The Fables op Aesop Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2012 with funding from University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill http://www.archive.org/details/fablesofaesopasf01aeso Five hundred and fifty copies of this Edition have been printed, five hundred of which are for sale. JBiblfotb^que &e Garabas Series* I. CUPID AND PSYCHE : The most Pleasant and Delect- able Tale of the Marriage of Cupid and Psyche. Done into English by William Addington, of University College in Oxford. With a Discourse on the Fable by Andrew Lang, late of Merton College in Oxford. Frontispiece by W. B. Richmond, and Verses by the Editor, May Kendall, J. W. Mackail, F. Locker-Lampson, and W. H. Pollock. (lxxxvi. 66 pp.) 1887. Out of print. II. EUTERPE: The Second Book of the Famous History of Herodotus. Englished by B. R., 1584. Edited by Andrew- Lang, with Introductory Essays on the Religion and the Good Faith of Herodotus. Frontispiece by A. W. Tomson ; and Verses by the Editor and Graham R. Tomson. (xlviii. 174 pp.) 1888. ioj. Only a few copies left. III. THE FABLES OF BIDPAI : or, The Morall Philo- sophie of Doni : Drawne out of the auncient writers, a work first compiled in the Indian tongue. Englished out of Italian by Thomas North, Brother to the Right Honorable Sir Roger North, Knight, Lord North of Kytheling, 1570. Now again edited and induced together with a Chronologico- Bibliographical Chart of the translations and adaptations of the Sanskrit original, and an Analytical Concordance of the Stories, by Joseph Jacobs, late of St. John's College in Cambridge. With a full-page Illustration by Edward Burne Jones, A. R.A., Frontispiece from a sixteenth cen- tury MS. of the Anvari Suhaili, and facsimiles of Woodcuts in the Italian Doni of 1532. (lxxxii. 264pp.) 1888. 11s. Gbe fables of Hesop, i. From the Bayeux Tapestry. Zhe fables of Heeop as first printed by William Caxton in 1484. with those of Avian, Alfonso and Poggio, now again edited and induced by Joseph Jacobs. I. History of the ;£sopic Fable. London. Published by David Nutt in the Strand, m.d.ccclxxxix. ts CO TO MY BROTHERS SYDNEY, EDWIN, LOUIS TO WHOM I OWE ALL Esop. He sat among the woods, he heard The sylvan merriment ; he saw The pranks of butterfly and bird, The humours of the ape, the daw. And in the lion or the frog — In all the life of moor and fen, In ass and peacock, stork and log, He read similitudes of men. " Of these, from those," he cried, " we come, Our hearts, our brains descend from these." And lo ! the Beasts no more were dumb, But answered out of brakes and trees ; " Not ours," they cried ; " Degenerate, If ours at all," they cried again, " Ye fools, who war with God and Fate, Who strive and toil : strange race of men, " For we are neither bond nor free, For we have neither slaves nor kings, But near to Nature's heart are we, And conscious of her secret things. " Content are we to fall asleep, And well content to wake no more, We do not laugh, we do not weep, Nor look behind us and before ; " But were there cause for moan or mirth, "lis we, not you, should sigh or scorn, Oh, latest children of the Earth Most childish children Earth has borne." They spoke, but that misshapen Slave Told never of the thing he heard, And unto men their portraits gave, In likenesses of beast and bird ! A. L. PREFACE. AESOP'S Fables are the first book one reads, or at least the first tales one hears. It seems, therefore, appropriate *\J^ to reproduce them in the first form in which they appeared among English books, translated and printed by William Caxton f at Westmynster in thabbey J dur- ing the spring of 1484, eight years before the discovery of America. Richard Crook- back had just doffed Buckingham's head,, and was passing through his first and only Parliament the most intelligent set of laws that any English King had added to the Statute Book. Among these was one which excepted foreign printers from the restric- tions that were put upon aliens (1 Ric. III. xii PREFACE. c. 9). At that moment Caxton was justify- ing the exceptional favour by producing the book which was to form his most popular production, and indeed one of the most popular books that have issued from the English press. The interest of this reprint is literary rather than typographical : we are con- cerned here with Caxton as an author, to whom scant justice has been done, rather than with Caxton as a printer, whose name can never be uttered without the Oriental wish, ' God cool his resting-place/ To illustrate the history of printing nothing other than a facsimile reprint would suf- fice the student, and facsimile reprints of Caxton's heavy and rude Gothic type are unreadable. We have, however, repro- duced his text with such fidelity as we could command, even to the extent of retain- ing his misprints. If we have occasionally added some of our own, we shall be for- given by those who know the exhausting work of collating Gothic and ordinary type ; PREFACE. xiii we have blazoned Caxton's carelessness and our own on p. 318 of vol. ii. On the few occasions where a letter had slipped or had been elevated above the line, we have re- produced the peculiaritv of the original in our text, as on pp. 79, 224. On the typographical peculiarities of the original — how it is composed in the fourth fount used by Caxton, and so on — we need not dilate here. Are not these things writ- ten, once for all, in the Chronicles of Blades (W. Blades 5 Life and Work of Caxton, ii. 157-60), one of the few final books written by an Englishman ? Caxton^s ' Esope ' is distinguished in the history of English print- ing by being the first book to possess initial letters. A facsimile of the first of these, appropriately enough the letter A, is given at the beginning of this Preface. In the original every fable is accompanied by a woodcut : we give a few of these, reduced in size : they claim no merit but that of the grotesque. Our text was copied from the Bodleian xiv PREFACE. exemplar. There are but two others — one, the only perfect text, in the Queen's library, and the other at the British Museum : the rest of the copies have been thumbed out of existence. I have corrected proofs from the Museum copy, having had all facilities given me for the purpose by the courtesy of Mr. Bullen. In the original the Fables are preceded by the apocryphal Life of JEsop attributed to Planudes. This belongs to quite another genre of writing — the Noodle literature. To have included this would have extended the book, already stretching beyond the prescribed limits of the series in which it appears, by nearly ioo pages. I had there- fore to choose whether to omit this or to leave out the Fables of Avian, Alphonse and Poggio, which have closer connection with the Fables of iEsop. I have elected to begin with folio xxvj of the original, passing over the Life of ^Esop, with the exception of its first sentence, out of which has been concocted a title-page to the text. PREFACE. xv In the Introduction I had first to give the latest word of literary science, — there is such a thing, — on the many intricate questions connected with the provenance and history of the iEsopic Fable. I have endeavoured to bring within moderate com- pass the cardinal points of a whole literature of critical investigation which has not been brought within one survey since Edelestand du Meril made a premature attempt to do so in 1854. Since his time much has been cleared up which to him was obscure — not- ably by Benfey and Fausboll on the Oriental sources, by Crusius on Babrius, by Oesterley and Hervieux on the derivates of Phsedrus, and by Mall on Marie de France. Owing to their labours the time seemed to me ripe to make a bold stroke for it, and to give for the first time a history of the iEsopic Fable in the light of modern research. I could only do this by making an attempt to fill up the many gaps left by my predecessors, and to supply the missing links required to con- nect their investigations. On almost all the xvi PREFACE. knotty points left undecided by them — the literary source of Phaedrus — who wrote JEsop — and why his name is connected with the Fables — the true nature of Libyan Fable, and the identity of its putative parent, Kybises — the source of Talmudic Fable and its crucial importance for the ancient history of the Fable — the Indian origin of the Proverbs of Agur (Prov. xxx.) — the conduit- pipe by which the Indian Jatakas reached the Hellenic world and the common source of the Jatakas and the Bidpai — the origin of the Morals of Fables — the determination of the Indian elements in Latin Fable — the exist- ence of a larger Arabic iEsop, and its re- lations to the collections of Marie de France and Berachyah ha-Nakdan, and to Ar- menian Fable — the identification of Marie's immediate source, Alfred — the date and domicile of Berachyah ha-Nakdan — the dis- tinction between Beast-Fable and Beast- Satire — on all these points I have been able to make suggestions more or less plausible, which will at the worst afford ob- PREFACE. xvii jectives for further research, and make the ^Esopic problem more definite henceforth. I have told the tale backwards, concisely where certainty has been reached, in detail on points still sub judice. It was time at least that some contribu- tion to the history of the iEsopic Fable should issue from England, which has done nothing in this direction since Bentley's day. For England, as I have shown, was the home of the Fable during the early Middle Age, and the centre of dispersion whence the Mediaeval JEsop spread through Europe. It owed this to its commanding position among the Romance nations, as head of the Angevin Empire, just at the time when European literature was being crossfertilized by new germs from the East. I hope to show before long that much the same history applies to the development of Romance. It seemed appropriate, I may add, to prefix this contribution to the his- tory of the European ^Esop to Caxton^s edition, because this has the same con- xviii PREFACE. tents and arrangement as the first printed jEsops in the chief languages of modern Europe. I have summed up the results in the Pedigree of the Fables ; I trust that the N.E. corner of this, which contains most of my novelties, will not turn out merely to contain so many critical ninepins put up only to be bowled over. The literary his- tory of each fable is given in the Synopsis of Parallelisms. They are here brought together for the first time : Oesterley's references, which form the nucleus of my collections, have to be sought for from among five different works. I have omitted some of his references, but have added far more than I have omitted, more indeed than I have taken. For the literature of the last twenty years, and for the English and some of the Oriental sources, I have had to make my own collections. The Glossary at the end of the book is intended more to record for philologists Caxton's phraseology than to assist readers to under- PREFACE. xix stand it, which they will find little difficulty in doing. I have now only to thank the friends who have associated themselves in various ways with my work. Mr. Andrew Lang has introduced it with his brilliant lines on the opportunities ^Esop missed. Mr. Henry Ryland embellishes the text with his charm- ing design of the eponymous hero of the Fable, alone with Nature and the birds and beasts he must have loved so well. Dr. James Gow and Mr. S. Schechter have checked my classical and Talmudical re- ferences respectively, though these scholars are not, of course, to be held responsible for the inferences I draw from them. Mr. Alfred Nutt has throughout given me the benefit of his knowledge, judgment and taste. And lastly, Dr. R. Gottheil was good enough to undertake a search for a larger Arabic iEsop among the European collec- tions of Oriental MSS. he was visiting. 6. os s — 'S "3 -» t.^3- 111 .Q enn 6as gemcinc, albere feinoerbucb 1st, 50 Esenus beisst. — M. Luther, Auslegung des 101 Psalms (1534). Our iEsop is Phsedrus with trimmings. That, to put it shortly, is the outcome of some half a century's investigation into the origin of the ^Esopic fable, conducted mainly by French scholars.* Begun by M. Robert in his elabo- rate edition of Lafontaine in 1825, it was continued in very thoroughgoing fashion by M. Edelestand du Meril in his Histoire de la fable esopique in 1854, and has culminated in the colossal work of M. L. Hervieux, Les fabu- listes latins (1884), which gives the raw mate- * It is but fair, however, to add the name of Hermann Oesterley to the French triumvirate about to be mentioned. His Romulus, die Paraphrasen des Pncedrus und die cesopische Fabel im Mittelalter (1870) contains much valu- able material in very accessible form. VOL. I. A 2 THE MEDIAEVAL MSOP. rial, the very raw material, from which the history of the Latin Mediaeval iEsop can now be definitively settled. M. Hervieux's work has itself a history which deserves to be briefly recited. M. Hervieux, a lawyer of some distinction, has daughters whom he desired to initiate into the beauties of Latin literature. The choice of books suit- able for such young persons is, we know, some- what limited, and M. Hervieux wisely fixed upon Phagdrus, which he determined to trans- late for their use. But in order to translate, you must have a fixed text, and M. Hervieux found that of Phaedrus by no means fixed ; he found moreover that even the number of Phaedrine fables was an independent variable. His interest was aroused and he determined to see the matter out. And he did see the matter out, though everything seemed against him at the start ; he had received no philolo- gical training and had never had a Latin MS. in his hands. In the course of his researches he visited almost every library of importance lying between the Isis and the Elbe, between Cambridge and R,ome. Meanwhile, let it be parenthically observed, the Miles. Hervieux M. HERVIEUX'S RESEARCHES. 3 had become Mesdames X. and M., and M. Hervieux has probably long ere this learned the art of being grandfather. The results of his critical Odyssey ultimately appeared some five years ago in the shape of two bulky tomes, running to 1500 pages, Ger- man in their thoroughness, German also in their want of nettete and coup oVoeil* He has given in the first of these volumes a full and accurate account of all the MSS. of Phse- drus and his imitators, with slight biographi- cal sketches of their authors, scribes, owners and owners' grandfathers, and in his second volume he has edited the whole Corpus of Latin fabulists from Phsedrus to 2STeckam. f It must be our first task to get a ground-plan to this forest of investigations in which it is' by no means easy to find one's way owing to the num- ber of the trees and the size of their branches, t * I hope M. Hervieux will pardon this. One of the few touches which lighten his pages is the recital of his patriotic scruples in applying to German librarians, who as a general rule have responded with a courtesy that might have softened a Hannibal. + With an important exception ; he has reserved Avian and his adapters for a future occasion. X M. Gaston Pari3 has given an admirable compte- 4 THE MEDIAEVAL MSOP. We cannot, perhaps, begin better than by taking to pieces the book we have in our hands, Caxton's version of Jules Machault's translation of Stainhbwels Asqp, in which the mediaeval collections were first brought together in print. Caxton's book is composed of ten sections : the first, the so-called " Life of iEsop," we have omitted; the last three are connected with the names of Avian, " Al- fonce," and "Poge," which will concern us later. The remaining six are the "Fables of iEsop," as we meet with them in Mediaeval literature. And of these, again, the first four are found in separate form connected with the name of " Romulus," whom mediaeval scribes have at times raised to the Imperial throne of Rome. Let us for the present concentrate our attention on the information which M. Hervieux's pages convey as to this " Romulus," and the many books connected with it. There are three families of MSS. and ver- sions connected with the " Romulus " fables, neglecting various abstracts or combinations rendu of M. Hervieux's work in the Journal des Savants. 1884-5, to which I am much indebted in what immediately follows. THE ROMULUS LITERATURE. 5 of the three.* There is first the " Romulus " itself, consisting of eighty-three fables divided in the Yulgate edition rather irregularly in four books ; the earliest 3IS. of this (the Burneian in the British Museum) dates from the tenth century. Then comes a recension represented in a IMS. formerly at Wisseburg, now at TTol- fenbiittel, containing eighty-two fables and known as the " JEsopus ad Rufum." Finally there is a collection of sixty-seven Eomulean fables first published by Volant in 1709, and known accordingly as the "Anonymus Xilanti," but now ascertained to have been compiled by the chronicler Ademar de Cha- bannes (988-1030). before his departure for the Holy Land in 1029. These three collections, " Romulus," " iEsopus ad Rufum,''' t and the ^Esop of Ademar, represent three stages back- * Among- these the only one of interest is the collection contained in double form in the mediaeval encyclopaedia, the Speculum majus of the Dominican Vincent of Beauvais (1264). The "Komulus of Nilant" (not to be confounded with the "Anonymus of Xilant ") has its interest in another connection. (See infra, p. 161.) f For clearness' sake, I leave out of account the " Eufus ; ' in what follows. Its exact relation to Ademar and Eomulus is the subject of dispute between Oesterley, L. Mueller, Heydenreich, and MM. Paris and Hervieux, and I will not attempt to decide where such doctors disagree. 6 THE MEDIAEVAL JESOP. wards to the origin of the Medissval iEsop. The " Romulus " is near, the "Rufus " is nearer, and the Ademar is nearest the source. This turns out be Phsedrus and Phsedrus alone, though in a more extended form than we know him at school. It is well-known that the book we read at school " 'twixt smiling and tears," contains some of the fables associated with the name of iEsop. The first five fables of the first book, for example, deal with such familiar topics as The Wolf and Lamb, The Frogs de- siring a King, The Jay in Peacock's Feathers, The Bog and Shadow, and The Lion's Share. On the other hand Fables equally familiar like The Lion and Mouse, The Town and Country Mouse, The Ass and Lap-dog, The Wolf and Kid, and The Belly and Members fail to find a place in the ordinary editions of Phsedrus. Is this because they are taken from another source, or did Phsedrus write more fables than are contained in the vulgate edition? The latter is the alternative towards which we are led by a careful examination . of the prose versions, especially of the iEsop of Ademar. Ademar's collection is, as we have said, com- ROMULUS IS PHAEDRUS. 7 posed of sixty-seven fables. Of these thirty- seven occur in the ordinary Phaedrus, and on inspection it becomes clear that they were taken direct from it with only sufficient altera- tion to turn them from verse to prose.* Let us take as an example the Fable of TJie Wolf and Crane, which will often meet us later on in other connections. Here is Phaedrus' ren- dering : — Fab. VIIL— Lvpvs et Grvis. Qui pretium meriti ab improbis desiderat, Bis peccat : primum, quoniam indignos adiuvat ; Impime abire deinde quia iam non potest. Os devoratum fauce quum kaereret lupi, 5 Magno dolore victus coepit singulos Inlicere pretio, ut illud extraherent malum. Tandem persuasa est iure iurando gruis, Gulaeque credens colli longitudinem, Periculosam fecit medicinam lupo. 10 Pro quo cum pactum flagitaret praemium : Ingrata es, inquit, ore quae nostro caput Iucolume abstuleris, et mercedem postules. Now let us take Ademar's prose adaptation and arrange it in lines like the original, for * The earliest MS. of Phsedrus, the Codex Pithoeanus, is written continuously, as if in prose. 8 THE MEDIMVAL JESOP. this purpose restoring the moral to the be- ginning. The italicised words and inflections will show how slight have been the changes. LXIV. [Lupus et Gruis.] Qui pretium meriti ab improbo desiderat plus peccat : prinium quod indignos juvat importune, deinde quia ingratus postulat quod im- plere non pom't * Lup^s, os.se devorato fauce inh&eso, magno dolore victus coepit singulos promissionibus et praemio deprecari ut illud extra- heretur malum. Tandem persuaswm iureiurando gr\ie?n gulae credens colli longitudinem optulit + se pericuZo, et fecit medicamcfi lupo. A quo cum pactum flagitaret praemium : Ingra£wm est, inquit, or* nostro quod caput incolume extuleris ; pro hoc et mercedem a nobis in- super postulare videris. No one can doubt that the writer of the prose version, execrable as it is, had before him the verses of Phsedrus. Or if any still doubt, let him compare the still more execrable version in the " Romulus " which forms the * Ademar has scarcely improved the moral. f What is the subject here ? In mangling his theft to disguise its identity, Ademar has in effect made the wolf look down his own throat. ADEMAR AND ROMULUS. 9 basis of Caxton's version of the Fable (vol. ii. p. 13), through the French of Machault. 8. Qui cunque malo milt benefacere satis PECCAT De quo simili audi fabulam Ossa lupus cum devora/ret ■ unum ex illis \esit ei in iaucibus • transuersvm grauiter • Inuitauit lupus mag- no pretio qui eum extraheret malum. Rogabatur gruis collo longo • ut prestaret lupo medicinam. Id egissct ut mitteret caput et extraheret malum de fau- cibus. Sanus cum esset lupus • rogabat gruis petitores redcli sibi promissa premia. et lupus • dicitur dixisse • Ingrata estf ilia gruis que caput incolume extvlit • non uexatum dente nostro et mercedem sibi postulrt£. in injuriam meis uirtutibus • Parabola hec illos monet • qui uolunt bene facer e malis* Here we have had to italicise nearly the whole fable as verbally different from the Phaedrine original. Comparing the Ademar and the Romulus it is clear that the former had, and the latter had not, the actual words of Phsedrus as a model. But if Ademar so slavishly follows Phsedrus in the thirty-seven fables which he has in common with the Latin fabulist in the ordinary edition, the presump- * Rom. i. 8, Oest. Wherever I quote " Eom." it is to " Romulus," as edited by Oesterlev ; " Ro " refers to the English version of Caxton. io THE MEDIEVAL yESOP. tion is that lie had metrical versions before him in the thirty fables which do not exist in the ordinary Phsedrus. We can scarcely, however, hope to restore the original from Ademar's versions. It is clear from the above example of his method that he rarely leaves a line intact ; thus, only the fifth line is left untouched in the above, though the tenth is but slightly altered and preserves the metre even in the altered form. Hence we can only expect to recover a line here and there. And this is exactly what we can do. Thus, in Ademar's version of The Town and Country Mouse (Adem. 13, Ro. I. xii.), the iambic trimeter of the line — perduxit precibus post in urbem rusticum, proves its Phaedrine origin. So too in Tlie Ass and Lapdog (Adem. 17, Ro. I. xvii.) — clamore domini concitatur [omnis familia], and in TJie Lion and Mouse (Adem. 18, Ro. I. xviii.), though again with a slight halt — sic inns leoneni captura liberum [silvis restitnit]. I A MBICS IN A DEM A R. 1 1 Again the Phsedrine origin of the story of Androclus (Adem. 35, E.o. III. i.) is proved by the line — sublatum et hominis posuit in gremio pedem, or that of The Horse and Ass (Adem. 37, Eo. III. iii.) by the lines — reticuit ille et gemitu testatur deos, equus currendo ruptus parvo in tempore ad villain est missus. Nunc onustum stercore ut vidit asinus tali eum irrisit [verb©].* It is rare, however, that Ademar forgets his role of plagiator for so many consecutive lines, and in no case can we restore a complete fable from his version. Indeed, the only case where this is possible occurs in the JEsopus ad Rufum in a fable, The Vixen turned Maiden, which that collection alone possesses, though we know it was one current in antiquity (see infra, pp. 28, 97). As it is of great interest historically, we may apply the inverse method to it, and restore at least this one fable to its legitimate owner, Phaedrus. It runs thus in the prose form (as given by Oesterley, Romulus, App. 1) — * I take these examples from Riese's admirable four- penny Tauchnitz Phcedrus, 1885. 12 THE MED1MVAL A1S0P. VULPIS IN HOMINE (sic) VERSA. Naturani turpem nulla f ortuna obtegit • Humanam specieni cum uertisset iupiter uulpem • legitimis ut sedit in thoris • scarabeum uidit prorepentem ex angulo notamque ad prsedam celeri prosiluit gradu • Superi risere • magnus erubuit pater • uulpem que repudiatam thalamis expulit • liis prosequutus : uiue quo digna es modo • quia digna nostris meritis non potes esse. By merely writing this in verse form we can, with Burmann and Biese, restore every word of the original but two. VVLPES IN HOMINEM VERSA. Naturam turpem nulla fortuna obtegit. humanam in speciem cum vertisset Iuppiter vulpem legitimis ut [con]sedit in toris scarabaeum vidit prorepentem ex angulo, 5 notamque ad prsedam celeri prosiluit gradu. superi risere, magnus erubuit pater, vulpemque repudiatam thalamis expulit his prosecutus : ' vive quo digna es modo quia digna nostris meritis esse non potes.' The Phsedrine cachet of these lines is unmis- takable, and the whole inquiry largely increases the presumption that the remaining prose ver- sions retain for us the subject-matter at least of the lost fables of Phssdrus, of which metrical PHMDRUS RESTORED. 13 versions must have been in the hands of the pro- saists. The canine character of their Latinity is sufficient to acquit them of any originality. In some cases metrical versions actually exist and, what is more, are found associated with the name of Pheedrus. In one MS. of Phae- drus, of which only a transcript is now extant, made by Perotti and published by Jannelli in 181 1, no less than thirty-two additional fables are contained, among them The Ape and Fox (Bo. III. xvii.), Juno Venus and the Hen (Ko. III. viii., about which Caxton was so sensitive, rather unnecessarily, it would seem), Tlie Ephesian Widow (perhaps the most popular of all stories, see the Parallels, Eo. III. ix.), and The Sheep and Crov: (Eo. IV. xix.). iSTor is this all. Attached to the editions of Phfedrus by Burmann and Dressier there are other versified fables found in MSS. of the poet. Altogether in one or other of these App>endices (of Jannelli, of Burmann, or of Dressier*), everv one of the fables in " Eomulus " can be traced to Phasdrine metrical versions, as can be seen * A convenient edition including all three is just now a great -want and would form an admirable schoolbook. Such a book might even be made a worthy pendant to Rutherford's Babrius, and Ellis' Avian. i 4 THE MEDIAEVAL &SOP. from our Synopsis of Parallels. Indeed, the whole ninety-six fables which are " prosed " in the three forms of "Romulus" can be so traced.* Whether the additional fables found in the Perotti MS. of Phsedrus are really by that author or no, is another and more delicate question. France and Germany here take opposite sides. MM. Hervieux and Paris have no doubts on the subject, Drs. L. Miiller (in his edition of Phsedrus, 1876) and E. Heyden- reich (in Bursian's Jahresbericht for 1884, Bnd. xxxix.), are not by any means so sure. Phse- drus was such a favourite schoolbook among the Romans, and formed so frequent a subject of rhetorical amplification and imitation that it seems not unlikely that some of the fables contained in the Appendix were products of Silver Latinity, and do not come down to us from Phsedrus himself. But, be this as it may, there can be little doubt that all these fables came down to the Middle Ages in the * M. Gaston Paris allows for only fifty-seven prose ver- sions to be found in Phsedrus and the Appendix of Jannelli. He rejects the additions of Burmann and Dressier. Mr. Rutherford also leaves them and the prose versions out of account in his Babrius, pp. c.-ciii., where they would have afforded him another dozen parallels. PHjEDRUS OR PHJEDRINB. 15 name of Phaedrus, and were all equally regarded as productions of that poet. We have accord- ingly traced the first four books of Caxton's collection to their immediate source. So far, so good.* & v ll— MSOP IN ANTIQUITY. BBs mans abcr bem £sopo juscbrdbct, ist mcins acbtens, cin Gcticbt, rn5 viclcicbt nic fecin flftcnscb auff Er^en, Escpus gcbci55Cn.— M. Luther, Etliche Fabeln aus Esopo, ed. Thiele, p. 1. But nowadays we are not content with imme- diate sources; we seek for the Ur-ur- origins of things. Beginnings are the chief things that interest us,f and on the present occasion we can scarcely avoid the question : Whence did Phsedrus and the other fabulists of the Boman world get their fables 1 Generally speaking Latin literature is but one vast plagiarism from the Greek, often bettered in the stealing no doubt and so justified, but still a plagiar- ism. In any department it may be assumed * The derivates of Ademar and Romulus might have been treated here, but I have reserved them for the sec- tion "^Esop in England." f And endings or "survivals," the school of Tylor and Maclennan will add. 1 6 JESOP IN ANTIQUITY. almost as a matter of course that the model is to be sought for in Greece. That this is the case with the Latin Fable is acknow- ledged by its two great masters, Phsedrus and Avian, in their Prefaces. For besides Phsedrus there is another collection of Latin metrical fables attributed to a certain Avianus. He has been identified out of a number of obscuri- ties of the same name with a young man named Avienus mentioned in Macrobius' Satur- nalia and the date of his 42 Fabulse, fixed between 370 and 379 a.d.* These were equally popular with Phsedrus in the Middle Ages and "prosed" like the older fabulist. But they never lost their identity, and when Stainhowel made his collection from the Latin fabulists he kept the majority of Avian's together and gave them their proper affiliation. "We accordingly find them under the title " The Fables of Auian " in our Caxton. Here then is another of the sections of our book which we can trace to its immediate source. But * This is Mr. Kobinsort Ellis' identification, and dating in the edition which he has made of Avian in his usual exhaus- tive fashion. Against the date is the fact that Avienus is called a young man in the Saturnalia at least thirty years later. THE GREEK PROSE mSOP. 17 the history is so straightforward that it ceases to be interesting, and we may turn with the greater zest to the more puzzling question : whence did Phsedrus and Avian get their Fables 2 What was their Greek source, for both of them own their indebtedness to Greece,* or, at least, to zEsop ? Here at first sight there seems to be no difficulty. There have been published no less than seven collections of Greek fables, all known by the name of ^Esop, and each adding more or less to the Corpus Fabularum JEsopi- arum.j This in Halm's convenient edition counts 426 fables, among which most of those of Phsedrus and Avian find parallels, as can be seen by our Synopsis. Here then we seem at last to have arrived at the Father of the Fable in propria persona, and these collections have * Pheedros was himself a Greek by birth. He ought to have tasted deeply of the Pierian spring, for he was born by its side. He became a slave early, and was freed by Augustus. f Accursius (1476) had 147 ; to these Stephanus (1546) added 20, Xevelet (1610) 148, Heusinger (1741) 6, Furia (1810) 28, Coraes (1810) 77, and Schneider (1812) 2. (Prom F. Fedde, uEsopische Fabeln nach einer Wiener HS., 1877). The latest collections by Fedde and Knoell (both 1877) vary in treatment, not in subject, from the earlier ones. VOL. I. B 18 &SOP IN ANTIQUITY. been indeed generally taken for the real iEsop. But the slightest critical inquiry brings with' it the most serious doubts as to the antiquity of these collections. The keen glance of Bentley was diverted for a moment to these Fables of .ZEsop, and they shrunk away before his magis- terial gaze as convicted impostors.