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The British Public has been often much misled by conflicting statements respecting the cause and progress of the French Conquest of Algeria, and national prejudices have also been instru¬ mental in obscuring the truth. The author of this sketch therefore trusts, that by aiming at strict impartiality, in recording briefly a glorious episode in the history of our brave and chivalrous neighbours, he may, in a slight degree, aid in softening a certain jealousy, which yet exists in this country towards France, with respect to her Mediterranean acquisitions. The French were impelled by a sense of na¬ tional honour to invade Algeria; and the untiring activity, and powerful influence of a patriotic, though unscrupulous chief, forced them to under- VI PREFACE. take the Conquest of the entire Regency. There can no be doubt that the result, introducing, as it has done, modern civilization to the Barbary States, has proved of great benefit to Europe, and of still greater to the southern shores of the Mediterranean. The war is now happily at an end, and may success attend the mission of colonization, and the development of the resources of Algeria, which now devolve upon the mother country. The author is aware that, from time to time, events relating to the war in Algeria have al¬ ready been laid before the public, but a short and popular account of it is yet wanting and may not be without interest. The Conquest of the Regency is not sufficiently remote from our day to belong truly to the domain of history, and until the principal actors in it have passed away, access will probably not be obtained to the docu¬ ments necessary for the attainment of a full and perfect narrative of that interesting war. In England, for several years after the capture of Algiers, the question discussed was, whether the occupation would be permanent. It, however, was soon seen that France had gone too far to PREFACE. Vll recede from the position she had assumed. Sym¬ pathy began to be evinced for the prowess and patriotism of Abd-el-Kader, and on the other hand, the martial exploits of Bugeaud, Changar- nier, De Lamoriciere, and Bedeau, became the theme of general admiration among the armies of Europe. Algeria no longer opposes any dangers or difficulties to the enterprise of British travellers: sportsmen and tourists from the three kingdoms have wandered among the Atlas mountains, and have enjoyed a hospitable welcome from the French officers. The author takes this opportunity of recording his gratitude to His Excellency the Count Randon, and other officers, for the facilities offered to him during a tour in Algeria in the year 1853 ; and he cannot forget the useful information im- parted, and the kindness shewn to him by Monsieur Latour Mezaray, the Prefet of Algiers, whose solicitude and consideration for the Arabs, eminently qualified him for this important post. The pleasing recollections of the tour alluded to, suggested the idea of this historical sketch. The city of Algiers, now transformed from a Vlll PREFACE. congregation of narrow and dirty streets, into a beautiful French town, containing every luxury and comfort, has induced manv of our countrymen to seek in it a winter residence. Whether, how¬ ever, it will be found more beneficial as a sanitory residence, than the old established resorts for inva¬ lids on the shores of the Mediterranean, is a ques¬ tion which time alone can solve. But, for the lover of antiquity and the sportsman, there are few countries so near our shores, which hold out so fair a prospect of enjoyment. Arab man¬ ners and customs may still be studied ; there are yet perfect specimens of Moorish architecture, and districts rich in Roman remains. With Algeria, the Regency of Tunis, and the site of Carthage, are worthy of exploration ; and let us hope, that ere long, Mr. Murray will provide us with one of his well known red-covered manuals to guide our footsteps in those countries. C O N T E N T S. CHAPTER I. On the past of Algeria, and the races which inhabit the country known by that name.1 CHAPTER II. Geographical, &c. &c. 12 CHAPTER III. How Algeria became tributary to the Sublime Porte—Reflections. 22 CHAPTER IY. The final rupture—Organization of the army—Embarkal ion—De¬ parture of the Expedition—Landing Rattle ot Staoucli, and march on Algiers—Capture of the Emperor’s Port, and capi¬ tulation.• • • * .35 CHAPTER Y. Expeditions to Blida, Bona, and Oran—Recall of Count de Bour- mont—General Clausel—The Zouaves—Mcdcali—The Duke of C 7 llovigo. X CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. Abd-el-Kader.^ CHAPTER VII. The “ Bureau Arabe”—Bougie—First Treaty with Abd-el-Kader— The African Commissioner—The Count Drouet d’Erlon, Gover¬ nor-General—The Macta. ...... 105 CHAPTER VIII. Mascara—The l)uke of Orleans—Tlemcen—General Bugeaud— Constantine—Treaty of the Tafna—Capture of Constantine 131 CHAPTER IX. Condition of the Provinces of Algiers and Constantine—The Emir’s policy—French Expedition to the Bibau—Heroism of the Garrison of Mazagran—Campaign of 1840—Medeah. . 152 CHAPTER X. General Bugeaud—Occupation of Mascara, and destruction of Tekedempt, Bogliar, and Taza—Mustapha—The Ouar-Senis —Capture of the Smalah—Foundation of new Stations. . 174 CHAPTER XI. Morocco—The Prince de Joinville’s Naval Campaign—The Battle of Isly—Biskra.190 CHAPTER XII. Bou Maza—The Caverns of the Dahra—The Duke d’Aumale— French Prisoners—Final efforts of Abd-el-Kader—Ilis surrender. 205 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER XIII. Subsequent events in Algeria—The “ Bureau Arabe”—The Sahara —Statistics and concluding remarks. .... 219 MAPS. 1. Algeria.—2. Environs of Algiers.—3. Environs of Oran. ERRATA. Page 23 Line 8 for Isbaac read Ishaac 27 7 for Isbaac read Ishaac 41 8 for protest read pretext 94 8 for French could have rend French could, by judicious &c., &c. 163 24 for Mustapha-ben-Tehamy read Mustafa-ben-Tehamy 157 23 for occur read accrue ICO 10 for the direction Ain-Turk read the direction of Ain-Turk THE FRENCH IN AFRICA. —— CHAPTER I. On the Past of Algeria,* and the races which inhabit the country now known by that name. No one would have ventured to predict half a century ago, that a field for European enter¬ prise, and an outlet for our surplus population would now be opened on the shores of Algeria ; yet the real matter for surprise to the present age, and of reproach to the past, is, that the * The term 4 Algeria 5 has been used throughout, to designate the country treated on in this narration; but it did not exist under its former rulers, and it was not until 1838, that the official designation, “ les possessions franpaises du nord de l’Afrique 55 was dropped, and that of ‘Algeria 5 substituted. Consult on this subject, “I/Algerie en 1848, ’ by Monsieur Bequct. T» 2 THE TRENCH great Powers of our Continent should have so long tolerated a piracy, which respected no flag or law of humanity; and the suppression of which, far from exciting a single jealousy, should have brought to the victor, the gratitude and blessing of Christendom. The long wars in which the nations of Europe were still engaged at the commencement of the present century, for some time, however, pre¬ served the barbaric State of Algiers from any serious attack; and after the Peace of 1815, its own strength and position, and our international jealousies, still saved it from the vengeance of Europe. The great difficulty, apparent to England, of effecting any permanent settlement among the warlike and fanatic Arabs, was clearly seen, and probably deterred her from any attempt at follow¬ ing up Lord Exmouth’s bombardment; and France, in 1830, also aware of the arduous nature of the undertaking before her, and not feeling too certain of ultimate success, was unwillingly forced by cir¬ cumstances to adopt the policy she afterwards pur¬ sued—a policy which ended in the subjugation of the entire country. IN AFRICA. 3 Before entering on the immediate cause of the French invasion, and its subsequent course, it may not be superfluous to refer to certain events in the history of the country, the knowledge of which, enables the mind better to form an idea of its condition at the period we refer to; indeed, it is only by gathering into one continuous chain the isolated facts of the remote past, that a clue is gained by which we can estimate more recent events at their just value. At the commencement of the Christian Era, the northern portion of the African continent was possessed by Rome; but the warlike Vandal pene¬ trated through Europe to the shores of Africa, and there established a dynasty, which, in its turn, gave way before the arms of Belisarius, who, by the conquest of Carthage secured the country for the eastern division of the Empire of its former masters. In the seventh century of our era, Mohamet* arose, and elevating his countrymen from their previous subjection to a debasing idolatry, began * The historical events alluded to in this paragraph, are fully related in “The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 5 ’ B 2 4 THE FRENCH a conquest, which, pursued by his successors, gave in course of time, a new religion and code of laws to the inhabitants of the Euphrates, the Nile, and even the Guadalquiver. Bagdad and Cairo were consecutively the centres of this new system, and the Empire of the Caliphs comprised a territory of greater extent than that of Rome under the early Emperors; but it did not very long maintain its integrity, and the greater portion of it passed to the Ottomans, a northern race, who had embraced the religion of Mahomet. Early in the sixteenth century, Algiers, which had hitherto been an unimportant fraction of a vast federation, began to play an independant part; the brothers Barbarossa seized on the government, and Khair-ed-din, the youngest of them, on the death of his brother Aroudj, implored the pro¬ tection of the Sultan, and in return for great naval services, he was invested with full powers, and ruled Algiers as a tributary to the Sublime Porte. Such then was the political position of the country, from that period until the French invasion in 1830, a regency of the Ottoman Empire. The traditional policy of Mahometan rule has in that part of the world yielded to the.superior IN AFRICA. 5 enlightenment of the West, and no international jealousies ought ever to interpose between the well- merited gratitude of every commercial country in Europe and that Nation, which, without disturbing the balance of power, transferred the wilderness of banditti, which Algeria then was, into the centre of civilization, which it seems destined at no distant period to become. From the earliest historical times, that extensive peninsula, called Arabia,^ formed by the Red Sea, the Euphrates, the Gulf of Persia, and the Indian Ocean, was in the same condition that the seventh century of the Christian Era found it, and remained for the most part unaffected by those violent changes, which, at various epochs, convulsed the greater parts of the known world. The Arabians are proud and high spirited, and have always des¬ pised strangers, in blood, religion, and language. They have ever been divided into two distinct classes : first, those who dwell in settled habitations, and are called ‘ Hadhar,’ who chiefly occupy fertile districts, and devote themselves to the cultivation of the soil, and the breeding of cattle; others of * Consult Burckliart’s works on Arabia and the Arabs. 6 THE FRENCH them carry on a trade from the shores of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, to the coast of India and tropical Africa, and by caravans to the shores of the Mediterranean. The second portion is called * Bedouin/ or Nomadic, and is divided into tribes, who wander from place to place, as they find pas¬ turage for their flocks ; these Bedouins, or dwellers in tents, have always been considered the true type of the race, and are much more numerous than the inhabitants of the towns, who from settled and peaceful occupations have lost much of the original stamp of their character. It will at once be seen that a people who lead a roving life, and especially in perilous times, and in disturbed countries, merely wanted unity and a central power, to make them most formidable for the purposes of war. That unity, since retained, Mahomet gave them ; indeed, it was this advantage of the desert-bred horseman, whose saddle was his couch, and whose lance an effective commissary, which wafted the banners of Tartar and Hun through the breadth of the old world, and reddened them in the blood of its peaceful industry. And though, indeed, the followers of the Prophet have often warred amongst themselves, they have always readily laid aside IN AFRICA. 7 their own quarrels, to unite against any power alien to them in religion; and that singleness of purpose, combined with fanaticism, and with a species of chivalrous civilization, no doubt rendered them so potent against the feudal nations of Christendom during the Middle Ages. Of all the Arab conquests, the most difficult, and perhaps the most glorious, was that of Northern Africa; for if the Greco-Byzantines offered but a feeble resistance, the warlike and brave inhabitants of the Atlas mountains disputed the ground inch by inch, and only after an obstinate struggle, did they consent to adopt the religion of the invaders. The old Numidians, with whom the Vandals are probably fused, are now known by the term ‘ Kabyle/ To this day, they are as history has always described them, a wild and warlike race, hating strangers, and avoiding all possible inter¬ course with them ; they formerly occupied a great portion of Northern Africa, but their conquerors have driven them from the plains, and they are now only to be found in the mountain districts. In Algeria,* a rectangle, formed by lines, which * " La Grande Kabylie,” by General Daninas and Captain 8 THE FRENCH connect Deliys, Aurnale, Setif, and Bougie, would nearly enclose their principal territory, known as the Great Kabylie, and is a mountainous region, the interior of which is still almost closed to the stranger. The race does not appear to have been denominated 4 Kabyle * before the Arab conquest: three derivations are given of the term *. e Kuebila/ tribe; ‘ Kabel,’ he has accepted; and ‘ Kobel/ before; the first alludes to their organization into federal tribes, the second to their conversion to the religion of Mahomet, and the third, which is the least plausible, merely pretends to designate their possession of the country at an earlier period than any other race. They speak a language of their own, but the alphabet is lost, and in writing, the Arabic characters are used ; it is entirely destitute of literature, and few Arabs understand it; they, on the contrary, study the Arabic most assiduously, both to read the Koran and to carry on their commercial transactions. Much difference, both physical and moral, exists between the Arab and the Kabyle; the former have generally dark hair Fabar. contains a great amount of interesting detail respecting the Kabyles. IN AFRICA. 9 and eyes, while the latter frequently have blue eyes and light hair; the Arab has a long neck and oval face, the Kabyle, on the contrary, has a round face, and short neck; the Arab never shaves his beard; the customs of the Kabyle oblige him to do so until he reaches his twenty-fifth year, at which age he is entitled to let his beard grow, being then considered to have attained his majority. The women associate more freely with the men than is usual among the Arabs, and always appear with their faces unveiled. The Moors are also supposed to be descended from some of the ancient inhabitants of Mauritania, but if so, are now fused with the Arabs, and are called ‘ Hadhar.’ There are many Jews residing in all the towns of Northern Africa; they are for the most part descended from those who were driven out of Spain and other European countries during the persecutions of the Middle Ages. They are here, as elsewhere, devoted to commerce and finance, and are much persecuted by the Moslems; in Algeria, however, the French conquest has terminated their days of oppression. The costume of their women, who are extremely beautiful, is picturesque, and the study of their social customs 10 THE FRENCH highly interesting; this subject, however, will be more fully entered into when treating of Morocco, where the Jews differ in no respect from their brethren in Algeria. The resistance of the Arabs during the first years of the French occupation, forbad the fur¬ therance of any project but war; only since the year 1847 has the attention of the Government been concentrated with effect on the colonization of the country, and its mining and agricultural capabilities; and the constant change of the supreme power, has much retarded the development of its internal resources. Another great drawback has existed in the fact that capitalists have even now not acquired that confidence in the future to induce them readily to invest money in the new colony, and, moreover, the advantages held out have not been sufficient to secure a good class of immigrant. Unfortunately, the popular belief that Algeria is an unhealthy desert is held by even many educated people in France; were the truth propagated, surely a few out of the many thousands who annually quit France, Germany, Italy, and our own shores for America and Australia, would, in preference to perpetual banishment from their IN AFRICA. 11 native land, seek labour and a home in a country but at most a few days distant from their own. Capital would also find its way there, and as is the case in all new countries, labour and capital are what Algeria most needs; these obtained, corn, sugar, tobacco, and wine might be furnished to almost any amount, and mineral resources of vast importance would inevitably be developed. The first step, however, towards this progress, is the opening of more speedy communications between the large towns. Tlemcen, Mascara, Oran, Mi- liana, and Constantine, are not yet connected with one another, or with the Capital by carriage roads; traffic is still carried on by the camel, horse, and mule. It would, however, be unjust to deny to the Government that praise which is its due; there is an excellent road to Blida and Medeah from Algiers, and tolerable ones from Oran to Tlemcen, and from Constantine to Phiiippeville and Stora. Besides the French, there are many Spanish and Maltese colonists; the former are industrious and well conducted, the latter quite the reverse, being composed of the most worthless among the inhabitants of their native island. 12 THE FRENCH CHAPTER II. Geographical, &c., &c., Algeria^ is divided by the Atlas Mountains into two distinct zones ; that on the north is deno¬ minated the ‘ Tell/ by which term the region capable of cultivation is designated; and that on south, the ‘ Algerine Sahara/ which is a tract of country composed alternately of sandy deserts, mountains, ravines, and marshes. This last is inhabited by nomad tribes of Arabs, who migrate according to the season of the year, in order to supply the wants of their cattle. The mountain chains of Northern Africa from Tunis to Morocco, all come under the general denomination of the Atlas, but in attempting to give * Description et division de l’Algerie, par MM. Carette et Warmer. IN AFRICA. 13 a definite idea of the varied and rugged face of Algeria, it will be necessary at times to call the subsidiary ranges and isolated masses by their Arabic names. This plan has been adopted by the French Etat-Major, and by others who have been required to make reports on different localities in the country. The numerous mountain summits, situated far inland, are indeed without a European nomencla¬ ture, and the ancient names have fallen into disuse; but the wants of navigators, who, with excusable licence, rarely permit a peak or head¬ land to remain unchristened, have long supplied names for the coast ranges. The lesser of the two main chains of the Atlas approaches nearly to the sea in some places, but in others, it diverges from it about twenty-five miles; the greater chain is from eighty to a hundred and thirty miles distant. Their eleva¬ tion varies from five to nine hundred feet, or there¬ abouts. Numerous rivers have their sources in them, which although too rapid and shallow for the purpose of navigation, water the plains through which they flow at a season, when such irrigation alone redeems them from the sterility 14 THE FRENCH around. The streams which take their rise on the northern slope fall into the Mediterranean, and those which issue from the south side into one or other of the salt lakes, which are to be found in different parts of the Sahara. There are many branches and spurs diverging from the main chains; between the frontier of Morocco, and the river Tafna, are the Traras ; and commencing from near the mouth of the Chelif, and continuing as far as the Mazafran are the Dahra Mountains. They are in length about one hundred and eighty miles, and in breadth about thirty; near Cherchel, they are connected with the central range of the Lesser Atlas, which here incloses the Plain of the Metidja, and these mountains do not again approach the sea until they reach the mouth of the river Isser. Between this point, stretching nearly to the Tunisian frontier, are lofty mountains extending to a dis¬ tance of thirty miles inland; these are included within the territory of the Great Kabylie. Sur¬ rounding the Capital is a very picturesque chain of hills known as the Sahel # of Algiers. * “ Sahel,” shore. IN AFRICA. 15 The onlv considerable river in the territory «/ •/ is the Chelif, which rises in the Great Atlas, and flows between that chain and the Dahra range, traversing in its course an extensive plain; it empties itself into the sea near Mostaganem. Its depth, in no place considerable, is likewise subject to great variations, owing to floods from the hills, and its rapidity, together with these causes, would probably frustrate any attempt to render it navigable. There are numerous smaller streams, which afford ample supplies for the irriga¬ tion of the plains and valleys of the Tell, Situated between the 34°th, and 37°th of north latitude, Algeria possesses for the European an excellent climate, and the summer heats are generally modified by northerly breezes. On the plains and in the valleys, frost is almost unknown, although of course the different elevations of the table lands and mountainous regions supply every variety of temperature. The rainy season com¬ mences towards the end of October, or the beginning of November, and generally lasts until the end of April; some years it includes May, while in early seasons it ends with March. The rains are frequent and heavy during this period, 16 THE FRENCH but in summer the sky is generally cloudless, and with the exception of an occasional shower, little moisture is experienced, save the ample dews of night, which leave no evidence but the drops with which the wild flowers gleam in early morn- ing. During the winter season, the region of the Atlas is liable to violent thunder storms, and severe gales of winds; and sad devastation has at times been committed by earthquakes, though fortunately these occur but rarely. The fertility of the Tell gives great hopes of future riches: its productions are various. Grain of different kinds is grown in abundance; the olive, the orange, and the lemon, which in Pro¬ vence have a stunted appearance, are here fine spreading trees, adorning the landscape as well as attesting to its richness; and the traveller, who to-day beholds the varied and rich crops which are produced in the valleys, and on the plains and hill-sides, after so many centuries of neglect, is justified in hoping that the time may not be far distant, when cotton, silk, wine, and tobacco will be cultivated with profit. But it must be observed that the development of these branches IN AFRICA. 17 of industry cannot take place without a greater supply of capital and labor, than seems likely at all events for some time to flow into the country. In many localities there is much marsh-land, which circumstance has frequently caused an unheal¬ thiness very fatal to Europeans: the fevers contracted on the plain of the Metidja have at Bouflarick and other points been severely felt by the troops com¬ posing the early expeditions. Drainage has affected much towards ameliorating this state of things, and in the space of a few years, Bouflarick has become a most flourishing colony, the half way station between Algiers and Blida ; from six to eight diligences pass through it daily on their journies, to and fro, between the Capital and that town. Here is an instance of the triumph of a civilized and energetic people over the obstacles opposed by nature to the cultivation of the earth, and the rendering it fit for the abode of man. For some years after the capture of Algiers, the plain was in the occupation of hostile Arabs and Kabyles; Europeans scarcely ever ventured on it, unless accompanying an expeditionary force, and fever c 18 THE FRENCH usually fell to the lot of those who escaped the vigilance of the marauding enemy. Bouffarick was at one time noted as being the most deadly spot on the Metidja; now the French and German colonist live on terms of comparative brotherhood with the swarthy Arabs, who have ceased to despise the Roumi* Their natural intelligence has caused them to recognise in French laws and institu¬ tions, a government paternal alike to all creeds and forms of faith ; their own laws and rude justice have enabled them to grasp the meaning of that glorious birthright of the first French revolution, (i Equality before the lawthey see in the Catholic priest, one who submits to a life of self-denial, and devotes himself to relieving the poor, visiting the sick, and comforting the dying, whether they be Jews, Moslems, or Christians. But although they have learnt to respect their conquerors, they will ever be staunch to their own faith; generation after generation of missionaries will most probably fail in subverting the religion of Mahomet, and its votaries will respect the toleration, which permits all to worship according to the dictates of their * Analogous to the Eastern expression “Frank.” IN AFRICA. 19 consciences, and will be grateful to those who have established among their race, a system of government founded on principles of justice and mercy. Not only, however, has a change been effected with reference to the attitude of the native races, hut the soil has in great part been subdued by the industrious colonist. French villages are springing up in every direction, and the beautiful plain, when viewed from the southern side of the Sahel of Algiers, appears dotted with little white farm houses, and brings a variety of impressions to the mind; it resembles Lombardy, but the vegetation is more tropical; the aloe and cactus form the hedges ; and orange and olive trees afford a grateful shade. To the sportsman, the interior offers great attractions, as the exploits of the celebrated Jules Gerard can testify; but besides lions and other denizens of the forest, there are many wild animals, objects of the chase, and excellent food for man ; herds of gazelle roam over the plains of the Sahara, and are hunted with great eagerness for their flesh, equal in flavour to the most delicate But of far more importance are the c 2 venison. 20 THE FRENCH useful domestic animals, the mule, the ass, and the camel of the Sahara, all of which are bred here in great numbers; but the pride and glory of the Arab is his horse, and some of the best blood existing is to be found on the borders of the Desert. The Barb and the Arab horses have in Algeria been successfully employed for purposes of draft, and yet are admirably adapted for light cavalry; the race is small, but the horses are strong, active, and fast, and as among the Numidians, so to the Arab, this noble and in¬ telligent brute is not a mere plaything or a luxury, but one of the first necessities of life. In these introductory chapters, an attempt has been made to give such a description of the country, a portion of whose history is about to be narrated, as will enable the reader, on consulting the map, more easily to follow the different ex¬ peditions, and to appreciate the difficulties which European troops necessarily encountered during these campaigns, in the want of roads, the novelty of Arab warfare, and the management of native troops. We shall also examine presently the system of administration established by the French ; but in order the better to understand what they IN AFRICA. 21 undertook, and what they accomplished, the next chapter will be devoted to an account of the Regency, which, in 1830, was overthrown by them. 22 THE FRENCH CHAPTER III. How Algeria became tributary to the Sublime Porte—Re¬ flections. The Arabian armies issuing from Egypt and Syria, in the seventh century, overran the north of Africa, and this conquest resulted in its partition into several independent hereditary states; a political condition of the country, which continued through various vicissitudes until the fifth century, when another Mahometan race appeared, and established a new order of things, most oppressive to the inhabitants of Barbary, and terrible to the neighbouring Christian States of Europe. We shall now take some notice of the re¬ markable men by whose instrumentality this important change was brought about. In the IN AFRICA. 23 887th year of the Hegira, and of our Lord 1482, the Sultan Bayazid the Second reigned at Con¬ stantinople ; and in the Island of Myteline, which formed a fraction of his vast dominions, there lived an old merchant, Jacob by name, who carried on a trade in the waters of the Levant, in a small ship commanded by himself. At his death, he left four sons, Isbaac, Khair-ed-din, Elias, and Aroudj.* The two former followed their father’s calling, while the two latter armed a ship, choosing a crew from among the most adventurous and enterprising of the youth of Myteline, and put to sea in the hope of capturing Christian merchant vessels. Their first two encounters were successful, but in a hardly contested action with a Rhodian galley, in spite of bravery on the brothers’ side, worthy of a better cause, Elias was killed, and Aroudj taken prisoner, sent to Rhodes, and sold as a slave. His brother Khair-ed-din gave way to the most profound grief on hearing this sad intelligence, and lost no time in attempting to liberate him. * The account of the Brothers is taken from an Arabic manuscript in the Bibliotheque Imperiale in Paris. 24 THE FRENCH Bethinking himself of a Christian merchant, who had extensive commercial relations with Rhodes, to whom he once rendered an important service, he applied to him for aid, and refreshing his gratitude with a bribe of ten thousand silver drachmas, engaged him to effect the deliverance of his brother. The merchant equipped a ship, and sailed for Rhodes, landing Khair-ed-din at Boudroum, a port of Caramania, about sixty miles from the stronghold of the Knights of St. John. The Christian merchant, on his arrival, instead of at once making overtures to effect the accomplish¬ ment of his mission, sought to obtain an inter¬ view, or to communicate in some way with Aroudj. The opportunity soon offered, and the Moslem prisoner thanking the merchant, re¬ quested him to conceal the object of his visit, and to leave the island as quickly as possible. “ Tell Khair-ed-din,” said he, “ that I will not trespass on his generosity by accepting a ransom from him ; trusting in God, I shall find means shortly to elude the vigilance of my captors.” Not for some time, however, could he accomplish his escape, but at length succeeded, when IN AFRICA. 25 employed as a rower in a galley, by jumping overboard, and swimming to an island, where he knew he would be received as a friend. We next hear of him in Egypt, where mis¬ fortune still followed him, and afterwards in Satalia, where he was granted an audience of the Sultan Selim, which resulted in his being appointed to the command of a ship. This command he did not long enjoy, for he was soon afterwards captured by the Grand Master of the Knights in person, and on this occasion again, Aroudj escaping to a friendly shore, saved him¬ self from a second captivity. Such, however, was the general confidence in him, that not¬ withstanding these repeated disasters, he again obtained a ship, with which he captured some valuable prizes on the coast of Italy, and soon after these successes, chance brought about a meeting between Aroudj and Khair-ed-din at Tunis, where they united the forces they had collected, and attacked Bougie, then in possession of the Spaniards; the attack failed, and des¬ troying their ships in order to prevent them from falling into the hands of the enemy, Aroudj fled to Djidjelli, and Khair-ed-din to Tunis. 26 THE FRENCH In the meantime, the inhabitants of Algiers, serverely harrassed by the Spaniards, applied to the brothers to lend their aid in driving them away, and in forcing them to evacuate a small island in the Bay, in which they had established themselves, and from which position they perpetually annoyed the town. The brothers at once consented, and Aroudj with his devoted band of Turks, undertook the defence of the city, and in a sortie, which he commanded in person, inflicted a severe chastisement on the Spaniards, and finally compelled them to abandon the island. The ambition of Aroudj now soared high, and having treacherously compassed the death of Selim Eutemi, the reigning prince, he was, as the favorite of the hour, urged by his soldiers to strike a blow 7 for the supreme authority ; but before he could accomplish this, a revolt broke out among the Arabs, and only after many summary executions, did he mount what after¬ wards became the vice-regal throne. A compact was then entered into between the brothers, for a division of the territory. But the Sultan of Tlemcen, in alliance at that time with the IN AFRICA. 