crop annually, and the old ones fall after a year or two) ; and the skin of every leaf, especially that of the under side, is riddled with thousands of holes or little mouths (called Breathing-pores), which open into the chambers or winding passages of the pulp of the leaf, so that the air may cir- culate freely throughout the whole. 265. Plants absorb their food all in the fluid form. They are unable to take in anything in a solid state. They imbibe or drink in all their food, in the form of water, with whatever the water has dissolved, and of air or vapor, by one or both of which their leaves and roots are surrounded. The reason they imbibe only fluid is this. The roots, leaves, and all the rest of the plant, under the microscope, are seen to be made up of millions of separate little cavities, each cut off from the surrounding ones by closed partitions of membrane. All that the plants take into their system has to pass through these partitions of membrane, — which fluid (air or moisture) alone can do. 266. The common juices of plants are called Sap. What they take in from the soil and the air, not being digested or made into vegetable matter, is called Crude Sap. All that the roots imbibe has to be carried up to the leaves to be digested there. So while the roots are absorbing, the stem is 267. Conveying the Cl'Ude Sap to the Leaves. There is no separate set of vessels, and no open tubes or pipes for the sap to rise through in an unbroken stream, in the way people generally suppose. The stem is made up, like the root, of cavities, AND WHAT THEY DO. 87 or cells divided off by whole partitions ; and to rise an inch the sap generally has to pass through several hundred such partitions. When there is much wood, the sap rises mostly through that. Now the fibres and the vessels of the wood are tubes, most of them several times longer than wide ; but their ends do not open into each other; a closed partition divides each cavity from the next, which the sap has to get through some way or other. How it gets through so readily, we do not altogether know ; but there is no doubt about the fact. 268. Carried into the leaves, and distributed through their broad surface, the crude sap is exposed to the light and air. A large part of it is water ; and each drop of this serves to bring up a minute portion of earthy matter, which it dissolved out of the soil. Most of the water, no longer wanted, is evaporated from the leaves by the warmth of the sun, and exhaled ; that is, it escapes in vapor into the air, mostly through the breathing-pores (204). What remains, the plant is at the same time 269. Digesting or Assimilating. Assimilating is the proper word. To assimilate is to make similar, or to turn into its own substance. This is just what plants do in their leaves. They change into vegetable matter that which was mineral matter (air, earth, or water) before. This they do only in the leaves, or other green parts, and in these only when they are exposed to the light of day, that is, to the influ- ence of the sun. We see, therefore, why plants are so dependent on the light. They cannot grow without it, except so far as they are fed by vegetable matter prepared beforehand; — as the seedling is fed at the beginning, by vegetable matter of the parent plant stored up in. the seed (Chap. II. Sect. II.) ; and potato-shoots, by that provided in the tuber or potato (74, 75), r purple, varying to white. Herbage and roots poisonous. (Fig. 254, 255.) 1. Garden Aconite. Stem erect and rather stout, very leafy ; divisions of the leaves parted into linear lobes; flowers crowded. A. Napellus. 2. Wild A. Stem weak and bending, as if to climb; lobes of the leaves lance-ovate; flowers scattered, in summer. W. A. uncinatum. 247. Flower, &c. of Wild Columbi 218. A petal. 249. The 5 poda op ill,;. 250. A separate pud. 4. Flo »er of Aeon ile. 255 Its paria , playe, si, Sla nens . the a uJ pi epaia ; p, the petn tils on the flower-sla POPULAR FLORA. 117 2. MAGNOLIA FAMILY. Order MAGNOLIACE^E. Trees or shrubs, with aromatic or strong-scented and bitter bark, and alternate simple leaves, which are never toothed ; large, thin stipules form the covering of the buds, but fall off early. Flowers large, single at the ends of the branches ; their leaves in threes, viz. 3 sepals colored like the petals, and 6 petals in two ranks or 9 in three ranks, their margins overlapping in the bud. Stamens very many, on the receptacle, with long anthers occupying, as it were, the side of the filament. Pistils many, packed and partly grown together one above the other, so as ss- to make a sort of cone in fruit. — We have only two genera. 1. Stipules flat, not adhering to the leafstalk. Petals 6, greenish-or- ange. Filaments slender. Pistils overlying each other and grown to- gether to make a spindle-shaped cone, dry when ripe, and sepa- rating into a sort of key-fruit. Leaves somewhat 3-lobed, and as if cut off at the end. One species only is known, the (Liriodtindron Tulipife.ro) Tulip-tkee. 2. Stipules making a round and pointed bud, adhering to the lower part of the leaf-stalk. Petals 6 to 9. Fil- aments below the anther very short. Cone of fruit rose-red and fleshy when ripe, the pistils opening on the back, the scarlet fleshy-coated seeds hanging by delicate and very elastic threads, Magnolia. Magnolia. Magnolia. Our wild species divide into Laurel-Magnolias, Cucumber-trees, and Umbrella-trees. , borne along the walls of the pod. — Herbs, with alternate leaves and small dull looking flowers crowded in a raceme or spike. 1. Common Mignonette. Low and spreading; leaves some entire, others 3-cleft; sepals and petals 6 or 7. Cultivated for its very fragrant small flowers. R. odorata. 2. Dyek's-Weed. Stem simple, upright, 2° high; leaves all entire, broadly lance-shaped; sepals and petals 4. A weed along road-sides in some places ; used for dying yellow. . R. Lutkola. 12. VIOLET FAMILY. Order VIOLACEJE. Herbs with 5 sepals, 5 petals, and 5 stamens borne on the receptacle, the lower petal rather different from the rest and enlarged at the bottom into a projecting sac or spur. Stamens very short and broad, the anthers a little united by their edges around the pistil. Pistil one, with one style. Pod one-celled, with three rows of seeds on its walls. — Leaves with stipules. Hoots and juice rather acrid. The common plants of the family belong to the genus, 1. Violet. Viola. Flower nodding on the summit of the flower-stalk. Style club-shaped; stigma bent over to one side. — Flowering in spring, and some species continuing to blossom all summer. * Stemless species, i. e. leaves and naked flower-stalks all from rootstocks on or under ground. •*■ Garden species from Europe spreading by runners or rootstocks above ground. 1. Sweet or English Violet. Leaves rounded heart-shaped; flowers blue-purple, also a white variety, very fragrant. Cultivated, generallj' double-flowered. V. odorata. -i- -t- AVild species, with tufted and fleshy uneven rootstocks. Flowers short-spurred. ■w. Flowers purple or blue, nearly scentless. 2. Common Blue V. Flowers pretty large; side-petals bearded; leaves on long upright stalks, heart- shaped or kidney-shaped, the sides at the bottom rolled in when young, slightly toothed, or in the lobed or Hand-leaf variety cleft or parted in various degrees. Low grounds. V. cucullata. 8. Hairy V. Leaves short-stalked and flat on the ground; flowers smaller; otherwise like the last. Dry soil, S. & W. V. viUbsa. 4. Arrow-leaved V. Early leaves on short and margined footstalks, oblong-heart-shaped, halberd- shaped, arrow-shaped, lance-oblong or ovate. Varying greatly, hairy or smoothi sh; side petals or all of them bearded; flowers large for the size of the plant. Dry or moist ground. V. sagittata. 6. Bird's-foot V. Leaves cut into fine linear lobes; petals lilac-purple, large, beardless. Moist sandy soil. V. pedata. «— *+ Flowers small, white, faintly sweet-scented, the lower petal streaked. Small, in damp soil. t. Bland V. Leaves rounded heart-shaped or kidney -shaped ; petals without any beard. V. blanda. T. Primrose-leaved V. Leaves oblong or ovate; side-petals generally bearded. V. primula-folia. POPULAR FLORA. 127 8. Lance-leaved Violet. Leaves lance-shaped, erect, smooth ; petals r.ot bearded. V. lanceolata. ++++++ Flowers light yellow, small. 9. Round-leaved V. Leaves round ovate and heart-shaped, spreading flat on the ground; side- petals bearded and brown-streaked inside. Cold woods, N. V. rotundifblia. * * Leafy-stemmed species. — Wild species, perennial, with heart-shaped leaves, blossoming nearly all summer. 10. Long-spurred V. Spur V long, considerably longer than the pale bluish corolla. V. rostrata. 11. Muhlenrerg's V. Low, spreading by runners; spur stout, not more than half the length of the pale violet corolla. Wet woods. V. Muhlenbergii. 12. Pale V. Spur much shorter than the cream-colored corolla; lower petal streaked. V. striata. 13. Canada V. Tall; petals white above, violet-tinged beneath; spur very short. V. Canadensis. 14. Downy V. Tall, leafless below, downy ; corolla yellow, spur very short. V. pubescens- 4- +- Cultivated or run wild; root annual or biennial. 15. Heart' s-ease or Pansy V. Low; upper leaves oval, the lower heart-shaped; stipules large and leaf-like, pinnatifid ; corolla yellow-whitish, violet-blue, and purple, varying or mixed, large and showy in the cultivated Pansy, becoming small when run wild. V. tricolor. 13. CXSTUS FAMILY. Order CISTACEiE. This small family consists of low shrubby plants or perennial herbs, in Europe with a showy corolla which opens only once, in sunshine, the petals falling off at sunset. Here it contains only a few less handsome, or homely, weed-like plants. They may be known by the fbllowiug marks. — Leaves some of them alternate. Calyx remaining after blossoming, of 5 sepals, three of tliem large and two smaller, often very small, the latter entirely outside in the bud and looking like bracts. Petals 5 or 3, all alike, overlapping each other in the bud, each with one edy olid, a or Spring-Beamy. 312 Its 2-cleft calvx and pod 313. Ripe pod cut across, and splitting- into three Seed, more magnified. 315. Same, cut through, to show the coiled emhryo. 316. Emhryo taken out. 17. MALLOW FAMILY. Order MALVACEAE. Distinguished by the numerous monadelplious stamens (i. e. united by their filaments into a tube or column), with kidney-shaped one-celled anthers, and the five sepals or lobes of the calyx applied edge to edge without overlapping (i. e. valvate) in the bud, and persistent Leaves almost always palmately-veined, alternate, with stipules. Petals united at the bot- tom with the tube of stamens. There is often a sort of outer calyx, below the true one, called an involucel. All innocent plants, full of mucilage (it is extracted from the root of Marsh-Mallow), and with a very tough fibrous inner bark. Flowers often handsome. Anthers all at the top of the column of united filaments (Fig. 317). Involucel or outer calyx present. Cells of the fruit many in a ring, separating whole when ripe, one-seeded. Involucel 9-parted. Separated little pods marginless. Plant soft-downy: root pe- rennial, (Altlma) Marsh-Mallow. Involucel about 6 parted. Separated pods with membranaceous margins. Plants tall, roufrhish: root biennial. Flowers large, (Allhcea, § A'Icea) * Hollyhock. Involucel 3-6-cleft. A flat plate covering the circle of pods, (Lavatei-n) * Lavatera. Involucel 3-leaved. Circle of pods naked, around a narrow axis, (Malva) Mall«w. 132 POPULAR FLORA. Involucel or outer calyx none. Flowers dicecious, small, white. Pods or cells one-seeded, Flowers perfect. Cells of the pod 5 to 15. Seed only one in each cell. Flowers yellow or white, Seeds 2 to 9 in each of the cells, Anthers attached along the sides of the upper part of the slender column. Pod of 3 to cells, and splitting into as many valves. Involucel of many thread-shaped leaves. Calyx splitting down one side when the flower opens. Pod long, Calyx not splitting down one side. Pod short. Seeds naked, Involucel of 3 heart-shaped toothed leaves. Seeds bearing wool, (Napcea) Glade-Mallow. (Sida) Sid a. (AbiUilon) Indian-Mallow. (Abelmoschus) * Okra. {Hibiscus) HlBISCUS. (Gossypium) * Cotton- pod sp] it. 313. Plowe led by the c;ily] Mallow. Mdlva. Involucel or outer calyx 3-leaved. Petals notched at the upper and broader end. Styles man}-. Little pods or cells many in a ring around a narrow axis or column (the whole shaped like a cheese), when ripe falling away separately, each one-seeded. — Herbs; flowering all summer. 1. Low Mallow. Root very long; stems spreading on the ground ; leaves round-kidney-shaped, long-stalked, scarcely lobed, crenate; flowers several in the axils, small, whitish. Very common weed in waste and cultivated ground. M. rotundifblia. 2. High M. Stem 3° high; leaves lobed; flowers large, rose-purple. Gardens. M. sylvestris. 3. Musk M. Stem 2° high; leaves 5-parted and the divisions cut into linear lobes (the smell faintly musky); flowers large, rose-color. Gardens. M. moschata. 4. Curled M. Stem 4° to C° high ; leaves round, toothed, much curled around the edge ; flow- ers small, white, sessile in the axils. Gardens. M. crispa. Hibiscus. Hibiscus. Flowers large, with an involucel of many narrow bractlets, and a 5-cleft calyx, 'which does not open down one side. Stamens in a long and slender column. Stigmas 5. Pod short, 5-celled, splitting when ripe into 5 valves, many-seeded; the seeds smootli or hairy, Lot long-woolly. Showy herbs or shrubs: flowering in autumn. POPULAR FLORA. 133 1. Shrubby or Althaea Hibiscus. Shrub 5° to 10° high, smooth ; leaves wedge-ovate, toothed, 3-lobed ; flowers short-stalked, white, purple-red, &c. (single or double). Cultivated for orna- ment. 11. Syriacus. 2.- Great Red H. Herb 8° high from a perennial root, smooth; leaves deeply cleft into 5 lance-linear lobes; corolla red, S' to 11' broad! S. and in gardens. //. coccineus. 3. Halberd-leaved H. Herb 6° high from a perennial root, smooth ; lower leaves 3-lobed, upper halberd-shaped; catyx bladdery after flowering; corolla flesh-colored, 3' long. //. militaris. 4. Marsh H. Herb 5° high from a perennial root; leaves soft-downy and whitish underneath, ovate, pointed, the lower 3-lobed; base of the flower-stalks and leafstalks often grown together; corolla 5' broad, white or rose-color with a crimson eye. Salt marshes, &c. 11. Moscheulos. 5. Bladder-Ketmia H. (or Flower-of-an-IIour). Herb 1° to 2° high from an annual root, somewhat hairy; lower leaves toothed, upper 3-parted, with narrow divisions; corolla greenish-yellow with a dark-brown eye, opening only in midday sunshine; calyx bladdery after flowering, enclosing the pod. Gardeus, &c. //. Triunum. 18. LINDEN FAMILY. Order TILIACEJ3. Has the tough and fibrous inner bark and the bland mucilage of the Mallow family. Its distinctions are shown in the only genus we have, viz. : — on of a (lowerl.n1. slil. 3£7. Fruit Linden or Basswood. Tilia. Sepals 5, thick, valvate (the margins edge to edge) in the bud, falling off after flowering. Petals 5, cream-color. Stamens very many, on the receptacle, in 5 clusters: anthers 2-celled. Pistil one: ovary C-celled, with two ovules in each cell; in fruit woody, small, closed, mostly one-seeded. — Large, soft- wooded trees, with heart-shaped leaves, often obFqne at the base. Flowers in a small cluster on a 6lender and hanging peduncle from the axil of a leaf, and united part way with a narrow leaf-like bract. (Also called Lime-trees.) 134 POPULAR FLORA. 1. American Lixpen or Basswood. Leaves green, smooth, or in some varieties downy underneath; a petal-like body in the middle of each of the 5 clusters of stamens. T. Americana. 2. European Linden. Leaves smooth or nearly so; stamens hardly in clusters, no petal-like bodies with them. Cultivated in cities, &c. as a shade-tree. T. Europaa. 19. CAMELLIA FAMILY. Order CAMELLIACEvE. Shrubs or small trees, with alternate and simple leaves, not dotted ; large and showy flowers, with a persistent calyx of 5 overlapping sepals, and very many stamens, their fila- ments united at the bottom with each other and with the base of the petals. Anthers 2-celled. Fruit a woody pod of 3 to G cells, containing few large seeds. To this belongs the grateful Tea-plant of China, and the Camellia, of our green-houses, Camellia Japonica. Loulully-Bay, of swamps in the Southern States, Gordunia Lasidnthus. 20. ORANGE FAMILY. Order AURANTIACEiE. Like the last, this family hardly claims a place here, being only house-plants, except far south. Known by having 20 or more stamens in one row around a single pistil, and the leaves having a joint between the blade and the winged or margined footstalk : they (and the fra- grant petals) are punctate with transparent dots, looking like holes when held between the eye and the light, which are little reservoirs of fragrant oil. Fruit a berry with a thick rind. Orange, Citrus Aurdnlium. Lemon, Citrus Limbnium. 21. FLAX FAMILY. Order LINACEiE. Herbs with tough fibres in the inner bark, simple leaves, and oily seeds with a mucilagi- nous coat ; consisting only of the Flax genus, which is known by the following marks : — 328. Common Flax. S29. Half of a flower, enlarged. 330. Pod, cul ncrora. Flax. Linum. Sepals 5, overlapping, persistent. Petals 5, on the receptacle. Stamens 5, united with each other *t the bottom. Styles 5. Pod 10-celled and splitting when ripe into 10 pieces with one seed in eack Flowers opening only for one day. POPULAR FLORA. 135 1. Common Flax. Root animal; leaves lance-shapcd; flower blue. Cultivated. L. usitalissimwn. 2. Virginia Flax. Root perennial; leaves oblong or lance-shaped ; flowers very small, yellow. Dry woods. L. Vwginianum. 22. WOOD-SORREL FAMILY. Order OXALIDACEiE. Small herbs with sour juice, compound leaves of three leaflets, and flowers nearly as in the Flax family, but with 10 stamens, a 5-celled pod, and two or more seeds in each celL One genus, viz. Wood-Sorrel. Oxalis. Sepals, petals, and styles 5. Stamens 10; filaments united (monadelphous) at the base. Pod thin, 5-lobed. Leaflets obcordate. Flowering in summer. 1. Common W. One-flowered scape and leaves rising from a scaly rootstock, hairy; petals large, white with reddish veins. N. in cold and moist woods. 0. Aceiosella. 2. Violet W. Several-flowered scape and leaves, from a scaly bulb ; petals violet. 0. violacea. 3. Yellow W. Stems ascending, leafy; flowers 2 to 6 on one peduncle, small, yellow. 0. stricta. 23. GERANIUM FAMILY. Order GEKANIACEJL Herb3 or small shrubs, with scented leaves, having stipules, the lower ones opposite. Roots astringent. Sepals 5, overlapping. Petals 5. Stamens 10, but part of them in some cases without anthers : fila- ments commonly united at the bottom. Pistils 5 grown into one, that is, all united to a long beak of the receptacle (except the 5 stigmas) ; and when the fruit is ripe the styles split away from the beak and curl up or twist, carrying with them the five lit- tle one-seeded pods, as shown in Fig. 334. — There are three genera, viz. Geranium or Cranesbill ; EnoniUM, which differs in having only 5 stamens with anthers, and the fruit-bearing styles bearded inside ; and Pelargonium, which has the corolla more or less irregular, generally 7 stamens with anthers, &c. The latter are the House Geraniums, from the Cape of Good Hope, of several species and many varieties. We describe only the wild species of true 531. Leaf, ami 332 Fl 835. Seed. 336 Same, ( 332 333. Stamens 4 334 334. Fruit bursting 136 POPULAR FLORA. Geranium or Cranesbill. Geranium. Petals all alike. All 10 stamens with anthers, every other one shorter. — Herbs. 1. SroTTED G. Stem erect, from a perennial root ; leaves 5-parted, also cut and toothed, often whitish-blotched; petals pale purple. Borders of woods; fl. in spring and summer. G. maculatum. 2. Carolina G. Stems spreading from a biennial or annual root; leaves 5-parted, and cut into nar- row lobes; flowers small; petals flesh-color, notched at the end. Waste places. G. Carolimanum. 3. Herd-Robert G. Stems spreading; leaves 3-divided, and the divisions twice pinnately cleft; flowers small, purple. Moist woods and ravines; fl. summer. G. Rubertianum. 24. INDIAN-CRESS FAMILY. Order TROPiEOLACEvE. Twining, climbing, or trailing herbs, with a watery juice of a sharp taste like Mustard, alternate leaves, and showy irregular flowers, as in Indian-Cress (commonly called Nasturtium). Tropcsolum. Calyx projecting into a long hollow spur behind, petal-like, 5-cleft. Petals 5, of two sorts, two of them borne on the throat of the calyx, the 3 others with claws. Stamens 8, unequal. Fruit 3-lobed, separating into 3 thick and closed one-seeded pieces. 1. Common I. or Nasturtium. Very smooth; leaves roundish, shield-shaped; flowers large; petals orange-yellow, the claws of 3 of them fringed. Cult, very common. T. majus. 2. Canary-eird I. Climbing high; leaves deeply lobed ; petals pale yellow, cut-fringed. Cult. T. peregrinum. 25. BALSAM FAMILY. Order BALSAMINACE^E. Tender annuals, with a bland watery juice and very irregular flowers ; such as those of the principal genus, Balsam (or Jewel-weed). Impatiens. Calyx and corolla colored alike and diffi- cult to distinguish, in all of 6 pieces, the largest one extended backward into a large and deep sac ending in a little spur; and the two innermost unequally 2-lobed. Stamens on the receptacle, 5, very short, united over the pistil. This forms a thick-walled pod, which when ripe suddenly bursts with con- siderable force, or falls into 5 coiling pieces at the touch, scattering the rather large seeds. — Leaves simple, alternate. Flowers showy, produced all summer. Garden Balsam. Flowers very showy, white, red, or pink, often double, clustered in the axils of the crowded lance-shaped leaves. Garden annual. I- Bnlsamina. Pale Jewel-weed. Flowers pale-yellow, sparingly spotted, the hanging sac broader than long; leaves ovate or oblong. Common in rich and shady or wet soil. I. pallida. Spotted Jewel-weed. Flowers orange, spotted with reddish-brown ; sac longer than broad. /. fulva. POPULAR FLORA. 