* Of the two collections published before his time, that con- nected with the name of Planudes (1476), and the additional collection of Neveletus (16 10), he pointed out that the former used Hebraisms and Middle Greek words, while the latter, though bearing signs of being the earlier col- lection of the two, quotes Job i. 21, "Naked came we from our mother's womb," &c. Both collections, too, bore traces of having made use of a writer named Babrius or Gabrias. Until his date was settled no conclusion could be drawn about the Greek prose iEsop except that they could not come from the time or hand of iEsop. Meanwhile Bentley's object had been attained, and Sir William Temple had lost another skirmish in the Battle of the Books * Bentley's excursus on JEsop's Fables was contained in a few pages appended to his great Dissertation on Phalaris, to which Professor Jebb has scarcely done justice in his otherwise admirable monograph. BABRIUS. 19 through his bad tactics in referring to these fables with respect and as iEsop's. Henceforth the search was after this Babrius on whom the whole question had been shown by Bentlev to hinge. The great critic him- self had recovered a few Babrian lines from Suidas and the prose versions, and with the scholar's prophetic instinct had declared for his late date.* Tyrwhitt followed Bentley's lead in his Dissertatio de Babrio (1776), and rescued a few more fragments, and there the matter rested so far as the eighteenth century was concerned. With the opening years of the nineteenth fresh activity was shown in the search after the Greek iEsop. Within four years (1809-12) no less than four editions appeared, t But none of the new collections afforded additional light on the question of origin : each and all, old and new, had hidden * It is some encouragement for us smaller fry to find the great scholar in the wrong in attributing the Life of ^Esop to Planudes, whereas it existed in MSS. before the date of the Byzantine. He had also no suspicion that Babrius was a Roman. f That by Furia, the Leipsic reprint of Furia (with the addition of Fabricius, Bentley, Tyrwhitt, and Huschke which makes it still the most convenient collection), Coraes' most complete collection, and Schneider's. 20 JESOP IN ANTIQUITY. their spoor from the critical hunter by the simple but effectual plan of alphabetic arrange- ment which baffled all tracking to their source. Nor did any of the new lights cast their illumi- nation upon the great unknown, Babrius, though Furia's collections contained fifteen of his fables. At last in 1840 Minoides Menas, a Greek commissioned by the French Minister of Public Instruction to search among the monasteries of his native land, found a MS. containing 123 Babrian fables in the Convent of St. Laura on Mount Athos, and brought a transcript to Paris where it was published in 1844. Barely has such a discovery been so eagerly welcomed ; * no less than eight complete editions appeared within a year of the princeps. But the emergence of the sun of the ^Esopic system from the clouds that had so long ob- scured him, served rather to dazzle than to illuminate. On the important question of his date opinions oscillated between 250 B.C. to 250 a.d. He was declared an Athenian, a Syrian, * The only parallel I can think of is the eagerness with which edition after edition of the Teaching of the XII. Apostles was edited soon after its first production. And there the interest was theological as well as scholarly. BABRIUS, A ROMAN. 21 an Alexandrine, even an Assyrian. It was not till 1879 that the question of Babrius' age and identity was settled by Otto Crusius in a most thorough and convincing essay " De Babrii setate." * He comes to the somewhat startling conclusion that the Greek Fables of Babrius were by a Roman, f By a remarkable exer- cise of critical sagacity, the Babrian scazon is shown to be influenced by Latin metre, and to be an attempt, a very successful attempt, to utilise accent in Greek verse. Some of the fables are shown to be derived from Latin models, the eleventh, e.g., being drawn from Ovid (Fasti, iv. 700). Roman customs are im- plied in others ; it was a Roman, but not a Greek custom, to put figures of animals on sepulchral monuments as is implied in the Fable of TJie Lion and the Man.% The name Babrius is a not unfrequent gentile name * Leipziger Studien, Bnd. ii. pp. 128-244. In what fol- lows I have ventured to disregard the "fortasse" which the modesty and caution of a great scholar have attached to each of Crusius' discoveries. f Boissonade, the first editor, also held this view, basing it on the name. X Not extant in our Babrius, but represented by the first of the tetrastichs of Gabrias or Ignatius, which were entirely derived from the complete Babrius (cf. Bo. IV. xv. ). 22 JESOP IN ANTIQUITY. among the Romans, and is etymologically connected with barba. Finally, it is rendered probable that Babrius was one Valerius Babrius, and composed his fables in his quality of tutor to Branchus, the young son of the Emperor Alexander Severus (a.d. 235).! As Suidas states that Babrius' fables were originally in ten books, Crusius conjectures that they merely put into verse — for the first time in Greek letters, Babrius boasts — the AtKcc/jivOta, of Nicostratus, a rhetor of the "greedy Greek- ling" type who was about Marcus Aurelius' court. Babrius' age and identity being established, it still remained to determine the extent of his collection. For the Athoan Codex dis covered by Menas is only a fragment : the fables are arranged alphabetically and break off in the middle of O, and it is by no means cer- tain that it is complete from Alpha to Omikron. With our fuller knowledge of the laws of the Babrian scazon, it might seem possible to recover from the prose versions the missing fables. Two German scholars, Drs. Knoell f He must have been very young, as Severus was killed at the age of 27. THE GREEK .ESOP IS BABR1US. 23 and Gitlbauer, have tried to complete the task initiated by Bentley and carried on by Tyrwhit last century under much more adverse circum- stances. I have Mr. Rutherford's authority * for stating that they have disastrously failed in their application of the inverse method : Gitl- bauer, who sums up their labours, has restored to us, not Babrius, but only Gitlbauer's Babrius, quite a different thing. But for our immediate purpose the accuracy of the text he has estab- lished is of little consequence compared with the determination of the number and subjects of the missing Babrian fables. The Babrian scazon has such a urique appearance in Greek prosody that there can be little difficulty in tracing " survivals " of it, and we may fairly assume, I think, that Gitlbauer's reconstruction gives us the minimum number of fables in the original Babrius. f This he extends to no less * Babrius, pp. lxviii. and lxxvii. I take this opportunity of saying that I have not been able to quote Mr. Ruther- ford hitherto, because on the Babrian questions with which we have been concerned he has only entered upon the labours of Crusius, as he himself handsomely acknowledges. I hope, however, that his second volume will give a definite settlement to the questions I am here touching with amateur hand. f At the same time it is unlikely that Babrius made two 24 jESOP in antiquity. than 293. Besides these, we may be able to add a few more from a collection of fifty-three fables in tetrastichs curtailed from Babrius by Ignatius, Archbishop of Nicsea (780-850), and passing current under the name of Gabrias.* Altogether we are justified, I think, in assuming that some three hundred fables of the Greek prose ^Esop owe their origin to Babrius. We are now in a position to dispose of the Greek prose fables which have for so long usurped the title of ^Esop and are referred to even to this day as, primary evidence for the existence of the special fables in ancient Greece. Three hundred — three-quarters of them, we have seen — can only trace back to Babrius in the third century, a.d., or at most to the rhetor Nicostratus in the second. Of the remaining hundred,! some are variants or even three bites at the ^Esopic cherry, as Gitlbauer assumes in giving us three versions of the same subject, e.g., his 115, 216, 273. * A useful edition of them has recently been published in Programm form by C. F. Miiller, Ignatii Diaconi tetra- sticha iambica lid (Kilias, 1886). I quote this as "Gab." in the Parallels, under II (Classical Antiquity), where no Babrian parallel exists, under III (Middle Ages), where the original is extant. t The few over the hundred are due to Coraes, who "RE MI CI US." 25 of the Babrian ones which are not above the capacity of mediaeval monks to execute, some are derived from the Oriental sources, Bidpai, Syntipas, &c, of which we are shortly about to speak, and some, it is even possible, are versions of the Romulus. We may accord- ingly sweep them from our path in our jour- ney to the sources of our fables. But before doing so, it should be pointed out that one section of Caxton's ^Esop can be directly traced to them. Before any of them had appeared in Greek, an Italian scholar, Banutio d' Arezzo, translated 100 of them into Latin from a MS. and published them in 1476. His name was Latinised as Benutius, but as there is no distinction in mediaeval script between nut and mic, his collection is known by the name of Bemicius,* and in that form was ex- cerpted by Stainhowel when he made his selec- tion from the Latin fables extant in his time, and so got into our Caxton. It is some con- firmation of the conclusion at which we have arrived with regard to the origin of the Greek unwisely inserted the genuine remains of ancient Greek Fable in the prose collections. For these see infra, p. 26. * Lessing, one of the earliest and best of Asop-forscher, was the first to point this out ( Werke, ed. 1874, ix. p. 39 seq. ). 26 MSOP IN ANTIQUITY. prose fables that I have been able to trace all but one of these to Babrius, either in the vulgate or in Gitlbauer's edition. Putting Babrius and the prose versions aside once for all, we find ourselves but poorly pro- vided with material when at last we step on to Greek soil and look around us for .ZEsop's fables in the fatherland of ^sop. Here is a complete list of the Fables given in Greek literature up to the fall of Greek independence — the only time that counts for aught, as re- gards literary originality. They amount to eight * — Hesiod's The Nightingale (Op. et Dies, 202 seq.) — the oldest fable in existence f — The Fox and Ape and Eagle and Fox (cf. Ro. I. xiii.) of Archilochus, The Piper turned Fisherman of Herodotus (i. 141, cf. Re. vii.) The Eagle hoist with his own Petard (to use a telescopic title) of .ZEschylus in a fragment of his lost Myrmidons (ap. Schol. on Aristoph. Aves 808), Sheep and * I omit Plato's Grasshoppers {Phced. 259), as clearly not a folk-fable, but concocted ad hoc. Similarly I omit the reference to The Fox and Lion fable in the pseudepi- graphic Alcibiades, though it is probably early. f Jotham's fable (Jud. ix. 8-15) was probably redacted later. At the same time the verses come in very discon- nectedly in Hesiod. See also infra, p. 82. A REAL jESOP'S FABLE. 27 Dog by Xenophon (Mem. II. vii. 1 3) and two fables given by Aristotle in the chapter of his Rhetoric, (II. xx) which deals with the use of Example in oratory. One is The Horse, Hunter, and Stag (cf. Ro. IV. ix.) attributed to Stesi- ehorus, the other The Fox, Hedgehog, and Dog-Ticks attributed to ^Esop. As the latter is the earliest extant fable attributed to the Father of the Fable, and that on so respectable an authority as Aristotle's, we may here give it in Air. Welldon's excellent version. iEsop again at Samos, as counsel for a demagogue who was being tried for a capital offence, said that a fox, in crossing a river, was swept down into a cleft of a rock, and being unable to get out, was for a long time in a sorry plight, and a number of dog-ticks fastened on her body. A hedgehog, strolling by, happened to catch sight of her, and was moved by compassionate feeling to inquire if he should remove the dog-ticks from her. The fox, however, would not allow him to do so, and being asked the reason, replied, " Because these have already taken their fill of me, and do not now suck much blood ; but if you take these away, other will come, and in then hunger will drain up all the blood that is left." " Yes, and in your case, men of Samos," said iEsop, "my client will not do much further mischief ; he has already made his fortune ; but, if you put him to death, then will come others who are poor, and who will consume 28 JESOP IN ANTIQUITY. all the revenues of the State by their embezzle- ments." We may complete* the Corpus of ancient Greek fables, the subjects of which can be identified and the date approximately fixed by adding a dozen other fables merely referred to — The Heron and Eel by Simonides Amorginus (ap. Athen. vii. 299 C.) ; The Ass' Heart, by Solon '(cf. Diog. Laert. i. 51, Babr. 95); The Serpent and Eagle, by Stesichorus (ap. iElian xvii. 37); The Serpent and Ass by Ibycus (Schneidewin, Poet, grcec, 176); The Fox (with many wiles) and Hedgehog (with one) by Ion (ap. Leutsch. Parasom. grceci, I. 47 ; cf. Ex. V. v.) ; The Countryman and Snake by Theognis (579 c f' ^°- !• x -) j r ^ ie Transformed Weasel by the dramatist Strattis, c. 400 (Meineke Frag, com. 441) ; The Serpent and Crab attributed to Alcseus (ap. Furia, note on /. 231); The Dog and Shadow by Democritus (ap. Stob. x. 69 ; cf. Ro. I. v.) ; The North Wind and Sun by Sophocles (ap. Athen. xiii. 604 D) ; The Hare and Hound (Vesp. 375, Ban. 1191), and per- * Strange to say, this is the first time such a list having 1 any claims to completeness has been drawn up. I have compiled it from Coraes, Wagener, and Mr. Rutherford. GREEK FABLE = GREEK FOLK-LORE. 29 haps Tiie Two Crabs by Aristophanes {Pax. 1083 cf Av. iii.); and perhaps The Ass in Lion's Shin by Plato (Cratyl. 411 A.; cf. A v. iv.).* When we come to the Greek authors of the Roman Imperial period — e.g. Plutarch and Lucian — we might add another dozen or so references,! but even Plutarch is later than Phsedrus, and the others are later than Babrius' original, Nicostratus. There is only one way to explain the paucity of reference in Greek litera- ture to the Beast-Fable. This only makes casual appearance in written literature, because it formed part of the folk- literature with which every Greek was familiar with from his youth. J Similarly we might search English literature in vain for even a reference to Jack and the Bean Sialic, or Tlie Little Old Woman who led a Pig from Market. The Beast- Fable, as the Wes- tern world knows it, is directly traceable to Greek folk-lore. * Wagener adds Simonides' celebrated satire on woman, scarcely a fable. Mr. Rutherford gives references from Arcbilochus corresponding to certain of Babrius' Fables — Fox and Crow [77 cf. Ko. I. xv.), Fox and Wolf (130), Cat and Parrot (135) — but these are uncertain. f See Parallels Ro. II. v. ; III. i., iii., xiii., xvi. ; IV. xiii., xv. ; Y. xi. ; Av. xx., and cf. Furia, 384-405. i Arcbilochus refers to one of his as afoos avdpuiruv. 30 MSOP IN ANTIQUITY. Here comes in the puzzle of the whole inves- tigation. The allusive character of the majority of the references in Greek literature to the Beast-Fable shows that the individual fables are not told at length by the Greek writers, for the simple reason that they were already fami- liar to the audience they were addressing. In other words, the Greek Beast- Fable bears the characteristic mark of folk-lore — anonymity. And yet from a certain time it is found con- nected with the name of a definite personality, that of iEsop. I say "from a certain time," for of the thirty or so fables enumerated above only the latest of the eight fables is con- nected with the name of iEsop. Previous to this, however, Socrates had tried to put in verse some of the Fables of iEsop that he remembered (Phcedo, 61 A). Besides, in Aristophanes especially we find references to A/Vw?rou yeXoTa, which show that the Attic comedians assumed that Athenian audiences connected the Beast- Fable with the name of ^Esop. Such a conjunction is unique, so far as I am aware. No other department of folk- lore — folk-tales, spells, proverbs, weather-lore, or riddles — is connected with a definite name WHY JESOP'S FABLES? 31 of a putative author.* The only key to the mystery that I can see is to be found in the mirth -producing qualities which the Greeks and Romans associated with the Beast-Fable and with the name of iEsop. Aristophanes refers to the fables as ysXo/a, almost the sole mention of Phaedrus in Latin literature is Martial's " improbi iocos Phaedri" (iii. xx. 5),! and Avian speaks of ^Esop's fables as ridicula in his Preface. We may find a modern instance of this tendency to see the risible in -tEsop in George Eliot's youthful experience. In her Life (i. 20) it is recorded "how she laughed till the tears ran down her face in recalling her infantile enjoyment of the humour in the fable of Mercury and the Statue Seller." To the child's mind of George Eliot and to the child- like minds of the Greeks it was the humorous properties of the iEsopic fable that was the chief attraction. Now it is with special reference to the Jest * There is perhaps a tendency to refer to a familiar folk- tale as "one of Grimm's Goblins," but that is late, and con- veys no real intimation of authorship. f Phsedrus refers to his own fables as iocos (III. Prol. 37), and gives as one of the claims of the fable ' quod risum movet ' (Prol. Lib, I.). 32 JESOP IN ANTIQUITY. that we find a popular tendency to connect the name of a definite personal origin. From the days of Hierocles to those of Mr. Punch it has been usual to connect the floating Jest with representative names. Among these may be mentioned Pasquil, Poggio, whom we shall meet later, and Joe Miller,* and in later days there has been a tendency for jests to crystallise round the names of Talleyrand and Sydney Smith. In Mr. W. C. Hazlitt's three volumes of Elizabethan Jest-books the majority of the collections are connected with some definite personality — real, as Skelton, Scoggin, Tarletom Peele, Taylor, Old Hobson (Milton's friend), or imaginary, as Jack of Dover and the Widow Edyth. The secret of all this is probably that the simple mind likes to be informed before- hand that it is expected to laugh at what is coming — the notice is indeed often necessary — and the readiest means of doing this is to con- nect the anecdote with some well-known name, in itself associated with past guffaws. It is probable, I think, that the name of iEsop is to * This name comes from Mottley's Joe Miller's Jests, temp. Jac. II. There is no evidence that the actor Joseph Miller was a wit. A GREEK JOE MILLER. 33 be added to the above list of professional jesters, that to the later Greeks JEsop was in short a kind of Joe Miller.* How early iEsop's name was indissolubly connected with the Greek Beast-Fable in a collected form is shown by a fact to which in my opinion not enough significance has hitherto been attached. One of the most interesting figures in the post-Alexandrine history of Athens is Demetrius of Phaleron (one of the Attic denies). f Born about 345 B.C., and educated with Menander under Theophrastus, he became the leading Attic orator of his day, and became so influential that on the death of Phocion, 317 B.C., he was placed by Cassander at the head of affairs at Athens. Here he " tyrannised " in an easy-going way for ten years, when he was ousted from his office and * Curiously enough, the passage from George Eliot's Life just quoted is immediately followed hy one in which Joe Miller's Jest Book is mentioned as one of the earliest books read by the creator of Mrs. Poyser. t On him, see Grote, xii 184, 195, 200 ; Dr. Schmitz in Smith Diet. Class. Biog. ; and Jebb, Attic Orators, ii. 441. Dohrn wrote a monograph on him, 1825 ; and another and more complete account was given by MM. Legrand and Tychon in the Memoires of the Brussels Academy, t. xxiv. For our knowledge of his literary productions we are indebted to Diogenes Laertius, Y. v. VOL. I, C 34 MSOP IN ANTIQUITY. fled to Alexandria. There he turned from action to thought, and for twenty years (307-283 B.C.) produced book after book, and what was more, collected book after book, and thus formed the nucleus of what was afterwards the world- famous library of Alexandria. i3ut he chiefly interests us here as a kind of Grecian Grimm. It is to him that we owe the collection of sayings of the Seven Wise Men of Greece. He was the first to collect Greek proverbs, doubtless from the mouths of the people, and it was probably from the same source that he compiled the Xoycav Alffuiri/uv cwayuycti, which Diogenes Laertius includes among his works (v. 80). This is the earliest collection of Greek Beast-Fables of which we have any trace, and they are thus from the first connected with the name of iEsop. Now it is a remarkable coincidence, which previous investigators have carelessly over- looked,* that Phsedrus includes among his * I have been struck throughout my investigations into this part of the subject at the apathy of classical scholars about points of literary history as compared with their zeal for textual and verbal criticism. One feels inclined to ask if textual criticism is the be-all and end-all of classical scholarship. DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS. 35 Fables (v. 1) a somewhat pointless anecdote about Menander and this very Demetrius Phalereus. One cannot help asking what he is doing dans cette galere. And the only answer must be that Phaedrus had before him some edition of Demetrius' svtaytoyaf, to which some later editor had added various anecdotes of the compiler. The fact is significant in many ways ; if an editor added anecdotes he may have added further fables, and we shall see later on the special opportunities afforded by Alexandria for this purpose. But be this as it may, the inclusion of the fable in Phaedrus' collection renders it almost certain that Phaedrus' Fables — and they form, as we have seen, the bulk of our iEsop — are derived from an enlarged edition of The Assemblies of JSsopian Fables, compiled by Demetrius Phalereus, c. 300 B.C. This completes the close parallel which the reader must already have observed between the two great masters of ancient fable — Phaedrus and Babrius. The one was a Greek writing in Latin, the other a Boman writing in Greek, verse. The works of neither have come down to us complete in metrical form ; in the case of both, prose versions have usurped the place of 36 JESOP IN ANTIQUITY. the original. These prose versions preserve here and there a line of the original in both cases, but do not enable us to recover it in toto. Each of these prose versions in collected form has passed current under the name of ^Esop, and both have contributed to the body of folk- tales familiar to us as M sop's Fables. And now we find that as Babrius probably only put into Greek verse a collection of Greek prose fables made by Nicostratus, so Phsedrus merely translated into Latin verse the earlier Greek prose collection of Demetrius Phalereus. May we go a step further and connect these two Greek prose collections of Beast- Fables ? Nicostratus is scarcely likely to have remained ignorant of Demetrius' collection, and must have used a later and fuller edition than Phse- drus did. If this be so, we can trace both Phsedrus and Babrius to the one source, and as they constitute our iEsop, we may round off the literary history of our fables by stating that the Fables of iEsop, as literary products, are the fables of Demetrius Phalereus. To the question, " Who wrote ^sop ? " if there is to be only one reply; we must answer, "Deme- trius Phalereus." WHO WROTE .ESOP? 37 This result considerably reduces ^Esop's im- portance as regards any light he can throw on the Ur- origin of the Fables with which his name will always be connected. Yet it is decidedly appropriate to include all that can be ascertained concerning the putative Father of the Fable, especially as this may account for the original association of his name with it. Unluckily this is very scanty, so scanty indeed that Welcker has written an ingenious essay to the effect that ^Esop is himself a Fable (Kl. Schr. II. 229, seq.) And as a matter of fact the only trustworthy notice of him in Greek literature is one contained in a pas- sage in Herodotus (ii. 134). That good gossip is discussing the tradition that one of the Pyramids had been built out of the profes- sional fees of Rhodopis, a renowned Hetaira. How could this be, asks Herodotus, since Rhodopis lived in the reign of Amasis ? (fl. 550 B.C.) ; and he continues : — She was a Thracian by birth, and was the slave of Iadmon, son of Hephaestopolis, a Samian. yEsop, the fable writer,* was one of her fellow-slaves. That * In the original, \0707rotos, " story teller." It is by no means certain that Herodotus used it in the more special sense. 38 &SOP IN ANTIQUITY. iEsop belonged to Iadmon is proved by many facts — among others, by this : When the Delphians, in obedience to the commands of the oracle, made pro- clamation that if anyone claimed compensation for the murder of iEsop, he should receive it, the person who at last came forward was Iadmon, grandson of the former Iadmon, and he received the compensa- tion. iEsop must certainly therefore have been the earlier Iadmon's slave. This passage contains all the authentic in- formation we have of the reputed Father of the Fable. That he nourished about 550 B.C., was a slave in Samos, and was killed, probably by a decree Of the Delphic oracle, and that compen- sation (wergild) was claimed for his death by the grandson of his master — this is the scanty but probably accurate, biography of iEsop. Pro- bably accurate because Herodotus is reporting on events that only happened a hundred years before his time. Of these facts I am inclined to lay most stress on the circumstance of iEsop's death. His was the epoch of the Tyrants, and I would conjecture that his connec- tion with the Beast-Fable originally consisted in its application to political controversy under despotic government, and that his fate was due to the influence of one of the Tyrants with the POLITICAL USE OF FABLES. 39 Delphic authorities, who were doubtless not above being influenced by powerful clients.* We shall see later on that the Fable is most effective as a literary or oratorical weapon under despotic governments allowing no free speech. A Tyrant cannot take notice of a Fable without putting on the cap that fits. Much of our ancient evidence points this way. Jotham's fable (Jud. ix. 8-15) was directed against Abimelech, the Israelite riisav.oc. In our list of genuinely ancient Greek Fables, one is connected with the name of Theo- gnis who was ruined by a Tyrant, Solon made use of his for political purposes, and Archi- lochus was Satire personified. The only extant Fable that can be attributed to iEsop with any plausibility {supra, p. 27) was used by him for political purposes. Our evidence is of course scanty, but it all points one way. x-Esop could not have been the inventor or introducer of the Beast- Fable into Greece, as we find it * Plutarch's story of iEsop having done them out of their fees sent by him from Crcesus is a weak (and late) in- vention of the enemy. For it see Rawlinson's note ad loc. It contains, however, an interesting variant of Joseph's plan for detaining Benjamin (Gen. xliv. 2). Other classical parallels are given by Wagener (p. 16). 4 o jESOP in antiquity. there before him. The only way therefore we can explain the later identification of his name with it is to suppose some special and striking use of the fabellce aniles familiar to all Greek children. Considering the age he lived in and the death he died the conjecture I have put forth that iEsop's name was associated with the Fable, because he made use of it as a political weapon, is the only hypothesis that will fit in with all the facts of the case.* zEsop was not the Father of the Fable, but only the inventor (or most conspicuous applier) of a new use for it, and when the need for that use no longer existed under outspoken demo- cracies, his connection with the Fable was still kept up as a convenient and conventional figurehead round which to gather a specialised form of the Greek Jest. This result considerably reduces the impor- tance of the other fact we know of him from Herodotus on which previous inquirers have laid exclusive stress. iEsop was a slave, and * There are two points to meet : (i) why was the Fable, a part of Folk-lore, associated with a name at all ? I answer, because it was regarded as a jest, and there is a general tendency for Jests to cluster round a name ; (2), why with iEsop's name ? my reply is, that he first applied it to convince men, instead of merely amusing children as heretofore. WAS MSOP A BARBARIAN? 41 therefore a barbarian. As a stranger, may he not have introduced from some foreign country the fables with which his name is associated ? Accordingly all those who have hitherto argued for a foreign origin of the Greek Fable have made ^Esop a native of the particular land whence they wish to trace it, and they are to some extent supported in their conjecture by the fact that Ajecairog is an un-Greek form. Dr. Landsberger (Die Fabeln des Sophos, 1S59), who on the strength of Jotham's fable and Talmudic reference would make Judsea the ori- ginal home of the Fable, makes iEsop a Syrian, and connects his name with the same root as that of Joseph.* Herr Ziindel (Rhein Mus., 1847), who advocates the claims of Egypt, brings our hero from the banks of the Nile. D'Herbelot, who is for identifying him with the Arabic Loqman, is for Arabia as ^Esop's fatherland (Bibl. Orient., s. v. Esope). Finally, it is fair to add that Mr. Rutherford (Babrius, 1882, p. xxxv l), who is staunch for the autochthonous * This is not so wild as Hitzig's suggestion that Solomon was acquainted with our Fables, because it is said — "And he spake of trees, from the cedar tree in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall" (1 Kings "". 33)- 42 &SOP IN ANTIQUITY. character of the .ZEsopean fable, does not see why he may not have been " one of that large class of Greeks whom the fortune of war ex- patriated and forced to serve men of the same race and language with themselves." All these conjectures are nugatory if, as we have seen, the Fable can be traced before iEsop as a part of Greek folk-lore, and a plausible reason can be given for the connection of his name with it. But though the possibility of ZEsop having formed a link between Greece and some foreign country has lost its interest, if the above view of the Greek fable is correct, it does not follow that the question of its foreign origin is entirely a nugatory one. Folk-lores of various countries may influence one another, and it is still worth while inquiring whether this is the case with that particular branch of Greek folk-lore which we know as iEsop's Fables. Of all the sugges- tions that have been made to this effect, only one deserves serious consideration. The Talmudic fables adduced by Dr. Landsberger are too late, Egyptian fables are practically non-existent (see infra, pp. 82, 91), and the four Assyrian ones extant (Smith, Chald. Gen. c. ix.) have no similarity with the Greek ones that suggest bor- ARE THE FABLES BORROWED? 