27 Spaniards in Oran, declared war against them. Aroudj at once took the initiative, and marched at the head of a few thousand Turks in the direc¬ tion of Tlemcen, and in a hotly contested en¬ gagement, during which this gallant band per¬ formed prodigies of valour, Aroudj and Isbaac were both killed. Their death, however, was amply revenged by their faithful soldiers, and Khair-ed-din shortly succeeded, through his and their indomitable energy, in effecting the subjuga¬ tion of the entire country. Established in his authority by the power of his arms, and by the prestige his name had acquired, he despatched an Embassy to Con¬ stantinople, and received in return from the Sultan Selim, the title of Dey, which conferred upon him the command of the Algerine Army. His ambassador Hadj-Hussein, a Turk by birth, carried valuable presents for the Sultan, including many Christian slaves, and was charged to pray that the Sublime Porte would take Algeria under its protection. The Envoy was brilliantly re¬ ceived by the Ottoman authorities, and lodged in great state, and at his departure the Grand 28 THE FRENCH Vizier entrusted to his keeping a sacred standard, and a Khatti-Cherif, granting to the Algerines the protection they required, and decreeing, that they should be considered the faithful subjects of the Porte. After a warlike and glorious reign, Khair-ed-din surnamed by the Christians Barbarossa the Second, his brother Aroudj being the first designated by that * soubriquet,’ died of fever, while on a visit to Constantinople, and was suc¬ ceeded in his government by his son Hassan. It may have been at first intended that the regency should be hereditary in the family of Khair-ed-din, but the prize was too rich to escape the influence of the intrigues of the Divan at Constantinople, and those of the Divan and the Odjeac at Algiers. This last was a corps similar to that of the Janissaries at the capital of the Turkish Empire, a military force, organized to coerce the subjects of its commander, rather than to follow him against a foreign enemy. Such a force is the expedient of most rulers, who do not reign in the hearts of their people, and history is full of examples that no confidence, privileges, favors, or rewards, can long IN AFRICA. 29 repress the ambition, or retain the loyalty of guards, who have once made the dangerous discovery, that in their sabres lies the sole strength of the sceptre. The ruler, who would govern by the sword, must wield it, and must often obey the power which supports him; the camp and the battle field must be his bed, the cannon his eloquence, and warriors his heralds and his guests. The Odjeac was founded by Aroudj on his arrival in Algiers, and formed of Turks, inter¬ mingled with some renegade Christians; men who had few or no social ties, and whom the hope of plunder and adventure had attracted. Algerines were not admitted into the ranks of this corps, and its members were looked upon as a caste quite distinct from the native inhabitants. The members of the Divan were mostlv taken from the Com- */ manders of the Militia, so that the form of govern¬ ment, as usual among the early Mahometans, was purely military, the civil element being excluded from the legislative as well as the executive. The principal officers of state were the Minister of Marine, the Treasurer, the Agha, or Commander of the army, and the chief secretary, who was charged 30 THE FRENCH with the political and diplomatic correspondence. The Regency was divided into three provinces, exclusive of Algiers; Constantine to the east, Titery to the south, and Oran to the West; and they were governed by Beys, appointed by the Dey, and removable at his pleasure. Such then, briefly told, is the story of the con¬ quest of Algeria by the Turks; but as it is un¬ necessary to relate the various conspiracies and violent changes to which Algiers was subjected from this period till the nineteenth century, it suffices to say that Hassan was shortly disgraced, and Salah Reis, a Turkish corsair, was appointed to succeed him. The Regency was, by its geographical position, the advanced post of the Mahometans against Christendom, in the same manner as was Rhodes against the nations which had embraced the religion of Mahomet; and as long as the Ottoman Empire was the terror of Europe, the Deys of Algiers carried out their mission, not only with the relentless cruelty usual to border and fanatic war¬ fare, but also with a far greater measure of impunity and profit to themselves, than would have served to encourage less bitter and less enduring IN AFRICA. 31 foes to Christianity. Their's was a hostility which dreamed not of truce; from cape to cape, and mountain peak to headland, the signals from their vigilant watchmen flew along the coast whenever a luckless Christian merchant ship was becalmed, or forced by currents near this dreaded shore; then issued forth the piratical row boat, ever on the alert for plunder, and from which there was no escape in calm weather. The hardest slavery awaited the captives; this was imposed with a systematic view to the extortion of large ransoms, and hundreds of unfortunate Christian women, who had the misfortune to be captured by the bar¬ barians, were considered too precious for ransom, and retained in the harems of the rich. It can easily be imagined that such excesses would sooner or later arouse the vengeance of Europe, but unfortunately the fleets and armies of Christendom found ample employment in carry¬ ing on war against each other, or without doubt, this Corsair state would earlier have been annihilated. In the meantime, heavy exactions were imposed on Europe by the government of the Regency, not only in the ransoms demanded for prisoners, but likewise in the payments of black mail, required 32 THE FRENCH for safe conduct and free passage to merchant vessels, but which payments too frequently failed to secure their safety ; and in the absence of any concert among the Christian states of Europe, the squadrons, which from time to time, one or the other of them, sent to enforce in its own favour only, some treaty for the cessation of these piracies, had gained no substantial or permanent advantage, and the Turkish power continued to hold its own throughout Northern Africa, as far as the frontier of Morocco, with the exception of a few isolated posts on the coast, which Spain was strong enough to retain. At length a proposal was mooted at the Congress of Vienna, to take joint measures against the common pest; but the Congress was occupied with yet weightier matter, and came to no determination which had any practical result. England, in 1816 , sent a formidable fleet to enforce the following demands : viz., the release without payment of ransom of all Christian slaves, the restitution of divers sums of money paid by the Neapolitan and Sardinian governments for the ransom of subjects in slavery; the abolition of Christian servitude, and peace with Holland on the same terms as with IN AFRICA. 33 England. These conditions were refused, and the celebrated bombardment ensued, which resulted in their acceptance by the Dey. The geographical position of France, however, destined her in aftertimes to be the instrument in effecting the redemption of the country, and no sooner did the turn of political events seem to favour the undertaking, than she hastened to ac¬ complish her mission. That England should have felt a secret jealousy at the prospect of France possessing territory on the coast of Northern Africa, is not surprising. As the first naval power in the world, she naturally would have wished that the police duties of the Mediterranean should, by European consent, have been delegated to her; her interests in that sea were, at least, not opposed to those of either Austria or Prussia, and she could have performed services advantageous to those states in protecting their commerce from the attacks of pirates. But Russia, before the Algerine expedition, had on certain questions of foreign policy, been very closely allied to France; the former power most probably considering that the steps taken would be instrumental in checking the influence of England D 34 THE FRENCH on the lesser maritime states, and the Continent was pleased at seeing a field created out of Europe for the employment of a French army, and of revolutionary and restless spirits. England could not view the expedition other¬ wise than as a renewal of that policy, which aimed at converting the Mediterranean into a French lake, and the Cabinet of St. James’s in looking into the future, may have feared the ultimate con¬ quest of Tunis and Morocco to be probable con¬ tingencies. The Regency of Tunis could, if invaded by France, have offered but a feeble resistance; but Morocco vrould have opposed more serious difficulties, in deserts, in marauding tribes, always at hand to cut off supplies, and to harrass the movements of an army, and in mountain chains, there more elevated than in Tunis or Algeria; yet we cannot imagine that these obstacles would long have preserved even the mountain fastnesses from the disciplined armies of France. We shall now consider the immediate causes of the war between Hussein, the last Dey of Algiers, and the French. IN AFRICA. 35 CHAPTER IY. The Final rupture.—Organization of the Army.—Departure of the Expedition.—Battle of Staoueli, and March on Algiers.—Capture of the Emperor’s Fort, and capitu¬ lation. The Ottoman Empire was no longer formid¬ able ; Navarino had been fought ; Greece had become free; the Black Sea, a Russian lake ; and the Sultan was generally compelled to submit to the dictates of the ambassadors accredited to him. He was not therefore in a position to oppose the just attack of France on the territory of a distant tributary state, dependent on Turkey in little more than name. It was, indeed, sug¬ gested to the Porte, that in disputes with Algiers, aggrieved nations should redress their own wrongs; but the Porte, in assenting, never con- d 2 36 THE FRENCH templated the conquest of the Algerine State by France. The cause of the rupture dates hack many years before the last resolve of France to send an army to obtain reparation. The vacillating con¬ duct of Monsieur Deval, who was appointed Consul General in 1815, appears to have em¬ boldened the Dey, encouraged his menaces, and induced him to evade the fulfilment of every reasonable demand. This Consul, a Levantine by birth, had been employed as a dragoman in the French Embassy at Constantinople; he was a good Oriental linguist, and the manners and customs of Eastern nations were familiar to him ; but his character for firmness does not appear to have kept pace with his accomplishments, and he seems to have yielded without resistance to many unreasonable requests. He consented, without opposition, to the annual tribute paid by the French African Company, for permission to occupy commercial establishments on the coast of the Algerine territory, being raised from £2400 to £8000, and he conceded the right, which France had ahvays possessed by former treaties, of fortifying her factories. IN AFRICA. 37 In a barbaric state, where weakness of character is quickly perceived, and turned to account by that cunning, peculiar to Oriental minds, it is not surprising that, with such an agent of France, still further causes of discord should have arisen to add to that country’s share of the outstanding grievances of Christendom. It appears that under the Republic, Busnach and Bacri, Algerine merchants, and subjects of the Dey, agreed to deliver certain supplies of grain to the authorities in French ports, and it is certain that they performed their contract very imper¬ fectly, and claimed a much larger sum than they were entitled to ; it was therefore hardly to be wondered at that the payment was withheld. Now as Busnach and Bacri were debtors to the government of the Regency, a case for negocia- tion with the French was easily made out; not however until the Restoration, was anything like a mutual understanding arrived at; and on the 28th of October, 1819, a convention was signed, fixing the amount of debt at £280,000, at the same time giving to French subjects, who were creditors to Busnach and Bacri, the right of claiming the amount of their debts from this sum, 33 THE FRENCH and the Royal Courts of Paris and Aix were charged with the examination of the different claims. The demands put in by French subjects amounted in all to £100,000, and this was held by the Government, pending the decision of the Courts, while the remaining £180,000 was at once paid into the hands of Busnach and Bacri. The years 1824 and 1825, were passed in the examination of their claims; but in the month of October, 1826, the Dey, being impatient to receive the remainder of the money, wrote to the Baron Damas, Minister for Foreign Affairs, de¬ manding its immediate payment, and declaring that French subjects could make valid their claims before his judicial authorities. The Foreign Minister did not reply by letter, but contented himself with in¬ structing the Consul General to inform the Al¬ gerine Government, that the demand of the Dey was inadmissible, and contrary to the Conven¬ tion of 1819. The Dey was much irritated at this mode of communication, and shortly after, found an opportunity of giving vent to his in¬ dignation. On the 27th of April, 1827, the Consul General presented himself, according to cus- IN AFRICA. 39 tom, to compliment the Dey on the eve of the Bayram, on which occasion, Hussein, in an insult¬ ing manner, demanded of him if he had received an answer from the Minister, in reply to his despatch of the previous October. The Consul answered haughtily in the negative, and so enraged Hussein, that he lost all self-com¬ mand, and striking the representative of France with his fan, ordered him to retire from his presence. The news of this outrage was received in France with feelings of the deepest indignation, and the Government, aroused to a strong sense of the insult it had received, and to the fu¬ tility of further negotiation, took instant mea¬ sures to enforce, by arms, that respect for the Majesty of France, which diplomacy had failed to exact. On the 5th of June, 1827, the Moniteur announced that a squadron had sailed from Toulon, to demand satisfaction from the Dey of Algiers for the outrage committed on the representative of the nation. The squadron was composed of the ‘ Diademe,’ ship of the line, the ‘ Aurore/ ‘ Cybele, 5 ‘ Vestale,’ ‘ Constance/ and ‘ Marie- 40 THE FRENCH Ther&se,’ frigates, besides a few smaller craft, amounting in all to thirteen sail, the command being; entrusted to Commodore Collet. The ‘ Torche,’ cutter, was sent in advance with des¬ patches, and arriving before Algiers on the 11 th of June, delivered her communications to the Consul, who immediately issued a proclamation, ordering all French subjects to embark. But the Dey, wishing to avert extreme measures, assured them that they could continue to reside in Algiers in perfect safety, that he had never intended to insult France, and that it was his earnest wish to restore amicable relations with that Power. He also attempted to place the outrage towards the Consul in the light of a personal quarrel; but in despite of these efforts at conciliation, the French subjects repaired, without delay, to the ships of the squadron, which had been appointed to receive them ; and the Com¬ modore delivered to the Algerine Government the following terms, as an ultimatum: 1. The high functionaries of the Regency, with the exception of the Dey, will present them¬ selves on board the flag-ship of the French Squadron, and will there apologize in the name IN AFRICA. 41 of Hussein, for the insult offered to the French Consul. 2. At a given signal, the French flag will be hoisted from the Dey’s palace, and from all the forts, and will be saluted with a hundred and one guns. 3. The property of French subjects, even if embarked in the ships of states at war with the Regency, is not under any protest to be seized. 4. The Algerine Corsairs are to respect all ships sailing under the French flag. 5. The Dey will execute within the limits of his territory, all conventions concluded between France and the Sublime Porte. 6. The subjects and ships of Tuscany, Lucca, and the Roman States are to be treated on the same favorable terms as those belonging to the King of France. The Dey at once rejected these terms, and replied, that France had violated international law in the Bacri affair, and had raised fortifica¬ tions at La Calle without regard to treaty ; besides granting her flag and passports to ships belonging to States, which had not treated with the Regency. A declaration of blockade was the consequence of this refusal of the terms offered by France, and 4:2 THE FRENCH the Squadron was reinforced by the ‘ Provence/" ‘ Trident/ and ‘ Breslau/ ships of the line, while the Dey, at the same moment, commenced hostili¬ ties by ordering the Bey of Constantine to destroy the French establishments on the coast within his jurisdiction, which was done, but not until after their evacuation. In spite, however, of the blockading squadron, several armed vessels got out of port, and sailed in pursuit of European merchantmen, and not¬ withstanding the vigilance of the cruizers, they succeeded in capturing two ships, though one was fortunately retaken before it could be secured in an African harbour. It seems strange, that although this capture shewed that even the augmented fleet was hardly sufficient for the blockade, the late reinforcements were ordered to the Levant; and no sooner had they left, than a strong squadron, composed of twelve vessels of war, the aggregate of whose crews amounted to more than three thousand men, attempted to leave Algiers, and elude the French cruisers. Favoured by the darkness of night, they managed to clear the harbour, and steered a westerly course ; but they were discovered in time, and the Commodore at IN AFRICA. 43 once giving chase, speedily overtook and forced them to return, and to seek shelter under the bat¬ teries of Algiers. The blockade continued without any unusual occurrence, until the summer of 1829, at which time a disastrous circumstance happened to the French. Six ships 5 boats were sent to Cape Dellys with orders to board and take possession of an Algerine corsair, which was at anchor near the shore; and in the contest which ensued, three of the boats were captured, and the majority of their crews were killed or sent prisoners to Algiers. This misfortune caused a great depression of spirits among the sailors of the squadron, to which the tedium of the long blockade consider¬ ably added ; and the Cabinet of the Tuileries being heartily tired of this naval war, so injurious to French commerce, determined to make another attempt at negociation ; and about the end of June, 1829, the ‘ Provence/ which ship had returned to the Barbary coast, sailed into the Bay of Algiers, accompanied by a brig, the ‘Alerte/ and there anchored under the protection of a flag of truce. The appointed Envoy landed with a small suite of officers, and was introduced to the Dey by the 44 THE FRENCH Sardinian Consul; but after two fruitless confer¬ ences, he again embarked, and the e Provence/ while sailing to rejoin the squadron, though still carrying the flag of truce, was fired at both by the town and mole batteries, and was several times struck, but no one received any personal hurt. From this moment, all hope of negociation terminated, and the French Minister for Foreign Affairs despatched a note to the Cabinets of the Great Powers of Europe, detailing this fresh outrage, and declaring that it was his Sovereign’s intention to obtain reparation. Europe now rejoiced to foresee the probable emancipation of her commerce from the exac¬ tions of the Barbary States, and the Government of England alone shewed signs of disapproval. Lord Stuart, the British Ambassador to the French Court, was instructed to ask for explana¬ tions relative to the armaments, which were then ordered to be prepared in the different French ports, and the ulterior intentions of France towards the Regency. Prince Polignac replied that the King intended not only to demand reparation for the insults and outrages committed on France by the Dey of Algiers, but that his forces would IN AFRICA. 45 take advantage of the present opportunity to annihilate piracy in the Mediterranean, and to put an end to Christian slavery, and to all tributes paid by the nations of Europe to the Regency. In the month of Feburary, 1830, the dockyards both on the Atlantic and Mediterranean sea¬ boards were the scenes of unusual activity; the authorities having received orders to equip with all possible despatch, eleven ships of the line, twenty- four frigates, twenty-seven brigs, besides seven war steamers, and a force of gun and mortar boats, forming in all, a fleet of more than a hundred sail; and merchantmen for the conveyance of military stores were taken up at Marseilles, as well as in some of the ports of Italy and Spain; and by the middle of May, this magni¬ ficent fleet, complete in all its detail, was anchored before Toulon. At the same time, the Military Department had been in no respects behind the sister service; troops from all parts were to be seen marching towards the south, and by the end of April, the entire expeditionary force was there collected. The command of the army was eagerly sought for by Marshal Marmont, Duke of Ragusa; but the King preferred con- 46 THE TRENCH tiding it to the Count de Bourmont, Minister of War, and a devoted servant to the House of Bourbon. He was therefore invested with the supreme command, and being permitted to select an Admiral for the fleet, his choice fell upon Duperre, a distinguished officer, then employed as maritime prefect at Brest. The army was formed into three divisons. Baron Berthezene commanding the first; Count Loverdo, the second; and the Duke d’Escars, the third. The total effective of the infantry was 30,410 men, and the artillery 2,815 men, and 1,246 horses; their ordnance comprised, besides a requisite siege-train, forty-eight field pieces, and twenty-eight light guns for mountain service. The cavalry consisted merely of five hundred men, who were formed in three squadrons, as it was not supposed that a large force of that arm would be required in a campaign, the principal object of which, was the siege of a sea-port town. Many volunteers belonging to regiments, not forming part of the army destined to invade the shores of Africa, were permitted to join it, and amongst them was a young Engineer officer, whose name is now associated with the greatest IN AFRICA, 47 glories of the Conquest of Algeria, De Lamorici&re. A royal prince of Savoy, with several other distinguished foreigners, also obtained leave to join the expedition, England being worthily re¬ presented by Sir Thomas Mansell, a post, captain in the navy, who had taken a distinguished part in the bombardment of Algiers under Lord Ex mouth. The greatest enthusiasm respecting the expedi¬ tion prevailed throughout the south of France. The ill success attending French enterprise in the Mediterranean, had, since the close of the last century, subjected the trade of Marseilles to many gloomy vicissitudes, and hopes of a brighter day now dawned upon the ancient city, whose history had embraced so many adverse events, and opposing influences. The fearful scenes which were here enacted during the first Revolution, the false stimulus given by the wars of the Empire, ill replacing security of commerce, and the brief acquisition, and subsequent loss of Egypt, and of other possessions, had all tended alike to arrest the progress and dishearten the enterprise of Marseilles. Now, therefore, the ambition of statesmen, the dream of philantro- 48 THE FRENCH pists, the hope of laborers, who foresaw a field for their sturdy urchins, the energy and ardour of traders, of soldiers, and of all Christians, joined throughout the south to hail with delight and sanguine expectation this gathering of warriors, which aroused no European enmities, and menaced no legitimate liberties. The presence of the Duke d’Angouleme, who repaired to Toulon to superintend the final pre¬ parations in person, and to hold reviews of the fleet and the army, should have tended to heighten the popular expectations; but in the midst of these exciting displays of warlike page¬ antry, the Prince manifested a sad and taciturn demeanour, calculated to depress rather than elevate the hopes of those around him; his conduct was perhaps not unnnatural; he saw before him many who were associated with the glories of the Empire, and he may have felt that his family, who owed their restoration to the armies of the Coalition, could hardly reign in the hearts of the people; and it is not improbable that forebodings of the ultimate fate of his House may have forced themselves upon him. At length the note of preparation sounded, and IN AFRICA. 49 the following order of the day was issued to the army. “ Soldiers, “ An insult to the French flag, summons you beyond the sea; it is to avenge that insult, that you have been called upon to take up arms, and at a word from the throne, many of you have quitted the home of your families. “ On a past occasion, the French standard has been wafted triumphantly on the African shore; the exhausting heat of summer, the fatiguing march, even the hardships of the desert, failed to shake the determination of those who preceded you. Their cool courage sufficed to defeat the resolute attacks of a brave, though undisciplined cavalry; you are now called upon to imitate their glorious example. “ Soldiers, the civilized nations of both hemis¬ pheres regard you; the cause of France is that of humanity. Show yourselves worthy of this noble mission ; let no cruel excesses tarnish your glory ; be terrible in battle, but humane in victory; interest as well as duty dictates such a course. The Arabs, oppressed through a long series of years E 50 THE FRENCH will behold in you their liberators, and they will seek our alliance. Encouraged by our good faith, they will supply us with the produce of their soil; you will thus, by shortening the war, render it less bloody, and, in so doing, will act in accordance with the wish of a sovereign, who is as sparing of the lives of his subjects, as he is jealous of their honour. “ Soldiers, an illustrious prince is among you, he wished personally to convince himself that all had been done, which could in any way have added to your efficiency and comfort; his sympa¬ thies will follow you; preserve the strict disci¬ pline which he enforced in Spain, and which earned for the army the esteem of that nation, and of the whole of Europe. “ Count de Bourmont, “ Lieutenant-General, Comraander-in-Chief of the Expedition.” The embarkation commenced on the 11 th of May, and was completed by the 17th. Contrary winds detained the fleet until the 25th, when it set sail; the Bay of Palma in the Balearic Isles being fixed on as a rendez-vous, and the following order was read to the respective crews: IN AFRICA. 51 “ Officers, sub-officers, and sailors; called upon with your brethren of the army to take part in an enterprise, which your honour and humanity in general, demand, you will also share the glory of their victory. It is by our united action that the King and France will obtain reparation for the insult offered to the French flag. Think of the glorious deeds of our ancestors; imitate them, and success is assured. Long live the King. “ Dxjperre, “ Vice-Admiral, Commanding the Fleet.” During this time, English diplomacy had not been idle at Constantinople, # and acting on the advice of the British Ambassador, the Sultan despatched a * Grace aux instigations pressantes de l’Angleterre, la Porte, nsant de son droit de suzerainty, s’etait decidee a envoyer a Alger un pacha charge de saisir le Dey, de le faire etrangler, et d’offrir ensuite a la France les satisfac¬ tions qu’elle pouvait desirer. C’etait enlever tout pretexte a 1’expedition fran 9 aise; c’etait faire triompher la secrete jalousie de l’Angleterre. Tahir-Pacha partit done pour Alger sur une fregate fournie par les Anglais. Mais le ministre de la marine, prevenu a temps, avait ordonne a la croisiere franfaise d’interdire 1’entree du port a toute espece de navires.— Leon Galibert. E 2 THE FRENCH • 52 Pasha, with orders to strangle Hussein, and to offer to France the satisfaction she required ; but the frigate, which carried the Turkish Plenipoten¬ tiary fell in with a French cruizer, and the envoy’ being forbidden to proceed to Algiers, sailed for Toulon in the hopes of effecting a direct negocia- tion with the King of France; but events fol¬ lowed too rapidly for him to accomplish that object. In the Bay of Palma the fleet was again detained by contrary winds; and it was not until the 10th of June, that it was enabled to sail for the African coast, and the following day the expedition was before the harbour of Algiers. The sea defences had been considerably streng¬ thened since 1816, and it had been previously determined to make the principal attack from the land side; the fleet, therefore, steered a westerly course for the promontory of Sidi Feruch, the spot which the Emperor Napoleon the First had fixed upon twenty-three years before, as the easiest point on which to effect a landing. The panorama of Algiers and its harbour was truly magnificent. The city is situated on the IN AFRICA. 53 slope of a semicircular chain of hills, and was defended on each side by forts; and along the sea front, there was a continuous line of batteries. Immediately behind the town was the palace and fortress of the Casbah, and on a still higher point was the Emperor’s Fort, and this last was destined to be the real point of attack of the French invading army. On the evening of the 13th, the fleet anchored in three lines in the Bay of Sidi-Ferucb, and on the morning of the 14th, 20,000 men and some field pieces, as well as a mountain battery, were steadily disembarked, notwithstanding the fire of a few guns hastily placed in position by the Algerines. These were at once captured, turned against the enemy, and the troops who had landed were placed in position. On the 15th, a portion of the siege- train, stores, and some horses were brought ashore, and during this operation, the army was employed entrenching itself; the first division being occupied in repelling the desultory attacks of the Arabs. All had hitherto been successfully accomplished, and though at one time, a stiff breeze from the north-east placed the ships in a somewhat critical position, Fortune, on this occasion, befriended the 54 THE FRENCH French, and elements and Arabs failed alike to impede the landing. The disembarkation of the remainder of the troops, and a vast amount of stores was rapidly completed, and on the evening of the 18th, the Count de Bourmont, having learnt that the Algerines contemplated an attack on the French position on the following morning, made his preparations for battle. The ardour of the soldiers was unusually excited by the allusions to the me¬ mory of the past, contained in the General Orders, and they longed to avenge on the fanatic Moslems the rapine of Christian maidens, and the slavery, cruelty and ill-faith of centuries. At about four miles from the promontory of Sidi-Feruch, there is an extensive table-land about six hundred feet above the sea level, which plateau had been named by the French, Staoueli: this was the destined spot for the first great struggle, and here the Algerine forces were collected under the command of Ibrahim, son-in-law to the Dey and Agha of the Janissaries. The Beys of Titery and Constantine were at the head of their respective contingents, and several Arab and Kabyle chiefs led sections of their tribes. This united force amounted to about 30,000 men, comprising 3000 IN AFRICA. 55 Turks. Their front presented the form of a crescent, their right resting on the river, or rather torrent Madiffla, a redoubt being constructed in advance of the position, heavily armed and strongly occupied, and skirmishers took advantage of the undulations of ground to annoy the French out¬ posts. The two first divisions of the invading army were placed in echelon on the low hills, which ex¬ tend from Sidi-Feruch to the Plain of Staoueli ; and the third formed a second line in rear of them. Ibrahim’s design was to turn the French left, while the Bey of Constantine was to attack their right, a heavy fire at the same time being kept up from the redoubt on their centre; a bold idea, which was foiled by the superior tactics of the French General and the steadiness of his troops. Soon after daybreak, the following morning, large bodies of the Algerines advanced in skirmishing order; the Bey of Constantine commenced his attack on the French right, Ibrahim in person led the Jannissaries forward, and in a short time the fire was opened on both sides throughout the extent of the entire line. Loverdo’s division severely tried at times, by superior numbers, firmly 56 THE FRENCH kept its ground, and Berthez^ne’s holding itself on the defensive, repulsed every attack. General Clouet commanding a brigade on the extreme left, incautiously advanced too far, thus exposing his troops to a severe fire, which they were unable to respond to, and the 28th Regiment having ex¬ hausted their ammunition, found themselves too closely surrounded to use their bayonets with effect, and were, for a short time, in an extremely critical position, but General d’Arcine and Colonel de Larchau, by their energy and coolness, with the 29th Regiment, released them from the diffi¬ culty. At this moment, the Count de Bourmont ob¬ serving a hesitation along the hostile line, and judging it a fit moment to assume the offensive, rode to the centre, accompanied by his staff, giving the signal for a general advance, and as three regiments of d’Escars’s division came up, the French army charged the enemy amid the shouts of “ Vive le Rob” The Algerine troops then gave way on all points, and fled in confusion, leaving their camp and a considerable amount of booty in the hands of the victors; and thus was decided the Battle of IN AFRICA. 57 Staoueli, the first and one of the most glorious of the African war. The loss of the Algerines was immense, while that of the French did not exceed seven officers, and five hundred soldiers killed and wounded. The news of the defeat flew like wildfire to Algiers, and Ibrahim, who had entertained the mistaken hope that his superior knowledge of the ground would enable him to attack the enemy advantageously before they were prepared to re¬ ceive him, and had, therefore, advised that they should be allowed to land without molestation, reaped the whole odium of the failure, and drew upon himself much popular indignation. Ibrahim, on his return, presented himself before Hussein, who upbraided him in rather coarse language, but his wife interceding, obtained his pardon, and he still remained in command of the army. At Staoueli, entrenchments were at once thrown up, a good road was constructed to Sidi- Feruch, and telegraphic communication was estab¬ lished with the fleet: the remaining transports soon arrived, and before the end of June the siege-train and all the stores requisite for the further opera¬ tions of the army were safely landed. 