137 26. RUE FAMILY. Order RUTACEiE: Strong-scented, sharp-tasted, and bitter-acrid plants, the leaves dotted with transparent dots like punctures (which are filled with volatile oil) ; the stamens on the receptacle, as many or twice as many as the petals. Herbs, very strong-scented, with perfect flowers. Stamens 8 or 10. Leaves decompound. Flowers yellow : petals concave. Pod roundish, (Rula) * Rue. Leaves pinnate. Flowers white or purple, large: petals slender: stamens long. Pods 5, flattened, slightly united, (Dictdmnus) * Fraxinella. Shrubs or trees. Stamens 4 or 5, only as many as the petals. Flowers dioecious. Pistils 2 to 5, making fleshy pods with one or two black seeds. Leaves pinnate. Stems prickly, (Zanihoxylum) Prickly-Ash. Flowers polygamous. Pistil 1, making a 2-celled, 2-seeded key, winged all round. Leaflets 3. Stems not prickly, (Ptblea) Hop-tree. 27. SUMACH FAMILY. Order ANACARDIACEiE. Trees or shrubs with a milky or a resinous-acrid juice (in some cases poisonous), and al- ternate leaves : — of which we have only the genus Sumach. Rhus. Flowers small, greenish-white or yellowish. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5; the latter borne on an en- largement of the receptacle which fills the bottom of the calyx. Styles or stigmas 3, on a one-celled ovary, which makes a one-seeded little stone-fruit with a thin flesh. Fl. summer. Nos. 4 and 5 are poisonous to most people when touched. 1. Staghorn Sumach. Small tree ; branches and stalks velvety -hairy; leaves pinnate, pale be- neath; flowers and crimson-hairy sour fruit very many, in a great crowded panicle. R. iyphina. 2. SmoothS. Shrub; branches and stalks very smooth, pale: otherwise like the last. R. glabra. 3. Dwarf S. Shrub 1° to 4° high ; branches and stalks downy; leaves pinnate, with the stalk wing- margined between the shining leaflets ; fruits red and hairy. R. copallina. 4. Poison S. or Dogwood. Shrub smooth; leaves pinnate; leaflets 7 to 13, entire; panicles slender in the axils; fruit smooth. Poisonous to most people. Swamps. R. venenata. 5. Poison Ivy. Smooth; stems climbing by rootlets; leaflets 3, large, ovate, either entire, notched, or lobed, variable on the same stem. Poisonous like the last. R. Toxicodendron. 6. Venetian S. or Smoke-tree. Shrub, with simple oval or obovate leaves; branches of the panicle lengthening after flowering, and feathered with long hairs, making large light bunches. Cult. R. Cotvnus. 28. GRAPE FAMILY. Order VITACEJE. Shrubby plants with a watery and sour juice, climbing by tendrils ; known by having a minute calyx with scarcely any lobes, the petals valvate (edge to edge) in the bud and fall- ing off very early, and the stamens (5 or 4) one before each petal ! — Only two genera. Grape. Vitis. Petals 5, cohering slightly at the top while they separate at the base, and generally thrown off with- out expanding. Berry with 4 bony seeds. Leaves lobed. Flowers polygamous in the wild species, and having the fragrance of Mignonette. 138 POPULAR FLORA. 1. European Grape. Flowers all perfect; leaves deeply and sharply lobed. Cult, in several varie- ties, viz. Sweetwater Grape, Black Hamburg, &c. V. vinifera. 2. Northern Fox-Grape. Leaves very woolly when young, remaining rusty-woolly beneath; ber* ries large, purple or amber-colored. — Improved varieties of this, without the foxy taste and the tough pulp, are the Isabella aud the Catawba Grapes. V. Labrusca. 3- Summer Grape. Leaves with loose cobwebby down underneath, smoothish when old ; panicles of fertile flowers very long and slender; berries small, ripe with first frost. V. aestivalis. 4. Frost Grape. Leaves thin, heart-shaped, never woolly, not shining, sharply and coarsely toothed, little or not at all lobed ; panicles loose ; berries blue or black with a bloom, sour, ripening late. Common along river-banks, &c. V. cordifulia. 6. Muscadine or Southern Fox-Grape. Bark of the stem close, not thrown off in loose strips, as in the others; leaves round-heart-shaped, shining, not downy, very coarsely toothed ; panicles small, with crowded flowers; berry large, musky, with a very thick and tough skin. A variety is the Scuppernong Grape. Common S Virgirtia-Creeper. A inpelopsis. Petals 5, thick, opening before they fall. Leaves palmate with 5 leaflets (Fig. 74). Berries small, blackish. A very common tall- climbing vine, wild and culti- vated. A. qiiinquefblia. V. vulpina. 339. Twig of Grape- v 29. BUCKTHORN FAMILY. Order RHAMNACE.E. Woody plants, with simple alternate leaves, known by having the stamens as many as the small petals (4 or 5) and one before each of them, ■^^ m / i both inserted on the calyx or on a fleshy cup which \ y^8L^!kr~/ / ) vJAI^tt^P*' *' nes ^ ie tu ^ e °** ^ ie ca b' x i the lobes of the latter ^5j. *-^ Jp^ / vr/ valvate, i. e. edge to edge in the bud. Fruit of 2 to 5 cells, and one large seed in each. 342. Flowers of a Buckthorn. 343. Same, cut through lengthwise- Calyx free from the ovary, greenish. Petals shorter than the calyx, or none, (Rhamnus) Buckthorn. Calyx below adherent to the ovary, its lobes petal-like (white in our species) and bent inwards, shorter than the stamens and long- clawed petals, ( Ceandthus) New-Jersey Tea. POPULAR FLORA". 139 30. STAFF-TREE FAMILY. Order CELASTRACEiE. Woody plants, with simple alternate or opposite leaves; the divisions of the calyx and the petals both overlapping in the bud; the stamens as many as the petals (4 or 5) and alternate with them, inserted on a thick expansion of the receptacle (disk) which fills the bottom of the calyx. Pod colored, of 2 to 5 mostly one-seeded cells, showy when ripe in autumn, especially when they open and display the seeds enveloped in a pulpy scarlet aril. Flowers polygamous or nearly dioecious, white, in racemes: disk cup-shaped: style long. Pod globular, orange-yellow. Leaves alternate. Our only species is a twin- ing shrub, sometimes called Bittersweet, ( Celdstrus) Waxwork. Flowers perfect, flat, dull green or dark purple, in axillary racemes : disk fiat, covering the ovary, and bearing 4 or 5 very short stamens, the short style just rising through it. Pods red, lobed. Shrubs: leaves opposite, (Euonymus) Burning-bush Pods smooth, strongly lobed, or Spindle-tree. Pods roundish, rough, {Euonymus) Strawberry-bush. 31. SOAPBERRY FAMILY. Order SAPINDACEJE. The proper Soapberry family belongs mostly to warmer climates ; but we have mi f hrubs and trees belong- ing to three of its sub- families : I. BLADDERNUT Sub- family. Flowers regular and perfect. Stamens 5, as many as the petals, and alternate with them. Seeds bony. Leaves opposite, pinnate or with 3 leaflets, having stipules, and also little stipules {stipels) to the leaflets. Shrub: flowers white in racemes. Fruit of 3 bladdery pods united. (Stqphylea) Bladdernut. II. HOESECHESTNUT Subfamily. Flowers po- lygamous, some of them having no good pistil, mostly irregular and unsymmetrical. Calyx bell-shaped or tubular, 5-toothed. Petals 4 or 5, with claws, on the receptacle. Stamens generally 7, long. Style one. Ovary 3-celled, with a pair of ovules in each cell, only one or two ripening in the fruit; which becomes a leathery 3-valved pod. Seeds very large, like chest- nuts. Fine ornamental trees, with opposite palmate ne, partly grown, o..ly one need l eaves an( ] fl owers in thick panicles, growing. 65Q. Kipe pod bursting. ' I Petals 5, spreading; stamens declined: fruit prickly. Leaflets 7, {JEsculus) *Horsechestnut. Petals 4, unlike, with long claws in the calvx. Leaflets generally 5, (JEsculus, § Pavia) Buckeye. 10 344. Red Buckeye, reduced ir size. 345. Flower. 346. Sam with calyx and two petals take i away. 347. Magnified ovarv divided lengthwise. 348. Sam e, divided crosswise, showing ll ch eel.. 349 Sa 140 POPULAR FLORA. III. MAPLE Subfamily. Flowers generally polygamous or dioecious, regular. Petals often none, but the calyx sometimes petal-like. Stamens 4 to 12. Styles 2, united below- Fruit a pair of keys united at the bottom (Fig. 208). Leaves opposite. Flowers dioecious, small and greenish: petals none: stamens 4 or 5. Leaves pinnate, with 3 to 5 veiny leaflets : twigs green, (Negundo) Negundo. Flowers polygamous or perfect. Leaves simple, palmately lobed, (Acer) Maple. Buckeye. jUscuIus, § Pdvia. All wild species at the West and South: also cultivated for ornament: flowering in late spring or summer. 1. Fetid or Ohio Buckeye. Petals small, erect, pale yellow, shorter than the curved stamens; young fruit prickly like Horsechestnut ; a tree. River-banks, W. jE. glabra. 2. Sweet Buckeye. Petals yellow or reddish, erect, enclosing the stamens: fruit smooth. JE.fiava. 3. Red Buckeye. Petals red, also the tubular calyx: otherwise like the last. Shrub. JE. Pavia. 4. Small-flowered B. Leaflets stalked; petals white, rather spreading; stamens very long; fruit smooth; seed eatable, not bitter, as are the others; flowers in a long raceme-like panicle. Shrub. S. & cult. A. parvifibra. Maple. Acer. * Flowers in terminal racemes, with petals, greenish, in late spring: stamens 6 to 8. 1. Striped Maple. Bark green, with darker stripes; leaves large, with 3 short and taper-pointed lobes; racemes hanging. Small tree in cool woods; common, N. A. Pennsylvdnicum. 2. Mountain M. Bark gray; leaves 3-lobed; racemes erect; flowers small. Shrub, N. A. spicalum. Z. Sycamore M. An imported shade-tree, with large strongly 5-lobed leaves, and large hanging racemes, flowering soon after the leaves appear. A. Pseudo-Pldlanus. * * Flowers in loose clusters, yellowish-green, appearing with the leaves, in spring. 4. Norway M. An imported shade-tree, with leaves resembling Sugar Maple, but brighter green on both sides, rounder, and with some long pointed teeth; flowers in an erect terminal corymb, with petals; wings of the fruit very large, diverging. A. platanoides. 5. Sugar or Rock M. Leaves with 3 or mostly 5 long-pointed lobes, their edges entire except a few coarse wavy teeth ; flowers hanging on very slender hairy stalks, without petals; fruit with rather small wings, ripe in autumn. Tall tree; in rich woods, and commonly planted for shade. A. sacchdrinum. * * * Flowers in early spring, considerably earlier than the leaves, on short pedicels, in small umbel-like clusters from lateral leafless buds : stamens generally 5 : fruit ripe and falling in early summer. 6. White or Silver M. Leaves very deeply 5-lobed, cut and toothed, white beneath; flowers greenish-yellow, short-stalked, without petals ; fruit woolly when young, with very large and smooth diverging wings. Tree common on river-banks, and planted for shade. A. dasyedrpum. 7. Red or Soft M. Leaves whitish beneath, with 3 or 5 short lobes, toothed,- flowers on very short stalks which lengthen in fruit, with linear-oblong petals, red or sometimes yellowish ; wings of the fruit small, reddish. Wet places: a common tree. A. rvbrum POPULAR FLORA. 141 32. PULSE FAMILY. Order LEGUMINOSiE. A large family, distinguished by the peculiar irregular corolla called papilionaceous (i. e. butterfly-shaped), and for having the kind of pod called a legume for its fruit. Leaves alternate, often compound, with stipules. Stamens generally 10, inserted on the calyx. Pistil one, simple. The papilionaceous corolla, which is familiar in the Pea-blossom and the like, consists of 5 irregular petals; viz. an upper one, generally largest and outside in the bud, called the standard ; two side petals, called wings, and two lower ones put together and commonly a little joined, forming a kind of pouch which encloses the stamens and style, and which, being shaped somewhat like the prow of an ancient vessel, is named the keel. A few flowers in the family are almost regular, or not papilionaceous. In one case (to be mentioned in its place) all but one petal is wanting. Another set have perfectly regular blossoms ; V ^^^M^ W^^v^ k ut are k nown by the pod and leaves. The legume is of every variety of shape and size. The whole kernel of the seed is an embryo, with thick cotyledons, as is familiar in the Bean and Pea (Fig. 32, 42). We give the princi- pal sorts. 351. Papilionaceous corolla of Locust. Its petals displayed : 9, standard ; 'ings ; £, the keel laid open. 353. Legume of Pea, open. 354. Flower of False Indigo No. 2. 355. Same, with the petals removed. 356. Flower of Amorpha, enlarged. 357. Stamens and pistil of the same. I. TRUE PULSE Family. Corolla really papilionaceous, and the standard outside, wrapped around the other petals in the bud (in Amorpha, Fig. 356, only the standard is present). Leaves either sim- ple or only once compound. 142 POPULAK FLORA. * Stamens, 10, united by their filaments, either all into a closed tube {monad 'dpi kous, Fig. 187), or 9 in a tube split down on one side, and the 10th separate or nearly so (diade/jj/ious, Fig. 186). Shrubs or trees, not twining nor climbing. Flowers white or rose-colored, in hanging racemes. Leaves odd-pinnate, [Robinia) Locust-tree. Flowers yellow, in small racemes. Pod bladdery. Leaves odd-pinnate, (Coliilea) *Bladder-Senna, Flowers yellow, in hanging racemes. Pod narrow. Leaflets 3, ( Cytisus) * Laburnum. Shrubs, with long twining stems. Flowers blue-purple in racemes, > ( Wistaria) Wistaria, Herbs. Stems not twining, climbing, nor with any trace of tendrils. Leaves simple: stipules winging the stem below the leaf. Flowers yellow. Pod inflated, many-seeded, ( Crotalaria) Rattlebox. Leaves of 5 to 15 palmate leaflets. Flowers in a long raceme, (Lujnnus) Lci'lMb Leaves abruptly pinnate, of 4 leaflets. Pod formed underground, (A'rachis) * Peanut. Leaves odd-pinnate, of several or many leaflets. Leaflets serrate. Flowers single, white. Pod inflated, 2-seeded, ( Cicer) * Chick-Pea. Leaflets entire. Flowers in a raceme or spike. Corolla broad. Pod flat, narrow, several-seeded, ( Tephrbsia) Hoary-Pea. Corolla narrow. Pod inflated or turgid, often 2-celled, (Astragalus) Astragal. Leaves of 3 (or rarely 5) leaflets. Pods like akenes or burs. Stipules cohering with the base of the leafstalk. Flowers in heads. Pod thin and small, in the persistent calyx, ( Trifblium) Clover. Flowers in spikes or racemes. Leaflets not dotted, but generally serrate. Pods wrinkled, like akenes, coriaceous, {Melilbtus) Melilot. Pods curved, or else coiled up in various ways, (Medico go) Medick. Leaflets, &c. sprinkled with dark dots, entire. (Psoralen) Psoralea. Stipules not at all united with the leafstalk. Pods very small and flat, closed, one-seeded, (Lespedeza) Bush-Clover. Pods separating into several-seeded fiat roughish joints, (Desmbdium) Tick-Trefoil. Stems climbing or disposed to climb : leaves pinnate with a. tendril at the end. Calyx with 5 leafy lobes. Seeds globular. Leaflets few, (Pisum) * Pea. Calyx-lobes or teeth not leafy. Tendril conspicuous. Style hairy along the inner side, (Ldthyrus) Everlasting-Pea. Tendril conspicuous. Style hairy round the tip, ( Vicia) Vetch. Tendril hardly any. Seed oblong, fixed by one end, (Faba) * Horse-Bean. Stems twining more or less: no tendrils to the leaves. Keel of the corolla coiled into a ring or spiral. Leaflets 3, with stipels, (Phaseolus) Bean. Leaflets 5 or 7. Flowers brown-purple. Tubers underground, (A'pios) Groundnut. Keel not coiled or twisted. Leaflets 3, with stipels. Calyx 4-cleft, the lobes acute, (Galdctia) Milk-Pea. Calyx 4-toothed. Pods both above and under ground, [Amphicarpcen) Hog-Peanut Calyx tubular, 5-toothed. Flower large, purple-blue, ( Clitbria) Butterfly-Pea. * * Stamens 10, separate, except at the very base. Petal only one! (Fig. 356.) Shrubs: leaves pinnate: flowers small, violet-purple, in a spike or raceme, (Amorpha) Amorpha. POPULAR FLORA. 143 * * * Stamens 10, separate (Fig. 355). Petals 5, pea-like. Pod inflated, (Baplisia) False-Indigo. II. BRASILETTO Subfamily. Corolla sometimes papilionaceous or nearly so, but then with the standard within the other petals, generally more or less irregular; the petals overlapping one an- other in the bud. Stamens 10 or fewer, separate. Trees, with simple round-heart-shaped leaves, but appearing rather later than the papilio- naceous purple-red flowers, ( Cercis) Red-bud. Herbs, with abruptly pinnate leaves and yellow flowers, not papilionaceous, ( Cassia) Senna. Trees, with the leaves, or some of them, more than once compound. Flowers dioecious or polygamous, not at all papilionaceous. Stamens 10, and petals 5, on the top of the funnel-shaped tube of the calyx. Pods broad and hard. Leaves very large, twice-pinnate, ( Gymnocladus) Kentucky Coffee-tree. t Stamens and petals 3 to 5, on the bottom of an open calyx. Pods long and flat, hav- ing a sweet juice or pulp inside. Leaves, some of them once pinnate, others twice pinnate. Tree with compound thorns, (Gledilschia) Honey-Locust. in. MIMOSA Subfamily. Flowers very small, in heads or spikes, regular: petals edge to edge in the bud, and sometimes united below. Leaves generally twice or thrice pinnate. Stamens very many and long, yellow or yellowish. (Cult, in greenhouses: some species are wild far South), * Acacia. Stamens 5. Petals separate, whitish. Pod smooth, (Desmdnthus) Desmanthus. Stamens 4 or 5. Petals united into a cup, rose-color. Pod bristly, flat, breaking up into joints. Leaves closing suddenly when touched, (Mimosa) * Sensitive-plant. Stumens 10 or 12. Petals united into a cup, rose-color. Pod narrow, rough-prickly. Leaves rather sensitive. S, (Schrdnkia) Sensitive-Brief.. Locust-tree. Robinia. Flowers showy, in hanging axillary racemes. Stamens diadelphous. Pod flat, several-seeded. Leaves odd-pinnate. — Trees, wild in the Southern, cult, in the Northern States. FI. in early summer. 1. Common Locust-tree. Tree with a pair of spines for stipules; flowers white, in slender racemes, sweet-scented ; pod smooth. R. Pseudacdcia. 2. Clammy L. Tree with clammy twigs; racemes thick ; calyx purplish; pod rough. R. viscbsa. 3. Bristly L. or Rose-Acacia. Shrub, with bristly stalks and twigs ; flowers large, rose-colored. Ji. Itispida. Clover (or Trefoil). Trifblium. Flowers many in a head. Calyx persistent, its teeth very slender. Corolla withering away or per- sistent -after flowering; the petals grown together more or less into a tube below, and the diadelphous stamens united with it. Pod generally shorter than the calyx, thin, only one- or few-seeded. Low herbs: leaves with 3 leaflets, the stipules adhering to the base of the footstalk (Fig. 136). 1. Red Clover. Leaflets obovate or oval, with a pale spot on the upper side; flowers rose-red, in a dense head with leaves underneath it. Fields, cultivated. T.pratense. 2. Buffalo C. Leaflets obovate, toothed : flowers rose-colored, pedicelled, in an umbel-like long- stalked head. Prairies, &c, W. & S. T. rejlexum. 8. White C. Low, smooth, creeping; leaflets obcordate or notched; flowers white, in a loose umbel- like head, raised on a long stalk. Fields, &c, everywhere. T. repent. 144 POPULAR FLORA. 4. Rabbit-foot C. Silky, low, erect, and branching; root annual; leaflets narrow; floweTs whitish, in dense and soft-silky oblong heads. Common in poor dry land. T. arvense. 0. Yellow C. Low, annual, smoothish; corolla yellow, turning brownish. Waste grounds. T. agrarium Melilot (or Sweet-Clover). Mdilbtus. Flowers in a raceme or spike, small. Corolla falling after flowering. Pod roundish and small, like an akene, hardly opening, containing only one or two seeds. — Annuals or biennials, with sweet-scented foliage; leaflets three, toothed. Growing in gardens and around houses. 1. Yellow Melilot. Leaflets obovate or oblong, obtuse ; corolla light yellow. M. officinalis. 2. White M. Leaflets as if cut off square at the end ; corolla white. J/, alba. Medick. Mtdicdgo. Flowers like those of Melilot, either few or many in a cluster. Pod curved or coiled, either kidney- shaped or rolled up spirally in various ways. Leaves of 3 leaflets. 1. Lucerne, or Purple Medick. Stems upright from a deep perennial root; leaflets obovate-oblong ; flowers purple in short racemes ; pods spiral. Cultivated for green fodder. M. satlva. 2. Black M. Stems reclining; leaflets wedge-obovate; flowers yellow, in short spikes; pods curved (Fig. 858), wrinkled, turning blackish. Waste grounds. M. lupuVina. 3. Snail M., with 2-flowered peduncles, is sometimes cultivated in gardens, on account of its singular pods coiled like a shell (Fig. 359). M. scutellata. Everlasting-Pea or Vetchling. Ldtluji-us. Lobes or teeth of the calyx not leafy. Style flattish. Otherwise the flowers nearly the same as in the true Pea. * Garden species, cultivated for ornament; with winged stems and only one pair of leaflets. 1. Sweet Pea. Root annual; flowers 2 or 3 on a long peduncle, sweet-scented L. odordtus. 2. Garden Everlasting-Pea. Root perennial ; flowers many, pink or purple. L. lalifblius. * * Wild species, with perennial roots and more than one pair of leaflets. 3. Marsh E. Stems lightly winged or margined; leaflets 2 to 4 pairs, lance-linear or lance-oblong; stipules lance-shaped; flowers 2 to 5, purple. Moist ground, N. L. pahlstris. 4. Pale E. Leaflets 3 or 4 pairs, ovate, pale; stipules rather large, half heart-shaped; flowers 7 to 10, cream-color. Banks and thickets, W. & N. L. ochrokiicus. 