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 OUTLINES, 
 
 OF THE 
 
 3LECTURES 
 
 ©H 
 
 emMISTET, MINERALOGY. & BEOLOBT, 
 
 DELIV ERED AT THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF NORTH-CAROLINA, 
 
 For the use of the Students. 
 
 >s? 
 
 RALEIGHs 
 
 jpBLVTED BY J. GJLEB 
 
 £810. 
 

 I j jjr jys p 
 
 7 /f 
 
 ORDER OF THE COURSE* 
 
 I. Introductory Lecture* 
 %. Attraction. 
 
 3. Light, 
 
 4. Caloric. 
 
 5. Galvanism. 
 
 6. Atmospheric Am, 
 
 7. Water. 
 
 8. Alkalies, 
 
 9. Earths. 
 
 10. ^Natural History of C 1. Mineralogy.* 
 
 the Earths. £ 2. Geology. 
 
 II. Acids, including their Bases and combi- 
 
 nations with the Alkalies and Earths* 
 
 12. Metals. 
 
 13. Mineral Waters. 
 
 14. Vegetable Chemisty. 
 
 15. Animal Chemistry. 
 
 16. Agricultural Chemistry. 
 
 * Mineralogy of the Inflammables and Ores given in connexion with their- 
 Chemical History. 
 
INTRODUCTION, 
 
 |. DEFINITION OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 'Natural ffistorifc--" ascertain* the different bodies in the 
 
 universe, and arranges thetn systematically,"-- respects facts. 
 
 Natural Philosophy" investigates the changes which bodies 
 
 produce by their action on each other,"— respects causes,— 
 
 divided into Mechanical Philosophy aud Chemistry. 
 
 Mechanical Philosophy—" treats or those changes m natural 
 bodies which are accompanied by sensible motions." 
 
 Chemistry—" treatsot those changes in natural bodies which 
 are not ac ompanied by sensible motions." (Thomson 1, 1.8. 
 Black 1, llJ^-^-distinction between the objects of the mechan- 
 ical philosopher and the chemist illustrated by- a river ofc 
 water. 
 
 2. HISTORY. 
 Ch-mistry existed among the ancients as an art— distinction 
 between an art and a science. Alchemy— how distinguisned 
 
 . f rom Ch traced back to Julius Firmicius Maternus of the 
 
 5th century— three objects of the alchymist=>— Alchymy in- 
 troduced from Arabia into F.urope by the Crusaders— Basil 
 Valentine— P irace sus— rise of Lord Bacon's philosopny-* 
 Beecher and Stahl— Pnlogistic Theory of Combustion— -whet* 
 cvevdirowy-rjt-Encyclopzdia Britannica— Brand's Third Dif 
 sertation.) 
 
 3. APPLICATIONS TO MEDICINE AND THE ARTS. 
 
 1. To Medicine. Composition of animal substances ascer- 
 tained—changes produced in substances by their Chemical 
 action on each other— a knowledge of the laws of affinity ne- 
 cessary in the preparation of medicines— analysis of poisons, 
 (Cooper on Medical Chemistry.) g. 
 
 2. To the Arts., Chemical principles involved in the arts 
 of dyeing, soap-making, cookery, pottery, glass-making and 
 agriculture— artificial mineral waters— steam engines & steam- 
 boats— safety-lamp. (Henry 1, \7.—Parkes I. J 
 
 4. MOTIVES TO STUDY CHEMISTRY. 
 
 1. Explanation of natural phenomena. 
 
 2. Moral and intellectual advantages arising from the stu#/ 
 of the works of Nature. 
 
 iw * The references are made for the convenience of the Student, where it Ttt%f 
 ™. he. -well to consult some work besides the Text Boole 
 
 tX) 
 
® ATTRACT IOXc 
 
 PART I. 
 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 tHvision of a system of Chem'v.try into general doctrines 
 and particular bodies — bodies either simple or compound — de- 
 finition of each — number of simple bodies known ^Thomson 
 S, 25.J— elements of the, ancients — general doctrines, so called 
 because their influence extends to all bodies — include Attrac- 
 tion, Light, Caloric, and Galvanism. 
 
 D1V. L— OF ATTRACTION. 
 
 Different kinds of Attraction — Gravitation, Magnetism and 
 Electricity assigned to Mechanical Philosophy, because they 
 act on masses', and at sensible distances — that kind which acta! 
 On particles, and at insensible distances, assigned to Chemistry. 
 
 A mass made up of either homogeneous or heterogeneous 
 particles — examples of each. — Aggregation, 4t that force by 
 ^/hich similar particles are united in one body. ,,; — Affinity, l that 
 force by which different particles are united iii one hody*"— > - 
 Constituent pans— integrant parts — examples of each — Cohe- 
 sion, " that force which unites the integrant particles irto a 
 mass." C Conversations on Chemistry > 1, 18. — 'Murray's Ek- 
 inents 1, 32 — Henry 1, 39. Jj 
 
 Cohesion strong in solids — weak \n fluids — -none in gases— > 
 itfh'y mercury does not adhere to a glass tube ? — why water 
 does adhere ? — why the surface of mercury is spherical? 
 
 Cohesion overcome in two ways-i— why beat overcomes it— 
 why a liquid overcomes it- — process forms solution — a fluid 
 cfissolves a solid by overcoming its cohesion— a solid some- 
 times dissolved bv air — by another solid — principle ? — Cohe- 
 sion resumed when the causes of separation are removed — ex- 
 amples — a solid recovered from a solution either in a regular 
 or an irregular form — when regular, crystallization, ( Mat~ 
 ray 1, 2-i.J 
 
 Of Chemical Attraction or Affmtiy. 
 Def. — difference between combination and mixture — sepa- 
 ration of ingredients bv filtration— decomposition— Chemical 
 Analysis and Chemical Synthesis defined — -importance oi this 
 subject to the Chemist. ( 'Murray 1, 32.J , . 
 
 LAWS OF CHEMICAL ATTRACTION. 
 
 1st Law. — Chemical affinity takes place only between bodies of a dif- 
 ferent nature. 
 
 2d Law.— Chemical amnity takes place only, between the minutest par- 
 Ikies cf bedies. 
 
ATTRACTION, ^ 
 
 Com hi nation promoted by rasping, filing, grinding, pulver- 
 17:111 2;, &c— why ? 
 
 ■5d Law.— Che nical Aflinity takes place not merely between two, but 
 also between three, four, or any number of bodies. 
 
 Most compounds complicated — animals and vegetables. 
 4th Law.— Insolubility, high specific gravity, efflorescence, and elasti- 
 city, by their tendency to separate bodies, oppose chemical combination 
 am! favor decomposition. 
 
 Insolubility the effect of cohesion— effect produced by di- 
 minishing the quantity of the solvent—by presenting to a 
 substance in solution another body with which it forms an ia« 
 soluble' compound. . 
 
 How great specific gravity opposesthe union of two suhq 
 stan e£%ow counteracted.. /%«jp»«*^* _ . 
 
 ■ Fluorescein e defined— how it opposes combination— infla- /!■ . 
 enwsnudl. S-T+£»~ *fif+*4 **^*^ <U~~j™^-m4v ^uMj^k 
 
 Elasticity, an important agent— what kind of bodies does it ^ 
 
 infriehce most ? — why an aeriform body combines more readi "V a "'^ > ^ 
 ly with a fluid than with another aeriform body— why pressure. "*"' 
 and cold promote the combination. 
 
 5th Law.— When bodies combine together, they undergo a change of 
 density, and a change of temperature, y^ • ^^ ( ~ 
 
 Change of temp, on increasinj^'density— on dimaiishin^^/^'* 
 it. (Murray 1, 38. J / , 
 
 (Mh Lavi— FJhe Gompouiids formed. by chemical affinity, possess new p£j- /f x 
 oioperties, which are different from those of the constituent parts. c*s>*Ma'' ' 
 
 PW. ,U ^ "»'V" *"r - — - ■■ _ .JO.' y A j 
 
 "t'lrtin joa of the old chemist's on the intermediate nature ok '^Q^ 
 .compounds— is the change of properties equally great in alt" J 
 cas » s ? —-example opi slight change— of a great change— gene- 
 ral rule respecting the extent of the change of properties, 
 \ 7th Law.— Bodies have different degrees of affinity for each other. 
 k p— ^'g/ Importance, of th is T law— why important— how a compou.id 
 |P M offwo pruicipies is decomposed by a third—chemical tests— 
 B-.rtholiet's views of the influence of quantity on chemical af- 
 
 ffioity single elective attraction— double elective attraction-* 
 
 h >w a compound of two principles is decomposed by another 
 compound of two principles. 
 
 5th Law.— The force of chemical affinity is estimated by the force 
 tyhich i| necessary to separate the substances which enter into comb*;- 
 
 nation': ' . ,,._,.. 
 
 Method of ascertaining by experiment the relative pfhmties^ 
 
 of several substances for a given body— Bergman's Tables of 
 
 Affinity. 
 
 Proportions in which bodies combine. 
 
 1, No limitation— salt with any quantity of water,* 
 
 / 
 
& LIGHT.— CALORIC. 
 
 2. Limited on one side — water saturated with salt- 
 
 3. Limited to one proportion. 
 
 4. Two ingredients combine in two, three or four propor- 
 tions^ — these proportions definite. 
 
 mv. II.— OF LIGHT. 
 
 Nature of L. — two theories — that of Descartes, Huygens, 
 and Euler — that of Newton — proofs thist it has a distinct ex- 
 istence irom heat. 
 
 Chemical Effects. 
 
 Light is capable of entering into bodies* and of being after- 
 wards extricated rvithout alteration. Examples — hsn hung up 
 to dry — meat in a pujresf^nt state — ioat sugar and pieces of 
 marble struck together in tfte ? -cltfrk — snow—rotten wood — the 
 diamond. . ,* • •*, • 
 
 Light combines with various bodies'^ changes' their properties? 
 
 1. With Vegetables. How their properties are altered by 
 growing in the dark—tendency of such plants towards the 
 light — changes in the properties oi vegetables produced by 
 light, e. g. cabbage, celery, potatoes — Prot. Robinson's expt. — - 
 will the light of a lamp produce the same change as that ol the 
 sun? C Black 1, 372.) 
 
 2. With Animals — phosphorescence of ignes-fatui — the glow- 
 worm — luminous appearance of the sea — chiefly affects the 
 surface — variety of complexion oi the human species—effect 
 in bleaching certain substances.. {Encyclopaedia Brit. Art, 
 
 * Light: 1 j 
 
 VAY. III.— OF CALORIC. 
 
 Distinction between the terms heat and caloric. 
 1. Nature of Caloric. 
 
 T\vo theories- — 1. That the heat of any substance is produ- 
 ced by a vibratory motion of its particles — 2. That heat is a 
 substance sui generis-^-supposh'ion that heat is the same with 
 light — HerschelL's expts. on the different sorts of rays emitted 
 by the sun — three sorts — their names. (Thomson 1, 31. — 
 Conversations on Ch. 1, 32. J 
 
 2. Effects of Caloric. — Expansion. 
 H. expands all bodies — comparative degree of expansibility 
 of solids, fluids and gases — air eight times as much as wa- 
 f r — water 45 times as much as iron. (Thomson 1, <>8j — flu- 
 ids more expanded by equal additions of heat as they approach 
 the boiling point — why ? — not so with gases— why I 
 
CALORIC. 7 
 
 Practical application of the property of p-fyamion. 
 Tyring of wheels — gridiron pendulum, (Black, I, 8- J phe- 
 nomena explained —cracking of glass by sudden heating or 
 cooliug— method of cracking glass ior use. 
 
 THERMOMETER. 
 
 Def. " a measure of heat"- gen ral description and princi- 
 ple-— history-— air therm, of Sanctorio — why quicksilver is best 
 adapted for the thermomctrical fl. id— two fixed points agreed, 
 on- Fahrenheit's therm. —how graduated—why it begins at 
 32° below the freezing point of water— what constitutes the 
 principal difference between thermometers ?— Celsius's used 
 in Sweden- -how 'graduated-- Reaumeur's- -Spirit of Wine 
 ther. used to measure great degrees of cold- -why ? 
 
 Wedge wood's Pyrometer—construction-graduation— at what 
 degree of Fah. it begins---howmauy degrees of Fah. one deg» 
 equals {Cavallo') Points to be remembered. 
 
 1. Freezing and boiling pts. of Water. 
 
 2. do. do. of Mercury. 
 