58 THE FRENCH In the meantime, Ibrahim had succeeded in rallying his defeated troops, and on the morning of the 24th he appeared with about 8000 regulars and a large force of Arabs on the hills to the east of the plain, and again offered battle. The Count de Bourmont immediately ordered General Ber- thezene to advance on the road to Algiers with three brigades and a field battery, while General Damre- mont attacked the enemy’s position, General Loverdo remaining with an adequate force in charge of the camp. Damremont observed that the Algerines re¬ treated, and therefore he followed Berthezene’s division; and after an hour’s march, the latter reached the marabout of Sidi-Khalef, a locality covered with low hills, behind which the Arabs finding shelter, kept up a desultory fire on the French; but were in a short time driven out at the point of the bayonet, and retreating through orchards and olive groves, the cavalry were unable to follow them ; and on the same evening, the Algerine army was in position on a plateau in front of the French intended line of march, with the design of disputing their advance towards Algiers. The next day they were attacked, and IN AFRICA. 59 made but a poor stand, the French being shortly enabled to occupy the plateau. On that day, Lieutenant de Bourmont of the 38th Regiment, a son of the Commander-in- chief was killed. After the affair of Sidi-Khalef, the French established themseves without difficulty on the lower slopes of Mount Bouzareah, and the road was prolonged to that point, and was protected by eight redoubts. Sidi-Feruch was also fortified, and a garrison placed there, and the army was condemned to several days of inaction, as the transport of the siege material was a work of necessarily slow progress. The isolated hill of Bouzareah is about twelve hundred feet in height, and commands the Emperor’s Fort; the view from its summit is magnificent, as well as extensive, and includes the Bay backed by the Kabyle mountains, and to¬ wards the south, the extensive Plain of the Met- tidja, bounded by the Lesser Atlas. The Empe¬ ror’s Fort, about to become the object of a siege, was constructed on a rock, and was of a rectangu¬ lar form with a bastion at each angle, and in the 60 THE TRENCH interior was a round tower, which commanded the other works, and contained the magazines. This fort was alone capable of offering serious resistance, for Algiers, formidable by sea, was weak on the land side. A march, difficult owing to ravines, woods, and the want of local knowledge, brought the army to the summit of the Bouzareah, and the General-in-chief, inspecting the positions, fixed his head-quarters at about two thousand yards from the Emperor’s Fort; and notwithstanding the late fatigues, ground was broken that night the 29th, and on the morning of the 30th a thousand yards of trenches had been opened, and three batteries were speedily constructed on the west angle of the Fort. In the meanwhile, the guns of the besieged caused considerable annoyance to the French, but not sufficient to interrupt the attack, and while the siege works were being executed, the army took up a more advanced position, and the fleet greatly assisted by keeping up a constant fire on the sea defences. The Fort, though bravely defended, was soon rendered untenable by the well sustained fire of the be¬ siegers, and the garrison, blowing up the maga- IN AFRICA. 61 zines, evacuated it, and retreated to the town. The French then possessed themselves of the ruins, a company of the 17th Regiment of the Line claiming the honour of planting the national flag on the Emperor’s Fort. The city, harbour, and forts of once powerful Algiers now lay at the mercy of the invaders, and Hussein made a vain attempt at negociation, offering in addition to the concessions already demanded, to pay the expenses of the war; but the Count de Bourmont would listen to nothing but an immediate and unconditional surrender, and the Dey was forced to submit to the following terms. 1. The French army is to take possession of the city of Algiers, the Casbah, and all the sur¬ rounding forts, as well as all public property, to¬ morrow, the 5th July, 1830, at 10 o’clock in the morning, (French time.) 2. The religion and customs of the inhabitants shall be respected; no soldier belonging to the French army shall on any account be permitted to enter a mosque. 3. The Dey and the Turkish functionaries are to quit Algiers without delay. 62 THE FRENCH The following convention embracing the above conditions was drawn up on the afternoon of the 4th, and ratified early on the morning of the 5 th; after which the victorious army entered the city in triumph. Convention between the General-in-chief of the French army and His Highness the Dey of Algiers. The Fort of the Casbah, and the other forts connected with Algiers, and the port of that city shall be delivered up to the French troops this morning at ten o’clock (French time). The Gen¬ eral-in-chief of the French army agrees to give His Highness the Dey of Algiers his liberty, and to allow him to take possession of his personal pro¬ perty. The Dey shall be free to retire with his family and all that belongs to them, to the place he shall fix upon as his future residence, and as long as he remains in Algiers, he, as well as his entire family shall be under the protection of the French army ; a guard will be charged with the safety of his person, and with that of the different members of his family. The General-in-chief gives to all the soldiers of IN AFRICA. 63 the Militia, the same advantages and the same protection. The exercise of the Mahometan religion shall remain free; the liberty of the in¬ habitants of all classes shall be respected ; their religion, their commerce, and other occupations shall be placed under no restraint; their women shall be respected ; for this, the Commander-in- chief specially pledges his honour. The exchange of this Convention to be made before 10 o’clock this morning, and the French are to enter as soon after as possible into the Casbah, and successively will take possession of all the other forts of the town, and the harbour. Count de Bourmont. Camp before Algiers, 5th July, 1830. This Convention was ratified by Hussein on the morning of the 5 th, a delay of two hours having been granted to him. Thus, in twenty days, this gallant army had brought to a glorious termination the campaign, of which the immediate result was the release of a numerous body of Christian slaves, and the capture of a large amount of treasure. Hussein at first retired to a residence which had 64 THE FRENCH been assigned to him in Algiers, and outwardly, at all events, bore his change of fortune with calm dignity. One day, however, he paid a visit to the Commander-in-chief, and took possession of a portion of his private property. The Count shewed for him that solicitude and consideration which were due from a victorious chief to a fallen enemy, and after prolonging his visit to nearly three hours, he bade adieu to the General and his officers, thanking them for various acts of kindness; but he had no sooner retired from their presence, than he burst into tears, and re¬ turned to his house in a sad and thoughtful mood. Hussein, the last and one of the most able of the Deys who ever sat on the vice-imperial throne of Algiers, was born at Smyrna, or, ac¬ cording to some, at Yourla. His father was an officer of artillery in the service of the Porte, and he sent the young Hussein at an early age to Constantinople, and enrolled him in the corps of gunners. He obtained rapid promotion, and was distinguished by his zeal and intelligence; but though generally popular, he was always considered of an irascible and obstinate disposition. IN AFRICA. 65 Having committed some breach of discipline, he fled from Turkey to avoid punishment and dis¬ grace, and procured a passage to Algiers, where he enlisted in the Janissaries, and being permitted to trade, was not long in securing for himself an independent position. His general regularity and steady business habits brought him under the notice of Omar Pasha, who was then Dey, and he soon attached Hussein to his person, and finally appointed him secretary to the Regency. Ali, the successor to Omar, valued the services of Hus¬ sein most highly, and, on his death-bed, delegated the supreme power to him. Such, at least, is generally believed, and, if true, shows how powerless the Porte was, in controlling the ap¬ pointment of its viceroys. Hussein was an ardent admirer of the Sultan Mahmoud, as well as of Mahomet Ali, the Pasha of Egypt; he watched the advance of European civiliza¬ tion with interest, and it is said, intended to follow the example of his Suzerain in inducing his subjects to imitate it. On the 10th of July, he embarked on the frigate 4 Jeanne d’Arc,’ which had been placed at his disposal by the French authorities; his departure was unmarked by any demonstration of sympathy, F 66 THE FRENCH or affection on the part of his late subjects. He resided some time at Naples, subsequently at Leghorn, and finally at Alexandria, where he died in the year 1838, at about the sixty-fifth year of his age. The money which he was allowed to consider as his private fortune was considerable, so that his position was always one of compar¬ ative affluence. IN AFRICA. 67 CHAPTER Y Expeditions to Blida, Bona, and Oran.—Recall of the Count de Bourmont.—General Clausel.—The Zouaves.—Medeah. —Negotiation with Tunis.—The Duke of Rovigo. On the 5th of July, Algiers having capitulated, the army entered the city, and established the posts necessary to guard against a surprise; these were soon advanced, and more favourable posi¬ tions were taken up. Thus secured, the Count awaited instructions from his government. But none were for the present received, and in the meanwhile, the state of the country, and the nature of the warfare to be encountered were dis¬ cussed by the army, and all ranks burned with a desire to take some steps in advance. The conquest of the adjacent Plain of the Metidja appeared advisable, if only to supply the f 2 68 THE FRENCH wants of the Commissariat. Camps were formed, and barracks constructed; Doueira, it was said, if occupied, could be held ; from there, Bouffarick might be reached and communications maintained ; and from thence Blida was but a short march. The occupation of these towns, it was supposed, would assure the subjection of the plain, and that accomplished, the wants of the troops could be provided for. Another cause rendered it important that the army should not remain inactive; a spirit of dis¬ content had sprung up against the government, for not having attended to the recommendation of the General-in-chief in the distribution of rewards and promotions; he was made a Marshal for his victory, but his subordinates were unnoticed, and conceived themselves neglected. The first care of the French commander was to establish a police, and to organize some municipal system in the city; but very soon, circumstances determined him to attempt an advance towards Blida, and it was currently reported that the in¬ habitants of that town were anxious to place them¬ selves under the protection of the French. On the 22nd of Julv, a force of one thousand IN AFRICA. 69 infantry, a squadron of cavalry, and four field pieces were placed under the command of General Hurel, who started with the infantry and artillery, and bivouacked that night about twelve miles from Algiers, behind the river Ruma, a small stream running into the Harash, (see map.) At the same time, the Marshal, accompanied by a numerous staff and several Moors, who were favourable to the French, left Algiers and con¬ tinued his route in advance of the expeditionary column, rejoining it near Bouffarick the next day. Here a temporary halt was made to enable the stragglers to come up, for several had been cut off and killed by the Arabs and Kabyles. Bouffarick, the then rendez-vous of a number of Arab tribes, is situated nearly in the centre of the Plain of the Metidja, and is in the direct line of march between Algiers and Blida. On the advance of the column, a deputation was sent from the latter place to declare the submission of the inhabitants. Blida is a small town, situated at the fort of the northern slope of the Lesser Atlas, and is distant, about thirty-five miles from Algiers; it is surrounded by orange groves, and its situation is picturesque, and climate healthy; 70 THE FRENCH it was founded by the Turks, and became under them, one of the most flourishing towns in the interior. In 1825, a terrible misfortune befell Blida; between six and seven thousand, being about half the number of its inhabitants, perished under the ruins of their houses, thrown down by an earthquake, and on the arrival of the French, it was estimated that it hardly contained five thousand souls. In spite of the proferred submission, the French soon found that their presence in Blida was by no means likely to be so popular as they had anticipated; and several shots, fired from am¬ buscades, causing the Marshal to suspect treachery, determined him to fall back, a movement which cost him some severe fighting, and the loss of more than eighty men. Simultaneously with the departure of the expe¬ dition to Blida, a squadron was detached from the fleet, and a brigade embarked and despatched to Bona, which place was occupied without any resis¬ tance on the part of the inhabitants ; but the Arabs in the vicinity showed themselves hostile, and com¬ pelled the garrison to hold themselves on the de- ensive. It was also determined to attempt the IN AFRICA. 71 occupation of Oran; and one of the forts in the vicinity of the Mers-el-Kebir, or Great Harbor, was possessed without serious resistance from the Turks, and occupied by a portion of the crews of two ships of the squadron. A battalion of infantry was likewise despatched to the same place, but be¬ fore it disembarked, the intended operations were countermanded, and the troops recalled to Algiers, the Marshal wishing to concentrate his force, pending the result of the popular ferment in Paris. The fort was therefore evacuated and blown up, the sailors joining their respective ships. The French Commander, however, had the satis¬ faction of receiving from the Bey of Oran, his sub¬ mission as a vassal of the King of France, before the expedition returned to Algiers. About the same time, a corvette was sent to Bougie in order to sound the popular feeling in that locality; but as the ship, on entering the harbour, was received with a cannonade, the captain immediately returned and rejoined the squadron. Certain French writers have endeavoured to show that the Count de Bourmont displayed much irresolution in these early demonstrations; but it 72 THE FRENCH should be remembered that bis force was too small to be much dispersed, his orders were vague, and he was altogether without the requisite knowledge of the country. Under these circum¬ stances, the expeditions to Blida, Oran, Bona, and Bougie, were necessary for the purpose of collect¬ ing topographical and other information with a view to operations at a subsequent period. The news of the Revolution of July reached Algiers officially about the middle of August, and on the 17th of that month, the tricolor replaced the white flag both in the fleet and on the forts. On the 2nd of September, General Clausel arrived at Algiers; he had been nominated to succeed the Count de Bourmont, whose well known legitimate opinions were such, that had the government of July been desirous of retaining him at the head of the African army, he probably would have refused to hold the command under the House of Orleans. The Marshal, on the arrival of his successor, issued a short address to the army, expressing sorrow at parting from those, who had just gained fresh laurels for France, and eulogizing the newly appointed com¬ mander. He immediately afterwards embarked IN AFRICA. 73 on board a merchant ship, and sailed for Port Mahon. General Clausel does not appear to have re¬ ceived any very precise instructions on his depar¬ ture from France, but no doubt the sagacious mind of Louis Philippe foresaw future advantages in maintaining the present position in Africa—al¬ though the transference of the Algerine army to the Rhine would have been more consonant with the popular clamour. The difficulties of the new chief were by no means light. The expulsion of the Turks had deprived the Arabs of an authority, which they regarded at least with respect, if not with love, and it became evident that they conceived the occasion propitious to strike for independence, and to establish a national dynasty. The first measure of General Clausel was the organization of a corps of native infantry, and subsequently two of French light cavalry, # in order * Chasseurs a cheval d’Afrique, ler regiment.—Ce regiment a ete organize en vertu d’une ordonnance royale dn 17 Novem- bre, 1831, qui prescrivit la formation de deux regiments de cavalerie legere sous la denomination de Chasseurs d’Afrique. Le 2e regiment de Chasseurs d’Afrique a ete cree en meme temps que le ler —Leon Galibert. 74 THE FRENCH to give employment to the discontented, and to fill up some of the casualties which had taken place in the army. Of the former arm, two battalions were raised, and received the designation of Zouaoua, or the now well known term Zouave* from a federation of Kabyle tribes, who inhabit the Jurjura range in the centre of the Great Kabylie. These mountaineers, like the Swiss, are renowned as foot soldiers, are brave and enduring, and their submission to the Turks was merely nominal. But members of these tribes were by no means alone admissible into the newly formed corps : natives of every denomination were eligible, and French officers and non-commissioned officers were charged with their instruction. The volunteers of the Charter, who the govern¬ ment had sent to Africa, as well as many Euro¬ pean foreigners who were desirous of obtaining military employment, were enrolled in the so- called Zouaves ; but the aliens were soon after- * L’utilite de former un corps de troupes dans lequel seraient admis les indigenes se revela presque aussitot la prise de posses¬ sion d’Alger, et M. de Bourmont eut la pensee d’organiser ce corps; mais ce fut le General Clausel qui, par arrete du ler Octobre, 1830, ordonna la formation de deux battalions d’in- digenes sous le nom de Zouaves .—Leon Qalibert. IN AFUICA. 75 wards formed into a corps by themselves, and were designated the Foreign Legion.* General Clausel devoted himself with energy to the task of organizing and administering the civil departments of the country, but beyond the reach of his bayonets, he could effect but little. Anarchy was spreading in every direction, and pillage and robbery were common up to the very walls of Algiers; several ambitious chiefs were already in arms, and anxious to secure for them- * Legion Etrangere.—Une loi du 9 Mars, 1831, ayant autorise la formation d’une legion d’etrangers, sous la condition qu’elle ne pourra etre employee que hors du territoire continental du royaume, l’ordonnance royale du 10 du meme mois prescrivit la formation de cette legion, laquelle fut organisee successivement avec les etrangers de toutes nations, deserteurs ou refugies. Une ordonnance du 25 Juin, 1835, ayant rapporte celle du 10 Mars, 1831, et dispose que la legion etrangere cesserait de faire partie de l’armee frangaise, cette legion est passee alors au ser¬ vice de la reine d’Espagne. Mais dans la meme annee, la formation d une nouvelle legion etrangere fut prescrite par l’ordonnance du 16 Decembre; le ler battalion a ete organise immediatement, et les autres bat¬ talions a mesure que les besoins du service l’ont exige. Enfin, une ordonnance du roi, du 30 Decembre. 1840, a divise la legion etrangere en deux regiments, qui ont pris la denomination de ler et 2e regiments de la legion etrangere.— Leon Galibert. 76 THE FRENCH selves a portion of the power relinquished by the Turks. A few of the Arab communities were dis¬ posed to seek the protection of France; others looked to the Emperor of Morocco, as the second chief of Islamism; and a third party, relying on their own exertions, ranged themselves under the banner of the native chiefs. Among the latter, the most influential were the Marabout Ben Aissa, in the east of the Province of Algiers; Ben- Zamoun, chief of the Flittas; the Chiefs of the Koulouglis* of the Oued-Zeitun; at Coleah, the family of M’Barek; at Cherchel, the Marabout El- Barkani; and to the south of Algiers at Medeah, Bou-Mezrag, the Bey of Titery. At Constantine, Ahmed-Bey held the entire province in subjection; and at Oran, the declining authority of the old Bey Hassan was giving way before the rising power of the Arabs of that province. In this conjuncture of affairs, the General-in¬ chief resolved to march on Medeah, and attack Bou-Mezrag, the declared enemy of the French. A corps of eight thousand men was placed under the immediate command of Lieutenant-General * The descendants of Turks by Arab women. IK AFRICA. 77 Boyer, who had arrived from France since the capture of Algiers, with Generals Delort and Cassan, to replace Desprez, d’Escars, and Berthe- zene, who were recalled. Boyer had served with distinction in the expedition to Egypt, and was therefore supposed to possess some experience in Arab warfare. This army was composed of twelve battalions of regular infantry, one of Zouaves, two squadrons of light cavalry, two companies of sappers, a field battery, and six mountain guns. It was formed in three brigades, led by Generals Achard, Monck d’Uzar, and Hurel; Lieutenant- Colonel Admirant commanded the artillery, and the General-in-chief directed the operations in person. His first step was to declare the deposi¬ tion of the Bey of Titery, and to appoint Mus- tapha-Ben-Omar, a Moor of influence, his suc¬ cessor ; he then drew up the necessary instructions to be observed during his absence from Algiers, and commenced his march on the 17th of No¬ vember. The sight presented by the appearance of the expedition must have been novel to the French soldiers; the fantastic uniform of the Zouaves, the gorgeous costume and equipment of the newly 78 THE FRENCH appointed Bey of Titery and his attendants, and of other Moors and Arabs, and the long line of camel and baggage mules, imparted a picturesque and oriental effect to the appearance of the Chris¬ tian army, now penetrating into this comparatively unknown region. Attached to the staff of the General-in-chief, and formerly in the service of the Bey of Tunis, was a young Mameluke, named Youssouf, whose fine figure, and handsome fea¬ tures, and already adventurous life, attracted the observation of the French officers. Some assert that he was an Albanian, but according to others he was born in Elba, and at a very early age was kidnapped by some Tunisian Corsairs and taken to Africa, where he became the property of the Bey of Tunis, who brought him up and carefully educated him. When hardly emerging from boy¬ hood, he was detected in an intrigue with a favorite mistress of the Bey, and took to instant flight in order to save his life. This occurred in 1830, at the time the French were disembarking at Sidi- Feruch, and Youssouf at that moment arriving at the Count de Bourmont’s head quarters, offered his services, which were immediately accepted. General Clausel continued to employ him, and IN AFRICA. 70 speedily observing his courage and abilities, ap¬ pointed him to a commission in the Chasseurs d’Afrique, and he has since proved himself a devoted and able servant of France. The first day’s march brought the army to Bouffarick, and on the 19th it advanced towards Blida, before which town the Arabs appeared in force, and shewed a front of more than a mile in length, their right resting on the Lesser Atlas, and the left on the road to Coleah; this hostile force was composed entirely of cavalry, armed with long muskets. The General deployed his columns, in order to present a front equal in extent to that of the enemy, and sent Youssouf to parley. He was informed that the entrance of the French into Blida would be disputed, and that if their quarrel was with the Bey of Titery, the inhabitants of this town recommended the General to march on Medeah, and not to molest them. A brigade was therefore instantly ordered to turn the town to the right, and attack it from the point where the roads to Medeah and Coleah met, while another brigade advanced by the road from Algiers. Preparations were then made to enable the small 80 THE FRENCH garrison, about to be left at Blida, to hold out against any sudden attack; the trees in all direc¬ tions near the town were cut down, and two bat¬ talions were sent against the Beni-Salah, a Kabyle tribe, which had been most active in ex¬ citing the natives against the French. These bat¬ talions burnt their tents, dispersed their flocks, killed those who resisted, and captured sixty prisoners with arms in their hands. They had been seen firing on the baggage train, and attempting to turn the course of the torrent, which runs through the town; some of them were shot, but the greater number were spared at the intercession of the Mufti of Blida, who gave his word that they would never again serve against the French. This promise, though little depended on, and soon broken, enabled the expedition to proceed in greater force to Medeah. On the 20th, detaching two battalions, and two guns for the defence of Blida, as well as for the purpose of protecting the communications with Algiers, and procuring provisions for the use of the army on its return, General Clausel resumed his march, leaving the heights behind Blida on the left. The enemy disheartened by recent IN AFRICA. 81 events did not appear, and some of the Kabyles even brought provisions to the French troops, and volunteered information concerning the forces of the Bey of Titery. The army halted for the night in front of the gorge through which they were to pass the chain of the Lesser Atlas, and the General addressed the troops as follows: “ Soldiers, “ We are about to cross the first chain of the Atlas mountains, to plant the tricolor in the in¬ terior of Africa, and to open a passage to that region for civilization, commerce, and manufac¬ tures. You are worthy, soldiers, of such a noble mission ; the civilized world sympathises with you. “ Preserve the same order which now exists in the army, and shew the greatest respect and con¬ sideration for those populations, who are peace¬ fully and amicably disposed towards us.” A brigade of infantry led the way into the Pass of the Mouzaia, followed by the mountain artil¬ lery ; then came a second brigade, accompanied by the cavalry, and lastly the baggage and stores, G 82 THE FRENCH escorted by the third brigade, which also formed the rear guard. There was barely room for two men to march abreast on the narrow pathway which wound through the pass, and the troops ad¬ vanced in this order nearly to its summit; halted, and fired a salute of twenty-one guns in memory of the first passage of a French army across the Atlas mountains. The enemy’s skirmishers now appeared, posted behind the hills, but were speedily dislodged, and Bou-Mezrag, the Bey of Titery, with six thousand men and two guns, next opposed the advance in a narrow gorge through which it was necessary for the French to march. His position was strengthened by nume¬ rous ravines with a torrent in front, and his troops were disposed as follows: about fifteen hundred men were posted on the left, and the same num¬ ber on the right of the pass, and the remainder in echelon for nearly two miles in advance. The heights on all sides were covered with Arabs, who efficiently performed the duty of sharpshooters. After a little skirmishing, the General ordered three battalions to gain the heights, and turn the opposing force, while another battalion charged the entrance of the gorge, and drove the enemy IN AFRICA. 83 before them. This engagement cost the French more than two hundred men in killed and wounded, and among the former were seven officers. Leaving a brigade for the defence of the passage, General Clausel marched for Medeah with the remainder of his troops. The inhabitants profess¬ ing an amicable disposition towards the French, he entered the town, accompanied by two batta¬ lions only, the rest of his force being stationed on the neighbouring heights. Medeah, distant rather more than fifty miles from Algiers, and situated about three thousand feet above the sea level, is a town of Roman origin, standing on the slope of a low hill with a southern aspect. The climate is moist and variable, with great extremes of heat and cold. Orange and olive trees cease to grow on this elevation; but mulberries and pears, besides many other European fruits are produced abun¬ dantly. The population is between seven and eight thousand. A noble aquaduct of Roman construction, ensures a good supply of water to the town, and many ruined buildings in the vicinity of Medeah attest the former presence of that colonising race. The town is divided into the g 2 84 THE FRENCH upper and lower, and is surrounded by a stone wall, very imperfect as a means of defence. The new Bev, Mustafa-ben-Omar was duly installed, and received the usual congratulations from the inhabitants ; and French soldiers wandered securely about the narrow zigzag streets, mixing freely with the inhabitants. The late Bey, not daring to trust himself among the mountain tribes, surrendered as a prisoner of war, and was sent to France, but was allowed to be at large on parole; he subsequently obtained permission to reside at Smyrna, where he died at about the age of sixty-five. General Clausel left twelve hundredFrench troops for the protection of Mustafa, formed a militia of the most trustworthy inhabitants, and then com¬ menced his return march to Algiers. The detach¬ ment in the Pass of the Mouzaia had not been mo¬ lested ; but Blida, with its garrison of eight thousand men, had been severely harassed by constant attacks made by large bodies of Kabyles, and a detach¬ ment of fifty artillerymen, while on their march to Algiers to procure stores, fell in unexpectedly with the enemy in force, and were killed to a man. Confusion had begun to prevale in Blida, provisions IN AFRICA. 85 were scarce, the dead and dying were lying about the streets, and the inhabitants were suffering from panic, famine, and misery. The General-in-chief, therefore, unable to spare a sufficient force, fearing a repetition of these attacks, determined to evacuate Blida, and added its garrison to the column. Many of the old and destitute inhabitants, owing to the withdrawal of the French, obtained leave to follow the army, and numbers of these poor people were brought to Algiers on the backs of French baggage mules. General Clausel arrived at the capital with the last brigade on the 30th of November. The expedition to Medeah had been well con¬ ceived, and vigorously executed; but the position did not long remain unassailed. The hostile tribes finding no opportunity for action on the Metidja sought shelter in the mountains, and coalescing with the tribes in the neighbourhood of Medeah, attacked that town, which was bravely defended bv Colonel Marion, who had been left in command. Tbe inhabitants assisted the French, and Musta- pha-ben-Omar displayed a courage, which gained him general admiration. The difficulties, however, of throwing in provisions, and relieving the garri- 86 THE FRENCH son, determined the General to discontinue an occupation, the advantage of which was little more than a slight manifestation of power, and Medeah was accordingly evacuated on the 4th of January 1831. The unsettled condition of affairs in France, prevented much attention being turned towards the proceedings of the army in Africa, and the probability of a European war, compelled the government to keep their forces at home up to their greatest strength and efficiency. A portion of the African army was therefore withdrawn, and General Clausel with his reduced numbers had but one alternative—to hold himself on the defen¬ sive, and by conciliatory conduct towards the natives, and judicious diplomatic relations with the neighbouring Beys and Chiefs, to uphold the position already made good. It has been remarked that universal anarchy had been the consequence of the overthrow of the Turkish authority, and the Bey of Oran, who had courted the protection of France, was menaced by the Arab chiefs in his province, and also by the Emperor of Morocco, who had despatched an army to the Bey’s territory, under the command IN AFRICA. 87 of his nephew. The intervention of France became therefore necessary; the fort at Mers-el- Kebir was in November, 1830, occupied for the second time, and in the following month, the town of Oran itself received a French garrison, and, at the same time, strong remonstrances were made by France to the Emperor of Morocco to induce him to withdraw his troops. In this situation, General Clausel eagerly listened to proposals made to him by the French Consul-General for the Regency of Tunis, in the name of the Bey of that state. These conditions, which were accepted by the General, secured the investiture to the Beylick of Constantine to a Tunisian Prince, on payment of an annual sum of £400,000, also stipulated that he should hold his authority in the same manner, as when the Deys ruled in Algiers, and furthermore, he was to grant perfect liberty and protection to all Europeans, who might repair to his territory for the purposes of commerce or agri¬ culture. French garrisons were also to be ad¬ mitted into the towns of Bona, Stora, and Bougie. A similar convention was also made with respect to the Beylick of Oran; a Tunisian Prince was nominated for investiture, and his annual tribute 88 THE FRENCH was also fixed at £400,000, a stipulation being made that the fort at Mers-el-Kebir should be garrisoned by French troops. The Regency of Algiers, and its tributary Titery, were to be placed under the sovereignty of France, and under her direct and immediate administration. The Cabi¬ net of the Tuileries refused to ratify this treaty, and immediately recalled General Clausel. None will fail to perceive, that if this treaty gave an increase of power and consequence to Tunis, it conferred on France, as great, if not greater advantages. The yearly receipt of £800,000 which would perhaps have equalled the expense of military occupation, the acknowledg¬ ment of her sway, and the immediate and direct government of the most important part of the country, garrisons in the chief towns on the coast, and the consequent power to make any trading regulations she thought fit, were certainly no small results; for her sovereignty would have been no doubt speedily recognised by Europe, and would have entailed but the presence of a small military force. The native chiefs, also, seeing their greater safety under French rule, would, from self-interest, have supported her claims. However IN AFRICA. 