5. Veiny E. Leaflets 5 to 7 pairs, oblong or ovate; stipules very small ; flowers many on the peduncle, purple. Shady banks, S. & W. L. venbsus. 6. Beach Pea. Leaflets 4 to 6 pairs, oval or obovate; stipules large and leafy; flowers 6 to 10 on the peduncle, purple. Shore of the sea, N. and of the Great Lakes. L. marilimus. Vetch or Tare. Vicia. Like the last, but with small and usually more numerous leaflets ; and the thread-shaped style hairy round the end or down the outer side. * Perennials, all wild species: flowers small, in a raceme on a long peduncle. 1. Tufted V. Downy ; leaflets many, lance-oblong, strongly mucronate ; flowers crowded, bent down in the spike, blue, turning purple, summer. Thickets, N. K Cracca- POPULAR FLORA. 145 2. Carolina V. Smooth; leaflets 8 to 12, oblong; flowers many, whitish, tipped with blue, rather scattered on the peduncle, in spring. Banks, &c, common. V. Caroliniana. 3. American V. Smooth; leaflets 10 to 14, oval or oblong, very veiny; flowers 4 to 8 on the pe- duncle, purplish or bluish, in summer. N. V. Americana. * * Annual : flowers large, one or two together, sessile in the axils of the leaves. 4. Common Take. Leaflets 10 to 14, narrow; flowers violet-purple. Cultivated fields, V. sativa. Bean. Phaseolus. Keel of the corolla (with the included stamens and style) twisted or coiled, so as to form a ring, or one or more turns of a spiral coil. Stamens diadelphous. Pod flat or flattish, several-seeded. Seeds flattish. Plants twining more or less, in one cultivated variety short and erect. Leaves of three leaflets, the end leaflet some way above the other two (i. e. pinnate of 3 leaflets): and they have stipels or little stipules to the leaflets. Fl. summer. * Wild species: mostly found South and West. 1. Perennial Bean. Climbing high ; leaflets round-ovate, pointed ; flowers in long panicled racemes, purple; pods curved. Wooded banks, &c. P. perennis. 2. Trailing Bean. Annual, spreading on the ground ; leaflets 3-lobed or angled ; flowers few, crowded at the end of a long erect peduncle, purplish; pods narrow, straight. Sandy places. P. diversifblius. * * Cultivated Beans. 3. Common or Kidney Bean. Known by its straight pods, pointed by the hardened lower part of the • style, and the thick rather kidney-shaped seeds. The Dwarf or Bush Bean is a low and small variety which does not twine. The Scarlet Runner is a free climbing variety, gen- erally red-flowered. P. vulgaris. 4. Lima Bean. Known by its broad and flat, curved or scymitar-shaped pods, with few and large flat seeds. The Civet Bean is a small variety of it. . P. lunatus. False-Indigo. Baptisia. Flowers generally in racemes. Standard erect, with the sides rolled back : keel-petals nearly sepa- rate and straight, like the wings. Stamens 10, separate! Pod stalked in the calyx, bladdery, but rather thick-walled, pointed, containing many small seeds. — Perennial herbs, erect and branched, with palmate leaves of 3 leaflets. — The commonest are the following: — 1. Yellow False-Indigo. Glaucous, bushy-branched; leaves almost sessile; leaflets small, wedge- obovate; flowers few at the ends of the panicled branchlets, yellow, produced all summer. Dry grounds, common. B. iinctbria. 2. Blue F. Tall and stout; stipules lance-shaped, as long as the petiole; leaflets wedge-oblong; flowers many, large, blue, in a long raceme, in spring or early summer. (Fig. 354, 355.) Rich soil; common W. & S. and also cultivated in gardens. B. australis. Senna. Cassia. Calyx of 5 sepals. Petals 5, spreading, not papilionaceous, but a little irregular. Stamens 10, but those on one side of the blossom commonly shorter, or without anthers; the anthers open at the top by two chinks or holes. Pods many-seeded. — Leaves simply and abruptly pinnate. The common species are herbs, with yellow flowers, in summer. 146 POPULAR FLORA. 1. Maryland Senna. Root perennial ; stems 3° or 4° high ; leaflets 6 to 9 pairs, lance-oblong, 1* or more long, used for medicine instead of the imported senna. Rich soil. C- Marildndica. 2. Partridge-Pea S. Annual, low, spreading; leaflets 10 to 15 pairs, linear-oblong, J' long; flowers large and showy ; anthers 10, six of them purple. Sandy fields. C. Chamtecrista. 3. Sensitive S. Flowers small, short-stalked; anthers only 5: otherwise like the last. C. niciitam. 33. ROSE FAMILY. Order ROSACEiE. A large and most important family of plants, distinguished by having alternate leaves with stipules, and regular flowers ; their generally 5 petals (sometimes wanting) and sta- mens (generally numerous, at least above 10) inserted on the persistent calyx. The seeds are few and their whole kernel is embryo, as is seen in an almond (Fig. 36), Apple-seed, or Cherry-seed (Fig. 38), &c. The family furnishes some of our most esteemed fruits : all the plants are innocent, except the strong-scented foliage and bark, in the Almond sub- family. For figures illustrating this family, see those of Cherry-blossom (Fig. 103), Hawthorn-blossom (Fig. 194), the fruit of Apple and Quince, (Fig. 200 and 201), Peach (Fig. 202), Rose and Strawberry (Fig. 220 - 2.22), and the annexed figures. I. ALMOND Subfamily. Pistil only one, free from the calyx, becoming a stone-fruit. — Trees or shrubs with simple leaves ; the bruised bark and foliage with a peculiar aromatic scent and flavor. — The plants of this division are all ranked under two great genera (Amygdalus and Primus), but under several subgenera, here adopted for the convenience of the common names. Calyx with a rather deep cup. Petals rose or red-purple. Stone of the fruit rough. Flesh of the fruit becoming a dry husk. We have the dwarf Flowering- Almond in gardens, with double flowers. It does not form fruit here, (Amygdalus) *Almoni>. Flesh pulpy: surface downy (or in Nectarine smooth), (Persicu) *Pbacic. Calyx with a short and broad cup. Petals white. Stone of the fruit smooth, and Flattened, with grooved edges: skin of the fruit downy, (Armeniaca) *Aprioot. Flat or flattish, generally edged: fruit smooth, with a bloom, (Primus) Plum. Roundish or globular : fruit smaller, smooth, without a bloom, ( Cerasus) Cherry. II. ROSE Subfamily. Pistils few or many (rarely only one), separate from each other and {re& from the persistent calyx, but sometimes (as in the Rose, Fig. 360) enclosed and concealed in its tube Stipules generally united with the bottom of the leafstalk on each side. ab-Apple. POPULAR FLORA. 147 Pistils generally 6, making few-seeded pods. Petals broad: calyx open, 5-cleft. Shrubs or herbs, (Spircea) Meadow-sweet- Petals lance-shaped: calyx narrow, 5-toothed. Herbs, (GUlenia) Indian-Physic. Pistils only one or two, making akenes, enclosed in the narrow-mouthed tube of the calyx. Petals 5, yellow: stamens 12 or more: calyx bur-like, (Agrimbnia) Agrimony. Petals none; but the 4 spreading lobes of the smooth calyx petal-like. Flowers perfect, in a spike: stamens 4, long (white), (Sanguisorba) Burnet. Flowers monoecious, in a head : stamens many, (Poterium) * Salad-Burnet. Pistils 3 to 10, making akenes: stamens many. (Stemless herbs.) Petals 5, yellow. Leaves of 3 leaflets, ( Waldsteinia) Barren-Strawberry. Petals 5, white. Leaves simple, rounded-heart-shaped, (Daiibdrda) Daliiiarda. Pistils many, making akenes, or in Bramble berry-like in fruit. Calyx open, with 5 additional outer lobes (making 10) or 5 accessory teeth. Akenes tipped with a long feathery or hooked or twisted tail (style), (Geum) Avens. Akenes seed-like; the short style falling off. Receptacle of the fruit dry and small, (Potenlilla) Cinquefoil. Eeceptacle of the fruit becoming very large and pulpy, (Fragdria) Strawberry. Calyx open, flat, 5-lobed. Ovaries in a head, becoming berry-like, (Rubus) Bramble. Calyx with an urn-shaped or globular closed tube and 5 lobes, (Rosa) Rose. III. PEAR Subfamily. Pistils 2 to 5, their styles more or less separate, their ovaries united with each other and with the thick tube of the calyx which encloses them and makes a fleshy fruit (pome). Stipules free from the leafstalk. Trees or shrubs. Cells of the fruit containing only one or two seeds. [or Shadbusii. Petals long and narrow. Fruit berry-like, its cells becoming 10, (Ameldnchier) June-berry Petals broad or rounded. Fruit drupe-like, containing 2 to 5 stones, ( Crataegus) Hawthorn. Fruit with 3 to 5 parchment-like pips. Leaves pinnate: fruit berry-like, scarlet when ripe, (Pyrus, § Sorbus) Mountain-Ash. Leaves simple. Flowers small in compound cymes: fruit small, berry-like, black or dark red, mawkish, (Pyrus, \ Adenbrathis) Chokeberry. Flowers large in simple clusters or umbels: fruit fleshy. Petals tinged with red or rose : fruit sunk in at both ends, ( Pyrus, § Malus) Apple. Petals white: fruit tapering into the stalk, (True Pyrus) * Pear. Cells of the fruit parchment-like and many-seeded, ( Cydbnia) * Quince. Cherry. Prunus, § Cerasus, &c. * Flowers, like those of Plums, two or more together on separate footstalks from separate lateral buds, appearing at the same time with the leaves. 1. Cultivated Cherry: several varieties are commonly cultivated of the European, P. Cerasus. 2. Wild Red Cherry. A small tree, with bright-green narrow leaves, and small light-red sour fruit. Common in rocky woods, &c. P. Pennsylvdnica. * * Flowers in hanging racemes, appearing after the leaves, late in spring. Wild species. 3. Choke Cherry. Shrub or small tree, with gray branches, broad and sharply serrate leaves, and astringent dark crimson fruit, ripe in summer. P. Virginidna. 148 POPULAR FLORA. 4. Wild Black Cherry. Shrub or large tree, with reddish-brown bark on the branches, oblong or lance-oblong leaves with short and blunt teeth, and purplish-black vinous fruit, ripe in autumn. P. serotina. Plum. Promts. All are cultivated, except the Beach Plum ; but No. 2 is also wild; so is No. 3 in the Southwest. 1. Common Plum (P. domcstica), with all its varieties, probably came from the Bullace Plum (P. insilitia), and that perhaps from the thorny Sloe {P. spinbsa). 2. Wild (Red and Yellow) Plum : well known for its very juicy pulp in a (red or partly yellow) tough skin ; leaves coarsely serrate. p. Americana. 3. Chickasaw Plum : with lance-shaped finely serrate leaves, and small red, thin-skinned, cherry- like fruit. S. p. Clricasa. 4. Beach Plum. A low bush on the sea-coast, with the leaves downy beneath, and a small purple or crimson fruit. p. maritima. Meadow-Sweet. Spirha. Calyx 5-cleft. Petals 5, broad or roundish. Pistils commonly 5, making little pods (follicles) with 2 or few seeds in each. Nos. 1, 2, 4, and 6 are wild species, but also cult, in gardens and grounds. * Shrubs, with white flowers, except No. 2. 1. Common Meadow-Sweet. Smooth, 2° or 3° high ; leaves oblorg or lance-oblong and wedge- shaped; flowers in a crowded panicle, sometimes pale flesh-color. Wet grounds. S. salicifblia. 2. Downy M., or Hardhack. Leaves coated with wool beneath; flowers rose-color. S. lomentbsa. 3. Italian M., or Maywreath. Smooth ; stems 3° or 4° long, recurved; leaves small, spatulate, entire; flowers small, in umbels on short leafy shoots. Cult.; fl. in spring. S. hypericifblla. 4. Ninebark M.. Smoothish, 4° to 10° high; branches recurving; leaves rounded, 3-lobed ; flowers in umbels, in spring; pods 3 to 5, bladdery, turning purplish. Old bark of stems peeling off in thin layers. Rocky banks, N. & W., and cultivated. S. opulifblia. 5. Sorb-leaved M. Smooth, 3° to 6° high; leaves pinnate; leaflets oblong-lance-shaped, pointed, cut- toothed; flowers in a large panicle, in spring. Cultivated. S. sorbifblia. * * Herbs, with perennial roots, and interruptedly pinnate leaves, and flowers in a crowded compound cyme, on a long naked stalk. All but No. 6 are foreign species. 6. Queen-of-thf.-Prairie M. Smooth; leaflets 3 to 7 and some little ones; end-leaflet very large, parted and cleft; flowers peach-blossom-color, in summer. W. and cult. S. lobata. 7. English 51. Leaves smaller than in the last, white-downy beneath; flowers white. S. Ulmaria. 8. Dropwort M. Smooth; leaflets 9 to 21, besides the minute ones, linear-oblong, much cut; cymes of a few slender branches; flowers white, single or double. S. jilipendula. Indian-Physic. Gillknia. Calyx narrow or club-shaped, 5-toothed. Petals 5, lance-shaped, rather unequal, white or pale rose. Stamens 10 to 20, short. Pistils and little pods 5. — Herbs, with perennial roots, and leaves of three cut-toothed thin leaflets. Flowers in a loose corymb or panicle, in summer. 1. Common Indian-Physic (or Bowman's Root). Leaflets oblong; stipules small and entire. W. and cultivated in gardens. G. trifoliala, 2. Western I. (or American Ipecac). Leaflets lance-shaped, more cut than in the last, as are the large stipules. W. G. stipulacea. POPULAR FLORA. 149 Avens. Geum. Calyx bell-shaped or flattish, 5-cleft, and with 5 additional little lobes between. Petals 5. Stamens many. Pistils many in a head, making akenes, which are tipped with the style, remaining as a long, naked or hairy tail. Perennial herbs: flowers single or somewhat corymbed. — In all our common species the style is jointed and hooked round in the middle. # Upper and mostly hairy joint of the style falling off, leaving the lower and smooth portion, which remains hooked at the end : flowers rather small : root-leaves mostly interruptedly pinnate ; stem- leaves or lobes 3 to 5. Dry woods and fields. 1. White Avens. Smoothish or downy; petals white, as long as the calyx, akenes bristly. G. alburn. 2. Virginian A. Bristly-hairy, stouter than the last; petals greenish-white, shorter than the calyx; akenes smooth. G. Virglnianum. 3. Yellow A. Rather hairy, large ; petals yellow, longer than the calyx. G. sirictum. * * Upper joint of the style persistent and feathered with long hairs; flowers rather large, nodding. 4. "Water A. Root-leaves with a large and rounded-lobed end-leaflet, and some very small ones below; stem-leaves few, 3-cleft or of 3 small leaflets; petals not spreading, somewhat notched at the broad summit, purplish. — Wet banks of streams. G. rivale. CInqiiefoil. Polentilla. Calyx open or flat, 5-parted, and with 5 additional outside lobes alternate with the others, making 10. Petals 5. Stamens many. Pistils many in a head, on a dry receptacle, making seed-like akenes, the styles falling off. * Leaves palmate. Herbs, with yellow flowers. 1. Norway Cinquefoil. Erect, coarse, hairy ; leaflets 3, obovate, cut-toothed. Fields. P. Noi-vegica, 2. Canada C. Runner-like stems decumbent or spreading; leaflets 5, obovate-oblong; peduncles long, axillary, 1-flowered. Fields and banks. P. Canadensis. 3. Silvery C. Low, with spreading branches, white-woolly, as are the 5 leaflets beneath. P. argentea. * * Leaves pinnate. Herbs (except No. 5): receptacle of the fruit hairy. 4. Silver-weed. Creeping, sending up leaves of 9 to 19 cut-toothed leaflets, besides little ones inter- posed, silvery-white beneath, and single long-stalked yellow flowers. Wet banks, N. P. Anservna. 5. Shrubby C. Shrub very bushy, 2° to 4° high; leaflets 5 or 7, crowded near the end of the short footstalk, lance-oblong, entire, silky beneath ; flowers yellow. Bogs. P. frutlcbsa. 6. Marsh C. Stems ascending from a scaly creeping base; leaflets 5 or 7, crowded, serrate, lance- oblong; flowers dull purple. Cold bogs, N. P.palustris. Bramble. Rubus. Calyx open, deeply 5-cleft. Petals 5. Pistils many; their ovaries ripening into little berry-liko grains (or rather di-upelets), making a kind of compound berry. — Rather shrubby or herbaceous pe- rennials. § 1. RASPBERRY. Fruit falling from the dry receptacle, usually with the grains lightly cohering. * Leaves simple, lobed: flowers large and showy : petals spreading. 1. Purple Flowering-Raspberry. Rristly and clammy with odorous brownish glands ; leaves rounded, with 3 or 5 pointed lobes; flowers in a corymb, rose-purple; fruit flat. Rocky banks, N. Fl. summer. , R. odoratus. 2. White Flowering-R. Like No. 1, but the flowers white and smaller. N. W. & cult. R. Nutkaaw. 150 POPULAR FLORA. * * Leaflets 3 or 5, white-downy beneath: flowers small: petals white, erect. 3. Garden Raspberry. Stems with some slender hooked prickles as well as bristles; petals shorter than the calyx; fruit red, &c, the grains minutely downy. Cult. R. Idaus. 4. Wild Red R. Stems very bristly; petals as long as the calyx; fruit pale red, very tender. Very common N. R. strigbsus. 5. Black R. (or Tiiijibleberry). Plant glaucous all over; the long recurved stems and stalks beset with hooked prickles ; fruit dark purple. Borders of woods and fields. R. occidentalis. ^2. BLACKBERRY. Fruit of large grains, remaining on the juicy receptacle, black or dark purple when ripe: petals white, spreading; leaflets 3 or 5. 6. High Blackberry or Bramble. Stems mostly erect, angular, bearing stout curved prickles; young shoots hairy and glandular; leaflets ovate or oblong, pointed, downy underneath and prickly on the midrib ; flowers large, in racemes ; fruit large, sweet. R. villbsus. 7. Low B. (or Dewberry). Stems long, trailing; leaves smaller and nearly smooth; flowers fewer, and the large sweet fruit ripe earlier than in the last. Sterile or rocky ground. R. Canadensis, 8. Sand B. Stems low, but erect, with stout hooked prickles; leaflets wedge-obovate, whitish-woolly beneath; fruit sweet. Sandy soil. New Jersey & S. R. cuneifblivs. 9. Running Swami*-B. Stems slender, creeping, hooked-prickly; leaves nearly evergreen, shining, obovate; flowers small ; fruit of few grains, reddish until ripe, sour. Wet woods, N. R. hispid us. Rose. Rosa. Calyx with an urn-shaped hollow tube (Fig. 360), bearing 5 leafy lobes at the top, 5 petals and many stamens, and within enclosing many pistils attached to its walls. The ovaries ripen into bony and hairy akenes, and the calyx makes a fleshy or pulpy, red and berry-like fruit (hip). — Shrubs, with pinnate leaves of 3 to 9 leaflets. (Stigmas just rising to the mouth of the calyx, except in No. 1.) * Wild Roses. But Xo. 1 is cultivated, especially in double-flowered varieties, and the Sweet-Brier, which came from Europe, is also kept in gardens, for its sweet-scented leaves. Flowers in all bright rose-color. 1. Prairie Rose. Stems climbing high, prickly; leaflets 3 or 5, large; petals deep rose-color turning pale; styles cohering together, and projecting out of the tube of the calyx; flowers in corymbs, scentless, in summer. Edges of prairies and thickets ; W. and cult. R. setigera. 2. Sweet-Brier R. (or Eglantine). Stems climbing, and with stout hooked prickles; leaflets 5 or 7, roundish, downy and bearing russet fragrant glands beneath; hip pear-shaped. Road-sides, gardens, &c. R. rubiginbsa. 3. Swamp R. Stems erect, 4° to 7° high, with hooked prickles; leaflets dull, 5 to 9; flowers in corymbs; hips rather bristly, broader than long. R. Carolina. 4. Low Wild R. Stems 1° to 3° high, with mostly straight prickles; leaves smooth and commonly shining; flowers single or 2 to 3 together; hips as in the last. Common. R. lucida. 5. Bland R. Low, pale or glaucous, with few or,no prickles; calyx and globular hips very smooth. Rocks: flowering early in summer. N. R. blanda. * * Cultivated species are very numerous and much mixed. The commonest are: — Cinnamon Rose, R. cinnambmea. Damask R., R. Damascena. Scotch or Burnet R., 7?. spinosissiiua. Cabbage or Hundred-leaved R., R. centifblia. POPULAK FLORA. 151 Moss R., R. centifolia, var. muscbsa. China R., R. TnJica. White R., 22. alba. Cherokee R. at the South, R. Uevigata. Yellow R., R. lulea. Multiflora R., R. multiflora. Hawthorn. Crataegus. Calyx with a globular or pear-shaped tube coherent with the 2- to 5-celled ovary, making a pome with as many one-seeded stones. Petals 5, roundish. Styles 2 to 5. Thorny small trees or shrubs. Flowers in spring, mostly in corymbs, white, or with a red variety of the cultivated. 1. English Hawthorn (or White Thorn). Leaves obovate, with a wedge-shaped base, lobed and cut; styles 2 or 3; fruit small, coral-red. Cult, for hedges and ornament. C. Oxyacdntha. 2. Washington H. Leaves broadly ovate, truncate or a little heart-shaped at the base, often cleft or cut; styles 5; fruits coral-red, not larger than peas. S. C. cordaia. 3. Scarlet-fruited H. Smooth; leaves round-ovate, thin, toothed or cut, on slender stalks; fruit scarlet, oval, i' in diameter. C. coccinea. 4. Pear H. (or Blackthorn). Downy, at least when young ; leaves thickish, oval, ovate, or wedge-obovate, narrowed into a short or margined footstalk; flowers large; fruit large, crimson, or orange-red, eatable. C. tomentbsa. 6. Cockspur H. Smooth; leaves wedge-obovate or inversely lance-shaped, merely toothed above the middle, thick, shining; fruit dark red; thorns very long. C. Crus-gdlli. 6. Summer H. Rather downy; leaves obovate or wedge-shaped, often cut; flowers few (2 to 6); fruit rather pear-shaped, yellowish or reddish. S. C.flava. Apple. Pyrus, § Malus. 1. Common Apple. Leaves ovate, serrate, downy beneath ; flowers white tinged with pink. Every- where cultivated. P. Malus. 2. Siberian Crab- A. Leaves ovate, serrate, smooth ; calyx smooth. Cult, occasionally. P. baccdta. 3. American Crab-A. Leaves broadly ovate or heart-shaped, cut-toothed or somewhat lobed, smoothish; flowers rose-color, sweet-scented; fruit greenish, fragrant (Fig. 361). Common. W. P. coronaria. Mountain-Ash or Rowan Tree. Pyrus, § Sorbus. Both the wild and the foreign species are planted for the beauty of their bright scarlet fruits, in broad compound cymes, ripe in autumn. Fl. white, summer. 1. American M. Leaflets 13 to 15, lance-shaped, taper-pointed, smooth. Wild, N. P. Americana. 