 3. Medium temp, of the globe. *} 
 
 4. Temp, of the human body. 
 
 5. Greatest heat yet measured. 
 
 6- Greatest cold do. (Henry 2, S54.J 
 
 Remarkable exception to the law of expansion in the ease 
 of water — beneficial consequences of this — phenomena de- 
 pending on this property of water --heaving of pavements- 
 bursting of cannon - expansive force ot freezing water 27720 
 lbs.— cause-— a few metals subject to the same exception* 
 ( Black l,-40. J 
 
 3. Ra'ia'ion of Caloric- 
 
 Repulsive property of C. —constant tendency to an equili- 
 brium-— division of C. among different substances laid side 
 by side at different temperatures— C. distributed in two ways* 
 
 Radiation ki the emission of heat in right lines from the 
 Surfaces ot bodies." 
 
 Refection — laws of reflected heat the same as those of light 
 -—bright metallic surfaces — why vessels of this kind are. diffi- 
 cult to heat — why they are suitable for imprisoning heat — me- 
 tallic tea pots — Pictet's expts. with metallic mirrors— effect 
 produced by placing a mass of ice'ia one focus — Leslie's expts. 
 —radiating power of different coloured surfaces— rtwo tin ket- 
 tles one bla kened — tin canister with different coloured sides 
 *- differential thermometer — object — construction — how is it 
 sensible to any change of temp, in the focus, but not to any 
 change in the temp, of the room ?— what surfaces absorb heat 
 
 > -tic =- /, 
 
 vf 
 
Q CAI-QRXC. 
 
 best — Dr. Franklin's expt. with different coloured cloths—- • 
 Leslie's expts. on this subject, by coating the focal bail— sur- 
 faces which radiate best, absorb best -surfaces which reflect | 
 best, absorb worst. (Henry 1, 90. Murray i, 151. Conver* 
 satioiis 1, 43. J 
 
 Practical Applications— tinroastess-- Fire Places -should 
 
 a the sides be perpendicular or oblique to the back ?■ -smooth or 
 
 f / rough?— advantages of constr uctin g fire places small---sizc of 
 
 v "' the draught— -what vessels are most suitable for confining heat ? 
 
 —for diffusing it ? 
 
 Apparel— two objects, to screen us from. the external heat, 
 or to preserve the internal—-!. In Summer light coloured cloth- 
 ing best in the sun— dark coloured in the shade- — why negroes 
 bear the heat better than white people. 2. In Winter — nrinr 
 cipal object to confine the heat of the body— what colours best« 
 adapted to this purpose— -\vhy negroes do not bear the cold so 
 well as white people. 
 
 4. Conducting Powers of Bodies. 
 
 When heat is said to be radiated-- when conducted — what is 
 jneant by good conductors ?- -by bad?- what class of bodies 
 sre the best conductors — Dr. Ing-enhouz's txpt. with a box 
 and diff. metallic cylinders coated with wax ( iiennj 1, 93J-- 
 conducting powers of the metals — 
 
 1. Silver. 
 
 2 Gold. 
 
 3. Copper and Tin (nearly equal ) 
 * 4. Platina, Iron, Steel, Lead, (much inferior to the others;) 
 *^ / 9. "is, the conducting power proportioned to the density ?— ty/o 
 properties essential to vessels tor heating fluids— two ditto for 
 diffusing heat --why iron stoves are so effectual in heating 
 apartments— cooking stoves— stones, brick,— which make the 
 warmest houses ? which most suitable to apply to the feet of 
 the sick - use of bricks in furnaces-— Glass- —Dry Wood— Char' 
 coal— used in lining furnaces — Plumbago— use for crucibles— - • 
 Straw—- straw hats---use for ice houses-r-in protecting garden 
 .vegetables from the frost- -conducting power of light substan- 
 ces, wool, hair, &c— polar animals —why clothes keep us 
 jvarm —snow. 
 
 Fluids-— carrying power— how is heat propagated in fluids— 
 are fluids absolute non-conductors— -to what part of the vessel 
 .should heat be applied— -broad stills. 
 
 Air— What takes place when a hot body is exposed to the 
 air — when a cold body ?— conducting power of confined air— ,£ 
 Rouble tin vessel— why winds and breezes feel cool. 
 
CALORICS 9 
 
 aemktVbns of heat and cold— supposition of " particles of 
 co-Id"-— real cause of the sensations — experiment— -why some 
 substances feel colder than others at the same temp .-—should 
 a linen or a woollen cloth be wrapped round a cake of ice ?--- 
 painful sensation on touching frozen mercury. 
 
 5. Theories respecting the Distribution of Caloric. 
 
 1. Pictet's —repulsive power of the particles o . w eti 
 accumulated. 
 
 2. Prevosfs—- exchange of C. between all contiguous bodies , 
 ( Thomson i, 65. J 
 
 Does C. produce heat on si transparent medium ? effect 
 when' a combustible substance is interposed —how heat is 
 preserved on the surface of the earth — why it does not rise 
 to the top of the atmosphere— term of congelation — figure de=» 
 scribed by all these points taken together— why heat clues not 
 accumulate oh high mountains. 
 
 5. Cold.- 
 
 Argument against considering cold a mere negative princi" 
 pie—common explanation of this difficulty, f Thomson 1, 114— 
 Henry 1, 91 ) —reasoning disaporoved. f Hurray t, 144— 
 Annals of Philosophy 7, 223. J— Terrible eff cts of cold in 
 northern latitudes— artificial cold — lowest degree vet produc- 
 ed —fret-zing mixtures — method of producing the most in* 
 tense cold. 
 
 6. Fluidity. 
 
 How mav every solid become fluid— every fluid solid- 
 example in the case of water-smelting p>int defined — uniiormi 
 in the same body — different in different bodies. 
 
 What are the melting points of 
 
 X 
 
 rjr 
 
 1. Ice, , 3 T illow, S. Tin, 6. Copper, ¥£ * 
 
 2. Olive Oil/ A. Beeswax, 6. Lead, - - 7. Iron. J£jt 
 
 ^K Quicksilver not admitted among the metals by Boerhaave— 
 whv ? 
 
 Investigations of Dr Black to discover the cause of fluidi- 
 ty—erroneous ideas formerlv entertained respecting the liquei 
 faction of ice — a remarkable circumstance attending tbe»'ique° ?<->.^»v~w> 
 faction of ice— Experiments (Black I, 115.) fist. ) "TTponndj ^2* 
 of water at 33° and a pound of ice at 32°— exposed to equal . j . 
 
additions of heat in 3 wlrm room— water rose to 40* in half 
 , m hour— ice rose to 40° in twenty one half hours— heat en- 
 tered both at the rate of 7° every half hour- Therefore, 21 x 7 
 =147 entered the ice to raise it S*~ Hence 147 - 8 = 139 must 
 have combined with the ice to turn it into water— 2d.a pound ot 
 watr at-17-2 mixed with a pound of ice at 32-resultmg temp. J 
 I tent Heat defined— " that quantity of caloric wni<h 
 bodies absorb in changing their form" -.applied to fluids -that 
 quantity of c. which combines with the solid out of which the 
 fluid is formed, constituting its fluidity, but does hot raise its 
 
 temperature. , , . 
 
 Different in different bodies— what is meant by saying the 
 latent heat of tin is 500 '—distinguished from, the melting • 
 
 ^^r^ P Tii\cTicAL Applications.— Chilling winds while skow 
 C * C ^ i s melting^-watef remaining fluid below 32— why ?— explana- 
 tion of freezing mixtures— heat given out by congelation- 
 
 7. Vapour. 
 inform bodies— distinction between a vapour and a gas- 
 vapour invisible— not mist— process of ebullition— reason ot 
 the imitation— boiling point defined— boiling points ot 
 
 1. Ether, 3 Water, 
 
 2. Alcohol, 4. Mercury. 
 
 Influence of atmospheric pressure on the boiling point, il- 
 lustrations of this pressure— discovered by Galileo— Torncel- 
 lean vacuum how formed— principle of the barometer -at 
 wha* point will water boil in vacuo— evils that would result 
 were this pressure removed— why ether boils under the recei^ 
 ver of an air-pump— Effects produced on the human svstem 
 bv diminishing the atmospheric pressure— in ascending moun- 
 tains—firing heavy artillery— Thermometer for measuring 
 heights— Effect produced on. the boiling point by increasing 
 
 * tHe^oressure— Papin's Digester— boiling water can be raised 
 #id* to 212— why ? erroneous ideas formerly entertained on 
 this subject— consequences that would follow were these 
 ideas correct— how Dr. Black ascertained the latent heat ot 
 
 , steam, (Black 1, ^-latent heat of steam 940° why va- 
 pour produces cold-why dry wood is better for fuel than. 
 
 8 Solvent power or steam— dissolves horns, hoofs, &c — - 
 steam washing machines-Steam Kitchens-heating apartn et.ts 
 
 bv steam. ,, , ,. -i 
 
 Expansive pow-.r or steam. Illustrated by the eo-ipt'« 
 ^-Digester— candle bombs— effect of moisture on -casin g 
 
£ALORIC. ii 
 
 qnqukls— accidents produced by spitting in a caldron of melt- 
 ed copper. 
 
 Steam Engine.--- Inventor— who constructed the first en- 
 gine (Encyclopaedia Brit. American Journal /Science 1, 157 J 
 
 — principle of Savary y s Engine— -a vacuum formed in the re- 
 ceiver by the condensation of steam—water rises into the re- 
 ceived about 25 feet by the pressure of the atmosph.re — -forced 
 up the remainder ot the way bv the pressure of steam let in 
 fiom'the boiler- -defects— waste of fuel -danger of explosion— 
 cannot raise water more than 100 feet— Nexvcomen's— water rais- 
 ed by a lc ver — this raised and depressed by the piston — a va- 
 cuum formed below the piston and the atmosphere forces if ^ 
 down — steam admitted below, balances the atmospheric pres- 
 sure, and the piston is dragged up by the preponderancy of 
 the other arm of the lever — great defect of Newconien's en- 
 gine, the expense of fuel — 120 000 bushels coal a year— -£ of 
 the steam wasted, chiefly by admitting cold water into the 
 cylinder to condense the steam. — -Watt's — two peculiarities — 
 
 (1) steam condensed in a separate vessel — (2) piston forced 
 down by steam — Savary's, Newcomen's and Watt's Engines 
 compared in principle — (*) Water raised 25 feet by atmos- 
 pheric pressure, then forced up 60 or 70 feet farther by steam, 
 
 (2) Piston freed dozvn by atmospheric pressure, and dragged 
 up by the preponderancy of the opposite arm of the lever. 
 
 lerms on which Watt and Bolton erect engines — force of 
 an engine .how estimated — distinction between high and low 
 steam — .which species of boiler most advantageous — why ? 
 safety the principle question — arguments for each compared. 
 (Rees" 1 Cyclopaedia Art "Steam Engine"} 
 
 ^Steam Frigates — intended for the defence of the coast, 
 harbours, he. — advantages over ships of war. 
 
 Steam Mills — particularly useful where water courses 
 are wanting. 
 
 Steam Packets on the Mediterranean. 
 
 8. Natural Evaporation, 
 
 Vapour formed at all temps. — distinction between the terms 
 evaporation and vapq^ation — evap. takes place at the s •'- 
 face — form of vessels--e fleet of agitation- el isticity decreases 
 with the temp. — oil of vitriol and fixed oil exception^. 
 
 Evap. produces cold— why ?— why wet clothes hung out to 
 dry are frozen when the air is above 32— why it is unhealthy 
 so sit in wet clothes---why sprinkling the floor cools the room 
 
 — porous vessels— wine coolers - manufacture of ice at Be- 
 nares — circumstances which contribute to heighten the effect- 
 haw travellers on the desert keep water coqL {Black 1,202) 
 
 cfa/tAec.'*^ 
 
48 CALORIC, 
 
 ejects of perspiration- -why iangerous to expose oneself to $ 
 current oi air when in .t state <»$ perspiration-— high heat which 
 the human system tan sustain-- fcxpts- of Dr. Fordyce and 
 others. {Encyc. Brit. Art^ " Heat— 'Phil. Transactions Vol. 
 ICth.) 
 