89 the Cabinet of the Tuileries disapproved of the treaty, maintaining that General Clausel was not delegated with sufficient powers to make it. Had he been permitted to settle the African question, he would have prevented the adventurers, who flocked round the Government of July, from making political capital out of the embarrassments consequent on an unstable state of affairs. The Ministry, therefore, pretended that he had been made a dupe by the astute Orientals, and recalled and cast blame on a brave and wise soldier, who ought to have received the unanimous thanks of his country. Lieutenant-General Berthezene was appointed to the vacant command; his previous career cer¬ tainly did not recommend him to fill a post of such importance, for though he had also been known as a distinguished officer in the compara¬ tively subordinate posts which he had filled, he had never as yet enjoyed the opportunity of shew¬ ing capability for so high a command. His force, moreover, was reduced by the withdrawal of several regiments to France to less than ten thou¬ sand men, so that he was powerless to act on the offensive. The diminution of the army encou- 90 THE FRENCH raged the audacity of the natives; the Arab and Kabyle chiefs harangued their followers in the name of the prophet, preaching the holy war against the Christian invaders of their soil. They were also emboldened by the prospect of a rich booty, and it was by strict watchfulness alone, that the French felt secure, even within the walls of Algiers. General Berthezene now applied to the Minister of War for reinforcements, which after some delay arrived, and among them were the Volunteers of the Charter, who were enrolled during the days of July, and fought gallantly behind the barricades in Paris. These men of all ages, and various occupations, and of a turbulent spirit, caused much uneasiness to the newly-in¬ stalled government, who caused them to be shipped en masse for Africa. They were at first incorporated with the Zouaves, but subsequently were withdrawn from that corps, and formed into a Regiment of the Line. Thus reinforced, the General-in-chief undertook a second expedition to Medeah, and marched for that town at the head of about four thousand five hundred men. He arrived there without molestation, but suspecting a IN AFRICA. 91 general rising of the neighbouring tribes, judged it prudent to fall back on Algiers, and took with him Mustapha-ben-Omar. While returning, they were much harassed by desultory attacks of horse¬ men on the Metidja, and this fruitless expedition entailed a loss of sixty killed and about two hun¬ dred wounded. The tribes now formed a coalition against the French. Blida and Coleah furnished contingents; but the inhabitants of Medeah still declared in favour of their new protectors, and refused to deliver up the guns and stores in their keeping. The principal instigator of this rising was Sidi- Sadi, an Algerine moor, who persuaded Ben-Aissa, and Ben-Zamoun, powerful chiefs in the west, to join him ; and the latter at once commenced opera¬ tions by attacking a French outpost, defended by two hundred men, and though he was unsuccess¬ ful, he did not definitively retire until three thousand French troops forced him to do so. It was at this period, about the end of July, 1831, that the Prince de Joinville visited Algiers, and reviewed the army, sailing again on the fol¬ lowing day. He was the first of the King’s sons who set foot on the field of the new conquest. 92 THE FRENCH Ben-Zamoun was not long quiet; he soon began to attack the blockhouses round Algiers, and kept their defenders continually on the alert. He thus began to give his adversaries an expe¬ rience of the disadvantages, under which they would labour in campaigning against the natives of Northern Africa; warriors, who required no baggage train, no commissariat, and whose con¬ stitutions were impervious to the diseases of the climate. Public feeling in France soon began to condemn General Berthezene’s measures, on account of their small result, and he anticipated the intentions of his Government by demanding his recall, which request was immediately acted on. Savary, the Duke of Rovigo, succeeded to the command of the army, and Casimir Perier, Presi¬ dent of the Council and“Minister of the Interior, pos¬ sessed sufficient influence in the Cabinet to secure the appointment of an officer, whose functions were to administer the civil affairs of the newly acquired territory. The lot fell upon the Baron Pichou. a man of small reputation for ability, and to him was delegated an authority entirely independant of the Military Commander. In judicial, financial, and IN AFRICA. 93 all other civil matters, he corresponded directly with the respective ministers, and he was responsi¬ ble to the President of the Council alone. The Duke of Rovigo’s system, was to establish a number of blockhouses and intrenched camps on the most advantageous points of the Sahel, enclos¬ ing a space of about six square leagues. These commencing on the side of the Pescade Promon¬ tory, the Bouzareah, Dely-Ibrahim, Cadous, Tix- erain, Oued-el-Kerma, the model farm, and ter¬ minated at the mouth of the Harash. All were strongly occupied, and were connected with each other, and with Algiers, by as good roads as could be hastily constructed. (See map). The Baron Pichou disapproved of this measure, and in fact, there were few subjects on which the two co-equal authorities agreed. The Baron was in consequence withdrawn, and Monsieur Genty de Bussy was nominated to fulfil the same functions, hut under the superior authority of the military chief. The rule of the Duke of Rovigo was one, w 7 hich, though marked by much vigour and ability, was distinguished by unnecessary cruelty; natives, on whom but a slight suspicion of rebellion rested, 94 THE FRENCH were on several occasions ordered to be summarily executed; the most unwarrantable contributions were levied on the tribes within reach of the French forces; two Kaids* were shot, after being promised a free pardon, on condition of surrender ; he sacked Blida, and swept like a destroying angel over the Metidja. If, indeed, at one time, the French could have, by judicious policy, have conci¬ liated the Arabs, and goverened Algeria in a great measure by native aid, the Duke of Rovigo’s fatal career of cruelty and oppression dispelled such a hope for ever, and a relentless and exterminating war was anticipated as the inevitable result of his rule. He returned to France in March, 1833, re* signing his command on account of extreme ill- health. * On avait designe an due, deux kaids comme des chefs d’in¬ surrection tres-influents: il leur promit un pardon absolu, les attira aupres de lui sous la foi d’un sauf-conduit, et les fit executer.“ Cette action criminelle,” dit le Commandant Pelis- sier, “ detruisit toute confiance chez les Arabes, et maintenant les noms de Migaoud et El-Arbi (les deux kaids traitreusement mis a mort) ne peuvent etre prononces sans reveiller des sou¬ venir de trahison et de mauvaise foi bien funeste a notre domi¬ nation .”—Leon Galibert. The Commandant Pelissier of the preceding note is not the present Duke of Malakoff. IN AFRICA. 95 Here, it may not be amiss to describe the situa- ( tion of the French in Algeria at this period. The army numbered twenty-three thousand five hun¬ dred men, and eighteen hundred horses. In the Provence of Titery, to the east and the south of Algiers, Ben-Zamoun, and Ali-ben-M’Barek strove hard to establish their authority ; but near Algiers, French influence was felt, and the natives gained confidence and brought their productions to the markets of the Capital. Blida and Medeah, how¬ ever, as yet maintained their independence, and French power was limited to the tract between the Harash and Metidja, and to that between the Mazafran and the sea. At Oran, the fort of Mers- el-Kebir was alone held, and at Bona, the French were also confined within their defences. Such may be considered as the state of affairs on the de¬ parture of the Duke of Rovigo, and about the time of the appearance of that extraordinary chief Abd- el-Kader, to whom, it is now necessary that we should turn our attention. THE FRENCH CHAPTER VI. Abd-el-Kader. We have already observed in the first chapter of this sketch, that the Arab tribes, whether in Arabia, Northern Africa, or whatever other regions they inhabit, are perpetually in a state of intestine warfare; and only when menaced by a common danger, do they lay aside their quarrels and act in concert; but this union is not always easily effected, nor will chiefs of equal pretensions readily allow their jealousies to subside. It at length happens that one shines forth incontestably superior to his compeers, able to command sufficient adherents to subdue the dissentients, or persuade them to side with the common cause. To fight against the Christians had ever been the most popular rallying cry among the Mahome¬ tans ; and by raising it, the Chieftain, of whom 97 IN AFRICA. we are about to speak, united some of the scat¬ tered tribes, and approached near to forming an Arabian nation, and founding a national dynasty. He maintained a vigorous war for fifteen years with France, and greatly taxed her energy and resources; and his dignity, under misfortune, not less than his high skill and fortitude in war, have entitled him to rank with the most honoured patriots of more civilized states. Abd-el-Kader, whose name signifies the servant of the All-Powerful, is the son of Sidi-Mahy-ed- Din,* by his third wife Lella-Zohra-bent-Sidi- Omar-ben-Douba, and was born at Mascara, in the Province of Oran, about the year 1802. It is reported that his father, a pious marabout, began, on his return from his first pilgrimage, to impress on the mind of his son, that he was born to achieve great actions, and was destined to be a revered chief among the Arabs—and many were the stories respecting visions, which had been seen predicting his future greatness. These predictions, together with the known character for intrigue of * La Grande Kabylie.—Etudes Historiques, by M. Daumas, Colonel de Spahis, Directeur Central des Affaires Arabes a Alger, et M. Fabar, Capitaine d’Artillerie. H 98 THE FRENCH Mahy-ed-Din, and apprehension of the mischievous use to which the talent already apparent in the young- Abd-el-Kader might be turned, awakened the suspicions of the Bey of Oran; and the father and son, warned by their friends, set out in haste on a second journey to Mecca—but their flight be¬ coming known, they were pursued, and arrested on the banks of the Mina. A number, however, of the most influential Arab chiefs, interceded in their favour, and obtained their release, on condition that they immediately continued their pilgrimage. They accordingly formed a small caravan composed of some friends and relations, and proceeded as far as Tunis, from which city, they embarked for Alexandria; and in Egypt, then under the enlightened rule of Mahomet-Ali, the observant mind of the young Abd-el-Kader probably noted down useful maxims of government, which served him in after life. From Cairo, they continued their route to Mecca, where they visited the Beitallah, or cham¬ ber of God, a mosque containing within its pre¬ cincts, the Kaaba or holy house, to enter which is the highest ambition of every good Mahometan. IN AFRICA. 99 From the holy city, they travelled onwards to Bagdad, to the tomb of the great Marabout of Islam, Sidi-Abd-el-Kader-el-Djelali. A singular occurrence affecting Abd-el-Kader, is believed by the Arabs to have taken place at the burial-place of his namesake. It is related that when the pilgrims arrived there, overcome by fatigue and heat, as they were about to pass the threshold of the vault, a negro issued mysteriously from it, offering them dates, milk, and honey; but no sooner had they eaten a single date than their hunger was satisfied. The following day, while Abd-el-Kader was leading the horses to their pasturage, the same negro appeared before Mahy- ed-Din, and demanded of him in an authoritative tone, “ where was the Sultan/’ “ Sir,” replied he, “ there is no Sultan among us, we aie but poor pilgrims, fearing God, now on our way to Mecca,” “The Sultan,” replied the negro, “is he whom you have sent into the plain with the horses, and is such a fitting employment for the great chief who will one day reign over the Arabs.” The marabout warned him that those imprudent words would render them objects of suspicion to the Turks; but the mysterious visitant completed H 2 100 THE FRENCH his prophesy, by declaring that the reign of the Ottoman was drawing to a close. This tale, diligently circulated throughout North Africa, swell¬ ed into a popular belief, and is said to have attracted thousands to the banner of the Emir. The wanderers returned to Algeria in the year 1828, and judging that their opportunity of suc¬ cessful action had not as yet arrived, they led a secluded life, and avoided the appearance of any participation in political affairs—conciliating, how¬ ever, the affections of the people by piety and the practice of simplicity of life and manners, from which they did not depart in their sub¬ sequent more prosperous career. During the desultory warfare carried on by the Arabs against the French, in 1832, when the latter were establishing themselves in Oran, Abd- el-Kader, by his courage and ability, acquired a prestige among his countrymen, which he ever afterwards retained. The subsequent course of events favoured the realization of his projects ; three of the most influential and powerful tribes in the province of Oran, the Hachems, the Beni-iVmer, and the Garabas, being reduced to great distress by their disunion, assembled their respective forces on the IN AFRICA. 101 Plain of the Eghres to consult on the critical state of the country. They there offered the supreme power to Mahy-ed-Din, either for himself or his son, declaring that they held him responsible before God for the national misfortune which might result from his refusal. He, however, demurred, with probable sincerity; the chiefs urged their request with greater vehemence, and Sidi-Arach, an old and revered marabout, stated that he had lately seen a vision, in which he beheld the young Abd-el-Kader seated on a throne, administering justice. Mahv-ed-Din then called his som and demanded %i * of him, in what manner he would exercise the power with which it was proposed to invest him ; he replied that he would rule the Arabs with justice, and would enforce the laws with unflinching rigour. Mahy-ed-Din then led forth his son, and pro¬ claimed him to be the Sultan, the son of Zohra, who had been foretold by the prophets. En¬ thusiastic acclamations followed this announce¬ ment; musicians were sent for from Mascara to do honour to the event, and the young warriors of the tribe celebrated it by warlike exercises, 102 THE FRENCH and feats of horsemanship, analagous to the tour¬ nament of Christian nations. A display of this description is called by the Arabs, a Fantasia , and to a European spectator is picturesque and novel. It is often performed by a few horsemen, but when a victory or other great national rejoicing is celebrated, it is executed by the flower of the youth of the tribe with some magnificence, and in presence of a large assemblage. The wild shouts, the death-like struggle in which the prin¬ cipal actors seem to be engaged, flashes and reports of fire-arms at irregular intervals, the clang of scimitar and spear, the graceful and spirited action of the Arab steeds, who seem to participate in the excitement of their cavaliers, and the flowing and classic garments of these sons of the desert, render the Fantasia a sight not easily forgotten. It was at Gresibia, on the 22nd of November, 1832, that the installation of the young chief took place. He was then twenty-eight years of age, and is described as having been slight in person, and pale, but with commanding features, and rather careworn expression. He was superbly mounted, and all the money he possessed at that IN AFRICA. 103 moment, was tied up in his haick, as usual among the Arabs. A chief jested him on the smallness of his wordly goods, but he replied smiling : “ God will give me more.” He was speedily loaded with presents, and the day after his public entry into Mascara, a forced contribution of considerable amount was levied on the Jews. His first act was to repair to the principal mosque in Mascara, and there take an oath to wage ceaseless war against the infidels, invoking the support of every good Mahometan in the undertaking. He next notified his elevation to all the tribes in the province, explaining to them the motives by which he was impelled, and des¬ patched an envoy to Abd-er-Rhaman, the Emperor of Morocco. That prince acknowledged the newly elected Khalif, that being the title assumed by Abd-el-Kader, and charged his followers to obey him in the approaching struggle. But the emissaries which he had sent to the tribes brought back tidings of no good import. The chiefs while professing profound respect for the personal character, pious habits, and noble qualities of Mahy-ed-Din and his son, declined to swear obedience to him. 104 THE FRENCH Abd-el-Kader and his counsellors on receiving this answer, conscious of the numerical insufficiency of the three tribes to contend with the formidable power of France, and of the moral advantage which would accrue to their standard, could it wave as that of the Sultan of the United Arabs, at once determined to reduce the refractory tribes. He first attacked the Kabyles of Riou, who proved strong enough to repulse him; he recommenced hostilities, and having succeeded in seizing the Caid of the Bethyonas, ordered him to be instantly executed for selling horses to the Christians. This act of justice added to the popularity of the young Emir, for such we may now call him, and the more warlike tribes began to appreciate his abilities, and to flock to his banner, and the peaceful to gather round the strong arm and firm head, which seemed to assure the destiny of Mascara. Having thus accomplished his power, he directed his arms against the French, in fulfilment of his oath. His first triumph was the treaty concluded with General Desmichels, commanding at Oran, which negociation we shall examine in the coming chapter. IN AFRICA. 105 CHAPTER VIL The Bureau Arabe —Bougie—First treaty with Abd-el-Kader—~ The African Commission — The Count Drouet d’Erlon, Governor-General—The Macta. General A vizard, as senior officer, assumed the temporary command of the army, on the departure of the Duke of Rovigo; and his short term of office, was marked by the foundation of an important institution, having for its object, a direct method of governing the native races. This institution is the Bureau Arabe. The tribes had hitherto been communicated with by means of interpreters alone; but the inconvenience of this plan was soon felt, these agents not being at all times thoroughly trust¬ worthy. It was therefore considered expedient 106 THE FRENCH to have recourse to a more direct and efficient system of negociation, and the credit of estab¬ lishing it is due to General Avizard. The intention of the institution was to form a corps of officers of different grades, who should be perfectly acquainted with Arabic, and would be charged with the duty of communicating personally, and by letter, with the native authorities. The principal officer of the corps was stationed at Algiers, and officers of less rank were posted at the bead-quarters of the different commands, each having a necessary staff of clerks, and a native secretary. The powers of the Chefs de Bureau were very great, and their duties were multifarious; they exercised certain judicial functions, and in some cases, were empowered to order executions on the spot. They were entrusted with the levying of many of the taxes and contributions; and laid before the General, and other officers com¬ manding stations, constant reports of the state of the country, and the dispositions of the tribes. The first chief of the Bureau Arabe in Al¬ giers, was De Lamorieiere, then a captain in the IN AFRICA. 107 Zouaves. This officer, since his arrival at the landing of the Count de Bourmont’s force, had studied most assiduously the different Arabic dialects, as well as the character and customs of the natives. His first care, on appointment to the new office, was to visit the tribes in the neighbourhood of Algiers, and to impress on them, that it was the sincere wish of the French Government to enter into friendly relations with them. About the end of April, 1833, and six weeks after the Duke of Rovigo’s departure, the Baron Voirol, who had been nominated to the command, arrived in Algiers. He was re¬ puted a brave and energetic officer, and his conduct in his new position rather added to than diminished from his previous fame. Fie urged the continuance of the construction of roads; and formed a corps of Moorish gendar¬ merie, as a reinforcement to the French. He also organized a native militia, who, in the hot season, were charged with the defence of the blockhouses, and other forts in situations, where marsh-lands, or other circumstances subjected the Europeans, who occupied them, to the in- 108 THE FRENCH fluence of malaria. In the most exposed situa¬ tions, he established entrenched camps, and took every precaution to maintain peace in the neigh¬ bourhood of the Capital. Three years had now elapsed since the first futile attempt to communicate with Bougie, and during that period, no further endeavour to do so had been made. In the year 1831, the Bougiots murdered the crew of a French brig, which had been wrecked on their coast, and the following year, fired at an English merchant ship, and compelled it to put to sea. This latter outrage was taken up by the English Government, and its consul' 1 ' at Algiers was directed to inform the French authorities, that France was expected to protect friendly flags from outrage and insult, on a coast over which she arrogated to herself the sovereignty. It was * Under the Regency, the foreign consuls in Algeria received their exequatur from the Porte, and continued, after the over¬ throw of the Dey, to exercise their functions, without receiving any fresh exequatur from the sovereign of Prance. It was not until some years later that exequaturs were granted by the Iving of the Prench, superseding those originally issued by the Porte. IN AFRICA. 109 pretended by the French, that the English Ca¬ binet held out a threat of occupying Bougie; hut be that as it may, they deemed it expedient to take measures for the capture and occupation of this focus of intrigue, where Hussein-Dey was believed to be secretly negociating, and which was subject to the powerful influence of Ahmed-Bey of Constantine—who still continued to use the flag, and represent the authority of the Porte throughout the Eastern Province. Captain de Lamoriciere volunteered to make a personal inspection and reconnaissance of the lo¬ calities, and Boucetta, a young Moor, then hold¬ ing the office of Captain of the port at Bougie, and from interested motives devoted to the French cause, had offered to act as his guide. They were at once despatched in a brig to the scene of in¬ tended operations, and disembarked with as much privacy as possible; but, notwithstanding their precautions, they had not succeeded in eluding observation, and a rumour was current in Bougie, that a Frenchman had landed and was exploring the town. De Lamoriciere and his guide, there¬ fore, prudently returned to their ship, and had no sooner embarked, than a crowd of armed men 110 THE FRENCH appeared on the beach, shouting and vowing ven¬ geance on the spies. The acknowledged necessity, however, of pos¬ sessing Bougie, induced the Minister of War to send an expedition against it direct from France, considering that such a plan would be preferable to detaching a force from the army of Algiers, which was not too numerous to fulfil efficiently the duties required of it. Secrecy was observed with regard to this operation, and General Trezel, then chief of the staff of the army of Africa, Cap¬ tain de Lamoriciere, and Boucetta, with four Ka- byles, his friends, were ordered to proceed to Toulon, and there await final instructions. The force destined for the enterprise consisted of two bat¬ talions of the 59 th Regiment, two batteries of artillery, a company of engineers, and some military workmen ; the naval squadron was com¬ posed of a frigate, two corvettes, a brig, and three transports. General Trezel received a ministerial letter confiding the command to him ; and on the 22nd of September, 1832, the expedition sailed from Toulon, and on the 29th of that month, arrived in the roadstead of Bougie. Some time was occupied in approaching the defences, the IN AFRICA. Ill wind having failed, and every move towards the shore was preceded by soundings. This delay enabled the inhabitants to prepare for resistance, and the Kabyles from the neighbouring mountains joined them in considerable numbers. Bougie is divided into two nearly equal parts by a deep ravine, and flanked by steep hills, and at a short distance behind it, Mount Gouraya rises to the height of two thousand five hundred feet. The town is defended by several forts: the Cas- bah and the Moussa quarter on the left, command the portion on the opposite side of the ravine, and seemed, therefore, to offer a judicious point of attack; but the General thought it advisable to assault the entire front at the same moment, and orders to that effect were given. The landing was replied to by a sharp volley of musketry from the inhabitants, speedily silenced by the guns of the ships; and on the evening of the 29th, all the forts were held by the besiegers, and were gained with but a trifling loss. But the following day, the Kabyles descended from the mountains, and entering the gardens and houses, commenced a stubborn attack, with the hope of confining the French within the forts which they THE FRENCH 1 12 had captured. The General, under some anxiety, sent to Algiers, and received reinforcements from thence. The street fighting continued during the three following days, and, in that period, great horrors were enacted. The exposed corpse of a French- ♦ man, dreadfully mutilated, drove the soldiers to a state of unusual ferocity. # Boucctta was directed to guide them into the intricacies of the town, and an indiscriminate slaughter ensued. The officers used their utmost endeavours to stop these ex¬ cesses, and saved some lives. During the fighting General Trezel was wounded, but remained at his post. However, on the night of the 2nd or 3rd of October, a serious catastrophe occurred to the French. Boucetta, whose conduct throughout * Cette guerre de rues se prolonge trois jours, ct corame a l’ordinaire exalte la ferocite du soldat. La liideuse mutilation d’un cadavre franpais lui sert de stimulant: Boucetta, qui a des vengeances a exercer dans sa patrie se charge d’en diriger les coups. Quatorze vieillards, femmes ou enfants, sont massacres chez le cadi avec un stupide sang-froid: soixante autres ne doivent la vie qu’a l’energique intervention des officiers. La population entiere perit on s’exile a jamais .—La Grande Kabylie, by Colonel Daumas , and Captain Fa bar. IN AFRICA. 113 had been most zealous in the cause he had adopted, while in the act of giving some instruc¬ tions to a working party, was mistaken for a Kabyle by a soldier of the 59th Regiment, who aimed his musket point blank at his heart, and laid him dead at his feet. The inhabitants re¬ garded this occurrence as a divine judgment on the traitor, and his corpse being hurriedly buried, and accidentally left partly uncovered, was re¬ cognised by his countrymen, who declared that his native earth disdained to receive his re¬ mains. The French remained masters of Bougie, but the tribes in the neighbourhood still resisted. On the 5th of October, two battalions arrived to rein¬ force the garrison, with a considerable amount of ammunition and stores, and a Colonel of Engi¬ neers was instructed to render the place impreg¬ nable to any attack which the Kabyles might make against it. General Trezel’s mission being accomplished, he was succeeded by the chef-de- battalion, Duvivier, who was soon promoted to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. This officer held the command for more than a year, a period of con¬ tinual warfare with the Kabyles. He made I 114 THE FRENCH several attempts to treat with them, but was wholly unsuccessful. Colonel Lemercier, his successor, however, in April, 1835, concluded a treaty of peace* with * Traite de paix entre son Excellence le Gouverneur-General d’Alger et de ses dependances, et l’honore, le vertueux Scheik Saad-Oulid-ou-Rabah. Le colonel dn genie, Lemercier, directeur des fortifications, portenr de pleins pouvoirs dn Gouverneur-General, et le Scheik Saad-Oulid-ou-Rabah, sont convenus de ce qui suit: Art 1.—A dater du jour de la signature du present traite, toute hostilite cessera entre les Eranpais et les tribus Kabailes qui obeissent au Scheik Saad-Oulid-ou-Rabah. Les deux parties contractantes s’obligent a maintenir, par tout ce qui est en leur pouvoir, la paix la plus durable sur ce pays, trop longtemps teint du sang des chretiens et des musulmans. Art. 2.—Les troupes franpaises continueront a occuper Bougie, tous ses forts, tous ses postes exterieurs, ainsi que tout le terri- toire qui depend de la ville, et qui comprend toute la plaine jusqu’a rOued-bou-Messaoud (riviere Summan). Cette partie de la plaine contient des marais malfaisants, qu’il faut absolument dessecher pour le bien de tous, et qu’on ne peut ecouler que dans la grande riviere dont il s’agit. Art. 3.—Le gouvernement franpais, pour prouver combien il est confiant dans les dispositions pacifiques des tribus du Scheik Saad-Oulid-ou-Rabah, declare que tous les Musulmans des tribus amies qui voudront habiter la ville de Bougie, pourront s’y etablir en toute surete. Leur religion sera protegee et respectee. Art. 4.—Les Kabailes, et, en general, tous les Musulmans, pourront entrer et circuler dans la ville. Les marches leur IN AFRICA. 115 the powerful Scheik Saad-Oulid-ou-Rabah, which was immediately disregarded by the Kabyles; and year after year, Bougie was blockaded, and was little better than a prison for its garrison. At a later period, Bjidjelli was occupied by order of Marshal Valee, and the troops composing its garrison were subjected to great privations, being lodged in wretched huts, cut off from the country, and surrounded by marshes: the hospital was generally full, and the deaths from fever numer¬ ous. seront ouverts, et protection leur sera donnee pour la vente des denrees, des bestiaus, et de tout ce qu’ils apporteront. Art . 5—Le consul-negociant designe par le Scheik Saad, autorise par le Gouverneur-General, residera a Bougie. II sera charge de regler, avec l’autorite franpaise, toutes les discussions commerciales des Kabailes avec les sujets du gou- vernement franpais, et, en general, avec tous les Europeens. Art . 6.—Le present traite sera execute de suite, en vertu des pleins pouvoirs dont M. le Colonel du genie, Lemercier est porteur. Ce traite sera, cependant, envoye au Gouverneur- General pour etre certifie par lui. Fait en double expedition, a Bougie, le 9 avril, 1835. Article supplement aire .—Si quelques tribus recalcitrantes con- tinuent a faire la guerre, le]Scheik Saad-Oulid-ou-Rabah s’engage a se joindre aux Eranpais pour les soumettre, et reciproquement.— La Grande Kabylie. i 2 116 THE FRENCH This policy of occupying isolated stations, regarded by the Arabs, as a proof of numerical weakness or lack of energy, was fatal to the progress of the French arms. It was not until a later period, that more determined measures were adopted by Marshal Clausel on his return to Algeria, and pursued by General Bugeaud. The beneficial effects of this officer’s government will be noticed hereafter. At Oran, General Boyer’s stern measures, which eventually occasioned his recall, caused con¬ siderable detriment to the French interests; many of the inhabitants fled, and the country people intimidated, no longer supplied the market with provisions; the Arabs in the neighbourhood were in arms, and Abd-el-Kader had established himself in the vicinity. During this critical state of affairs, General Desmichels succeeded to the command; a force was sent from Oran to take up a position in front of the Emir’s camp, and he, in consequence, fell back on Mascara. Discord, however, still prevailed among the Arabs in the Province of Oran, and the fortune of war favoured alternately the French and the Emir, who now wisely attempted to strengthen IN AFRICA. 117 his power and claims by negociation. On the 26th of February, 1834, a treaty* was signed, * Le general commandant les troupes franpaises dans la pro¬ vince d’Oran, et l’Emir Abd-el-Kader, ont arrete les conditions suivantes. Art. 1.—A dater de ce jour, les kostilites entre les Arabes et les Franpais cesseront. Le general commandant les troupes franpaises, et l’Emir, ne negligeront rien pour faire regner l’union et l’amitie qui doivent exister entre deux peuples que Dieu a destines a vivre sous la meme domination, et a cet effet des representants de l’Emir resideront a Oran, Mostaganem, et Arzew; de meme que, pour prevenir toute collision entre les Eranpais et les Arabes, des officiers franpais resideront a Mascara. Art. 2.—-La religion et les usages musulmans seront respectes et proteges. Art. 3.—Les prisonniers seront immediatement rendu de part et d’autre. Art. 4.—La liberte du commerce sera pleine et entiere. Art. 5.—Les militaires de l’armee franpaise qui abandonneront leur drapeaux seront ramenes par les Arabes; de meme les malfaiteurs Arabes qui, pour se soustraire a un ckatiinent merite, fuiraient leurs tribus et viendraient chercher un refuge aupres des Franpais, seront immediatement remis aux representants de l’Emir residant dans les trois villes maritimes occupees par les Franpais. Art. 6.—Tout Europeen qui serait dans le cas de voyager dans l’interieur, sera muni d’un passeport vise par le representant de l’Emir a Oran, et approuve par le general commandant. Articles Secretes. 1.—Les Arabes auront la liberte de vendre et d’acketer de la pouctre, des armes, du soufre, eniin, tout ce qui concerne la guerre. 118 THE FRENCH granting to France, the right of being represented by an agent at Mascara, and to the Emir, a similar privilege at Oran, Mostaganem, and Arzew; the surrender of prisoners on both sides, the mutual surrender of deserters, and the right of Europeans, provided with proper passports, to travel in the interior. Some secret articles were included, which were not at the time ever communicated to the French Cabinet. These conditions accorded to the subjects of the Emir powers relative to the purchase of munitions of war, besides other commercial advantages. This treaty was much condemned in France, for it was looked upon as the recognition of Abd- 2. —Le commerce de la Merza (Arzew) sera sous le gouverne- ment du Prince des Croyants, comme par le passe, et pour toutes les affaires. Les cargaisons ne se feront autre part que dans ce port. Quant a Mostaganem et Oran, ils ne recevront que les marchandises necessaires aux besoins de leurs habitants, et per- sonne ne pourra s’y opposer. Ceux qui desirent charger des marchandises devront se rendre a la Merza. 