43 rowing on either side. But a number of such resemblances have been shown to exist between Indian and Greek fables, rendering it advisable to consider their connection. This course will be found in the end to give some explanation of the sole remaining section of our Caxton, which has not yet been traced by us to its immediate source. For during the course of our inquiry into the Greek Fable in the present section we have traced the seventh division of our book to Avian, and the sixth practically to Bab- rius. For the remaining section — Liber Quin- tus Caxton calls it, Fabulce extravagantes is Stainhowel's name — our best course, though a somewhat roundabout one, is to turn to the East and discuss — III.— THE ORIENTAL .zESOP. Bni> tbe /Easter totfc a tale. —Jatakas passim. Before launching out on the Indian Ocean of Fable, it is as well that we should know the port from which we start and the quarter to which we are steering. If the reader wall glance at the Synopsis of Parallelisms at the end of these remarks, he will rind variants given 44 THE ORIENTAL jESOP. under Section I. (the Orient) for some seventy of the Fables, a sort of Oriental Septuagint, as we may call them. That is the datum of our inquiry, and the obvious question to ask is, How did this resemblance come about ? Here we meet with one of those general questions which the folk-lorist meets at every turn, and it is with this problem that he is at present chiefly engaged. To this question, stated in its broadest generality, there are four answers be- fore the world. Such resemblances between the folk-lores of the Aryan peoples are due to memories of the time when all were one people with a common fund of popular tradition, said the brothers Grimm. They are due to the tendency of the human mind to take metaphor for reality, and thus change figures of speech into explanatory tales, was the reply formulated by Kuhn and made popular by the persuasive skill of Max Miiller. Then came Benfey with a solution simple and natural in itself but re- quiring all his vast erudition to demonstrate it; folk-tales of different nations resemble one another, said he, for the simple reason that they borrowed from one another. Lastly, in recent years, Messrs. Tylor and Lang have FOLK-LORE RESEMBLANCES. 45 rendered it probable that many of the resem- blances noted are due to the identity of the human mind at similar stages of culture : the tales are similar because the minds producing them were alike. Restricting ourselves to the Beast-Fable, it will be found that these four solutions practi- cally reduce themselves to one. Grimm's con- tention for a common Aryan Beast-Epic ex- plaining Reynard the Fox has been ruled out of court with costs against it. The view that could reduce all mythology and folk-lore to a department of folk-etymology is generally dis- credited nowadays and was never seriously ap- plied to the Beast-Fable.* And there is a special reason why the views of Messrs. Tylor and Lang, ingenious and convincing in other de- partments of folk-lore, fail in regard to the special inquiry before us. We can understand how two peoples may hit upon the same ruse by which a wife deceives her husband or a slave his master. But we cannot well conceive two nations hitting upon the same form of the Apologue in the guise of the Beast-Tale, though * De Gubernatis' bizarre attempt in his Zoological Mythology (1S72) was its reductio ad absuraissimum. 46 THE ORIENTAL jESOP. the tendency to use the Beast-Tale for that purpose and the origin of the Beast- Tale itself as a "survival" of Animism* may be ex- plained on their hypothesis. To put a concrete example : if we find two peoples, who have been previously in contact, each making use of so artificial a fable as TJie Fox and Stork, we can- not assume that the human mind has been normally at work in the two cases producing independently such an abnormal picture as a stork and a fox on visiting terms, provided with an elaborate dinner service, and hitting upon such unnatural forms of tantalisation. If therefore the parallelism in such cases is com- plete — all depends on this — we have no alter- native but to resort to Benfey's hypothesis, and, in the special case before us, for the most part to Benfey's own collection of such parallels in his magnificent Einleitung to the German translation of the Pcmtschatantra.f * On this see Mr. Lang's admirable introduction to Mrs. Hunt's Grimm. I have discussed the general question of the origin of the Beast-Fable in my Bidpai, pp. xxxix. -xlis. t An English adaptation of this, putting results in a more collected form, and with the addenda and corrigenda of the last thirty years, is a great want just now. I may attempt the task myself one of these days. THE BORROWING THEORY. 47 For when it comes to a question of borrow- ing, the question of relative age comes in also. Borrowing is after all a mutual relation, and in matters like the present we can only determine to whom the debt is due by ascertaining who was first in possession of the property. When Greek meets Indian, Indian meets Greek, and the question arises which had the goods to dispose of. Hence the all-importance of dates in an inquiry of this kind, as in most literary and historical investigations. On the Greek side we are at length in a position to fix at anyrate the first appearance in extant litera- ture of nearly the whole body of Fables current in the Greco-Eoman world. Confining our- selves to the Caxton-Stainhowel — and with a few exceptions* this gives us all we need to arrive at a decision — we have seen that the first four books date from Phsedrus temp. Tiberii in the first third of the first century A.D., the sixth traces to Babrius in the third, or at most to iSTicostratus in the second cen- tury, and the seventh to Avian in the latter part of fourth century, while the fifth, we * I have only considered parallels not in our Caston when the evidence is very strong indeed. 48 THE ORIENTAL jESOP. shall see, is late, and does not come in the reckoning on the present occasion. We have indeed given strong grounds for suspecting that the bulk of these are ultimately derived from the collection made by Demetrius Phale- reus about 300 B.C. But the very evidence on which we relied showed that his collection was interpolated later, and we cannot therefore be sure about any particular fable that it is much earlier than the collection in which we first find it. As regards the earliest Greek fables we have enumerated the score or so that can be traced in Greek antiquity on pp. 26-8, and on these must rest the mainstay of our argument. How does it stand with the Indian evidence that we are to compare with the Greek ? With- out troubling the reader with the scaffolding I have had to erect and remove before arriving at the following results,* I may divide the seventy Oriental parallels in our Synopsis into five categories. We may first dismiss those occurring in the Arabic Loqman or the Syriac * I have found Benfey's Einleitung very awkward to manage. It has no index, no comparative tables, no detailed summary of results, and simply to understand many of his points one has often to look up his references. INDIAN PARALLELS. 49 Sophos.* which, as we shall see later, are them- selves derived from, or influenced by the Greek. Then comes a miscellaneous collection f of parallels from the Persian Mesnevi, the Turkish TutinameTt, the African parallels occurring in African Native Literature, by Kolle, and the modern Indian ones given by Mr. Eamaswami Rajo {Indian Fables, Sonnenschein, n. d.) and Captain Temple {Wideawake Stories, 1884)4 Xow of these the Persian and Turkish date late on in the Middle Ages, and the African Tales may be due to European as well as Indo- Arabic influences. With the modern Indian parallels the case is somewhat different. If we find Mr. Eamaswami Paju § giving us a * See Eo. II. viii. is. xvi. ; III. iii. vii. xii. xv. : IV. ii. xv. xvii. ; A v. x. xiv. xx. These are, of course, not all the parallels from these two sources, but only those in which I could find no other Oriental variants. f See Eo. I. vi. ; III. iv. vi. xiv. ; IV. i. ; V. iv. ix. xvi. ; Av. x. xiii. xvii X I have selected this, as Capt. Temple's Survey at the end gives an analysis of all the other modern Indian col- lections. It is, besides, one of the most readable and most scientific collections that have been made outside Grimm. § Mr. Eaju's collection is perfectly uncritical, which is all the better for our purposes, but does not indicate his sources, which is so much the worse. I may mention as a curiosity that his tale of The Fox and Crabs, p. 28, affords VOL. I. D 50 THE ORIENTAL JESOP. modern Indian version of The Ass and Watch- dog (p. 63,) which we can trace back into remote Indian antiquity ; there is some pre- sumption that the fable of The Woodman and Trees (p. 47, cf. Ro. III. xiv.) can also trace back so far, and we shall produce later on evidence which confirms this inference. And so too when we find in Captain Temple's collection so thorough an Indian folk-tale as The Brahman, Tiger, and Jackal (p. 116, cf. Ex. V. iv.) which we can trace back to the earliest times in India, the probabilities are great that the twenty-second fable of Avian (here Av. xvii.) may also be traceable to the original Indian form of the current folk- tale, The Farmer and the Moneylender (p. 215) in which the farmer, being granted a wish by Ram on condition that the money-lender gets double, demands to have one of his eyes put out ! But we need not linger over these prob- abilities when we have so many actualities of the Indian antiquity of "iEsop's" Fables in the Bidpai literature.* a striking parallel to Alice's ballad of The Walrus and the Carpenter. The Tiger, Stag, and Crocodile (p. 67) is a bit of Munchausen. * I may here refer my readers to the Introduction of my BIDPAI PARALLELS. 51 Here again we must distinguish. The Bid- pai literature as analysed in all its offshoots by Benfey, covers a period ranging between 300 B.C. and 1000 a.d. We must accordingly divide the parallels to the Caxton occurring in it into three different strata. There are first what may be termed the Cainozoic parallels occurring only in the Persian and other versions made from the original after it had left India or in those parts of the Indian original that bear signs of late insertion. t Then we come on the parallels occurring in the main body of the work in its original and most ancient form. These de- serve to be mentioned at length : they are, The Dog and Sliadow (Ho. I. v.; Benf. § 17), TJie Man and Serpent (I. x. cf. II. x. ; B. § 150), Tlie Two Bitches* (I. ix. ; B. § 144), The Eagle and Raven (I. xiv. cf. Av. ii. ; B. § 84), The Crow edition of the earliest English version of Bidpai in this series. f See Ro. I. i. iii. xiii xvi. xvii. xx. ; II. iii. xiii. xiv. xv. xx. ; III. xiv. xvi. xx. ; TV. iv. xii. Ex. V. iii. ; Re. i. xvi. ; Av. vii. xvii. xxiv. These and other Greek and Indian parallels of this description are discussed by Benfey §§19, 58, 77, 112, n8, 160, 220, 222, 227, 229, 230. * In the sequel I have not discussed Benfey's parallels for the Fables marked with an asterisk, as they do not appear to me to be close enough to necessitate the hypo- thesis of borrowing. 52 THE ORIENTAL &SOP. with Cheese and Fox (I. xv. ; B. § 143), The Lion and Mouse (I. xviii. ; B. § 130), Frogs desiring a King* (II. i. ; B. § 164), Parturient Mountain (Ro. II. v.; B. § 158), The Good Man and Serpent (II. x. cf. I. x. ; B. § 150), The Bald man and Fly (II. xii ; B. § 105), Jay and Peacock (II. xv.; B. § 29), Androclus* (III. i. ; B. § 71), 27ie Ephesian Widow* (III. ix. ; B. § 186), 27ze &'c& L*ow (III. xx. ; B. § 22), i^oa; a?zd Grapes * (IV. i. ; B. § 45), Gat and Rats (IV. ii. ; B. § 73), Dragon and Hart (Ex. Vf iv. ; B. § 150), Fox and Cat (Ex. V. v.; B. § 121), Serpent and Labourer (Ex V. viii. ; B. § 150), The Butting Goats (part of Ex. V. x. ; B. § 50), Eagle and Weasel (Re. ii ; B. § 84), Fox and Goat * (Re. iii. ; B. § 143), Man and Wooden God* (Re. vi. ; B. § 200), Tortoise and Birds (A v. ii. cf. I. xiv. ; B. § 84), Ass in Lion's Skin (Av. iv. ; B. § 188), The Two Pots (Av. ix. ; B. § 139), Goose with Golden Eggs (Av. xxiv; B. § 159)- Here then at last we seem to have our oldest Indian fables that can be compared with the oldest Greek fables. But if that were all our search * See note *, preceding page. t Parallels from Book V. do not count in the present connection, as there can be no doubt of their derivation for the most part from India. See infra, pp. 159 seq. BIDPAI PARALLELS. 53 after an earlier source than the Greek for '•' zEsop's " fables would be in vain. For the earliest form of the Bidpai cannot trace back earlier than the third or at most the second century a.d., and the whole body of Greek Fable can trace back as early as that if not earlier. But though the Bidpai must have been put together in something like its present shape at the time when Brahmanism was winning back the ground from Buddhism, it still retains survivals of a Buddhistic tone in many of its sections ; and some of these we can fortunately trace back to the portion of sacred Buddhistic literature known as the Jatakas or Birth-Stories of the Buddha. These tell of the Buddha's adventures during his former incarnations, sometimes in the shape of a bird, beast, fish, or tree. As some of them have been found sculptured on Buddhist topes dated in the third century B.C., they must be at least older than that period, and it is probable that many of them may really be derived from Sakyamuni, who flourished 453 B.C.* If, then, * Many may be even older. Buddha probably adopted the Jataka form of inculcating a moral lesson just as Christ made use of the Parable so popular with the Rabbis. 54 THE ORIENTAL JESOP. we can trace any of the above Fables back to the Jatakas, we have come upon a really Palae- ozoic * stratum of the Bidpai Fables, and are at last in a condition to compare the earliest Indian with the earliest Greek Fables. The Jatakas had not been published when Benfey wrote in 1859, but from traditional accounts of them in English descriptions of Ceylon,! he managed to trace nearly all the ^Esopic sections of the Bidpai, which were so traceable, to the Jatakas. These we may now proceed to consider in some detail. I. We may begin with one which he did not so trace, because it does not happen to present any parallelism with any part of the Bidpai literature, and does not accordingly occur in the above list. It is of especial interest to us because it gives the earliest extant form of the fable of The Wolf and the Crane, which we have already traced through the Middle Ages up to Phsedrus. It happens also to be a good, and not too long, specimen of the general plan on which the Jatakas are formed. * The remaining parables occurring in the original Bidpai but not in the Jatakas would form a Mesozoic stratum of the Bidpai Parallels. See infra, p. 89. f Chiefly Upham, Sacred Books, and Hardy, Manual of Buddhism. JATAKAS. 55 Javasakuna- Jataka. * [V. Fausboll, Five Jdtahas, pp. 35-8. t] % srrtricE fjafac be tinrtc tfjrc— This the Master told, while living at Jetavana, concerning Devadatta's treachery. " Not only now, bhikkhus, but in a former existence was Devadatta ungrateful." And having said this, he told a tale : — In former days when Brahmadatta reigned in Benares, the Bodhisat was born in the region of Himavanta as a white crane. Now it chanced that as a lion was eating meat a bone stuck in his throat. The throat became swollen, he could not take food, his suffering was terrible. The crane seeing him as he was perched on a tree looking for food asked, " What ails thee ; friend?" He told him why. "I could free thee from that bone, friend, but dare not enter thy mouth for fear thou mightest eat me." "Don't be afraid, friend, I'll not eat thee, only save my life." " Very well," says he, and caused him to lie down on his left side. But thinking to himself "Who knows what this fellow will do," he placed a small stick upright between his two jaws that he could not close his mouth, and inserting his head inside his mouth struck one end of the bone with his beak. Where- upon the bone dropped and fell out. As soon as he had caused the bone to fall, he got out of the lion's * This first appeared in European literature in De la Loubere Eoyaume de Siam (1691), ii. 25. t I have ventured to English Prof. Fausboll's version, which was intended merely as a "crib " to the Pali text. 5 6 THE ORIENTAL JSSOP. mouth striking the stick with his beak so that it fell out and then settled on a branch. The lion gets well and one day was eating a buffalo he had killed. The crane thinking "I will sound him" settled on a branch just over him, and in conversation spoke this first verse (gdtha) — " & serbtcc rjabe foe tione tfjee 3To tfje best of our abtlttg I&tng of tfjc Beasts ! £four fHajestg ! £2Erjat return sjjaH rjae get from ttyt ? " In reply the Lion spoke the second verse — " 3s I fecti on blooo 3no alttags fjunt for prcg '£is tmtcfj tfjat tfjau art still alibe p^abtng once bttn brtbjeen mg teetfj." Then in reply the crane said the two other verses — " Ungrateful, ooing rto gooti, flot tiaing as fjc ojouIo be none bo En Tjxm tfjerc is no gratitutic Co serbc fjim ts useless. " pjis fricnoshtp is not ioon Bg tfjc clearest gooo occo. Better Softlg bntfjorabi from fjim ^ettfjer cnbgmg n° r abusing." And having thus spoken the crane flew away. The Master having given this lesson, summed up the Jataka thus : "At that time, the Lion was Deva- datta and the crane was I myself." INDIAN WOLF AND CRANE. 57 The part in italics is termed the " Story of the Present," that in ordinary type the " Story of the Past." These are extant in Pali rever- sions of Cingalese translations of the original Pali. Of this last the verses (gatka) are "sur- vivals," and probably date from 400 B.C. The stories were probably written down as commen- tary on the gdthas, with the first lines of which they invariably begin. The significance of these gdthas will concern us later on. So much for the form of the Jataka. The subject-matter is so clearly parallel to the fable of The Wolf and Crane, which we have seen current in the Greco- Ptoman world, that it is impossible not to surmise some historical con- nection between the two. What that precisely is we may leave for discussion till we have fur- ther evidence before us. II. We may next take the Jataka version of The Ass in the Lion's Skin (No. 189 in Faus- boll's edition, Siha-Cama Jataka, tr. Rhys- Davids, pp. v. vi.). A hawker used to dress his ass in a lion's skin, and thus obtained gratis forage for him, as the watchmen of the fields dared not go near him to drive him away. One day, however, they plucked up courage. 5 8 THE ORIENTAL MSOP. and summoned a posse of the villagers, and surrounded the pseudo-lion, who, in the fear of death, hee-hawed. Then the Buddha, who had been re-born as one of the villagers, said the first gatha — " Ojis i£ not a lion's roaring, £or a tiger's, nor a pantrjer's ; Drrssro in a lion's skin, '£ts a rorrtrfjeo ass tfjat roars." and the hawker returning just as the ass died from the blows, recited the second — " 3Long mtirfjt tfjc ass GDIao in a lion's skin f^abc fctr on tfjc barlrrj grew, But fjc crag to ! &no tijat moment rje came to ruin." Here again the similarity of the Greek and Indian fables is too pronounced to leave much doubt about a historic connection. As Mr. Rhys- Davids remarks, the Indian fable gives a motive for the masquerade which does not exist in the Greek version. III. Among the Jatakas translated by Dr. R Morris in the Folk-Lore Journal (II. -IV.), I have found one which gives a parallel to The Dog and Shadow fable, which Benfey could INDIAN ASS IN LION'S SKIN. 59 not trace farther than the Ur-Pantschatantra (§ 191). It is No. 374 of Fausboll's edition, bears the euphonious title of Culladhanuggaha JataJca, and in abstract runs as follows (cf. FLJ. ii. 371 seq.). An unfaithful wife elop- ing with her lover arrives at the bank of a stream. There the lover persuades her to strip herself, so that he may carry her clothes across the stream, which he proceeds to do, but never returns. Indra seeing her plight changes him- self into a jackal bearing a piece of flesh, and goes down to the bank of the stream. In its waters fish are disporting, and the Indra-jackal, laying aside his meat, plunges in after one of them. A vulture hovering near seizes hold of the meat and bears it aloft, and the jackal returning unsucessful from his fishing is taunted by the woman, who had observed all this, in the first gatha. 11 noro fjoro to praise a mrlkbreo gentleman. Come Do&m, oear crom, roitfj neck line peacock's rjtic, VMzit J) ere arofjtle ano eat trjo fill of flrsfj." Buddha, (in form of an Erawa tree). " <©f beasts tfje jackal oilest is ano morst, <8£ biros tfje croro is least estrcmeo ano praiseo, dramas arc tfje trees in orocr last, ^no now togetfjer come tfje Iofrest t&rce." YIII. The goose that lays the golden eggs INDIAN GOOSE WITH GOLDEN EGGS. 67 may next engage our attention. She finds her Indian analogue in the flamingo that moults golden feathers and is plucked bare by her greedy owner (Suvannaharnsa Jcttaka, Fausboll, 136, tr. R Morris, F.-L. J iv. 171). The moral is the same — (i 33e content foitf) fofiat's gibnt, srcft not to get more, ©'crgreciig tfjr oncKeo, unsateo tljiv are. £2Efjen thi trolo flamingo ta strtppco of fjt's plume f^ts featfjers of gola all t^etr colour oto lose." IX. There is a Jataka which has peculiar interest for us in the present connection, though the Fable which it parallels is not among those of Stainhciwel or Caxton. It rejoices in the name of Suvannakakkata Jataka, is No. 389 in Fausboll's edition, and has been translated by Dr. Morris in Folk-Lore Journal, iii. 56. A Brahmin has a crab for a friend and a crow for an enemy. The latter induces a serpent to poison the Brahmin, whereupon the friendly crab seizes the crow. What follows is told in the gdthas — " Ojc fussing snake iottfj fjoojj outsprcao, Cfje crao full near Bto come, Ss frteno in neeo to fjelp a frieno, But f)im tfje crab oio sie^c." 68 THE ORIENTAL MSOP. Serpent. " M for the man me tfoo so fast are fjelo 3Lct fjtm arise ano Fll the ocnom oram, Release at once the crom ano me, mg frtnttr, Before the poison strong o'ercomes the man." Crab. " £fje serpent FII release, the crofri not get, |^e sfjaH remain a mhile mitfjin mg clams ; But mfjen to fjcaltfj £ see mg frteno reStorco, 32'en as the snake tlje crom £ mill set free." He fulfils the promise by nipping off both their heads "as clean as a lotus-plant." Crabs are not so frequently in the habit of seizing ser- pents and conversing with them that we can consider the following fragment of a Greek scholion or table-song quite unconnected with the above Jataka — 6 Kapnivos 55' £ fjeafl i$ split, tl)t> trains are oof inn; out, afl broken arc i$v tibi hv tfu* T)u$t oeast; 31 n Sorrr> plight t^ou fitiDest t^p^elf to=uap, jfttfl ineUj 31 toeen, t^ou art conspicuous noio. There is another Jataka of a similar character given by Hardy (Manual of Buddhism, 233, ap. Benf. i. 104), in which a Jackal is taken as a servant by a lion, who gives him a share in his booty. He waxes fat, and seeing one day that he has four legs, two canine teeth, two ears, and a tail, just like the lion, determines to start business on his own account. He emits his little roar, but no beast fears him, and he cannot bringdown any prey. Benfey, § 29, points out the close analogy of one of Aphthonius' fables (c. 350 a.d.) in which a fox serves a lion, be- comes proud, tries his own hand, and perishes 74 THE ORIENTAL jESOP. (Halm, 41). He omits to notice the great simi- larity of Phaed. I. xi. (Asinus et Leo Venantes, cf. R. IV. x.), where the ass and lion go a-h mat- ing together and the ass emits his terrible bray, this time, however, with more effect. I am the more inclined to suspect a foreign origin for this owing to the unnatural conjunction of an ass and a lion as fellow-hunters, and am inclined to think the ass has got into the story through some mistranslation, which occurs most fre- quently in the names of birds, beasts, and fishes, as every one knows who has had much to do with translation.* I would add that it seems to be a story like one of those contained in the above Jatakas to which a certain Rabbi referred when he taunted another with the proverb, "The lion has turned out a fox " (Talm., Baba Kama, ii7a).f XIV. We may close our comparison of the * They are almost like proper names ; provided some animal is mentioned the version construes ; e.g. iEsop's fable {supra, p. 27) is generally spoken of as the Fox and Horse-Leeches. I suspect also that something of the same kind has occurred, Phaed., I. v. (Ro. I. iv. ), to make Vacca, Capella, Ovis, fellow-hunters with Leo. See infra, p. 166. t Landsberger, p. xlvii., refers the saying to a fable analogous to Babr. 101, Halm, 272, which may again be referred back to the above Jatakas. Cf. too Av. 40. INDIAN FOX AND COCK. 75 Jatakas with one that bears some relation to the closing fable of Stainhowel's collection, really from the Romulus but included in the " Fables of Poge" (Fox, Cod; # Dogs, p. 307). In the Kukkuta J at ale a (tr. Morris, F.-L.J., ii. 333, cf. Cunningham, Stupa of Bliarhut, 77) a cat approaches a cock perched on a tree and tries in vain to inveigle him down, as is told in the gdthas : — " Cat. O Ioucln bixu, bitty fcatfjrrs brujfjt of fjnr, .... I-'II it tfjn biit, rfjou strait fjabc nongijt to pag. Cock. WSlt bixos pair not frrttfj qtiaimtpeos. Go, sztk anatfjrr mate ttezbtym. . . . fffann imlfs fjabe inomen clrorr, gooU men tfjrg will Drcribc U3.it\} soft anU of In. foor&s, as liuss Sooula tfjeat tfje corn. . . ." At first sight the analogy with the mediaeval form does not seem very close. But I think I can show by a curious piece of evidence that the present form of the Jataka has been trun- cated, and that in its original version there was some reference to a third dramatis persona. For the KuJckuta Jataka happens to be one of those sculptured on the coping of the Stupa of Bharhut, and is accordingly figured in Sir A. Cunningham's monograph (PI. xlvii. 5). We 76 THE ORIENTAL &SOP. can be certain of its identity, since the name of the Jataka is inscribed above the figures. * From the facsimile which we give it will be observed that there is an object at the foot of the tree which is evidently of importance in the story, * This may possibly be a case of the traditional migra- tion of illustration to which I called attention in my Bicipai, pp. xx.-xxiii. WHAT IS BEHIND THE TREE? 77 but does not occur in the present version of the Jataka. General Cunningham suggests that it represents the bunch of bells worn by Xautch girls, and is placed in the sculpture as a symbol of the wakefulness of the cock I think it however more likely that it represents the presence of a watcher behind the tree, as occurs in the Greek form of the Fable (Furia, 88; Halm, 231), and in the Romulus here.* The original form of the Fable would thus be merely a variant of the Biter bit formula. In the form in which it occurs in the present ver- sion of the Jatakas, the story is not rounded off, and it only serves to illustrate the peculi- arly Buddhistic conception of the innate cor- ruption and deceit} of the feminine nature. Thus far the evidence of the Jakatas, and — important point — no further.! I have been * By a most remarkable coincidence, James, in his ver- sion of the Fable (Xo. xxxii. p. 22), has a reference to the bell ; " The Cock replied, ' Go, my good friend, to the foot of the tree, and call the sacristan to toll the bell.*" But there is nothing to warrant this in the Greek original. f I have rejected The Conceited Jackal (Supra XIII.), regarded as a proposed variant of the Daw in peacock's feathers ; the Baveru J. (F.-L. J., hi. 124) is closer. The Sammouamdna J. (No. 33) is not close enough to the Lion and Four Oxen (Av. xiv.), nor the Sakana J. (Xo. 36) to The Swallow and Birds (Ro. I. xx. ; Avian, 21), though they have the same moral. 78 THE ORIENTAL JESOP. taken to task for declaring my conviction that the Pali scholars have played out their best trumps in dealing with this question. (Bidpai, Introd., li., note). After having gone more fully into the matter I still retain that opinion. The whole of the Jatakas have now been pub- lished, and if any very striking analogy with iEsop's Fables had been found among them, we should doubtless have heard of it. Dr. Morris' selections in the Folk-Lore Journal ranged over the first four hundred and fifty of the Jatakas, and the remaining hundred are not likely to have a richer yield, as they are those with the longest gctthas. At any rate, we cannot permit the Pali scholars to win tricks with cards which they keep up their sleeve ; and the above dozen or so instances must stand for the present as representing the contribution of the Jatakas to the question of the origin of " ^sop's Fables!" * But this contribution, though scanty, is im- portant. The Jatakas, or at least the gctthas, in archaic Pali, which form the nucleus of * What is wanted for folk-lore purposes is an abstract of all "the stories of the past," with a translation of their gdthas. This could be got within a volume of a size similar to Mr. Khys-Davids'. EVIDENCE OF JATAKAS. 79 them, were carried over to Ceylon in a complete form 241 B.C. ; they had been sculptured in the Stupa of Bharhut about that date ; they formed a topic of dispute at the Buddhist Council of Yesali, c. 350 B.C., and we can scarcely fix their collection, very nearly in their present form, at least as regards the gdthas, at much later than 400 B.C. This is before any contact be- tween Greek and Hindoo thought can be taken into account.* Besides this, the stories have, in the majority of cases, nothing Buddhistic about them, and were evidently folk-tales current in India long before they were adapted by the Buddhists to point a moral ; and some of them were probably used by Buddha himself for that purpose in the fifth century B.C. Altogether, the probabilities are strong that we have in them genuine and native products of Indian thought, and that where we find them later among the Greeks they are borrowed products. At any rate, we may accept this as a provisional result which renders it worth while putting in and considering the other In- * The first notice of India in Greek literature is in one of the fragments of Hecatams (fl. 500 B.C.). Cf. Bunbury's Ancient Geography, i. 142. But see infra, p. 100. 80 THE ORIENTAL JESOP. dian evidence of a later date before summing up. We may first take some references found by Weber and Liebrecht in the Mahabharata, which may serve as an appendix to the Palaeo- zoic stratum of the Bidpai. The Mahabharata is the Indian Iliad and Odyssey and ^Eneid and Gerusalemme Liberate/, and Orlando Furioso and Faerie Queene ; at least it is equal to all these, and more also, in point of bulk. Such a huge mass affords grand accommodation for inter- polation, and parts of the Indian epics have been dated as early as the Upanishad stage of the Vedic literature, and others as late as the Christian era. It is, accordingly, impossible to use references occurring in it with much con- fidence, as to their date, except that we may be sure it is B.C., and so anterior to Phsedrus. Such analogies to Greek fables as have been observed in it * occur by way of casual reference, somewhat in the same way as the earliest Greek * There has been no systematic search made through the Mahabharata ; Weber owns that he had only made a per- functory one. It is from this quarter accordingly that we may anticipate the largest addition to our knowledge of the existence of ^Esop's Fables in India that yet remain to be made. Cf. Benf. i. 554 seq., on the probabilities of Abstemius' Fable, No. 70, being derived from Mb. xii. 4930. MAHABHARATA PARALLELS. 