 Effects of evap. on the economy^of Nature-- Dr. Watson's 
 expt.- great quantity of water thus raised into the atmrt-- 
 phere- what becomes of it ?--, clouds, rain— solution theory- 
 terms d< fined, solution, solvent, saturation, precipitation— dew, 
 "frost and snow- why moisture collects on a cup of cold wa- 
 ter-- on the windows— smoke from a hole in the ice-t-benefi- 
 cial effects of moisture cm the atnua^phere—evils of too muck 
 moisture. />>e ^£^^t^*-^a^ 
 
 9. Quantity of Caloric in Bodies. 
 
 C. appears in two states- -what is meant by free C— what 
 by combined ?— bodi< s contain heat not sensible to the thermr. 
 •— ic«: contains it —difficult to determine the point oi absolute 
 cold —attempts of Di. Irvine and others— results various—- 
 not t milled to credit comparative quantity oi C. more easi- 
 ly asc- rtained —a pound of water and a pound of mercury 
 placed side by side in a hot oven — how much more sensible 
 fieat would the mercury acquire than the water in a givep 
 tiuir;. 
 
 Specific Caloric— " that quantity of caloric which a bo- 
 dy has compared with another of the same weight"— -or "that 
 quantity of caloric which a body requires to raise its temp. * 
 any number oi degrees, compared with another body of the 
 same weight" — how both definitions amount to the same thing 
 ^—distinction between specific and latent Caloric— modes of 
 investigating the specific C— (l) that of Crawford by min- 
 ing bodies at different temps.— Examples? ' 
 
 1. Water at 100° ~\ 
 
 with C resulting temp, 
 
 Water at 50° 3 
 
 2 Water at 156° 7 ... 
 
 i t/r , /AO c resulting temp. ' 
 
 Mercury at 40° y 
 
 (2) That of Lavoisier* and La Place by means of the Ca- 
 lorimeter— principle and i construction of this instrument. 
 
 Capacity of bodies for Caloric— the power of stow- 
 ing away heat so as to render it ii sensible to the ther.— in- 
 crease of capacity produces cold— most perceptible in aeriform 
 Jbodifs —fountain of Hicro in Hungan — {Aikiti's Die. l t 2ic) 
 diminution of capacity produces heat-— condensing syringe 
 
GALVANISM. %$ 
 
 10. Sources ofCaloic. 
 
 i The Sun, 3. Pe.cussUo, 5 Chemical Action. y* 
 
 2. C.mdensadon, 4. Friction, 6. Ei^c v rich sj[ It^JJtMH* 
 
 Sux— -range of natural heat n«jt more than about 160° — max- 
 imum of summer heat higher in northern than in siTutherii la- 
 titudes—causes that prevent the accumulation of the >olar heat- 
 how high a spot may he heated by the sun's Ravs when pro- 
 tected from a current of air. {Murray 1, 18 °)-— small range 
 of heat the human system can bear without artificial aid --about 
 10 degrees—these at a higher standard in hot than in told 
 climates —great heat produced by concentrating the sun's rays. 
 
 Condensation —hammering iron- -suiphuij; acid and wa- 
 ter - condensing svringc 
 
 Percussion— collision of a flint and ^e f— coining money — 
 heat produced proportioned to the condensation— heat ow- 
 ing to this cause. (-Thomson 1, 135.) 
 
 Friction -Savages kindle fires by rubbing pieces of dry- 
 wood together —forests set on fire by the friction of dry 
 limbs- -axles of water wheels— -how accounted for— cause ob- 
 scure- -Murray's theory. (Murray 1, 183.) 
 
 Chemical Action-— an extensive source— includes com- 
 bustion— -fermentation-— change of temp, a common phe- 
 nomenon of mixture. 
 
 Electricity— -capable of producing the most intense heat. 
 
 General reflections on the suoject of heat. 
 
 DIV. IV.— OF GALVANISM. 
 
 Important discoveries made by men of observation from 
 trifling incidents- — Galvani — incident that led to his discove- 
 ry — time when made — ^first experiments o« frogs — supposed 
 the electricity inherent in the animal, and the discharge to be 
 effected by making a commun?<.au>>n between a muscle and a 
 n^rve — hypothesis otherthrown by Voita — general principle of 
 Volta v that electricity is excited by the conflict of^hvo metals 
 and becomes sensible when they are separated ( Singer* $ E- 
 lect.ro-Chemistry, 306. J Some metals more excited by contact 
 than others — silver ant) z<nc or copper and zinc good com i- 
 nations — all the substances employed in Galvanic expts con- 
 ductors — perfect^ metals, charcoal j plumbago — imperfect, fluids 
 of different conducting powers (Cavailo 2', 246)— These sub- 
 stances combined form a simple Galvanic circle* 
 
 1st order — two perfect conductors and one imperfect— e. g. 
 a piece of silver and a piece of zinc in the mouth. 
 
 2d or er — two fluids of different kinds with, a metal inter* 
 posed — example, ale' druid* from a pewter cup* 
 
14 GALVANISM. 
 
 , Phenomena explained on Galvanic 'principles* — why iron bolts 
 are unsuitable for the copper sheathing of shipb— inscriptions 
 on pure lead more durable than those on mixed metals — sol- 
 dered seams corrode — a piece oi zinc in water corrodes fas- 
 ter when in contact with iron (Cavallo 2, 245, Singer 308.)— 
 Galvanic action on the pivots oi time-pieces (Annals of Phi- 
 losophy 7, 161. J 
 
 Voltaic Apparatus. 
 
 Object to accumulate the electricity, and render its effects 
 more striking. 
 
 i. Voltaic Pile— construction—how discharged. 
 
 2. Couronne des tasses---a chain oi cups or wine glasses, each 
 containing a piece of silver and a piece of ?inc, the silver in 
 one glass connected to the zinc in the other by a metallic wire 
 ---how discharged. 
 
 3. Voltaic Battery— of different forms for different purposes 
 -•-boxes with soldered plates the most convenient of any single 
 form — copper and zinc — how arranged — how connected — how 
 discharged — what fluid is interposed between the plates — ends 
 of the battery in different states — zinc positive, copper negative. 
 
 Three different objects — 1. Combustion or deflagration — 2, 
 E fleets on the animal system— 3. Decompositions— power of 
 producing combustion or deflagration depends on the size of 
 the plates — of producing shocks, and decompositions, on the 
 number. (Davy's Elements 83. Murray 1, 237. J 
 
 Great Batteries oi Engand — of the Royal Institution 200 
 boxes, 2000 prs. of plates — astonishing effects (Davy 85J— 
 Children's battery of great plates — d* flagrating effects (lb $4.^) 
 
 1. Experiments on the combustion of charcoal, metals, &c. — > 
 2. Effects on the animal system — mode of exhibiting them— r 
 why necessary to moisten the skin — powerful effects produc- 
 ed by Aldini on dead animals (Singer 335 J — on the body of 
 a culprit by Dr. Ure. 
 
 4. Chemical agencies of Galvanic Electricity. 
 Decomposition of water — elements evolved at a distance 
 
 from each other— general law discovered by Hisingerand Ber- 
 zelius that, when compounds are exposed to the action of the 
 galvanic influence, combustibles, alkalies and earths pass to the 
 negative pole— -oxygen and those substances in which it predo- 
 minates, to the positive — forces operate at a great distance- 
 decomposition of salts, earth and oxids — minute quantity 
 , A detected — decompositions complete — theory of the decompo- 
 sition of bodies by Galvanism. 
 
 Proofs that Galvanism is identical with Electricity (Mur- 
 ray l y 239. Conversations 1, 134. J 
 
ATMOSPHERIC AI$. *# 
 
 Theories of the excitement and accumulation of electricity 
 fey the Voltaic apparatus. . 
 
 ;. Explanation on electrical principles— how excited— hour 
 accumulated. C Murray 1, 241. fifelty 1, 169. jIihw/* o/ 
 Ihilosophy, 3, 32 £s? b5. Conversations 1, 127.J . 
 
 2. Explanation on Chemical principles. S. Hares new the- 
 ory. Difficulties attending both theories. _ 
 
 Geological phenomena resulting from the agencies ot Gal- 
 vanism. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 4 • 
 
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND RELATIONS OF INDIVf- 
 DUAL SUBSTANCES. 
 
 DXV. I.— OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR. 
 
 Objects peculiar to mechanical philosophy— to Ch — ( CavaU 
 to 1, 282. J— simple or compound ?^-composed of two gases. 
 
 Gases— term borrowed from the Germans— " solid particles 
 in a state of very minute division united with caloric"— base of 
 a ff as— distinction between the terms oxygen and oxygen gas 
 —has the base of a gas ever been obtained separate ?— when *w 
 does a gas become fixed 7— Pneumatic Chemistry— method of 
 iveighing and managing the gases— apparatus ( Henry 1, 115 J 
 i. Oxygen Gas. 
 
 Etymology of the term— how obtained from manganese- 
 degree of heat required— only a portion of the oxygen separa- 
 ted from the manganese by heat— why ?— how obtained from 
 nitre— degree of heat— precautions— how obtained from man- 
 ganese by the aid of sulphuric acid— rationale. 
 
 Properties— 1., In supporting combustion — experiments* 
 
 2. That principle of atmospheric air which supports animal 
 life.— Can animals exist in any kind of air that does not con- 
 tain oxygen ?— etfeef:. on small animals contained in a jar—in 
 which will they live longest, in a jar of oxv. or of common 
 
 a i r ? consequences were the atmosphere entirely composed 
 
 f it— medicinal applications— mode of breathing the gases. 
 
 3. Strong tendency to the positive pole of the Galvanic bat- . 
 tery— impresses th s property on numerous compounds— hence 
 their decomposition 
 
 /y%<M** 
 
 ■L ^L4J-itt,^^ t ^Tj 
 
 
 &fr*fci$r>* f ' 
 
^5 wArE&» 
 
 2. Nitrogen or Azote. 
 
 Origin of the names — how formed — can it be wkhdrawa 
 from the oxvgen ? — heavier or Ighter than air ? CuC&^i*^ 
 
 Properties. — On flame— on animals — why a necessary con- 
 stituent of the atmcspi re. 
 
 3. Composition of Atmospheric -Air. 
 
 One of the elements of the ancients — oxygen first discover- 
 ed by Priestly, Aug. 1, 1774 — called by him dephlogisticat'd 
 air — by Lavoisier, vital air -by Scheele empyreal air- reason of 
 these several names (Brandos Third Dissertation 85 — Aikiii's 
 Die. 1, 121 J — Complete- janaK sis and synthesis first p> r'< nr. d 
 by Scheele (Murray t.25bj — supposition thai the air was-, sa- 
 lubrious in proportion to the quantity of oxygtn — Eudiometry 
 Ai'* ->ci» nee of determining the proportion of oxygen in a giv- 
 en quantity of air" — result of numerous observations on the 
 composition of air— proportion of the constituents. 
 
 Are the elements in a state of chemical combination or me- 
 chanical mixture — can a lighter gas ascend in a heavier? 
 
 Specific gravity of air — weight of 100 cubic inches. 
 
 4. Theories of Combustion. 
 
 Distinction between comb, and ignition — extensive agencies 
 of combustion— 
 
 Theory of Phlogiston. Beecher — Stahl — etymology of 
 the name— principles of the theory—separation of phlogiston— 
 htat and light how accounted for — products called calces- 
 how the cal5 of lead differs from pure lead — how the pute 
 lead is revived from the calx — rationale. (Thomson 1, 123. 
 Brand's Diss. 35 J — general reception of this theory. Objec- 
 tions to it — its existence incapable of proof — substances gain 
 weight by combustion — overthrown by the discovery of oxy» 
 gen — maintainecibv Dr. Priestly to the last. 
 
 Theory of Lavoisier. Brought forward in 1775 — L. 
 proved that oxvgen is absorbed in the calcination of metals-*— 
 that the increase of weight is exactly equal to the quantity ab- 
 soih d — that this can be recovered from the calx and so com- 
 bined with nitrogen as to form common air — 2d proof bv burn- 
 ing wire in oxygen gas — oxygen disappeared which was found 
 combined with the iron — similar results with sulphur and 
 phosphorus — light and heat how accounted for ( Lavoisier's M- 
 lements 64. Murray 1, 271. Thomson 1, 121.J 
 
 Div. I|-_ 0F v ATER. 
 
 F.vtent to which W. is diffused — one of the elements cf -:bc 
 ancients — now known to be a compound. 
 