3. —Le general nous rendra tous les deserteurs, et les fera enchainer. II ne recevra pas non plus les criminels. Le general commandant a Alger n’aura pas de pouvoir sur les Musulmans qui viendront aupres de lui avec le consentement de leurs chefs. 4. —On ne pourra empecker un Musulman de retourner cliez lui quand il le voudra .—Leon Galibert. IN AFRICA. 119 el-Kader’s sovereign right, which it was maintained the Arabs themselves had not acknowledged. It was said in Paris that the astute barbarian had triumphed over the vaunted diplomacy of a civilized nation. Abd-el-Kader soon found himself in possession of that portion of the Province of Oran, com¬ prised between the Chelif and the frontier of Morocco, and his ambition prompted him to endeavour to extend his influence to the Pro¬ vinces of Algiers and Titery ; but the energetic language of General Voirol, who informed the Emir that his frontier was the Chelif, and that any interference beyond it, would be construed into a declaration of war, for a time restrained him from aggression. The influence of Ahmed-Bey of Constantine, extended throughout the south and east, and the tribes in the vicinity of Bona, acting through his instructions, confined the French within their line of blockhouses. The position, therefore, of the French in Africa, about the middle of the year 1834, was not encouraging; they held a small territory in the Province of Algiers, and the principal sea-port towns in the three pro- 120 THE FRENCH vinces, but the troops were blockaded in them by the Arabs and Kabyles, while the power of Abd-el Kader in the west, and of Ahmed-Bey in the east, was daily increasing The serious attention of the Government of Louis Philippe was directed to this unfavourable posture of affairs, and the vicissitudes of the war, and the African policy of the ministry began to be much canvassed and criticised in Prance. The African Commission was in consequence ap¬ pointed, and the members were directed to pro¬ ceed to Algeria, and by diligent enquiry and personal observation, to collect materials for form¬ ing an exact report of the condition of the country. This Commission was presided over by Lieuten¬ ant-General Bonnet, and he and the members started immediately for Algeria. After remaining there a month, they returned to Paris, and laid the result of their labours before a second Com¬ mission, of which the Duke Descazes was named President. Their report decided that the dignity and interest of France necessitated the retention of the conquest in the north of Africa, but for the present considered it advisable that the military occupation should be confined to the towns of IN AFRICA. 121 Algiers, Bona, Oran and Bougie; and that enclosing Algiers, a line of posts should be established from Blida, terminating on the east side at Cape Matafou, and on the west at Coleah. Around Bona, the Commission con¬ sidered it desirable to construct a line of posts, starting from the extremity of Luke Falzara, and passing by Sidi-Damden to the mouth of the River Mafrag. It disapproved for the present of any expedition against Constantine, and recommended that the Army of Africa should be reduced to twenty-one thousand men ; and that the supreme power should be vested in a Governor-General who should act as viceroy, with a Lieutenant- General commanding the Army, subordinate to him. The Count Drouet d’Erlon was appointed Governor-General, and at once proceeded to Algiers. The command of the army was given to General Rapatel, Baron Voirol being unwilling to occupy a secondary post, where he had been supreme. A new civil intendant took the place of Monsieur Genty de Bussy, and Rear-Admiral de la Bretonniere assumed the command of the naval squadron. 122 THE FRENCH The power of Abd-el-Kader now increased rapidly, and he announced to the tribes of Titery and Algiers that he would shortly visit them, ac¬ quaint himself with their wants, and restore peace and prosperity to their country, so long a prey to anarchy and disorder. The Governor-General on learning the intentions of the Emir, sent letters to the chiefs of the several tribes to inform them, that if they received him, they should be treated as the enemies of France; and to Abd-el-Kader he intimated, that if he crossed the Chelif, a French force would be despatched to oppose him. At this conjuncture, the young Emir would have hurried into war, but yielding to more prudent counsels, resolved to resort to diplomacy, and sent an Emissary to Algiers. Ben-Durand, an able Jew, who had been edu¬ cated in Europe, and spoke the French language fluently, and had been formerly employed under the government of the Deys, was chosen by Abd- el-Kader to represent him. This envoy so ingra¬ tiated himself with the Governor General, that a great intimacy and almost friendship sprang up be¬ tween them ; and the Jew obtained a certain ascend- IN AFRICA. 123 ancy over the mind of the Count d’Erlon, whose great age had somewhat impaired his keenness of perception. About this time, the French merchants com¬ plained that at Arzew the Emir exercised a trading monopoly, which deprived them of a most legitimate source of profit; and on making a report of their grievances to the Governor-General, he at once demanded an explanation of Ben- Durand, on which the latter produced the original of the secret articles concluded between the Emir and General Desmichels, which already gave the right to the exercise of the monopoly in question. The Count d’Erlon was astonished at the dis¬ covery of these articles, and considered that Gene¬ ral Desmichels, in making the treaty, had erred in judgment and had exceeded his powers. He therefore recalled him, and sent General Trezel, his chief of staff, to take his palace. He also demanded the recall of Ben-Durand. The new commandant was instructed to es¬ tablish pacific relations with the Emir, though as much as possible, to make French influence felt in the province. But the tribes looked up much more to the rising power of their popular Emir than to 124 THE FRENCH the French, who appeared unable to extend any protection beyond the precincts of their camps; therefore, the office of arbitrator between the Arab tribes, fell into the hands of Abd-el-Kader. But there were many Arab chiefs yet jealous of his prosperity, and the tribes in the neighbour¬ hood of Tlemcen declared against him ; but he easily subdued them, and making some terrible examples, crossed the Chelif to punish the Sebiah tribe, whose chief had attempted to check his march; he also visited Miliana, where he re¬ ceived the congratulations of several powerful chiefs. The Governor-General, desirous to chastise the Emir for this inroad, consulted the ministry on the subject. General Trezel also applied to Algiers for further instructions, and, meanwhile, Ben-Dur- and, who was still at the capital, assumed the most conciliatory tone, and endeavoured to ex¬ plain, that in crossing the Chelif and subduing the refractory tribes, his master had forwarded French interests as much as his own. Thus the Emir, with continued success, became haughty in his bearing, and even affected to speak of Algeria as his kingdom. Such insolent pretentions na- IN AFRICA. 125 turally precipitated the coming collision, and the war soon burst forth with renewed violence. The Douars and the Zmelas having declared themselves subjects of France, on condition of being protected from the ambition of rival tribes, pitched their tents in the vicinity of Oran ; and being ordered by the Emir to remove their en¬ campment to the foot of the mountains, they refused, and were, in consequence, attacked by El- Nezary, the Emir’s Lieutenant. The Zmelas at once informed General Trezel of their danger, and he hastened from Oran with all his disposable forces to assist them. He established his head-quarters about six miles to the south of Oran, at a spot, now known as the Camp of the Fig Tree —thus protecting the country occupied by the friendly tribes ; and he then informed Abd- el-Kader, that he should remain there until those who sought French protection, were un¬ molested. The Emir replied, that his religion forbad him to acknowledge the right of the tribes to seek French protection, that he should consider them as rebels, and should employ all the means in his power to reduce them to obedience. 126 THE FRENCH General Trezel had, therefore, no alternative but to construe this answer into a declaration of war, and assumed the offensive in spite of the weak¬ ness of his force. He accordingly marched against Abd-el-Kader with two thousand five hundred men ; the advance guard being composed of two squad¬ rons of chasseurs, and three companies of the Foreign Legion, while passing through the forest of Mulei-Ismael, a thick wood about two miles in length and half a mile in breadth, were at¬ tacked by the Arabs and surrounded by their cavalry, thrown into confusion, and their com¬ mander Colonel Oudinot slain ; but the main body came up most opportunely, and rescued the rem¬ nant from destruction. The General then ordered a halt outside the wood, in the valley of the Sig, for the purpose of reforming and refreshing his men ; and during this halt, the troops gave way to excesses, and plundered the stores of provisions. In order to put a stop to such lamentable dis¬ orders, they were again ordered to march, and that night bivouacked on the banks of the Sig, about six miles from the camp of Abd-el- Kader, The following day, the General observing IN AFRICA. 127 the superior numbers of his adversary, decided to retreat, first, however, advancing into the Plain of Cirat. He was attacked by Abd-el- Kader, and instead of taking the direct road to Arzew, he unhappily defiled towards the sea through the gorge of the Habra, where this stream emerging from the marshes takes the name of Macta. The Emir, detecting the blunder which the French General had com¬ mitted, despatched cavalry to take possession of the Pass; and simultaneously attacking the main body of the French, threw them into con¬ fusion, and inflicted great loss on them. Their heroism, however, saved them from annihilation; and the Arabs at length desisted from harrassing their further retreat, but they lost more than eight hundred men before they entered Arzew, where General Trezel found means for embarking the infantry for Oran, while the cavalry conti¬ nued their march by land. On receiving the news, the Count d’Erlon ordered General Trezel to resign his command: this latter took the whole responsibility of the failure on himself, and blamed no one. Such was the disastrous affair of the Macta, which much increased the influence of the Emir. 128 THE FRENCH Powerful chiefs, who had hitherto kept aloof, now promised him support and co-operation. His reputation became European, and his abili¬ ties and devotion to the cause of his country, found numerous admirers. In England, espe¬ cially, his progress was attentively observed, for the piratical outrages were forgotten, and a sympathy with the Arabs was aroused. It has even been affirmed that the English government assisted Abd-el-Kader at times with money, ammunition, and officers; and the assertion is endorsed by the illustrious name of Castellane, # * “Un deserteur nous est arrive le 17, un homme de Tripoli, * enleve avec une caravane dans le sud; il a ete amene, apres maintes aventures, a Berkani, et force de s’engager parmi les reguliers de TEmir. Cet homme nous sert dans une reconnais¬ sance quenous faisons du cote duNador, pays couvert de cultures magnifiques ou nous trouvons les traces des irrigations les mieux entendues. La tradition a sans doute conserve parmi les Arabes ce systeme d’irrigations semblables a celle de la Catalogue et du Roussillon. Tout en donnant des details curieux sur divers engagements, ce deserteur continue la presence d’officiers anglais au camp d’Abd-el-Kader, presence deja annoncee parle Marechal Valee. L’un d’eux se trouvait, le 5 octobre, 1840, au bois des Oliviers. Conduit par un Juif de Gibraltar, cet officier venu par le Maroc, etait vetu en bourgeois; le deserteur l’a vu pendant deux jours, et Fofficier anglais n’a disparu qu’au moment ou notre division arrivait au col .”—Souvenirs de la Fie militaire en Afrique , par le Comte P. de Castellane. IN AFRICA. 129 and universally credited in France ; but this state¬ ment cannot be entertained—for if France was bent on the subjugation of the Arabs, no money and stores, which could have been secretlv ob- tained from England, would have prevented it, nor would any sane government run the risk of compromising itself in so unprofitable a manner. There was no possible route for such English officers left open from the coast to the camp of Abd-el-Kader ; a journey through Morocco with¬ out a numerous escort, or one from Tunis through the territories of various Arab and Kabyle tribes, at enmity with one another, would have been equally impracticable. English arms and ammunition were no doubt used by the Arabs against the French, but it would be un¬ reasonable to make the British Government more responsible for the destination of their condemned stores, which are periodically sold, than for any other species of English merchandise. Traders of all nations, in seeking the best markets for their goods, notoriously disregard patriotic, and international considerations. English muskets have been used by the Caffres against the British K 130 THE FRENCH troops; French barrels and blades have been employed by insurgent Italians against their res¬ pective sovereigns. IN AFRICA. 131 CHAPTER VIII. Mascara—The Duke of Orleans—Tlemcen—General Bugeaud— Constantine—The treaty of the Tafna—Capture of Con¬ stantine. The Count d’Erlon was recalled soon after the action on the banks of the Macta, and Marshal Clausel, an officer of recognised ability, was, on account of his past experience in Africa, appointed Governor-General. The prospects of France were by no means en¬ couraging on his arrival, and in spite of the late disaster, the Foreign Legion, numbering about five thousand men, was withdrawn to serve in Spain against Don Carlos. This measure bore its fruit; the Arabs believing the chances of inde- pendance increased, made redoubled efforts to rid their country of the French; the Hadjoutes K 2 132 THE FRENCH a tribe in the neighbourhood of Algiers, commit- ted terrible outrages and robberies on the Sahel; and the Bey of Miliana, an adherent of Abd-el- Kader, invaded the Metidja with a numerous ca¬ valry. The Marshal with five thousand men, all that he could then dispose of, marched against, and forced him to retreat, destroying the huts and crops of the Hadjoutes on his return. He now turned his attention to Oran, where a force consisting of eleven thousand men with eight howitzers and a field battery, was concentrating to attack Mascara, the focus of Abd-el-Kader’s power. They marched from Oran on the 25 th of November, 1835, headed by the Marshal in person. The Duke of Orleans, who contrary to the usual custom with Royal Princes, had been edu¬ cated at a public school, the College Henri IV in Paris, and had since seen service at the siege of Antwerp, commenced his African career in this expedition, and earned considerable distinction. His short life was spent in the service of his country, and conferred much benefit on Algeria and its army. On the 1st of December, at the foot of the IN AFRICA. 133 mountains, near the banks of the Sig, the expedi¬ tion fell in with the enemy’s cavalry, and com¬ pelled the Arabs to abandon their camp; and two days later, some further fighting ensued, in which the young Duke distinguished himself. The army then crossed the Habra, and took the direct road to Mascara. At the village of El- Bordj, information was received that the entire population, excepting the Jews, had quitted Mas¬ cara under the Emir; the Marshal therefore occupied the town without resistance. This retreat was quite in keeping with Abd-el-Kader’s system of warfare; he fell back on Cachero, about twelve miles to the south, but his retrograde movement proved no sign of subjugation. Marshal Clausel, after having des¬ troyed the Emir’s depot of warlike stores, recon¬ noitred the country and returned to Oran, without leaving a garrison in Mascara. To the general regret, the Duke of Orleans who was suffering severely from fever, brought on by exposure, took leave of the army, and embarked at Mostaganem for France. Very shortly after the return of the army from Mascara, seven thousand five hundred of the 134 THE FRENCH troops, who had composed that force, were moved on Tlemcen, under the command of the Marshal; and now, many fractions of tribes, through jea¬ lousy of the Emir and mistrust of his power, allied themselves to the French, a desertion which so disconcerted his plans, that although he had taken measures to check this forward movement of his opponent, he sought refuge in the mountains, and the Bey of Tlemcen fled with him. This town was occupied without resistance. Its pleasing landscape presented a strong con¬ trast to the barren appearance of the country about Oran. Tlemcen is protected by moun¬ tains from the baneful influence of the desert wind, and its elevation gives it a temperate and healthy climate, but the town consists of one¬ storied houses, and presents a forlorn aspect in its narrow and dirty streets. Reasons of strategy induced the Marshal to retain possession of Tlemcen, and Captain Cavaignac, even then an officer of great promise, was left in command of a batallion to protect the town and the new Bey, who had been installed by the French. The army then returned to Oran, and were harrassed on the march by the Emir’s IN AFRICA. 135 cavalry. The Marshal proceeded to Algiers, leav¬ ing the command at Oran, to General d’Arlanges whose division he reinforced by a brigade. It had been determined to form a settlement on the Isle of Harshgoun, at the mouth of the Tafna, in order to open a communication with the sea for the French garrison of Tlemcen, and the Marshal, better to accomplish that object, ordered a permanent camp to be formed on the banks of the Tafna. General d’Arlanges, in consequence, repaired there from Oran with three thousand men to protect the works against any unforseen attack. These were proceeding satisfactorily, when d’Ar¬ langes, in attempting to reach Tlemcen with a portion of his force, was attacked by a large body of Arabs and Moors of Morocco, under Abd-el- Kader, six miles from the mouth of the Tafna, and forced to fall back on his entrenchments with a loss of more than three hundred men. The French General and his troops now found them¬ selves closely blockaded, and unable to commu¬ nicate either with Tlemcen or with Oran, and pro¬ visions and forage fast failing. Jn this emergency, not more than a single 136 THE FRENCH battalion could be spared from Algiers ; but no sooner had the news reached France, than six thousand men were at once embarked under General Bugeaud, and landed at the mouth of the Tafna, from whence they relieved Oran and Tlemcen, routing the Emir’s forces, and driving him back on Mascara. But the latter, not feeling himself sufficiently secure in his Capital, removed his head-quarters to Tekedempt, a town situated further inland than Mascara, and consequently less accessible to his foes. General Bugeaud two months afterwards re¬ turned to France, and was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant-General, in consideration of his' success. The Governor-General had also been summoned to Paris, the Ministry wishing to be prepared to answer any questions relating to Algeria, which might be put to them in the Chamber, and to confer with him as to the re¬ quirements of the war. At his urgent request, the effective strength of the army was to be raised to thirty thousand men, and in addition, five thousand native troops were to be organised, and permanently embodied. Operations were to com¬ mence simultaneously in each province, and Con- IN AFRICA, 137 stantine was to be attacked. It was definitively decided, that the entire territory, comprised in the late Regency, should be reduced to subjec¬ tion. The Province of Constantine, one of the granaries of ancient Rome, was by far the most valuable portion of this late territory, and in its Capital of the same name, Ahmed-Bey, its ruler, resided. Pie was by birth a Koulougli, and at this period, was described as about fifty years of age, of middling stature, expressive eyes, and engaging manners ; he was brave and enterprising, but cruel, and a bigoted enemy of the Christians. The concentration of the force for the march on Constantine took place at Bona, distant from the former city, about one hundred and twenty miles. Here depots of stores and provisions were formed, and in October, 1836, this little sea-port was the scene of much excitement and activity, and troops were daily disembarking. On the 0 29th, the Duke of Nemours arrived, and two days after Marshal Clausel assumed the command. The army was composed of seven thousand four hundred and ten French troops, and one thousand three hundred and fifty-six natives; 138 THE FRENCH but the artillery, consisting only of six field pieces, and six mountain guns, was quite inadequate for a campaign, the principal object of which was the siege of a fortified town. The army was formed into five small brigades, the first of which quitted Bona on the 9th of November, the re¬ mainder following in two days, so that the entire force was assembled at Ghelma, the Roman Calama, by the 15th. From this town to Con¬ stantine was a march of eight days, through an unreclaimed country, and the army arrived there in an enfeebled condition by the 21st. The city is placed on a small rocky table-land, surrounded on three sides by the Rummel, a mountain torrent, sunk in a deep and very precipitous ravine—and on the fourth side, it com¬ municates with the adjacent country by a gigantic viaduct of Roman construction, and restored in modern times by Spanish Engineers. In front of this bridge, on the Plain of Mansourah, the French took up their position, and on their appear¬ ance, a red flag was hoisted on the Casbah, and two guns were fired as a signal of defiance. The Marshal had expected submission from the in¬ habitants, but preparations for defence alone were IN AFRICA. 139 visible. The place was defended by Turks, Koulouglis and Kabyles under Ben-Aissa, a partisan of the Bey, and the Arabs, commanded by Ahmed in person, formed a corps of observa¬ tion without the walls. Two assaults having failed, the cannonade prov¬ ing ineffective, and the stores and provisions insufficient, the Marshal, differing in opinion from his staff, determined to retreat; and stores, ammunition waggons and tents, were abandoned, or hurled into the ravine. When the retreat commenced, some pickets, which had been posted on the Plateau of Condiat-Aty, had unfortunately not been withdrawn, and must have perished, had not Commandant Changarnier, at the head of the 2nd Light Infantry, rescued them from isolation. On his return, the last of the troops which had been posted in front of the bridge, to oppose any of the enemy who should attempt to issue from the gate and join Ahmed-Bey, were in full retreat; and Changarnier, therefore, with the 2nd Light Infantry, now reduced to less than three hundred men, formed the extreme rear-guard. The Arab cavalry, emboldered at the numerical weakness of this little band, charged it with impetuosity; it 140 THE FRENCH was immediately formed into square by its gallant leader, and waiting till the enemy were within pistol shot, poured such a deadly volley into their ranks, that they hastily retired, and resumed their old system of distant skirmishing. Severely suffering from hunger and fatigue, the army reached Ghelma, where a battalion was left; it then moved on, and arrived at Bona on the 1st of December. This unfortunate campaign lasted seventeen days, and the loss appears to have been two hundred and nineteen men killed—one hundred and sixty-four dead from hunger, cold, and fatigue, and seventy-four missing ; besides which, numbers of sick and wounded afterwards died in the hospitals of Bona and Algiers; so that the loss may fairely be estimated at two thousand men. Marshal Clausel was immediately recalled, and Lieutenant-General Damremont was sent to succeed him. Although it appears certain that the expedition to Constantine was undertaken on insufficient information, and with too small a force, in¬ adequately supplied with provisions and muni¬ tions of war; yet the Marshal must not be IN AFRICA. 141 judged by this single reverse, and justice must be rendered to previous successes, to the largeness of his views, and to the admirable administration which prevailed duting his term of government. He gave his attention to public works, and com¬ menced the task of enlarging the small and inconvenient harbour of Algiers. He organised a national guard, composed from the European inhabitants of the towns in possession of the French, admitting certain trustworthy natives into the force. He likewise studied the best means of promoting colonization, and of granting con¬ cessions of land. General Damremont arrived in Algiers early in April 1837, and at the same time, General Bugeaud repaired to Oran, with authority to act for the time being, without referring to the Governor-General. He neglected no opportunity of negociating with the Emir, who was endeavour- ing to gain time, by making different overtures to General Bugeaud and the Count Damremont at the same moment. The latter referred to the Ministry the basis of a Treaty, confining the Emir within the limits of the Chelif. Bugeaud, however, persuaded Abd-cl-Kader to 142 THE FRENCH treat with him, as far as concerned the Province of Oran ; but the Emir’s demands being unreason¬ able, he advanced to Tlemcen, and from thence to the Tafna, with nine thousand men; arriving there on the 23rd of May, meeting with little opposition from the Arabs. This movement probably alarmed the Emir, who then made proposals, which were accepted, and the Treaty of the Tafna* was drawn up, and signed. Traite de la Tafna. Art. 1.—L’Emir recommit la souverainete de la France en Afrique. Art. 2—La France se reserve dans la Province d’Oran: Mostaganem, Mazagran et leurs territoires; Oran, Arzew; plus un territoire ainsi delimite—a l’est, par la riviere de la Macta et le marais d’ou elle sort; au sud, une ligne partant du marais ci-dessus mentionne, passant par le bord sud du lac Sebgha. et se prolongeant jusqu’a l’Oued-Malad (Rio Salado), dans la direction de Sidi-Said; et de cette riviere jusqu’a la mer; de maniere que tout le terrain compris dans ce perimetre soit territoire franpais. Dans la province d’Alger: Alger, le Sahel, la plaine de la Metidja, bornee a l’est jusqu’a l’Oued-Kkadra et au-dela; au sud, par la premiere Crete de la premiere chaine du petit Atlas jusqu’a la Cliiffa, en j comprenant Blida et son territoire ; a l’ouest par la Cliiffa jusqu’au coude de Mazagran, et de la par une ligne droite jusqu’a la mer, renfermant Coleah et son territoire, de maniere a ce que tout le terrain compris dans ce perimetre soit territoire franfais. IN AFRICA. 143 The Emir recognised the Sovereignty of France in Africa in the first article of this treaty, and Art. 3.—L’Emir administrera la province d’Oran, celle de Titery, et la partie de celle d’Alger, qui n’est pas comprise, a Fouest, dans les limites indiquees a l’article 2. II ne pourra penetrer dans aucune partie de la regence. Art 4. L’Emir n’aura aucune autorite sur les mnsulmans qui voudront habiter sur le territoire reserve a la France; mais ceux- ci resteront libres d’aller vivre sur le territoire dont l’Emir a 1’administration, comme les habitants du territoire de l’Emir pourront venir s’etablir sur le territoire franpais. Art. 5.—Les Arabes vivant sur le territoire franpais exerceront librement leur religion. Ils pourront y batir des mosquees et suivre en tout point leur discipline religieuse, sous l’autorite de leurs chefs spirituels. Art. 6.—L’Emir donnera a l’armee franpaise—trente mille faneques (d’Orient) de froment, trente mille faneques (d’Orient) d’orge, cinq mille boeufs. La livraison de ces denrees se fera a Oran par tiers; la premiere aura lieu du ler au 15 Septembre, 1837, et les deux autres de deux en deux mois. Art. 7. —L’Emir achetera en France la poudre, le soufre, et les armes dont il aura besoin. Art. 8.—Les Koulouglis qui voudront rester a Tlemcen, ou ailleurs, y possederont librement leurs proprietes, et y seront traites comme des Hadhars. Ceux qui voudront retirer sur le territoire franpais pourront vendre ou affermer librement leurs proprietes. Art. 9.—La France cede a l’Emir—Harshgoun, Tlemcen, le Machouar, et les canons qui etaient anciennement dans cefcte derniere citadelle. L’Emir s’oblige a faire transporter a Oran 144 THE FRENCH the second gave to France, in the province of Oran—Mostaganem, Mazagran, Arzew, Oran, and their adjacent territories; in the Province of Algiers—the Capital, the Sahel, the Plain of the Metidja, including Blida, the boundary being the first chain of the Lesser Atlas, as far as the River Chiffa, the frontier, however, including Coleah within the French territory. The Emir’s authority was confined in the Provinces of Oran and Algiers to the territory without the above men¬ tioned limits ; and the entire Province of Titery was secured to him. The remaining clauses tous les effets, ainsi que les munitions de guerre et de bouclie de la garnison de Tlemcen. Art. 10.—Le commerce seralibre entre les Arabes et les Fran- pais qui pourront s’etablir sur l’un ou l’autre territoire. Art. 11.—Les Franpais seront respectes cliez les Arabes, comme les Arabes chez lesFranpais. Les fermes et les proprietes que les sujets franpais auront acquises ou acquerront sur le territoire arabe leur seront garanties; ils en jouiront librement; et l’Emir s’oblige a leur rembourser les dommages que les Arabes leur feraient eprouver. Art . 12.—Les criminels des deux territoires seront reciproque- ment rendus. Art. 13.—L’Emir s’engage a ne conceder aucun point du littoral a une puissance quelconque sans l’autorisation de la France. IN AFRICA. 145 granted reciprocal advantages, and religious liberty to subjects of either nation, residing in tlieir neighbour’s territory. The Emir also bound himself to supply the French with a certain quantity of grain and cattle, and always to buy from them whatever arms and ammunition he needed. Tlemcen, as well as the island of Harshgoun and the Machouar, were ceded to the Emir, and the treaty likewise established Free Trade be¬ tween the French and Arabs, and provided for the reciprocal appointment of diplomatic agents. On the exchange of ratifications, General Bugeaud requested a personal interview with the Emir, which was agreed to, and appointed to take place the following day, a rendez-vous being fixed on about nine miles from the mouth of the Tafna. The General, with six battalions of infantry, two squadrons of cavalry, and some field pieces, reached the spot at the hour named, but the Emir had not arrived, and the General accordingly advanced to meet him. The interview was marked by a coldness and want of cordiality, and the Emir expressed much suspicion of French integrity. L 14G THE FRENCH The treaty of the Tafna was severely comment¬ ed on in France, for it was maintained that it made the Emir as powerful in the West, as Ahmed-Bey was in the East, while the French were confined to isolated positions on the coast. General Damremont first led an expedition to chastise the tribes near Blida, and on the Me- tidja, and then hastened to avenge the late disaster, and established a post at Medjez-Amar, a few miles in advance of Ghelma, construct¬ ing an entrenched camp there, as a basis from which to act against Constantine. All attempts to negociate with Ahmed-Bey having failed, a corps of ten thousand men was formed at the new station; and the Duke of Nemours, Generals Trezel and Rulhieres, and Colonel Combes were appointed to command brigades—Lieutenant-Ge¬ neral Valee being in charge of the artillery, and Lieutenant General Rohault-de-Fleury of the en¬ gineers. On the 1st of October, the brigades of the Duke of Nemours and General Trezel, accompa¬ nied by the Governor-General, and taking charge of the siege train, marched from Medjez-Amar, and the following day the other brigades followed IN AFRICA. 147 them. On the morning of the 6th, the first division arrived on the Plateau of Mansourah, and the chief determined to make his principal attack on the side of Condiat-Aty, and merely erected batteries on the Mansourah Plateau to silence the fire from the Casbah. As in the previous year, Ahmed commanded the corps of observation, and made several at¬ tempts to interrupt the French on their march from Medjez-Amar. The Mansourah batteries did not produce the desired effect, and it was therefore determined to dismantle them, and transport the guns to Condiat-Aty, a laborious operation, which occupied two days and nights, the rain falling in torrents, and the enemy’s fire being troublesome. On the 11th, the batteries of Condiat-Aty opened fire, and in a few hours the walls crumbled, and a breach was perceptible. Wishing: to avert unnecessarv bloodshed, the Go- vernor-General now offered terms of surrender; these were refused, with a message that Constan¬ tine would be defended to the last extremity. On the morning; of the 1 ‘2th, the army had the sad misfortune to lose its chief, who was killed, while standing in an exposed situation, watching the 148 TIIE FRENCH progress made in the breach, and at the same time, General Perregaux, who endeavoured to assist him, was severely wounded. The death of General Damremont, although much to be regretted, produced no despondency in the army. He was esteemed a brave soldier, and possessed the requisite qualities of a good general. His successor, General Valee, inspired confidence, and the army now looked to him to bring their labours to a glorious termination. The new commander’s first step, was to give orders for an assault as soon as the breach should be con¬ sidered practicable, and on the evening of the 12th the storming parties were told off; the first com¬ manded by Colonel de Lamoriciere was composed of Zouaves and the flank companies of the 2nd Light Infantry ; the second and third under Co¬ lonel Combes, eight hundred strong, Commandant Bedeau leading the second, and Commandant Clare the third ; the collective strength of the columns was twelve hundred men, and the reserve under Colonel Corbin numbered four hundred. The remainder of the army guarded the different positions, and were held in readiness to march on any point required. IN AFRICA. 