81 Fables enumerated on p. xliv. This has its importance, as showing that in India, as in Greece, the fable was current among the people, and formed part of their folk-lore. It confirms, too, the impression that the Buddha, in using the fable, was only applying a general practice of his day. XY.-XYII. Three of these references we may dismiss very shortly. Liebrecht has found a very explicit reference to The Man and Serpent (Ro. I. x.) in Holtzmann's translation of parts of the Mahabharata.* Thore seems also to be a reference to Tlie Oak and Reed (Ro. TV. xx.) in the complaint of the sea, that rivers bring to it oaks but not reeds (Mh. xii. 4198).! Again, the request of the camel for a long neck in TJie Camel and Jupiter (Av. vii.) finds its analogue in the Indian epic (Mh. xii. 41 75)4 That the last two of these reached the pale of Hellenism is proved by their appearance in Jewish writings, f * Indische Sagen, 2nd edition, II. 210 (ap. Jahrb. eng. u. rom. Phil. iii. 146). I cannot find it in the first edition, the only one accessible to me. f It is, perhaps, worth while remarking that it is from the twelfth book of the Mahabharata that three books of the £7>-Bidpai were taken (Benfey, 219-22). X They occur in form of proverbs: "Be flexible as the reed, not stiff as the cedar" (Talm. Taanith 20a); "The VOL. I. F 82 THE ORIENTAL &SOP. XVIII. Finally, there is a reference in the Mahabharata (xiv. 688) to a fable similar to The Belly and Members (Ro. III. xvi.), which de- serves closer attention, as it is, in many ways, the most remarkable fable in existence. A variant of it, or something very like it, was discovered six years ago by M. Maspero in a fragmentary papyrus, which he dates about the twentieth dynasty (c. 1250 B.C.). It is, conse- quently, the oldest fable in existence, and as such we may give it : — Trial of Belly v. Head — wherein are published the pleadings made before the supreme judges — while their President watched to unmask the liar — his eye never ceased to watch. * The due rites having been done — in honour of the god who detests iniquity — after the Belly had spoken his plea — the Head began a long harangue : — ' 'Tis I, 'tis I, the rafter of the whole house — whence ' the beams issue and where they join together — all ' the members ... on me and rejoice. My forehead 'is joyous — my members are vigorous — the neck ' stands firm beneath the head — my eye sees afar off camel asked for horns and had his ears cut off" (Talm. Sank. 1066). * I have ventured to substitute this for the " pleurer " of M. Maspero which gives no sense, though he makes out of it a very pathetic (and very French) picture of the judge weeping at the eloquence of the advocate — before the speeches are delivered. EARLIEST EXTANT FABLE. 83 c — the nostril expands and breathes the air — the ' ear opens and hears — the mouth sends forth sound ' and talks — the two arms are vigorous — and cause a ' man to be respected— he marches with head erect — ' looks the great in the face as -well as the lowly . . . ' Tis I that am their queen — 'tis I the head of my ' companions . . . Who would play a trick — or is ' there any would say — " Is it not false ? " Let them ' call me the head — 'tis I that cause to live . . . ' * Here the fragment breaks off, and we cannot tell if judgment went with the plaintiff as in the Roman fable. For it will be observed that the fable, if fable it can be called, takes the form of a mock-trial, corresponding, as M. Gaston Paris has pointed out, to the debat which is so familiar in mediaeval French litera- ture, t From this point of view the debat of Belly and Head affords us the earliest example of legal procedure extant. We again meet with the fable in the Upani- shads, whence it doubtless got into the Maha- bharata, and perhaps too into the Zend Yacna : — * Academie des Inscriptions, Seance of 5th Jan. 1883, P- 5- f As a matter of fact a kind of debat on this very subject was published in 1545, Cinq Sens de I'homme. There was also a Mystere on the same subject (Migne, Diet. d. Myst., s. v. Membres). 84 THE ORIENTAL MSOP. Dispute of the Senses and the Soul.* The senses disputed among themselves saying, "I am the first, I am the first." They said : " Let us go out of the body, whichever shall cause the body to fall by its departure shall be the first." The word departed, the man spoke no more, but he still ate, drank, and lived; the sight departed, the man saw not, but still ate, drank, and lived ; [and so with the hearing, &c] ; the mind went forth, intelligence left the man, but he still ate, drank, and lived. The soul departed, no sooner was it without than the body fell. [They again disputed and tried who could raise the body with the same result.] A similar apologue existed among the Buddh- ists as we know from the fact that it exists in the Chinese Buddhistic work Avadanas (No. 105) ; it occurs also in the Pantschatantra : — The Bikd with Tw t o Heads. Once on a time on Mount Himavat there was a bird named Jivanjiva. This had one body and two heads, one of which used to eat fine fruit to give strength and vigour to the body. The other became jealous and thought, "Why should that head always eat fine * I take this from the Italian abridgment of Signor Prato, who has written an interesting paper on ISApologo di Menenio Agrij^a in Archivio por trad, popolari, iv. 25-40. The full text of the Zend version is given by Burnouf, Sur U Yacna, notes pp. clxxii. seq. DISPUTE OF SENSES. 85 fruit, of which I never taste one ? " Accordingly it ate a poisonous fruit and the two heads perished at the same time.* I have also found a Jewish variant, though with a somewhat different moral : — The Tongue and the Members. (Schocher Tob on Ps. xxxix. 1). A Persian King sick unto death was ordered the milk of a lioness (Heb. Lebia). [A man obtains it after many adventures.] On his return the mem- bers disputed in the night. The feet said, ' Had we not gone the milk had not been got ' : the hands, ' We milked ; that was the chief thing ' : the eyes, 'But for us the lioness could not have been found out.' The heart reminds them of her wise counsels. At last spoke the tongue, ' But for me where would you have been ? ' To the retorts of the other members, the only reply is, " You'll soon see ! " Xext morning the man came before the King and handing him the milk, said, ' There is the milk of the bitch' (Heb. Kalba). [The man is ordered off to execution.] On the scaffold the members wept but the tongue laughed. s "What did I tell you ? Are you not all iu my power? However, 111 take pity on you ? ' The tongue called out, ' Lead me once * Cf. the Midrashic apologue of the quarrel between the head and tail of the serpent which should go first. The tail leads the head a merry dance ; " so it is when the lowly lead the great" [Midr. Babba, Deut. § 5). 86 THE ORIENTAL &SOP. more to the King.' In his presence it said, ' I have truly brought you the milk of a lioness, Sire. Kalba, is Arabic for lioness.' They tasted, and tried, and found it right, and sent the man away with great gifts. Then said the tongue, 'See now, life and death are in my hand ' (Pro v. xviii. 21). But there is a still more striking use of the fable by a Jew. There can be little doubt that St. Paul had a similar fable* in his mind in the characteristic passage (1 Cor. xii. i2-26).t The body is one, and hath many members, and all the members of the body, being many, are one body. . . . For the body is not one member but many. If the foot shall say, Because I am not the hand, I am not of the body ; it is not therefore not of the body. And if the ear shall say, Because I am not the eye, I am not of the body ; it is not therefore not of the body. If the whole body were an eye, where were the hearing ? If the whole body were hearing, where were the smelling ? . . . And if they were all one member, where were the body ? But now they are many members, but one body. And the eye cannot say to the hand, I have no need of thee ; or a^ain the head to the feet, I have no need of you. Nay, much rather, those members of the body which seem to be more feeble are necessary : and those parts of the body * The passage combines the Indian idea of the contest of the members with the Eoman notion of the organic nature of the body politic. t E. V„ omitting the theological inferences. ST. PAUL'S FABLE. 87 which we think to be less honourable, upon these we bestow more abundant honour ; and our uncomely parts have more abundant comeliness ; whereas our comely parts have no need . . . And whether one member suffereth, all the members suffer with it, or one member is honoured, all the members rejoice with it. As this passage is the foundation of the doctrine of the Visible Church, and indirectly of the conception of the Body Politic (of which Hobbes made such quaint use), we cannot well overrate the importance of the fable on which it is founded. We have thus seen this fable of the Body and its Members with its Belgian motto, V union fait la force, forming part of the sacred literature of Egyptians and Chinese, of Brah- mins, Buddhists, and Magians, of Jews and Christians.* The reader must not, however, assume that these are all necessarily derived from one source. On the contrary, I have p-iven the various versions at length as an instructive example how different nations may hit upon very much the same apologue to illus- * As it occurs also in the legendary history of Borne, and in the quasi-sacred pages of Shakespeare, where it fills the whole of the second scene of the first act of Coriolanus, we might add Romans and Englishmen to the above list. 83 THE ORIENTAL JESOP. trate the same idea. Carefully examined, the various versions may be reduced to four inde- pendent ones. The Egyptian debat stands by itself, the Brahmin Contest of Senses and Soul, occurring in the Upanishads, recurs in the Indian epic, in the Persian scripture, and, possibly through the latter, in Jewish com- mentaries, and may thence have influenced St. Paul. The lost Buddhist apologue of The Bird with Two Heads found its way to China, and was received into the Bidpai literature. The Boman fable is remarkable as being the only fable of its kind in Latin literature which can claim to be current among the Bomans.* It occurs late, and may have been interpolated by Livy, like so much of his work. But on the whole I am inclined to regard it as a genuine Boman folk-fable, and another instance of the sporadic use of the fable — as in the Egyptian example above, or in Cyrus' fable of The Piper turned Fisherman (Herod, i. 141), or in Jotham's and Joaz' fables in the Old Testament (Jud. ix. 8-15; 2 Kings xiv. 9) — by nations who have * Ennius has a reference to The Piper turned Fisherman (Re. vii.), and to The Swalloios and other Birds (Ro. I. xs. ). But he was acquainted with Greek, and might ha7e got the first from Herodotus. BELLY AND MEMBERS. S9 not otherwise shown a turn towards that par- ticular form of the apologue. The whole in- quiry ought to make us careful in the future how we admit borrowing without sure evidence either of identity of the fables or of contact between the nations using them. For there still remain a number of Indian parallels to our fables, in what I call the Mesozoic stratum of the Bidpai literature — pas- sages, that is, which formed part of the origi- nal form of the book, but cannot be traced back among the Jatakas. Taken by themselves, they could scarcely be adduced as valid evidence, as they cannot be traced back even as early as 300 a.d., when the Greco-Roman collections were already in existence. But the Jatakas have shown us evidence of similar stories being current in India from five to seven centuries before that, and the analogues from the Indian epic can trace back nearly as far. Besides Indian writers were veritable Jeremy Diddlers in the way of literary borrowing, and the whole of the Bidpai, even in its earliest form, strikes one as a vast plagiarism. It becomes, therefore, pro- bable that the Bidpai stories of the Mesozoic stratum have the same antiquity as the Jatakas 9 o THE ORIENTAL MSOP. or the Mahabharata. We may therefore pro- ceed to add to our previous parallels such of these as have close analogy with Greek fables, being somewhat more particular as to the closeness of the parallelism than we were in the case of the Jatakas or the epic refer- ences. XIX. We may begin with the fable of The Lion and Mouse, which occurs in the Pantscha- tantra in the form of The Elephant and the Mice (II. App. i, Benf. ii. 208-10). The mice had made a settlement by the banks of a river whither elephants came to drink, and on their way disturbed and crushed many of the mice. A deputation is sent to the king of the elephants, who graciously commands his troop to select another passage to the watering-place. Soon after the troop are captured in pits and then bound to trees.* The king sends for aid to the mice, who come and gnaw away the thongs and free the whole troop. There is one decisive criterion which proves the priority of the In- dian form and the dependence of the Greek * In the Southern redaction there is but one elephant, and he is not bound to the tree. The mice rescue him by filling up the pit. Cf. Benf. i. 324. INDIAN LION AND MOUSE. 91 upon it. Elephants are frequently bound by cords to trees, lions never are. The Indian origin of this fable would be rudely shaken, however, if we could trust the inferences Herr Lauth drew from a Leyden papyrus which he discovered, and the pertinent part of which he translated as follows : * — [Lion catches mouse who speaks as follows] : ' 'Pharaoh, my superior, O Lion, if thou eatest me, 'thou wilt not fill thyself ; thy hunger will remain. ' Preserve for me the breath of life as I preserved it 'for thee in thy trouble ... on thy unlucky day.' Then the Lion reflected and the Mouse said to him : 1 Eemember the hunters ; one had a hue to bind thee, ' another a leash. There was also a cistern dug before ' the Hon ; he fell in and the lion was prisoner in the 'pit ; he was pledged by his feet. Lo, there came a •'little mouse before the lion and freed thee.t There- •'fore, reward me. I was that little mouse.' There, sure enough, we have the fable of The Lion and the Mouse in Egyptian literature, and the question arises how and when did it get there. ISTow the Leyden papyrus (I. 3S4) is written in demotic, i.e., sometime between * Munich Sitzungsberichte, 1868, ii. 50. Die Thierfalel in Egypten. f The mixture of persons is due to Herr Lauth, who, it is perhaps -worth while adding, was the author of some wild theories about Mose der Egypter. 9 2 THE ORIENTAL jESOP. 500 B.C. and 200 a.d., and the latter terminus is the more likely since other parts of the papyrus contain Coptic versions of the Ritual of the Dead. But Herr Lauth was not satis- fied with this : he finds a comic picture of a mouse driving a chariot in the celebrated satiric papyrus of Turin which dates about 1 150 B.C. He therefore calmly assumed that the above fable was of the same date, and this bold bad assumption has passed vid Sir R. F. Burton and the versatile Prof. Mahaffy (Proleg. Anc. Hist. 390) into the article ' Beast Fable ' of Chambers's Cyclopaedia, and a whole pyramid of theory about the African origin of the fable has been based upon it, the apex of which is downward in the sand. There can be little doubt that the Egyptian fable is a late con- veyance from the Greek. XX. Our next example will illustrate not alone the derivation of a Greco-Roman fable from the Indian, but also Benfey's analytical powers. In the fable of The Good Man and Serpent (Ro. II. x.), he has traced, without any reasonable doubt, the survival of an Indian fable, which we find complete and consistent in its Indian form, but which is only preserved in INDIAN COUNTRYMAN AND SNAKE. 93 unmeaning fragments in Greek and Latin fable. We can best indicate the relationship of the three different versions, by displaying them side by side, and indicating by a series of bars the passage where the classic fables have failed to preserve the original. Bid pal A Brahmin once observed a snake in his field, and think- ing it the tutelary spirit of the field, he offered it a libation of milk in a bowl, ^ext day he finds a piece of gold in the bowl, and he receives this each day after offering the libation. One day he had to go else- where and he sent his son with the libation. The son sees the gold, and thinking the serpent's hole full of treasure, deter- mines to slay the snake. He strikes at its head with a cudgel, and the enraged ser- pent stings him to death. The Brahmin mourns his son's death, but next morning as usual brings the libation of milk (in the hope of getting the gold as before). The ser- pent appears after a long delay at the mouth of its lair, and declares their friendship at an end, as it could not forget the blow of the Brahmin's son, nor the Brahmin his son's death from the bite of the snake. —Pants. III. v. (Benf. 244-7). PH-EDRINE. - - - A good man had be- come friendly with the snake, who came into his house and brought luck with it, so that the man became rich through it. One day he struck the serpent, which disappeared, and with it the man's riches. The good man tries to make it up, but the serpent declares their friendship at an end. as it could not forget the blow. — Phffid. Dressl. VII. 23 (Bom. II. xi. ; Bo. II. x). Babrian. A serpent stung a farmer' son to death. The farmer pur sued the serpent with an axe and struck off part of its tail Afterwards fearing its venge ance he brought food and honey to its lair, and begged reconcili ation. The serpent, however, declares friendship impossible as it could not forget the blow nor the farmer his son's death from the bite of the snake. — Jisop Halm g6 b (Babrius- Gitlb. 160). 94 THE ORIENTAL &SOP. While in the Indian fable every action is properly motivated, the Latin form does not explain why the snake was friendly in the first instance, or why the good man was enraged afterwards, while the Greek form starts abruptly without explaining why the serpent had killed the farmer's son. Combine the Latin and Greek form together, and we practi- cally get the Indian, which is thus shown by Benfey's ingenious analysis to be the source of both. XXI. In Babrius (95), though not in Caxton, there is a fable of a fox enticing a deer to the cave of a lion no less than twice by an appeal to his ambition. On the second occasion the lion seizes the beast and kills it. Going away, he finds on his return the heart of the deer missing. Making inquiry from the fox (who, of course, has eaten it), he is answered that an animal that could have been induced to put itself twice in the power of a lion could have no heart (i.e., sense). Exactly the same story, finishing with the same witticism, occurs in the Pantschatantra (IY. ii.), except that an ass occurs instead of a deer, and his amorous pro- pensities are played upon to induce him to INDIAN ASS' HEART. 95 return a second time. Which of these is the original, which the derivate ? Both "Weber (Ind. Stud, iii. 388) and Benfey (§ 181) are strongly in favour of the Greek, more on general grounds than for any specific reason. I think I can reverse their result. There exists a Jewish variant (Jalkut on Exod., § 182) in which the ass asks toll of King Lion and is killed ; the heart disappears, and the fox declares the ass had no heart or he would not have asked toll of a lion. Xow here the dupe is an ass, as in the Indian fable, not a deer, as in the Roman. Xo one will nowadays suggest that the Jewish writer obtained the story from a Roman source, changed the deer to an ass, and then transmitted it to India. It must have been vice versa. The story got to Alexandria with the ass as the dupe, passed thence to Judsea and Rome, and in the latter place was transformed by Babrius into a deer. We shall see later on that this is not an isolated instance where the Jewish evidence turns the scale in favour of Indian origin.* * In the particular case before us, we might add that the reference to the heart as the seat of intelligence exactly corresponds to the Sanskrit hrdaye, whereas Achilles' taunt to Agamemnon of Kpaoir] iXacpoio would 96 THE ORIENTAL &SOP. XXII. A couple of strophes of the Pantsclm- tantra, III. 13, 14, Benfey, ii. 215) bear remark- able resemblance to the fable of The Two Pots ( Av. ix. ). They run as follows : — 13 Who cannot put up with things from pride oft falls through his equals ; When two unbaked pots strike together, they both break in two. 14 To vie with the mighty brings oft death to the lowly ; Like a stone that breaks a pot, the mighty remain unhurt. Here again, as in many previous instances, I can produce a Jewish parallel in the Talmudic proverb, " If a jug fall on a stone, woe to the jug, if a stone fall on a jug, woe to the jug" (Midr. Est. ap. Dukes' Blumenlese i 'No. 530). The Jewish form is nearer the Indian (str. 14) than that we are accustomed to from Avian, a fact not without its significance, as we shall see. Taken by themselves, the three cases might be regarded as fortuitous coincidences. But it should be emphasised that we cannot take such cases by themselves. The strength of the chain seem to imply that it was regarded by the Greeks rather as the seat of courage. INDIAN TWO POTS. 97 of tradition, against all catenary laws, depends on its strongest not upon its weakest link. When we have so strong a case as The Wolf and Crane or The Countryman, Son. and Snake, these commu- nicate their strength to their weaker brethren, because if we prove borrowing in one or two cases, the probabilities of borrowing in the latter cases become stronger in proportion, and what look like fortuitous coincidences turn into cases of borrowing. And examined more closely, the particular case we are considering is not so for- tuitous as it looks. There are many ways in which the dangers of ambition can be expressed symbolically.* It would be indeed strange if three nations independently should hit upon the fragility of an earthen pot to express the idea. It is for this reason that the Fable affords such a stronghold for the Borrowing theory ; its symbolical character renders it doubly im- probable that two nations should independently hit upon the same symbol, unless an extremely obvious one, for the same moral lesson. XXIII. We may conclude this part of our * "Set a beggar on horseback," '-'Vaulting ambition o'erleaps itself," The Ass as Lapdog formula, are among those that occur to me at this moment of writing. VOL. I. G 98 THE ORIENTAL MSOP. inquiry with an Indian parallel to The Maiden transformed into a Cat, which we have previously traced back to Phaedrus. I must confess the analogy does not appear to me so striking, but I include it in deference to Benfey's opinion, which is the more noteworthy, as he is generally inclined to trace Indian to Greek fables rather than vice versd, as here. The Indian story runs as follows (Pants. III. xii. ; Benf. ii. 262-6) : — A Brahmin saves a mouse and turns it into a maiden, whom he carefully educates. When nubile, he determines to marry her to the most powerful being in the world. He goes to the sun, but the sun declares that clouds can obscure him, while the mouse-maiden declares he is too hot for her. The clouds in their turn confess inferiority to the winds before which they scud, while they are too cold for the mouse- maiden. The winds again yield to the moun- tain, against which they storm in vain, while the mouse -maiden objects to their unsteady conduct. The mountain is too hard for the mouse - maiden, while it confesses that the mice are stronger than it, since they bore through its interior. Finally the Brah- min goes with his adopted daughter to the INDIAN MOUSE-MAIDEN. 99 Mouse King, and asks her her pleasure. { But ' she, when she saw him, thought, " he is of my ' own species ; " her body became beautified by ' her hair standing on end from joy, and she ' said, " Papa, make me into a mouse and give 1 me to him as a wife, so that I may fulfil the ' household duties suitable to my species." And ' he made her into a mouse by the might of his ' sanctity, and gave her to him as a wife. ' The story, it will be seen, has, in common with the classic fable, the transformation of a lower animal into a maiden, her being given in marriage, and the moral, Xaturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret. On the other hand, the marriage in the Ph.82- drine form occurs before the revelation of the true nature, and the maiden is an enemy of the mouse in disguise. I should therefore hesitate before granting any influence of the Indian on the Greek fable, but for two points which tell in favour of it. The first is that it postulates so strongly the animistic theory of metempsycho- sis, which has remained active in India during all historic time, while in Greece we meet with it at best asa" survival ; " in the Roman fable itself ico THE ORIENTAL &SOP. it is regarded as so strange that it requires the power of Jupiter to effect the change, and even he only does it as an experiment, which fails, to the merriment of the other gods. The other point is that there is a certain amount of evidence that the episode of strong, more strong, stronger, stronger still, and strongest, reached the west, at least as far west as Syria. For in Jewish legends about Abraham we find him arguing with Nimrod that fire should not be worshipped because water can put it out ; nor this, because the clouds carry it; nor those, because the winds bear them ; nor these, because man can withstand them.* If we allow, with Benfey, the Indian origin of The Cat-Maiden, then certain important points follow. For we find the fable referred to by Strattis (c. 400 B.C.), and by Alexis (c. 375 B.C.), before Alexander's expedition to India. We must accordingly allow for some percolation of Indian stories, possibly through Persia, to Greece, as early as the fifth century B.c.t This would render it more likely that The * Ber. rob. § xxxviii. cf. Beer. Leben Abrahams, 11 and 7i. 92. Similarly in the Talmud, Baba batra 10a. f Liebrecht traces a story that the Cardians lost a battle because their steeds had been trained to dance to music, STRONG, STRONGER, STRONGEST, ior Dog and Shadow and others (see infra., p. 129) had also penetrated thence at an early date into Greece. I would add that the peculiar assump- tion that the mice are stronger than the moun- tains among which they burrow may have provoked the Greeks that heard the tale to the burlesque of a fable immortalised in Horace's line. Parturiunt montes, nascitur ridiculus mus. We have now before us all * the evidence on which we are to decide whether the Greeks derived their fables, all or some, from India. The most strangely diverse answers have been given to this question by those who have con- sidered it at length. Two classical scholars, A. Wagener (in his Memoire sur les rapports des apologues de TInde et de la G-rece, Brussels, 1854)! told by Charon of Lampsacus (fl. 470 B. C. ) to a Buddhistic legend, now only extant in the Chinese A vadanas (No. 10). Zur Volksk. p. 27. * Or nearly all, see infra p. no seq. I may remark that I have been exceptionally rigid in cases occurring only in the Bidpai and have entirely rejected those in which the probabilities are of Greek origin for the Indian variants. For our present purpose these have only a secondary import for us. f Wagener has the merit of having been practically the first to give detailed instances of the resemblance of Indian and Greek fables. He selected twenty examples 102 THE ORIENTAL JESOP. and 0. Keller ( Untersuchungen uber die Gescliiclite d. griech. Fabel, Leipzig, 1862), declare most strongly for the Indian origin. Two Indian authorities, A. Weber (who discusses each of Wagener's pointsseriatim in his Indischp Stud i en, Bnd. III. 327-72) and T. Benfey, are inclined to trace all resemblance between the two to Greek influence percolating through the Greco-Bactrian kingdoms, left in the backwater of Alexander's invasion. Weber bases his conclusion chiefly on aesthetic grounds ; the Greek fables are too clear-cut and artistic to have been derived from the longueurs of Indian fable. To this might be replied from the standpoint of evolution that it is not the most definite which comes first, and from the standpoint of classical scholarship that the fables in which Weber sees such classical finish are the Greek verses of a Boman or mediaeval prose derivates from these. Benfey is less decided in favour of India ; in six cases (§§ 29, 130, 143, 150, 158, and 200 ; cf. supra XIII., XYIIL, XIX., XX, XXIII.) he allows Indian influence. But in some fifty with excellent judgment, one quarter of them turning out afterwards to be Jatakas, and eight occurring in the above list. BENFEVS VIEWS. 103 other cases he declares for a Greek origin, and traces the Indian parallels, often very slight ones, I may observe, to Hellas. He draws a distinction,'' which seems to me quite illusory, between fables in which the animals act like human beings and those in which they behave naturally, and restricts the former to India.* This of course gives the majority to Greece, since many fables are merely applications of the Beast- Anecdote. But what was, or ought to have been, the determining factor in Benfey's mind in determining the relative priority of the two sets of fables he is considering, those occurring in the Bidpai literature and their Greek parallels, is the comparatively late date at which the Bidpai fables are first found. Strictly speaking, we first know of them by the Pehlevi translation, executed under Khosru ZSTushirvan about 550 a.d. They are probably a couple of centuries earlier, and some of them can be traced to the Jatakas which, we now know, are nearly a thousand years older than Xushir- van. But Benfey had no reason for suspect- * If the distinction were valid, every fable in which an animal is represented as speaking should be traceable to India. 104 THE ORIENTAL &S0P. ing so early a date for the Jatakas; and at the same time classical authorities placed Babrius much earlier than what we now know to be his date. Under the circumstances Ben- fey was justified* in giving priority to the set of fables which make the earlier appearance in literature so far as the materials at his disposal enabled him to judge. We now know the chronological order of the various sets of fables which come into dispute to be as follows : — Greek. Indian. Parallels. Strata of Bidpai. Jatakas. I.-XIV. Palaeozoic. Ancient (supra, pp. 26- -8). Mahabharata. xv.-xvm. Phsedrus. Babrius. Avian. Bidpai. XIX.-XXTII. Mesozoic. Additions to Bidpai. (C/. note'p. 51.) Cainozoic. While Benfey's chief Indian source came last in chronological order, he was perfectly justified in treating it as the recipient. I cannot help thinking that the determination of the early date of the Jatakas would have, in his opinion, transposed the relation of borrower and lender. * In my Bidpai. p. xlvii., I spoke somewhat disparag- ingly of Benfey's judgment for this, not taking the above considerations into account. It was my judgment that was at fault. RECENT OPINION. 