WATER. 17 
 
 1. Composition of Water. 
 
 Ana^vsis by passing steam through a red-hot gun barrel — 
 change i i e iron turnings or wire— production of an i.>fl,»m- 
 nia tie gas — rationale ot.the decomposition. fJLavoi/siet*s £- 
 lenient*, 111. J 
 
 Analysis by Galvanism. ( Henry 1, 101 ) 
 
 Pi oof of the composition ot Water bv synthesis — union of 
 tbe el mentThow effected — first executed bv Cavendish (~Ai- 
 k ; n^ Die. 2, 472. Thomson 2, 23J — supposrvm that the wa- 
 re-- produced was held suspended by the ^a>>es how disprov- 
 ed — product on burtring hvdrugen in ox's g^n — he oxvgen and 
 hvOrogen both wholly disappear — a loss of only 4 grs. in 
 7249 1-3 grfr. (Black 2, 372. Parkes 457 J 
 
 2. Hydrogen. 
 
 How made from iron filings and sulphuric acid — rationale— 
 a case ot predisposing affinity, (Murray 1, 53. American 
 journal of Science 1. 43 4-.J 
 
 y Properties — 1. Combustibility — a combustible distinguish- 
 ed fro -i a supporter of combustion — can hyd. burn without 
 the presence f rxvgen? 
 
 2. Levity -tK\^\\.: «t of all ponderable substances— how nuch 
 lighter than .nr — 100 cubic inches weigh 2i grs. — application 
 of this principl to the construction ot Balloons. Principle 
 on which a balloon ascends- 1 — History of balloons {Hutt&ifs 
 Math. £s? Phil. Die.) Montgolfu-rs balloons, how constructed 
 seros itio i — Risi^r — superiority of hydrogen over common 
 aii — method of regulating the ascent and descent — uses of bal- 
 Icons. \ 
 
 3. Detonation with common air — rationale of the explosion 
 of the air pistol. v 
 
 4. Detonation with Oxygen — explosion by the electric spark 
 — re«». dt — explosion bv pressure ( Henry 1, 140 J 
 
 5. Effects on animals by respiration — when pure— mixed 
 with common air — accident of Rosier. 
 
 6; Musical t q ties— common explanation — disapproved. 
 
 Water thrown on aiauilding in flam s supposed to prom- t£ 
 combustion — effect of a jet of steam thrown on a jet of flu e 
 issuing from a small orifice, or on the flame of a candle, or 
 lamp (Amer. ^Journal Science Nos> 1 £s? 4. J 
 
 3. Compound Blozv-Pipe. 
 Invented by Dr. Hare — construction — effects — difference in 
 bodies with regard to fusibility— can any substance resist the 
 action of this instrument— can the heat produced be estimated 
 
 C 
 
$$ ALKALIES. 
 
 in degrees of the scale — cause of the production of such in- 
 tense heat — invention rot accidental hut arose from philoso- 
 phical reflection — danger of explosion how obviate J — feeb e 
 flame produced by burning hydrogen in oxygen made an ob- 
 jection to Lavoisier's Theory of Combustion — reasoning dis* 
 approved (Thompson 1, 30 ) 
 
 4. Chemical Properties of Water. 
 
 .Absorption of gases by W — in its natural state always 
 contains air — expelled by boiling — -insipidity of Witter that has 
 been boiled— -snow-v, ater — how different from common water-— 
 Unfit for drinking — destruction to fish — why? 1 — quantity of gas 
 absorbed increased by pressure and cold — W. takes up the 
 same volume of condensed gas as of gas under ordinary pres- 
 sure (Murray 1, 298. J 
 
 Relation of water to i\erDs. 
 
 Different states of. water — peculiarities of spring water, well 
 Water, rain water and snow water. 
 
 Distillation- A method of obtaining water pure — salt 
 Water of the sea rendered iresh— experiment performed by or- 
 der of the King of France on the salubrity of distilled sea wa- 
 ter (Amer. Journal of Science 1, 172. ) 
 
 Uses of water — as a beverage — as a solvent — on vegetation 
 —in regulating the temperature of the globe — in promoting 
 the means of commercial intercourse. 
 
 DIV. III. -OF ALKALIES. 
 
 Signification of the term-r-number cf the alkalies — simple 
 or compound ?* — nature of their composition — by whom dis- 
 covered. 
 
 Properties. Taste— effect, when caustic, on the skin-** 
 meaning of the term caustic— effect on vegetable blue colours— 
 on yellow colours— these colours used as tests for alkalies— 
 what blue liquor most convenient — what yellow — test papers 
 -"-effect on the caustic alkalies on oils. 
 
 1. Ammonia. 
 
 Called fhe volatile alkali and haitshorn — why ? — why called 
 Si "*? onia — in the state of a gas — how made {rem Muriate of 
 Arhmon. and Quicklime — rationale. 
 
 Properties. Smell— suffocating when pure -pleasant when 
 fttixed with air — effect on flame— on the colour of the flame 
 of a candle — -on the vegetable test colours — hew much lighter 
 than air — affinity for water — liquid ammonia how prepared. 
 
 Decomposition by tbi : k . ;ric sfljark ( Henry \ IS6J — by 
 passing amraan* through, a rtu-hoi porcelain tube— by expiod* 
 
ALKALIES. 4$ 
 
 ^ng by means of the electric spark — by heating with metallic 
 pxids — rationale of the last decomposition — reasons fro. n ana- 
 logy to suppose ammonia to be a metallic oxide— .nature oftne 
 proof that it is so. 
 
 Ammonia spontaneously produced from decaying animal 
 substances — test for ammon. 
 
 Uses— in medicine— in dying— in a variety of chemical o- 
 perations— effect of ammoniacal fumes on plants — why fish af- 
 ford rich manure. , 
 
 2. Potash. }% 
 
 Why called the Vegetable Alkali— is it confined to the ve- 
 getable kingdom— why called potash— potash of commerce im- 
 pure—purified by freeing it of carbonic acid by means of quick- 
 lim.- (Aikirts Die. 2, 240.J rationale. 
 
 Why it must be kept in close vessels. 
 
 Properties— effects on the skin— used as an escharotic 
 (Aikin's Die 2, 2-43)— attraction for water— used to dry the 
 
 UE(?e?VosiTiON— the first alkali tfcat was cTcomposed— 
 how effected — result — by whom obtained. 
 
 Potassium. Gay Lussac and Thtnarrf's method of mak- 
 ing it by passing melted potash over slips at iron heated to 
 Whiteness in a gun barrel \Henrij 1, 367 Ai kin's Die. Appen* 
 drx 34) rationale— properties— specific gravity— combustibili- 
 ty — action on water— act-ism on the metallic oxids— all ; ts ef- 
 fects owing to its powerful affinity for oxygen (Hennj 1, 182.) 
 
 3. Soda. 
 
 Method of preparing pure Soda the same as for potash- • 
 properties much tht same — points of difference. 
 
 Sodium — metallic— properties like those of potassuim. 
 
 4. Soap. 
 
 Principle on which it acts as a cleanser — a compound of oil 
 and caustic alkali, but contains the latter, in excess—why pre- 
 ferable to alkali alone. Quality of soap proportioned to that 
 of the materials— of wharare the finest varieties made ?— Cas- 
 tile soap used in medicine— why speckled— soft soap made 
 with potash — hard soap with soda. 
 
 When soap is made from wood ashes necessary to add quick- 
 lime— why— salt added to soft soap to make it hard— rationale. 
 
§|Q BARTHS, 
 
 DIV. IV.— OF TIIK EARTHS. 
 
 1. Barytes, "\ 
 
 c T • ■■ > Alkaline Earths. 
 
 3. Lime, { 
 
 4. Magnesia, J 
 
 5. Si'ex, "\ 
 G. AUiriiine, ( 
 
 7. Zircon, y Earths Prcper. 
 
 8. Ghiciue, | 
 
 9. Ittria, J 
 
 Why the first four are called alkaline earths — are the earthy 
 jr-et with purr in nati'rt— appearance when pv,rt — -insolubility 
 *=~M-is proput} essential to the purposes t'hey serve — alkaline 
 tfrrths « 5 i g h i U soluble — the cithers scarcely at ail — iniusmihtyi 
 * Dr.coNPosii iom Alkaline earths all been distinctly, aua- 
 h s d and shewn to be metallic oxids— first amalgamated with 
 quicksilver in the Galvanic circuit— quicksilver distilled .11 — 
 ii ,'iicauons respecting the composition of the other eaiths si- 
 md- r but not equaliv decisive {Murray 1, 336)— why unm- 
 .fiammablc, qf» * +^+* f*M+-*A**L* t* JRL &hCfy*~~ 
 
 1. Barytes* . . 
 Name' — not found pure in nature^— preparations of B. made 
 for tests of sulphuiie acid — in ail its forms except the sulphate, 
 a violent poison. 
 
 2. Strontites* 
 
 %w 
 
 Properties similar to those of Barytes—- different colours im- 
 parted to flame — not poisonous. 
 
 3. Lime, 
 .Found very extensively in nature combined with acids, par- 
 ticularly the carbonic and sulphuric- 
 How 1\ i med irom the carbonate — either from marble, oys- 
 ter shells, or limestone— most of the lime of commerce from 
 the last — mode of^b^rmng {Atkins Lie. 2, 47. Black 2 3 S-2.) 
 uprmiES. Action ot water — whence the heat in the 
 si I tug of lime — wbj it is in the state of a dry powder 1 after. 
 si ing — water solk'inVd equals 1 1! e weight of the lime — ^more 
 /"s< lid than i" the state ' f ice— I jvd rate defiru d — air slacking— 
 iccf^-i l **\\ hj% the c austicity is^irjVpaired — vessels set on fire by dmit- 
 ze*Ut- rf'&i'itig water among casks of l:me — waggon's set on fire. — Cans" 
 >,. I' tic but less so than potash and soda— rused by tanners — acce- 
 lerates the dissolution of nnimal remains. — Alkaline — hence use 
 in soap-m:.'' g — Infusible 'by itself? Vet. promotes the fusion. 
 i)f other earths — hence used in separating metals from their 
 
EARTHS. SI 
 
 ores — rationale. Sparingly soluble in water— -preparation of 
 lime waler — medicinal uses of lime"" water. 
 
 Mortar — Roman mortar— importance of good mortar — 
 qualities of g >od mortar {Black 2, 194) —kind of sanri— pro- / fr *>&-. 
 portions — use of beating — should be made and kept under co- 
 v e rs oiii e t i jug_b e lore using — why mortar becom es hard after 
 it is applied — use of lime in Agriculture— on what kind of 
 lands" most beneficial. • y .. . y 
 
 In what states found— two kinds of M. sold at the apothe- 
 caries "~ di (Terence between Magnesia Alba a n d c a l ei n e 1 M a g. /K^ *-*- 
 — infusibihty — has it ever been fused I Use in medicine as 
 an antacid. J* ' 
 
 5. Silex. / 
 
 Name — extensively found in nature — in what substances — 
 how to prepare pure sil x or silica-— its appearance -insoiubi- 
 *j lily — infus ible — -indestructible— solvents—unites with th#nx- 
 ,. ed alkalies and forms .glass. 
 
 Glass — discovery according to Piiny ( Rambler No. 9) — 
 
 gredients — ui wj iat stat.e_is the si 
 lor the finest ill nt piass^-metallic 
 
 was it manufactured among the Romans ? — two principal iu- 
 
 -diversily of materia* — • 
 r gTas's-— metallic oxids —use of manganese — 
 different colours at different degrees of heat -removes the co- 
 lours imparted by oxids of iron --red lead — imparts softness — - 
 proportion of 'silex and alkali. — Manufacture of glass vessels 
 ■ — manual dexterity — mode of forming a tunbier — t bottle — 
 annealing — Bologna phial — Prince Rupert's drops (A?.'/' v Die 
 1,49a) causes of the inequality of glass — different k!in! -f 
 glass — composition of green glass — cause of the colour — cr.rivn 
 glass — composition — -mode of making window glass — two ne- 
 .thods — composition ol white Jlint gla£— contains metallic ox- 
 ids, especially of lead — soft — grinding ot glass — plate glass .or 
 mirrors— cast on a table — afterwards polished., . - a , * 
 
 6. Alumine. ' 
 
 Pure clay—common clay contains a mixture of silex — how 
 formed from alum — plasticity — a good soil depends on a due 
 mixture of silex and alumine— evils when silex is in excess — e- 
 vils when alum ne is in excess — pipe clay — porcelain oli\ — 
 composition of each— others -alumine found pure in the sapphire. 
 Most rocks and mineral substances made up of silex and a- 
 lumine — rocks when called siliceous — when aluminous— por- 
 celain clay formed by the decomposition of granite rocks — in 
 what parts of the Unit£d^|B^may we expect to find it—- 
 
%% EARTHS. 
 
 alumine imbibes water — parts \\ > Xw it slowly by heat and cons 
 tracts— -hence its use in Wedgwood's Pyrometer — very infu- 
 sible — impresses this character on aluminous earths and clays 
 •—hence bricks and crucibles capable o\ enduring a high-heat. 
 