149 On the 13th, the three columns were stationed behind the battery, which had been erected at about a hundred yards from the breach, and at two o’clock in the morning, Captain Garderens of the Zouaves, reconnoitred and declared the breach practicable; but till seven o’clock the artillery thundered, and was sharply responded to by the garrison, several of the gunners being killed in the battery, where the Commander- in-chief and the Duke of Nemours had stationed themselves. The intrepid De Lamorici&re longed to lead his Zouaves to the assault, and at the last named hour the Duke gave the signal, and the heroic band rushed through a shower of balls into the breach, crowned the ramparts, though with diminished numbers, and planted the tricolor on the walls of Constantine. But a heavy trial was still before them ; nearly every house was fortified, and every street was barricaded. A series of bloody hand to hand encounters ensued, in which the stubborn Arab proved himself a worthy antagonist to the fiery Gaul, and a magazine exploded, disabling many of the assailants, and among them De Lamoriciere, who was severely burnt, and his sight, if not his life was at first 150 THE FRENCH despaired of; but fortunately for his country, his injuries were not so serious as was supposed. At last the defenders gave way, and the au¬ thorities implored the mercy of the conquerors; and when the French were in complete possession of the city, the Duke of Nemours and General Valee installed themselves in the palace of Ahmed- Bey. In this famous siege, Captain St. Arnaud gave promise of the brilliant future which was in store for him; his coolness in difficult mo¬ ments won for him general approbation. The Count de Morny, also, here gained some laurels; he was serving as orderly officer to Ge¬ neral Trezel, and was decorated as a Knight of the Legion of Honour for having saved his General’s life. During the siege, a ball went through the Count’s cap, another struck his boot, a third past through his cloak, and a fourth struck a pistol he carried in his belt. After two campaigns in Africa, he applied for a long leave of absence, which was refused, and he retired from the service in 1838, at the age of twenty- seven. A few days after the capture, the 12th Regi- IN AFRICA. 151 ment of the Line arrived at Constantine with the Prince de Joinville at its head; anxious to share the dangers and glories of the campaign with his brothers, he had left his ship at Bona. The arrival of this regiment created some apprehension, as it had been suffering from cholera, and was released from an unexpired quarantine at the Prince’s request. Whether they brought the malady with them, or not, is uncertain; but shortly after their arrival, it broke out in the army and spread rapidly, many deaths occurring. General Valee therefore determined to hasten the departure of his force, leaving a garrison of two thousand five hundred men at Constantine, and occupying Nech- Maja, Drean, and Medjez-Amar, thus establishing a good line of communication between the capital of the Province and Bona, where, on his return, he had the satisfaction to hear that a Marshal’s baton had been conferred on him, as well as the appointment of Governor-General of Algeria. The mortal remains of Count Damremont were transported to Paris, and buried in the chapel of the Invalides. 152 THE FRENCH CHAPTER IX. Condition of the Provinces of Algiers and Constantine—The- Emir’s Policy—The French Expedition to the Biban—He¬ roism of the Garrison of Matzagran—Campaign of 1840—• Medeah. Marshal ValIse proceeded to Algiers about three weeks after the capture of Constantine, with a portion of the army engaged with him in the late expedition. He considered it advisable to concentrate an imposing force in the capital, the tribes having revolted in many parts of the province, and Generals Bro and Negrier, who successively governed during his absence, were, on account of their small disposable forces, unable to reduce the factious to obedience. In the Province of Constantine, the late conquest had produced beneficial results; many chiefs re- IN AFRICA. 153 paired to the French authorities to announce submission, and among them was the Kaid of Milah, a small town situated on the road between Djidjelli and Constantine. This chief was re¬ installed by the French, and Milah was soon afterwards garrisoned by French troops. A skilful reconnoissance was also made by General Negrier in the direction of Stora; his column crossed the mountains, and marched to the Roman ruins of Rusicada, through a well wooded and fertile country. He recommended the formation of a settlement on the site of the ruins, and a road was commenced destined to connect Con¬ stantine with the Gulf of Stora. The troops, on their return, were attacked by the Kabyles, and the Native Infantry rendered efficient service, fully justifying the confidence reposed in them. Disputes soon arose respecting the Treaty of the Tafna, and the Emir sent an envoy to Paris in the hopes of obtaining a more favourable interpretation ; but the King, not wishing to weaken the authority of the Governor-General, ordered the envoy to return to Algiers, and there make known the object of his mission, and a 154 THE FRENCH modification of some of the articles was the re¬ sult. The temporary peace resulting from this treaty, was employed by the Emir in modelling his army on the European system, and in strengthening his alliances with the tribes. Aided by French deserters from the Foreign Legion, and by Koulouglis, he formed a small force of artillery, and organised some regiments of regular cavalry and infantry; but their discipline was not such, as to enable them to cope with the well trained troops of France, and the Emir’s greatest strength still lay, as before, in the hordes of irregular horse¬ men, willing at any moment to flock to his standard. He also established military stations in positions difficult of access to the French. Boghar situated to the south-east of Medeah, Taza, to the south-east of Miliana, Saida to the south of Mascara, Tafraona to the south of Tlemcen, and Tedekempt, before alluded to, his most important creation, situated about ninety miles to the south-east of Mascara. He here established his residence, and his principal depots of arms and stores, constructing two forts and IN AFRICA. 155 a redoubt for its defence, and barracks for about eighteen hundred men. Early in the year 1835, he attacked Ain-Madhy, because its ruler refused to recognize his authority; and he thought that the possession of this stronghold would afford him a safe retreat in case of any sudden reverse. His force, how¬ ever, consisting only of about four thousand four hundred infantry, nine hundred cavalry, and twelve field pieces, with a few guns of heavier calibre, was insufficient for the capture of a place so strongly defended by nature, and the siege con¬ sequently dragged slowly on. We have seen that the Treaty of the Tafna gave Blida to the French ; and Marshal Valee, as soon as the spring rains of 1838 had ceased, proceeded to occupy it; and having received the submission of the authorities, he confirmed them in their functions, and established two fortified camps in the neighbourhood, in order to protect the position, as it commanded the roads, which diverged from this centre to the passes of the Atlas, and to the east and west of the plain. The Marshal, at the close of this year, conceived the idea of occupying Hamza, which by the 156 THE FRENCH Treaty of the Tafna, also belonged to France, and from Hamza, roads diverged to Algiers, Con¬ stantine and Medeah. This town was founded by the Romans, and was considered by the Turks an important fortress. The Emir being employed with his best troops before Ain-Madhy, and the tribes in the east shewing no signs of hostility, events seemed to favour the enterprise. A road, passing near Hamza, and leading through the Biban, had been constructed under the govern¬ ment of the Regency, and by this road, it was proposed to march ; but the rainy season setting in, rendered all operations impracticable, and the they were, therefore, postponed until the following year. But General Galbois, who commanded at Con¬ stantine, advanced towards Setif; his march was hindered by the incessant rain, which rendered the ground in many places impassable. He therefore halted for a few days at Milah, but resumed his march on the 11th of December, reaching Djim- miiuh on the 12th, and the day following he arrived at Setif, an ancient city of importance, now in ruins. They had met with no obstruction up to this IN AFRICA. 157 point; but the General, ignorant of the movements of the Marsha], wisely determined not to push too far into a region so imperfectly known, and fell back, leaving at Djimmilah half a battalion, with orders to entrench themselves. The Kabyles immediately attacked this detach¬ ment, and as they were reinforced from the mountains, they were able to harrass the main body of the French during their retreat. Means were, however, found to increase the garrison of Djimmilah to a battalion; but the rainy season rendering communications difficult, Djimmilah was soon temporarily evacuated. The French authority soon took root in the Province of Constantine, and the natives of con¬ sideration, who had given in their submission, were sufficiently numerous and powerful to enable the conquerors to keep dow T n their enemies, and protect their friends ; and the Raids and minor rulers of districts, who had been confirmed in their functions by France, established measures of public safety, appreciating the advantages which would occur to them by maintaining order. Abd-el-Kader having, for an unreasonable time, delayed ratifying the Treaty of the Tafna, Marshal 158 THE FRENCH Valee made an energetic remonstrance, recapitulat¬ ing the various complaints against him, to which communications, however, he did not reply. The surrender of Ain-Madhy, which had since taken place, and the assistance which he from time to time received from the Emperor of Morocco, so emboldened him, that he looked forward to the realization of his most ambitious dreams ; but he had now reached his culminating point of great¬ ness, and from this period, the gradual decline of his power and influence may be traced. Tedjini, the Commander of Ain-Madhy, after surrender, obtained his liberty by ransom ; and then busily employed himself in organising regular troops to wage war against the Emir; and Mahomed-Ben-Ahmed, a powerful chief in the west, interrupted his communications with Morocco. His late expedition had exhausted his stores and ammunition ; and the Governor-General, in con¬ sequence of the repeated infractions of the Treaty of the Tafna, on the part of the Arabs, pro¬ hibited French merchants from furnishing him with a further supply ; he therefore procured the necessary munitions of war from English, Genoese, and Livornese traders. IN AFRICA. 159 In the month of May, the Emir informed Marshal Valee of his intention to visit the Marabouts in the territory of the Zouaouas. This journey was undertaken with a view to enlist the Kabyles in his cause; but he failed, and the mountaineers, although they granted him permission to pass freely through their country, informed him that no armed force could accompany him. While in the neighbourhood of Bougie, the French des¬ patched an Envoy to him, which so enraged the Kabyles, who accused him of holding traitorous intercourse with the Christians, that he prudently hastened his departure from the Great Kabylie, and proceeded towards Medeah, keeping the Province of Algiers in a state of constant agita¬ tion ; and in the Province of Oran, his aim was to seduce the French adherents from their allegiance. It was now evident to the Governor-General that the war must be vigorously carried on, the exis¬ tence of his authority, and that of the French being incompatible; but the unhealthy condition of the French army, and the summer heat, ac¬ corded him a temporary respite. The expedition to the Pass of the Biban, which the Governor-General had abandoned at the close 160 THE FRENCH of the last year, was now to be carried out. The troops destined for it had been already collected on the most favorable positions, and only waited the order to march; and the Duke of Orleans, who desired to take part in this campaign, repaired to Djimmilah to join his division. On the 25th of October, 1839, this army, formed in two divisions, under the orders of Lieutenant-General Galbois and the Duke of Orleans, marched in the direction Ain-Turk, and encamped at the Ouled-Bousselem, the principal tributary of the Bougie river. On the 26th, they proceeded on their route, and the next day approached the Biban. It having, however, become known that the Arabs contemplated defending the pass, a force of cavalry was sent in advance, hut was not opposed. The army advanced as far as the table land of Sidi-Hatdan, and the inhabitants brought provisions of all kinds to the camp ; the neighbour¬ ing chiefs agreed to recognise the authority of a Khalif appointed by the French, and they promised the Duke of Orleans to serve the King faithfully. The submission of these powerful tribes, commanding the passage of one of the most important roads across the Atlas, was no small TN AFRICA. 161 triumph, and was a severe, though indirect check to the designs of Abd-el-Kader. On the 28th of October the divisions separated, that of Lieutenant-General Galbois being charged with the occupation of the Province of Constan¬ tine, and the construction of works at Setif for the reception of a permanent garrison. The honour, therefore, of leading the French through the pass was reserved for the Duke of Orleans, whose divi¬ sion comprised about two thousand five hundred infantry, two hundred and fifty light cavalry, four mountain guns, and a company of engineers; they marched without opposition through the Biban or Pass of the Iron Gates, a narrow gorge in the chain of mountains, which unite those of the Great Kabylie with the main chain of the Atlas, and consequently affords the easiest land communication between the Provinces of Algiers and Constantine. The Pass, from its extreme narrowness, and the precipitous and lofty rocks which wall it in, might, with a small force, be de¬ fended against greatly superior numbers; but for¬ tunately for the French, no opposition was offered, and when they gained the open country, far from observing symptoms of hostility, the Duke re- 162 THE FRENCH ceived the most positive assurances of friendship from the inhabitants of the villages through which they passed. They reached Hamza without diffi¬ culty, a hostile body of Arabs having retreated on their approach ; the fortifications were in a state of ruin and dilapidation, and a few half buried guns were all that remained of its armament. The division resumed its march without making any stay at Hamza, and descended at once into the valley of the Isser; during their march, they were much harassed, and after having repulsed the attacks made against them, reached the camp of Fondouk, where the division commanded by General Rul- hiere was then stationed. The army, as well as the population of Algiers, gave the Duke of Orleans and his troops an en¬ thusiastic welcome, for although they had not en¬ countered any serious opposition from the enemy during the course of the expedition, yet they, of necessity, experienced many difficulties in this al¬ most unexplored region, and credit is due to the Duke of Orleans for having so successfully accom¬ plished the task. The important result of this expedition cannot be overrated; for it was now clear that the communications between the capital IN AFRICA. 163 and Constantine could be maintained, and it moreover shewed Abd-el-Kader that the French power and influence was increasing, under which impression, he made additional efforts to bring about a general rising. His endeavours were crowned with a partial success: he worked on the fanaticism of his coun¬ trymen, and everywhere easily persuaded them to revolt against the French. A convoy protected by forty men was captured, and the escort killed; the Beys of Miliana and Medeah crossed the Chiffa at the head of three thousand men, fanning the flame, which was now spreading far and wide, while Abd-el-Kader publicly announced his deter¬ mination to prosecute the Holy war. The insur¬ rection spread to the Province of Oran, and an at¬ tempt was made by the Arabs to take possession of the Fort of Mazagran, situated near Mostaga- nem, then held by a hundred and forty-three men, while its only armament was one field piece. On the 1st of February, 1840, the approach of the enemy was observed, and the day following, from twelve to fourteen thousand men, commanded by Mustapha-ben-Tehamy, the Khalif of Mascara, were before Mazagran. During four entire days and m 2 164 THE FRENCH nights an incessant attack was maintained against the fort; but its defenders displaying a calmness, combined with heroic firmness, kept their as¬ sailants at bay, and the commandant, Captain Lelievre, shewing a rare capability for command, acquired the confidence of those under him. He resolved to hold out to the last, and his intention of blowing up the fort, when further defence was im¬ possible, when announced, was received with shouts of approbation. The Arabs at length ex¬ hausted, gave way and retired, and the loss of this brave little garrison did not exceed above three or four killed, and sixteen wounded. In the Province of Constantine, the intrigues of Abd-el-Kader were without much effect; the inhabitants appeared to be quite reconciled to the new rule; some of the tribes offered their cavalry to the French, and while the Emir sought the sup¬ port of the tribes who inhabited the Djerid near the borders of the Desert, his Khalif, Bou-Azouz was marching towards Biskra with a battalion of infantry, eight hundred irregulars, and two guns. The chief, Bou-Aziz-ben-Gannah, who had been nominated by the French in 1839, hastened to oppose him, and completely routed his force, IN AFRICA. 165 capturing his guns, three standards, and some camels and mules. This was the first occasion on which an Arab chief, installed by French authority, undertook alone, and on his own responsibility, operations against their common enemies. The untiring Emir, however, while arming in his own territory, sought by every possible means to advance his cause in other parts of the country. He invested the Khalif El-Barkani in the com¬ mand of Medeah, and Mustafa-ben-Tehamy was ordered to construct a camp at the junction of the Habra and the Sig, to interrupt the communi¬ cations between Oran, Arzew, and Mostaganem. The Scheik of Tenez was required to organise ten thousand Kabyles; the Khalif of Tlemcen estab¬ lished a camp of observation at Thessalah, and another at El-Moria, from which positions he threatened Oran, and entered the road to Tlem¬ cen. TheHadjoutes acted under instructions from the Khalif of Miliana; Ben-Salem, the chief of the Flittas at the head of the cavalry of this tribe, was to act on the Metidja, and thus check the ad¬ vance of an army from Algiers, and the Khalif Bou-Azouz was charged to operate towards Biskra, 166 THE FRENCH on the Plain of the Medjana, and in the mountains of Bougie. Such was the formidable organization set on foot against the French in the year 1840, and it required large sacrifices on the part of France before she was rewarded with a final triumph.* So many signs of the coming storm did not escape the cabinet of the Tuileries; reinforcements were at once despatched from France, and the Governor-General soon found himself at the head of sixty thousand men, being an increase of more than ten thousand on the strength of the pre¬ ceding year; and the progressive increase during subsequent years showed that this was even in¬ sufficient. So little was yet accomplished towards * The following is the translation of part of a letter written about this period from Abd-el-Kader to the Governor-General. “ Yotre premiere et votre derniere lettre nous sont parvenues. Je vous ai deja ecrit que tous les Arabes de la Regence etaient d’accord, et qu’il ne leur reste d’autres paroles que la guerre sainte. J’ai employe mes efforts pour changer leur idee, mais personne n’a voulu de la duree de la paix; ils ont tous ete d’ac¬ cord pour faire la guerre sainte, et je ne trouve pas d’autre moyen que de les ecouter, pour etre fidele a notre chere loi qui le commande. Ainsi je ne vous traliis pas, et vous avertis de ce qui est.”— Carette. IN AFRICA. 167 the subjugation of the Arabs, that the roads, even within a few miles of the capital, were quite unsafe; and on the 11th of April in this year, the event occurred recorded on the column which the traveller passes at Beni-Mered, about half way between Bouffarick and Blida. This column was raised to commemorate the gallantry and devotion of Serjeant Blandan and his brave comrades, who were marching in company with an escort of four Chasseurs d’Afrique, in charge of the post from Algiers, when suddenly four hundred Arab horse¬ men galloped out of the ravine, situated on the north side of Beni-Mered, and charged the de¬ tachment, who, under the direction of Blandan, formed a rallying square. The poor fellows were shot dead one after another, and among them the heroic Blandan, until but five out of twenty-two remained, when a cloud of dust announced the arrival of a detachment of the Chasseurs d’Afrique under Lieutenant de Breteuil, who while watering his horses at Bouffarick, heard the distant firing, and ordering his men to get their sabres, he set off at full gallop for the scene of action, charged and routed the Arabs, and saved the remaining five of the devoted band. De Breteuil and the 168 THE TRENCH five companions of Blandan were rewarded with the cross of the Legion of Honour. The Duke of Orleans and his brother, the Duke d’Aumale, both anxious for service, arrived at Bouffarick in the month of April, the former taking command of his old division; and a few days after his arrival, he defeated a body of the enemy on the banks of the Afroum, on which oc¬ casion the Duke d’Aumale led a spirited and well executed charge. The division of the Duke of Orleans was to form the advance guard of the army about to march against Abd-el-Kader, who had taken up a position in the Pass of the Mou- zaia; to dislodge him was the first object, and with this view, the Orleans division was set in motion, but the Emir retired as they advanced. Some days were now spent in collecting stores and provisions for the projected occupation of Medeah, and the Duke now announced to his troops that he was about to lead them across the Atlas. The heights bordering the Mouzaia Pass had just been fortified by Abd-el-Kader, and on the loftiest summit a strong redoubt had been con¬ structed. The Duke distributed his forces in three columns for the attack of this position; IN AFRICA. 169 the first, commanded by General Duvivier, com¬ posed of four battalions, was ordered to storm the entrenchments on the left—while the second, composed of three battalions under General de Lamoriciere, was to attack the right—and the third column, two battalions strong, under General d’Houdetot, was to storm the front, as soon as the movement of the first column had succeeded. At three o’clock on the morning of the 12th of of May, the Duke gave the signal for the attack, and the columns commenced the ascent; when they arrived at the first plateau, they halted, and about noon again advanced. The resistance was formidable, but the bugles soon announced success, and the remaining troops were put in motion. The Arabs fought with desperation, and the French at one moment appeared overpowered by superior numbers; but General Changarnier or¬ dered his troops to trust to their bayonets, and they charged and carried the redoubt. The result of this success was the oocupation of Medeah, which the Arabs did not defend. A garrison of two thousand five hundred men was left there; the remainder of the troops returned to the camp of the Mouzaia, and the Dukes of Orleans and 170 THE FRENCH d’Aumale, bidding farewell to their comrades, returned to France. Marshal Valee attempting to occupy Miliana before closing the campaign, in order to facilitate future operations in the valley of the Chelif was anticipated by Abd-el-Kader, who gave orders to Sidi-Mahomet, the Bey of Miliana, to encamp between the town and the Chelif, and to watch the French closely. Other lieutenants of the Emir received orders to oppose the relief of Medeah, and any attempt to advance towards Miliana; but ten thousand French troops marched from Blida in the month of June, and took pos¬ session of Miliana without encountering successful opposition. A few days were passed in improving its defences, and two battalions being left as a garrison, the column marched to the Mouzaia. Ge¬ neral Changarnier was, however, despatched with five thousand men to escort an additional supply of provisions for the garrison, and during his march, he was attacked by the Emir in person, with a large force of cavalry; but he effectually repulsed them, and after accomplishing the task imposed upon him, he proceeded as far as the left bank of the Chelif, and then retired to the IN AFRICA. 171 foot of Mount Nador, near Medeah, where the Governor-General rejoined the column: but the excessive heat no longer permitting active ope¬ rations to be carried on, he returned to Algiers, and gave orders for the troops to go into quar¬ ters for the summer. The result of the campaign was gratifying to the French. Medeah, Miliana, and Cherchel were occupied, and many refractory tribes had been severely chastised; the cause of France had been materially advanced, and that of the Emir propor¬ tionately weakened. But no sooner were active operations suspended, than the Arabs threatened the recent acquisitions with blockade; in the autumn, therefore, the Governor-General led a column to the relief of Miliana. He found the defences in an efficient state, but the garison had suffered severely during the occupation from disease and shortness of provisions; out of fourteen hundred men, seven hundred and twenty had died, and five hundred were in hospital at the time the relieving force arrived. The relief of Medeah took place in November, and the new garrison was composed of two battalions of Zouaves, under Lieutenant-Colonel 172 THE FRENCH Cavaignac. The tedium of the winter was occa¬ sionally broken by a skirmish, or a razzia. On the 16th of November, a successful example of the latter was ably executed by Commandant Leflo. Two columns were told off and under arms at two o’clock in the morning, one of these acting as a reserve, and commanded by Colonel Cavaignac in person. Leflb’s column was en¬ joined to keep the strictest silence, to avoid firing, and to capture as many prisoners as possible. The operation succeeded, and in about four hours they returned, after having secured thirty-four prisoners, a hundred and seventeen oxen, ten horses and mules, thirty asses, and fifteen hundred sheep and goats ; about twenty of the Arabs were killed in the struggle. The success of this enterprise caused general satisfaction; a good supply of fresh provisions were ensured for the next three months, and a portion of the spoil was distributed to the garrison according to rank. The Kabyles occasionally attacked the outposts, and on the evening of the 4 th of February, 1841, a number of small fires were observed about six miles distant in the direction of Miliana. The garrison flocked to the ramparts, and expectation IN AFRICA. 173 was strong in the belief that it was a French column ; but on the following morning it was discovered to be a detachment of the enemy’s regular infantry. All the disposable troops in Medeah were sent out against this force, more numerous than was at first supposed, and the Kabyles were defeated with a loss to the French of only about twenty killed and wounded. On the 3rd of April, Medeah was relieved by a column led by General Bugeaud,* appointed Governor- General in the room of Marshal Valee, who had resigned his command, in consequence of failing health. * General Bugeaud landed in Algiers to assume the govern¬ ment on the 22nd of February, 1840.— Carette . 174 THE TRENCH CHAPTER X. General Bugeaud—Occupation of Mascara, and destruction of Tekedempt, Boghar and Taza—Mustafa—The Ouar-Senis— Capture of the Smalak—Foundation of new stations. General Bugeaud, on his arrival in Algiers, issued an address to the army, complimenting it on the past, and adding that further sacrifices were required in order to complete the subjugation of the Arabs. The Emir, though humbled, was far from being subdued ; he still disposed of a large army, possessed fortresses and arsenals, and was supported by many powerful tribes. The French settlements were yet exposed to constant attacks, but their army, in the spring of 1841, was increased to seventy-three thousand men, and thirteen thousand five hundred horses, and in the following autumn was further augmented by four IN AFRICA. 175 thousand five hundred men, so that more positive results might soon be looked for. In the beginning of May, the Governor-General with eight thousand troops of all arms, defeated the Emir near Miliana, at the head of twelve thousand infantry, including three regular battalions, and nearly ten thousand cavalry ; in this engagement, the Duke of Nemours com¬ manded the left wing, and the Duke d’Aumale, two battalions. On the 18th of May, General Bugeaud proceeded to Oran, to direct the opera¬ tions in that province ; he marched from Mosta- ganem at the head of a column, provided with an efficient siege train, and after several skirmishes arrived before Tekedempt. The Arab cavalry, in force on the surrounding heights, at first shewed signs of opposition, but retired before the Zouaves, and the inhabitants taking to flight, the French entered the town, destroyed the fortifica¬ tions, and moved on Mascara, before which city the Emir appeared with a large body of troops, retreating, however, as the French advanced. This town, also abandoned by its population, was garrisoned by three battalions of infantry, three companies of engineers, and a battery of artillery 176 THE FRENCH under Colonel Tempoure. The Governor- General then returned to Mostaganem, through the defile Abd-el-Kredda, where he was attacked by about five or six thousand of the enemy, and, with few casualties on the French side, inflicted on them a loss of nearly four hundred killed, including several chiefs. About the same period, General Baraguay d’Hilliers led a column from Blida to Boghar, which town the Arabs set fire to and abandoned; the French completed its des¬ truction, and marched on Taza, a fortress in which the Emir had stored a large quantity of provisions, fearing that it might fall into the hands of his foes, he ordered its demolition, and on the arrival of General Baraguay d’Hilliers’ column, it was in ruins. The column then crossing the Chelif, and defeating the tribe of Oulad-Omrah, reached Blida on the 1st of June. In the Province of Constantine, the Emir’s agents had not been inactive; and the fertile Plain of the Medjana was deserted by its inhabi¬ tants, on account of the terror inspired among the adherents of the French, by the proclamation of the Holy War; but General Negrier, who com¬ manded in that province, marched on the IN AFRICA. 177 threatened points with a strong column, and with such effect, that many tribes, hitherto faithful to the Emir, now deserted him, and sought protec¬ tion from the French. Early in the autumn, General de Lamorici&re threw provisons into Mascara for six thousand men for four months, in case it should be neces¬ sary to occupy that important post in strength. The occasion soon arose; the Emir, spreading false intelligence concerning the French, created a belief that they were exhausted by the war and anxious to treat for peace; and encouraged by this news, some Arabs attacked a friendly tribe, near Mascara, and the garrison of that town, too weak to render them assistance, was compelled to abandon them to their fate. The Governor-General, judging that the fruits of the spring campaign would be thrown away, unless they could protect their allies, despatched De Lamoriciere to Mascara with his entire division, composed of ten battalions of infantry, two squadrons of Spahis, and a mountain battery. The General was accompanied by Ibrahim-Ouled- Osman-Bey, brother to Hadj-Mustafa-Ouled- Osman-Bey, who had long given his adhesion to N 178 THE FRENCH the French, and had now been appointed Bey of Mostaganem and Mascara. Mustafa had rendered great services to his adopted masters, and had successively detached from Abd-el-Kader’s cause the tribes of the Valley of the Chelif, the Medjaher and the Beni-Ammer ; the Scheik Sidi-el-Arbi, and Ould-Sidi-Chigr. He conjured the Arabs to withdraw their support from the Emir, who he declared was deluging the country with blood merely to gratify his own ambition; and he endeavoured to demonstrate to them that the power and resources of France must eventually triumph. He rendered no less signal service on the battle field, and his conspicuous courage, on many occasions, gained him the cross of the Legion of Honour. In the Bordj Pass, Ben-Tahamy, with four thousand men, including two regular battalions, armed with muskets and bavonets, and four hundred of the regular cavalry, attempted to check the advance of the division during its march over rugged and broken ground—the infantry being encumbered with several days provisons in addition to their knapsacks, and the cavalry leading their horses, which were heavily laden with forage. IN AFRICA. 179 Several battalions taking off their knapsacks, and leaving them under a guard, charged and dis¬ persed the enemy; and the remainder of their march they were unmolested, and reached Mas¬ cara on the 30th of November. General de Lamoriciere now found himself in the centre of a hostile district, more under the influence of Abd-el-Kader than any other part of Algeria; but the large means at his disposal induced several tribes, who had deserted the French cause, to adopt it a second time, and he defeated the Hachems and the Flittas, the chief supports of Abd-el-Kader’s power. By the end of 1842, all the tribes, except the indefatigable Hachems, withdrew their allegiance from the Emir; and that same year, his important fortress of Sebdou, situated about thirty miles to the south of Tlemcen, fell into the hands of the French. General Changarnier also completely annihilated the power of the Hadjoutes, and the Governor-General received the submission of more than twenty tribes, whose territory was situated between the eastern portion of the Pro¬ vince of Oran, and the centre of that of Algiers ; and by a combined movement, the Plain of the n 2 180 THE FRENCH Metidja was effectually cleared of marauders, and communications were now opened between Medeah, Miliana, and Cherchel. These successful operations were followed by the construction of a road from Blida to Medeah, through the Pass of the Mouzaia, and of other works conducive alike to the health and defence of the Metidja. But much remained to he accomplished. Beyond the sphere of action of the French army, the Emir was ever active, and in the month of January, 1843, we find him exciting the Kabyles of the Ouar-Senis to revolt. The tract of country, known by that name, extends in length about forty-five miles, and is bounded on the north by the Valley of the Chelif, and on the south by the Lesser Sahara. It comprises ranges of mountains, destitute of roads, and its inhabitants are savage and warlike tribes of Kabyles, the chief of which are the Beni-Eyndel, the Beni-bou-douan, the Beni Rhalia, the Beni-bou-Ateh, the Beni-bou-Kanous, and the Beni-bou-Chaib. They governed themselves independantly, under the slight control of a central authority elected by themselves; and though always ready to unite against the common enemy, IN AFRICA. 