2. European M. Leaflets shorter, broader, paler, and not pointed ; fruit larger. P. aucuparia. Quince. Cydbnia. 1. Common Quince. Flowers single at the tips of the branches, white; lobes of the calyx leaf-like and downy, as well as the ovate entire leaves ; fruit pear-shaped. Cult. C. vulgaris. 2. Japan Quince. Shrub, hardly of the same genus, for the flowers are on side spurs of the thorny branches, earlier than the smooth leaves; calyx top-shaped, with short lobes; petals large and red; fruit like a small apple, very hard. Cultivated for ornament. C Japdnica. 152 POPULAR FLORA. 34. CAROLINA-ALLSPICE FAMILY. Order CALYCANTHACE^E. A small family of a few rather curious shrubs, with opposite leaves ; represented by the Carolina- Allspice. Calycdnthus. Flowers somewhat on the plan of the rose, having a large number of simple pistils contained in a sort of closed calyx-cup, or hollow receptacle, and attached to its inner surface. But the outside is covered with sepals or calyx-lobes, which are colored like the petals (brown-purple); these are many and narrow, in several rows. Stamens many, on the top of the cup; filaments hardly any; anthers long, tipped with a point. Ovaries making large akenes, enclosed in the large and dry hip. Seed-leaves of the embryo rolled up. Shrubs, with rather aromatic bark, &c, and opposite entire leaves, without any stipules. Flowers large, when bruised giving out a fragrance resembling that of strawberries. Wild in the Southern States, especially in and near the mountains; and also cultivated, especially the first species. 362. Flowering branch of Carolina Allspice. 3G3 Half of a calyx-cup of (he same, cut through lengthwise. (Compare it with a Rose, Fig. 360.) 364. A ripe fruit or hip. 362 i64 1. Common C. Leaves oval or roundish, downy beneath. Commonly cult, in gardens. C.floridus. 2. Smooth C. Leaves oblong, smooth, green both sides; flowers smaller. C. kevigatus. 3. Glaucous C. Leaves oblong- or lance-ovate, pointed, glaucous or whitened beneath. C. glaucus. 35. LYTHRUM FAMILY. Order LYTHRACEiE. Herbs with entire and mostly opposite leaves, and no stipules ; the calyx tubular or cup- shaped, bearing from 4 to 7 petals and 4 to 14 stamens on its throat, and enclosing the many-seeded ovary and thin pod. Between the 4 to 7 teeth of the calyx are as many additional projections or supernumerary teeth. Style one. Flowers regular, or nearly so. Calyx cylindrical, several-ribbed or angled: petals 4 to 7, rather unequal: stamens twice as many as the petals: pod 2-celled, (Lythrum) Lythrum.* Calyx short bell-shaped : petals 5 : stamens 10 or 14, long and protruded : pod with 3 to 5 cells : leaves often whorled, ( Nesaea) Nes^ea. Flowers with an irregular tubular calyx, spurred or projecting at the base on the upper side. Very unequal petals, and 12 unequal stamens in two sets. Pod few-seeded, bursting through one side of the calyx, ( Citphea) Cuphea. *• Sometimes called Loosestrife ; but this name properly belongs to plants of another family. POPULAR FLORA. 153 36. EVETTING-PBIMROSE FAMILY. Order ONAGRACE-E. Herbs, or sometimes shrubs, known by having the parts of the blossom in fours, the tube of the ealyx coherent with the 4-celled ovary, and often prolonged beyond, its summit bearing 4 petals, and 4 or 8 stamens. Style 1, slender: stigmas generally 4. In green- house cultivation we have several species of Fuchsia, well known for their pretty hanging flowers, the smaller kinds called Ladies' Eardrop. The showy part is a colored (generally red) calyx, its 4 lobes longer than the purple petals. Fuchsias are shrubs ; the rest of the family are herbs Clarkia, known by the long-clawed petals, and broad petal-like stigmas, is sometimes cultivated, and so are several Evening-Primroses. The commonest wild plants of the family are Evening-Primroses and Willow-herbs. Evening-Primrose. QSnothkra. Calyx with the tube continued on beyond the ovary, bearing 4 narrow lobes turned down, 4 gen- erally obcordate petals, and 8 stamens. — Several species are cultivated more or less commonly in flower-gardens. The following are common wild, and have yellow flowers, in summer. 1. Common E. Tall; leaves lance-shaped ; flowers in a spike, opening at sunset or in cloudy weather, sweet-scented; pod cylindrical ; root biennial. Fields, &c. (E. biennis. 2. Low E. Stems several from a perennial root, 1° to 3° high; flowers large, opening in sunshine; pods rather club-shaped, and 4-winged, stalked. W. & S. (E.fruticosa. 3. Small E. Stems |° to 1° high; flowers small, £' wide, open in sunshine; pods club-shaped, scarcely stalked, strongly 4-angled. Fields, &c. (E.pumila. Willow-herb. Epilbbium. Calyx with its tube not continued beyond the ovary. Petals 4, purple or whitish. Stamens 8. Pod long and slender, many-seeded; the seeds bearing a long tuft of downy hairs. 1. Great W. Stem simple, 4° to 7° high; leaves lance-shaped; flowers showy, pink-purple, in a long loose spike; petals on claws, widely spreading; stamens and style turned down. Rich ground, especially where it has been burned over or newly cleared. E. anguslifblium. 2. Small \V. Branching, 1° to 2° high; leaves lance-oblong, commonly purple- veined; flowers very small; petals purplish. Wet places, everywhere. E. coloratum. 37. CACTUS FAMILY. Order CACTACEiE. Fleshy and generally prickly plants, without any leaves, except little scales or points, of very various and strange shapes, generally the petals and always the stamens very numer- ous, and on the one-celled ovary, which in fruit makes a berry. Being house-plants (with one exception) they must here be passed by, merely mentioning the Prickly-Pear Cactus, which grows in dry sandy or rocky places, southward, and consists of flat and rather leaf-like rounded joints of stem, growing one out of another, prickly at the buds, and bearing yellow flowers of rather few petals; the ovary making a large berry full of sweet and eatable pulp. Opuntia vulgaris. 154 POPULAR FLORA. 38. GOURD FAMILY. Order CUCURBITACEJE. Succulent or tender herbs, with alternate and radiate- veined leaves, and with tendrils. Flowers commonly mo- noecious, in the axils. Fertile flowers with the tube of the calyx coherent with the ovary. Petals often united with each other into a monopetalous corolla, and united with or borne on the cup of the calyx. Stamens generally 3, and more or less connected by their anthers or their filaments, or by both ; the anthers curiously contorted Fruit a pepo (224), berry, or pod. Seeds large and flat ; the whole kernel is an em- bryo. The most important plants of the family are those cultivated. the corolla and upper part of the calvJ =s .iS8. Separate stamen of a Melon a little enlarged, seen edgewise. ulargecl, Petals united into a large, bell-shaped, 5-lobed, yellow corolla. Stamens with three fila- ments united into a tube, except at the bottom: the anthers also firmly grown together; the turns of their long cells parallel, running straight up and down. Style 1: stigmas 3, each 2-lobed. Fruit large, firm-fleshy. Seeds with a blunt edge, (Cucurbiia) *Gourd, i. e. Petals united only at the base or separate. Anthers loosely crooked. f Squash and Pumpkin. Ovary and fruit many-seeded. Anthers and filaments 3, separate or separable. Petals white, with greenish veins. Peduncles very long. Fruit with a hard or woody rind variously shaped, {Lagenaria) *Bottle-Gourd. Petals yellow. Calyx with a bell-shaped cup. Seeds pointed and sharp-edged. Fruit narrow, rough-pimpled when young, , ( Cucumis sativus) *Cucumbek. Fruit thick, smooth, sweet. Fertile flowers perfect, (Cucumis Melo) *Musk melon. Petals buff or cream-color. Calyx with hardly any cup. Leaves much cut. Fruit large and smooth, sweet. Seeds thick-edged, smooth, (Citrullus) * Watermelon. Fruit a rough, reddish berry. Seeds wrinkled, (Momordica) *Balsam-Apple. Ovary and fruit one-seeded or 4-seeded. Small-flowered climbers, wild in this country. Corolla of the sterile flowers 6-parted, white. The long racemes rather pretty in cultivation. Fruit an ova], weak-prickly, bladder-like pod, bursting at the top, and containing 2 fibrous-netted cells, with 2 large seeds in each. Leaves sharply 5-lobed, (FxMnocyslis) Bladder-Cucumber, Corolla of the wheel-shaped sterile flowers 5-lobed, greenish-white. Fruit a small, ovate, 1-seeded, prickly-barbed bur. Leaves 5-angled, (Sicyos) Bur-Cucumber. 39. PASSION-FLOWER FAMILY. Order PASSIFLORACE^E. This small family of tendril-bearing vines, with alternate palmately-lobed leaves, is mainly represented by the POPULAR FLOKA. 155 Passion-Flower. Passiflbra. Sepals 5, united at the base. Petals o, accompanied by a crown or ring formed of a double or triple fringe, inserted on the base of the calyx. Stamens 5, mona- delphous; the filaments making a long sheath to the slender Btalk of the ovary : this is one-celled and becomes an eata- ble berry, with many seeds in 3 or 4 rows on its walls. The species are mostly South American ; and some large-flowered and handsome ones are cultivated in hot-houses. The early missionaries fancied that they found in these flowers emblems of the implements of our Saviour's passion; the fringe repre- senting the crown of thorns; the large anthers fixed by their middle, hammers; and the 5 styles (tapering below and with large-headed stigmas), the nails. We have two wild species, Common S. and W. 371. Passion-Flower No. I, enlarged. 1. SaiALL P. Leaves bluntly 3-lobed, otherwise entire ; flowers greenish-yellow, 1' wide. P. lutea. 2. Maypop P. Leaves 3-cleft, the lobes serrate; flowers 2' broad, white, with a triple flesh-colored and purple crown; fruit like a hen's egg in shape and size. P. incarnata. 40. CURRANT FAMILY. Order GROSSULACEJS. Consists of the Currants and Gooseberries, which belong to the same botan- ical genus. Shrubs, with alternate rounded and ra- diate-veined leaves ; the tube of the calyx coherent with the one-celled ovary, and continued above it into a cup which is often colored, like a corolla, and bears the 5 little petals and 5 stamens. Seeds many, with a pulpy outer coat, borne upon the walls of the berry on two thickened lines (parietal placentas). ig-the5 li ded lenglhwi; tie petals and stamens. Gooseberry. Piles, § Grossularia. Stems generally armed with thorns under the clusters of leaves, and sometimes with scattered, prickles. Peduncles bearing single or few flowers. 11 156 POPULAR FLORA. 1. Garden Gooseberry. Thorns large; flower-stalks short; berry bristly or smooth. R. Uva-crispa. 2. Prickly Wild G. Thorns slender or none; flowers greenish, long-stalked; stamens and style not projecting; berry prickly ; leaves downy. Woods, N. R. Cynosbati, 3. Small Wild G. Thorns very short or none; flowers purplish or greenish, very short-stalked; sta- mens and 2-cleft style a little projecting; berry small, smooth. Low grounds, N. R. hirtellum. 4. Smooth Wild G. Thorns stout or none; flowers greenish, on slender stalks ; stamens and the two styles very long and projecting (i 1 long); berry smooth. Woods, common W. R. rolundifblium. Currant. Ribes. Stems neither thomy nor prickly. Flowers in racemes, appearing in early spring. Berries small. 1. Red Currant. Leaves rounded heart-shaped and somewhat lobed; racemes from lateral separate buds, hanging; flowers flat, greenish or purplish; berry smooth, red, and a white variety. Gar- dens, &c. Wild on Mountains, N. R. riibrum. 2. Fetid C. Stems reclined; leaves deeply heart-shaped, 5-lobed; racemes erect; flowers greenish, flattish; pale red berry and its stalk bristly, strong-smelling. Cold woods, N. R. prostratum. 3. Wild Black C. Leaves on long foot-stalks, slightly heart-shaped, sharply lobed, sprinkled with dots both sides; racemes rather drooping; flowers oblong, yellowish-white; berries oblong, black, rather spicy. Wooded banks. R. jloridum. 4. Garden Black C. Leaves on shorter footstalks, less dotted; racemes looser, and black berries larger than in No. 3. Gardens. R. nigrum. 5. Missouri or Buffalo C. Leaves smooth; racemes with leafy bracts; flowers (calyx) long and tubular, bright yellow, spicy-fragrant. Cultivated for ornament. R. aiireum. 41. STONECROP FAMILY. Order CEASSULACE^E. Herbs with thick and fleshy leaves (except in one pe- culiar plant of the family, viz. the Ditchwort) ; the flowers remarkable for being perfectly regular and symmetrical throughout, i. e. having the sepals, petals, and pistils all of the same number and all separate, or nearly so (except in Ditchwort) ; the. stamens also of the same number, or just twice as many. Pods containing few or many seeds. Mostly small plants : several are found in gardens. 378. Flower of Stonecrop. Flowers with petals, and their pistils entirely separate from each other. Sepals, narrow petals, and pistils 4 or 5. Stamens 8 or 10, (Sedum) Stonecrop. Sepais, petals, and pistils 6 to 20. Stamens 12 to 40, (Sempervwum) Houseleek. Flowers with 5 sepals, no petals, and 5 pistils grown together below. Leaves thin, lance- shaped, (Penthorum) Ditchwort. Stonecrop or Orpine. Sedum. 1. Mossy Stonecrop. Small and creeping, moss-like; the stems thickly covered with little ovate thick and closely sessile leaves ; flowers yellow. Cultivated for garden edging, &c. S. acre. POPULAR FLORA. 157 2. Three-leaved S. Stems spreading, 3' to 8' high ; leaves wedge-obovate or oblong, the lower ones in whorls of 3; the earliest flower with the parts in fives, the rest generally in fours; petals white. Rocky woods, S. and W. and in gardens. S. iernatum. 8. Handsome S. Stems 4' to 12' high; leaves thread-shaped; flowers crowded; petals rose-purple Rocky places, S. W. and cultivated. S. pulchellum 4. Great S. or Live-fok-ever. Stems 2° high; leaves oval; flowers in a close compound cyme, purple. Gardens. S. Telephium. 42. SAXIFRAGE FAMILY. Order SAXIFRAGACEiE. Herbs, or in the case of Hydrangea, &c. shrubs, differing from the last in having the pistils fewer than the petals, and generally more or less united with each other and with the tube of the calyx. Petals 5 (rarely 4), on the calyx. Stamens 5 or 10, or in Mock- Orange many. Herbs. Leaves generally alternate. Petals 5. Styles only 2. Stamens 10, short. Petals entire. Calyx deeply 5-cleft. Pod 2-beaked or pods 2, many-seeded, (Saxifraga) Saxifrage. Stamens 5. Petals small, entire (greenish or purplish), between the short lobes of the bell-shaped calyx. Pod 1-celled, 2-beaked, many-seeded. Flowers in a long panicle, (Heuchera) Alum-root. Stamens 10, short. Petals pinnatifid, whitish, slender. Styles and pod short, one- celled, the latter few-seeded at the bottom, opening across the top. Stem 2-leaved below the slender raceme, (Mitella) Mitrewort. Stamens 10, and the 2 styles much longer than the slender-clawed petals. Pod slen- der, few-seeded at the bottom. Flowers white in a short raceme on a naked scape, ( Tiarella) False-Mitrewort. Shrubs. Leaves opposite. Tube of the calyx coherent with the ovary. Seeds many. Flowers small, in compound cymes; some of the marginal ones generally large and neutral (Fig. 169), or in cultivation nearly all the flowers becoming so. Petals 4 or 5. Stamens 8 or 10. Styles 2, diverging, and between them the little pod opens, {Hydrangea) Hydrangea. Flowers large, somewhat panicled. Petals 4 or 5, white, showy. Stamens 20 or more. Styles 3 to 5, united below: pod with as many cells, very many- seeded, (Philadelphus) Mock-Orange. Saxifrage. Saxifraga. 1. Early Saxifrage. Leaves all clustered at the root, obovate, toothed; scape 4' to 9' high, many- flowered ; flowers white, in early spring. Damp rocks. S. Virginiensis. 2. Swamp S. Leaves all at the root, lance-oblong, 8' to 8' long; scape 1° or 2° high, clammy, bearing many small clustered greenish flowers. Bogs and wet ground, N. S. Pennsylvdnica. Hydrangea. Hydrangea. 1. Garden Hydrangea. Leaves very smooth; flowers mostly large neutral ones, blue, purple, or pink. A well-known garden and house plant. //. Hortensia. V. Wild H. Leaves thin, nearly smooth, sometimes heart-shaped; flowers mostly perfect, white. H. arborescent. 158 POPULAR FLORA. Mock-Orange (or Syringa). Philadilplms. 1. Common M. or Syeinga. Flowers cream-colored, fragrant, in large panicles; styles separate. Cultivated. P. coronarius. 2. Scentless M. Flowers larger and later than in the first, few on the spreading branchlets, pure white. Cultivated; also wild S. Leaves tasting like cucumbers. P.inodbrui. 43. PAHSLET FAMILY. Order UMBELLIFERiE. Herbs with small flowers in compound umbels, the 5 petals and 5 stamens on the top of the ovary, with which the calyx is so incorporated that it is not apparent, except some- times by 5 minute teeth. Styles 2. Fruit dry, 2-seeded, splitting when ripe into two akenes. Stems hollow. Leaves generally compound, decompound, or much cut. Some species are aromatic, having a volatile oil in the seeds : most, but not all, of these are harmless. Others contain a deadly poison in the roots and leaves. The deadly poisonous sorts are marked f : the most deadly is the Water-Hemlock, also called Musquash-root, and Beaver-Poison. — The kinds in this large family are known by their fruit, and are too difficult for the beginner. The principal common kinds are merely enumerated in the fol- lowing key. (Fig. 148 shows the compound umbel in Caraway, a good and familiar example of the family.) 379. Pauof Stem, leaf, umbel, &c of Poison-Hemlock. 330 A separate umbellet. half of it cut oft". 384. Fruit of Sweet Cicely ; the two long akenes separating. agnified. 382 A fruit 383. Lower POPULAR FLORA. 159 Seeds flat on the inner face, where the two akenes or parts of the fruit join. Fruit covered all over with hooked prickles, (Sanicula) Sanicle. Fruit prickly on the ribs only. Umbel becoming concave, (Daucus) * Carrot. Fruit not prickly, but winged on the margin. Flowers yellow, all alike, (Pastinaca) *Parsnip. Flowers white, the outer corollas larger, (Heracleum) Cow-Parsnip. Flowers white or whitish, all alike. Akenes 5-ribbed on the back. Leaves simply pinnate, (Archemora) CowBANE.f Akenes 3-ribbed on the back. Leaves decompound, (Angelica) * Angelica. Fruit not prickly, winged on all sides, (Levislkum) *Lovage. Fruit neither prickly nor winged. Flowers yellow. Plant sweet-aromatic; leaflets long and slender, (Faeniculum) *Fennel. Flowers white. Umbels with neither involucre nor involucels. Divisions of the leaves very slender, iCarum) *Caraway. Divisions or leaflets wedge-shaped, (Apium) *Celery. Umbels with 3 leaved involucels, but no involucre, (^Elhitsa) Fool's-Parsley. Umbels with both involucres and involucels. Leaves decompound, finely divided, (Petrosehnum) *Parsley. Leaves 2 or 3 times compound; leaflets coarse, ( Cicuta) Water-Hem lock, t Leaves simply pinnate, (Slum) Water-Parsnip.! Seed grooved or hollowed down the whole length of the inner face. (Flowers white.) Herbage rather unpleasant-scented: leaves decompound, finely cut, ( Coriium) Poison-Hemlock.! Herbage, fruit, &c. sweet-scented. Fruit narrow-oblong, ribbed, ( Chcerophjllum) Chervil. Fruit long, tapering downwards, ( Osmorrhtza) Sweet-Cicely. Seed and fruit curved in at the top and bottom, or kidney-shaped, strong-scented. Flowers white, (Coridndrum) *Coriander. 44. ARALIA FAMILY. Order AftALIACEiE. Much like the last, but often shrubs or trees ; the styles almost always more than two, and the fruit becoming berry-like. Also the umbels are not regularly compound, but either simple or panicled. Flowers often polygamous. Here belongs the true or English Ivy, with evergreen simple leaves, which thrives in some places in northern exposures ; also the following wild plants. A raii a. Ardlia. Petals, stamens, and styles 5. Flowers white or greenish in summer. Berries black. Herbage, roots, &c. aromatic. Leaves compound or decompound, large. 1. Prickly A. or Angelica-tree. Shrub or low tree with a stout simple stem, very prickly; leaves very large; leaflets ovate; umbels many in a large panicle. S. and cult. A. spinbsa. 2. PjKistly A. Stem 1° high, bristly below, woody at the base; leaves twice pinnate; umbels few, corymbed. Ptocky woods. N. A. hispida. 3. Spikenard A. A stout spreading herb; with thick sweet-spicy roots; leaves very large and de- compound; leaflets somewhat heart-shaped; umbels many, panicled. Rich woods. A. racembsa. 160 POPULAR FLORA. 4. Saesapakilla A. Roots very long and slender, horizontal (used as a substitute for sarsaparilla); the compound long-stalked leaf, and the naked flower-stalk bearing few umbels, rising separately from the ground. Moist woods. A. ivudicaiilis. Ginseng. Aralia, § Ginseng. Styles 2 or 3. Flowers white. Berries red or reddish when ripe. Low herbs with simple stems, bearing at the top a whorl of leaves and one long-stalked umbel. 1. True Ginseng. Root long and large, warm-aromatic ; leaflets 5. Rich woods, N. A. quinquefblia. 2. Dwarf G. (or Groundnut). Root round, sharp-tasted ; leaflets 3 or 5; stem 4' to 6' high. Damp woods, N. Fl. spring. • A. trifdlia. 45. CORNEL FAMILY. Order COHNACE^. Shrubs or trees (except our Dwarf' Cornel), the calyx coherent with the ovary, which makes a berry-like stone-fruit; represented (except by the Tupelo or Pepperidge-tkee, Kyssa, here omitted) only by the genus 1. Cornel (or Dogwood). Cornus. Petals 4 and stamens 4, on the ovary. Teeth of the calyx 4, very small. Style 1. Ovary 2-celled, in fruit berry-like with a 2-seeded stone. Leaves entire, opposite, except in No. 7. Flowers in spring or early summer. * Flowers greenish, in a head, which is surrounded by a 4-leaved involucre resembling a large white corolla ; fruit bright red. 1. Dwarf Cornel (or Bunchberry). Herb low, with 4 or 6 leaves near the top. Damp woods. C. Canadensis. 