105 Of recent years the relative position of clas- sical and Indian scholars has changed. Mr. Rutherford, in the Introduction to his edition of Babrius, dismisses the possibility of Indian influence in a few contemptuous phrases. How is it possible, he asks, that a nation so original as the Greeks should be indebted for their fables to the childish Orientals, with their page after page of weak moralising, capped by a so-called fable ? And so, with a lofty wave of the hand, he bids the Indians go to their appro- priate diet (k'jvsj Esther, § 3), which is covered with a net : "If I go down," says he, "I am caught; if I do not, I perish of thirst : " The Cock and Bat (Talm. Sank gSb), who sit by one another awaiting the dawn : says the cock, " I wait for the daylight for that is my signal; but thou ? — the light is thy ruin : " and the grim Beast-tale of The Fox as Singer (Midr. rob. Esther iii. 1) which, as it is short, we may give :— The Lion once gave a feast to the beasts of forest and field, and spread over thern the skins of lions, wolves, and other wild beasts. After they had eaten u6 THE ORIENTAL MSOP. and drunk they asked : ' Who'll sing us songs ? ' and looked at the Fox. "Will you join,' said he, 'in the chorus with me ? " " Yes," they all cried. He said : — What he has shown us above Soon he'll show us below. We have now before us the whole extent of the Talmudic Beast- fables,* and it is not diffi- cult to see how strongly they contrast with the Greek or Indian collections. Both these consist of about 300 fables, of which not more than a score or so can be traced elsewhere, whereas the Jewish list runs to about thirty, of which all but six, or perhaps only four, can be traced either to India or Greece, or both. It is the obvious inference that the Beast- fable in Judsea is a borrowed product, and the only question is from which of the two sources * I have confined myself strictly to these, and have therefore omitted The Euphrates and Tigris, The Lie and Destruction (but cf. Babr. 70), and The Sun, Moon, and Stars before God (and similar "holy" fables, to use Dr. Back's distinction). Hamburger gives the names of two fables, The Lion and Fox, and The Cat and Weasel, with a wrong reference (Ber. rob., § 88), which I cannot check. I fancy the former is but a doublet, of which there are many in his list, of The Fox as Singer, and the latter is a reference to the proverbial saying when enemies join, " Cat and "Weasel are married " (Talm. Sanh. 105a). TALMUDIC FABLES FROM INDIA. 117 it has been derived.* All our evidence turns in favour of India. For where the Greek and Indian forms of the fables common to the three differ, the Jewish form agrees with the Indian, not the Grecian. We have already seen a triad of instances of this (The Belly arid Members, The Two Pots, and TJie Ass' Heart) ; we may now find a fourth in the earliest Talmudic fable that can be dated. This turns out to be our old friend The Wolf (Lion) and Crane, which runs thus in the Great Commentary on the Pentateuch (Ber. Rabba, ad. loc.) : — [Gen. xxvi. 28. 2nB toe satfl : let tTjcre be efcett itoto an oat?) oettottt u£.] In the days of R. Joshua hen Chananyahf the wicked ruler gave permission to rebuild the Temple. [But the Samaritans plotted against this and arranged that the condition should be that it should be rebuilt on a different site, -which would destroy its sacro- sanctity. The Jews on receiving the message met in * The smallness of the total number precludes the possibility of the Jews having had access to more than one collection. f "I care not if my lot be as that of Joshua ben Chananyah ; after the last destruction he earned his bread by making needles, but in his youth he had been a singer on the steps of the Temple, and had a memory of what was, before the glory departed,"' says Mordecai in Daniel Deronda, chap. xl. n8 THE ORIENTAL &SOP. the Vale of Beth Riiuon and midst tears and cries determined to disobey the Emperor's command. K. Joshua ben Chananyah * was sent to quiet them.] He went to them and told them this fable : A lion had devoured a beast and a bone thereof stuck in his throat. He issued the proclamation " Whoever will come and take out this bone for me, shall receive his reward." An Egyptian partridge came by, which has a long beak : it put this into the lion's jaws and pulled out the bone. "Give me my reward," it thereupon said to the lion. "Go," answered he, "thou canst laugh and say that thou hast gone in and out of a lion's jaws in safety." So too we may rejoice, added the speaker, that we have been received into this nation and shall get out of it in safety. Professor Graetz, in an elaborate excursus, (Geschichte der Juden Bnd. iv., note 14), has shown that the event here referred to took place in the year 118 a.d., which is accordingly the date of the earliest Talmudic fable which can be chronologically fixed, f Asa matter of fact it is probably twenty or thirty years earlier, * He was called " The man of the golden mean " (Graetz, Gesch. iv. p. 15). He gave utterance to the noble saying, " There are saints among the Gentiles, and they too have a place in Heaven " (Tos. Sank., c. 13, ap. Graetz, I.e. 427). On some piquant passages between him and early Christians see Gudemann Religions geschl. Studien. f Dr. Joel fixes the occurrence under Trajan two years earlier. — Blickc, i. p. 17 seq. JEWISH WOLF AND CRANE. 119 as we shall see, but the public use of the fable probably dates from 118 a.d., and here again we see the fable beginning its career in a new home as a political weapon. But just at present we may notice how this new example confirms the three former ones in agreeing with the Indian form of the fable on the point in which it differs from the Hellenic, viz., in making the chief actor a lion instead of a wolf. If R. Joshua had known of the Grecian form he could scarcely have avoided using it in a case where it would have been natural to identify Rome with a wolf in the significant hint with which he concluded his harangue. This clinches the Indian origin of the Talmudic Beast- fables, and it only remains to ask how and by whose means they came from India to Judsea. I fancy I have been able to discover even this point by a careful study of the short and simple annals of the fable in the Talmud, which run as follows.* * Hamburger luckily gives his fables in chronological order, though with many doublets and wrong refer- ences. I may mention that though the bulk of Talmudical and Midrashic works are anonymous, most of their con- tents can be dated, since the authors of the statements are given in the majority of instances, and modern Jewish science has established the dates and sequence of these with tolerable accuracy. 120 THE ORIENTAL MSOP. We first hear of Beast-fables in the Talmud in connection with R. Jochanan ben Saccai, who established the schools of Jabne (near Jaffa) after the destruction of Jerusalem (70 a.d.), and there founded Rabbinical Judaism. Of him it is said (Talm. Succa, 28a, and parallel passages), "He did not leave out of the circle of his studies even the Mishle Shu'alim (Fox-fables) and the Mishle Kobsim." The last phrase has puzzled the commentators and lexicographers greatly; the nearest they can get to it is "the fables of the washermen." For the moment we will reserve the solution of this mystery. We next hear of R. Meir * living in the middle of the second century, knowing 300 Fox- fables. f Then the history finishes with the statement of the Mishna (Sota, ix. 15), "With the death of R. Meir (c. 190 a.d.) Fabulists ceased to be." Now let * Two monographs have recently been written on this teacher : R. Levy, Un Tanah (Paris, 1883), and A. Blumen- thal, fiabbi Meir (Frankfort, 1888). The latter contains a chapter on his fables (pp. 97-107). It was he, it will be observed, who told the Gellert story (supra, p. 112). t The exact words [Synh., 386) are " R. Meir had (i/esh lo) 300 Fox-Fables." As we have seen, only one is extant, as indeed was the case in Talmudic times (See ~\Y. Bacher, Agada d. Tanaiten, ii. 7). MISHLE KOBSIM. 121 us try and interpret these seemingly discon- nected jottings. "We must first settle what Mishle Kobsim means. Now there is an uniform Greek tra- dition that a special class of fables called the Libyan were collected by a Libyan named Kybisas, Kybisios, or Kibysses. Diogenian (p. 180) says, 0/ 0= KvfiuSav svz'errjv y-'/esQui roZ s'Idovz to-jtov ; Theon (ed. Walz., i. p. 17), '/.cci Kvfiiaoc ex Aifi'jr,; ^KTj/xovrjsra; l~6 moov u; /uLvdoKoio;,* and Hesychius says of Aoj8/#co/Xoyo/. Xa,aa/>Jaj; r,ai KifBvvrh (J. KifivGiGv) evgcTt rove /.eyev; rovrovs (ap. Hartung, Babrios, p. 176). Babrius himself in his second prologue couples him with .cEsop : — ■jrp&Tos oe, 163 formed part of the ordinary Anglo-Xorman voca- bulary, and may therefore have been still used by Marie, though translating from the Latin. He has sought, therefore, for a mistranslation or misapplication of an English word similar to that which enabled him to determine the origin of " LBG." He finds it in Marie's word sepande, which does him yeoman's service. She uses it three times (31 1. 34, 65 1. 10, 97 1. 7), and in each case later copyists have not been able to make anything of the word for which they have substituted Nature, or Destinee, or Deuesse. This clearly un-French word, which even Marie could not make out, is no other than the Old English participial form sceppend, "shaper" or '"'creator," corresponding to the familiar German word Schopfer. Herr Mall deduces from it not only that Marie did use an English original, as she states, but also that it could not have been in Anglo-Saxon or from the hand of King Alfred (though the Latin author, he adds, was probably named Alfred, which would account for the mistake). The omission of the c in sepande proves that it was a Middle English, not an Anglo-Saxon 1 64 mSOP IN ENGLAND. form in the original.* Finally, Herr Mall fancies he has come across a trace of the Middle English original in a couple of lines quoted in Wright's Latin Stories, 52 — " Of aye ich the brou3te Of athcle ich ne mi3te," which are sufficiently close to serve for the original of Marie's " De l'oef les poi jo bien geter . . . Mais nient fors de lur nature," + On Marie's epoch Herr Mall has at present nothing definite to say, except that the Pur- gatory of St. Patrick which she translated is later than 1198. As her Lais reached Iceland about 1245, this fixes her floruit in the earlier half of the thirteenth century. So far Herr Mall, who, instructive as he is, leaves us still in the dark as to the proven- ance of the sixty-six or so new fables with * I would add that both ividecoc and welke are nearer the Middle English than the West-Saxon forms, widucoc and weoluc. f There is probably, I would suggest, a still longer sur- vival in the Middle English version of the Wolf Learning to Read given by Douce, Illustrations to Shakespeare, 525, according to Du Meril, 156 ; I cannot find it. FROM THE GREEK? 165 which Marie's name is connected. Taking up the inquiry at this point, I would first inquire whether, as we have seen Marie at least half-right in attributing her fables to an English version of (King) Alfred, she may not be as much in the right in tracing them to a Greek source. It is indeed unusual for a mediaBval writer to connect the name of ^Esop with Greek at all, as he was regarded as a Latin poet even as late as 1485 (Du Meril, 91, 163). Again, at times where she has the same fable as the Romulus and the Greek versions she is nearer the Greek form. Herr Fuchs, who has written an elaborate monograph on TJie Daw in Peacock's Feathers* has observed that Marie (58) has a raven for her hero, who competes for the crown of beauty of the birds, as in the Greek, instead of a Jay as in the Latin iEsop (cf . supra, p. 1 2 4). Du Meril {Poesies inedites, 1854, p. x 5 8) points out that in Marie's version of The Dog and Shadow, her dog passes across a bridge f and carries cheese, instead of swimming in the stream and holding meat as in Phsedrus, while * Die Krahe die mit fremden Fedem sich schmiickt. Berlin (Dissert.) 1886. t This trait has passed from her into the modern tradi- tional versions. 1 66 ^SOP IN ENGLAND. she has a curious variant (n) of The Lion's Share, in which the lion's partners are carnivo- rous, as is natural, instead of Phsedrus' cow, goat and sheep, as is absurd.* In this the ./Esop of Alfred, as we now may call her original, conies nearer to the Greek (Halm, 260) than to Phsedrus. And when we speak about an early mediaeval writer coming nearer to the Greek, we can of course only mean one thing, that he has approached it via Arabia. If we find a writer of the twelfth or thirteenth century quoting Aristotle, Euclid, or Galen with some approach of accuracy to the original, we may be certain that he has had access by means of Latin versions to the Arabic translations of these authors. And indeed, to revert to our present instance, how could the Arabic elements of Alfred's .iEsop have crept into it unless as interpolations in an Arabic ^Esop ? For we find in Marie, and therefore there were in Alfred's iEsop, such distinctively Eastern tales as TJie Ass' Heart (Marie, 61, supra XXI.), Hie Good Man and Serpent, nearly in a complete form (Marie, 63, supra XX.), The Mouse-Maiden * Curiously enough this is immediately followed by the ordinary version (12). ALFRED THE ENGLISHMAN. 167 (Marie, 64, supra XXIII.) and The Three Wishes (Marie, 24, Benf. § 208), which we found reason to reckon among the Oriental elements of Phsedrus {supra, p. 140). Considering the evidence I have produced of a larger Arabic ^Esop into which these stories could easily creep in from Al Mokaffa's Kalilah ica Dimnali, we are justified in looking out for an Alfred who knew Arabic in searching for the original of Marie's Fables. I think I have hit upon the very man in the following passage of Roger Bacon's Compendium Studii (ed. Brewer, p. 471). He is speaking of the need of a knowledge of the original tongues. •'•Bat far greater errors happen in translating philo- sophy. Wherefore, when a many translations on all kinds of knowledge have been given ns by Gerard of Cremona, Michael the Scot, Alfred the Englishman, Hermann the German, and William the Fleming, you cannot imagine how many blunders occur in their works. [Besides, they did not even know Arabic] In the same way Michael Scot claimed the merit of numerous translations. But it is cer- tain that Andrew a Jew laboured at them more than he did. . . . And so with the rest." This Alfred, so Mr. Thomas Wright informs 1 68 MSOP IN ENGLAND. us (Biographia Liter aria, Anglo-Norman period, s. v.), flourished about 1170 a.d.,* and this, or a slightly later date, would just give time for an English translation of his version of the Arabic ^Esop, from which Marie de France could execute her own version, say about 1220 A.D.f Not only have I identified this Alfred, but I fancy I can show that he too, like Michael Scot "and the rest," had a Jewish dragoman at his side helping him with his version. For there is another collection of Fables evidently connected with the same origin as that of Marie's. It is in Hebrew rhymed prose, has the Talmudic name for ^Esop's Fables, Mislile Shu'alim, and has for author R. Berachyah ben Natronai ha-Nakdan or the Punctuator, a name used by Jewish writers of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries for Massorite or Grammarian. His collection runs to 107 * Herr Wustenfeld, in the Gottingen Abhandlungen, xxii. 85-9, gives him a somewhat later date, basing on the first English bibliography, J. Bale Scriptores Britannia, cent. iv. § xxxv. f William Loug-Sword, Henry II. 's natural son, Marie's " le cumte Willaume, le plus vaillant de cest royaume," for whom the Fables were written, died in 1226. BERACHYAH NAKDAN. 169 fables, against the 103 or 106 of Marie.* Of these he has 38 in common with her and with the Romulus and with the variations from the Romulus, f His jay, like hers, is a crow, his dog crosses a bridge with cheese in its mouth, as hers does, and above all he has both the carnivorous (52) and the grami- nivorous version (11) of The Lion's Share. This by itself would be sufficient to prove his connection with the JEsop of Alfred. But besides these he has fifteen others i of the additional fables of Marie, including The Mouse Maiden (Berach., 28), and The Ass' Heart (Berach., 105). There are three others, The Man and Pit (B. 68), The Man and Idol (95), and The Treasure (104), taken from the Arabic Bidpai, § a couple more also from Oriental * 103 in Roquefort's edition, but a couple or so exist elsewhere. Cf. Ex. V. iv. + See Index, s.v. These are mainly due to Dr. Stein- schneider's painstaking collation in the Israel. Letterbode, viii. 28-9. There are besides ten in Avian which Dr. Stein- schneider missed. X Ber. 19 (M. 21), Eom. Jpp. 60; B. 26, cf. 59 (M. 56) App. 31 ; 28 (64) 61 ; 36 (73 : 88) 28 ; 39 (contra 22) 24 ; 45 (3i) 27 ; 50 (74) 36) ; 77 (75) 37 ; 81 (38) 22 ; 83 (72) 35 ; 84 (71) 25 ; 85 (59) 32 ; 86 (103) 71 ; 94 (98) 20 ; 105 (61). § For the first and last see my Bidpai Contents, C 4 and A 1 ; for the other Benf . § 200. The former occur in the 170 2ES0P IN ENGLAND. sources, The Chicken and Fox (B. 32, cf. De Gubernatis Zool. Myth. ii. 131), and a dispute of Wolf, Fox, and Dove (B. 69) as to their relative age. which parallels curiously the same dispute between The Partridge, Monkey and Elephant, in the Tettira Jdtaka (Fausb. 37, tr. Rhys- Davids, 310 seq.). Besides these there are four which could only come from the Greek : The Mule's Pedigree (B. 66, Halm 157), The Lion's Traces (B. 93, H. 63), a curious variant of ^Esop's Fable The Fox and Dog-Ticks (B. 102, supra p. 27), and a still more curious illustration of the fable referred to by Bacon {Essays, 54), "It was prettily devised of JEsope ; The Fly sate upon the Axle-tree of the Chariot wheele and said, What a Dust doe I raise ? " (cf. B. 90).* One seems taken from the Talmud (B. 6, Fox and Fishes, cf. supra, p. 113), and for eighteen neither Dr. Steinschneider nor I can find parallels,t though many resemble incidents in Arabic and not in the Indian Bidpai, the first being the most renowned apologue in the Barlaarn and Josaphat set. See my forthcoming Early English Lives of Buddha, pp. 15-16. * This has puzzled Mr. W. A. Wright and the other Baconian commentors, who leave it severely alone ; it is Abstemius', No. 17, cf. Ko. ii. 16. f Lamb, Bam, and Lion (25), Ox, Lion, and Kid (30). Frogs and Oxen (34, cf. Bo. ii. 20), Cat and Mouse (46), ANALYSIS OF BERACHYAH. 171 the Reynard cycle,* as do some of those common to Berachyah and Marie. This analysis shows that Berachyah's Fables are of the same family as Marie's, that they include a large infusion of Indian ingredients traceable through the Arabic, and much also which must have come indirectly from a purely Greek collection. In other words, they confirm strongly the conclusion we drew from an ex- amination of Marie's collection that it must be traceable to an Arabic source. The reader would probably care to see a specimen of his work. I have selected one which he has in common with Marie, and is a type of the additions made by Alfred to the iEsop of Antiquity : it savours more of the Beast- Satire. I have endeavoured to imitate Wild Boar and Goat (48), Lion and Lizard (58), Lion and Animals (70), Parrot and Princess (71), Ram and Ten Sheep (72), Sheep, Goat, and Shepherd (82), Camel and herd of Camels (87), Terrible Knight (89), Wolf and Fox (91), Bull and Oiciier (92), Leveret and Leverets (97), Lion, Goat and Fox (98), Crow and Carrion (99), Pirate and Ship (101). * Berach, 100, contains the incident of the Fox fishing with tail in ice. I cannot here discuss the possible light these, and other indications I have observed, may thro-w- on the Oriental origin of Eeincke Fuchs. The latest and best word on this is that of E. Voigt in the Introduction to his edition of Ysemgrimus (Stuttgart, 1884). 172 MSOP IN ENGLAND. the rhymed prose or doggrel, which is again an Arabic trait, that will be familiar to English readers from recent translations of The Arabian Nights. The Fable of the Wolf and the Animals, [Mishle Shualim (" Fox Fables ") of Berachyah Hanakdan, No. 36]. The Wolf, the Lion's prince and peer, as the foe of all flesh did appear ; greedy and grinding, he con- sumed all he was finding. Birds and beasts, wild and tame, by their families urged to the same, brought against him before the Lion an accusation, as a mon- ster worthy of detestation. Said His Majesty, "If he uses his teeth as you say, and causes scandal in this terrible way, I'll punish him in such a way as to save his neck, if I may, and yet prevent you becom- ing his prey." Said Lion to Wolf, "Attend me to- morrow, see that you come, or you'll come to much sorrow." He came, sure enough, and the Lion spoke to him harsh and rough. "What by doing this do you mean ? Never more raven the living or live by ravening. What you shall eat shall be only dead meat. The living you shall neither trap nor hunt. And that you may my words obey swear me that you'll eat no flesh for two years from to-day, to atone for your sins, testified and seen : 'tis my judgment, you had better fulfil it, I ween." Thereat the Wolf swore right away no flesh to eat for two years from that day. Off went Sir Wolf on his way, King Lion TWO YEARS IN FOUR MINUTES. 173 stopped at court on his throne so gay. Nothing that's fleshly for some time did our Wolf eat, for like a gentleman he knew how his word to keep. But then came a day when he was a hungred and he looked hither and thither for meat, and lo, a fat sheep fair to look on and goodly to eat (Gen, iii. 6). Then to himself he said, " "Who can keep every law ? " and his thoughts were bewildered with what he saw. He said to himself, " It overcomes me the longing to eat, for two years day by day must I fast from meat. This is my oath to the king that I swore but I've thought how to fulfil it as never before. Three sixty-five are the days in a year. Night is when you close your eyes, open them, then the day is near." His eyes he closed and opens straightway. It was evening and it was morning, one day (Gen. i. 5). Thus he winked till he had numbered two years and his greed returned and his sin disappears. His eyes fix the goat (sic) they had seen and he said, "See beforehand I have atoned for my sin," and he seized the neck of the goat, broke it to pieces, and filled up his throat as he was wont to do before, and as of yore his hand was stretched out to the beasts, his peers, as it had been in former days and years. The story is told with considerable humour, and the Biblical verses are wittily applied. In Marie (73) and the usual versions the wolf meets the sheep during Lent, with the greeting, " Good morrow, Salmon ! " and, refusing to be convinced of his mistake, makes a fish meal off mutton. I cannot help thinking that 174 MSOP IN ENGLAND. the story is ultimately to be traced back to some modification of the VaJca Jatdka (Fausb. 300, tr. R. Morris, F.-L.J. iii. 359), the sub- stance of which is sufficiently indicated by its gatha. " a toolf irrtjo IibcO op others' Death 3nn ate tTjctr flesh anD Moon, IDtO mane atom to keep the fast 3nD $0*5 nap ooserbe* "But Jttnra soon titti note his ooto, 9i goat's * form he assumes 3 SP&e murnerous toolf his uofo forsook 5lnu tuien the goat to sei?e." Who was this Berachyah Nakdan, whose collection is of such critical importance for the mediaeval history of the Fable, f and when and where did he live 1 This has been a long- standing subject of dispute between Drs. Stein- schneider and Xeubauer, the two greatest living authorities on medieval Jewish literature, and I hesitate to interfere, especially as I happen * N.B. — There is a curious vacillation between sheep and goat in Berachyah's version. f It is for this reason that I have gone into such detail about the Mishle Shu'aZim. I have ventured to repeat Dr. Steinschneider's collation, because it has been overlooked, owing to the obscure quarter in which it appeared, and because I have been able largely to supplement his parallels. BERACHYAH IN ENGLAND. 175 to differ from both in holding that he lived and wrote in England towards the end of the twelfth century.* It is due to them that I should give my reasons at some length. They are as fol- lows : — (1) The earliest mention of him occurs in the work of an English Jew, The Onyx Book (Sepher Hassoham), of R. Moses ben Isaac, who must have died before 1215.! (2) His other translation is of the work of an Englishman of the twelfth century, the Questiones Naturales of Adelard of Bath. (3) The authorities he chiefly quotes, Abraham ibn Ezra. (Browning's " Ptabbi ben Ezra ") and Solomon Parchon, are those generally quoted by English Jews ; the former visited England in 115S. (4) England was the seat of a school of Xakdanim or Punctuators in the twelfth century, all those known of that date (Moses ben Yomtob, Moses ben Isaac and Samuel) being located in this country. (5) Ber- achyah somtimes uses French, the ordinary lan- * It is perhaps worth while stating that I arrived at this result during my researches on the early history of the Jews in this country, long before I was aware of its import- ance for the history of the Fable. See my note in Jew. Quart. Rev. i., p. 183. i His tombstone was then removed by the Barons to fortify Ludgate (Stow Survey, ed. Thorns, p. 15). See my letters in The Academy. Jan. 12. Feb. 2, 1889. 176 MSOP IN ENGLAND. guage of the English Jews at this period and later,* and London was the chief centre of the French-speaking world under the Angevin kings. (6) Seemingly the oldest MS. of the Fables is one which once belonged to Cotton, and is probably therefore one of the few Hebrew MSS. belonging to the early Jews of England which have never left England (see Neubauer's Catalogue, No. 1466, 7, and cf. Letters of Eminent Men (Cam. Soc), p. 103). (7) Finally, during the course of some researches at the Record Office I have found an Oxford Jew named " Benedictus le punc- teur," paying a contribution to Richard I. on his return to captivity, f We could not have a closer translation of Berachyah (the blessed), ha Nakdan (the Punctuator), and there has always been a tradition that Oxford Jews helped towards the foundation of the University. Few identifications of mediaeval personages rest on stronger grounds than these, and we may fairly assume, I think, that Berachyah Nakdan lived in England about 1190 a.d., and was known * I have published an interesting letter in French from an English Jew as late as 1280 in the Revue des etudes juives, 1889, p. 258. f " Oxonia... De Bhdicto le punetf- xxvj s. & viij S p eod." {Miscell. Queen's Bemembr. 556/2 mem. 1. ad imum.) BENEDICT LE PUNCTEUR. 177 among Englishmen as " Benedict le puncteur." If so, we can scarcely imagine the two men, Alfred and Benedict, translating from the Arabic independently, and it is but the slightest step further to assume that Benedict (Bera- chyah) the Jew was to Alfred the Englishman what Andrew the Jew was to Michael the Scot, as indeed Roger Bacon implies in asserting the same of " all the rest." * "While aiding Alfred, Berachyah worked at the Fables on his own account, and thus produced the Fox Fables (Meshle Shualim) which have so long puzzled critics to account for their provenance.^ I may add that about the same time over in distant Armenia the vartabied Eremia (Dr. Jeremiah) was translating from the Arabic a collection of 164 fables under the title Aglio-YesahirJ: {The Fox BooJ:).% that the two collections of Marie * The only other alternative is that Berachyah translated Alfred's Latin. But I know of no such translation into rhymed prose, which was an Arabic invention, and was used by the Jews chiefly to translate Arabic. Prof. Chenery published a Hebrew version in rhymed prose of Hariri's Makamen a few years ago. f See Du Meril, pp. 26-8, and Lessing, Werke, vi. p. 52, seq. Z Du Meril, p. 30, who mentions casually the similarity of the title to that of Berachyah's. It must be remembered, however, that the latter is Talmudical. A French trans- VOL. I. M i 7 S &SOP IN ENGLAND. and Berachyah, which are certainly from the same source, amount between them to 163 separate fables, and that the India Office Arabic MS. contains, or did contain, 164 fables. Such numerical coincidences rarely happen by acci- dent. On general grounds indeed we might assume that any new incursion of Beast-Fables during the twelfth century would occur in this country, for during that period England was the home of the Fable. A glance at the Pedigree which heads this Introduction will confirm this. Herr Mall locates the Romulus of Kilant and the LBG fables in England, the earliest MSS. of Fabulce rhythmicce are still here. The most popular collection of Fables in the late Middle Ages was one of the first three books of the Romulus, in tolerable Latin verse, passing under an infinity of names.* To one of the many MSS. M. Hervieux found the colophon — lation of Eremia's Fables seems to have appeared in 1676, at the end of an abridged translation of Moses of Khorene. I have not been able to find this in any of the great English libraries. * Garicius, Garritus, Galfredus, Hildebertus, Ugobardus de Salmone, Waltherus, Salo, Salone, Serlo, Bernard de Chartres, Accius and Alanus (Oesterley, Bom. p. xxiv.). WALTER OF ENGLAND. 179 " Gualteras Anglicus fecit hunc librum sub nomine Esopi," which fixes Walter of England as the author of the collection hitherto known as the Anonymus Neveleti. From this were derived no less than two French metrical versions, besides an Italian one in verse. Then again there was another collection in Latin verse done by Alexander 2S eckam ^"(1157-1217, foster-brother of Richard L, and author of De naturis rerum in the Rolls Series), which gave rise to two French ver- sions. We have just seen the important col- lection associated with the name of Alfred, the only original contribution to the Fable in the Middle Ages, being composed in Eng- land about the same time, and giving rise to a Middle English and a French version — that of Marie de France — which in its turn gave rise to an Italian and to two Latin ver- sions, from one of which a Dutch version, by one Gerard, introduced Alfred's yEsop to Teu- tonic Europe. It would indeed be difficult to * His real name was Alexander Nequam ( = "Naughty Alick"), but this caused so much unmerciful ridicule that he changed the spelling of his name. 180 MSOP IN ENGLAND. suggest where else but in England Berachyah's fables could have been produced. Nor should I be surprised if some at least of the many adaptations in French verse, known by the name of Ysojpet, were also made in this country. We are too apt to forget that litera- ture, like commerce, follows the flag, and that London in the latter half of the twelfth century (i 154-1206) was the capital and centre of the French-speaking world. The Angevin Empire during those years included Normandy, Brit- tany, Maine, Anjou, Toulouse, Aquitaine, and Gascony, and the poets and literary men of that vast tract of country looked to London for recognition and reward. Nearly two-thirds of the French writers of that period are con- nected with the court of England ; nor do they all write in Anglo-Norman.* If these writers had written in Latin we should include them in Biographia literaria anglo-normannica,^ but because they happened to write in the court- * I calculate this from elaborate lists I have made from M. Gaston Paris' admirable Literature francaise du meyen age. f Bishop Stubbs' admirable lectures on "Learning and Literature at the Court of Henry II." (Lectures vi., vii.) only deal with Latin writers. ENGLAND THE HOME OF FABLE. 1S1 language — French — we allow them to be en- gulfed in the Histoire Utter aire de la France* I hope to develope elsewhere the thesis that England in the latter half of the twelfth cen- tury was the nidus, to use a biological term, of the whole Romantic movement which char- acterises mediaeval literature. At present I would point out that this country was cer- tainly the home of the Fable during that period, and that it is therefore probable that some at least of the French Ysopets were com- posed here. We can observe the English love of the Fable outside the special collections devoted to it. It is possible that the predilection can be traced to the Norman element, for one of the few material relics of William the Con- queror, the famous piece of tapestry now at Bayeux, attributed to the fair hands of his Queen Matilda, contains representations of a dozen iEsopic fables on the lower border of the tapestry. As they represent the first contact of Eng- * As it is, we have permitted M. Herrieus to compile his Corpus Fabularum medii cevi from MSS. the majority of which were in English libraries. 