 Brick Making and Pottery, ancient arts — imperfect and 
 Tude at first — -best earth tor brick —-advantages of 'slow dry- 
 ing — cause of the red colour— of 'the partial vitrification. 
 
 C 
 %in 
 
 c porcelain— introduced into Europe from China— yp 
 of the French porcelain — Clay selected with great care — mus$ 
 burn white- — suspended in water — kn aded \\\:—- turned > ti the 
 wheel— baked — now in the state ■! bismi$--&f\g\irts applied— =• 
 glazed by powdered feldspar — finest figures painted by hand, # 
 (Black 2^ 330) 
 
 Colours imparted by metallic oxids— blue by what— -gareea 
 •-violet— purple. * 
 
 % 7. Z>rcon. 
 
 ^ 8. Giucine* .*> 
 
 i*jf* $. ittria. t. 
 
 . i - 
 
 *«-t 
 
 J 
 
 ■\ 
 
 1 
 
it 
 
 **k 
 
4 . 
 
 •*•* 
 
ACIDS. *%() 
 
 DIV. V.— NATURAL HISTORY OF THE EARTHS, 
 
 Including Mineralogy and Geology.— V. Appendix. 
 DIV. VI.— ON ACIDS. 
 
 PROPERTIES. 
 
 1. Taste. 
 
 2. Effects on vegetable colours. _ * :^g. tf 
 
 3. Effects on alkalies. /»t*-U?«i« «^-^0- ^ i/^^V****- 
 
 4. What class of bodies do they form with alkalies, earths, 
 and metallic oxides ? 
 
 5. Attraction for water. 
 
 Must a body exhibit. all these properties to be classed a- 
 mongst the acids ? (Thomson 2, 62 j— Great use in decom- 
 posing bodies and promoting chemical researches — opinion of 
 the old Chemists respecting the cause of their solvent power 
 ( Aikin 1, 10J result. when a combustible body is buna in 
 oxygen-ydo any substances exhibit acid properties that do not- '" - - " 
 contain oxygen ? — composition of the acids — Jpases simply and 
 double — latter belong chiefly to the animal and vegetable king- 
 doms. V 
 
 Nomenclature of the acids. Who formed it? principles — 
 (1) with regard to simples long known — ditto newly discover- 
 ed (2) compounds — additions to the name of the base of ic or 
 ous (Henry . -08. Lavoisier 92^ —method adopted in treat- 
 ing of tht acids, viz. 
 
 1. The base of the acid. 
 
 2 The base united with oxygen forming the acid. 
 
 3. Combinations of the acids with the earths and alkalies 
 forming salts. 
 
 4. Combinations of the base with other solids, 
 
 5. Comi^iations of the base with hydrogen e. g. sulphur, 
 sulphuric and sulphurous acids, sulphates and sulphites, sul- 
 phurets and sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 I. OF SULPHUR AND ITS COMBINATIONS. 
 
 1. Sulphur, 
 
 Mostly from the mineral kingdom (Aikin 2 352J— - In beds 
 — Stcily — salt and gypsum — volcanic regions — Soifatar-a — a 
 deposit around springs — in the state of pyrites. 
 
 Properties. Effects of heat — fusion and sublimation- 
 flowers of sulphur— combustion in oxygen— product. 
 
38^ ACIDS. 
 
 2. Sulphuric Acid. 
 Why called oil of vitriol (Parke's Essays 2, 378 J — compo- 
 sition — how manufactured — specific gravity — attraction for 
 water — uses. ! * 
 
 3. Sulphurous Acid. 
 
 Formed by the slow combustion of sulphur— by sulphuric 
 acid and a metal — rationale — suffocating fumes — why collected 
 over nurcurj — action on colours — use in bleaching (Parkas 
 Ess ay 9^, 1 54. J 
 
 Cv'jt, c*^ affit *JH ' %&&** 
 
 Import of the term salt — number of the salts (Thomson 2, 
 305 J — nomenclature — ic changed into ate and ous into He. 
 Terms defined — neutral, sub and super, tfflorescence, deli- 
 quescence, watery lusion, water of crystallization — effect of 
 salts on the bailing points of fluids— Crystallization — an 
 extensive process in nature — variety and regularity of crystals 
 i — rules for ;onoucting the process — proportions in which dif- 
 ferent quantities of an acid combine with a given base-rriHus.- 
 trated by sub salts and neutral salts. 
 
 Sulphate of Soda. Common name — how manufactured 
 — taste — change by exposure to the air — by heat — sudden 
 crystallization from a concentrated solution— rationale (An- 
 nals of Philosophy, 1 .J 
 
 Sulphate of Magnesia. Common name — abundant in 
 
 certain springs, particularly at Epsom — what property does it 
 
 impart to spring waters ? — artificial preparation from strong 
 
 sulphuric acid and pure magnesia — phenomena attending their 
 
 union — taste of this salt— medicinal properties. 
 
 Sulphate of Lime ") f , „. ■**■• i ~ 
 Cl . a ,. , 5- referred to Mineralogy. 
 
 Sulphate of Alumtne J GJ 
 
 5. Sulphites — their composition. 
 
 6. Sulphurets, 
 
 Composition — native metallic sulphurets — called pyrites- 
 mistaken for gold — artifiiiaf sulphurets called livers — why ?— 
 sulphurtt of iron prepared by exposing equal parts of sulphur 
 and iron filings to i glowing heat — must be kept in a close 
 bottle — wh y r — sulphurets of the alkalies. 
 
 Sulphuretted Hydrogen. Composition— how formed— 
 rational- — odour — liquid sulphuretted H. how prepared — pre- 
 cipitatt s metallic osices — kind of metal ascertained by the 
 colour of the precipitate — effect on vetetable blues — is it an 
 acid I — natural sources- mineral waters — decayed animal re- 
 mains. (Henry 1, 260 — Murray's System^ 2, 279. J 
 
 ~ffc~et&i(— u^irifo*"- 4 *-- 
 
 £*-£<— 
 
ACIDS. 27 
 
 II. OF CARBON AND ITS COMBINATIONS. 
 
 0*4*. s/*lt Ju&t*-** - * • Carbon. . 
 
 ,/Term explained — base of all animal and vegetable sub- 
 stances—impurities of charcoal — how purified — formed in 
 melted lead— in sand — how manufactured in the large way — 
 different kinds. 
 
 Properties. Colour — imbibes gases — irfusibility — con- 
 ducting power combustibility — indestructibil.ty charred 
 
 stakes of the Thames — charring of casks and posts — how foul 
 water may be purified — rancid oil and butter — spoiled meat- 
 teeth powder — effect on ardent spirits by filtering through 
 charcoal — lamp black, how prepared — ivory black — ( Aikin 1, 
 IfviJ— combustion of charcoal in oxvgen — product — proofs 
 that the diamond is pure charcoal (1.) when burnt in oxygen 
 —it is converted into carbonic acid, the weight of which is 
 equal to both the diamond and the oxygen employed (2) — 
 iron converted into steel by being heated in contact with the 
 diamond. (Murray 1. Aikin 1, 31 J 
 
 2. Carbonic Acid. 
 
 Proportion of the ingredients — first gas known distinct 
 from common air, discovered by Dr. Blaik, 1756 — effect on 
 the caustic alkalies — methods of obtaining it : 
 
 1. By psssing common air through red hot charcoal. 
 
 2. By pouring dilute muriatic acid on carbonate of lime. 
 
 3. By heating i halk or limestone powder in an iron tube. 
 Rationalr of each method. Test for carbonic acid. 
 
 aIT Properties. Srj^gravity — effect on burning bodies — on 
 respiration — suffocation by exposure to the fumes of burning 
 charcoal— in wells — how to detect it in wells — accidents from 
 descending into such wells — Grotto del cane -- choke damp — ■ 
 recovery ot suspended animation — (Gorham 1, 386J — ab- ■ 
 sorbable by water — how the quantity absorbed may be in-t ^ < 
 creased — (fcj° Water will absorb the same quantity of com- 
 pressed gas as of gas under ordinary pressure— (Henry 1, 
 219J — affinity for water slight and easily overcome— native 
 carbonated waters — sparkle — artificial carbonated waters — 
 (soda waters) — how manufactured for sale — prepared in the 
 small way — medicinal virtues — acid properties of this sub- 
 stance feeble— aiKmties weak— overcome by all the other 
 acids. 
 
 Sources. (1) Combustion. What becomes of the great 
 quantities thus thrown into the atmosphere — effect on vegeta- 
 tion. 
 
 r i.s 
 
28 ACIDS, 
 
 (2) Fermentation. Sparkling of beer, cider, and other fer- 
 mented liquors — great quantities produced in brewer's vats— 
 bottling of cider. 
 
 (2) Respiration. Effect produced by blowing through lime 
 water— changes on a confined portion of air by respiration — 
 on the blood. (Thomson 4, 470, Chemical Conversations, 
 2, 230. Murray's System, 4, 465. ) 
 
 % fto u/itk, *. &*&) 3 - Carbo ic 0xide - ^ ***/* 
 
 Import of the term oxide as applied to a gaseous body — 
 
 carbonic ox. contains half as much oxygen as carbonic acid— 
 
 hence may be obtained by abstracting from carbonic acid half 
 
 1 its oxygen. This done by heating together iron filings and 
 
 chalk — rationale. - - 
 
 Properties. Combustible — blue flame — effect on respi- 
 ration — product of the combustion — seen in a common fire 
 and blacksmith's forge. 
 
 4. Carbonates^^^^^—^---^—-'' 
 
 Distinction between the perfect carbonates and sub carbo 
 natts. 
 
 Sub-Carbonate of Ammonia. Other names — n anufac- 
 turt-d by the distillation of animal substances, such as horns, 
 hoofs. &c. rational. — does it exist m animal substances ready 
 formed, or is it produced during the distillation<^raiionale. 
 r> Formed by direct union of its gaseous elements — appearance 
 ^"-^whtn thus formed — smelling bottles- spirits of hartshorn- 
 US'* in medicine, ( Aikin 1, 258 Murray* s System 2, 237. 
 Gorham 1, 38^. ) 
 
 Sub-Carbonate of Potash. Chiefly of vegetable ori- 
 gin—how - btained from ashes, ' (Aikin 1, 258. Thomson 1, 
 2'5 J in what countries manufactured — pearl-ash how differ- 
 ent hem pot-ash — formation of the perfect carbonate by mix- 
 ing it wiri- Curb. Ammonia in solution and distilling- ration- 
 ale, ( Murray ••■ Aikin 1, 260.J Medicinal applications 
 under the i«am^s of salt of tartar and salt of wormwood— used 
 in calculus, &e.« — m making bread — rationaler=ritu making 
 soap aid glass. Economy of wood ashes recommended — \ 
 how they may most advantageously be employed as a ma- 
 nure. 
 
 Sub Carbonate of Soda. Nitre of the Scriptures Na-p rtA 
 tioc Tikes - 1 Egypt — .btained from sea weed — kelp and ha-] ,,\ 
 rilla — i staple commodity of the Scottish Isles (Encyclopae- 
 dia Arts " Kelp"'' and w Barilla" J largely used in th« manu- 
 facture of the finest white soap and glass— for soda water— -^ *' 
 
ACIDS. 29 
 
 soda powders of perfect carbonate of soda and tartaric acid, 
 rationale. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime. — A neutral salt — natural formation? 
 of it — referred to Mineralogy. 
 
 Sub-Carbonate of Magnesia. Light and porcus~al- 
 kalim. properties slight — calcined by heat how calcined mag- 
 nesia differs from the common magnesia alba — why preferred 
 for d-t-lfcate stomachs. 
 
 Q3° These carbonated alkalies are all used as antacids, to 
 correct sourness of the stomach, heart-burn, he. Also em- 
 ployed as remedies against calculous disorders. (Brandos 
 Quarterly Journal, Nos. 11 and 12J 
 
 5. Carburet of Iron. *-j£*~- 
 
 Plumbago and black lead — composition — how distinguish- 
 ed — found of the best quality at Barrow Dale, Eng. Difficul- 
 ty of finding it suitable for pencils — locality in this state—*- 
 Uses for pencils, crucibles, coating for stoves, paint, See. 
 
 6. Carburetted Hydrogen. 
 Extensive combinations of carbon and hydrogen, beginning 
 with the bodies that contain the greates proportion bf ca 
 
 (1) Anthracite or incombustible coal- ol mineral origin— 
 hard coal — will it burn in a common fire I dots it hum with 
 flame ? — uses for furnace heats — Susqu^hunna and Rhode Isl- 
 and coal. 
 