2. Flowering C. or Dogwood. Tree; leaves of the co- rolla-like involucre obcordate. C. florida. * * Flowers white, in flat and open cymes: shrubs 3. Round-leaved C. Branches greenish, warty-dotted ; leaves round-oval, woolly beneath ; fruit pale blue. Woods. C. circinata. 4. Silky C. Branches purple ; young stalks and lower side of the ovate or oblong leaves silky woolly; fruit pale blue. Swamps. C. sericea. 5. Red-Osier C. Branches red-purple; leaves ovate, smooth, white and roughish beneath; fruit white. Wet banks of streams. C. slolonifera 6. Panicled C. Branches gray; leaves lance-ovate; cymes convex; fruit white. C. imniculata. 7. Alternate-leaved C. Branches greenish streaked with white; leaves crowded at the ends ol the shoots, but alternate; leaves pointed; fruit bright blue. Hill-sides. C. allernifblia. 385. Dwarf Cornel. 386. A separate flower enlarged. 387. A fruit cut across. POPULAR FLORA. 161 II. Monopetalous Division. 46. HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY. Order CAPRIFOLIACE^E. Shrubs or woody twiners (or one or two are herbs), distinguished by having a mono- petalous corolla bearing the 4 or 5 stamens, and borne on the ovary, and the leaves opposite without stipules. 338. Flower of Trumpet-Honeysuckle 390 389 339 Small-flowered Hon Hied. 362. Flo ..... e. 390. A separate flower. 391. An ovary divided ,, &c. of Fly-Honeysuckle, No. 11. Herb creeping: the naked flower-stalk forking and bearing two sweet-scented, drooping, pretty flowers, with a 5-lobed and purple-tinged corolla hairy inside, but the stamens only 4, (Linniea) Twisfloweu. Shrubs or woody vines. Stamens as many as the lobes of the corolla, 4 or 5. Style one, slender: stigma one. Corolla elongated, mostly irregular. Berry several-seeded, (Lonicera) HONEYSUCKLE. Corolla elongated, nearly regular. Pod many-seeded, (Diervilla) Bush-Honeysuckle. Corolla short bell-shaped, regular. Berry 2-seeded, ( Symphoricdrpus) Snowbekky. Style hardly any: stigmas generally 3: corolla very short and open, 5-cleft, regular. Flowers small, white, very many, in compound cymes. Leaves pinnate. Berry 3-seeded, (Sambucvs) Elder. Leaves simple. Fruit berry-like with one flat stone, ( Viburnum) Yibuknum. 162 POPULAR FLORA. Honeysuckle. Lonicera. Teeth of the calyx very short. Corolla tubular below, irregular and 2-lipped, four lobes belonging to one lip and one to the other, except in No. 1. § 1. Twining woody plants : flowers long, crowded in little heads at the end of the branches, or in see* sile whorls in the axils of the uppermost leaves. * Corolla long and narrow, appearing regular, the 5 sjiort lobes nearly equal. 1. Trumpet H. Uppermost pair of leaves united into one rounded body ; corolla red, yellowish inside (also a yellow variety), scentless. Wild S. and cultivated. L. sempervirens. * * Corolla 2-lipped: uppermost leaves on the flowering branches united round the stem into one flat or cup-shaped body, except in No. 2. 2. Common H. or Woodbine. Leaves all separate; flowers purple-red outside, large, sweet-scented; berries red. Cultivated; as also the next. L. Ptrichjmenum. 3. Italian H. Leaves glaucous ; flowers blush-colored, sweet-scented; berries yellow. L. Caprifblium. 4. Wild S\veet-H. Flowers smaller; otherwise nearly as in No. 3. S. and cultivated. L. grata. 5. Wild Yellow-H. Leaves thick, very glaucous both sides; several pairs united, flowers pale yel- low; the tube rather long. W. and S. L. flava. 6. Small-fl. H. Leaves glaucous; flowers small, yellowish and purplish or crimson. L. parviflbra. 7. Hairy H. Leaves, &c. hairy, dull green, not glaucous ; flowers clammy, orange. N. L. hirskta. ranches long and spreading, often taking root; leaves large, round-ovate or heart-shaped, many-veined, scurfy beneath; cyme sessile, very broad; fruit red, turning blackish. Damp woods, N. V. kmtanuides. 47. MADDER FAMILY. Order POTBiACEiE. Well distinguished by its regular monopetalous corolla, bearing 4 or 5 stamens alternate with its lobes, and itself borne on the ovary (the calyx being coherent) ; and the leaves in whorls, or else opposite and with stipules between them. S93. Piece of Madder, S47. Common Lluels. 3S8. Sec open, and the style. ignified. 395. Young fruits. 398. Ripef.oit. ^, magnified, and the corolla laid open. isS9. Corolla of another do 164 POPULAR FLORA. 1. Leaves in whorls. Ovary 2-celled, separating in the ripe fruit into two closed and one-seeded pieces: teeth or limb of the calyx small or hardly to be discerned. Stamens 5 and the corolla 5-parted. Fruit berry-like when ripe, (Riibia) *Maddeb. Stamens and divisions of the wheel-shaped corolla 4, rarely 3. Fruit a pair of dry or fleshy akenes, smooth in some species, in others rough, in others beset with hooked prickles, making little burs, {Galium) Bedsteaw. 2. Leaves opposite, and with stipules, either as little scales or forming a small sheath. Shrub: flowers (white) many in a close round head (Fig. 145), ( Ctphaldnthus) Buttonbush. Small herbs. (Corolla 4-lobed.) Flowers twin, on one ovary, which makes a double-eyed red berry. Small creeping evergreen, with round leaves. Corolla bearded inside. (Mitchella) Paktkidge-berry. Flowers separate, peduncled. Fruit a dry pod. Stems erect. ( Oldenldndla. § Huustbnia) Bluets. 48. VALERIAN FAMILY. Order VALERIANACE^E. Herbs, with strong-scented roots, opposite leaves, and no stipules, a 5-lobed monopetalous corolla bearing only 2 or 3 stamens, and borne on the ovary, which makes a small one- seeded dry fruit. Flowers small, in cymes or clusters, white or purplish. Limb of the calyx crowning the fruit in the form of feathery bristles, ( Valeriana) *Valerian. Limb of the calyx only one or more blunt teeth, (Fedia) Lamb-Lettuce. 49. TEASEL FAMILY. Order DIPSACEvE. Herbs, with opposite leaves, no stipules, and perfect flowers in dense heads, surrounded by an involucre, and with a chaffy bract under each blossom. Corolla tubular or funnel- form, with 4 or 5 lobes, bearing 4 stamens, and itself borne on the ovary, which becomes an akene in fruit, containing one hanging seed. Flowers in a rough-chaffy head : calyx cup-shaped, short: lobes of the corolla 4. Stem and leaves rough or prickly, (Dws'tcus) Teasel. Flowers larger than the chaff: calyx with long-awned or bristle-shaped lobes: lobes of the corolla 4 or 5, unequal, (Scabiosa) *Scabious. 50. COMPOSITE or SUNFLOWER FAMILY. Order COMPOSITE. Known by having what were called compound flowers, which are really a number of flowers closely crowded into a head, and this surrounded by an in- volucre which was taken for a calyx. The Scabious has its flowers in such heads. But the distinguishing mark of the present family is that its five stamens are united by their anthers, or syngenc- sious. Fisj. 400 shows the stamens, their anthers connected into a tube, through which the style passes. Fig. 401 shows this tube split down on one side and spread open flat. "What gives the whole head so much the appearance of one large blossom is, that, POPULAR FLORA. 165 in most cases, these flowers have a strap-shaped corolla. This will be understood by sup- posing a long tubular corolla to be split down on one side and spread out flat. In the Cichory (Fig. 402), Dandelion, and the like, all the flowers are strap-shaped. But in Sun- flower, Coreopsis (Fig. 404), Aster, and many others, only the flowers round the margin are strap-shaped ; these are called rays or ray-flowers, and at first view much resemble the petals of a many-petalled blossom, — all the more so, be- cause in Coreopsis and Sun- flower these ray-flowers are neutral, having neither sta- mens nor pistils. But in As- ters and Daisies, they are pis- tillate, having a pistil only. The blossoms, which in these cases fill the body of the. head, and are so small that the su- perficial observer is apt to take them for stamens or pis- tils, are regular and perfect, with a tubular and 5-lobed corolla (Fig. 405 a). They are called disk-flowers. In Thistles, Thoroughwort, Wormwood, and some kinds of Ground- sel, all the flowers are of this sort, i. e. there are no rays, but all the flowers tubular. In all, the ovary is one-celled and one seeded, and makes an akene in fruit. The corolla being on the ovary, the latter is of course covered by the tube of the calyx adherent to it. Sometimes there is no limb or border to the calyx ; then the akene is naked, as in that of Mayweed (Fig. 406). When the limb of the calyx is present in any form on the ovary or akene, it is named the pappus (which means seed- down). In Cichory the pappus or calyx is a ring or cup crowning the akene (Fig. 407) ; in Sunflower it consists of two chaffy scales, which fall off early (Fig. 408) ; in Helenium of Cichory, all wilk strap-shaped corolla 403. Head of Cichory-flo 1G8 POPULAR KLORA. there are five chaffy and pointed scales (Fig. 409). But more commonly the pappus con- sists of bristles, or downy hairs (as its name denotes). Asters, Groundsels, and especially rv Thistles, afford most familiar examples of such a hairy or downy pappus ; those of Thistles, &c. in autumn sailing about in every breeze. Fig. 411 shows the very soft downy pappus of Sow- Thistle. Fig. 410, that of the Dandelion; this is raised upon a long beak to the akene, which lengthens greatly after flowering. This family contains about an eighth or tenth part of all Flowering plants. But it is too diffi- 404. Hair of a heaJ of flowers of coreopsis. cult for the beginner. So we here barely men- tion a few of the common plants which belong to it. 405, Slice of the same, enlarged, with one ray-flower, and part of another, and one perfect disk-flower (a), with its bract or chaff (6). 1. Among those which have no rays, or strap-shaped corollas, are Thistles, Burdock^ Everlasting and Cudweed, Wormwood, Thorough wort or Eupatorium, Button-Snakeroot, and Ironweed. 2. With rays or strap-shaped corollas at the margin (either neutral or pistillate), and tubular flowers in the centre ; Coltsfoot, Aster, Fleabane, Daisy, Golden-rod, Sunflower, Coreopsis, Mayweed, Chamomile, §". 13 188 POPULAR FLORA. the other out) ; the 5 stamens on the corolla alternate with its lobes; the anthers generally more or less adherent to the stigma. Ovaries 2 ; but the stigmas, and often the styles also, united into one ; the fruit two separate pods. Seeds generally many, and with a tuft of down at one end. Corolla with a funnel-shaped tube and a wheel-shaped 5-parted border: style one. Leaves generally in whorls. Shrub, with large rose-colored flowers, {Nirium) *Oleandek. Leaves opposite, evergreen in the common creeping species. Fl. blue, ( Vinca) *Peuiwinkle. Leaves alternate, very many, narrow. Erect herbs with pale-blue salver-shaped flow. ers : seeds not tufted, (Amsonia) Amsonia. Corolla bell-shaped, white or pinkish: style none. Herbs, with opposite leaves. (Apocynum) Dogbane. Dogbane. Apocynum. 1. Spreading D. Branches of the low erect stem widely diverging; leaves ovate or oval ; cymes few- flowered ; lobes of corol- la recurved ; tube shorter |lji|j|} than the calyx. Thickets, &c. A. androscemifblium. 2. Hemp D. or Indian Hemp. Stem and branches erect or ascending; cymes few- flowered ; lobes of the co- rolla not recurved, the tube not longer than the calyx. A. canndbinum. N 468. Summit of a plant of Dogbane, h flowers and pods 467. Flo».-_, 4S8. Flower with the corolla cut away, 10 show the stamens. 469. The stamens taken away, to show the pistils ; two ovaries, with their two targe stigmas united into one mass. 470. A seed, with us tuft of long hairs or down at one end. 71. MILKWEED FAMILY. Order ASCLEPIADACE^E. Plants with milky juice, tough bark, and in other respects like the Dogbane family, but with the 5 short stamens all united by their filaments into a ring or tube, the anthers grown fast to the large stigma, and the grains of pollen in each cell cohering into a waxy or tough mass. Flowers in simple umbels. Pods a pair of many-seeded follicles : seeds furnished with a long tuft of silky down at one end (Fig. 229). The flowers in this family are curious, but are too difficult for the beginner. The two common genera may be distin- guished as follows : — Corolla 5-parted, reflexed: five hoods to the stamens, with a horn in each, (Asclcpias) Milkweed. Corolla, &c. as in Milkweed, but the hoods without any horn, (Acerdtes) Green-Milkweed. POPULAR FLORA. 189 72. JESSAMINE FAMILY. Order JASMINACE^. Shrubby, mostly climbing plants, with opposite and mostly compound (pinnate) leaves, and perfect flowers with a salver-shaped corolla of 5 or more lobes overlapping in the bud but only 2 stamens. Ovary 2-celled, with 2 or 3 ovules erect from the base of each cell. No wild species ; but in gardens and houses we have the common (Jdsminum) *Jessamine. 73. OLIVE FAMILY. Order OLEACE^E. Shrubs or trees, with opposite leaves ; the corolla, when there is any, 4-lobed, and the lobes valvule (edge to edge) in the bud, but the stamens only 2 and short: sometimes there are 4 distinct petals ; and all our species of Ash are without petals. Ovary 2-celled, with 2 ovules hanging from the top of each cell : the fruit often one-celled and one-seeded ; either a stone-fruit, as in the Olive and Fringe-tree ; a berry, as in Privet ; a pod, as in Lilac ; or a key, as in the Ash. Corolla salver-shaped or funnel-shaped, with a 4-lobed border: flowers perfect, in thick panicles. Leaves simple, entire. Corolla salver-shaped with a long tube: fruit a flat 4-seeded pod, (Syringa) *Lilac. Corolla short, funnel-shaped ; fruit a 1- or 2-seeded berry. Low shrub, (Ligustrum) *Privet. Corolla of 4 very long and narrow petals, barely united at the bottom. Drupe one-seeded. Low tree or shrub, with simple leaves, and slender drooping panicles of delicate snow-white blossoms, ( Chiondnthus) Fringe-tree. Corolla none: even the calyx small or sometimes none: stamens 2, rarely 3 or 4, on the receptacle: fruit a key, winged at the top or all round, one-seeded. Trees, with opposite pinnate leaves, (Frdxinus) Ash. Lilac. Syringa, 1. Common Lilac. Leaves more or less heart-shaped; flowers lilac or white, in spring. Cultivated) one of the commonest ornamental shrubs. S. vulgaris. 2. Persian Lilac. Leaves oblong or lance-shaped; clusters more slender. Cultivated. S. Persica. Ash. Fraximis. The flowers in all our species appear in early spring, in clusters, and are dioecious, or nearly so. * Key winged from the top only: leaflets stalked. 1. White Ash. Shoots and stalks smooth; leaflets 7 to 0, pale (smooth or downy) beneath; body of the key marginless and blunt. F. Americana. 2. Red Ash. Shoots and stalks velvety; leaflets 7 to 9, downy beneath ; body of the key 2-edged, acute at the base, the wing long and narrow. F. pubescens. 3. Green Ash. Smooth throughout; leaflets 5 to 9, green both sides; key as in No. 2. F. viridis. * * Key winged all round, oblong. 4. Black Ash. Leaflets 7 to 11, sessile; oblong-lanceolate, tapering to a point, green both sides; no calyx to the fertile flowers. Swamps; common N. F. sambucifblia. h. Blue Ash. Branchlets square ; leaflets 7 to 9, short-stalked, lance-ovate. W. F. quadrangulata. 190 POPULAR FLORA, III. Apetaloii9 Division. 74. BIETHWORT FAMILY. Order AKISTOLOCHIACEiE. Herbs or twining vines, with perfect and large flowers, the tube of the 3-lobed calyx coherent with the 6-celled and many-seeded ovary. Leaves mostly heart- shaped or kidney-shaped, and entire, on long foot- stalks, alternate, or else from the rootstock at the surface of the ground. Lobes of the calyx edge to edge in the bud, usu- ally dull-colored. 471. Plant of Canada Asarom or Wild-Ginger, in flower. 472 Magni- fied flower divided lengthwise, and the calyx apread out flat. 473. Flower, with the lobes of the calyx cutaway, and the ovary cut across. 474 A sep- arate stamen, more magnified ; outside Tiew. 475. Magnified seed divided lengthwise. Stemless herbs, with a pair of leaves and a flower between them from the spicy-tasted and creeping rootstock: calyx short, 3-cleft or 3-lobed; stamens 12, with filaments, which are united only with the base of the thick 6-lobed style, and are pointed above the anthers, (Asarum) Wild-Gixgek. Twining shrubs or else low herbs: calys a crooked tube, with a narrow throat and a slightly 3-lobed spreading border: stamens 6, sessile on the outside of the 3 lobes of the sessile stigma, i. e. two anthers or 4 cells to each lobe, attached to the stigma by their whole length : fruit a 6-valved pod, filled with numerous flat seeds, (Ariatolbchia) Birthwokt. Birthwort. Aristolbcliia. 1. Snakeroot B. or VIRGINIA Snakeroot. Herb 8' to 15' high; several steins from a tufted root, downy; flowers borne next the ground, in general shape much like the letter S; leaves oblong- heart-shaped or halberd-shaped. Rich woods; becoming scarce. A. serpen/aria. 2. Pipe-vine B. A tall woody climber, with rounded kidney-shaped leaves, 8' or 12' broad when full grown; flower 1*' long, curved like a Dutch pipe; greenish cutside, and with the short 3-lobed border brown-purple within. Alleghany Mountains, or near them; and cultivated for arbors. A- Sipho. POPULAR FLORA. 191 75. MIRABILIS FAMILY. Order NYCTAGINACEiE. Has some wild representatives far west and south, viz. : Oxybaphus, &c, with several flowers in a calyx-like involucre, the funnel-shaped calyx rose-purple, and exactly like a corolla. And in gardens Mirabilis or Fouk-o'Clock (so called from the flowers opening late in the afternoon) is common. Here there is only one flower in the bell-shaped invo- lucre, which exactly imitates a calyx, while the large funnel-shaped calyx is just like the corolla of a Morning-Glory. Stamens 5 : style one. Leaves opposite, heart-shaped, long- stalked. The Common Four-o'Clock or Mirabilis, from Mexico, well known in gardens, is 31. Jaldpa. 76. POKEWEED FAMILY. Order PHYTOLACCACE^E. Is represented with us by one, and that a very common, species of Pokeweed. Phytolacca. Sepals 5, rounded, concave, petal-like, white. Stamens 10, under the ovary. Ovary green, composed of 10 one- seeded ovaries united into one: styles 10, short and separate. Fruit a dark crimson 10-seeded berry. A coarse rank herb, with a thick, acrid, and poisonous root, a large pithy stem, and alternate oblong leaves ; the flowers in racemes opposite the leaves. Low and rich ground, everywhere common; flowering all summer, ripening its abundant berries in autumn. P. decdndra. 476. Summit of a ttov weed. 477. Fruit-bearing branch. 478. A flower, enlarged. 479. Young frail. 480. Same, cut across. 481. Seed divided lengthwise, 482. Embryo, more magnified. branch of Poke 77. GOOSEFOOT FAMILY. Order CHENOPODIACEvE. Homely herbs, with mostly alternate leaves, without stipules, and no dry scaly bracts among the small and greenish flowers ; the calyx enclosing the one-celled and one-seeded 192 POPULAR FLORA. ovary, but not adhering to it, and bearing from one to 6ve stamens. Styles 2 to 5, nhort. Weeds (several called Pigweeds), abounding in cultivated or waste grounds, and some are pot-herbs. The small flowers and fruits make them too difficult for the beginner. The following key will lead the student to the name of the principal common kinds. Leafless fleshy herbs, in salt marshes, with perfect flowers in fleshy spikes, [Salkornia) Samphikk. Leafy herbs, with broad or broadish, generally tender leaves, not prickly: calyx wingless. Flowers perfect. In clusters or spiked heads: calyx becoming berry -like, altogether making a strawberry -like red pulpy fruit, (Blitvm) Blite. In small sessile clusters collected in spikes or panicles : calyx dry and herba- ceous. Akene thick and hard, below adherent to the calyx. Leaves smooth, (Beta) *Bekt. Akene very thin and breaking away from the seed. Leaves often mealy. Pigweeds, ( Chenopbdium) Goosefoot. Flowers monoecious : the fertile ones single in the axils of the leaves. Sea-coast, and one rarely cultivated as a pot-herb, (A triplex) Or ACHE. Flowers dicecious, in spiked clusters : calyx over the fruit, with 2 to 4 horns or pro- jections : leaves arrow-shaped, (Spinacia) *SriNACH. Leafy and much-branched plants on the sea-shore; the leaves awl-shaped and prickly- tipped: flowers perfect: calyx winged in fruit, (Salsbla) Saltwort. 78. AMARANTH FAMILY. Order AMARANTACEiE. Herbs, much like the last family in almost every character, except that the flowers arc furnished with 3 or more dry and scale-like thin bracts : these are sometimes brightly colored, so as to make showy clusters or bunches, and, Deing dry, they do not wither after blossoming. The little one-seeded pod in many cases is a pyxis (242), that is, it opens round the middle, the upper part falling off, as a lid. The common species belong mainly to two genera : — Flowers in spiked or panicled clusters, terminal or axillary : stamens 5 or 3, separate: little pod opening by a lid. To this belongs one kind of Pigweed, and the Prince's Feather, Love-lies-bleeding, Coxcomb, &c., in gardens and enriched soil, (Amardntus) Amaranth. Flowers in a head: stamens 5, monadelphous, and the filaments 3-cleft, the middle lobe bearing the anther, (Gomphrcna) * Globe- Amaranth. 79. BUCKWHEAT FAMILY. Order POLYGONACE^. Herbs with alternate entire leaves, and mostly perfect flowers ; with a calyx of 4 to 6 sepals (separate or united at the base), and 3 to 9 stamens inserted on its base : ovary one- celled making a one-seeded akene; its styles or stigmas 2 or 3. Besides, this family may always be known by the stipules which form a sheath above each joint (as in Fig. 137). The watery juice is often sour, as in Rhubarb and Sorrel, sometimes sharp and biting. 483. Potl of Am lruh opening tij, POPULAR FLORA. 