1 82 MSOP IN ENGLAND. land with the Fables, we have selected four of them — our old friend The Wolf and Crane, The Fox and Grow, The Eagle and Tortoise, which has been broken literally in two, and The Wolf and Lamb — as a suitable frontispiece to this introduction to the first English printed version of them.* They are represented with some spirit and sense of humour, considering the impracticable nature of their medium. t It is probable that they are to be affiliated with the collection of Ademar, since Matilda was from Flanders. Indeed M. Comte observes that the figures are closely allied to those given in the Ley den MS. of Ademar. There is a certain amount of likeness between the Bayeux Wolf and Lamb and that figured in our Caxton, which derives through a French imitation of Stainhowel's woodcut, which probably repro- * They have been taken from J. Comte's photographic reproductions of the Tapestry (La tapisserie de Bayeux, Rouen, 1879), pi. iv.-vi. Others occur on pi. 1 {Tvx> Bitches ?), iv-vi. (Nulla vestigia), vii. (Fox and Goat), viii. (Lion's Share), x.-xii. (Sivallow and Birds), xl. (Ass in Lions Skin ?), xiv. (f Ephesian Widow). Du Meril (p. 176) adds Fox and Grapes, but I could not identify this. f We have endeavoured to reproduce the stitching of the tapestry. JESOP IN THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY. 1S3 duced the traditional representation in MSS. The Bayeux version deals, however, with the first act of the tragedy; the wolf, it will be observed, is lapping the stream which the needlewoman has carefully represented run- ning down to the lamb. The presence of The Eagle and Tortoise from Avian among the Eomulean Fables requires some comment. It illustrates the early date at which the more popular portions of Avian were interpolated in the Romulus.* The fact that the Fables were chosen to adorn a great national monument is sufficient to indicate their popularity among the Normans, among whom we find the same throughout their predominance in England, t When John of Salisbury in the next century bears from the mouth of a Pope the venerable apologue of The Belly and Members (ii. 6. 24) Poly., it is an Englishman, Nicholas Brakespeare * Our Eo. IT. xs. [Oak and Reed) is not in the Burneian Romulus. I suspect, too, that Eo. I. xx. (Swallow and Birds, Bom. I. xix.) is an earlier interpolation from Avian. f The presence of iEsopic fables on the Tapestry used to be one of the arguments against its authenticity (Free- man, Norm. Conq., hi. 571-2). The argument was invalid, since we know of MSS. of the Fables of the tenth (Rufus, Burneian) and eleventh (Ademar) centuries. 1 84 &SOP IN ENGLAND. (Adrian IV.), speaking to an Englishman. When Bichard Coeur de Lion, after his return from captivity in 1 1 94, wished to rebuke the Barons for their ungrateful conduct, he told them the Eastern apologue of The Man, Lion, and Serpent, who were all three rescued from a pit by a peasant. The lion shortly after- wards brings his benefactor a leveret, the ser- pent a precious jewel, but the man, on being applied to for the promised reward, drives away his deliverer. This is no other than the Karma Jdtaka (given by Benfey from a Tibetan version, pp. 195-8), though Bichard doubtless had heard it orally, as the ungrateful one is said to be Yitalis, a Venetian.* But it is in the popular literature of anecdote and sermon that we find the popularity of the Fable in England best verified. When Odo de * Matthew Paris' addition to Disset (sub. anno 1195, ed. Luard, ii. 413-6). See Benfey's interesting and long § 71. Cf., too, Gower, Conf. Avian, v. 6, ed. Morley, 276-8. We may have here the clue to the relationship between Bera- chyah's collection and that of the Armenian Eremia, since Cyprus, the home of Richard's Queen, Berengaria, was at that time in intimate relations with Armenia (cf. Stubbs' Lectures, p. 161). Isaac Comnenus, the Basileus of Cyprus, whom Bichard deposed, had been for some time ruler of Armenia. It is not, however, in Marie or Berachyah. ENGLISH LOVE OF FABLES. 185 Cerintonia (1 Sherington in Warwick) in the thirteenth century collected his Narrationes, more than half were fables, and the same applies to John of Sheppey in the next century. John of Salisbury's Polycraticus has several fables ; so has Mapes' Poems, and even iSTeckam's De Na- turis Rerum. The collections of examples for the use of the clergy in their sermons by Holkot, by Bromyard (Summa Predicant him), or by Xicole Bozon, an English Franciscan monk, who wrote in French {Romania xv. 343, G. Paris, Lit. franc au moyen age, §§ 81, 152), are filled with fables. The poets also made use of them. Gower and Lydgate occur in our Parallels, and Chaucer seems to have been acquainted with Alfred's .zEsop.* As the Middle Ages died away, England lost her hegemony in the realm of Fable, and at the invention of printing it was Germany that took the lead in spreading a knowledge of ^Esop through Europe, by means of printed books. The first German book printed was Boner's Edelstein of 100 fables. Eeinrich Stainhbwel brought together in his Asop the four books of * The quotation from Ysope in The Tale of Melibceus seems to refer to Extrav. vii. 1 86 2ES0P IN ENGLAND. the Romulus, really as we have seen prose ver- sions of Phaedrus, and selections from the other collections, 1 7 from the century of Greek fables translated by Ranuzio, 27 from the prose ver- sions of Avian, and 1 7 from a source which has never yet been identified, and called by him Fabuloe Extravagant es. For the majority of these I have found parallels in Marie or Berachyah, or both, and it is possible that we have in the Fabuloz Extravagantes a German revision of Alfred's iEsop.* At any rate they are of the same branch, and represent Alfred's collection in the modern European .ZEsop. For Stainhowel's Asqp f is the parent of all the printed zEsops of Europe. He himself gave a German translation of his Latin text. Jules Machault, a monk at Lyons, next translated the fables into French, and Caxton, without much loss of time, turned this into English in * It is from them that we get The Dog and Manger and The Fox (with many wiles) and Cat (with one), which occur in the Greek, bat not in the Latin iEsop. This is, as we have seen, a characteristic mark of Alfred's iEsop. The only MS. containing the Extravagantes is the Breslau MS. of Petrus Alphonsus. f Oesterley edited this for the Stuttgart Literarischer Verein, Bnd. 117, but very perfunctorily, and missing a grand opportunity. THE EUROPEAN .ESOP. 187 the winter and spring of 14S3-4. Next year an Italian version of Stainhbwel by one Tuppo appeared at Venice, then a Dutch version was made from the French of Machault in 1490, and Spain, late as usual, added ^Esop to her printed books by the hands of the Infante Henrique in 1496.* All these editions — Latin, German, French, English, Italian, Dutch, and Spanish, have the Fables arranged in the same order, and are illustrated by woodcuts plainly copied from one another. Thus in explaining the -provenance of our Caxton, we have practi- cally performed the same task for the European ^Esop : our bibliography would serve equally well mutatis mutandis, for the first edition of iEsop in German, Latin, French, Italian, Dutch and Spanish.! Our Caxton is an average specimen of the * Conservative Spain has remained true to the Stainhowel ever since. I have a duodecimo of the early part of this cen- tury, still following his order, and with plates which are merely reductions of the earliest woodcuts. There was a Catalan version made from this in 1682 (Du Merit, p. 161). f I have, however, given a predominance to the English references, as is but natural. The French references are to be found in Eobert's or Eegnier's Laf ontaine. the German in Oesterley's scattered references (chiefly in his edition of Kirchhof ), and in Kurz' excellent edition of Waldis, and the Italian, partly, in Ghivizzani. 1 83 JESOP IN ENGLAND. worthy printer's style and literary attainments. These do not reach a very high standard, nor was there much opportunity for the display of any great literary gifts in the translation of such mediocre productions as the mediaeval Latin prose versions of Phsedrus, Avian, and the rest. At times he stumbles in his render- ing, at times he calmly reproduces a French word for which he had no translation handy ; most of the words in our glossary are Gallicisms of this sort. The important thing to notice about Caxton's relation to our literature is the admirable taste he displayed in the selection of English works which he considered worthy of being printed. A History of the World (Higden's Polychronicon), a History of England (Chronicle), a Geography (Description of Britain), an encyclopaedia of science, such as it was (Mirrour of the World), and proverbial philosophy (Dictes, Moral Proverbs), were among his contributions to knowledge. For practical life he had to offer manuals of behaviour (Courtesy, Good Manners), a family medicine (Gouvernal of Health), the legal enactments of his time (Statutes of Hen. VII.) , the noble game (Chesse), a courtier's guide (Curial), and a knight's CAXTON'S CHOICE. 1S9 (Order of Chivalry). As " stuff o ; the imagina- tion " he provided his countrymen with charac- teristic specimens of the three great English poetic names — Chaucer, Grower, Lydgate (Can- terbury Tales, Confessio Amantis, Chorle and Bird), and equally characteristic examples of mediaeval romance, classical (Becueil, Eneydos, Jason), national (Charles, Arthur), allegorical (Fame, Lore), and satirical (Reynard). In ghostly instruction his books taught the Chris- tian how to pray (Fifteen Oes), how and when to be edified (Festial, Four Sermons), what ex- amples to follow in life (Golden Legend), how to die (Art and Craft of Dying, Deathbed Prayers), and what to expect after death (Pil- grimage of the Soul). Altogether considering Caxton was publisher as well as author and printer, he showed himself fully ahead of the taste of his day and went far towards producing the hundred best books in English for his day and hour. Not least did he show his taste and insight in selecting our iEsop for one of his most am- bitious productions. After all, the books that are really European may even at the present day be counted on the fingers of one hand, and i9o &SOP IN ENGLAND. iEsop is one of the five if they reach to so many.* Merely regarded from the number of editions it went through,! Caxton's iEsop was his most popular production. But the popu- larity of such a book as .ZEsop is not to be judged by the number of reprints any particular version of it goes through. To take a modern instance, booksellers tell us that the only book of fairy tales that will take with the general public is " Grimm's Goblins." Yet there is no particular version of this that rules the book- market, and it is rather the number of versions that affords the strongest testimony to their popularity. So with ^sop ; it is the number of competing adaptations that speaks most clearly for its hold on the popular mind. It is of course impossible for me here to go through all these, and I must content myself with point- * The Bible (i.e., Genesis, some Psalms and the Gospels), iEsop (selections in reading-books) and Robinson Crusoe are, so far as I can think, the only really popular books throughout Europe, i.e., which every European who can read has read. I would add The Pilgrims Progress, but fear that English prepossessions cause me to exaggerate its wide-spread popularity. (I doubt, e.g., whether it is much read in Russia.) f Six, the princeps (1484), Tynson's (150x3), Waley's (1570), Hebb'stwo (1634, 1647), and Roper's (1658). POPULARITY OF &SOP. 191 ins: out the versions that found most favour ■with English folk in the generations that suc- ceeded Caxton.* The popularity of xEsop in the sixteenth century was shown by a curious use of them made by W. Bullokar, the earliest English spelling reformer. In order to convince his countrymen of the unwisdom of their ways, he selected the most popular book he could think of to exemplify his own more perfect way of spelling, and published "^Esop3 Fabrj in tru Ortography" (1585). But Caxton had too strong a hold on English affection to be re- placed, and he held sway far into the seven- teenth century. Towards the end of this, how- ever, his diction began to fail to be under- stated of the vulgar. John Ogilby offered the English public the additional attraction of verse and of " sculptures " by Hollar and Barlow (165 1, 1668). Sir Roger L'Estrange gave the further advantage of adding most of the new sets of fables that had been edited abroad, so * The British Museum publishes at a nominal price the article "iEsop" of the printed catalogue. This contains some 500 numbers, of which about 120 refer to English editions. This, of course, has to be supplemented by the articles "Bidpai," "Babrius," "Fable," and "Phaedrus." 1 92 &SOP IN ENGLAND. that his collection (500 numbers against the 160 or so of Caxton's), is still the most ex- tensive in existence.* It has besides some place in the European history of the fable, as 1S8 fables of it passed by way of German into Russian, and there gave rise, so far as I can learn, to Krilof and his school, f A factitious interest was given to iEsop in the learned world towards the end of the seventeenth century, by its forming a side issue of the Phalaris controversy J which probably helped to keep L'Estrange's bulky tome in demand to the tune of seven editions. He inflicted on iEsop the additional indignity of " applications " * A fine reprint of it was published a few years ago by "John Gray & Co." 1879. f On him see the late Mr. Ralston' s Krilof and his Fables. Krilof, I may add, was only the chief of a whole school of of Eussial fabulists (Chemnitzer, Dimitrief, Glinka, Gon- charof), who afford another instance of the political use of fables. X Prof. Jebb (Bentley, pp. 52, 72), notices a curious instance of this. All the fat had originally been spilt on the fire by the young editors of Phalaris speaking of ' ' the singular humanity " of the King's Librarian (Bentley) in refusing them the use of a MS. of Phalaris. In Alsop's collection of Greek fables with Latin translations (1698) there is mention of "the singular humanity" of Tlie Dog in the Manger. As this is the last fable of the set it was probably added for the sake of the sting in its tail. ENGLISH EDITIONS. 193 in addition to "morals"; these were intended to promote the Jacobite cause. L'Estrange was succeeded on the ^Esopic throne of England by the Rev. S. Croxall, whose reign lasted throughout the eighteenth century, and whose dynasty still nourishes among us in the Chandos Classics. It says much for the vitality of ./Esop that he has sur- vived so long under the ponderous morals and <; applications " — ^Vhig against L'Estrange's Jacobitism — with which the reverend gentle- man loaded his author. It is probable, how- ever, that ^Esop came to the public with slighter impedimenta than these. Last century was the era of the chap-book and the caterers of Aldermary Churchyard did not omit specimens of ./Esop among their wares. I can scarcely commend the selection they made. The only chap-book iEsop in the British Museum (that reprinted by Mr. Ashton in his Chajj-loolis), seems to have gone out of its way to select the dozen most obscure fables; three of them in- deed I cannot even trace elsewhere. Perhaps the compilers were looking for novelty rather than familiarity and assumed that the fables better known to us would be also known to VOL. I. N 194 &SOP IN ENGLAND. their customers through reading-books. For it is by means of selections in reading-books that ^Esop has been most widely spread; I myself must confess my indebtedness to the venerable Mavor for my first introduction to JEsop, and many of my readers will have had the same experience.* The spread of iEsop's Fables among the people is proved by the existence of many popular proverbs derived from them.t But how they got to the people and how they are transmitted there is singularly little evidence to show. The collectors of popu- lar tales and traditions, who have now exhausted Europe, have left ^Esop's Fables aside, seem- ingly of malice prepense. They seemed to have thought that they would be offering nothing new in such well-known apologues, whereas it would be of extreme interest to study the variations they underwent as they passed from mouth to mouth.! * For this reason I have included Mavor in my biblio- graphy. I have used the 322nd edition, the earliest I could get access to. f I have given for England a score or so examples from Mr. Hazlitt's collection. He omits, however, owing to his plan, proverbial expressions like dog in the manger, kc. X Partial exception is afforded by Hahn's Oriech. Mahrchen, which contains three (87, 91, 93). Curiously PICTORIAL JESOPS. 195 There is still another means by which iEsop reaches the folk, and especially the little folk, and that is by pictorial illustration. Most of the iEsops that have been popular among us for the last half-century, have appealed to the eye as well as the understanding. The Rev. T. James, had the luck to have his new version of the fables (1848), adorned by the pure and classic outline of John Tenniel. This has caused his version to be a favourite one, and early impressions command a high price. The Rev. G-. F. Townsend, who edited no less than two entirely different ./Esopic collections in two years, one an adaptation of Croxall (1S66, now in the Ghandos Classics) toning down his ponderosities, the other a selection of 300 trans- lated from the Greek Prose iEsop (1S67), em- bellished the latter with some very passable designs of H. ^Yeir. Recently two of the best known illustrators of books have applied their skill to the ever young iEsop. If ever there was a man who seemed specially designed by enough they are all from the Fabulce extravagantes (iv. v. x.). Is it possible that they retain traces of a Middle Greek derivate of the original of Alfred's iEsop ? There are also a couple among the Nivernais folk-tales, collected by M. A. Millin in Archivio par trad. pop. iv. 196 JESOP IN ENGLAND. every natural gift to make ^Esop live again in line, tone, and colour, it was Randolph Calde- cott ; who that remembers his dog in Hie House that Jack Built, will deny the assertion ? Yet he denied it himself practically in his own attempt, which can scarcely be pronounced a success; perhaps he was too much taken up with his maladroit plan of accompanying each fable with a modern instance.' 55 ' Mr. Walter Crane has succeeded better in his Baby's Own JEsop, and has given us 65 admirable decorative designs taken from ^Esop. But he suffers from the malady of us all — over- seriousness, and has left out of his ingredients that pinch of humour that has savoured the fabulist and kept the iEsopic jests of the ancients sweet throughout the ages.t Their vitality and power in England have been shown in various ways. They have re- ceived the flattery of imitation from many * The plan may have been suggested by a similar col- lection done by Mr. Charles Bennet somewhere in the "sixties." Prof. Kankine performed a curious tour de force by inventing fables to correspond to well-known iun- signs, e.g., Pig and Whistle, Goat and Compasses, kc. f I have collated all the English editions here mentioned for the parallels : they will serve at least to show the relative popularity of each fable. JESOP STILL LIVING. 197 hands; only two of these many attempts at "original" fables deserve notice. John Gay tried to be the English Lafontaine, but de- parted from his model in attempting to add new fables instead of contenting himself with adorning the old; he only succeeded in one case, Tlie Hare with many Friends. In our own days Lord Lytton has tried to allegorise the complexities and subtleties of modern life in " Fables in Song," but the task was a hopeless one from the start. ^Esop's Fables have suf- fered too from the parodist* and the caricatu- rist, and in all the curious ways in which the modern world shows an inverted respect for things of old iEsop has shown that he has obtained a lasting hold on the minds of men, Vivu' volat per ora virum.t * The best of these I have seen is a little volume of Fables out of the [New York] World, by "G. Washington jEsop " but they are poor fooling at the best. f The fables live yet. I have noticed a couple of in- stances of effective use of them in Mr. Stevenson's latest masterpiece, The Master of Ballantrae (The Viper and File, p. 206, and The Goose with Golden Eggs, p. 300). 198 FABLIAU. Y.— FABLIAU, FACETIAE, FABLE. AlaioTTLKov yeXoiov 7} avfiapiTUibv. — Aristoph. Vesp. 1259. ©mnc genus fabularum probatur contra bomincs. ©.uis cnim malus nisi bomo. et quis bonus nisi bomo ? Komoxtjs II. ProL We have now commented upon all the sections of our Caxton which contain Beast-Fables pure and simple. There still remain two others which, interesting as they are in their way, have but slight connection with our subject, and must therefore be dismissed somewhat cavalierly. They owe their place in the Euro- pean zEsop to Stainhowel, who gives an elabo- rate but lame excuse for inserting them. At the same time they are both interesting in themselves, and illustrate a characteristic ten- dency of the fable which has clung to it throughout its history. For this reason I have retained them in the present reprint, especially as one of the Romulus fables has got mixed among them. The first set of Fabulce collectce, as Stainhowel called them, are a selection from the Disciplina clericalis of Petrus Alphonsus, a Spanish Jew, "DISCIPLINA CLERICALISM 199 of the beginning of the twelfth century. All that is known of him is that his Jewish name was Moses Sephardi (the Spaniard), and that he was baptized by the name of Petrus Alphon- sus under the auspices of Alfonso II. (Petrus Raimundus) in 11 06. He wrote an interesting set of dialogues between the old Adam of Moses Sephardi and the new man of Petrus Alphonsus, in order to convert the Jews. But he chiefly interests here as the compiler of a collection of tales from Jewish and Arabic sources, intended for seasoning to sermons, and so termed Dis- cvplina elericalis. There can have been few ladies attending service in those days, for few of the tales admit of being told " in the presence of Mrs. Boffin." They were extra- ordinarily popular, however, and spread through- out Europe from Spain to Iceland.* They are interesting for their early date, being the first set of Oriental tales to reach Europe. They introduced a new genre into European literature, * The only edition accessible of them is that appended to Gering's Islensk JEventyri. V. Schmidt's edition is rare, and that of the Societe des bibliophiles was almost "printed as MS.," as the Germans say. Schmidt's text was re- printed in vol. clvii. of that omnium gatherum, Migne's Patrologice Cursus. 200 FABLIAU. for Alfonso (Pere Aunfors) is the father of the Fabliau, and thus the grandfather of the Italian novel, and so an ancestor of the Elizabethan Drama. It is curious that the esprit gaulois of the Fabliaux is largely traceable to a book of translations from the Arabic originally in- tended for ghostly instruction, and so entitled.* The other set of the Fabulse Collects are a selection of the milder specimens of the Facetiae, of Poggio Bracciolini (1381—1459), apostolic secre- tary to eight successive Popes. He is still better known as one of the most indefatigable col- lectors of classical MSS. : almost all the editiones principes of the classic authors were made from MSS. collected by Poggio. The only MS. which he left of his own was a collection of anecdotes grivoises, which got into print some ten years after his death. They represent the Humanist reaction against the over-strained and somewhat sensual chastity of mediaeval Christianity. They are mostly tales of a kind * It is probable that Alfonso's collection was originally- much larger, and that many more of the fabliaux might be traced to it. De Castro speaks of the Escurial copy being in three books, a division of which there is no trace and for which there is opportunity in the thirty-nine tales of the extant collection. I regret I did not examine the MS. on my visit to the Escurial aliud agens, last year. POGGIO'S FACETIM. 201 which we do not tell or print now-a-days ; or which, to speak more frankly, we only tell when we are young and only print privately in limited editions of 1000 copies.* The few that have got into the Caxton have passed through the censorship of two Teutons, of colder and manlier mould than the apostolic secretary of eight popes, and I have merely had to omit one as being only suitable for the newspaper reports of the Court of Probate and Divorce. The Falmlx Collects represent a tendency by which the fable has been marked throughout its history. Throughout ancient times it was regarded as a species of the Jest, a kind of Eeast-Jest, as it were. This aspect is its point of contact with the Obscene Tale which has always been connected with it ; the Beast-Jest and the Beastly Jest go together. And both forms are just the kind of tale which passes easiest by word of mouth from men of one nationality to those of another. Sir Robert TTalpole gave the brutal excuse for the freedom of his talk that obscenities were the one topic * There is of course a whole literature of this kind, the mere description of which fills seven volumes of a Bibiw- graphie de I'amour, a veritable Cloaca Maxima of biblio- graphy. 202 FACETim. in which men of all shades of political opinion were interested after dinner. The folk-lorist has to recognise much the same with regard to the social intercourse of men of different nations. Hahn, in the admirable introduction to his collection of Griechisclie und albanesische Mdhrchen (1864), makes it a great point against the borrowing theory of the diffusion of folk- tales, that the only kind which he had observed to pass between men of various nationalities during his travels in the Levant, was the Schwank, Droll or Jest. It is accordingly im- portant from this point of view to emphasise the Jest-like nature of the Fable which thus becomes exempt from Hahn's objection to the borrowing theory. Perhaps, the secret of the matter is, that neither the Beast Tale nor the Obscene Jest touch upon any of the prejudices, local, national and religious, which separate the the various sections of mankind. They are both " universally human " to use the technical term of folk-lore; they both, let us rather say, appeal to the common animality of man. Meanwhile it is possible that the collections on which we are commenting have a connec- tion, somewhat closer than mere resemblance, SYBARITIC JESTS. 203 with the " Sybaritic Jests," which are so closely connected with ^Esop's Fables in antiquity. Alfonso's Discipline for the Clergy probably represents the offscourings of Levant talk into which some of the Milesian Tales of the ancients may have penetrated.* Poggio again was likely to be on the scent for the more malodorous portions of Latin literature, and his Facetice may preserve some that could trace back to the luxury and vice of Sybaris. This result would at any rate complete the repre- sentative character of our collection. The first four books of it can be traced back to Demet- rius' Assemblies of JEsopian Tales. The selec- tions from Eemicius and Avian preserve for us, it is probable, parts of the Lybian Tales of Kybises, the Fabulce Extravagantes represent the mediaeval iEsop of Alfred. Is it possible that the Fabliaux of Alfonso and the Facetiae of Poggio are in any way survivals of the Milesian and Sybaritic Jests that always went hand-in- hand with the Ancient Fable ? f * The latest account of these is by E. Ehode. Verhandl. d. 25, Phil.-sammlung, p. 66. + It was this contamination with broader elements that caused Luther to set about making- a cleaner collection of the albtrn, Kinderbuch so Esopus heisst. 204 FABLE. Having said so much of Fables, it only remains to say something about the Fable. For the dictionary-maker we may define it as a short humorous allegorical tale, in which animals act in such a way as to illustrate a simple moral truth or inculcate a wise maxim.* This definition, somewhat unwieldy, we fear, will distinguish the Beast- Fable from the Allegory proper by its shortness and its use of animal actors, and from the Parable by the latter char- acteristic and its humorous tinge. f Its anec- dotic character differentiates the Fable from the proverb, from which it is often otherwise diffi- cult to distinguish it. The Arabic proverb about the ostrich, They said to the camel-bird, " Fly ; " it said " I am a beast : " they said " Carry ; " it * Some fables, i.e., teach us an elementary lesson in moral psychology, others give us some advice in some of the simpler relations of life. It might be added that a literary comment in general adds the truth or maxim in the form of a Moral. f There are some good remarks on the distinction between the Fable and the Parable in Trench's Lessons on the Par- ables. He points out that the use of animals in the Fable prevents its application to the higher ethical relations of men with which the Parable mainly deals. It is probable that this may account for the Jewish neglect of the Fable, for which the Hebrews showed some aptitude in the earlier periods when the best minds of the nation were less strenu- ously occupied with the higher problems of life. DEFINITION OF FABLE. 205 said "lam a bird" is on the border-line between the two.* It is of more importance to distinguish the Beast- Fable from the Beast-Tale in general, and even from the Beast-Satire. It is a highly specialised form of the Beast-Tale, distinguished by its moral tendency. The Germans speak of a certain kind of novels as forming the class of Tendenz- Roman. The Fable, as we use the word,t is in a similar way what a German might call a Tendenz-Tier-Schivank, and may be further distinguished from the Beast-Satire by the characteristic that its '" tendency" is moral and not satirical. I may perhaps render clearer the distinctions I wish to make by giving them, more meo, in a genealogical table, in which, how- ever, the poverty of our folk-lore terminology will cause me, I fear, to use many a term of forbidding and Teutonic description. * Our proverb, A bird in the hand is worth two in the lush. is a Fable in petto. The ready passage of fable into proverb and vice versa shows the indistinctness of the border line between the two. Cf. supra p. 108. f Modern English has specialised it to apply only to the Beast-Fable, In earlier times it was applied to any tale. Dryden's Fables are stories of men and women, not of beasts. 2o6 FABLE. The Tale * ! Anecdcte ! 1 1 The Droll Fairy-Tale Myth 1 Jest 1 ! Obscene Jest Beast-Tale 1 1 Beast- Anecdote ! 1 Animistic Tendency-Beast- Beast-Tale Droll 1 1 Satiric Moral (e.g. Reynard, The Fable Uncle Remus) 1 1 Greek Indian "iEsopic " " Lybian " The Fable, according to this classification, is a Moral Tendency-Beast-Droll. It is impor- tant to make these somewhat fine distinctions, as much confusion has been caused in the discussion of the origin of the Fable by a neglect of them.f Writers who desire to make the Fable "universally human" point to animistic beast-tales or satiric beast-drolls in Polynesia, Caffraria, Assyria, and so on. But in so doing they leave out the differentia of the Fable, and forget that they have failed to find any moral tendency in their so-called * The classification is rough, and does not profess to be phylogenetic. f I must confess myself a sinner in this regard in my dis- cussion on this point in my Bidpai, pp. xxxix.