 (2) Combustible coal. Contains bituminous matter — Coke 
 —vegetable origin — Richmond > oal — North- Carolina co-d — 
 N-w-Castle and Liverpool coal — -value to a country— -accidental 
 firing of coal mines- rules for distinguishing coalt 
 
 f3) Asphalt— concretes on the surface of waters — Dead-Sea 
 — -Hike in Trinidad {Cleaveland 394^ — need by east p?p nations 
 in embalming, J and as an irgr> client in mortar Cjamcson 2 t 
 364rJ — Mineral pitch or petroleum — swims on tht surface, of 
 certain springs — abundant in Pennsy !vai.ia and Qhio called 
 Seneca oil — used in rheumatic affections. 
 
 Vegetable substances made up chiefly of carbon r.iid hydro* 
 gen with oxygen (carbon and the eh men's of w?.tcr.) Hence 
 vegetable products as gums, resins, oils, &;c. constituted of the 
 same elements in different proportions. Pi 'portion of carbon 
 constantly diminishing and that of hydrogen increasing, through 
 a series of bodies from anthracite to ether — hence carbur* tied 
 hydrogen obtained by exposing almost any of thtse substan- 
 ces to heat. Mode of obtaining it for experiment — rationale 
 — carbonic acid how removed — how obtained Irom stagnant 
 marshes (Aikin 1, 250. Henry l, 236. Gorham i, 39 i. ) 
 
CO ACIDS. 
 
 \ 
 
 Properties. Flame — product of the combustion, carbonic 
 acid and water — rationale — rapid combustion when mixed with 
 air — explosion when fire/l with twice its bulk of ox\ gtn — ef- 
 fects <m respiration — huzaidous attempt of Davy to breathe it 
 (Davy's Researches. Gorham 1, 696.J 
 
 Heavy carburetted hydrogen (Quarterly yournal 8 337)— 
 whv called ok-fint gas — made from sulphuric acid and alcohol 
 f£j a Rationale — carbonic at id and sulphurous acid formed 
 along with the ol> ficnt gas but are absorbed by the water — 
 pure fl .me. 
 
 Cdrburetted hydrogen extricated in coal mines — explosions 
 — dreadful accident at the Felling colliery (Annals of Philoso- 
 phy} attempts to prevent explosion — steel-mills — Safety 
 Lamp — princ ; pls-»nalure of fl.ime {Gorham 1^.504) — impos- 
 sibility of communicating an explosion through small aper- 
 tures — rationale {Gorham 1. 406 ) Gas Lights. How made 
 — materials {Quarterly Journal 7, 312, &? 8, J 20) various 
 products of the distiliation of coal [gas, tar, ammonia and 
 coki ] — quantity of light distributed daily by the London com- 
 pany « qu;il to half a million wax candjes — comparative ex- 
 pense — superior convenience of the gas {Gorham 1, 409) Phe- 
 nomena oi a common fire. 
 
 III. OF PHOSPHORUS AND ITS COMBINATIONS. 
 
 1. Phosphorus. 
 
 Former celebrity and distinction — from what substance at 
 first obtained ( Thomson 1,222) how manufactured from bones 
 (£3° These are phosphate of lime — pulverised and heated with 
 sulphuric acid — filtered — what passes the filter? What re- 
 mains behind ? The liquor containing phosphoric acid is e^6- 
 porated — the solid residuum mixed with charcoal powder and 
 exposed to a violent heat in a furnace — what takes place ? * 
 
 Properties. Colour— consistence— melting point — at what 
 temperature does it take fire ? Colour of the flame — why kept 
 under water — combustion in oxygen — product — luminous ap- 
 pearance when exposed to air — why ? Characters inscribed 
 on a wall in a dark room — combustion under water — phospho- 
 ric match s — how prepared — liquid phosphorus how formed — 
 glow-worm or fire-flv — phosphorus dissolved in ether— effects 
 when taken into the stomach {Orjila on poisons 174.) 
 
 2. Phosphoric Acid* 
 
 Appearance like glas*: — extremely sour— decomposed by 
 the Voltaic apparatus— rationale {Gorham 1, 421.) 
 
i 
 
 ACIDS. 31 
 
 3. Phosphates, 
 Class numerous, but phos. lime mostimportant, why ? Al- 
 kaline phosphates much used in medicine. # 
 
 &. Phosphurets. 
 Formed by uniting solid phos. with inflammables and alka- 
 lies — phosphuret of sulphur extremely inflammable*- phos't 
 lime decomposes water at the common temperature (Henry 
 1, 321.) 
 
 5. Phosphuretted Hydrogen. 
 Procured by*boiling bits of phosphorus in a solution of 
 caustic potash — rationale — ( He%ry 1, 323 Gorham 1, 426_) 
 *-- also by adding bits of phosphorus to the usual mixture lor 
 hydrogen appearance when it comes in contact with the air 
 — why? (Gorham 1, 428J — also when a bubble of the gas 
 rises into a jar containing oxygen — extreme combustibility — 
 why ?— {Gorham 1, 429) — products of the combustion — ignes 
 fatui. 
 
 IV. OF NITRIC^A.CID AND ITS COMBINATIONS. * 
 
 Acids of which the base is nitrogen, viz : • 
 
 Nitric acid, Nitrous acid, 
 
 Nitric oxide, Nitrous oxide. 
 
 tfLfy^o-j rrtLj 1. Nitric Acid. 
 
 Name in the shops— composition — how proved by Caven- 
 dish — (Henry 1, 270. Aikin 2, 146) — proved by analysis. — a 
 
 proportion of the constituents. ^^-ffirrj? & 1st . !2r*si- S^CsK 
 
 Properties.* Common properties of an acid in a htgh de- 
 gree — effect on the colour of the skin — on combustibles — on 
 metals — manufactured from nitre and sulphuric acid — ration- 
 ale. 
 
 Uses. In minting — in lithography — in copper engraving 
 as a chemical agent. V rt /t 
 
 2. Nitric Oxide. «l v' ' ■ <J is- 
 
 How it differs from nitric acid in composition — how formed 
 from nitric acid and copper — rationale. 
 
 Properties. No acid properties — effect on respiration-—. 
 on combustion — colour wh> n mixed with oxygen — used as an 
 eudtometrical substance — mode of its operation (Henry 1, 
 274.J # 
 
 3. Nitroijk Acid. 
 
 Formation— colour— composition— powerful in dissolving 
 metals* 
 
 
%% ACIDS. 
 
 $ 
 
 * 4. Nitrous Oxide or Exhilirating Gas. 
 Composition — preparation — rational — action on combusti- 
 bles— -son animals when inhaled. History of its properties as 
 developed by Sir Humphrey Davy. (Davy^s Researches, 
 Muvray i, Gorham 1, 32.1. ) 
 
 Doctrine of Definite Proportions illustrated by ,the 
 foregoing combinations of oxygen and nitrogen. 
 
 {fcj° While the base remains fixed, all the higher propor- 
 tions of ox} gen m the several compounds are simple multi- 
 ples of the lower. Thus, 
 
 (Nitrogen.) (Oxygen.) 
 Nitrous Oxide is comoposed of 2 measures 1 
 Nitric Oxide or Nitrous Gas 2 2 
 
 Nitrous Acid 2 4 
 
 Nanc A id 2 5 
 
 {Chemical Catechism 45. Gorham 1, 49. Thomson 3, 22. 
 Henry 1, 353. Murray 1.) 
 
 No intermediate proportions — do bodies combine in any 
 other than definite proportions ? Docttine further illustrated 
 by the composition of other bodies consisting of different pro- 
 portions of the same elements, as acids, salts, & metallic oxides. 
 Cause of this definiteness explained by 
 
 The Atomic Theory. 
 Structure of bodies out of atoms maintained by Epicurus 
 add Newton — revived by Dr. Higgins and chiefly illustrated 
 and ■ xtended by D ikon --his idea of atoms, that the atoms; 
 of the same body* are of the same size and figure ; but that 
 those of different bodies vary in size and figure. In the 
 foregoing combinations, 
 
 Ci. of Oxygen forms Nitrous Oxide. 
 J atom of Nitrogen J 2 do. Nitric Oxide. 
 
 with j 4 do. Nitrous Acid. 
 
 (.5 do. Nitric Acid. 
 
 {jjjf When two elements combine onlv in one proportion 
 forming only one compound, it is assumed that, the combination 
 is binary. When the some elements form several compounds, 
 the first or lowest is assumed to be binarv Thus i atom ot 
 hydrogen with one of oxygen, forms ivafer — why then doe3 
 the oxygen amount to 7 times as much as the hydrogen in 
 'weight P Ans. Its atoms are 7 trmes heavier Hydrogen 
 assumed as the standard, being considered as unity, and the 
 atoms of all other clem nts compared with it— hence the tela 
 the weights of atoms ascertained. 
 
acids. 33 
 
 Practical utility of the Atomic Theory* 
 Composition of a substance (its elements being known) de- 
 duced from calculation — experimental analysis thus confirmed — 
 Wollaston's scale of chemical equivalents (Gorham \\ 54. J 
 
 5. Nitrates.^ 
 
 Solubility in water — deflagration,.^^ /& /^ 
 
 I^itrat^of Potash. Common names — found native — 
 caves of Kentucky (Cleaveland 108,J how formed in caves — 
 nitrous soil of Spain ( Aikin 2, 156. ) India — manufacture — 
 mixture of wood ashes — rationale — manufacture put into the 
 hands of the French chemists during the revolution—result — 
 artificial nitre beds of France — how formed (Aikin 1, 159. J 
 
 Properties. Form of the crystals — fusion — action on 
 burning coals when fused — deflagration. 
 
 Uses. In the manufacture of sulphuric acid — in preserv- 
 ing meat — for oxygen gas — for gunpowder. 
 Gunpowder. 
 
 History — Roger Bacon — Chinese. First used in war at the 
 battle of Cressy, 134 3. Manufactures — ingredients — propor- 
 tion of each — preparation — how mixed, grained, glazed, 
 dried — defects, to what owing — trial of the quality — inferi- 
 ority of American to English powder — cause. Successive 
 explosion of the grains — effect of pressure — cause of the re- 
 port — gases produced — production of heat — how accounted 
 for (Murray's System 2, 589. J 
 
 Pulvis Fulminans. Ingredients — how made- — cause of 
 the explosion. ^^.-^""Z /tL^+^r^cL a/ ( < f fit. * -^-v. 
 
 V. Of muriatic acid and its combinations. 
 
 1. Muriatic Acid. 
 Why so called — how obtained from salt — great condensa- 
 tion in water — white clouds with ammonia. Nitro Muriatic 
 Acid — aqua regia — celebrated property of this substance. 
 
 2. Muriates. 
 
 Muriate of Ammonia. Originally brought from Lybia — 
 how manufactured in Egypt ( 1 arke's Essays 4, 346,J from 
 the distillation of substances containing animal remains. 
 
 Uses. In dying &c. 
 
 Muriate of Soda. (Salt.) Focus of saltness, derived 
 from this substance — found in three situations. 
 
 (1) Waters of the Ocean. 
 
 (2) Salt springs — of Cheshire, Eng. (Aikin 2, 11 8, ) of 
 New- York — of Kentucky— salt licks (Cleaveland 115. ) 
 
 E 
 
-34' ACIDS. 
 
 (3) Salt mines — of Poland ( Encyclopaedia Art. l Wieliczd'J / 
 their antiquity — known 600 >ears — 1000 feet deep — curious 
 figures wrought out ot the solid rocks — (Black. 2, 112. J — 
 Salt mountains ot' Cordova in Spain*— r500 feet high — (Bake- 
 toeWs Geology) salt mines of Peru — (Jameson 2, 320. 
 Humboldt *s Personal Narrative 2, 268 ) 
 
 Rules for detecting the presence of salt. 
 
 Manufacture of salt. 
 
 1. From sea water— where most strongly impregnated — 
 mode of manufacturing by the heat of the sun — by boiling — 
 which method produces the best salt — Scotch Sunday salt — 
 (Black 2, 11 7 J — impurities in sea water. 
 
 2. Salt springs- — very sirong — from |to | lb. per gallon — 
 {Cleaveland 115) — manufactured by boiling. 
 
 3. Ruck salt — obtained by mining, and afterwards dissolved 
 and crystiiiizcd to separate impurities. 
 
 Properties. On burning coals — equally soluble in hot 
 and cold water — crystallizes in cubes. 
 