193 Calyx of 5 (rarely 4) nearly similar sepals, all more or less petal-like. Stamens 4 to 9: akene generally small : cotyledons narrow, {Polygonum) Knotweed* Stamens 8: styles 3: akene triangular, shaped like a beechnut, much longer than the calyx: cotyledons very broad and folded in the mealy albumen: root annual: leaves nearly halberd-shaped: flowers white, corymbed, {Fagopgrum) *Bucicwheat. Calyx of 6 sepals, and All alike and petal-like (white): stamens 9: styles 3, {Rheum) *Rhubark. Three outer ones herbaceous and spreading: three inner larger, especially after flow- ering, when they close over the triangular akene: flowers dioecious: leaves sour, eared or halberd-shaped, {Rumex, § Acetosella) Sorrel. Flowers perfect or polygamous: leaves bitter: coarse herbs, {Rumex) Dock. Knotweed. Polygonum. * Flowers single or several together in the axils of the leaves, greenish or whitish : sheaths (stipules) cut-fringed or torn into narrow shreds. 1. Common Knotweed, Knotgrass, or Goosegrass. Spreading on the ground, small,; leaves sessile, lance-shaped or oblong, pale; a variety has nearly upright stems and oblong or oval leaves. The commonest weed in yards and waste places. P. aviculare. 2. Slender K. Upright, somewhat branched; leaves linear, acute, sheaths fringed. Dry soil. P.tenue. * * Flowers in terminal heads, spikes, or racemes. *- Not twining nor climbing, and leaves not heart-shaped nor arrow-shaped: calyx petal-like and 5-parted, except in No. 10. 3. Oriental K. or Prince's Feather. Tall annual, 4° to 7° high; leaves ovate; spikes of rose- colored flowers long and nodding; stamens 7; akene flatfish. Gardens. P. orientale. 4. Water K. Stems floating in water, or rooting in mud, or upright; leaves lance-shaped or oblong; spike thick and short ; flowers rose-red ; stamens 5 ; styles 2. P. amphibium. 5. Pennsylvania K. Stem upright, 1° to 3° high; leaves lance-shaped; spike oblong, thick, erect, its peduncle beset with club-sliaped bristles or glands; flowers rose-colured ; stamens 8; akene flat. Moist ground. P. Pennsylvdnicum. 6. Lady's-Thumij K. Stems, &c. like the last and next, but no bristles on the peduncle; leaves with a darker spot on the upper side; spike short and thick, erect; flowers greenish-purple; stamens 6. Very common in waste places. P. Persicaria. 7. Smaktweed or Water-Pepper K. Upright, annual, 1° or 2° high, very acrid and biting to the taste; leaves and also the greenish sepals marked with fine transparent dots; spikes short but loose, drooping; akene flattish or bluntly triangular. Moist ground, common in waste places, yards, and near dwellings. P. Hydropiper. 8. Wild Smartweed K. Upright, 1° to 3° high from a perennial root, biting like the last, and the leaves dotted; spikes very slender, erect, whitish or flesh-color; stamens 8; styles 3; akene sharply triangular. Wet places. P. acre. 9. Mild Water-Pepper K. Upright, 1° to 3° high; often creeping at the base and rooting in water; leaves roughish, not biting, narrowly lance-shaped; spikes slender, erect, rose-color; stamens 8; style 3-cleft at the top; akene sharply triangular. Shallow water. P. hydrojnpenndes. 10. Virginia K. Stem 2" to 4° high, angled; leaves large, ovate or lance-ovate, taper-pointed; flow- 194 POPULAR FLORA. ers scattered in a long and naked slender spike; calyx greenish, 4-parted ; stamens 5; styles 2, bent down in fruit. Thickets. P. Virginianum. ». t- Somewhat climbing, or supported by recurved sharp prickly bristles on the strong angles of the stems, &c. ; flowers white or flesh-color in small racemes or heads ; root annual. The prickly angles cut like a saw, whence the plants are called Tear- Thumb. 11. Arrow-leaved K. Leaves arrow-shaped (Fig. 100), short-stalked; akene 3-angled. P. sagit 'latum. 12. Halberd-leaved K. Leaves halberd-shaped (Fig. 102), long-stalked ; akene fiattish. Low- grounds. P. arifblium. +-+-•>- Twining annuals, with smooth stems and greenish or whitish flowers in panicled racemes; leaves heart-shaped and partly halberd-shaped. 13. Climbing K. Smooth, climbing high over shrubs, &c; racemes leafy ; 3 of the calyx-lobes more or less winged in fruit. Thickets in low ground. P. dumetbrum. 14. Bindweed K. Low, stems roughish; racemes corymbed; three of the calyx-lobes ridged in the middle. Cult, and waste grounds. P. Convolvulus. 80. LAUREL FAMILY. Order LAURACE^E. Trees or shrubs, with spicy bark and leaves ; the latter marked with transparent dots under a magnifying-glass, alternate and simple ; the calyx of 6 petal-like sepals. Stamens 9 or 1 2 on the very bot- tom of the calyx ; the anthers opening by up- lifted valves. Pistil sim- ple, with a one-celled ovary, in fruit forming a berry or drupe, one- seeded. Flowers gener- ally polygamous or dioe- cious in spring. — A very well-marked family, most- ly in hot countries, but we possess two or three representatives. <84. Sterile flower of S3 Willi two elirndml ihe ba! with the ovary divided to F safras 485. Fertile flow. , the anther open'iigby two hree and I ow the ovule hanging from the top. l . Flowers perfect : stamens 9, with good anthers, and 3 sterile ones. Tree, with entire oblong leaves; common South, (Persea) Red-Bay Flowers dioecious or nearly so, greenish-yellow: stamens 9, about 3 of them with yel- low glands at the base of the filaments (Fig. 486). Anthers 4-celled and 4-valved. Tree: flowers in stalked corymbs, appearing with the leaves; some of the latter 3-lobed, * (Sassafras) Sassafras. Anthers 2-celled and opening by a single valve to each cell. Shrub: flowers in ses- sile clusters, appearing earlier than the entire leaves, (Benzoin) Sriceb-usk POPULAR FLORA. 195 81. MEZERETJM FAMILY. Order THYMELEACEJE. Shrubs, with very tough and acrid bark ; entire generally alternate leaves ; and perfect flowers, with a tubular calyx colored like a co- rolla, bearing 8 or 10 stamens, free from the simple pistil. Ovary one- celled, one-ovuled, mak- ing a berry in fruit. — We have one wild plant of the family ; Daphne Mc- zereum is a hardy low shrub in gardens, and D. odora in houses. Flowers appearing earlier than the leaves. 490. Flowering branchlet ofT.e.ith- crwood. 491. Branch wilh fohaje and fruit. 492. A flower, magnified. 493. Same, more magnified, the calyx laid open. Calyx salver-shaped or funnel-shaped, generally rose-color, the border 4-lobed: stamens 8, in two sets, included; filaments hardly any, {Daphne) *Daphne, Calyx tubular, pale yellow, with no spreading border, obscurely 4-toothed: stamens 8, with long protruded filaments, (Direct) Leatiierwood. 82. NETTLE FAMILY. Order TJRTICACEvE. Monoecious, dioecious, or barely polygamous herbs, shrubs, or trees, with stipules, and a regular calyx, free from the ovary, which forms a one-seeded fruit. Divides into four dis- tinct subfamilies which might be reckoned as families, viz. : — I. ELM Subfamily. Trees, with alternate simple leaves, and polygamous or often nearly perfect flowers : styles or long stigmas 2. Ovary 2-celled, a hanging ovule in each cell: stamens 4 to 9. Flowers earlier than the leaves. Fruit a thin key, winged all round, one-seeded (Fig. 207), ( Ulmus) Elm. Ovary one-celled, with one hanging ovule: stamens 5 or 6. Fruit a small drupe. Leaves ovate or heart-shaped, (Cellis) Hackberky. II. BREADFRUIT Subfamily. Trees, with a milky or colored juice, and alternate leaves; the flowers in heads or catkin-like spikes, the fertile ones fleshy in fruit, or both kinds in a flesh}' receptacle. Styles 1 or 2: ovary becoming an akene in fruit. Inner bark often tough and fibrous. Flowers, of both kinds mixed, enclosed in a pear-shaped fleshy receptacle like a rose-hip which is pulpy when ripe, (Ficus) *Fig. 196 POPULAR FLORA. Flowers monoecious, both kinds in separate catkin-like spikes; the calyx, &c. in the fer- tile sort becoming fleshy and eatable, making a berried multiple fruit (248, Fig. 223). Stamens 4. Styles 2, *ercup or Bur Oak. Leaves obovate, sinuate-pinnatifid, whitish-downy beneath; acorn 1' or Ik 1 long, in a deep cup with a mossy-fringed border. Q. macrocdrpa. 2. Post Oak. Leaves oblong, pale and rough above, grayish-downy beneath, pinnatifid, with 5 to 7 blunt lobes; cup saucer-shaped, much shorter than the acorn. Small tree. Q. obtusiloba. 3. White Oak. Leaves smooth when full grown, pale beneath, pinnatifid; the lobes 5 to 9, oblong or linear, entire; cup much shorter than the oval or oblong acorn. Rich woods. Q. alba. 4. Swamp Chestnut-Oak. Leaves obovate, whitish-downy beneath, coarsely and bluntly toothed or sinuate; cup thick, hemispherical, with stout or pointed scales; acorn oval, 1' long. Q. Prinus. 6. Yellow Chestnut-Oak. Leaves lance-oblong, or oblong, acute, whitish, but scarcely downy beneath, rather sharply and evenly toothed; cup thin, and acorn smaller than in No. 4. Rich woods. Q- Castanea. 6. Chinquapin Oak. Much like No. 4, but a mere shrub, 2° to 6° high, with a thin cup and a smaller acorn. Sandy, barren soil. Q. prhundes. * * Acorn ripening in the autumn of the second year; ripe fruit therefore on wood two years old, sessile: kernel bitter, •i- Leaves entire or nearly so, narrow. 7. Live Oak. Leaves thick, evergreen, hoary beneath, oblong, small. Sea-coast, S- Q. virens. 8. Willow Oak. Leaves light green, smooth, lance-linear, tapering, "' or 4' long. S. & W- Q. Phellos. 9. Shingle or Laurel Oak. Leaves shining above, rather downy beneath, lance-oblong, thickish; cup saucer-shaped; acorn globular. Common S. & W. Q. imbricffia. POPULAR FLORA, 199 •*- i- Leaves or some of them a little lobed, broader upwards. 10. WATEB Oak. Leaves smooth and shining, spatulate or wedge-obovate, with a tapering base; cup very shert ; acorn globular. Swamps, S. Q. aqvdtica. 11. Black-Jack Oak. Leaves thick and large, broadly wedge-shaped, and with 3 or 5 obscure lobes at the summit, shining above, rusty-downy beneath, the lobes or teeth bristle-pointed. Small tree, in barrens. Q- nigra. .,_ +- „_ Leaves pinnatifid or lobed, long-stalked, the lobes or teeth bristle-pointed. 12. Beau or Scrub Oak. Leaves wedge-obovate, slightly about 6-lobed, whitish-downy beneath. A crooked shrub, 8° to 8° high; in ban-ens and rocky woods. Q. ilkifblia. 13. Spanish Oak. Leaves grayish-downy beneath, narrow above, and with 3 to 5 irregular and nar- row often curved lobes ; acorn very short. Dry soil, S. & E. A fine tree. Q.fakata. 14. Quercitron Oak. Leaves rusty-downy when young, becoming nearly smooth when old, oblong- obovate, sinuate-pinnatifid; cup top-shaped, coarse-scaly; acorn globular or depressed. Large tree; the inner bark thick and yellow, used for dyeing. Q. tinctbrki. 15. Scarlet Oak. Very like the last, but the oval or oblong leaves smooth and shining, deeply pin- natifid (turning deep scarlet in autumn), the lobes cut-toothed ; acorn rather longer than wide. Large tree, common in rich woods. Q. coccinea. 16. Red Oak. Leaves smooth, pale beneath, oblong or rather obovate, with 4 to 6 short lobes on each side; acorn oblong-oval, 1' long, with a short saucer-shaped cup of fine scales. Common tree in rocky woods, &c. Q. rubra. 17. Pin or Swamp Spanish Oak. Leaves smooth and bright green on both sides, deeply pin- natifid, oblong ; the lobes divergiug, cut and toothed, acute; acorn globular, only h' long. Low grounds, N. Q. palustris. 86. BIRCH FAMILY. Order BETULACE^. Monoecious trees, with simple serrate leaves, and both kinds of flowers in scaly catkins (Fig. 146), two or three blossoms under each scale. Sterile flowers each with 4 stamens and a small calyx: fertile flowers with a 2-celled ovary bearing 2 long stigmas, and in fiuit becoming a scale-like akene or small key. Only two genera : — Sterile flowers with a calyx of one scale: fertile flowers 3 under each 3-lobed brar-,t; each- consisting of a naked ovary, in fruit becoming a broad- winged little key. Bark and twigs aromatic, {Betida) Birch, Sterile flowers generally with a 4-parted calyx: fertile catkins short ancC thick, with hard scales, not falling off: fruit generally wingless, (Alnus) Alder. Birch. Betula. 1. White Birch. A small and slender tree, with white outer bark; leaves triangular, very taper- pointed, on long and slender stalks. Common E. B. alba. I. Paper B. A large tree, with white outer bark, peeling off in papery layers, and ovate or hearts shaped leaves. Common N. B. papyracea. 3. River B. Tree, with ovate and angled acutish leaves, on short stalks, a brownish close bark, and short woolly fertile catkins. Common S. & W. B. nigra. L'OO POPULAR FLORA. 4. Cheeky or Sweet B. Tree, with heart-ovate and pointed leaves, downy on the veins beneath, and a close bark, bronze-colored on the twigs, which are spicy-tasted, like the foliage of Check- erberry. Common N. B. Itnta. 87. SWEET-GALE FAMILY. Order MYRICACE^E. Shrubs (generally low), with fragrant alternate leaves; and with catkins much as in the Birch family, but short and with only one naked blossom under each scale ; the ovary forming a little nut or dry drupe. Flowers monoecious: fertile catkins round ar.d bur-like: fruit a smooth little nut. Leaves lance-linear, pinnatifld. Fern-like, whence the common name, ( Comptonia) Sweet-Fern, Flowers dioecious: scales of the fertile catkins falling off, and leaving only the small round fruits, which are incrusted with wax, and so appear like drupes. Leaves entire or serrate, (Myrica). One species in wet grounds, N., with wedge-lanceolate pale leaves, (M. Gale) Sweet-Gale. One on the sea-coast with lance-oblong, shining leaves, and waxy fruit, (M. cerifera) Bayberry. 88. WILLOW FAMILY. Order SALICACE^E. Dioecious trees or shrubs, with both kinds of blossoms in catkins (often earlier than the foliage) ; the flowers naked (without any calyx or corolla), one sort of two or more stamens under a scaly bract ; the other of a one-celled pistil with two styles or stigmas, making a many-seeded pod : the seeds bearing a long tuft of down. Leaves alternate and simple : wood soft and light : bark bitter. — The Willows are of very many species, and are much too difficult for the beginner. 494. Shoot and calkin of sterile flowers of the Com. inon White Willow. 495. A scale separated, with its flower, consisting of two stamens and a little gland, magnified. 496. Shoot and fertile catkin of the same. 497 A pistillate flower with its scale and ffland, mag- nified. Scales of the catkins entire: stamens 2 to 6: stigmas short: leaves narrow, Scales of the catkins cut-lobed: stamens 8 to 40: stigmas long: leaves broad, buds covered with a resinous varnish, (Snllx) Willow. Scaly leaf- (Populus) Poflau POPULAR FLORA. 201 89. PINE FAMILY. Order CONIFERS. The only familiar family of Gymnospermous plants (218, 250), consisting of trees or shrubs, with resinous juice, mostly awl-shaped or needle-shaped leaves, and monoecious or dioecious flowers of a very simple sort, and collected in catkins, except in Yew. In that the fertile flower is single at the end of the branch. No calyx nor corolla, and no proper pistil. Ovules and seeds naked. Sterile flowers of a few stamens or anthers, fixed to a scale. Cotyledons often more than one pair, some- times as many as 9 or 12, in a whorl. — For illustrations, see Fig. 49, 50, 134, 19G, 197, 224 to 22G, and 498, 499. — This family comprises some of our most important timber-trees, and the principal evergreen forest-trees of Northern climates. It 498. Fertile flowers, or voong cone, ' /, „ , , , e ... of Arbor-Vitas, enlarged. 499 Inside consists ot three well-marked subfamilies : — view of one of the scales «n.i us pair of naked ovules, more magnified. I. PINE Subfamily. Fertile flowers many in a catkin, which in fruit becomes a strobile or cone (250); the scales of which are open pistils (each in the axil of a bract), with a pair of ovules or seeds borne on the base of each. Seeds scaling off with a wing. Cones ovate or oblong. Leaf-buds scaly. Flowers monoecious. Leaves 2 to 5 in a cluster, from the axil of a thin scale, evergreen, needle-shaped. Cone with thick or sometimes thin scales, (Pinus) Pine- Leaves many in a cluster (Fig. 134) on side spurs, and also scattered along the shoots of the season, needle-shaped, falling in autumn. Cone with thin scales, (Larix) Larch. Leaves all scattered along the shoots, evergreen, linear or needle-shaped. Cone with thin scales, (Abies) Fir. II. CYPRESS Subfamily. Fertile flowers few, in a rounded catkin, formed of scales which are generally thickened at the top, and without any bracts, bearing one or more ovules at the bottom. Leaves scale-like or awl-shaped. Leaf-buds without any scales. Flowers monoecious. Cone dry, opening at maturity. Leaves deciduous and delicate, linear, 2-ranked. Cone round and woody, each shield- shaped scale 2-seeded, ( Taxbdium) Bald-Cypress. Leaves evergreen, small, scale-like and awl-shaped (of two shapes). Cone woody and round; the scales shield-shaped, ( Cupressiis) Cypress.* Cone of a few oblong and nearly flat loose scales (Fig. 498), ( Thuja) Arbor-vit.e.* Flowers dioecious, or sometimes monoecious. Fruit composed of a few closed scales, which become pulpy and form a sort of false berry, (Juniperus) Juniper. III. YEW Subfamily. Buds scaly: leaves linear. Fertile flower single at the end of a branch, ripening into a nut-like seed. This is enclosed in an open and at length pulpy, berry-like red cup, in our only genus, viz. ( Taxus) Yew. * Our only Cupressus is C. thyoides, the White Cedar, rather common South. The Arbor-vit^e, Thuja occidentalism so common North, and cultivated for evergreen hedges, is also called White Cedar. Our Red Cedar is a Juniper. 202 POPULAR FLORA. Pine. Pinus. * Leaves 2 or 3 in a sheath, rigid : bark of tree rough : scales of the cones woody, thickened on th» back at the end, and commonly tipped with a prickly point. 1. Jersey or Scrub Pine. Leaves in twos, only about 2' long. A straggling tree, S. & E. P. inops. 2. Eed Pine (wrongly called Norway Pine); leaves in twos, 6' or 6' long; scales of the cones not pointed. A large tree, N. P. resinbsa. 3. Yellow Pine. Leaves slender, in twos or threes, 3' to 5' long; cones small, their scales tipped with a weak prickly point. P. mitis. 4. Pitch Pine. Leaves rigid, dark green, in threes, 3' to 5' long; cones with a stout prickly point (Fig. 224). Common N. P.rigida. 5. Loblolly Pine. Leaves in threes, 6' to 10' long, light green; cones 3' to 5' long. Light or ex- hausted soil. S. P. Tada. 6. Long-leaved Pine. Leaves in threes, 8' to IP long, dark green; cones 6' to 8' long. Common S. & E. P. australis. * * Leaves 5 together, slender: bark of young tree smooth: scales of cone naked and not thickened. 7. White Pine. Leaves pale green ; cones narrow, 4' or b' long, hanging. A large tree, in moist woods North, with soft light wood. P. Strobus. Larch. Lnrix. 1. American Larch or Tamarack. Leaves very slender, short; cones not over 1' long, of few rounded scales. Swamps, N. L. Americana. 2. European Larch. A cultivated tree, with longer leaves and much larger cones than our wild species, the scales three times as many. L. Europaea. Fir or Spruce. Abies. * Cones upright on short side-shoots, falling into pieces when ripe, the scales separating from the axis; leaves flat, becoming more or less 2-ranked, whitish beneath. 1. Balsam Fir. Leaves narrowly linear; cones cylindrical, 3' or 4' long, 1' thick, bluish. Damp woods and swamps, N. A. balsamea. * * Cones hanging from the ends of branches, not falling to pieces. 2. Hemlock Spruce. Leaves linear, flat, £' long, 2-ranked ; cones oval, i' long. Hills. A. Canadensis. 3. Black Spruce. Leaves needle-shaped, 4-sided, not 2-ranked, uniformly green ; cones ovate, 1' to IP long, with thin edged scales. Swamps and cold woods. A. nigra. 4. White or Single Spruce. Cones oblong-cylindrical, 1' or 2' long, the scales with thickish edges: otherwise nearly like the last: found only at the North. A. alba. 5. Norway Spruce. Cones cylindrical, 5' to 7' long; leaves longer than in our wild species. A handsomer tree, from Europe, now commonly planted as an evergreen. A. excelsa. Juniper. Juniperus. 1. Common Juniper. Shrub spreading; leaves in whorls of three, linear-awl-shaped, prickly-pointed, green beneath, white above; berries dark purple. Dry hills, N. J- communis. 2. Savin J. or Red Cedar. Shrub or tree; leaves small and much crowded, awl-shaped and loose on vigorous shoots; on others smaller, scale-like, and closely overlying each other in 4 ranks; berries purplish with a white bloom. Dry hills. Wood reddish, very durable. J. Virginiana. POPULAR FLORA. 203 CLASS II. — ENDOGENS OR MONOCOTYLEDONS. Stem having the wood in threads or bundles, interspersed among the pith or cellular part, not forming a ring or layer, and not increasing by annual layers. Leaves parallel-veined, not branching and forming meshes of network. To this some Arums, Trillium, Greenbrier, &c. are exceptions, having more or less netted veins. fiM <- J '•;• | £ ',' j°> i i f ' '1 ! ii : .: i,' II: ! Hi! ' i'i !f!i . ! . . ; i:l 1 f '■' :i • j ' / ! f ■ ,1 '' III! !l 1 5:o 501 Endogenous stem nfon Parallel-veined leaves of (lie ie^lion ofllie BeeJollris, tiw til ed in It Corn-stalk. 51 One of several years old. of Palmetto. hat of Lily of the Valley ; 5 3. one of Calla 504. Magnified nocotyledonoua embryo. 5u5. Plunllet of Iris growing from Flowers with their parts mostly three or six, never five. Embryo monocotyledonous, i. e. of only one true seed-leaf: so in germination the leaves are all alternate or one above another. Except the Palmetto and one or two Yuccas at the South (Fig. 79), and some Greenbriers, all the Endogens of this country are herbs. In warmer climates there are many Palms and other woody plants of the class, all having an appearance very different from our common trees and shrubs (113, 114). 