-xlix. DIFFERENTIA OF FABLE. 207 Polynesian, Assyrian, or Hottentot Fables. Of course it is difficult to draw the distinction, and many animistic Beast-Tales and Beast- Satires occur in the collection of Fables we have been considering. The simplest criterion is perhaps to be found in Horace's line, Mutato nomine de te Fabula narrator. The best Greek and Indian Fables come home to one at once on the mere statement of the case, and this " coming home" quality is their characteristic. The artistic qualities needed to produce this effect are seemingly simple, but they have rarely been found cunningly mixed in the due propor- tions. The situation depicted in the action should be grotesque ; its very incongruity is part of the convention of the Fable. A crane with its neck voluntarily inserted halfway down a lion's throat, a jay bedecked with peacock's plumes, a mouse nibbling at a lion's toils ; these things never were on sea or land. It is therefore this un-nature that causes us to recognise that more is meant than meets the ear, that we are not merely going to hear a Beast- Anecdote (of which The Crow and Pitcher mav be taken as 2 o8 FABLE. a type). It depends upon the tone in which the extra-implication is suggested whether the Beast-Tale has become a Beast-Satire or a Beast-Fable. If the narrator slily points the finger of scorn at the world as it too often is — the world of self-interest, greed and cunning — the result is a Beast-Satire. If what is implied refers to the world of moral ends, the realm of self-abnegation, of gratitude, and of affection, we have a Beast-Fable. The choice of beasts as the medium of satire or morality naturally restricts the motives which can be depicted. The life of animals as observed by man, or at least by early man, is seemingly one monotonous round of greed, cruelty, revenge, and self-seek- ing, brightened only by parental joys. It is accordingly with those vices and this virtue that the Fable chiefly deals. All that is meant by culture — knowledge, beauty, love, considera- tion for others — is beyond its range. Hence the adaptation of the fable to the childish and childlike minds.* I may add that as part of the convention of the Fable we have types of virtues and vices represented by special * Its lessons, however, are not very elevating ; it is rather its humour that appeals most strongly. LIMITATIONS OF FABLE. 209 animals : courage by the lion, greed by the wolf, cunning by the fox, brute strength by the bear, innocence of the lamb, and so on. It is pos- sible that it was by this specialising of types that early man began his lessons in moral abstraction ; to him cunning was foxiness, ma?- naminity leonineity, cruelty wolfhood. Even to the present day we have no other way of re- ferring to one of the ruling motives in a capi- talistic society than by speaking of The Dog in the Manger. It follows from all this that the Fable is a highly specialised form of the universally human tendency to tell a Tale. We should not therefore be surprised if it only occurs in full vigour in one or two of the great civilisa- tions. We have seen sporadic examples of the Beast-Fable, or perhaps rather Beast-Satire, in Egypt, Judsea, Borne, and Arabia, but the Fable proper, in full and free development, is only found in Greece and India. This result at first sight seems to tell strongly in favour of Benfey's borrowing theory of the diffusion of folk-tales and of Herr Gruppe's " revela- tionist " views as to the origin of myths. But the highly specialised character of the Fable vol. 1. o 210 FABLE. prevents us from applying results obtained from consideration of its history to the more general question of origin, while its Droll character will explain its more easy trans- mission. These considerations minimise the general bearing of our results, which would otherwise be conclusively decisive in favour of Benfey, M. Cosquin, and Herr Gruppe. * The specialised character of the Fable again renders it difficult to speak of it in any abstract- or general way. We cannot speak of Fable in general when we only know of Greek and of Indian Fables in particular. This suggests that we may get more easily at their Wesen by studying their Werden. This is the more necessary, as hitherto we have told the tale of the Fable backwards more in the order of dis- covery f than of development, more in logical than chronological progression. The reader * Another point of difference is that the transmission of the Fable, so far as we can trace it, has been almost en- tirely literary. It is only in the early " Libyan " Fables that we seem to see any evidence of oral tradition of Fables from one nation to another. j- It may interest the reader to know that most of my new points occurred to me as I came to examine and write upon the various divisions of my subject. This will at anyrate be proof that I did not arrive at them a priori ia the interest of any particular theory. SHORT HISTORY OF FABLE. 211 will probably be glad to have the somewhat abstruse and complicated inquiries on which we have been engaged summed up for him in the shape of a Short History of the Fable.* Most nations develope the Beast-Tale as part of their folk-lore, some go further and apply it to satiric purposes, and a few nations afford isolated examples of the shaping of the Beast Tale to teach some moral truth by means of the Fable properly so-called. But only two peoples — independently — made this a general practice. Both in Greece and in India we find in the earliest literature such casual and frequent mention of Fables as seems to imply a body of Folk-Fables current among the people. And in both countries special circumstances raised the Fable from folk-lore into literature. In Greece during the epoch of the Tyrants, when free speech was dangerous, the Fable was largely used for political purposes. The inventor of this application or the most prominent user of it was one -ZEsop, a slave at Samos whose * It is well perhaps to warn the reader that two-thirds of the Short History of the Fable he is about to hear consists of discoveries or hypotheses of my own which have not yet gone through the ordeal of specialist criticism. 212 FABLE. name has ever since been connected with the Fable. When free speech was established in the Greek democracies, the custom of using Fables in harangues was continued and en- couraged by the rhetoricians (Arist. Rhet. ii. 20), while the mirth-producing qualities of the Fable caused it to be regarded as fit subject of after-dinner conversation along with other jests of a broader kind ("Milesian," "Sy- baritic") This habit of regarding the Fable as a form of the Jest intensified the tendency to connect it with a well-known name as in the case of our Joe Miller. About 300 B.C. Deme- trius Phalereus, whilom tyrant of Athens and founder of the Alexandria Library, collected together all the Fables he could find under the title of Assemblies of JEsopic Tales. This col- lection, running probably to some 200 Fables, after being interpolated and edited by the Alexandrine grammarians, was turned into neat Latin iambics by Phssdrus, a Greek freed- man of Augustus in the early years of the Christian era. In India the great ethical reformer, Saky- amuni, initiated (or adopted from the Brahmins) the habit of usinoj the Beast-Tale for moral IN GREECE AND INDIA. 213 purposes, or in other words, transformed it into the Fable proper. A collection of these seems to have existed independently in which the Fables were associated with the name of a mythical sage, Kasyapa.* These were appro- priated by the early Buddhists by the simple expedient of making Kasyapa the preceding incarnation of the Buddha. A number of his Uiahdsas or Tales were included in the sacred Buddhistic work containing the JdtaTcas or previous-births of the Buddha, in some of which the Bodisat (or future Buddha) appears as one of the Dramatis Persona? of the Fables (the Crane, e.g., in our Wolf and Crane being one of the incarnations of the Buddha). The Fables of Kasyapa or rather the moral verses (pathos) which served as a memoria tecJuiica to them were probably carried over to Ceylon in 241 B.C. along with the Jatakas. About 300 years later (say 50 a.d.) some 10c of these were brought by a Cingalese embassy to Alexandria, where they were translated under the title of "Libyan Fables," which had been earlier * Not to be confounded with Buddha's chief disciple of the same name, for whom see Mr. Rhys-Davids' Buddhism, pp. 59, 6i, 189. The identity of name may have helped the more easy appropriation of Kasyapa's Itiahdsas. 214 FABLE. applied to similar stories that had percolated to Hellas from India; they were attributed to " Kybises." This collection seems to have in- troduced the habit of summing up the teaching of a Fable in the Moral, corresponding to the gcitha of the Jatakas. About the end of the first century a. d. the Libyan Fables of "Kybises" became known to the Rabbinic school at Jabne founded by R. Jochanan ben Saccai and a number of the Fables translated into Aramaic and are still extant in the Talmud and Midrash. In the Roman world the two collections of Demetrius and "Kybises" were brought together by Nicostratus, a rhetor attached to the court of Marcus Aurelius. In the earlier part of the next century (c. 230 a.d.) this Corpus of the ancient fable, .zEsopic and Lybian, amounting in all to some 300 members, was done into Greek verse with Latin accentuation (choli- ambics) by Valerius Babrius, tutor to the young son of Alexander Severus. Still later, towards the end of the fourth century, forty-two of these, mainly of the Libyan section, were trans- lated into Latin by one Avian, with whom the ancient history of the Fable ends. IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 215 In the Middle Ages it was naturally the Latin Phsedrus that represented the ^-Esopic Fable to the learned world. A selection of some eighty fables was turned into indifferent prose in the ninth century, probably at the Schools of Charles the Great.* This was attri- buted to a fictitious Eomulus. Another collec- tion by Ademar of Chabannes was made before 1030, and still preserves some of the lines of the lost Fables of Phsedrus. The Fables became especially popular among the Normans. A number of them occur on the Bayeux Tapestry, and in the twelfth century England, the head of the Angevin empire, became the home of the Fable, all the important adaptations and ver- sions of iEsop being made in this country. One of these done into Latin verse by Walter the Englishman became the standard ^Esop of mediaeval Christendom. The same history ap- plies in large measure to the Fables of Avian, which were done into prose, transferred back into Latin verse, and sent forth through Europe from England.! * Of. Ebert, AUg. Litt. d. Mittelalters, ii. 32, 54- t I should perhaps have made some reference to a col- lection (Speculum Sapiential) associated with the name of St. Cyril, which is the most oridnal of the mediaeval sets 216 FABLE. Meanwhile Babrius had been suffering the same fate as Phaedrus. His scazons were turned into poor Greek prose, and selections of them passed as the original Fables of iEsop. Some fifty of these were selected, and with the addition of a dozen Oriental fables, were attri- buted to an imaginary Persian sage, Syntipas ; this collection was translated into Syriac, and thence into Arabic, where they passed under the name of the legendary Loqman (probably a doublet of Balaam). A still larger collection of the Greek prose versions got into Arabic, where it was enriched by some 60 fables from the Arabic Bidpai and other sources, but still passed under the name of iEsop. This collec- tion, containing 164 fables, was brought to England after the Third Crusade of Richard I., and translated into Latin by an Englishman named Alfred, with the aid of an Oxford Jew named Berachyah ha ISTakdan, who, on his own account, translated a number of the fables into Hebrew rhymed prose, under the Talmudic title of fables. Graesse has shown that it is of the thirteenth century. Why then does he still style it, with Nicholas of Perganaus' Dialogus Creaturaram, (of the fourteenth) Die beidea dltesten latein. Fabelbiicher d. Mittelalters (Stutt- gart, 1880) ? THE MODERN MSOP. 217 MisMe SJutalim (Fox Fables). Part of Alfred's iEsop was translated into English alliterative verse, and this again was translated about 1220 into French by Marie de France, who attributed the new fables to King Alfred. After her no important addition was made to the mediaeval iEsop. * With the invention of printing the European book of iEsop was compiled by Heinrich Stain- howel, who put together the Eomulus with selections from Avian, some of the Greek prose versions from Banuzio's translation, and a few from Alfred's iEsop. To these he added the legendary life of iEsop and a selection of some- what loose tales from Petrus Alphonsus and Poggio Bracciolini, corresponding to the Milesian and Sybaritic tales which were associated with the Fable in antiquity. Stainhowel translated all this into German, and within twenty years his collection had been turned into French, English (by Caxton, the book before us), Italian, Dutch, and Spanish. Additions were made to * The popularity of iEsop in the Middle Ages was due to the general predilection for allegorical teaching. This can be traced to the need of symbolical exegesis of the Old Testament. Cf. DiesteL Gesch. d. alt. Test, in christl. Kirche, 1869. 218 FABLE. it by Brandt and Waldis in Germany, by L' Estrange in England, and by Lafontaine in France; these were chiefly from the larger Greek collections published after Stainhowel's day, and, in the case of Lafontaine, from Bidpai and other Oriental sources. But these additions have rarely taken hold, and the .ZEsop of modern Europe is in large measure Stainhowel's, even to the present day. Selections from it passed into spelling and reading books, and made the Fables part of modern European folk-lore.* We may conclude this history of iEsop with a similar account of the progress of iEsopic in- vestigation. First came collection ; the Greek iEsop was brought together by Neveletus in 1610, the Latin by Nilant in 1709. The main truth about the former was laid down by the master-hand of Bentley ; the equally great critic Lessing began to unravel the many knotty points connected with the mediaeval Latin iEsop. His * An episode in the history of the modern iEsop deserves record, if only to illustrate the law that JEsop always begins his career as a political weapon in a new home. When a selection of the Fables were translated into Chinese in 1840 they became favourite reading with the officials, till a high dignitary said, "This is clearly directed against us," and ordered iEsop to be included in the Chinese Index Expur- gatorius (R. Morris, Cont. Rev. xxxix. p. 731). JESOPIC INVESTIGATION. 219 investigations have been carried on and com- pleted by three Frenchmen in the present cen- tury, Robert, Du Meril, and Hervieux; while three Germans, Crusius, Benfey, and Mall, have thrown much needed light on Babrius, on the Oriental ^Esop, and on Marie de France.* Lastly, an Englishman has in the present pages brought together these various lines of inquiry, and by adding a few threads of his own.f has been able to weave them all for the first time into a consistent pattern, which, he is painfully aware, is sadly wanting in grace and finish, but which, he trusts, will not need henceforth to be entirely unravelled. So much for the past of the Fable. Has it a future as a mode of literary expression ? Scarcely ; its method is at once too simple and too roundabout. Too roundabout; for the truths we have to tell we prefer to speak out directly * These are the chief names ; others, like Landsberger, Wagener, and Oesterley, approach them near. The Index contains, I believe, every name that has contributed any suggestion of importance to ^Esopic research. f For these see Preface, p. xvi. I might have added some hundreds of new parallels recorded during the course of this essay and in the Appendix and Synopsis. But these crop up as part of the day's work with every serious student, and, apart from their bearing on some general line of argument, are merely Curiosities of Literature. 22o FABLE. and not by way of allegory. And the truths the Fable has to teach are too simple to corre- spond to the facts of our complex civilisation ; its rude graffiti of human nature cannot repro- duce the subtle gradations of modern life. But as we all pass through in our lives the various stages of ancestral culture, there comes a time when these rough sketches of life have their appeal to us as they had for our forefathers. The allegory gives us a pleasing and not too strenuous stimulation of the intellectual powers; the lesson is not too complicated for childlike minds. Indeed, in their grotesque grace, in their quaint humour, in their trust in the simpler virtues, in their insight into the cruder vices, in their innocence of the fact of sex, ^Esop's Fables are as little children. They are as little children, and for that reason they will for ever find a home in the heaven of little children's souls. APPENDIX.* THE ARABIC vESOP (Paris MS.). MS. Supplemente Arabe, No. 1644. On Title page in pencil "Fables d'Esope." Rather modern manuscript. Headings in red. Each fable is repeated twice. The story is generally the same ; but the moral different. The second redaction seems generally to be shorter than the first. LIST OF FABLES. 1. Eagle and Fox (Ro. i. 13, Synt. 24, Soph. 25). 2. Fox and Goat (Re. 3, cf. 79). 3. Eagle and Scarabseus (? Ro. i. 14). 4. Fox and Lion (? Ro. i. 4, Soph. 26, cf. 109). 5. Nightingale and Sparrow-Hawk (Ro. iii. 5). 6. "Weasel and Hen (? Re. 4). 7. Fox [commences "A fox was made prisoner in a net. Its tail was cut off and it fled ; and on account of its great shame it made use of a stratagem, &c."] (Halm, 46). 8. Fox and Hanging-Lamp. 9. Hens and Partridge (Halm, 22). 10. Hunter of Birds and the Yiper (Halm, 275). n. Fox and Crocodile (Halm, * Kindly communicated by Dr. R. Gottheil, who desires it to be understood that the translation of the titles is merely tentative, as he had no time to study the contents of the MS. or revise the translatian. I have added identifications of about two-thirds of the Fables, so far as the mere titles rendered this possible. 222 APPENDIX. 37). 12. The "Writing Beast (? ?). 13. Fox [commences "A fox went into the shop of a certain man, &c."] (? Ro. ii. 14). 14. Conceited man (Halm, 203). 15. Charcoal- burner and Fuller (Halm, 59). 16. He who promised that which was impossible. 17. Frogs (? Eo. ii. 1). 18. Two Hunters (? Av. 8). 19. Old Man and Death (Halm, 90, Synt. 2, Soph, 3). 20. Decrepit Old Man and Physician (cf. 30). 21. Husbandman and his Children (? Ex. v. 13). 22. Man and Dogs (? Halm, 95). 23. Widow and Hen (? Av. 24, Loq. 12, Soph. 61). 24. Wicked Man (Halm, 55). 25. The Accidents of Fortune (? Halm, 316). 26. Enemies (Halm, 144). 27. Mouse and Cat (? Re. 8, Soph. 39). 28. Fox and Louse .(? iEsop's Fable, supra, p. 28). 29. Dolphin and Fish (Halm, 116). 30. Physician and Sick-man (Halm, 169, cf. 20, 39). 31. Dog and Wolf (Ro. iii. 15). 32. Dog and Hen (Halm, 22 S)- 33- Lion and Gift (or fetter). 34. Cook and Dog (Halm, 232). 35. Lion, Ass, and Fox (Ass' Heart, xxi.). 36. Lion and Bear (? Halm, 247). 37. Butcher. 38. Dove and Ant (Re. n). 39. Sick-man and Physician (cf. 30). 40. Ass and Husbandman (Ro. iii. 18). 41. Hunter and Sparrow. 42. Executor (?). 43. Young Man and his Mother (Re. 14, cf. 130). 44. Tiller and the Sea (Halm, 94). 45. Pome- granate and Apple. 46. Peacock and the Raven (Ro. ii. 15, Soph. 56). 47. Sow and the Fox (? Ro. ii. 4). 48. Mole (? Furia, 177). 49. Bad Grapes and the Chamois. 50. Swallow and the Bat. 51. Bird and the Child (? Ealila, c. ix.). 52. Hornets and ?. 53. Hares and Frogs (Ro. ii. 8). 54. Ass and Horse (Ro. iii. 3). 55. Tortoise and Eagle (Av. 2). 56. Lover of Gold (Halm, 412). 57. Goose and the Sparrow-hawk (? Halm, 170). 58. Man and the Flea (Re. 15). 59. Men and Stag. 60. Stag and Mortar (? Halm, 227). 61. Stag and Lion (Halm, 128, 129). 62. APPENDIX. 223 The Lion, Ass, and the Hen (Halm, 323). 63. Dog and the Husbandman (? Soph. 67). 64. Sow and the Bitch (Halm, 409). 65. Lion and the Wolf (? Halm, 255). 66. Serpent and the Lobster (cf. 144). 67. Tiller and the "Wolf (? Halm, 2S3). 63. Eagle and the C4eese. 69. Lobster and the Fox (? Halm, 36). 70. Man and his Wife [commenc- ing : "A woman had a drunken husband, &c."] (Halm, 108). 71. The Abyssinian (Loq. 17, 23, Soph. i. 59). 72. Divining Woman (? Halm, 112). 7^. Woman and her Slaves (? Halm, no). 74. Cricket (? Halm, 400). 75. Snail (? Halm, 214). 76. Cat and the ?. 77. Tiller. 78. Wolves and the Honey. 79. Goat and the Wolf (cf. 2). 80. Two Men [commences : "Two men were walking on a road when one of them found a bird. Then the other one turned to him, &c."]. 81. Man and the Dogs. 82. Singer. 83. Eaven and Serpent (Halm, 207). 84. Eaven [com- mences : "A man seized a raven and bound its foot, &c."]. 85. Man and Savage (Av. 22). 86. Hermes (?) and Zeus (?) (Furia, 365). 87. Wolf and Darkness. 88. EobberandHen (Halm, 195). 89. Hares. 90. Ant [commences " In olden times they imagined that the ant was formerly a dissatisfied husbandman, ic."] 91. Eaven and Turtle-dove. 92. Ass and Fox (?Eo. iv. 13). 93. Ass and Eaven (?Halm, 330). 94. Wild Ass (Halm, 321). 95. Hen and Swallow. 96. Ser- pent. 97. Dove. 98. Eaven and its Mother (Eo. i. 19). 99. Ass and? 100. Ass and Frogs (Halm, 327). 101. Collec- tors^). 102. Ass and Fox (?Eo. iv. 13, cf. 92). 103. Camel and Men (? Halm, 180). 104. Dove and Eaven. 105. Eich Man and his two Sons. 106. Tiller. 107. Eagle (? Halm, 4). 108. Hunter and Fish (? Av. 16). 109. Lion and Fox (cf. 4, Soph. 45). no. Man and Image (Ee. 6, Sopb. 52). in. Olive and Standard (or "boundary-post"'?) (? Halm, 124). 112. Eye-tooth (?) and Sparrow-Hawk. 224 APPENDIX. 113. Man, Dog, and their Fellows. 114. Foolish Hunter. 115. Bulls and Lion (Av. 14, Synt. 13, Soph. 17). 116. Circle (?) and Fox (?Ro. ii. 14). 117. Man and Hen (Synt. 27, Soph. 30). 118. Cricket and Ant (Ro. iv. 17, Synt. 1, Soph. 2). 119. Goat and Eye-Tooth (?). 120. Plougher and Serpent (Ro. i. 10). 121. Bear and Old Woman. 122. Trumpet-blower (Av. -Ellis, 39). 123. Mule (Halm, 157). 124. Ass. 125. Man and Woman. 126. Man and his Daughter. 127. Camel and Lion. 128. Lion and Pig. 129. Lion and Mouse (Ro. i. 18, Soph. 27). 130. Young Man and his Mother (cf. 43). 131. Fox and Thorn-bush (Re. 5). 132. Raven and Fox (Ro. i. 15). 133. Two Fishes. 134. Bustard. 135. Gazelle. 136. Two Imbeciles. 137. Man and Scorpion (] Soph. 34). 138. Camel (Halm, 180-2). 139. Astronomer (Halm, 72). 140. Ox. 141. Ass. 142. Dog. 143. Serpent and Plougher (? Ro. ii. 10, Loq. 24, Soph. 12). 144. Boa and Lobster {cf 66). INDEX OF FABLES. Ro. =four books of "Romulus;" Ex. V. = Extra vagantes, here Book V. ; Re. = Remicius ; Av. = Avian; Al. =Alphonse ; Po. = Poggio; asterisks mark illustrations; Arabic figures indicate pages of vol. ii. Axdroclus, see Lion and shepherd Ant and fly, Ro. II., xvii. 55 Ant and dove, Re., xi. 206 Ant and grasshopper, Ro. IV., xvii. 123 Ape and fox, Ro. III., xvii. 94 Ape and son, Av., xi. 229 Ape and two children, Av., xxv. 246 Ass and boar, see Lion and ass Ass and horse, Ro. III., iii. 67 Ass and lion, P.O. IV., x. 115 Ass and sick lion, see Lion, wild boar, &c. Ass and wolf, Ro. IV., xiii. 119 *Ass and lap-dog, Ro. L, xvii. 24 *Ass in lion's skin, Av. , iv. 219 Bald man and fly, Ro. II., xii. 48 Bat, birds, and beasts, Ro. III., iv. 70 Bawd and kitten, Al., xi. 281 Bee and Jupiter, Re., xii. 207 VOL. I. Belly and members, Ro. III., xvi. 92 Bitches, two, Ro. I., ix. 14 Blind man and wife, Al., xii. 285 Boar and wolf, Ex.V., ii. 130 Bush and aubier tree, Av., xv. 234 [Fir and bramble] Butcher and wethers, Ro. IV., vi. 109 Camel and flea, Ro. IV., xvi. 122 Camel and Jupiter, Av., vii. 224 [asking for horns] Carpenter, Re., xiii. 208 Cat and chicken, Re., iv. 197 Cat and rat, Re., viii. , 202 Cock and precious stone, Ro. L, i. 4 Crabs, old and young, Av., iii. 218 Crane and peacock, Av., xii. 230 *Crow and pitcher, Av. , xx. 240 P 226 INDEX OF FABLES. Debtor, Po., [ix.] 310 Disciple and sheep, Al., viii. 274 Dog and shadow, Ro. I., v. 10 Dog and sheep, Ro. I., iv. 8 Dog in manger, Ex.V. , xi. 165 Dog, old, and master, Ro. II., vii. 40 Dog, wolf, and wether, Ex.V., xv. 180 Dogs, two, Av. , vi. 222 Doves, kite, and sparrow- hawk, Ro. II., ii. 34 Dragon and hart, Ex.V., iv. 134 Dream-bread, Al., v. 266 Eagle and fox, Ro. I. , xiii. 19 Eagle and raven, Re., i. 191 Eagle and weasel, Re., ii. 193 Eagle with nut and raven, Ro. I., xiv. 20 Ephesian widow, Ro. III., ix. 79 Falconer and birds, Ro. IV., vii. no Father and bad son, Ro. III., xi. 84 Father and three sons, Ex.V., xiii. 172 Fellows, two, Av., viii. 225 Fir and bramble, see Bush and aubier Fisher, Re., vii. 201 Fisher and little fish, Av., xvi. 235 Flea and man, Re., xv. 212 Fox and bush, Re., v. 199 Fox and cat, Ex.V, v. 137 Fox and cock, Ex.V., iii. 132 Fox, cock, and dogs, Po., vii. 3°7 Fox and crow, see Raven and fox Fox and goat, Re., iii. 195 *Fox and grapes, Ro. IV., i. 100 Fox and lion, Ro. IV., xii. 117 Fox and mask, see Wolf and skull *Fox and stork, Ro. II. , xiii. 49 Fox and wolf, Ro. III., vi. 74 Fox, wolf, and lion, Ex.V., ix. 149 Friendship, rare, Al., i. 247 Frog and fox, Av., v. 221 *Frogs and Jupiter, Ro. II., i. 3 2 Genoese, Po. [x.] 312 *Goat and wolf, Ex.V., vi. 139 Goose with golden eggs, Av., xxiv. 245 Hares and frogs, Ro. II., viii. 42 Hart and hunter, Ro. III., vii. 76 Hart and ox, Ro. III., xix. 96 Hart, sheep, and wolf, Ro. II., xi. 47 Hawk and birds, Ro. IV., xi. 116 Hedgehog and kids, Ro. IV., xiv. 120 Horse, hunter, and hart, Ro. IV., ix. 113 Hunter and tiger, Av. , xiii. 231 Hunting and hawking, Po., iv. 297 *Husband and two wives, Re., xvi. 213 Husband, wife, and mother- in-law, Al., x. 279 Jay and peacock, Ro. II., xv. 52 Juno, peacock, and nightin- gale, Ro. IV., iv. 105 INDEX OF FABLES. 227 Juno, Venus, and goddesses, Ro. III., viii. 78 King of apes, Ro. IV., viii. in King log and king stork, see Frogs desiring king Knight and servant, Ex.V. , xvii. 183 Knight and [Ephesian]widow, Ro. III., ix. 79 Labourer and children, Re., xvii. 215 Labourer and nightingale, Al. , vi. 269 Labourer and pielarg, Re. , ix. 204 Lion and ape, Ro. III., xx. 98 Lion and ass, Ro. I., xi. 16 Lion and bull, Av. , x. 228 Lion, cow, goat, and sheep, Ro. I., vi. 11 [Lion's share] Lion and goat, Av. , xix. 239 Lion and horse, Ro. III., ii. 65 Lion and rat (mouse), Ro. I., xviii. 26 Lion and shepherd, Ro. III., i. 62 [Androcius] Lion and statue, see Man and lion Lion, wild bear, bull, and ass, Ro. I., xvi. 22 Lye of oil, Al., Hi 259 Man. good, and serpent, Ro. II., x. 45 Man and lion, Ro. IV., xv. 121 [statue] Man, lion, and son, Ex.V., xvi. 183 Man and serpent, Ro. I. , x. 15 Man and weasel, Ro. II., xix. 59 Man and wood. Ro. III., xiv. 89 Man and wood-god, Re., vi. 200 Marriage of sun. see Thief and sun Merchant and ass, Ro. III., xviii. 95 Milvan and mother, Ro. I., xix. 28 Money found, Al., iv. 263 Money recovered, Al. , ii. 256 Monsters, Po. , v. 301 Mountain in labour, Ro. II., v. 38 Mouse, town and country, Ro. I., xii. 17 Mule, fox, and wolf, Ex.V., i. 128 Mule and fly, Ro. II., xvi. 54 Nightingale and sparrow- hawk, Ro. III., v. 72 Nulla vestigia, see Fox and lion Oak and reeds, see Tree and reeds Ox and frog, Ro. II., xx. 61 Ox and rat, Av. , xxiii. 244 Oxen, four (and lion), Av., xiv. 233 Palmer and satyr (blow hot and cold), Av. , xxii. 242 Panther and villains, Ro. IV. v. 107 Parson, dog, and bishop, Po. , vi 305 Phoebus, avaricious and envi- ous man, Av., xvii. 236 Pilgrim and sword, Ro. IV., xviii. 128 Pillmaker, Po., [xi.] 313 Piper turned fisherman, see Fisher 228 INDEX OF FABLES. Pot, copper and earthen, Av., ix. 227 Priests, worldly and unworldly, Caxton, 315 Rat and frog, Ro. I. , iii. 7 Raven and fox, Ro. J. , xv. 21 Rhetorician and crookback, Al., vii. 272 Satyr and man, see Palmer and satyr Serpent and file, Ro. III., xii. 86 Serpent and labourer, Ev.V., viii. 144 Sheep and crow, Ro IV., xix. 125 Shepherd boy (wolf!), Re., x. 205 Sow and wolf, Ro. II., iv. 37 Stag in oxstall, see Hart and ox Swallow and birds, Ro. I., xx. 29 Tailor and king, Al., xiii. 288 Thief and dog, Ro. II., iii. 35 Thief and mother, Re., xiv. 210 Thief and sun, Ro. I., vii. 12 Thief and weeping child, Av., xviii. 238 Tortoise and birds, Av., ii. 217 Town and country mouse, see Mouse Tree and reed, Ro. IV., xx. 126 Villain* and young bull, Av., xxi. 241 Viper and file, see Serpent and file Weasel and rat, Ro. IV., ii. 102 Widow, Po., [xii.] 314 Wind and earthen pot, Av., xxvi., 247 Wolf and ass, Ex.V, vii. 141 Wolf and crane, Ro. I., viii. J 3 Wolf and dog, Ro. III., xv. go Wolf and fox, Ex.V., xiv. 176 Wolf, fox, and ape, Ro. II., xviii. 57 Wolf and hungry dog, Ex.V., xii. 166 Wolf and kid, Ro. II., ix. 44 Wolf, labourer, fox, and cheese, Al., ix. 276 *Wolf and lamb, Ro. I. , ii. 5 Wolf and lamb, Ro. II., vi. 39 [and goat] Wolf and lamb, Av., xxvii., 248 [kid] Wolf and nurse, see Woman, old Wolf, repentant, Ex.V, x. 156 Wolf, shepherd, and hunter, Ro. IV. iii., 103 Wolf and skull, Ro. II., xiv., Si Wolves and sheep, Ro. III., xiii. 87 Woman and Holy Ghost, Po. , i. 292 Woman and hypocrite, Po., ii. 294 Woman, old, and wolf, Av., i. 216 Women, two, Po., [viii.] 309 Young man and whore, Ro. III., x. 82 Young woman and husband, Po., iii. 296 SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. " So the tales were told ages before AZsoj>; and asses under lion's manes roared in Hebrew : and sly foxes flattered in Etrus- can ; and wolves in sheet's clothing gnashed their teeth in Sanskrit, no doubt." — Thackeray, Newcomes, ch. i. [Unless otherwise mentioned, the whole of the Fables are found in the same order and with the same enumeration in the German of Stainhowel, the Latin by Sorg, the Dutch Esopus, Spanish Ysopo, the Italian of Tuppo, and the French of Machault. The same applies to ' Romulus ' for the first four books. The arrangement of Parallels is— I. The Orient ; II. Classical Antiquity, including the Greek prose versions ("^Esop," ed. Halm) which belong to, III. Medieval, to the invention of printing ; IV. Modern Foreign, including a few writers like Boccaccio, who would belong formally to preceding period : my secondary sources are given at the end of this section ; V. Modern English. The ancient and mediaeval parallels are given nearly in extenso : for later appearances in Continental collections reference is made to Oesterley and Robert, who give the Teutonic and Romance literatures respectively : a few items of literary interest are sometimes selected from these sources. The English parallels are mainly from the collections of Ogilby (Og.), L' Estrange (L.), Croxall (C), James (J.), Townsend (T.), Caldecott (Cald.). and Crane (Cr. ) ; the last only by page, the rest by number. Mav. indicates that the Fables to which it J is appended occur in Mavor's Spelling Book. As a specimen of what I might have inflicted on the reader I have treated The Wolf and Crane (Ro. I. viii. ) with some fulness, giving 2 3 o SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. the editions I have used. This and the Index and Pedigree may supply the place of a bibliographical list. Many of the fables are discussed or referred to in the Introduction : for these see Index. LIBER PRIMUS. Ro. I. Prologue. [' Romulus, son of Thybere,' was possibly a common noun at the beginning, representing the tradition that some Roman had translated the Fables from the Greek. As a matter of fact, the four books associated with the name of ' Romulus ' are simply paraphrases of Phaedrus.] Ro. L, i. — Cock and Precious Stone. I. Bidpai, ed. Galland, iii. 157 ; Sadi, ed. Graf, 101. II. Phsed., iii. 12. III. Rufus, v. 6, 7 ; Ademar, 1 ; Marie de France, 1 ; Berachyah Hanakdan, Mishle Shualim (Heb.), 4; Ysopet, I. 1 (Robert, i. 82); Hidoth Izopiti (Heb.) 1; Galfred, 1 ; Wright, i. 1 ; Vincentius Bellovacensis, Specu- lum morale, 30 ; Boner, Edelstein* 1 ; Bromyard, Summa Predicant, A. 26, 32. IV. Rabelais, i. prol. ; Luther, Fabeln, 1 ; Waldis, Esopus, i. 1 ; Kirchhof, Wendenmuth, vii. 3 ; Lafontaine, i. 20 ; Lessing, Fabeln, ii. 9 ; Krilof , ii. 18 ; Robert, i. 81 ; Oesterleyon Kirchhof; Steinschneider, Ysopet, 361 ; De Gubernatis, Zool. Myth., ii. 291. V. Bacon, Essays xiii. ; L. 1, C. 1, J. 13, T. 44; Cald. 13 ; Cr. 10. Cf. W. C. Hazlitt. Eng. Proverbs. A barleycorn, &c. Ro. I., ii. — The Wolf and the Lamb. I. Dipt Jtitaka, supra V. , p. 62-4; Kahghur, iv. 87; Schiefner (tr. Ralston) Tibet. Tales, xxix. ; Bleek, Reineke Fuchs in Afrika, xxv. (in Madagascar). Cf. Tutinameh, ed. Rosen, i. 229. II. y£sop. Halm, 274 ; Babrius, 89 ; Phaed., i. 1. III. Bayeux Tapestry (e Comte), pi. iv. ; Ruf., i. 1 ; Adem,, 3 ; Vine. Bell., spec, hist., 2, 3 ; doct., 4, 114 ; * Boner's collection received its title from this fable. Cf. Carlyle Miscell. ii. 280. Ro. I., i. — Ro. I., v. 231 Galf., 2 ; Bromyard, A., 12, 45 ; Neckam, 10 ; Dial Creat. , 51; Odo de Cerington, 67 ; Marie, 2 ; Berachyah, 3 ; Ysop. , I. 2, II. 10 (Rob., 1. 