 VI. Oxy muriatic acid or chlorine. 
 
 Formation from muriatic acid and manganese— rationale — 
 colour — hence its name— suffocating fumes. 
 
 Combinations. (1.) With olificnt gas. (2.) With hy- 
 drogen — forms muriatic acid — -rationale— (3.) With combus- 
 tibles — phosphorus and metals inflamed spontaneously— why ? 
 effect on vegetable colours — bleaching — mode of disinfecting 
 sick rooms—easy mode of producing the gas in a tea cup. 
 
 (^7° Explain all the preceding facts on the supposition that 
 chloriiv is a simple body. 
 
 1. How is chlorine formed by the mixture of muriatic acid 
 and manganese ? 
 
 2. How does the union of chlorine and hydrogen produce 
 muriatic acid ? 
 
 3. Why does it cause phosphorus and the metals to inflame 
 spontaneously ? 
 
 2. Chlorate or Oxy Muriate of Potash. 
 
 Formation — rationale. {fcj° 2 salts formed, viz. muriate 
 and chlorate — that part of the acid which goes to form the. 
 muriate is withdrawn, and leaves all the oxygen combined 
 with the remainder — hence this salt is a hyper — oxymuriate — 
 (Henry 1, 311 J 
 
 Violent detonation with inflammables — (Murray 1. Henry 
 1, 31 J, Chemical Catechism) — why trituration or percussion 
 causes an explosion* 
 
METALS. 35 
 
 VII. OF IODINE AND ITS COMBINATIONS. 
 
 1. lodins. 
 
 Discovery — from what substance obtained — method of ob- 
 taining it by lixiviation and sulphuric acid— rationale 
 
 Colour-- — name—scales — volatility — relation to the galvanic 
 poles — a supporter of combustion (Gorham 1, 258 ) test. 
 
 2. Hydriodic Acid. 
 
 Composition — hydrogen united with iodine either at a high 
 temperature or in the nascent state — strongly acid (Murray's 
 Syst. 2, 501. J 
 
 3. Oxiodic Acid. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Analogy between Iodine and Chlorine — effect of its disco- 
 very on the theories respecting the latter (Murray \.) 
 
 VIII. FLUORIC ACID AND ITS COMBINATIONS. 
 
 Obtained from Fluor spar (Fluate of Lime) by sulphuric 
 acid — rationale — a liquid when pure — corrosive properties 
 (Murray 1. Gorham f, 265. J Action on silex — etching of 
 glass (Thomson 1, 180. ) 
 
 2. Fluate of Lime — referred to Mineralogy. 
 
 IX. BORACIC ACID. 
 
 Obtained from borax which is borate of soda. This salt 
 found in the lakes of Thibet. Renders metallic oxides more 
 fusible — used in soldering. / / , 
 
 DIV. VII.— METALS. 
 
 Eagerness of mankind for these substances — criterion of 
 civilization estimated by the knowledge of them and the de- 
 gree of skill in working them— importance to akhymists and 
 chemists. 
 
 1. Natural History of the Metals. 
 
 (SillimarCs Notes to Henry 2, 389. J 
 
 Metals usually occur in nature under disguised forms— 
 when called native — what metals most frequently occur native ? 
 usually found combined 
 
 1. With oxygen, forming oxides. 
 
 2. With acids, forming salts. 
 
 S. With sulphur and carbon, forming sulphurets and carbu- 
 rets. 
 
36 METALS. 
 
 Ores make up but a small part of the globe— veins—are 
 
 these inclined or horizontal ? — do they consist entirely of ore ? 
 
 gauge of a metal — most abundant in rugged mountainous 
 
 countries- 
 Credulity evinced by the vulgar on the subject of metals — 
 
 divining rods — real indications of a mine — boring. 
 
 Mixing Great labour at the beginning — h«<w access is 
 
 gained to the ore — mode of removing the ore — use of the 
 
 steam engine. 
 
 Metallurgy. " The art of extracting metals from their 
 
 ores." Sorting, stamping, washing, reducing and refining— 
 
 each defined. 
 
 2. Physical Properties. 
 
 Lustre. The brilliancy of metals exhibited by the interior 
 — that of other bodies superficial — hence useful for purposes 
 of ornament and for mirrors. 
 
 Opacity. Peculiar to the metals. Is. gold leaf an excep- 
 tion. 
 
 Density. Greatest in the metals — weight of a cubic foot 
 cf cork contrasted with a cubic foot of gold and platina. 
 
 Tenacity. How estimated — which metal has the greatest ? 
 
 Ductility. " The property of being drawn out into wire." 
 Great difference among the metals in this particular — wire- 
 drawing. 
 
 Malleability. " The power of being extended into thia 
 plates" — not possessed by all the metals. 
 
 conducting of caloric and electricity. 
 
 i 
 
 Fusibility. Great difference in this respect — extremes, 
 quicksilver and platina. 
 
 3. Chemical Properties. 
 
 Oxidation — effect of moisture — nature of rust — distin- 
 guished from tarnish — agency of heat in promoting oxidation 
 —calcination — how accounted for on the Phlogistic Theory — 
 on Lavoisier's Theory — different metals combine with differ- 
 ent portions of oxygen e. g. gold and iron — the same metal 
 also combines with several portions of oxygen constituting se- 
 veral distinct oxides e. g. lead — colours— are the elements of 
 these oxides united in defnite proportions ? (Murray 2, 16. 
 Gorham 1, 56J — modes of naming the several oxides of a 
 metal. 
 
 Reduction-— how performed. Analogy between oxidation 
 and combustion — metals combustible. 
 
 Action of acids. How the acids act in dissolving the 
 metals — acid decomposed— sometimes the acid enables the 
 
1. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 *0. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 2. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 1!. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 3. 
 
 Piatina. 
 
 12. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 4. 
 
 Iridium. 
 
 13. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 5. 
 
 Osmium. 
 
 14. 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 6. 
 
 Rhodium. 
 
 15. 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Y. 
 
 Palladium. 
 
 16. 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 8. 
 
 Quicksilver. 
 
 17. 
 
 Cobalt. 
 
 9. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 18. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 METALS. £? 
 
 metai to decompose water — what substance is then giver. 
 — -formation of metallic salts — composition — what acic' 
 with the greatest energy on the metals ? 
 
 Alloys. How formed — are the ingredients in mechr. 
 mixture, or in chemical combination ? 
 
 Enumerate the metals in their order (Murray]) 
 
 19. Manganese. 
 
 20. MoUbdenal : 
 
 21. iungsten. 
 
 22. Chrome. . 
 
 23. Tellurium. 
 
 24. Titanium. 
 
 25. Uranium. 
 
 26. Tantaliura. 
 
 27. Cerium. 
 
 Method pursued in treating of the metals, viz. 
 Natural History, 
 Physical Characters, 
 Chemical Characters, 
 Applications to the arts. 
 
 OF GOLD. 
 
 Sol et rex metallorum of the alchymists — use and : 
 dance among the ancients — (1 Kings, 10. 1 i. ffarke's Es-fat/i 
 5, 248) — regard paid to it by the alchymists — v. 
 
 Natural History. Found native — alloyed with silver, 
 copper, iron, and palladium — dispersed through hard rocks 
 or iu grains — extent to which it is diffused— sari ' proportion 
 of gold found among the ores and sands— ^-ho-v u. i ^y ounces 
 to 5,000 lbs. of the ore of Chili — how many grkins to tl. 
 of sand in Africa— localities — Hungary apd Spa •> — eastern 
 and west&n coasts of Africa — California, (Sonora,) Mexico 
 and- Brazil, Ancient Pactolus, Rhine and Danube. Is the 
 gold of rivers always brought down from the mountains ? — 
 separation of gold from its ores — use of mercury. ( A'ik'in 1, 
 SIX.) 
 
 Physical Characters. Colour — hardness — ductility— 
 malleability— gold-beating how conducted— into hota many 
 square inches may a grain of gold be extended ? — thinness af 
 gold on gold lace. 
 
 Chemical Characters. Acted on but by few chemical 
 agents — why it does not rust — can it be oxidized by heat? — > 
 action of acids — two oxides — colours — aqua regia- — muriate 
 formed-*- rationale — action of muriate of tin on the solution — 
 
38 METALS. 
 
 purple precipitate of cassius — action of ammonia-— fulminating 
 goldfc — rationale — (Murray) action of combustibles, as hy- 
 drogen, phosphorus, &c. — action of ether on the solution — 
 aurum potabile. 
 
 Applications to the Arts. Gilding by means of the 
 
 -ethtnsd solution— (Chemical Amusement, 96. Parkes, 551 J — 
 
 standard gold coin — purity estimated by carats-r-jewellers' 
 
 gold — how does copper affect the colour of gold — how does 
 
 silver . ? — pure gold useful for chemical vessels. 
 
 OF SILVER. 
 
 Known to the ancients— abundant in nature — greatly valued 
 in the arts. 
 
 Natural History. Frequently found native — some- 
 times combined with arsenic, antimony or sulphur— contained 
 in bad ores — how to distinguish native silver from lead — lo- 
 ca!i ?es— mitv s of Norway — of Saxony — of America — annual 
 ptuciu t of the Mexican and South American mines — product 
 for three centuries — (Jameson 3, 91. ' Rees's CyclopcediaJ- : — 
 reduction — volatile matters expelled by roasting — use of mer- 
 cury — great labour to remove all the foreign substances — 
 1,600 ounces of ore yield only 3 or 4 ounces of pure silver — 
 (Cieaveland, 442.J 
 
 Physical Characters. Whiteness — called luna — mal- 
 leability and ductility compared with gold. 
 
 Chemical Characters. Fusion — appearance when in 
 the melted plat: — i ombustion — colour of the flame — not sub- 
 ject to spontaneous oxidation— '-tarnish-*— action of nitric acid- 
 nitrate of silver — appearance when crystalized — action on in- 
 flammables — explosion with oxygen — rationale — combination 
 with ammonia — fulminating silver — rationale — very danger- 
 ous-=-anoth<r formed by the action of nitrate of silver on al- 
 cohol— expriments — action of mercury on the nitribPsolution 
 — Arbor Duinse — formation and rationale — action of light on 
 nitrate of sdvtr — durable ink, how applied — test for muriatic 
 acid — why ? — preparation o f lunar caustic — antiputrescent 
 properties — {Black 3 353) — precipitation of metallic sil er on 
 copper — rationale. 
 
 Applications to the Arts. Plating, how performed — 
 sivering of dials and clocks— {Black 3, 357) — utensils and 
 furniture of silver — -silver coin. 
 
 OF PLATINA. 
 
 Chiefly obtained from South-America — in grains scattered 
 in sandy districts — other valuable metals associated with it. 
 
 
METALS. 39 
 
 Colour — lustre — malleability and ductility — \£j° Sped 
 gravity. 
 
 Acted on by few agents — henc^not liable to rust ojyf 
 — solvent — infusibility — has it ever been fused^ in a furnace i 
 — hence difficulty of uniting the grains into a mass — general 
 method of doing this. 
 
 Useful tor chemical vessels — why ? — porcelain coated \H 
 it — crucibles. 
 
 (£j° Metals separated from the ores of Platina, Iridium. 
 Osmium, Rhodium, and Palladium. (Murray 2, 56. Henry 
 2, 44.) 
 
 OF MERCURY OR OJJICKSILVER, 
 
 Extensive examination made of it by the alchymists — their 
 object — utility of these researches in bringing to light the 
 properties of the substance. 
 
 Natural History. Met with in but few places ; but is 
 abundant in those places — Idria — Almaden — Guanca Velica— ■ 
 (Cleave and 447. Jameson 8, 39. Aikin 2. B:ack 2.) — an- 
 tiquity or the mine at Almaden — Peruvian vein >;0 yards in 
 diameter — occurs (J) in globules (2) in a sulphuret called 
 cinnabar — colour of this ore — how is the quicksilver obtained 
 from these ores ? — iron or lime employed in the disiiilation— 
 why ? — mode of transporting mercury. 
 
 Physical and Chemical Characters. A melted me- 
 tal — how congealed — properties when congealed — at what 
 temperature — boiling point — (Henry and Parkes'' Tables)— 
 repeated distillations performed by Boerhaave — result — effect 
 of agitation — importance of mercurial preparation to the me- 
 dical student. 
 