14 204 POPULAR FXOUA. KEY TO THE FAMILIES OR ORDERS OF CLASS II. I. Spadiceous Division. Flowers collected on a spadix (184), i. e. sessile and crowded in a spike or head on a thickened axis, and with or without a spathe or enwrapping bract (185). Trees or shrubs, with simple stems; the flowers having calyx and corolla, Palm Family, 205 Herbs, the small and crowded flowers either naked or with a small perianth. Spadix surrounded by a large spathe: flowers generally naked: fruit a berry, ) Spadix without a spathe: perianth of 6 pieces, ) Arum F. 205 Spadix without any proper spathe: perianth none: fruit an akene, Cat-tail F. 206 Spadix (as it might be called) raised above a small spathe, covered with blue and tubular, 6-lobed flowers. Belongs to the next division, Pickerel-weed F. 208 II. Petaloideons Division. Flowers not on a spadix and not enclosed by glumes or chaffy or scale- like bracts (as in Grasses and Sedges), but having a calyx and corolla, or a G-leaved or 6-lobed (rarely 4-leaved) perianth colored like a corolla. Perianth free from the ovary, that is, inserted underneath the ovary, and Of 3 green or greenish sepals and 3 distinct and colored petals. Pistils many, in a ring or a head, making akenes, Water-Plantain F. 206 Pistil 1: styles or sessile stigmas 3. Leaves whorled, veiny, Trillium F. 206 Pistil and slender style 1 : leaves alternate, parallel-veined, Spiderwort F. 207 Of mostly 6 petal-like leaves in two ranks, three outside and three inside, or else 6- (rarely 4-) lobed, all colored alike. Stamens only 3, or 6 and the three on one side of the flower much shorter than the rest, Pickerel-weed F. 208 Stamens 6, or as many as the divisions of the perianth, all alike. Anthers turned outwards, i. e. on the outer side of the filament. Leaves in whorls: flowers perfect: long stigmas 3, Indian Cucumber-root, 207 Leaves alternate, and with side tendrils, netted-veined between the ribs : flowers dioecious : styles or sessile stigmas 3, Greenbrier F. 208 Leaves alternate, without tendrils: flowers perfect or polygamous: styles 3 or 3-cleft, Colciiicum F. 209 Anthers turned inwards, i. e. on the inner side of the filament: style 1: stigmas 1 or 3, Lilt F. 209 Perianth adherent to the ovary below, and therefore apparently borne on it Stamens C: anthers turned inwards. Flowers regular or nearly so, Amaryllis F. 213 Stamens 3 : anthers turned outwards. Flowers often irregular, Iris F. 214 Stamens only one or two and united with or borne on the style. Flowers irregular, of singular shapes, Orchis F. 215 III. Glumaceous Division. Flowers not on a spadix, and without any corolla-like perianth, but with tjlumes, i. e. thin scales, such as the chaff or husk of Grain and Grasses. Stems rush-like or straw-like. Glumes 6 in a whorl to each flower, like a calyx, Rush F. 215 Glume one to each flower, the flower in its axil. Flowers collected into heads or spikes, Sedge F. 216 •Glumes 2 or 4 to each flower, in two 6ets, Grass F. 216 POPULAR FLORA, 205 I. Spadiceous Division. 90. PALM FAMILY. Order PALMiE. Although some, like the Dwarf Palmettos of the Southern States, make only rootstoeka not risin" out of the ground, most Palms form trees, with a simple, unbranched, cylindrical trunk, growing by the terminal bud only, and always surmounted by a crown of large and peculiar, long-petioled leaves. These are fan-shaped in the Palmetto (Fig. 79), pinnate in the Date-Palm, &c. The flowers burst forth from a spathe ; are small, but generally perfect, and furnished with a perianth of 6 parts, in two sets, the outer answering to a calyx, the inner to a corolla. Fruit a nut ; that of the Cocoanut is a good illustra- tion. The principal Palms of our southern sea-coast belong to the genus (Chdmeerops) Palmetto. 01. ARUM FAMILY. Order ARACE^5. Herbs with sharp-tasted or acrid juice, and more or less fleshy in their texture ; the leaves either simple or compound, and commonly so much netted-veined that tho plants might readily be mistaken for Exogens. The small flowers are closely spiked or packed on a fleshy axis, forming a spadix. The fruit is a berry, or sometimes dry and leathery, but containing some pulp or jelly. The following are the principal genera w« meet with. Spathe present, forming a hood, wrapper, or a petal-like leaf. Flowers naked, i. e. without any perianth, monoecious, dioecious, or polygamous, Covering only the base of the long spadix, which is enclosed in the hooded spathe (Fig. 147). Stem simple, from a rounded corm: leaves com- pound, of 3 or more leaflets, (Ariscsma) Indian-Turku*. Covering the whole length of the spadix. Leaves simple, arrow-shaped (Fig. 603) or heart-shaped: spadix on the end of a scape, bearing stamens only at the upper part. Spathe green, thick, and closely folded around the spadix: anthers sessile. Herb growing in shallow water, (Ptltdndra) Arrow-Ahum. Spathe white and petal-like, open, ( Cdlla) Calla. Flowers with a 4-leaved perianth or calyx, perfect, on a globular spadix, surrounded by a thick, shell-shaped, purplish spadix coming out of ground in earliest spring, some time before the great ovate and heart-shaped, veiny leaves; odor that of the skunk. Stamens 4, (Symplocdrpus) Skunk-Cabbage. Spathe none at all ; the spadix naked, covered with flowers, which are perfect, with a perianth of 6 or sometimes 4 pieces, and as many stamens. Spadix on the summit of a scape rising out of the water: leaves oblong, on a long petiole, ( Ordntium) Golden-Cluu. Spadix from the side of a leaf, or from a stem similar to one of the long and erect, linear, 2-edged or sword-shaped leaves: all springing from a sharp- aromatic and creeping rootstock, (JHcorus) Sweet-Flao. 206 POPULAR FLORA. 92. CAT-TAIL FAMILY. Order TYPHACE7E. Marsh herbs, with linear, sword-shaped leaves (erect, except they float in water), and monoecious naked flowers in dense spikes or heads, one sort consisting of some stamen's only, the other of pistils only. Fruit a one-seeded akene. No spathe, except some open bracts or leaves. Flowers in one long spike or f Radix, the upper part bearing stamens only, the lower slen- der pistils only closely packed together; ovary long-stalked and surrounded by slender down, ( Typha) Cat-tail. Flowers in separate heads, some bearing stamens only, others pistils only, each sur- rounded by several scales, but no down, {Sparganium) Buk-Reed. II. Pctaloidcous Division. 93. WATER-PLANTAIN FAMILY. Order ALISMACEJE. Marsh or aquatic herbs, with a distinct calyx of 3 green or greenish sepals and a corolla of 3 white petals, G to many stamens on the receptacle, and many one-ovuled pistils collected into a ring or head, becoming akenes in fruit. Leaves mostly oblong-heart-shaped, lance-shaped, or arrow-shaped, sometimes with cross veinlets, long-petioled. Flowers on scapes. Two genera are common. Flowers perfect with about C stamens, small, in an open panicle: pistils 15 to 20 in a ring: leaves not arrow-shaped, (Alisma) Water-P.LANTAIS. Flowers monoecious or dioecious, in a loose .acemc or spike; the sterile ones with many stamens; the fertile with many pistils in a head, making thin winged akenes. Leaves or some of them generally arrow-shaped, (Sagittaria) Arrowhead. 94. TRILLIUM FAMILY. Order TRILLIACEiE. Herbs with simple stems rising from a short rootstock, rather conspicuously netted- \-eined leaves in a whorl, and perfect and regular flowers: — containing in this country only the genus Trillium and the Indian Cucumber-root, which are here described. Trillium.* Trillium. Stem bearing at the summit a whorl of 3 broad leaves and one rather large flower. Calyx of 3 green spreading sepals. Corolla of 3 spreading petals. Stamens 6, with short filaments and long erect anthers turned inwards, inserted on the receptacle. Pistil one, 3-celled, commonly with 3 to 6 lobes or ridges, and making a purple many-seeded berry in fruit: styles or long sessile stigmas 3, spreading; — They all grow in rich woods, and blossom in spring or early summer. i. Sessile flowered T. Flower and the ovate leaves both sessile; petals rather erect, dark duC purple or greenish. W. & S. T. sessile.' a. Recurved T. Leaves narrowed at the base into a footstalk; sepals turned down; petals nar^ rowed at both ends; otherwise like No. 1. W. T. recurvalum. * Also called Birthroot, Wake-Robin, and Three-leaved Nightshade. POPULAR FLORA. 207 3. Nodding T. Leaves nearly sessile, rhombic-ovate ; flower small, on a short peduncle curved down under the leaves; petals oblong-ovate, pointed, recurved, wavy. E. & S. T. cernuum. A. Erect T. or BiRTHKObT. Leaves sessile, round-rhombic with a very abrupt point; flower on a nearly upright pe- duncle; petals ovate, acti tish, spreading, dull purple or some- times greenish-white. Common N. T. era turn. 6. Great-flowered T. Leaves and peduncle nearly as in No. 4; petals obovate, erect at the base, then gradually •■• spreading much longer and broader than the sepals, white, turning rose-color when old. N. and \V. T. grandijlvrum. 0. Painted T. Leaves petioled, pale green, ovate, taper-pointed ; flower on an upright peduncle; petals lance-ovate, point- ed, widely spreading, longer than the sepals, Wavy, white, adorned with delicate pink-purple stripes at the base. Cold damp woods, &c. N. T. erythrocdrpum. Indian Cucumber-root. Medeola. Stem 1° to 3° high, from a white tuberous horizontal rootstock, having the taste of a cucumber, bearing near the middle a whorl of 5 to obovate-lanceolate pointed sessile leaves, and at the top one of 3 ovate smaller leaves, and a few small greenish-yellow flowers in an umbel, on recurved stalks. Sepals and petals each 3, oblong and alike, recurved. Stamens G: filaments longer than the anthers. Stigmas 3, sessile, long and thread-shaped. Ovary one, making a round S-celled and few-seeded berry. One species, in damp woods; flowering in summer. M. Virr/inicn. 95. SPIDER WORT FAMILY. Order COMMELYNACEiE. Tender herbs, with alternate parallel-veined leaves sheathing at the base, and perfect flowers, having 3 green or greenish sepals and 3 petals on the receptacle. Pistil one, with one long style and one stigma. Pod small, 3-celled or sometimes 2-ceiled, few-seeded. Flowers opening in the morning' for only one day, the delicate (generally blue or purple) petals then melting away. There arc two genera wild ; and the Spidcrwort is cultivated in every flower-garden. Flowers regular: the 3 petals and G stamens all alike: filaments bearded with joint- ed colored hairs : leaves lance-linear, sessile, all alike, ( Trade sc and: t) Spidehwort. Flowers irregular: two of the petals kidney- shaped on long claws, and one smaller: stamens unequal, only three of them with good anthers : filaments naked : lower leaves with sheathing footstalks, the uppermost sessile and somewhat heart-shaped, (Covimdyna) Dav-flowkr. rof Spidcrwort. magnified; the ovary 208 POPULAR FLORA. 96. PICKEREL- WEED FAMILY. Order PONTEDERIACEJE. Is represented by three or four plants in this country, of which much the commonest is the Pickerel-weed. Pontedhia. Perianth blue, of 6 divisions, unequally united below into a tube ; the 3 upper divisions most united and making a 3-lobed upper lip, the 3 lower spreading and separate some way down, making a lower lip: after expanding, for one day only, the upper part coils up and withers away, while the base of the tube thickens and encloses the small one-seeded fruit. Stamens C ; the 3 lower on slender projecting filaments; the 3 upper inserted lower down on the tube, with very short filaments and generally imperfect anthers. Style 1 : stigma 3-lobed. Stout herbs in shallow water, with long- petioled leaves and long peduncles or few-leaved stems (their leaves with sheathing footstalks, the uppermost one merely a sheathing spathe or bract), bearing a spike of flowers. 1. Common Pickerel-weed. Stems 2° or 3° high ; leaves thickish, lance-ovate or ovate-oblong, and generally more or less heart-shaped at the base. Common everywhere; fl. all summer. P. cordata. 97. GREENBRIER FAMILY. Order SMILACEjE. Of this family, as here arranged, we have only a single genus, viz. : — Greenbrier. Smilax. Known at once by being climbing plants (or disposed to climb) and having a tendril on each side of the footstalk of the leaf; and by the leaves being veiny between the ribs, almost as in Exogetis, alternate, sometimes evergreen, simple, and entire. Flowers dioecious, in axillary umbels. Perianth generally of 6 equal and spreading greenish or yellowish separate pieces. The sterile flowers have as many stamens, with oblong or linear one-celled anthers fixed by their base to the filament, and turned inwards. The fertile flowers have a round ovary, with 3 short spreading styles or stigmas. '.Fruit a berry, with 2 or few large seeds. Fl. summer. * Stems woody and often prickly, yellowish-green: ovary and berry 2-celled and 2-seeded, black; when ripe, generally with a bluish bloom. 1. Common G. or Catbuiei;. Leaves thickish, round-ovate or slightly heart-shaped, and with 6 to 9 ribs, green both sides ; branchlets often square ; prickles short ; peduncles of the umbel not longer than the petiole. Moist thickets. S. rvlundifolia. 2. Glaucous G. Leaves ovate, glaucous beneath ; peduncles longer than the petiole : otherwise nearly as No. 1. S. y glauca. 3. Bristly G. Leaves ovate and heart-shaped, large and thin, green both sides; stem below covered with long and weak blackish bristly prickles; peduncles much longer than the petioles. Thickets, N. and W. S. hispida. 4. Laurel-leaved G. Not prickly; leaves lance-oblong or lance-linear, thick and evergreen, with 3 to 5 ribs; peduncles of the umbel very short. Sandy soil, S. S. lawifblia, * * Stem herbaceous, climbing, not prickly: ovary and blue-black berry 3-eelled, 6-seeded. 6. Cakkiox-flowek G. Leaves thin, pale, mostly heart-shnped, with 7 to 9 ribs, sometimes rather downy beneath, long-petioled; peduncles 3' to 8' long, longer than the leaves; flowers of the odor of carrion. Meadows and river-banks. 8. litrbacea. POPULAR FLORA. 209 98. COLCHICUM FAMILY. Order MELANTHACE^. Herbs, 'with parallel-veined leaves ; the flowers generally perfect or polygamous ; the perianth of 6 similar divisions colored alike ; the 6 stamens with their anthers turned out- wards. Ovary one, 3-celled, bearing 3 styles, -which are generally separate, but some- times united into one. Many are acrid or poisonous plants, none more so than the common Veratrum or White-Hellebore, which is often called Poke, a name which properly belongs to Phytolacca, p. 191. Flower and leaves rising from a corm underground: perianth a long tube, bearing 6 sim- ilar petal-like lobes, ( Colchicum) *Colchtcum. Flowers with a perianth of 6 separate leaves. Perianth persisting or withering without falling. Plants acrid-poisonous: flowers polygamous, in panicles, terminating the simple leafy stem. Divisions of the perianth on claws, bearing the stamens: leaves narrow: flowers cream-colored, turning greenish-brown with age, (Meldnthium) Melanthium, Divisions of the perianth without claws, greenish. Leaves oval or oblong, partly clasping, plaited, ( Veratrum) White-Hellebokk. Perianth falling off after flowering. Plants not poisonous: stems generally forking: leaves sessile or clasping, ovate or lance-oblong: flowers perfect, generally single, nodding: divisions of the perianth long and narrow. Styles united into one at the bottom. Perianth large, lily-like, yellowish: fruit a few-seeded pod. Flower-stalk not twisted or jointed, (Uvularia) Bellwort. Styles united into one almost to the top. Divisions of the whitish or rose-colored perianth recurved : fruit a many-seeded red berry. Flower-stalks single in the axil of the leaves, and with a joint or abrupt bend or twist in the middle, (Streplopus) Twist-stalk. Bell wort. Uvularia. 1. Large-flowered B. Leaves oblong, clasping-perfoliate, i. e. the stem appearing to run through the lower part of the leaf ; perianth pale greenish-yellow, 1|' long. Rich woods, N. & W. (All the species flower in the spring.) U. grandiflbra. 2. Perfoliate B. Like the last, but the flower smaller and yellow, and the anthers more pointed. Common E. U. perfoliate. 3. Sessile-leaved B. Smaller than the rest; leaves sessile, not encompassing the stem; flower cream-color. U. scssilifolia. 99. LILY FAMILY. Order LILIACE^E. A large family, with much variety in appearance. Leaves parallel-veined, and sessile or sheathing. Flowers perfect and regular ; the perianth of G divisions or lobes (or in one case with only 4), all colored alike, inserted on the receptacle free from the ovary. Stamens as many as the parts of the perianth, with their anthers turned inwards. Pistil one, with a 3-celled (rarely 2-celled) ovary and a single style ; bat with as many stigmas, or lobes to the stigma, as there are cells in the ovary. Fruit a pod or a berry. 210 POPULAR FLORA. Fruit a, few-seeded berry: flowers small. Herbs from rootstocks: no bulbs. Stems much branched: leaves fine and thread-shaped, in clusters, {Asparagus) *AsPARAGCa Stems simple above ground and leafy. Leaves oblong or lance-oblong. Flowers axillary, nodding, greenish; perianth tubular, C-lobcd: stamens above the middle, on very short filaments. Rootstock thick, marked with broad round scars on the upper side (Fig. 63), (Pulygonalum) Solomon's-Seal. Flowers in a terminal raceme, white: perianth G-parted, in one case 4-parted, the divisions narrow and widely spreading, the stamens on its base: filaments slender, (Smilacina) Sjiilacina. Stems or scape simple and leafless above ground; the broad leaves all from its base or from the slender rootstock. Flowers small, in a slender raceme, white; perianth bell-shaped, C-lobed (Fig. 3): leaves very smooth, ( Convallaria) *Lily-oe-tiie-Valley. Flowers rather large, in an umbel, greenish-yellow or whitish: perianth C-leaved: leaves of the plant ciliate, ( Clintunia) Clintonia. Fruit a 3-celled pod. splitting into 3 valves when ripe. Perianth wheel-shaped, or sometimes erect or bell-shaped, C-leaved: flowers on a scape or nearly naked stem, rising from a coated bulb: seeds round and black, few. Flowers in a corymb, white: style 3-sided, ( Omiiliogalum) *Staf.-of-Bethlehem. Flowers in a raceme, blue or purple: style thread-like, (Siilla) Squill. Flowers in an umbel from a scaly bract or involucre, (jlllium) Onion. Perianth funnel-shaped, bell-shaped, or globs-shaped, more or less united into a tube or cup, bearing the 6 stamens, except in some Day-Lilies. Scape and leaves from a coated bulb: flowers in a raceme. Leaves narrow. Perianth globular, blue, small, (Muscari) *Grape-Hyacxnth. Perianth short, funnel-shaped or bell-shaped, 0-cleft, (fJyncinthus) *Hyacinth. Scape or stem leafy towards the bottom, from fibrous roots (no bulb), bearing a few large flowers in a cluster at the top: stamens curved to one side. Flower opening for only one day, (llemerocullis) *Day-Lily. Perianth bell-shaped or funnel-shaped, &C, but of G separate petal-like divisions: seeds many, mostly flat, pale. Simple-stemmed herbs from a scaly or coated bulb: stamens on the receptaclo or attached to the very base of the deciduous perianth. Anthers fixed by their middle and swinging free: stems leafy to the top. No honey-bearing spots, or merely a groove at the bottom of each divis- ion of the perianth. Bulb scaly, (Lilium) Lily. A round and large honey-bearing spot near the bottom of each division of the perianth, (Petilium) *Crowx-Impeeial. Anthers erect on the filament, appearing to be fixed by their base: stem or scape leafy only at or towards the bottom. Style none or hardly any: stigmas 3 on the long 3-sided ovary, ( Tulipa) *Tulip. Style long: ovary roundish: leaves 2, spotted, (Erythrbnium) Dogtooth-Violet Stems woody, palm-like, or not rising above the ground, from roots or rootstocks (no bulbs): leaves evergreen, sword-shaped. Flowers white, tulip- thaped, in a large, terminal, compound panicle, ( Yucca) Yucca POPULAR FLORA. 211 Smilacina (or False Solomon' s-Seal). Smilacina. 1. Racemed S. Minutely downy, 2° or 3° high, many-leaved; leaves lancc-oblong, tapering abruptly at both ends, ciliate; flowers many, in compound racemes. Moist grounds. S. racembsa. 2. Star-flov,'ei:ed S. Nearly smooth, 1° or 2° high; leaves many, lance-oblong, slightly clasping, pale beneath; raceme simple and few-flowered. Moist thickets, &c, N. S. sldlula. 8. Three-leaved S. Smooth, 3' to G' high; leaves commonly 3, oblong, tapering into a sheathing base; flowers several, in a slender simple raceme. Bogs, N. S. trijblia. 4. Two-leaved S. Nearly smooth, 3' to 5' high, with commonly 2 heart-shaped leaves, the lower one generally petioled; flowers in a simple short raceme; perianth 4-parted, reflexed; stamens 4. Moist woods, in spring. S. blfblia. Onion (Garlic and Leek). Allium. $ 1. Onion proper, with hollow, stem-shaped leaves, and an open, widely spreading, star-shaped blossom. 1. Garden Onion. Scape naked, much longer than the leaves, hollow, swollen in the middle; flowers whitish; umbel often bearing small bulbs (top-onions); the large bulb turnip-shaped. Commonly cultivated. A. C'epa. 2. Chives 0. Scape naked, about as long as the slender leaves; all growing in tufts, from small bulbs; flowers purplish, crowded. Cultivated. A. Schcsnqprasum. § 2. Garlics and Leeks. Leaves flat or keeled and not hollow, except in No. 3. 5. Field Garlic. Leaves thread-shaped, slender, round, but channelled on the upper side, hollow; bulbs small; umbel bearing flowers with a green-purple erectish perianth, or else only bulblets. Naturalized in low pastures and gardens. A. vineale. 