181 are constantly at war with one another. This district had just tendered its submission, and had now again taken up arms, and Sidi-Embarick, who was then among them with his regular battalions, fostered the spirit of resistance. General Changarnier was ordered to act against them, and his force was divided into three columns—one being commanded hy himself in per¬ son, while the others were to follow the course of certain laid-down routes, and form a junction with the leading column, at a spot in the moun¬ tains previously agreed upon. Early in May, General Changarnier quitted Miliana with his column, crossed the Chelif, and marched for two days without meeting an enemy ; soon, however, the Kabyles appeared, and resolutely attacked the French, who drove them back, after experiencing a heavy loss ; other combats followed, and by the end of July, 1843, all the Kabyle tribes of the Ouar-Senis had given in their submission. In the month of May of the same year, a sig¬ nal triumph was obtained in the capture of the Smalah of the Emir by the Duke d’Aumale. The word signifies, suite, court, or household, though it may be here, without impropriety, inter- 182 THE FRENCH preted, “ head-quarters,” including as it did, in addition to the Emir’s family and personal atten¬ dants, his chief officers, and a large body of comba¬ tant followers. All who have visited Versailles, must have a certain familiarity with this feat of arms, as it is recorded by Horace Vernet, on the wall of one of the apartments of that Palace in his best style. It being supposed that the Smalah was posted towards the south west of the Ouar-Senis, the Governor-Genera] directed the Duke d’Aumale to attempt its capture; and with that object, he marched on the 10th of May with six hundred cavalry, and thirteen hundred infantry, all provi¬ sioned for twenty days. They shortly reached Goujilah, situated at about seventy-five miles from Boghar, and here they were but three days’ march from General de Lamoriciere, who supported the Duke’s movement, in order that the Smalah should not pass between them, without falling into the hands of the powerful tribe of the Arars. On arriving at Goujilah, the Duke learnt that the Smalah was at Oussek-ou-Rekai, about forty miles to the south-west; he therefore marched in that direction over some extensive plains, almost des- IN AFRICA. 183 titute of water. On the morning of the 16th, the advance guard observed at Taquin, on the bor¬ ders of an oasis, a line of tents, extending for about a mile and a half in length: this was the Smalah. The cavalry led by the Duke, Colonel Youssouf, and Lieutenant-Colonel Morris, charged this mass of tents, crowded with old men, women, and children, and threw all into the most complete dismay and confusion ; the Emir’s infantry could not form sufficiently quickly to offer any resistance, and numbers were cut down by the French, who made nearly four thousand prisoners, among whom were several persons of distinction. They also obtained posses¬ sion of the Emir’s treasure, correspondence, tents, and four standards. General de Lamorici&re heard of this victory on the 19th, and marched towards the source of the Chelif, where he learnt the details of the affair from some Arabs of the tribe of Hachem. He hastened on, and soon came up with a numerous body of Arabs in full retreat, and among them, was the Emir himself, who only with difficulty escaped capture, and the French secured about 184 THE FRENCH two thousand five hundred prisoners with their horses, and a large quantity of cattle. These successes were fully appreciated by the Ministry; General Bugeaud was made a Marshal, and Generals Changarnier and De Lamoriciere, Lieutenant-Generals. The Duke d’Aumale had been recently appointed to the command of the Province of Constantine, and his late feat of arms gave promise of yet greater successes in his new position. But Abd-el-Kader was free, and with many unsubdued tribes, still defied the French. Great progress had, however, been made towards the conquest of the country, though much remained to be done; but the columns, acting in so many different districts, gradually paved the way for the ultimate subjection of the Arabs. About this time, Mustafa, the faithful ally of the French was killed in an engagement with the troops of Abd-el-Kader. The command of his Goum* raised from the tribes of the Douars and the Smelas, was given to his nephew, El-Mezari, Goum, assembly of the irregular cavalry of a tribe or district. ITs AFRICA. 185 who promised to be as faithful an ally as his uncle. Various journals in France now animadverted against the acts of spoliation committed by the French troops, more especially in the Province of Constantine ; and the ‘ National ’ records the des¬ truction of many villages, containing oil presses, looms, manufactures of earthenware, and impli- ments of husbandry, as well as the cutting down all the fruit trees in the territories of the tribes which refused to submit. A more conciliatory policy was recommended by many in France, in order to secure the alliance of the Kabyles, a sedentary people, against the Arabs. It is, however, reason¬ able to suppose that the former valued their inde- pendance quite as much as the latter, for they as¬ sisted the French in the work of destruction, and destroyed their houses and laid waste their country, in order to prevent the invaders from finding sub- sistance ; and though many portions of the Eas¬ tern Province had shewn unexpected signs of sub¬ mission, the Kabyle element did not at all parti¬ cipate in that desire. A column commanded by General Baraguay d’Hilliers had to tight its way for several days through the country near Collo, 186 THE FRENCH with a loss of forty-five killed, and upwards of two hundred wounded, being attacked by the Kabyles in force, who, however, they at length succeeded in dispersing. But the Province of Algiers was now considered to be brought entirely under subjection; the five positions on the coast, Bougie, Dellys, Algiers, Cherchel, and Tenez; the towns of Aumale, Medeah, Miliana, and Orleanville, with the two posts on the borders of the desert, Boghar and Teniet-el-Had, and many smaller settlements guaranteed its present pacification, and held out reasonable hopes for its permanent tranquillity. The year 1843 was remarkable for the estab¬ lishment of several new stations. Orleanville, in a military point of view, perhaps, claims the first rank ; it is situated nearly in the centre of the great Plain of the Chelif, and its occupation acted as a check to the troublesome inhabitants of the Dahra; it is distant about sixty miles to the west of Miliana. Tenez, its port, the ancient Cartenna , about fifty-five miles to its north, and one hundred and ten from Algiers, was also founded in this year. Many Roman remains are found at both places. Montpensier, about IN AFRICA. 187 two miles north-east, Joinville, four miles west, Dalmatie, six miles east of Blida, and Beni-Mered, the scene of the brave Serjeant Blandan’s exploit, were all founded about this time. This sketch aims more at giving the result of the different expeditions, rather than relating them in detail, and at this point, it may not be out of place to contrast Algerine warfare with that which French troops had formerly carried on in Europe. The march of armies on our continent, generally entailed the neces¬ sity of a vast amount of camp equipage, stores, munitions; the troops were constantly quartered on the towns, and the sick and wounded could frequently be transported to some place of safety in the rear of the army, and even when the necessities of war compelled their abandonment, they were humanely cared for by the enemy; instances are not wanting, when a General has requested the enemy’s chief to care for the wounded he has been compelled to leave behind, and prisoners of war, among civilized nations, are kindly treated by their captors. Besides, in the fertile and cultivated countries in Europe, armies are often enabled to subsist on the districts through 185 THE FRENCH which they march. How different was it in Al¬ geria, where the prisoners and wounded who had the misfortune to fall into the hands of the Arabs, were cruelly butchered; where the scanty crops had been laid waste, and where no roads, deserving of the name, had ever existed. These were dif¬ ficulties, which, as far as was possible, had to be provided against. The tente-abri was an Algerine invention, enabling even the infantry to transport their own shelter, without the aid of a baggage train. They frequently had also to carry on their backs, provisions for ten to fourteen days, and longer. The Algerine war was the cause of many changes in the equipment and instruction of the French soldier; the superiority of the rifle over the old musket became fully established. The battalions of the Chasseurs d’Orleans* received a special training and course of instruction, tending more to develope the action and force of the in- * The ‘ Chasseurs d’Orleans’ were raised by virtue of a royal ordonnance of the 28th of September, 1840, under the deno¬ mination of Chasseurs a Pied. Another ordonnance of the 19th July, 1842, conferred on them the designation of the ‘Chas¬ seurs d’Orleans,’ in honour of the memory of their late illus¬ trious founder. IN AFRICA. 189 dividual, in opposition somewhat to the old idea that the strength of soldiers lay in them only as a mass. The clumsy old belts and shakos were replaced by lighter and more commodious ones; utility completely supplanted old established custom and routine; the costume of the Zouaves affords a good example of the extent of the innovation. 190 THE FRENCH CHAPTER XI. Morocco — The Prince de Joinville’s Naval Campaign--The Battle of Isly—Biskra. The empire of Morocco, which forms the north¬ western corner of Africa, occupies a superficial extent of 219,420 square miles, with about six hundred miles of coast on the Atlantic, and three hundred on the Mediterranean. The population has been estimated at about eight millions ; during the last two centuries, it has considerably decreased, and is still on the decline. About the half are Moors, and Arabs; a quarter, Berbers; about half a million, Jews; and the remainder are of the Negro race. The Moors, who inhabit the sea-port towns, are mostly descended from those who were, in IN AFRICA. 191 times past, driven out of Spain; they are a fine athletic race, refined and gentle in manner, yet so ignorant and illiterate, that none would suppose them to be sprung from such illustrious and learned ancestors as the Moors of Seville, Cordoba, and Granada. The soil and climate of Morocco are excellent; the mineral wealth of the mountains which tra¬ verse the empire in its greatest length, and in some places attain an elevation of nearly twelve thousand feet, is as yet but partially known, but they yield lead, copper, and antimony. The plains produce corn, rice, indigo, and many other valuable commodities. Its forests of cedar, cork, ilex, and olive trees are scattered over a vast extent, and contain herds of antelopes, wild boars, and many other species of game, and an excellent breed of horses belongs to the country. The principal manufactures are leather, shawls and carpets. The interior of Morocco is as much closed against the foreigner, as any in the world, and the government is the purest despotism. Sailors and others who have been cast on this inhospit¬ able shore, have been led into slavery, and have 192 THE FRENCH been sent into the interior to pine away a miserable existence. It is known on good authority, that at this moment, there are many white Christian slaves in the southern and eastern portions of the Empire.* The regular army consists of about eight thou¬ sand cavalry, and the same number of infantry ; but every Arab is an expert irregular horseman, and the Berbers make good foot soldiers. At the Emperor’s call, a large army can be quickly formed, wanting, it is true, the efficiency of European troops ; but a hundred thousand fanatic Arabs, in a wild country, living by plunder, and moving about without luggage, would prove formidable opponents. The condition of the Jews in the Empire of Morocco is an extremely hard one; they are merely tolerated because they are useful. Without them many wants of the Moorish population could not be ministered to; they are the best, and in many handicrafts, the only artificers in the country. The principal merchants are Jews, and in finance occupations they are much employed * * The Present state of Morocco/ by Xavier Darricu. IN AFRICA. 193 by the Moorish Government. They everywhere occupy a distinct quarter of the town, the gates of which are locked at night; they are compelled to wear black garments, and are forbidden to ride, the horse being considered too noble an animal to carry a Jew, and they are forced to take off their shoes on passing a mosque. Even the little Moorish boys strike and ill-treat them in various ways, and the slightest attempt at retaliation was formerly punished with death, and would now be visited with the bastinado. They are more heavily taxed than any other class, and special contributions are often levied on them. Constancy to their faith renders this unfortunate race able to support the heavy burden imposed on it; and apostacy, which would at once release them from oppression, is very rare. They believe that they are expiating the crimes of their fore¬ fathers, and that God has rejected them for a time, though not for ever, and that at some future day, they will be reunited, and restored to greatness. But their religion is one of mere profession, and of external forms and ceremonies ; they are addicted to every vice and superstition, though after the centuries of oppression which o 194 THE FRENCH they have undergone, their moral degradation is not to be wondered at. Many of them who in¬ habit Tangiers are protected by the European consuls, and thus their property is saved from the rapacity of the Moorish authorities; far, however, from evincing any gratitude, they hate the Christians with great intensity, although they outwardly assume a servile respect towards them. The Emir Abd-el-Kader, having lost his for¬ tresses and warlike stores, and his troops having been everywhere defeated, was reduced to little more than the chief of a roving band on the borders of the Desert; but he shortly adopted the expedient of entering the adjoining terri¬ tory of Morocco, and preaching the Holy War with a view to gaining adherents among the lawless border tribes. He even secured the sym¬ pathy of the Emperor Muley-Abd-er-Rhamen, and therefore the violations of the Algerine territory became at once a question between France and Morocco. Much uneasiness was manifested in England at the prospect of the rupture, but Sir Robert Peel declared in the House of Commons, that Her IN AFRICA. 195 Majesty’s Government had received the most sa¬ tisfactory assurances from France, with respect to the quarrel; and Monsieur Guizot declared in the Chamber, that France disclaimed all ideas of addi¬ tion of territory in Africa; but the French nation were much irritated at the conduct of the English authorities at Gibraltar, and the Prince de la Mos- kowa declared in the Chamber of Peers, that the visit of Sir Robert Wilson to Tangiers was unwar¬ rantable, and held out to the Moors a prospect of support from England. It was also maintained in the Chamber, that England was secretly nego- ciating with Spain to prevent her supporting France in the present crisis. The tone of the majority of the English jour¬ nals was most bellicose against France at this junc¬ ture ; but the ‘ Times/ took a moderate view of the case, and endeavoured to curb those bitter feelings, rapidly increasing between the two na¬ tions. It maintained that the French army, in spite of great provocation, had shewn much for¬ bearance, and that the demands of the Govern¬ ment only required the dissolution of the force which menaced the frontier, the punishment of those who provoked its violation, and the vvith- o 2 196 THE FRENCH drawal of protection from Abd-el-Kader, who might, by the force of his religious influence, be¬ come at any moment the commander of a Moorish army. The ‘ Times/ also, demonstrated that the attempt to conquer Morocco would require more than double the then existing estimate for the African Army, and that France had not been so fortunate since 1830, as to induce her to risk such a stake. About the end of July, 1844, a French squadron, under the command of the Prince de Joinville, appeared off the coast of Morocco, and on the 6th of August bombarded Tangiers, spar¬ ing the European quarter, and in the evening sailed for Cadiz. The fortifications were not much injured, and no attempt was made at land¬ ing. Mr. Drummond Hay, the British Consul- General, had, in the meantime, hurried to the city of Morocco as mediator, with a view to terminate the dispute; and on his return, when the war steamer ‘ Vesuvius/ on hoard of which he was, entered the Straits of Gibraltar, Tangiers was undergoing the horrors of a bombard¬ ment. The Prince having repaired damages at Cadiz, IN AFRICA. 197 and transferred the wounded to a ship appointed to receive them, sailed for Mogador, which place was bombarded and destroyed on the 15th of August. A landing was effected on the island, under the command of Captain Duquesne, and the batteries were carried ; an obstinate hand to hand conflict then ensued, and about four hundred Moorish troops kept up a severe fire against the French, sheltering themselves behind rocks and walls. At length, after a struggle of more than an hour, they retreated to a Mosque, where they soon after capitulated, and the entire island was in possession of the French. The loss of the latter was eight killed, including an officer, and more than thirty wounded, and a few casual¬ ties occurred on board the ships from the fire of the Moorish batteries. The Prince then determined to dismantle the town batteries, which had been now abandoned by the enemy, and five hundred men were landed, with orders to spike all the guns, throw them over the ramparts, and haul down the Moorish flags; during these proceedings, the ships assisted by their fire to destroy the forti¬ fications. The island was held by the French until peace was concluded. 198 THE FRENCH Meanwhile the fanatical Moors in the interior, had been anxiously wishing for an opportunity to prosecute the war, and Abd-el-Kader had been seen making a reconnoissance at the head of some Moorish troops. General de Lamoriciere, in conse¬ quence, marched with all his disposable force to the frontier beyond Tlemcen. He took up his head-quarters on the Tafna, at a position from which the Moorish Camp was distinctly visible; he was soon joined by reinforcments from Mas¬ cara and Mostaganem; and detachments from Titery and from the Capital were ordered to pro¬ ceed towards the territory of Morocco. About the end of May, 1844, General de Lamoriciere found himself at the head of more than three thousand men, and Sidi-el-Mamoun-Ben-Cherif advanced against the advice of the Moorish General to attack them with fifteen hundred of the Black Cavalry. The Moors displayed great daring, but the skill of the French General and the steadiness of his troops, proved too much for this undisci¬ plined mass of cavalry, and they were defeated with great loss. Early in June, Marshal Bugeaud arrived to as¬ sume the command, and marched upon Ouchda, IN AFRICA. 199 entering that town on the 19th, without encoun¬ tering any opposition. The Moorish troops, whose indiscretions had led to the late attacks, retreated as the French advanced beyond the frontier. Ouchda is a town containing about a thousand inhabitants, situated in the Desert of Angad, which is devoid of all resources necessary to the support of an army, and these reasons in¬ duced the Marshal to retire behind the French frontier near Tlemcen, which he did on the 21st of June. A negociation was now attempted, and General Bedeau conferred with the Kaid of Ouchda with a view to terminate the quarrel without having re¬ course to war; but the demand of the Kaid that the frontier of Morocco should be advanced to the Tafna, was too exorbitant to be entertained. General Bedeau thereupon withdrew from the conference, and such was the violence of the fana¬ tic Moors, that they attacked his escort on his re¬ turn to the army, on which the Marshal immediate¬ ly routed the forces of the Kaid. On the 26th of June, the French army proceeded to the little port of Djema-Ghazarrat, and established depots of provisions and stores there, in case the war should 200 THE FRENCH be prolonged, and on the 1st of July they marched to the river Isly, and two days afterwards were slightly engaged with the Moorish troops. The French followed the upward course of the Isly in search of Abd-el-Kader and the tribes who ac¬ companied him, but not succeeding in finding him, they again retired. Reports now reached the Marshal, that the Moorish army had been considerably augmented, and that the Emperor had sent his son to command it. The French did not muster more than fifteen thousand men, but they at once took the initiative, and at- tacking the Moors, as they attempted to dispute the passage of the river Isly, threw them into confusion, capturing the sacred umbrella, the emblem of royalty in Morocco, the personal equipage of the Emperor’s son, and the camp, with a large amount of booty. The Moors charged with large bodies of cavalry, which the French infantry steadily resisted, and as soon as the Marshal assumed the offensive, they fled in all directions. The title of Duke d’Isly was con¬ ferred upon him for the victory, which was, how¬ ever, barren of any political results, as the preli¬ minaries of peace had alread) been arranged at Tan- IN AFRICA. 201 giers,* and on the 10th of September, the treaty was signed at that town. * Traitc de Tanger. Art. 1.—Les troupes marocaines reunies extraordinairement sur la frontiere des deux empires, ou dans le voisinage de la dite frontiere, seront licenciees. S.M. l’Empereur de Maroc s’engage a empeeher desormais tout rassemblement de cette nature; il restera habituellement, sous le commandement du Kaid d’Ouchda, un corps dont la force ne pourra exceder habituellement deux mille hommes ; ce nombre pourra toutefois etre augmente si des circonstances extraordinaires et reconnus telles par les deux gouvernements, les rendaient necessaires dans l’interet commun. Art. 2.—Un chatiment exemplaire sera inflige aux chefs marocains qui ont dirige ou tolere les actes degression commis en temps de paix sur le territoire de l’Algerie, contre les troupes de S.M. le Roi des Franpais. Le gouvernement marocain fera connaitre au gouvernement franpais les mesures qui auront ete prises pour 1’execution de la presente clause. Art. 3.—S.M. l’Empereur de Maroc s’engage de nouveau, de la maniere la plus formelle et la plus absolue, a ne donncr, ni permettre qu’il soit donne dans ses etats, ni assistance, ni secours, ni armes, munitions, objets quelconques de guerre a aucun sujet rebelle, ou a aucun ennemi de la France. Art. 4.—Hadj Abd-el-Kader est mis hors la loi dans route l’etendue de l’empire du Maroc, aussi bien qu’en Algerie. II sera, en consequence, poursuivi a main armee par les Franpais sur les territoires de 1’Algerie, et par les Marocains sur leur territoire, jusqu’a ce qu’il soit expulse ou tombe au pouvoir de l’une ou de l’autre nation. 202 THE FRENCH Abd-el-Kader was summoned by the Emperor of Morocco to quit his territory, but he excused Dans le cas ou Abd-el-Kader toraberait au pouvoir des troupes franpaises, le gouvernement de S.M. s’engage a le trailer avec egard et generosite. Dans le cas oil Abd-el- Kader tomberait au pouvoir des troupes marocaines, S.M. l’Empereur de Maroc s’engage a l’enfermer ,dans une des villes du littoral ouest de l’Empire, jusqu’a ce que les deux gouvernements adoptent, de concert, les mesures indispensables pour qu’Abd-el-Kader ne puisse, en aucun cas, reprendre les armes, et troubler de nouveau la tranquillite de l’Algerie et du Maroc. Art. 5.—La delimitation des frontieres entre les possessions de S.M. le Roi des Eranpais et celles du Maroc reste fixee et convenue conformement a l’etat reconnu par le gouvernement marocain a l’epoque de la domination des Turcs en Algerie. L’execution complete et reguliere de la presente clause sera l’objet d’une convention speciale, negociee et conclue sur les lieux entre les plenipotentiaires delegues a cet elfet par le Roi des Eranpais, et le gouvernement marocain. S.M. l’Empereur de Maroc s’engage a prendre sans delai, dans ce but, les mesures convenables, et en informer le gouvernement franpais. Art. 6.—Aussitot apres la signature des pr^sentes conventions, les hostilites cesseront de part et d’autre: des que les stipulations comprises dans les articles 1, 2, 4, et 5 auront ete executees a la satisfaction du gouvernement franpais, les troupes evacueront l’ile de Mogador, ainsi que la ville d’Ouchda, et tous les prisonniers faits de part et d’autre seront mis imm^diatement a la disposition de lenr nation respective. Art . 7.—Les hautes parties contractantes s’engagent a pro- IN AFRICA. 203 himself from doing so, in consequence of the great sickness prevailing among his troops. He re¬ mained with about eight hundred men, encamped on the left bank of the Molonia, about seventy miles from the French frontier. In the month of November, Marshal Bugeaud returned to France, leaving the government in the hands of General de Lamoriciere. The war with Morocco was the great event of 1844, but in the Province of Constantine, the Duke d’Aumale organised an expedition to at¬ tack the Khalif of Biskra, who governed there in the name of Abd-el-Kader. On the 22nd of February, the column was assembled at Batna, on the limits of the Tell; it was composed of two ceder, de bon accord, et le plus promptement possible, a la conclusion d’nn nouveau traite qui, base sur les traites actuelle- ment en vigueur, aura pour but de les consolider et de les completer, dans l’interet des relations commerciales et politiques des deux, empires. Eu attendant, les anciens traites seront scrupuleusement respectes, et la France jouira, en toute chose, et en toute occasion, dn traitement dc la nation la plus favorisee. Art. 8.—La presente convention sera ratifiee, et les ratifi¬ cations seront echangees dans nn delai de deux mois, ou plus tot, si faire se peut. Cejourd’hui, 10 septembre, 1844. 204 THE FRENCH thousand four hundred infantry, six hundred Spahis and Chasseurs d’Afrique, and four guns. On the 29th, they arrived at El-Kantara, and on the 4th of March at Biskra, and found that the Khalif had fled before them. The Duke re¬ mained here ten days, leaving as a garrison, a company of native riflemen, and a small force of cavalry, formed from the inhabitants of the district, who expressed willingness to take service under the French. Biskra and Sidi Okbar are the principal towns of the Oasis of the Ziban, which contains about thirty-eight villages, and a population of about a hundred thousand souls. The town of Biskra is situated on the southern slope of the Aures moun¬ tains, which in the east of Algeria, separate the Tell from the Sahara; its population is about three thousand. It possesses a citadel, in which was found a French gun of the time of Henry II, dated 1549, and bearing the cipher of Diane de Poitiers. The strange vicissitudes which caused this relic to find a resting place in the African Desert are not known ; on its discovery, it was immediately sent to Paris. IN AFRICA. 20b CHAPTER XII. Bou-Maza—The Caverns of the Dahra—The Duke d’Aumale— French Prisoners—Final efforts of Abd-el-Kader—His sur¬ render. Though the French had now crushed all power¬ ful coalitions against them, yet the African army found ample occupation in the suppression of partial outbreaks, and especially in localities where the nature of the country favoured resistance. One of the most rebellious districts was the Dahra, a mountainous region, situated between Tenez and the mouth of the Chelif, and bounded on the north by that river. It is inhabited by Kabyles, and under the Cherif Bou-Maza,* a powerful chief, * Bou-Maza signifies the * Father of the Goat/ and was a soubriquet given to this chief, whose real name was Mohammed- Ben-Abd-Allah.— Castellane. 206 THE FRENCH resolute and gifted with ability, this district pro¬ mised to be a source of continual annoyance. Bou-Maza had, like Abd-el-Kader, worked on the religious feelings and prejudices of his race, and stories recounting miraculous interpositions of Pro¬ vidence, tending to point him out as one of the champions for the deliverance of his country, being extensively and cunningly circulated, induced many to rally round him. The troops at Tenez, Orleanville, and Mosta- ganem were charged with the maintenance of order in the Dahra, and in the month of April 1845, a column of twelve hundred infantry, a battery of mountain artillery, and a squadron of Chasseurs d’Afrique marched from the latter post to execute a movement in concert with the divi¬ sions of Tenez and Orleanville. This column formed a junction with the force of Colonel St. Arnaud, and a squadron of Spahis under Captain Fleury, who had within the last few days been successfully engaged three times with the Kabyles, once with the troops under Bou-Maza in person. On the 18th of April, the Orleanville column was established on the Plateau of Bale, from IN AFRICA. 207 which spot, Colonel St Arnaud ordered two reconnaissances to be made; the most important, under Commandant Canrobert, consisting of a few Spahis, and three hundred infantry, advanced towards the south-west, traversing the Oued-Met- Mour ravine, when, suddenly, from behind a gentle slope, about two thousand Kabyles rushed furi¬ ously on the French. The Commandant acting on the defensive, succeeded in gaining the summit of a rocky and well-wooded plateau, which offered capabilities for a prolonged defence, all retreat being cut off. But the Kabyles followed them, and continued their furious onslaught, while the French, sheltering themselves behind rocks and trees, were enabled to take a steady aim, and thus nearly every round of their ammunition told fatally; but had not the firing alarmed the camp, from whence reinforcements were instantly des¬ patched, the whole detachment would, in all proba¬ bility, have perished. They had ten killed and twenty wounded. In this encounter, two disabled French soldiers had the misfortune to fall alive into the hands of the Kabyles, and the same night they were murdered, and their corpses mutilated and ex- 208 THE FRENCH posed to be consumed by a slow fire, in view even of their comrades. From this period, the expedition was employed in quelling several partial risings in the districts of Mostaganem and Tenez; and throughout Algeria, a large portion of the army was distributed in moveable columns, and occupied in repressing » these numerous, though objectless revolts. One of these columns under Colonel Pelissier was effecting the subjection of the inhabitants of the Ouled-Riah, who on the 18th of June, being closely pressed, took refuge in some extensive ca¬ verns, used as dwellings by these people. Here the French blockaded them, and some of the soldiers threw lighted fagots before the entrance. The Co¬ lonel, it appears, made several attempts to persuade the besiegers to surrender ; but he was not success¬ ful, and more fagots were thrown in. Again the Colonel sent some Arabs to implore the inmates of the caverns to yield ; and lastly he sent a French officer, who was not enabled to perform his mission. The soldiers, exhausted and enraged at the obstinacy of their enemies, who resolutely held out in this trying position during two days and a night, renewed the fagots, and rendered the IN AFRICA. 209 heat unbearable, on which loud and piercing shrieks were heard, followed by a silence, broken only by the crackling of the fagots. The French then entered, and found about five hundred burnt dead bodies of men, women and children. That this was an unpardonable atrocity, admit¬ ting of no palliation, is sufficiently proved by the French themselves. The Count de Montalembert, Marshal Castellane, and the Prince de la Moskowa expressed their abhorrence of it in the Chamber of Peers; and the opposition Press denounced it in strong terms, and compared it to the bloody deeds of the Spaniards in South America, in the 15th century. It appears that Colonel Pelissier was unable to check the ferocity of his troops, who, enraged at the obstinate resistance they met with, became lost to the restraint of their officers. So numer¬ ous had been the instances of prisoners having been tortured, murdered and mutilated, that it is not surprising that quarter should have been refused on this occasion; but the reprisal by fire was extremely revolting, and does not admit of extenuation. The Caverns of the Dahra will ever remain a standing monument of shame to all p 210 THE FRENCH those who had any hand in this horrible transac¬ tion. The revolt, which in 1845, was rapidly spread¬ ing, and was successfully fanned by the emissaries of the Emir, tried the devotion and perseverance of the army in a series of arduous expeditions. These resulted in effectually crushing resistance by the close of 1846. The greater portion of the tribes of the Tell returned to obedience, and the most rebellious had suffered severely for their * defection. These expeditions, although they afforded great scope for the display and develop¬ ment of individual talent and energy, were too monotonous in their character to merit a special narration, and the Emir, though still able by his influence to foster partial revolt, was now quite powerless to attempt any important operation. Rapidity, and the absence of all unnecessary impedimenta , being essentials in these expedi¬ tions, a description of the equipment of the infantry soldier may not be out of place. Besides his arms and his kit, each man carried needles and thread, buttons, and a few bits of cloth for mending his clothes; forty rounds of ammunition in his knapsack, and twenty in his IN AFRICA. 