 Oxides. Black oxide — formed by agitation — by tritura- 
 ting with fat — office of the fat — (Murray's Materia Medica 2, 
 292) — only 4 per cent, of oxvgen — properties rendered more 
 active — effect of pure quicksilver on the system. (Aikin 2, 
 75.) Red' xide, how formed — contains 7 per cent, of oxy- 
 gen — how^t may be separated. (Q^This } s the subst.irce 
 from which Dr. Priestley discovered oxygen. Oxidation by- 
 means of nitric acid — formation of red precipitate— (Aikin 2, 
 78. Murray f s Materia Med. 2, 240) T -more corrosive than 
 the mercurius precipitatus per se. — used rs an escharotic — 
 change produced on the red precipitate by triturating it with 
 running mercury. 
 
 Action of sulphuric acid, and preparation of the super«sui« 
 phate and sub-sulphate — turpeth mineral. 
 
4-0 METALS. 
 
 ^ Action of muriatic acid, and formation of calomel and 
 
 ^■erosive sublimate. Does muriatic acid act on metallic 
 
 ■Lsilvtr ? — metal first oxidized by the nitric or sulphuric 
 
 ■kros. sublimate prepavvd from sulphate of mercury 
 
 wriate 'of soda— rationale — excessively poisonous- — 
 
 Jon Poisons, 19) — quantity lor a dose — mode of de- 
 
 ■ing it in a supposed poisonous mixture. 
 
 f^alomcl. how prepared from the corros. muriate — bow it 
 
 diff rs from the latter — how they may be distinguished. 
 
 Mercury with su/phur — preparation of jEthiops and Cinnibar 
 — {Black 3, 245) — vermillion. 
 
 Fulminating mercury, how formed — experiments. 
 Mercury in all its preparations poisonous, but made by a 
 skilful application, extremely useful in the cure of diseases. 
 
 Applications to the Arts. Amalgams how formed — 
 use of mercury in reducing gold and silver— amalgam with 
 zinc — with tin — coating of mirrors — (Black 3. ) 
 
 Of copper. j 
 
 Natural History. Use of it by the ancients — colour of 
 the ores — localities. Cyprus- — Cornwal — lAnglesea — annual 
 amount afforded by the English mines, 10,000 tons — (Jame- 
 son 3, 1 9b, J — no large copper mine in the United States. 
 Fou.-id native — also with sulphur and arsenic. Reduction — 
 roasting and fusion — sulphur thus afforded for market — 
 (Black 3. Aikin 1. Chaptal 362. J Rules for distinguish-' 
 ing copper ores — resemblance of copper pyrites to gold. 
 
 Physical Properties. Colour — malleability — ductility — 
 a durai le metal — hardness — does it strike fire with flint — 
 use for powder casks, &c. 
 
 Chemical Properties. Changes wrought on it by ex- 
 posure to the atmosphere — degree of heat required for its fu- 
 sion — contain a great portion of latent heat — (Black 3* Ai- 
 kin 1, 333,J — combustion — colour when burning. 
 
 Sulphuric acid — sulphate of copper — blue vitriol — how ma- 
 nufactured in the large way — (Chaptal 363J — waters con- 
 taining it in solution^ — efTict on ' ro A. ute j?jil§j«^> -jm+uLf*~^ 
 
 Nitric acid — nitrate,— action on /comoustibles—^vith phos- 
 phor s struck on an anvil — wrapt up with tin foil — paper wet in 
 the nitric solution and set to dry by the fire — paper wet with 
 alcohol dipt in this solution and inflamed — metallic copper 
 revived — ^vvhy ? 
 
 Muriatic acid — dissolves copper with difficulty — colour of j 
 the solution — Acetous acid or vinegar — verdigris — how ma- 
 nufactured — use — action oily matter on copper — brass can- 
 
 rt t 
 
METALS. . fjf^ t J*Ar 
 
 dlesticks — ammonia — dissolves the oxide — colour — test fo 
 copper — food poisoned by the use of copper vessels — how 
 tected — iron applied to a solution of copper — copper fU: 
 heated with sulphur— phenomena made an objection to 
 voisier's Theory of Combustion. — (Black 3. J 
 
 Applications to the Arts. Utensils of copper — a] 
 — coin — brass— bell-metal and bronze. 
 
 OF IRON. 
 
 Natural History. Abundant in nature — ores numer- 
 ous. 
 
 Native Iron* Soft and malleable — remarkable circumstances 
 attending it — how regarded by the natives — analogy to meteo- 
 ric stones. Hints of stony bodies descending from the at- 
 mosphere furnished by the ancients Weston meteor — phe- 
 nomena attending it— ( Memoirs Cont. Academy, vol* 1. Rees's 
 Cyclopaedia, Art. u Falling Stones." Henry 2, 401. ) — size 
 and velocity — fragments detached — composition — (silex and 
 magnesia, iron and nickel) — theories respecting the origin of 
 these meteors. 
 
 1. Thrown out of volcanoes. Objections— distance from 
 any known volcano — size — direction. 
 
 2. From volcanoes in the moon. Objections — force requi- 
 site to throw so large a body 2i>,000 miles — effect of such a 
 discharge on the moon itself — losses that planet would sustain 
 by supplying m teors. 
 
 3. Atmospheric Concretions. Objections — how these mate- 
 rials were furnished — why they did not descend sooner — di- 
 rection. 
 
 4. Terrestrial Comets. Analogy to solar comets — heat and 
 light, how accounted for. 
 
 Iron Pyrites. Abundant — mistaken for gold — how distin- 
 guished — colour when arsenic is present — how to detect this 
 —uses in the manufacture of sulphur and copperas. 
 
 Magnetic Iron. Mistake in supposing all ores of iron mag- 
 netic — degree of oxidation — load stone — iron sand — species 
 useful for bar iron. 
 
 Specular Iron. Why so called— its appearance — colours — 
 quality — localities. 
 
 Red Iron Ore. Colour — to what owing — stalactites — com- 
 mon in the U. States — afford a tough iron — used for anchors. 
 
 Argillaceous Iron. Mixed with clay — in nodules— eagle 
 stone and bog iron — much used in England. 
 
 F 
 
42^ . . METALS. 
 
 Manufactured <Jf Britain — Sweden— Russia — U. States— 
 ortb- Carolina. 
 
 duction- Roasting — placed in the furnace with lime and 
 
 ^oal- — fused — removal of the slag — rationale of the whole 
 
 s — mode of casting—running into pigs — manufacture 
 
 iron — fusion of pig iron — hammering — rationale of the 
 
 sical Properties. Tenacity cSmpared with lead — 
 racture — ductility — malleability— increased by heat— 'Welding 
 ('Black 3, 165) rationale. 
 
 Chemical Properties. Oxidation — change on exposure 
 to the atmosphere — rust — how to preserve iron from rusting— 
 effects of heat and formation of the black oxide — melting point 
 — combustion — effect of acid and saline substances in corrod- 
 ing iron — Acids —all act on iron, strong acids with great ener- 
 gy — why appks blacken knives. Sulphate, formation, colour, 
 and crystallization — effect of heat on this salt and formation 
 of the red oxide or crocus martis. 
 
 [Medicinal preparations ol Iron.] 
 
 Ochres. Used in painting — oxide of iron an extensive 
 colouring drug in nature. 
 
 Sulphuret— Lemeng's Volcano — Carburet, Plumbago and 
 Steel. 
 
 Properties or Steel. Hardness, polish, tenacity, brit> ( 
 tleness, {£jf° definition, " refined iron united with carbon" — >.' 
 carbon in a state similar to the diamond — how steel differs 
 from cast iron — manufacture of steel — bar iron stratified with 
 charcoal in a trough — heated in a furnace— blistered, German 
 and cast steel — mode of making each — tempering of steel- 
 degree of hardness how judged of (Aikin.l, 603. Parke's 
 Essays 4, 500 ) Cutlery — state among savage nations — among 
 ancient civdized nations (Parke's Essays 4.J Sheffield and 
 Birmingham. 
 
 Applications to the Arts. Extremely numerous and 
 important. 
 
 OF TIN. 
 
 Natural History. Mines few but abundant in ore — 
 Comwal and Banca — antiquity of the Cornwal mines — annual 
 amount of ores raised from them — ores of tin mineralized by 
 iron and sulphur. Reduction. 
 
 Physical and Chemical Properties. Colour — hard- 
 ness — malleability — tin foil, how much thinner than gold leaf- 
 cry of tin. Oxydation— tarnish — has water any action on it s 
 
METALS. 4£ 
 
 melting point — rapid oxidation and formation of the grey ox- 
 ide — combustion — promoted by nitre — why ? — formation ot 
 the white oxide from the grey — putty, used as a polishing 
 powder — enamel of watch faces. Acids — rapid action ot ni- 
 tric acid {fcj° when the acid is diiuttd with water, the rntbflml A 
 decomposes both and ammonia is formed — rationale. Murjj 
 of tin — decomposes the solutions of gold and throws dfl 
 the purple precipitate of Cassius — rationale. 
 
 Applications to the Arts. Alloys with copper- — bron 
 bell metal, cannon metal ancient weapons translated «' brass'' 
 — hardness of this alloy — manufacture of tin plate — utility tor 
 culinary vessels. Composition of solder. Pewter — composi- 
 sition — lead apt to be in excess— then dangerous to keep acid 
 liquors in ( Aik'm 2,J 
 
 OF lead. 
 
 Natural History. Found in veins frequently large and 
 extensive — ores various, but the sulphuret or galena most a« 
 bundant — how distinguished from pure lead. Mode of exa- 
 mining a specimen of le^|^£ with the blow pipe. 
 
 Physical and Chemical Properties. Softness, mallea- 
 bility — manufacture oi sh^et lead — granulation of lead and 
 manufacture of shot. Oxydation — tarnish, melting point and 
 formation of the grey oxide. Changes produced on this oxide 
 by farther exposure to heat. Massicot and Red Lead or Mi- 
 nium how formed — litharge ( ' Aikin 2, 19J — tendency of the 
 oxides of lead to vitrify with silex, hence their use in glass- 
 making and pottery. Acids — acetate of lead — white lead, 
 composition and manufacture — action of lead on the human 
 system — waters proceeding from lead mines — pipes and ves- 
 sels of lead — diseases incident to those who work among the 
 oxides of lead. Uses of lead in painting — remarks on the 
 preparation of paints. 
 
 of zinc. 
 
 Natural History. Ores known to the ancients, but not 
 the pure metal — two principal ores Calamine and Blend— ma- 
 nufacture of brass from the ores — reduction to the metallic 
 state. 
 
 Physical and Chemical Properties. Fracture, malle- 
 ability, increased by a moderate heat — fusion and formation 
 of the grey oxide — combustion and formation of the xvhite 
 oxide called flowers of zinc, nihil album, and lana philosophica- 
 Acids. Strong action. ■, . 
 
 [Medicinal applications of Zinc.]— -V * fr^Jth 
 
 

 44 METALS. 
 
 ♦ 
 Alloys. Brass — composition and uses— Corinthian brass 
 composed of gold, .silver and tin — (Encyclopaedia) — electri- 
 cal amalgam, voltaic plates, pinchbec, prince's metal, tombac. 
 
 OF BISMUTH. ' 
 
 Itfot found extensively — fusibility — crystallization — alloy 
 with lead and tin forming the fusible metal — white oxide of 
 bismuth — preparation by nitric acid — medicinal uses — a cele- 
 Hucd cosmetic— sympathetic inks of nitrate of bismuth. 
 
 OF ANTIMONY. 
 
 Distinction between the common antimony of the shops 
 and the regulus of antimony--- appearance under the blow 
 pipe — brittlcness— imparls th s character to other metals— its 
 celebrity among the aichymists. (Black 3.J 
 
 [Medicinal preparations and applications.] 
 
 In the arts. Alloyed with lead and bismuth constitutes 
 type metal — reason of adding the antimony and bismuth to 
 the lead. . • /"~\ 
 
 OF ARS^HMP- 
 
 Ores, orpiment and realgar — how to detect an ore of arsenic 
 — reduction of the ores — fate of the workmen — white oxide 
 of arsenic — effects on the human system — (Black 3, 136. 
 Orjila on Poisons, ^5) — mode of detecting mineral poisons 
 in criminal i ases. 
 
 [Medicinal preparations of arsenic] 
 
 OF COBALT. 
 
 Ores found in Saxony and Connecticut — combined with 
 arsenic, zaffre and smalt—composition and use of the latter — 
 use of cobalt in colouriug gl^ss and pottery — nitrate of cobalt 
 a fine sympathetic ink. (Aikin J, 579 J 
 
 OF MANGANESE. 
 
 Black oxide — abundant — violet colour, with borax infusion 
 —use in glass-making and bleaching — catfteleon mineral. 
 
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