4. True or English Garlic. Bulbs clustered and compound ; leaves lance-linear, nearly flat; umbel bearing pale purple flowers with an erectish perianth, or else bulblets. Cultivated in gar- dens; not common. A. sativum. 6. Garden Leek. Bulb single ; leaves linear-oblong, acute, somewhat folded or keeled ; flowers crowded in the umbel; perianth erectish, violet-purple. Rarely cultivated. A. Porrum. 6. Wild Leek. Bulbs clustered, narrow, oblong, and pointed; leaves lance-oblong, blunt, flat, dying off by midsummer, when the naked scape appears with its loose umbel of white flowers; pod 3-lobed. Rich woods, N. and W. a tricbccum. Day-Lily. Hemerocdllis. * Flowering stems tall, leafy towards the bottom, somewhat branched above: leaves long and linear, - keeled, 2-ranked: stamens on the top of the narrow tube of the perianth: seeds black and wingless. 1. Common Day-Lily. Flower dull orange-yellow; inner divisions wavy, blunt. Gardens. Il.fulva. 2. Yellow D. Flower light yellow; inner divisions of the perianth acute. Gardens. Il.flava. * * Flowering stems naked, simple: leaves broad and flat, ovate or oblong, and often heart-shaped, with veins springing from the midrib, long-stalked ; stamens on the receptacle: seeds flat and winged (Funkia). 3. White D. Flower white, funnel-shaped; leaves more or less heart-shaped. Gardens. IT. JapJnica. 4. Blue D. Flower bine or bluish, the upper part more bell-shaped than in No. 3; leaves scareelv heart-shaped. Gardens. #. cceriilea. 212 POPULAR FLORA. Lily. Lilium. * Foreign species, everywhere cultivated. 1. Wtiite Lily. Leaves lance-shaped, scattered along the stem; flowers erect; perianth bell-shaped, white, sinuoth inside. L. album. 2. Bulb-bearing L. Leaves lance-shaped, scattered along the tall stem,' producing bulblets in their axils; flowers several, erect; perianth open-bell-shaped, orange-yellow, rough inside. L.bulbifei-um. * * Wild species : flowers orange-colored, reddish, or yellow. 5. Wild Orange L. Stem 1° to 3° high, bearing scattered (or sometimes whorled) lnnce-linear leaves and 1 to 3 erect reddish-orange open-bell-shaped flowers, the 6 lance-shaped divisions narrowed at the base into claws, purplish -spotted inside. Common in light or sandy soil. L. Pkiladelplucum. 4. Wild Yellow L. Stem 2° to 4° high, bearing distant whorls of lance-shaped leaves and a few nodding flowers on slender peduncles ; perianth yellow or orange, with brown spots inside, bell- shaped with the divisions spreading or recurved to the middle. Moist meadows, and along streams. (Fig. 1.) L. Canadense. 6. Superb or Tuek's-cap L. Stem 4° to 7° high, only the lower leaves in whorls; flowers many, bright orange or reddish, with strong brown-purple spots inside, more recurved and larger than the last, but very much like it. Rich low grounds. L. superbum. Dogtooth Violet. Eryihrbnium. 1. Yellow I), or Adder's-tongue. Leaves oblong-lance-shaped, pale-dotted, much flower pale yellow ; style club- shaped, stout ; stigmas united. Moist grounds : fl. in early spring. E. Americanum. 2. White D. Flower white or bluish ; the style less thick than in No. 1. Rather com- mon W. E. ulbidum. 3. European D. Leaves ovate or oblong, scarcely spotted; flowers purple or rose-color; style thread-shaped and not thickened upwards; stigmas separate. Cultivated ; not common. E. Dens-canis. 609. Yellow Dogtooth-Violet. 510. The Uulb. 511. Perianth laid open, and stamens. Sl'i. The pistil, enlarged. 513. Lower half of a pod, cut across i magnified. blotched; POPULAR FLORA. 213 100. AMARYLLIS FAMILY. Order AMARYLLIDACEiE. Like the Lily Family, but with the (regular or slightly irregular) G-cleft perianth cohe- rent below with the surface of the ovary, and therefore in appearance inserted on its summit. Stamens 6. Fruit a 3-celled pod. Herbs generally with naked stems or scapes, and long linear leaves, from a coated bulb, commonly with showy flowers. Herbage and bulbs acrid and poisonous. Flower with a cup or crown at the throat of the salver-shaped or funnel-shaped perianth. Stamens long, from the edge of the cup-shaped crown: anthers linear, swinging free: divisions of the perianth long and narrow, recurved. Flowers white, showy; the cluster leafy-bracted, (Pancratium) *Pancratium. Stamens included in the cup, unequal: filaments very short. Flowers from a scale- like spathe, (Narcissus) * Narcissus. Flower without any cup or crown on the perianth. Anthers fixed by the middle and swinging free, linear or oblong: filaments generally curved. Flowers large and showy, generally red or pink, (Amaryllis) * Amaryllis. Anthers erect on the filament. Flowers in a spike, funnel-shaped, white, very fragrant, (Polidnihes) *Tuberose. Flowers in an umbel, or single: perianth 6-parted down to the ovary. Flower single, from a 1-leaved spathe, white, nodding: three inner divisions of the perianth shorter than the three outer, and notched at the end: anthers long-pointed, (Galdnthus) *Ssowdrop, Flowers one or more from a 1-leaved spathe, white, nodding; the 6 divisions of the perianth alike, often green-tipped: anthers blunt, (Leucbium) *Sjjowflake. Flowers few, with 2 small bracts at the base of the pedicels; the star-shaped perianth yellow, closing and remaining on the pod. Leaves grass- like, hairy. Plant small, (Hypoxys) Star-Grass. Narcissus. Narcissus. * Tube of the flower slender; the cup or crown much shorter than the 6 spreading divisions; anthers borne on the inside of the cup, or 3 of them a little protruding, on short filaments. 1. Poet's N. Scape flattish, tall, mostly one-flowered; flower white, the very short and flat crown yellow, generally margined with crimson or pink; sweet-scented; leaves bluntly keeled, rather glaucous. Gardens. N. poeticus. 2. Jonquil N. Flowers 1 to 4, on a round and slender scape, yellow, very fragrant, the cup saucer- shaped; leaves terete, channelled down one side. Gardens. N. Jonquilla. 3. Polyanthus N. Flowers several, on a flattish scape, white, with a bell-shaped cup, not fragrant; leaves flat, glaucous. Gardens. N. Tazetta. * * Tube of the flower short, funnel-shaped; the cup or crown very large, bell-shaped, with a wavy- crisped or toothed margin, equalling or longer than the 6 divisions of the perianth, and bearing the stamens on its base. 4. Daffodil N. Flower one, large, sulphur-yellow, with a deeper yellow cup, on a flattened scape 1° high; leaves flattish. In all gardens; most common with flowers double, so that their structure is obscured. iV. Pseudo- Narcissus. 214 POPULAR FLORA. 101. IRIS FAMILY. Order IRIDACEiE. Herbs with perennial roots, commonly with rootstocks, bulbs, or corms, and with equitant leaves (151, Fig. G4) ; the flowers perfect, regular or irregular; tube of the corolla-like perianth below coherent with the surface of the ovary, and so appearing to grow from its summit ; stamens only 3, one before each of the outer divis- ions of the perianth; their anthers turned outwards, i. c. looking towards the perianth and opening on that side. Ovary 3-celled, making a many-seeded pod : style one : stigmas 3, often flat or petal-like. Herbage, rootstocks, &c. generally acrid or sharp- tasted. Flowers generally showy, and from a spathe of one or more leaf-like bracts, or from the axils of the uppermost leaves, each one generally opening but once. 614. Phnt of Crnlecl Dwarf Ms .115. Top of the style unit I lie 3 petal-like stigmas, nisi Snf the stamens. 51j. Magnified pistil and lower part ol' the lulie of the periainb, divider lengthwise: the foliage cut awnv. 517 Lower part of a pod, divided crcsawise. 51S. Seed 619. Magnified section of the >.une, showing- the embryo Filaments monadelphotis in a tube which encloses the style as in a sheath: stigmas thread-shaped: perianth G-parted nearly to the ovary, widely spread- ing, opening in sunshine and for only one clay. Flowers small, blue or purple, with 6 equal obovate divisions: stigmas simple: stems or scapes flat or 2-winged, from fibrous roots; leaves narrow and grass-like, (Sisyrinchium) Blce-eyed-Gras3. Flowers very large, orange and spotted with crimson and purple; the 3 inner divisions much smaller and narrowed in the middle: stigmas each 2-cleft: scape terete, from a coated bulb; leaves plaited, {Tigridia) *Ticer-flower. Filaments separate: stigmas flattened, or petal-like. Perianth G-parted down to the ovary, regular and wheel-shaped, the divisions obovate- oblong, all alike, yellow, with darker spots: seeds remaining after the valves of the pod fall, berry-like and black, the whole looking like a blackberry (whence the common name). Stems leafy below, from a rootstock: leaves sword-shaped, (Parddnihm) * Black hekky-Liut. POPULAR FLORA, 215 Perianth irregularly 6-cleft; 3 of the lobes arched and making an upper lip, the 3 lower more spreading, yellow, orange, or reddish. Stein rising from a corm, and bearing many flowers in a one-sided spike, {Gladiolus) *Corx-Flao. Perianth G-cleft; the divisions of two kinds, the 3 outer recurved or spreading, the 3 inner alternate with the others, smaller, erect, and differently shaped: stigmas 3, petal-like, one before each erect stamen. Generally with thick creeping rootstocks, {Iris) Iris. Perianth with a slender tube, rising (with the linear flat leaves) from a corm or solid bulb (Fig. 76); the summit divided into 6 roundish, equal, erect, or barely spreading divisions: stigmas 3, thick and wedge-shaped, some- what fringe-toothed. Fl. in early spring, {Crocus) *Cr.ocus. Iris or FIower-de-Luce. Iris. * Common cultivated species in gardens: outer divisions of the perianth with a bearded crest. 1. Common Iris. Flowers several on a stem, 1° to 3° high, and much longer than the sword-shaped leaves, light blue or purple. /. sambucvia. 2. Dwarf Garden Iris. Flowers close to the ground, hardly exceeding the sword-shaped leaves, violet-purple, the divisions obovate, the 3 outer recurved. Fl. in early spring. I.pumila. # * Wild species. 3. Crested Dwarf Iris. Low and almost stemless, from rootstock9 spreading on the ground; leaves short; flower pale blue, the tube thread-shaped (2' long) and longer than the spatulate divisions, the three outer divisions with a beardless crest. Fl. spring. S. and W., and in some gardens. /. cristata. 4. Larger I. or Blue-Flag. Stem stout, 1° to 3° high, bearing several crestless and beardless purple- blue and variegated flowers, their inner divisions much smaller than the outer; leaves sword- shaped, l' wide. Wet places; flowering in late spring. /. versicolor. 6. Slender I. or Blue-Flag. Stem slender; leaves narrowly linear (i 1 wide), and flower smaller than in No. 4: otherwise much like it. Wet places, E. /. Virginica. 102. ORCHIS FAMILY. Order 0RCHLDACE2E. Plants with irregular and often singular-shaped flowers, the perianth standing as it were on the ovary, as in the two preceding orders; but remarkable for having the stamens, only one or two, united with the style or stigma. This may best be seen in the Lady's Slipper, of which we have three or four common species: the slipper is one of the petals, in the form of a sac. The flowers of various sorts of Orchis are striking and peculiar ; but the family is too difficult for the young beginner, and therefore the kinds are not described here. Fig. G9 represents two air-plants of this family, belonging to tropical countries. III. Glumaceous Division. 103. RUSH FAMILY. Order JUNCACEiE. The true Rushes are known by having flowers with a regular perianth, which, although glumaceous, i. e. like the chaffy scales or husks of Grasses, is of G regular parts, like a calyx, enclosing G (or sometimes 3) stamens, and a triangular ovary. This bears a style tipped with 3 stigmas, and in fruit becomes a 3-seeded or many-seeded pod. There are two 216 POPULAK FLORA. common genera, each with several species: the parts are too small and difficult for the young student. Pod 1-celled and 3-seeded. Leaves flat and hairy, (Luzula) Wood-Rush. Pod 3-celled, many-seeded. Leaves generally thread-shaped, or none at all, (Juncus) Rush. 104. SEDGE FAMILY. Order CYPERACE^E. A large family of Rush-like or Grass-like plants, including the Sedges, Clubrushes, Bulrushes, and the like, which have no perianth, but the flowers, collected in heads or spikes, are each in the axil of a single glume in the form of a chaff or scale. These plants are much too difficult for the young beginner. 105. GRASS FAMILY. Order GRAMINEiE. The true Grasses make a large and most important family of plants, with straw stems (called culms, 91) ; leaves with open sheaths; and flowers with 2-ranked glumes or chaffy scales, a pair to each flower, and another pair to each spikelet. It includes not only the very numerous kinds of true Grasses, but also of Corn, i. e. the Cereal grains, of which Wheat, Barley, Rye, Oats, Rice, and Maize or Indian-Corn are the principal ; also Sugar-Cane, Broom-Corn or Guinea-Corn, and Millet. SERIES II. FLOWERLESS OR CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS. Plants destitute of flowers, and propagated by spores instead of seeds. See Part I., Paragr. 165, 308, 312-314. CLASS III.— ACROGENS. This class includes the Ferns, the Horsetails, and the Club-Mosses. CLASS IV. — ANOPHYTES, This class includes the Mosses and the Liverworts. CLASS V. — THALLOPHYTES. Includes the Lichens, the Alg^e or Seaweeds, and the Fungi or Mushrooms. INDEX TO PAKT I. AND DICTIONARY OF THE BOTANICAL TERMS USED IN THIS BOOK. *„* The numbers refer to the page where the term is explained or illustrated. Abortive : imperfectly formed. Abortive Flowers, 69. Abruptly pinnate, 52. Absorbing, 85. Accessory Fruits, 81 Achlamydcous Flower: without calyx or co- rolla, 68. Acorn, 79. Acrogens, 98. Aculeate : bearing prickles. Acuminate : taper-pointed, 48. Acute : ending in a point, 48. Adherent : naturally united to. Adnate : naturally grown fast to. Aerial Roots and Rootlets, 34, 35. Aggregated Fruits, 81. Air-Plants, 35. Akene : a seed-like fruit, 78. Albumen, of the seed, 14, 83. Albuminous : having albumen. Alternate (leaves or branches), 25, 54. " in the parts of the flower, 70. Ament: a catkin, 61. Angiospermous, 76, 97. Animal Kingdom, 2. Annual : living only one year or season. Annuals, 27. Anther, 7, 64. Antheriferous : bearing an anther. Apetalous : without petals, 67. Apple-Fruit, 77. Appressed : close pressed together, or pressed against another body. Aquatic : growing in water. Arboreous or Arborescent : tree-like or relating to a tree, 37. Aril : an additional covering of a seed, 83. Aristate : same as awned, 49. Arrow-shaped, or Arrow-headed, 48. Artificial System of Classification, 96. Ascending: rising gradually upwards, 37. Assimilation, 87. Auricled or Auriculate: bearing ears (auricles), or small appendages, 48. Awl-shaped : very narrow and pointed, 53. Awned. Awn-pointed, 49 Axil : the angle between a leaf and the stem on the upper side, 24. Axillary : situated in an axil. Axillary Buds, 24. " Flowers, 59. Axis : the trunk or stem, or a line through the centre of any organ, 6. Baccate : berry-like (from Bacca, a berry). Bark, 42. Base : that end of any body by which it is at- tached to its support. Beak : a long and narrow tip to a fruit, &c. Bearded : beset or fringed with strong hairs or beard. Bell-shaped, 72. Berry : a pulpy simple fruit, 77. Biennial : living only two years. Biennials, 27. Bifid : two-cleft or split. Bilabiate: same as two-lipped, 72, 178. Bipinnate : same as twice pinnate, 52. •218 INDEX AND DICTIONARY Bipinnatifid : twice pitinatifid. Bitenute: twice divided into threes Bladdery : thin and inflated. Blade of a leaf, 43 ; of a petal. 64. Border of a corolla, &c, 72. Bracts and Bractlets, 59. Branches, 24. Breathing-pores of leaves, 264, 265. Bristles : stiff and strong hairs. Bristly : beset with bristles. ■ Budding, 56. Buds, 24, 38. Bulblets, 41, 57. Bulbous : like a bulb in shape. Bulbs, 31, 40, 57. Caducous : dropping off very early, as the calyx of Poppies and Bloodroot. Calyx, 7, 63. Campanulate : bell-shaped, 72. Capillary : slender and as fine as hair. Capitate : headed ; bearing a round, head-like top ; or collected in a head, as the flowers of Button-bush, 61. Capsule : a pod, 80. Cartilagineous or Cartilaginous : like cartilage. Caryopsis ; a grain or seed-like fruit, 79. Catkin : a scale-like spike, as of Birch, &c, 61. Caulescent : having a stem which rises out of the ground. Cells, in vegetable anatomy, 89. Cells of the ovary or fruit, 8, 74. Cellular Tissue, 41. Cereal : relating to com or com-plants, held by the ancients to be the gift of Ceres. Chaff: thin bracts, in the form of scales or husks. Ciliate : fringed -with hairs along the margin, like the eyelashes fringing the eyelids. Circulation in plants, 86, 88. Class, 94. Classification, 93. Claw, of a petal, &c, 64. Cleft : cut about half-way clown, 49, 50. Climbing, 37. Club-shaped : thickened gradually upwards. Clustered : collected in a bunch. Clustered Roots, 36. Coated Bulbs, 40. Coherent, calyx or ovary, 75 Column : the united filaments of monadelphous stamens, as of the Mallow (Fig. 317J, or the stamens and style united, as In the Oi* chis Family. Complete Flower, 67. Compound Corymb, Cyme, &c, 63 " Leaves, 44, 51. " Ovary, 73. Pistil", 73. Compressed : flattened on two sides. Cone, as of the Pine, 82. Confluent : when two parts or bodies are blended together. Conical Boot, 36. Connate : grown together from the first. Connective, of the anther, 66. Convolute, leaf, &c. : rolled up. Convolute, in the flower-bud, 183, 187. Cordate : heart-shaped, 48. Coriaceous : of a leathery texture. Corm, or Solid Bulb, 40, 57. Corolla, 7, 63. Corymb, 60. Corymbose, or Corymbed : in corymbs, or like a corymb. Cotyledons : seed-leaves, 9, 84. Creeping, 57. Crcnatc : the margin scalloped, 49. Cruciform : cross-shaped, as the corolla of the Cruciferous Family, 124. Crude Sap, 86. Crustaceous : of a hard and brittle texture. Cryptogamous, Cryptogamous Plants, 58, 97. Culm : a straw-stem, 37. Cuneatc : wedge-shaped, 47. Cupulc ; the acorn-cup, and the like, 79. Cuspidate : tipped with a sharp rigid point, 49. Cut : said of leaves, &c, which appear as if cut or slit from the margin inwards, 49, 50. Cuttings, 56. Cyme, 62. Cymosc : in cymes, or like a cyme. Deciduous : falling off, as petals generally do after blossoming, or leaves in autumn. Declined ; turned to one side, or to the lower side, 37. Decompound : several times compound, 52. Decumbent: reclined on the ground, 37. Dceurrent : said of leaves continued downwards on the stem, like a wing, as in Thistles. Definite : uniform ant 1 rather few in number Dehiscence : the regular opening of pods. Dehiscent Fruits, 79. OF BOTANICAL TERMS. 219 Dentate : toothed ; the teeth pointing outwards but not forwards, 49. Denticulate: toothed with minute teeth. Depressed : flattened from above. Diadelphous Stamens : united by their filaments in two sets, 73. Dicotyledonous, Dicotyledonous Plants, 22, 97. Diffuse : loosely and widely spreading'. Digestion in plants, 87. Digitate, 51. Dioecious Flowers, C8. Dissected : cut into fine divisions. Distinct : of separate pieces, unconnected with each other, 71, 73. Divided : cut through or nearly so, 50. Divisions, 49. Double Flowers (so called), C9. Downy : clothed with soft and short hairs. Drupe : a stone-fruit, 78. Drupaceous : like a drupe. Dry Fruits, 77, 78. Eared : bearing car-like projections, or auricles, at the base, on one or both sides, 48. Elaborated Sap, 87. Elliptical : regularly oval or oblong. Emarginatc : notched at the end, 49. Embryo : the germ of a seed, G, 9, 83. Endogenous Stem, Endogenous Plants, 41, 97. Ensiform : sword-shaped, as the leaves cf Iris (Fig. 64). Entire : the margin even, not toothed or cut, 49 Epidermis : the skin of a plant, 44. Epiphytes : air-plants, 35. Equitant (riding astride), 53. Erect, 37.' Essential Organs of the Flower, 7. Evergreen : holding the leaves 3 -* eneenan D enmansiiiD. NEW, REVISED s AND W 5 CORRECTED EDITION. "With Extra Heavy Covers, the Paper having been made Especially for these Books. The Spencerian Penmanship was first published' in 1 1848, and has maintained from the first a standard position. It claims to be more practical, more thorough and more original than any other system of writing published, and especially commends itself over other systems as superior in its simple and easily comprehended A nalysis and Method ; in its systematically and progressively arranged Copies; in the beauty and simplicity of its Style; in its plan of Ruling, whereby correct slanting and proper spacing are obtained; and in its Movement Exercises, which readily enable the pupil to become a rapid and easy writer. The Spencerian is the accredited source from which the best penmen of the country have derived their knowledge and skill in the art of writing. It is used in more Normal Schools and Business Colleges than all other systems combined ; and it is more generally used throughout the United States and Canada than an}' other system. - s -*4/z£=-o-*-o*g?/tn*-r-~*- "W 3HE E IT IS 9 jM3 Progressive j r\ T>P -I, in Drawing. COMPRISING The Art Studies and the Industrial Drawing, THE LATTER HAVING JBEEN JUST PUBLISHED. The general purpose in the preparation of the Industrial Series has been to avoid any waste of tide r ,-er such l Lints of study as are easily understood, or are of minor importance and to dwell more <~ar • sd / -upon ihr.se that require the greater attention of the pupil to familiarize him with their principles, ilMiri v. Iiich will r. st surely lead to useful results. Tb-" device of using dots as guide-points, which Mr. White introduces so successfully in his Art Stt