211 pouch; grease and instruments for cleaning his arms ; a piece of canvas, capable of being joined to others, so as to form a tente-abri for three or four men; a blanket, or half a blanket, accord¬ ing to the season, and a small tin drinking cup. They generally carried rations of rice, sugar, and coffee for eight days or more, and from seven to ten men formed a mess, carrying amongst them the utensils necessary for the common gamelle .* A troop of bullocks accompanied each column, to be killed as occasion required; and subsistance for ten or fifteen days was also carried on mules. Abd-el-Kader, on hearing that his countrymen were again in arms, fled from Morocco; and though envious of the young Kabyle, Bou-Maza, combined with him for a brief period, and in Sep¬ tember, 1845, succeeded in spreading the revolt throughout the entire extent of the Province of Oran. Dazzled by a trifling temporary success, Bou-Maza indulged in the vain hope that the French would be easily driven out of Algeria. Abd-el-Kader, however, no longer acted in unison * Gamelle, a common bowl, from which the soldiers composing a mess help themselves with their wooden spoons. p 2 212 THE FRENCH with him, hut put himself at the head of the tribes of the Beni-Ammer and the Hachems, and attacked those who had submitted to the French. In this foray, he even advanced as far as the east of the Province of Algiers ; but General Gentil, taking advantage of his imprudence, cut off his retreat from the Desert, and it was with extreme difficulty that he regained the territory of Morocco, where he was followed by only fourteen horsemen. Bou-Maza, unable to hold on single-handed, soon after fell into the hands of the French, and was sent to France as a prisoner of war, but was shortly, however, liberated on parole. After the pacification, which was effected in 1846, among the Arab tribes, some of the Kayble Chiefs, in the neighbourhood of Bougie, gave in their adhesion to the French ; and in the year 1847, Marshal Bugeaud was recalled to make room for the King’s son, the Duke d’Aumale, who in September, 1847, received his appointment as Governor-General. The young Duke might fairly be proud of being rewarded with this distinc¬ tion for his valuable services in Africa, some of them on the field of battle; and he assumed the Government, respected by the colonists and the IN AFRICA. 213 Arabs, and beloved by the soldiers, who regarded him as their comrade. The installation of a royal Prince as Viceroy of the recently acquired territory, was a declaration before Europe, that France considered her conquest complete, and her title indisputable. The way had already been paved for the organisation of Algeria, as a French Regency, by a series of decrees regulating its internal administration; in addition to the division into provinces, circles, communes, and aghalics, the country was dis¬ tributed into the Civil, the Mixed, and the Arab territory. In the first, the administration was regulated according to the common law of France, and in it Europeans were permitted to form what¬ ever establishments they thought fit, and to purchase and sell land. In the mixed territory, the Military authorities administered the civil and judicial functions, and the acquisition of land could only take place under the authority of the Minister of War. The Arab territory was governed despotically by the military commanders, and no European could settle in it without a special authority \ but as the interests of the French colonists have required it, the Civil territory has 214 THE FRENCH been progressively increased. A decree also regu¬ lated the powers of the Governor-General; this officer reported to the Minister of War, and was invested with the supreme command of the troops, was charged to maintain the integrity of the frontiers, and to banish any individual who might prove dangerous to peace and order; his special powers were almost unlimited. A Director- General of Civil Affairs, an Attorney-General, Directors of Colonization, Public Works, Finance and Commerce, and a Superintendent of Arab Affairs were also installed. A superior Council of Administration, composed of the high func¬ tionaries, and presided over by the Governor- General, was formed ; and Prefects, as well as Mayors and other municipal authorities were appointed to the Civil territories. We have before observed that the French prisoners, who fell into the hands of the Arabs, were often massacred, and if they escaped death, a hard captivity always awaited them. Of the numerous victims, taken during the revolt of 1845, a few only saw their comrades again. Command¬ ant Courby de Cognard and his ten companions, who were captured at that period, however, found IN AFRICA. 215 means in the month of November, 1846, to send a letter by an Arab to the Governor of Melilla, a Spanish possession on the coast of Morocco; he stated that on receiving £1600, the chief, in whose custody they were, would release them. The Governor immediately sent this intelligence to General d’Arbouville, then in temporary com¬ mand of the Province of Oran. The money was at once taken from the public chest of the division, placed on board the c Veloce,’ a steam corvette, and despatched to Melilla, where the Enseigne de Yaisseau Durande was landed with the ransom. An Arab was then sent by the Spanish Governor to Commandant Cognard, to say that the ransom was ready ; and on the 24th of November, two emissaries arrived at the Spanish outposts at a spot twelve miles from Bertinza Point. On the 25th they were to be released, and it was agreed that Monsieur Durande should repair to the place indicated by the Arabs, and that the Town-Major of Melilla should take charge of the ransom, and should proceed in an armed boat to a place on the coast, from where the signals of the French Naval officer could be seen. The signal being given, the boat approached the shore, and a force of four 216 THE FRENCH or five hundred horsemen were drawn up on the beach. They announced that the prisoners were at but a short distance off, and would speedily arrive; they then retired. Soon, however, some of the regular cavalry appeared in sight, and the eleven Frenchmen were discernable; the Arab chief in command delivered them up to Monsieur Durande, and received the ransom, the liberated prisoners being conducted to Melilla, where they were received with joy and congratulations by the Spanish garrison. Abd-el-Kader had, since his flight before General Gentil, in some measure recovered from his pros¬ tration ; the Beni-Ammer and the Hachems were still faithful to him, and his camp was the resort of numerous Moorish fanatics and malcontents, equally careless whether they w r ere to be led against the French, or to be employed in effecting a re¬ volution in Morocco. So dangerous did the Emperor consider the attitude of Abd-el-Kader, that he sent a large force to watch his move¬ ments, being fearful of a second war with France, or a revolt in his own dominions. On the 9th of September, 1847, the Emir was informed that as long as he remained on the French frontier at the IN AFRICA. 217 head of an armed force, he would be looked upon as an enemy; but that if he would repair to Fez, and permit his troops to be incorporated with the Moorish army, he should be treated by the Emperor with the consideration due to his rank and renown. If, however, he refused to accede to these terms, his retreat to the Desert would not be interrupted. But Abd-el-Kader determined once more to try the fortune of war, and attacked the Emperor’s troops, who defeating him, now attempted to cut off his retreat to the Desert, and not daring to trust himself to the Emperor of Morocco, he determined to surrender to the French. General de Lamoriciere had, however, been made aware of the Emir’s intentions, and sent a detach¬ ment of Spahis to guard the defile through which he was expected to pass, and he advanced his column towards the frontier ; but as he found that the Spahis were in the presence of Abd-el-Kader, he hastened to their assistance, and while so doing, unexpectedly received an offer of surrender from the Emir, on condition that he should be free, to retire to Alexandria or St Jean d’Acre. The Gen¬ eral accepted the proposals, and in writing to the 218 THE FRENCH Duke d’Aumale, expressed a hope that he and the Government would adhere to it. On the 24th of December, the Ex-Emir was received by the Generals de Lamorici&re and Cavaignac, and Co¬ lonel Montauban, and was afterwards conducted to Nemours, where the Duke d’Aumale person¬ ally received his submission, expressing the hope that the King would sanction the conditions. The day after his interview with the Duke, he em¬ barked for Toulon on board the steam frigate “ Asmodee,” accompanied by a suite of nearly a hundred persons, bidding farewell for ever to the land of his birth, the scene of his glory and mis¬ fortune. 1 * * Yoici le portrait que le due d’Aumale trapait d’Abd-el-Ivader, au moment de sa soumission : “ L’Emir est uu homme d’environ quarante ans. Sa pliysionomie est intelligente ; ses yeux, grands et noirs, out le regard severe et imperieux; son teint est jaune, sa face amaigrie, sans etre longue ; sa barbe noire est abondante, et se termine en pointe. L’ensemble de sa figure est austere; elle rappelle la figure traditionelle du Christ. Sa voix est grave et sonore. Sa taille, au-dessus de la moyenne, parait robuste et bien prise. II porte un burnous noir sur deux burnous blancs, des bottes demaroquin jaune; le costume est des plus simples.— Carette. IN AFRICA. 219 CHAPTER XIII. Subsequent Events in Algeria—The Bureau Arabe—The Sahara —Statistics and Concluding Remarks. The surrender of Abd-el-Kader terminates the period of active resistance offered by the Arabs against the French, and looking hack to the con¬ dition of Algeria thirty years ago, it cannot he denied that a very beneficial change has been effected. Mr. David Urquart and his followers have sufficiently extolled Mahometan Institutions, hut the present state of the Turkish Empire most clearly shews that they have, during the last three centuries, exercised a baneful influence over those subject to them. Their populations have steadily decreased under a misrule, but little redeemed by the superior enlightenment of a few exceptional Mahometan statesmen. In the present century, the most advanced Orientals have aimed at no- 220 THE FRENCH thing but imitation of Europe; but they have not caught the substance of civilization, and their measures will not save the Ottoman Empire from the dissolution which awaits it. The news of the Revolution of 1848 was re¬ ceived at Algiers on the 27 th of that month, but was not officially known until the 3rd of March, when the proclamation of the Republic and a list of the members of the Provisional Government was published in Algiers, and at the same time, a de¬ cree appointing General Cavaignac Governor-Ge¬ neral was received. The Duke d’Aumale, in con¬ sequence, issued the following address to the army. “ Head Quarters, Algiers, “ 3rd March, 1848. “ General Changarnier will fill the office of Governor-General until the arrival of General Cavaignac, who has been appointed Governor- General of Algeria. In bidding farewell to an army, which has shewn itself a model of honour and courage, in the ranks of which I have passed the brightest days of my existence, I can only wish it fresh glories. A new career is open to its valour; that it will fulfil it worthily is my firm con- IN AFRICA. 221 viction. Officers, non-commissioned officers and soldiers, I had still hoped to have fought with you in the cause of our common country ; that honour is denied me, but in my exile, my heart will follow you, wherever the national will requires your pre¬ sence. I shall ever rejoice in your success ; my most fervent wishes will be always for the glory and happiness of France. “ (Signed) Henri d’Orleans.” The Duke, accompanied by his brother, the Prince de Joinville, quitted Algiers on the 4th of March in a man-of-war, which had been placed at their disposal. General Cavaignac arrived on the 11th of March, and immediately entered on his new office. His first act was to issue a proclamation, which had been dictated in Paris by the Provisional Go¬ vernment, addressed to the colonists of Algeria, assuring them that their welfare would be the aim of the Republic, and a flattering proclamation was also addressed to the army. However, the pro¬ mises of the Provisional Government were only followed by a sterile declaration that Algeria 222 THE FRENCH should for ever be considered an integral portion of the French Republic. The subsequent operations against the Arabs were, of necessity, partial in their character, the great mass of that race having, after the fall of their great leader, yielded to the power of the con¬ querors. But there was still a powerful Kabyle element to be subdued, and the Great Kabylie yet held out. However, the year 1851 witnessed the first great effort towards its subjugation. Two brigades of infantry, two hundred and fifty ca¬ valry, in all nine thousand five hundred men were concentrated at Milah under the command of Ge¬ neral St Arnaud assisted by Generals de Luzy and Bosquet, and marched into the Great Kabylie, but although the operations were successful, the result was not permanent. Up to the present time, indeed, have periodical campaigns been under¬ taken against this resolute race; and in the year 1857, thirty-five thousand men under Marshal Randon, the Governor-General, advanced into the Great Kabylie, and constructed some roads and a fortress, but by no means conquered the country ; its subjugation, however, is by degrees being IN AFRICA. 223 effected, and a year or two from the present time will probably witness its completion. General Pelissier had previously made the Arabs of the Desert feel the power of French arms by the capture of Lagouat; the sparks of resis¬ tance were one by one extinguished, and Algeria has ceased to be the warlike school of a Changarnier or a De Lamorici&re. The establishment of the Bureau Arabe has been already noticed, but so important has been its agency over the natives, that a few more obser¬ vations respecting it may not be misplaced. In Algeria, a portion only of the territory is ruled by the civil administration, and a very large population is still under military authority. The three provinces consist of fifteen sub-divisions, and these are again composed of from forty to forty- five circles. In each circle, there is a Bureau Arabe composed as follows; a chief and his assis¬ tant, a Kadi and assessors, a French and an Arab secretary, an office keeper, and a few Spahis to convey orders, and furnish escorts when required. Such is the formation of the institution, through which means the Military Commander rules the native population, and he is, of necessity, much in- 224 THE FRENCH fluenced by the Chefs de Bureau whose powers and responsibilities are in consequence consider¬ able. The appointment to the charge of a Bureau has always been bestowed with great discrimina¬ tion, as the names of the following officers, who have exercised it, sufficiently prove : De Lamori- ciere, Duvivier, Bosquet, Daumas, De Martimprey and Bazaine; and many others might he men¬ tioned, highly distinguished, though in a less de¬ gree than the preceding. In time of war, the most important duties of the office was to obtain particulars of the numbers and positions of the enemy, topographical informa¬ tion, and to discuss and negociate any proposed convention, which it might be desirable to make. The command of native troops was also generally given to officers of the Bureau Arabe , as being by their training better fitted for that employ¬ ment ; and the efficiency of the Arabs in the service of France, was increased tenfold bv their being under the supervision of European officers. The necessity of such an institution, was evident at the commencement of the war, and the want of it occasioned many serious blunders. Its success and efficiency were beyond doubt, and if the ex- IN AFRICA. 225 tensive powers delegated to the Chefs de Bureau were abused, it was the exception and not the rule; and it must be taken into consideration, that the temptations to appropriate advantages to themselves were great, though many will maintain, and perhaps with reason, that they were not justified in accepting the presents, which were constantly offered to them by the Arab chiefs. An apparently well founded complaint against the Bureau, was the imperfect manner in which they exercised their judicial functions young and inexperienced officers were often deputed to hear the causes, and occasionally exhibited a harsh¬ ness, in manner and language, towards the accused and witnesses, quite unjustifiable, and calculated * Un autre genre d’abus, tres important, selon moi, consiste dans la fapon dont se rend journellement la justice dans les bureaux arabes.... Dans quelques cercles, on designe un des officiers nouveaux venus et inexperimentes pour ecouter les affaires; autre part, on deploie un tel appareil d’intimidation, une telle rudesse d’interrogation et d’expulsion, au cas ou le plaignant lie convient pas a l’cfficier juge, que l’on est a se demander, dans ces localites, si l’indigene a beaucoup gagne a nous avoir a la place du Turc .—“Souvenirs d’un Chef de Bureau Arahef by Captain Ferdinand Hougonnet . Q 220 THE FRENCH to lower whatever opinion the native may have » formed of his European conquerors. Gentleness may be so combined with firmness, that the latter quality loses none of its force, and violent and coarse bearing rarely betokens energy. A mild but resolute language is the true and best means for a civilized man to adopt towards his semi-barbarian fellow creature. Justice, however, has rarely been departed from; the innocent obtained protection, and the guilty learnt to dread the strict and searching investigation of their acts. As regards summary executions, which, however, have been of the most uncommon occurrence, it is to be feared that some officers have had recourse too precipitately to such extreme measures, mistaking rash judgment for energy; but a great allowance must be made for those who have had nought but their own resources to depend on in case of a revolt, and have had almost single handed to repress a dangerous and increasirg disaffection. In times of war and revolution, the desire to be sparing of human life may lead to greater sacrifices and bloodshed at the conclusion ; and cases oc¬ curred during the war, in which a summary ex¬ ecution might have prevented the necessity of an IN AFRICA. 227 expedition, and thus have saved the lives of many French soldiers. # The Bureau Arabe, besides adding to the efficiency of the staff of the army, is nothing more than a direct mode of governmental administration, doing away with a necessity for constant appeal; and this the circumstances required, and only on * Although at times a stern necessity may have prompted officers, in exceptional positions, to order an immediate execution on their own responsibility, yet the French government must be acquitted of any carelessness of human life, and tied the hands of their officers, in this respect, even perhaps more closely than the condition of Algeria warranted, as is seen by the following decree: “ Les nombreuses executions capitales ordonnees par le General Negrier dans la province de Constantine, determinerent le gou- vernement a publier le ler avril, 1842, une ordonnance royale, dont voici les dispositions principales : “Art. 1.—Aucune execution a mort, par quelque juridiction qu’elle ait ete ordonnee, ne pourra avoir lieu dans toute l’etendue des possessions franpaises en Algerie, qu’autant qu’il nous en aura ete rendu compte, et que nous aurons decidee de laisser un libre cours a la justice. “ Toutefois, dans les cas d’extreme urgence, le Gouverneur- General pourra ordonner l’execution, a la charge de faire im- mediatement connaitre les motifs de sa decision a notre ministre- secretaire de la guerre, qui nous en rendra compte. “ Ce pouvoir attribue au Gouverneur-General ne pourra, dans aucun cas, etre delegue.”— Caretle. 228 THE FRENCH rare occasions have its servants abused the trust reposed in them. We are indebted, for what knowledge we possess respecting the Sahara, to the works of General Daumas, whose long residence and diligent re¬ searches in Algeria, render him a valuable au¬ thority. The progress of the conquest, and the establishments of the stations of Teniet-el-Had, Boghar, Biskra, and some others, all on the ex¬ treme limits of the Tell, led to the gradual ex¬ ploration of the region beyond it, which had been previously regarded as a vast impassable desert, with the exception of a few oases, destitute of human life; but the various expeditions, warlike and otherwise, which have since penetrated into this region, have fallen in with numerous towns and villages, and with a still greater number of encampments. As this knowledge of the desert extends, inter¬ course and commerce may spring up between France and West Central Africa. Dr. Barth, the great African traveller, in a paper, which he read to the Geographical Society of London, related that some, though a small portion of European manufactures, finds its way into the interior 229 IN AFRICA. \ through Algeria ; by far the greater portion is carried through Morocco, Tunis, or Tripoli. It will be obviously advantageous to France to make her possessions as much as possible the line of passage, and an intimate acquaintance with the Sahara of Algiers would probably effect this. The safety of the roads, in comparison with those of Morocco and Tunis, will be in its favour, and civilized French rule must, in time, inspire con¬ fidence, and gain over the adhesion of the different tribes. Large portions of the northern Sahara, though desert for the greater part of the year, are fertilized by the winter rains, and in spring afford pasturage for a short season to numerous flocks ; further south, at about the 29° of north latitude, pasturage is not to be found as far as the moun¬ tains of Touareg, the northern limit of the race bearing that name. This people is dispersed among the mountains, and about the desert, and some dwell as far south as the neighbourhood of Timbuctoo; yet though scattered over such a vast region, the different sections speak the same language, bear a strong physical resemblance to one another, and proclaim themselves descended from a common stock. The men are described 230 THE FRENCH as tall and thin, but muscular, and those, inhabit¬ ing even the neighbourhood of Soudan, are re¬ ported to have white complexions. Their sole occupation is pillaging the caravans, journeying, to and fro, from Barbary to the interior, or en¬ forcing a tribute as a guarantee of safe conduct. They are mounted on camels, and armed with a long spear, and a double edged sword, marching by night when on a predatory expedition, with the stars for their only guide. Their endurance is described as being so excessive that they appear strangers to fatigue, and when in pursuit of prey, they constantly pass two or three days without food or water, but give themselves up to excess after a successful pillage. Their usual food consists of milk, dates, mutton, and the flesh of the camel; grain they seldom obtain, except in small portions, from the caravans. Their mode of attack is systematic and cruel; when the spies report a caravan not strong enough to resist them, they set out in pursuit, and when they approach to within a short distance of it, they dis¬ mount, and leaving their camels and sick under a guard, rush on the travellers, and spread havoc amongst them with their long swords, aim- IN AFRICA. 281 ing whenever they are able at the legs of their victims; when they have disabled a sufficient number to pillage with impunity, they secure the booty, and make off to their camels, leaving the unfortunates to die a lingering death on the dreary desert. But they protect and guide the caravans, for which tribute is paid, passing them on from one section to another of their race. These caravans or assemblies of merchants are organized with great regularity. A chief is named, who, from his previous journies and experience, is supposed to be fitted for the responsible post, and under him are subordinate officers, who deliberate with him when any question of difficulty or danger arises respecting conventions for a safe conduct; they take charge of the property of any member of the caravan who may die during the journey, and take measures to obtain a proper supply of water and provisions. On some occasions, though rarely, the chief betrays his trust, and shares the spoils with the robbers; but the travellers are well armed, and to a certain degree, depend upon themselves, as well as the integrity of their leader. It seems, however, not improbable, that at no distant period greater facilities will be held out to 232 THE FRENCH those who are compelled to undertake that terrible journey; for recently, the French engineers have sunk an artesian well in the Algerine Sahara, and the success of the undertaking has exceeded the most sanguine expectations. Stations may be formed at convenient distances across the waste, and the savage inhabitants may gradually be led to look up with veneration to those, whose scientific pow r ers supply them with that prime necessity, water. The negro will thus be brought into greater proximity with Europe, and trade will doubtless give impulse to his industry, so that African chiefs and kings may find more profit in keeping their subjects at home, than in selling them for slaves to cultivate cotton in the United States. The conquest of Algeria may thus even¬ tually prove beneficial to mankind, by the trans¬ formation of the plundering Arab into the guide and protector of the Desert. There is great difficulty in giving statistics of the native population, on account of the wandering habits of a large portion of them, rendering it impossible to take a correct census. To the labours of General Daumas, we are indebted for the following: IN AFRICA. 233 PROVINCE OF CONSTANTINE. Bona district. Constantine. Setif. . 113.322 . 654.406 . 226.206 -993.934 PROVINCE OF ALGIERS. Algiers District. Miliana. Medeah. Orleanville. . 218.308 . 84.745 . 102.252 . 84.863 -490.168 PROVINCE OF ORAN. Oran District. Mostaganem. Tlemcen. Mascara. Tribes of the Sahara which are 50.250 86.520 66.240 95.520 not included in the above dis¬ tricts. . . . 178.520 477.030 234 THE FRENCH Unconquered districts in the Province of Algiers and Con¬ stantine. . . . 550.000 Native population of European towns. Province of Algiers. . . 34.653 „ Constantine. . . 20.649 „ Oran. . . 13.157 -68.459 JEWISH POPULATION. Province of Algiers. . . 7.145 „ Constantine..^ . 4.266 „ Oran. . . 7.515 -18.926 The addition of the above gives a total of 2,598,217 souls. General de Lamoriciere, in a speech addressed to the Chamber of Deputies, gave his estimate of the population as follows: Kabyles. . . . 800,000 Arabs. . . . 2,000,000 The Koulouglis and the Mozabites, as well as the Moors, are included in the above among the Arabs. The same General considers that about IN AFRICA. 235 1,200,000 of the population inhabit the Tell, and about 7 or 800,000, the Sahara. The number of European inhabitants is of course exactly known, and the following table is taken from the published official return : December 31, 1830. 602 n 1831. 3.228 ff 1832. . 4.858 ff 1833. . 7.812 f> 1834. 9.750 tt 1835. . 11.221 ff 1836. . 14.571 ff 1837. ‘ . . 16.770 , ff 1839. . 23.023 ff 1843. . 59.186 ff 1845. . 95.321 June 30, 1847. . 112.924 At this latter date, the respective nationalities of the European inhabitants are given as follows : French. . Spaniards. Italians. . Germans. . 50.000 . 33.222 8.115 6.040 236 THE FRENCH Swiss. .... 3.237 Maltese. .... 8.908 English. .... 522 Irish. . . . . 140 Natives of Gibraltar.. . 968 Portuguese. 253 Poles. .... 394 Dutch and Belgians. 386 Russians. 77 Greeks. .... 59 Europeans not assigned to the above nations. 83 • 112.924 This estimate of the European population does not include the army, the following table is there- fore given: Original Expedition. . 37.331 The next year a considerable re- duction took place, making the strength about. .... . 18.000 1832. . 21.511 1833. . 26.681 1834. . 29.858 1835. . 29.485 1836. . 29.897 IN AFRICA. 237 1837. 1838. 1839. 1840. 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. . 40.147 . 48.167 . 50.367 . 61.231 . 72.000 . 70.850 . 75.034 . 82.037 After this period, the army was further aug¬ mented, and the numbers have since fluctuated between ninety and a hundred thousand men. The European population is on the increase, and the children of the natives attend the Govern¬ ment schools; so it may be presumed that the rising generation of Arabs will be more friendly to¬ wards the French than their fathers. The colonization from France has not been rapid. That country contains but half the pro¬ portionate population of England, consequently the inhabitants of their fertile provinces are not yet necessitated to quit their native land, and the absence of this necessity is quite sufficient to ac¬ count for the contrast commonly drawn between French and English colonies. An Algerine village 238 THE FRENCH is laid out prospectively, with its Place d’armes, its cafes, its barracks, and other government build¬ ings, before there are sufficient inhabitants to jus¬ tify the expense, and often before the real mate¬ rials of the colony, labour, has arrived. The Spaniards are the best and most indus¬ trious colonists in Algeria, they are chiefly natives of Catalonia and the southern portion of the kingdom of Spain, and therefore experience little change of climate by crossing the Mediterranean. The Maltese are also industrious but quarrelsome, and figure largely in the police reports. The climate is not unfavourable to the well¬ being of Europeans, and the heat rarely greater than in the south of Spain or Italy. The following tables of the Metereological ob¬ servations made in Algiers will convey an idea of the temperature and prevailing weather. WINDS. Day s of N. N. E. E. S. E. S. s.w. w. N.W. 3 90 32 6 4 40 40 170 IN AFRICA. 239 RAIN. Number of rainy Years. Days. 1838 106 1839 103 1840 98 1841 75 1842 93 1843 90 1844 132 1845 145 1846 113 Mean . . 106 Months. Greatest height, of thermometer R6amur. Least height of thermometer. R^amur. Mean. J anuary. 16° 1—1 o o 14o February. 16° 9° 13° March. 14o 8° 11° April. 18o 11° 15° May. 19° 16° 17° June. 24o 16° 19° July. 25° 22° 23° August. 25° 22° 24° September, 25o 19o 22° October. 21° 14° 18° November. 17° 14° 15° December. 17° 13° 15° In Algiers, two hundred and twenty fine days may be counted on during the year; seventy cloudy days; sixty days of heavy rain; five foggy days; and ten stormy days. On the Algerine 240 THE FRENCH coast, the average is sixty days of calm, eighty with a gentle breeze, one hundred and seventy with a breeze, and one hundred and forty with a stiff breeze or gale. The superficial area of Algeria has been esti¬ mated at 90,000 square miles. By the foregoing tables, and by the growing ex¬ perience of the colony, it may fairly be anticipated that all the tender productions of Europe will thrive in the Tell of Algeria; the olive, mulberry and vine are extensively cultivated already, and even cotton has been grown with success. Algeria is not, in our age, the great grain pro¬ ducing country it was under the Romans. The neglect of centuries has transformed its corn fields into swamps and wastes, but cereal cultivation would doubtless be remunerative. Scarcely two days distant from the south of France, and but five or six from England and Belgium, Algeria would enjoy an evident advantage over the shores of the Baltic and southern Russia, where the navigation is either closed or obstructed for a portion of the year. The Plains of Bona, the Metidja and the Chelif are but a few hours journey from the sea, and even the Plain of Medjana is not more IN AFRICA. 241 than two days distant from it: the carriage of ex- ports to the coast would therefore never, as in some parts of Russia, largely add to the cost of production. To agricultural resources may be added min¬ eral, and the copper of Tenez and Mouzaia has already become a considerable item in the ex¬ ports. Algeria, in its custom duties, has been illi¬ berally treated by the mother country, which, while professing to regard her as an integral part of France, gives her tariff no advantages over Senegal on the French West Indies. Free com¬ merce with France would benefit both countries. Artificial projects for furthering the colonization of Algeria have not been successful. With the exception of the Government officials, and some first class shopkeepers in Algiers, few besides the refuse of society have been tempted there. The conquering migrations of Tartar and Hun, the flight of the Celt to America, and the Chinese to California and Australia, were all caused by over-population and want: no causes of that kind are, in the present case, apparent, pointing to any likelihood of a large emigration from southern R 242 THE FRENCH Europe to northern Africa. That country will, no doubt, one day be great and prosperous, but owing to the probable absence of the precious metals, its growth will be gradual. Algeria has been an excellent training school for the French army. A distinguished African General* has said, “ Si jamais nous faisons la guerre en Europe, les officiers de l’armee d’Afrique auront, ainsi que leurs soldats, un avantage im¬ mense sur les troupes qui sont restees en France. Ici nous apprenons notre metier a fond, et nous sommes obliges de joindre la pratique a la theorie.” Unfortunately for France, political circumstances deprived her, during the Russian war, of the ser¬ vices of her most illustrious African Generals, Changarnier, Bedeau and De Lamoriciere, but she availed herself with profit of those of St Arnaud, Pelissier, Bosquet, Canrobert, and other African soldiers. But there is now, happily, no interruption to peaceful pursuits. The progress of civilization in these lands, so long prostrate under Turkish rule, now steadily advances; and none can say in * Marshal St. Arnaud. IN AFRICA. 243 what locality this effete race will next recede. Greece has made such rapid strides since she re¬ lieved herself from bondage, has so lavishly shed her blood for freedom, restored her noble language, and nearly purged her kingdom of robbers, that it is not extravagant to expect that she may play an important part in the next step towards the regeneration of Moslem Lands. END. LONDON : Printed by A. Schulze, 13, Poland Street. 'XNeiA'rc/ift litfi . U3S*Marluuf jLant.