58, 60) ; Izopiti (Heb.), 2; Gabrias, 35 ; Wright, Latin Stories (Percy Soc), App. I., i. 2 ; Boner, 5. IV. H. Sachs, i. 5, p. 485 ; Geller, Narrenschiff, 78 ; Luther, 2 ; Waldis, i. 2 ; Krilof, i. 13 ; Lafontaine, i. 10 ; Robert, ad. loc. ; Kirchhof, i. 57 (vii. 37) ; Oesterley, ad. loc. ; Kurz, ad. loc. V. Shakespeare, Henry IV., i. 8, L. 3, C. 2, Mavor 6. J. 27, T. 1. Cald., 2 ; Cr. 10. Ro. I., ill. — Rat and Frog. I. Anvari Suhailitr. Eastwick, 133 (Benf. , i. 223 ); Talmud, Nedar, 41a (Bacher, Agada d. Amor., 42, Gaster, Beitr., ix.) ; Wagener- Weber, No. 9 [Frog and Scorpion] ; Bidpai, 3, p. 87. II. ^Esop. Halm, 298; Babrius-Gitlb. , 182; Phaed., Burm. App., 6; Dositheus, 6. III. Rufus, i. 3; Adem. , 4; Vine. Bell., s. hist., iii. 2 ; doct. , iv. 114; Galf., 3 ; Wright, i. 3 ; Neckam, 6 ; Bromyard, P. 13, 37 ; Odo, 19; Dial. Creat., 107; Sea la cell, 73; Enxemplos, 301; Marie, 3 ; Berachyah, 2 ; Ysop., I. 3, II. 6 (R. i. 259, 261) ; Izopiti, 3 ; Boner, 6 ; Hita, 397 ; Deschamps, podsies, 196. IV. Waldis, i. 3 ; Kurz, ad. loc. ; Kirchhof, Wendenmuth, vii. 71 ; Oesterley, ad. loc. ; Luther, 3 ; Lafontaine, iv. 11 ; Rob., ad. loc; Steinschneider, Ysopet, 360; Mdril, 180. V. L. 4, T. 53. Ro. I., iv. — Dog and Sheep. II. Phaed., i. 17. III. Ruf., i. 2; Adem., 5; Wright, i. 4; Marie, 4; Berachyah, 7; Izopiti, 4; Bromyard, P. 2, 3 ; Neckam, 15 ; Galf., 4 ; Boner, 7. IV. Luther, 4 ; Wald., i. 48 ; Oesterley on Rom., i. 4 ; Steinschneider, Ysopet, 360 ; Menl, 158. V. C. 130, T. 68. Ro. I., v. — Dog and Shadow. I. Culladhanuggaha Jdtaka, supra III. pp. 58-60; Wag- ener- Weber, No. 4 ; Avadanas Julien, ii. 6, 11 ; Pantscha- tantra, iv. 8andplls. ; Loqman, 41 ; Sophos, 31 ; Tutinameh, 232 SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. ii. 4, 117, 265. II. JEsop. H., 233 ; Babr., 79; Democritus, fr. ed. Mull., 169 ; Syntipas, 26; Dositheus, 11 ; Phsed., i. 4; Aphthon., 35. III. Gab., 28 ; Vine. Bell., hist., iii. 2; doct., iv. 115; Dial. Creat., 100; Bromyard, A. 27, 14; Wright, i. 5 ; Neck., 13 ; Marie, 5 ; Ysopet, i. 5, ii. 11 ; Galf., 5 ; Berach., 5 ; Izopiti, 5; Hita, 216. IV. Fischart, Gargantua, 36 ; Luther, 5 ; Lafontaine, vi. 17 ; cf. vii. 4 ; Robert, ad. loc. ; Wald., i. 4; Kirchhof, ii. 35 (vii. 129); Pauli, Schimpf und Ernst, 426 ; Oesterley, ad. loc. ; Steins., Ysopet, 362 ; Kurz, ad loc. ; Ogilby, 2 ; V. L. 6, C. 5, J. 24, T. 118; Mav. 4; Cr. 37. Ro. I., vi. — Lion's Share. I. Ausland, 1859, p. 927 (among Tuaregs in North Africa, Benf. i. 354). II. ^Esop, H. 258 ; Phsed., i. 5; Babr., 67 ; Abstem., 186. III. Ruf., i. 7 ; Adem., 9 ; Vine. Bell., hist., 3, 2 ; doct., 4, 116 ; Dial. Creat., Marie, n, 12 ; Berachyah, 12, 52 ; Ysopet, I. 6, II. 9 (Rob. i. 34, 36) ; Izop. (Heb.), 6 ; Bromy., M. 9,2; Neck., 9; Wright, i. 6, 7 ; Galf., 6; Boner, 8. IV. Luther, 6 ; Reineke, 5412-86 ; Waldis, i. 5 ; Kirch., vii. 23 (24) ; Oesterley, ad. loc. ; Lessing, Fabeln, ii. 26; Goethe, xl. 182; Goedeke, Mittelalter, 641; Steins., Ysop., 360; Mgril, 183. V. L. 7, C. 6, J. 97; Cald., 10. Cf. expr. " lion's share." Ro. L, vii. — Thief and Sun. II. ;Esop, H. 77; Phsed., i. 6; Babr., 24. III. Ruf., i. 8 ; Adem., 10 ; Bromy., D. 12, 21 ; Scala, 115 ; Marie, 6 ; Berach., 76; Ysop., i. 7; ii. 16; hop. 7; Gabr., 20; Galf., 7; Neck., 17 ; Boner, 11. IV. Luther, 5; Waldis, iii. 61 ; Pauli, 498; Lafont., vi. 12; Oest. Steins, and Robert, ad loc. ; Ghivizzani, i. p. 4 ; ii. p. 20; M6ril, 189. V. J., 103 (marriage of sun). Ro. I. viii. — Wolf and Crane. I. The Orient : Javasakuna Jdtaka (Lion and Crane), supra I. pp. 55, 56 (V. Fausboll, Five Jdtakas, pp. 35-38) ; Ro. I., vi. — Ro. I., viii. 233 Schiefner, Thibetan Tales (tr. Ralston), No. xxiii. The Un- grateful Lion (and Woodpecker) ; De la Loubere, Royaume dt Siam, Amsterd. , 1691, ii. 20* {ap. Grimm, Reineke Fuchs , cclxxxi.); Wagener, M£m. Bruss. Acad., 1854, No. xiv. ; Weber, Ind. Stud., iii. 350; Bereshith Rabba, c. 64, ad fin. supra, pp. 117-118 (Lion for Wolf) (Wuensche, Bibl. rabb., i. 308); Bochart, Hieroz. I. xii. ; Dukes Isr. Ann., 1839, p. 244; Dr. Back, ap. Graetz, Monatsft., 1876, 197-204; Lewysolm, Zool. d. Talm., 375; Hamburger, Realencycl. d. Talm., s.v. Fab el ; Landsberger, Fabeln des Sophos, p. xxx. ; Graetz, Gesch. d. Juden., iv. 2 142; Steinschneider, Jahrb. rotn. eng. Phil, neue Folge, i. 363. II. Classical Antiquity : Phsed., i. 8, ed. Riese(Wolf) supra, p. 7 ; Babrius, ed. Rutherford, 94, ed. Gitlbauer, ib. (Heron) ; Gk. prose JEsop, ed. Coraes, 144, [ter, cf. p. 342), ed. Furia, 94, 102, ed. Halm, 276b, Schneider, 153 (H. 276, Heron for Crane), Knoell, 84 '; Aphthonius, 25 [cf. tradi- tion of crocodile and ichneumon, Herod., ii. 68 (Lang, Futerpe, 68); Aristot., Hist. Anim., ix. 6; .'Elian, iii. 7, viii. 25] ; Gr. Proverb, e/c \vkov , 235; Babr., 84. III. Gab., 29; Galf., 36; Marie ap Legrand, iv. 317; Boner, 40. IV. Wald. , iii. 84 ; Lafont., vii. 9 ; Kurz. Ro. II., xvii. — Ant and Fly. II. Ph., iv. 24. III. Adem. , 27 ; Vine. Bell., d. 4, 119; Marie, 86; Ysop., I. 36; Galf., 37; Brom., M., 8, 30. IV, H. Sachs, ii. 4, 74; Kirch., vi. 275; Wald. i. 30; Lafont. , iv. 3 ; Rob. , Oest. V. L. 34, C. 27, T. 72. Ro. II., xviii.— Wolf, Fox, and Ape. II. Ph., i. 10. III. Adem., 28 ; Galf., 38 ; Marie, 89. Ro. II. xix. — Man and Weasel. II. Ph., i. 22; cf. y£sop., 100; Babr., 33. III. Ruf., ii. 9 ; Adem., 29 ; Galf., 39 ; Boner, 45 ; Brom., A., 12, 15. IV. Kirch., vii. 92, cf. 93; Oest. V. C. 169. Ro. II., xx. — Ox and Frog. I. Bidpai Card., iii. 323 ; II. JEsop. , 84 ; Ph. , i. 24 ; Babr. , 28 ; Hor. , Sat. , ii. 3, 314 ; Mart. , x. 79 ; Theon. Soph. , 3 ; Ro. II., xvi. — Ro. III., iii. 243 Aphthon., 31. III. Adem., 33; Marie, 65; Ysop., I. 39; Dial. Creat., 42; Galf., 40; Renard le contr., 129; Vine. BelL, h. 3, 5, d. 4, 119; Hita, 275. IV. Luther, vi. 208; Sat. minip., 109 ; Wald., i. 31 ; Kirch., vii. 53 {cf. ii. 137) ; Lafont., i. 3; Rob., Kurz. V. C. 11, J. 34, T. 38 ; Cald., 19 ; Cr., 18 ; Carlyle, Mise, ii. 283 {fr. Boner). Thackeray, Newcomes, i. LIBER TERTIUS. Ro. III., i.— Lion and Shepherd (Androclus). I. Cf. Benf. , i. 211; Hiouen Tsiang ed. Julien, i. 181. II. Appian, sEgypt, 5; A. Gellius, v. 14, 10; Phasd., App. Burm., 15; Seneca, De Benef, ii. 19. III. Ruf., iii. 1: Adem. , 35 ; Galf. , 41 ; Vine. Bell. , mor. , 1554 ; Ysop. , I. 40 ; Dial. Creat., 111 ; Neck., 20; John Sarisb. , v. 17; Enx., 115; Gesta Rom., 104; Brom., P., 2, 32. IV. Kirch., i. 203; Oest. V. Painter, Pal. Pleas, ed. Jacobs, i. 89-90 (Androfifus) ; W. Day, Sandford and Merton (Androctes) ; Warton, i. , clxvij. Ro. III., ii. — Lion and Horse. II. ^Esop., 334; Phaed., App. Dressier, viii. 3; Babr. , 122. III. P. Alf., v. ; Ruf., iii. 2; Ysop., I. 41, II. 23; Rom. du Renard, ap. Rob. ; Galf. , 42 ; Neck. , 24 ; Rein. Fucks, 423, 429 ; Baldo, 27 ; Hita, 288 ; Boner, 50 {cf. Ex. V. 1). IV. H. Sachs, 4, 3, 224; C. Nov. ant., 91 ; Wald., i. 32; Kirch., vii., 43 [cf. iv. 138); Lafont., v. 8; Goethe, xL 128; Rob., Oest. ; Kurz, Schmidt Beitr., 181; Menl, 193, 257. V. Og. 64, T. 81. Campbell Tales, W. Higkl, iii. 99. Ro. III., iii.— Ass and Horse. I. Synt., 29; Soph., 32. II. ^Esop., 328; Plut., De Sanit., 25; Phaed., App. Burm., 17; Babr. GitL, 220; Gabr., 37; Abstem., 45. III. Ruf., iii. 8; Adem., 37; Galf., 43 ; Vine. Bell., h. 3, 5, d. 4, 120; Scala, 186 ; Brom., J. ,4, 4. IV. H. Sachs, 4, 3,203; Wald., i. 33: Kirch., vii. 54 [cf. 56); Oest. V. L. 63, T. 146, Cr. 55. 544 SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. Ro. III., iv. — Bat, Birds, and Beasts. I. Avaddnas, Julien, i. 154. II. Ph., App. Burm., 18 ; Varro Agatho ; Non. Marcell, i. 32; Pandects, xxi., title De evict. III. Adem., 38 ; Galf., 44 ; Vine. Bell., d. 4, 121, h. 35; Scala, 73 ; Marie, 31; Brom., A., 15, 31; Wright, ii. 10. IV. Wald., i. 34; Kurz, Meril, 177. V. L. 40, J. 124, T. 48, Cr. 43. Ro. III., v. — Nightingale and Hawk. II. Ph., App. Burm., 19. III. Ruf., iii. 4 ; Adem., 39; Galf., 45 ; Vine. Bell., h. 3, 5, d. 4, 114 ; Marie, 57 ; Scala, 73; Odo, Wright, ii. 11; Bromy., N., 4, 1. IV. Wald., iii. 18. V. L. 343. Ro. III., vi. — Fox and Wolf. I. Tutinameh, ii. 125. II. Ph., App. Burm., 20. III. Ruf., iii. 5; Adem., 40; Galf., 46; Grimm, R. F., 354; Boner, 55 ; Brom. , J. , 6, 29. IV. Wald. , i. 35. V. L. 410. Ro. Ill, vii. — Hart and Hunter. I. Syntip., 15; Soph., 17; Loqman, 2. II. ^Fsop, 128; Ph., i. 12; Babr. , 43. III. Ruf., iii. 10; Adem., 41 ; Vine. Bell., h. 3, 4, d. 4, 116; Scala, 76; Marie, 32; Berach. , 74; Ysopet, I. 44, II. 32. ; Neck., 33 ; Wright, ii. 12; Galf., 47; Bromy., D. , 9, 20. IV. Wald., i. 36; Lafont., vi. 9; Rob., Kurz. V. Og., 28 ; Cald., 8. Ro. III., viii. — Juno, Venus, and other Women. II. Ph., App. Jan. i. 10. III. Rufus, iii. 11; Marie, 103 ; Berachyah, 86. IV. Waldis, iv. 92 ; Kurz. [The " glose of the sayd Esope " continues as follows: — "Cum interrogaret [Venus] patientem et taciturnam domesti- cam suam gallinam quanto posset satiari cibo? ilia dixit. Quodcunque accipero habundat mihi . et e contra scalpo. Ko. III., iv. — Ro. III., ix. 245 Venus contra huic galline dicitur coram ipsis dixisse? Ne scalpas . do modium tritici . et galiina sic ait ueneri. Si hor- reum mihi patefacias . tamen scalpam. Vbi risisse dicitur iuno dictum veneris a galiina . per quae agnouerunt dii femi- nis fieri similia. Sic deinde iuppiter coepit multa addere et dicere. Femina nulla . se importuno negabit. Deinde et uenus cum marte . inde et cum uulcano . et ut potuerunt cetere multe. Sic et hodie plures femine dedicerunt maritis imponere."] Ro. III., ix. — Knight and [Ephesian] Widow. I. Kin-ku-k' e-kwan (Chinese 1001 Nights), cf. Asiat. Journ., 1843; Forty Viziers, ed Gibb, 11; Pants., Benf. , ii. 303 (i. 436) ; Talmud, Aboda sara, 1 (?) II. Petr. Arb. Satyr, cc. in, 112 (figured inBardon, Coutumesd.es anciens, ij-jz, pi. xii.); Phasd., App., 13. III. Keller, VII., Sages, clvii-clxiii. ; Dolopathos prose, p. 22 ; Barbazan-M6on ; Sevyn Sages, ed. Weber, 12 ; Diocletianus, 49 ; Boner, 57 ; (Heb.) Tosafoth on Kidd, 80 ; Joseph Sebara (ap. Sulzbach, Dichter Klange, 78) ; Berachyah, 80. IV. Fr. : Brantome, Dames gal. 2dpt., disc. iv. ; P. Brisson, L Ephi'sienne ; Lafont., ad fin (Rob. ii. 424^.); St. Evre- mond, CEiivres mdslies, 1678 ; Fatouville, Arlequin Gra- prignan, 1682 (com^die) ; Houdar de la Motte, Matrone d Eph'ese, 1702 (com.) ; Freselier, 1714 (op. com.) ; Voltaire, Zadig, 1747; Retif de la Bretonne, Contemporaines ; A. de Musset, La coupe et les levres, 1832 || Ital. : Cento nov. ant., 56 ; Sercambi, 16 ; Campeggi ; E. Manfredi, Rime, 1760 ; Carleromaco, // ricciardetto , 1738 |) Span. : Erasto, 1538 j| Germ. : Syben meystern, 1473 ; Kirch. ; Gellert, holzerne Johannes ; Lessing, Matrone von Ephesus (frag. 8 scenes); Wieland, Hann u. Gulpenleh (Werke, xxii. 270-84) ; Mu- sceus in Volksmarch, 1782 ; W. Heinse, Enkopp, 1773 ; Chamisso, Ged., 1832, pp. 208-14; c f- Grimm, K.M., 38 — E. Grisebach, Die treulose Wittive, 4te Ausg., 1883; Steinschneider, Heb. Bibl., xiii. 78. V. J. Rolland (Scotch 1 !, Seven Sages, 1576; G. Chapman, Widow's Tea res ; B. Harris, Matrona Ephesia, 1665 (fr. 246 SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. Eng., of W. Charleton) ; Jeremy Taylor, Holy Dying, c. v. ; Og. ; C. Johnson, The Ephesian Widow, 1730 (farce) ; O. Goldsmith, Citizen of World, xviii. ; Bickerstaff, The Ephesian Matron, 1769 ; Galton, South Africa, p. 53 ; * Clouston, Pop. Tales, i. 29-35. Ro. III., x. — Young Man and Whore. II. Ph., App. Jan., i. 28. III. Ruf., iv. 1; Galf., 49. Ro. III., xi. — Father and Bad Son. II. Ph., App. Jan., i. 11. III. Ruf., iv. 15; Galf., 50; Ysop., I. 4, s. IV. Wald., iv. 85. Ro. III., xii.— Serpent and File. I. Synt., 6; Soph., 5; Loqman, 28 (cat). II. ^Esop. 146; Phaed., iv. 8. III. Ruf., iv. 8; Adem., 42; Galf., 51 ; Marie, 83; Ysop., I. 48, II. 15; Neck., 16; Galf., 52. IV. Wald., i. 37 ; Lafont., v. 16, Rob., M6r. V. Og., 27; C. 43, J. 91, T. 70, Cr. 17. Ro. III., xiii.— Wolves and Sheep. II. ^Esop. 268; Plut., Demosth., 33; Ph., App. Dressier, vii. 21; Babr. , 93; Aphthon., 21; Theon, 2; Isidor, orig. , 1, 39, 7. III. Ruf., iv. 9; Adem., 43; Galf., 52; Ysop., I. 49, II. 5; Galf., 53; Neck., 4; Dial. Creat., 8; Holkot, 55; Brom., F., i. 18; Enx., 354; Boner, 93; Book of Leinster, f. 382. IV. Wald., i. 38 {cf. i. 26) ; Kirch., vii. 39 ; Pauli, 447; Lafont., hi. 13— Rob., Oest. V. L. 186, C. 33- J- 62. Ro. III., xiv. — Man and Wood (Trees). I. Talm. Sanh. , sgb ; Ber. Rab. , § 5; Jellinek, Beth. Ham. , ii. 25 ; Joh. de Capua, c. 16 ; Raju, Indian Fables, * "After one of the flashes the fourth savage was struck dead. . . . His widow howled all night ; and was engaged to be married again the succeeding day." Ro. III., ix. — Ro. III., xvi. 247 p. 47. II. /Esop. , 123; Ph., App. Burm., 5; Babr., 2. III. Ruf., iv. 10; Adem., 44; Vine. Bell., h. 3, 20, d. 4, 116; Marie, 23; Berach. , 42; Ysop., I. 50; Galf. , 53; Wright, ii. 16. IV. Wald., i. 39 {cf. iii. 77) ; Kirch., i. 23, '•ii. 103 ; Lafont., xii. 16 ; Rob., Oest. ; Biumenthal, R. Afeir, p. 106. V. Og., 36 ; C. 33, J. 58, T. 143, Cr. 25. Ro. III., xv.— Wolf and Dog. I. Soph., 46. II. yEsop., 321; Ph., iii. 7; Babr., 100; Avian, 37 (Lion). III. Ruf., iv. 7; Adem., 45; Galf., 54; Vine. Bell., h. 3, 6, d. 3, 313; Marie, 34; Berach., 61 (Lion); Ysop., I. 51, II. 37; Enxemplos, 176; Bronx, M., 8, 32; Neck., 39. IV. Wald., i. 56 [cf. ii. 18) ; Pauli, 433 ; Morlini, Nov. 13; Lafont., i. 5— Rob., Oest. V. L. 68, C. 19. Ro. III., xvi.— Belly and Members. I. Egyptian 'ap. Acad. Inscr., 1883, p. 5 {supra, p. 82); Mahabharata, xiv. 688 (Weber, Ind. Stud., iii. 369) ; Up- anishads : Burnouf, Sur le Yacna, notes, p. clxxii. sea. ; Schocher Tob (Heb.) on Ps., 39 ; 1 Cor. xii. 11-27 '< Pant- schatantra, ii. 360 (Benf., i. § 116) ; Avadanas, i. 152, ii. 100; Loqman, 32; Syntipas, 35. II. Plut., Coriol. 6; Agis ; yEsop., 197; Max Tyr., 5; Ph., App. Dressier, viii. 4; Livy, i. 30, 3, ii. 32 ; Quintil. , v. 11 ; Seneca, ad Helviam, 12; Dio Chrys, 2,7; Dio. Halic., vi. 76. III. Ruf., iv. 11 ; Adem., 46 ; Galf., 55 ; Vine. Bell., mor. 1504, h. 3, 7, d. 4, 122; Marie, 35; Ysop., I. 52, II. 36; Neck., 37; Wright, ii. 17 ; Joh. Sarisb. , ii. 6, 24 ; Abr. ibn Ezra, Ker. Chem., iv. 143 (Geiger, /. D., 33-5) ; Keller, Erzahl., 589 ; Migne, Mysteres, s. v. J/embres. IV. Rabelais, iii. 3 ; Pauli, 399; Wald., i. 40; Kirch., v. 122; Lafont., iii. 2; Cinq Sens, 1545 ; Allione, Commedie, 15-54 ; Miranda, Contos, 69 ; Rob., Oest. ; Prato ap. Archiv. por. trad, pop., iv. 25-40. V. North, Bidpai, ed. Jacobs, 64 ; North, Plut., ed. Skeat, 6 ; Shakspeare, Coriol., i. 2 ; L. 50, C. 37, J, 64, T. 80 ; Pope, Essay, ix. 248 SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. Ro. III., xvii. — Ape and Fox. II. Phaed., App. Burm., 12. III. Ruf., iv. 12; Adem., 46 ; Galf., 56 ; Vine. Bell., h. 3, 7, d. 4, 115 ; Marie, 36 ; Berach., 79 ; Scala, 19 ; Wright, ii. 19. IV. Wald., i. 81. V. L. 116, C. 123. Ro. III., xviii. — Merchant and Ass. II. Ph., iv. 1. III. Ruf., iv. 5, 13 ; Adem., 47 ; Galf., 57 ; Vine. Bell., h. 3, 7, d. 4, 118 ; Scala, 53. Ro. III., xix. — Hart in Ox Stall. II. ^Esop, Gall. can. aug. (Rob.), 42; Ph. , ii. 8. III. Ruf., iv. 6, 16 ; Adem., 48 ; Ysop., I. 55 ; Galf., 58 ; Brom., I. 3, 5 ; W. Mapes, De Nugis. IV. Wald., i. 62 ; Kirch., vii. 106; Lafont., iv. 21; Rob., Oest. ; Liebr., V. K. y 53. V. Og., 37. L- 53. C. 18, Cr. 44. Ro. III., xx. — Lion Sick. I. Rig Veda, x. 28, 4 (De Gub.) ; Benf., i. 382 ; Loqman. 6. II. Phsed., vi. 13. III. Ruf., v. 2 ; Adem, 49 ; cf. Gesta, 283 (Fridolin) ; Marie, 37; Izop. (Heb.), 13. IV. Wald., i. 43; Steinschneider, Ysopet, 364; Ghivizzani, ii. 186; De Gubern., ii. 78. LIBER QUARTUS. Ro. IV., i. — Fox and Grapes. I. Leitner, Darbistan, iii. No. 23 (F. and pomegranates) ; cf. Benf., i. 323. II. JEsop., 33; Phaed., iv. 3; Babr., 19; Abstem., 141. III. Ps. Abelard, Epist. iv. ; Rufus, v. 3; Vine. Bell., h. 3, 7, d. 4, 123; Amis et Amiles, 571. IV. Bebel, fac. 10 ; Waldis, iii. 73 ; Lafontaine, iii. 11 ; Sat. mtnip., 105 ; Krilof, vi. 17 ; Rob. ; Menl, 141-2 ; Lieb. ZV. 103. V. L. 129, C. 12, J. i. T. 136; Cr.,9; Mavor, 1; Hazlitt, Prov. 146. . Ro. III., xvii. — Ro. IV., viii. 249 Ro. IV., ii. — Weasel (Cat), and Rats. I. Cf. Benf., i. 225; Sophos, 39; Vartan, 15. II. Ph., iv. 2. IV. Waldis, i. 67; Lafont., iii. 18; Rob., Kurz. V. [variants have cat]. L. 115, C. 88. Ro. IV., iii. — Wolf, Shepherd, and Hunter. I. Cf. Benf. i. § 71. II. Ph., App. Burm., 23; ^Esop, 35; Babr. , 50; Max Tyr., 33. III. Ademar; 50; Marie, 42; Berach. , 75; Neck., 22; Wright, ii. 21; Brom., C. , 6, 13. IV. Menl, 193. V. L. 104 (Fox), C. 89 (F.), Chap- book, 11 (Fox). Ro. IV., iv. — Peacock and Juno. II. Phaed., iii. 18; cf ^Esop., 18 (Camel); Babr.-Gitl., 145; Avian, 8 (vii.). III. Rufus, v. 4; Marie, 43; Ysop., II. 39. IV. Kirch., iv. 274; Lafont., ii. 17; Rob. V. L. 80, C. 2i, T. 97 ; Cr., 33. Ro. IV., v. — Panther and Villains. II. Ph. iii. 2. III. Rufus, v. 5. Ro. IV., vi. — Butchers and Wethers. I. Synt., 13; Loqm., 1. II. Ph., App. Dressier, viii. 5; Babrius, 44; Aphth., 16; Av., 18. III. Gab., 30; Marie, 45 ; Neck. , 30 ; Boner, 84 ; Wright, ii. 23. IV. Mer. , 200. Ro. IV., vii.— Falconer and Birds. II. Ph., App. Dressier, viii. 6. III. Odo ; Wright, ii. 24 ; Gatos, 4 ; Lucanor, 13. Ro. IV., viii. [King of Apes]. II. Ph., App. Burm., 24. III. Ademar, 51 ; Marie, 66; Berach., 78 ; Ysop., II. 30 ; Vine. Bell., h. 3, 7, d. 4, 121, 250 SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. m. 1044 ; Wright, ii. 25; stories, 60; Odo ; Bromyard, A., 15, 21; Gatos, 28. IV. H. Sachs, 2, 4, 85; Pauli, 381; Waldis, iv. 75 ; Oest. ; M6ril, 201. Ro. IV., ix. — Horse, Hunter, and Stag. II. Arist., Rhet., ii. 20; Plut., Arat., 38; ;£sop., 175; Phaed., iv. 4; Hor., Epp., i. 10, 34; Gabr., 3 (not in Babr.); Niceph. Basil., Myth., 2; Konon, Diegmata, 42. III. Ysop., I. 43, II. 25; Galf., 46 ; Neck., 26; Reineke, 3, 8; Baldo, 26 ; Boner, 56. IV. Waldis, i. 45 ; Kirchhof, vii. 128; Sat. mdnip., 225; Leo Allat., 107; Doni, 2, 1; Lafont., iv. 13 ; Goethe, xl. 172; Rob., Oest. ; Kurz, M£r. , 197. V. North Bidpai, ed. Jacobs, p. 65 ; C. 34, J. 86, T. 137 ; Cald. , 12 ; Cr. , 20. Ro. IV., x. — Ass and Lion. II. ^Esop.,259; cf. Ph.,i. 11. III. Marie, 67; Berach., 65; Ysop., II. 8; Vine. Bell., h. 3, 8, d. 4, 123; Wright, ii. 26; Neck., 8. IV. Morlini, Nov., 4; Lafont., ii. 19; Rob. ; Meril, 182. V. L. 7, C. 72. Ro. IV., xi.— Hawk and other Birds. II. Ph., App. Dress., viii. 7. IV. Waldis, i. 79 ; Kirch., vii. 117. Ro. IV., xii. — Fox and Lion [Nulla Vestigia\ I. Pants., iii. 14 (Benf., ii. 264, i. 382); Syntipas, 38; Loqman, 38 ; Sadi, 16; Vartan, 3; Tutinameh (Rosen), ii. 125 ; Bleek, RF. Afr. , xxv. II. Plato, Alcib. , i. 503 ; Plut. , De Virt., 329; ^Esop., 246; Ph., App. Burm., 30; Babr., 103; Hor., Ep. I., i. 73; Aphthon., 8. III. Ademar, 59; Marie, 58; Berachyah, 29; Vine. Bell., Doct., 4, 123; Dial. Creat., 44, no. IV. Fischart, Garg.,36; Waldis, i. 43 ; Kirch., vii. 25 ; Lafontaine, vi. 14 ; Rob. (cf. ii. 548) ; Oest. V. Og. 38, T. 40 ; Chapbook, 1. Ro. IV., ix. — Ro. IV., xviii. 251 Ro. IV., xiii. — Ass and Wolf [Rom. iv. 15]. II. Plut., de fratr. amic, 19; .Esop., 16; Babr.-Gitl., 226; Ph., App. Dressier, viii. 9 ; Dositheus, 13; Gab., 42. III. Neckam, 21. IV. Du Meril, 192. Ro. IV., xiv. — Hedgehog and Kids. II. Ph., App. Dressier, viii. 10. Ro. IV., xv.— Man and Lion (Statue). I. Loqman, 7 ; Sophos, 58. II. Plut., Apopth. Laced., 69; Scol. Eurip. Kor. , 103 ; Aphth., 38 ; Ph., App. Burm., p. 20; Gabr. , i. (not in Babr.) ; Avian, 24. III. Ademar, 52 ; Marie, 69 ; Berach. , 56 ; Wright, ii. 28. IV. Kirch. , i. 80; Lafont., hi. 10; Rob., Oest. V. Spectator, No. 11 ; L. 100, J. 84 ; Cr. , 30 (Lion and Statue). Ro. IV., xvi.— Camel and Flea. I. Synt., 47. II. /Esop., 235; Phaed. App. Burm., 31 ; Babr., 84. III. Ademar, 60; Marie, 70; Berachyah, 73; Wright, ii 29. IV. Meril, 205. Ro. IV., xvii. — Ant and Grasshopper. I. Cf. Prov. vi. 6 ; Sophos, 35. II. iEsop. 401 ; Dosith., 17 ; Ph. App. Burm., 28 ; Aphthon., 31 ; Babr., 136 ; Avian, 34; Salvianus De gub. Dei, iv. 43. III. Adem., 56; Vine. Bell., h., 3, 8, d., 4, 122; Marie, 29 {cf. 86) ; Berach., 40; Ysopet, II. 28; Dial. Creat., 13; Neckam, 29; Gab., 41; Boner, 42 ; Cyril, i. 4. IV. H. Sachs, i. 4, 977 ; Krilof, ii. 12; Pitre' Fiabe, 280; Lafont., i. 1; Rob., Meril, 199; De Gub., ii 222. V. L. 217, C. 121, J. 12, T. 14. Ro. IV., xviii.— Pilgrim and Sword. II, Ph. App. Dress., v. 11. 252 SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. Ro. IV., xix.— Sheep and Crow. II. Ph. App. Burm., 29. III. Ademar, 55; Marie, 20; Berach., 18 ; Wright, ii. 31. IV. Wald., i. 65. V. L. 77. Ro. IV., xx. — Tree and Reed [Not in Rom.]. I. Mahabharata, xii. 4198 — Weber, Ind. Studien, iii. ; Talm. Taanith, 20 b . II. iEsop., 125 (cf. F., 59); Babrius, 64 (cf. 36); Avian, 19 (cf. 16). III. Boner, 83; Berach., 27, 54. IV. Florian, i. 15; Wald., i. 100 (cf. 82) ; Kirch., vii. 58, 59 ; Pauli, 174 ; Krilof, i. 2 ; cf. Lafontaine, i. 22 — Rob. ; Kurz. V. C. 50, J. 92, T. 51 (Oak) ; Cr., 34. LIBER QUINTUS. [In Stainhowel these are known as " Fabulse Extrava- gantes" : the majority of them find parallels in Marie or Berachyah or the LBG Fables contained in Oesterley's Appendix to Romulus. All these we have seen reason to connect with the ^Esop of Alfred, which may therefore be regarded as the source of the collection. The only MS. known to contain them is the Breslau one of the Disciplina Clericalis, the only discussion of them that by Robert, I. xcv.-viii.] Ex. V., i.-— Mule, Fox and Wolf. I. Petr. Alfonsus, 5, 4 ; cf. Benf., § 181. II. ;£sop., 334; Babr. , 122 ; Aphthon., 9. III. Gabr., 37; Bromy. , F., 7, 2; Renard, 7521; Reineke (Grimm), lxxv., ccLxxii. , 423 (Caxton, ed. Arber, 61) ; Castoiement, 71 ; Gab., 38 ; Enx., 128 ; Baldo, 27. IV. H. Sachs, 2, 4, 34 ; Kirch. , iv. 138 (cf. vii. 43) ; Lafontaine, xii. 17 (cf. vi. 7) ; Kiihn Mark. Sagen ' Der dumme Wulf — Schmidt Beitr., 181; Rob., Oest. V. Dunlop. Lieb., 214. Ro. IV., xix. — Ex. V., v. 253 Ex. V., ii. — Boar and Wolf. III. Berach. , 105 : Marie, 78 ; Rom. App. , 63 ; Came- rarius, 200. Ex. V., iii.— Fox and Cock. I. Benf., i. 610 ; Katha-Sarit-Sagara, ed. Tawney, ii. 685 ; Vartan, 12, 13 ; Bleek, Rein. Fucks in Africa, 23 ; Harris, Nights with Remus, xxvii. (Brer Wolf says grace). II. Phaedr. Burm. App. , 13. III. Adem.,30; Marie, 51 ; Rom. App., 45 ; Brom., A., n, 9 ; J., 13, 28 ; Baldo, 23 ; Lucanor (York), 31; Sermond, Op., ii. 1075; Alcuin, Op., ii. 238; Barbazan, iii. 55. IV. Coilho, Cont. port., p. 15 ; Du Meril, 138, 253 ; De Gub., ii. 137, Tawney. V. Chaucer, Nonne Prestes Tale, Campbell, W. Highl, Tales, 63 (iii. 93). Ex. V., iv. — Dragon and Hart. I. Benf., i. 113-120; Tutinameh, 129; Temple, Wide- awake Stories, 116 ; Harris Nights, xlvi. ; Weber, Vier Jahre in Afrika (among Basutos). II. ^Esop., 97; Ph., iv. 18; Babrius, 4; Syntip., 25; Abstem., 136. III. Gab., 44; Marie ap. Legrand, iv. 193 (not in Roquefort); Ysop. , I. 10 ; Gesta Ro?n. , 178 ; Dial. Creat. , 24 ; Reineke, Grimm. , cliii. 14 ; Scala celi, 86 ; Bromy. , G. , 4, 17 ; Enx. 246. IV. Waldis, iv. 99; Luther, Tisch., 78 b. ; Kirchhof, v. 121 ; Charron de la sagesse, i. 1 ; Lafontaine, iv. 13 ; Hahn, gr. Mdhr, 87 ; Grundvig, ii. 124 ; Maassebuch (Jew-Germ.), 144 ; Gonzenbach, sic. , Mdhr. — Rob. ,Oest. .Schmidt, 118; Temple, 324, 408 ; Rev. trad, pop., i. 30 ; Arch, slav.phil., 1876, p. 279 ; R. Kdhler in Gonzenbach, p. 247 ; Carnoy, Conies dAnimaux, pp. viii.-ix. V. Og., 16; Clouston, Pop. Tales, i. 262-5. Ex. V., v. — Fox and Cat. I. Cf. Benf., i. 312. II. Gr. prov. (Leutsch. i. 147, Ion) ; Ps. Homer ap. Zenob., v. 68. III. Rom., App. 20 ; Camerar, 254 SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. 202 ; Marie, 98 ; Berachyah, 94 ; Rom. du Renard, f. 99 ; Gatos, 40; Brom., S. 3, 15; Joh. Gers. Par. sup. magnif., iv. 4. IV. H. Sachs, ii. 4, 77; Waldis, ii. 21 ; Lafont., ix. 14; Grimm, KM, 75; Hahn GAM, 91. V. Og., 57; L. 394, C. 60, T. 29 ; Cr. , 47. Ex. V., vi.— Hegoat and Wolf. II. .Esop., 135; Babr., 96; Avian, 26. III. Marie, 49; Rom., App., 43 ; Baldo, 22. IV. Kirch., vii. 118. — Oest. Ex. V., vii. — Wolf and Ass. III. Marie, 62 ; Rom. App., 50 ; Reineke Fucks., Grimm, 424; Camerar, 203. IV. Grimm, KM, 132. Ex., V. viii. — Serpent and Labourer. I. Benf. , i. 359. II. Berach. , 22 ; Marie, 63. IV. Gritsch. Quadragesimale , 1484, 37, 76; Roman du Renard (Rob.). V. Chaucer, Tale of Melib&us. Ex. V., ix. — Fox, Wolf and Lion. I. Mesnevi, i. 100, p. 263. II. .Esop.,255. III. Marie, 59; Berach., 85; Vine. Bell., m. , 3, 3, 11; Reineke, Grimm., 425; Reinardus, 2, 311; Grimm, Lat. Ged. d. Mittelalters, 200; Wright, 58; Odo ; Brom., A., 11, 8; cf. D. 12, 26, E. 8, 25. IV. Wald. , iii. 91; Pauli, 494; Lafont., viii 3; Goethe, 40, 175. — Oest. Ex. V., x. — Penitent Wolf. I. Butting goats from Bidpai {cf. Jacobs, D. 7*.). III. Reineke, Grimm, 429. IV. Camerar, 371; cf. Wald., ii. 73 ; Wolf, Deutsck. Hausm., 419 ; Hahn, GAM, 93 ; Leger, Contes slaves, 18 (Little Russ. fr. Rutchenko). V. Hazlitt, Prov. Hear news, &c Ex. V., vi. — Ex. V., xvii. 255 Ex. V., xi. — Dog in Manger. II. Lucian Tim., i. 14 ; draid., 30 ; ^Esop., 228 ; Abstem. ap. Nevelet, 604. IV. Kirch., vii. 130; Wald., i. 64; Bartol. a Saxo-ferrato Tract, quest, inter virg. Mariam et Diabolum Hanov., 1611, 3.— Oest. V. C. 127, J. 79, T. 46, Cr. 18, Mav. 4, R. C. jebb, Bent ley, 52, 62. Ex. V., xii. — Wolf and Hungry Dog. IV. Cf. Grimm., KM., hi. 80. Ex. V., xiii. — Father and Three Sons. II. Seneca, Controv. exc, 6, 3. III. Gesta Rom., 90; Renard le Contrefait ; Judgment de Salomon. — Rob. Ex. V., xiv. — Wolf and Fox. III. Rom. Apf., 52; Reineke, Grimm., 427. Ex. V., xv. — Dog, Wolf and Wether. III. Baldo, 21 [cf. contra, Wolf in sheep's clothing). Ex. V., xvi. — Man, Lion and Son. I. Kblle, African nat. lit., No. 9; Bleek, RF. in Afr., 23 ; Harris, Nights with Remus, vii. (Lion hunts for man). III. Berach., 106; Dial. Creat., 86. IV. Pauii, 20 {cf. 18) ; Scherz mit d. Warheyt, 50^. ; Geiler Narrenschiff, 70 ; Grimm, KM., 72; cf. 48.— Oest Ex. V., xvii.— Knight and Servant. III. Rom. Afp., 59. IV. Waldis, iii. 29. 256 SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. REMICIUS. [Selected by Stainhbwel from the hundred Latin prose ver- sions of Greek fables, translated by Ranutio d'Arezzo, and published in 1476. All are in the Greek prose iEsop, most in Babrius, either in the vulgate or in Gitlbauer's edition.] Re. i.— Eagle and Raven. I, Benf., i. 602 ; Somadeva, 70, ed. Tawney, ii. 41. II. iEsop, 8; Babr.-Gitl., 186; Aphthon. , 19 ; Aristoph. , Aves, 652. III. Gab., 1. IV. Rim., 2; Dorp., 374; Wald., i. 63; Lafont., ii. 16. — Kurz, Tawney. Re. ii. — Eagle and Weasel. I. Cf. Pants., ii. 170. II. /Esop, 7 ; Cf. Aristoph., Pax, 126, and Scholiast, ad loc. IV. Rim., 3; Dorp., 375; Lafont., ii. 8 ; Wald., ii. 26. — Kurz, Rutherford. Re. iii.— Fox and Goat. I. Cf. Benf., i. 320. II. Ph., iv. 9; yEsop, 45; Babr.- Gitl., 174. III. Alf., 24; Renart, 7383, seq. ; Barbazon- Meon, iv. 175. IV. Rim., 5; Dorp., 377; Wald., iii. 27; Lafont., iii. 5 ; Goethe, xl. 195. Re. iv. — Cat and Chicken. II. JEsop, 14; Babr., 17. IV. Rim., 7; Dorp., 379; Wald., i. 61.— Kurz. Re. v.— Fox and Bush. II. ^Esop, 32; Babr.-Gitl., 187. III. Gabr., 4, 6. IV. Rim., 10; Dorp. 382; Wald., iii. 42. — Kurz. Re. vi. — Man and Wooden God. I. Benf., Pants., i. 478 ; Sophos, 52 ; Vartan, 41 ; cf. Is., xl. ; 1001 Tag (Xailun), 5. II. y£sop., 66; Babr., 119. Re. i. — Re. xiii. 257 IV. Rim., 15; Dorp. ,387; Kirch., i. 104 ; Basile , Pen t am., 4 (Liebr., i. 63) ; Gesammt, 2, 525 ; Wald., iii. 45 ; Lafont., iv. 8.— Oest. Re. vii. — Fisher. II. Herod., i. 141 ; ^Esop, 39 ; Babr., 9 ; Ennius (Vahlen), p. 151 ; Aristasn., ep. i. 27. III. Gab., 16. IV. Rim., 18 ; Dorp. 390; Wald., iii. 49 ; Lafont., x. 11. — Kurz, Ruther- ford. V. Hazlitt, Prav., 142. Re. vii:. — Cat and Rat. II. .Esop., 16 ; Ph., iii. 2 ; Babr. -Girl., 226. III. Gabr., 42. IV. Rim., 21 ; Dorp., 393 ; Wald., iii. 57 (cf i. 67) ; Lafont., iii. 18. — Kurz. Re. ix. — Labourer and Pyelarge. II. ^Esop., 100; Babr., 13. III. Gab., 13. IV. Rim., 43; Dorp, 415; Kirch., vii., 92; cf. 93 — Oest. Re. x. — Shepherd Boy (Wolf !) II. iEsop.,166; Babr. -Gitl., 199. IV. Rim., 53; Dorp., 425; Kirch., vii. 136; Goedeke, Deutsche Dicht., i. 286^. — Oest. V. L. 74, C. 155, J. 40, T. 90, Cald., 7, Mav., 3. Cf. expr. " to cry wolf." Re. xi.— Ant and Dove. II. /Esop. , 296. IV. Rim., 68; Dorp., 440; Lafont., ii. 12; Wald., i. 70.— Rob., Oest. V. L. 203, C. 133, J. 156, T. 156. Re. xii. — Bee and Jupiter. II. JEsop., 287; Babr. -Gitl., 175. IV. Rim., 70; Dorp., 442 ; Wald., iii. 69. — Kurz. Re. xiii.— Carpenter. I. Cf II. Kings, vi. 4-8. II. ^Esop., 308; Babr. -Gitl, 276; Gr. Prov. (Leutsch., ii. 197). IV. Rim., 74; Dorp,, 446; Kirch., vii. 15, 16; Rabel., iv. prol. ; Lafont., v. 1 — Rob., Oest. YOL. I. R 258 SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. Re. xiv.— Young Thief and Mother. II. iEsop., 351; Babr.-Gitl., 247; Boethius De discip. schol. III. Vine. Bell. , in., 3, 2, 7 ; Gesta Rom. , ed. Graesse, ii. p. 186; Enxemp. , 273 ; Brom., A., 3, 19. IV. Rim., go; Dorp., 462; Pauii, 19; Wald., iii. 19; Kirch., vii. 183. — Oest. V. Conceyts and Jests, 26; C. 119, J. 101, T. 10. Re. xv. — Flea and Man. II. ^Esop., 425; Babr.-Gitl., 283. IV. Rim., 97; Dorp., 469; Wald., iii. 82. V. L. 139, C. 190. Re. xvi. — Man with two Wives. I. Benf. Pants. , i. 602, ii. 552 ; Avaddnas, ii. 138 ; Diod. Sic, xxxiii., 10 ; Talm., Baba Kama, 60b. II. yEsop., 56; Phasd. , ii. 2 ; Babr. , 22. IV. Rim. , ico ; Dorp. , 472 ; Kirch. , vii. 67; H. Sachs, 2, 4, 214; Wald., iii. 83 ; Lafont., i. 17. — Rob., Oest., Roth., Held. Jahrb., i860, p. 52; Liebr., ZV., 120. V. L. 141, C. i7,,l. I 79i Cald., 16, Clouston, Pop. Tales, i. 16. Re. xvii. — Labourer and Children. II. yEsop.,98; Babr.-Gitl., 230. III. Dial. Creat., 13. IV. Kirch. , i. 172 ; Lafont. , v. 9. AVIAN. [The original consists of forty-two fables : of these some are parallels to Phasdrine fables, and are accordingly in- cluded in the preceding books. Cf. Ro. , i. 20, iii. 15, iv. 4, 6, 15, i7i 20; Ex., V. 6.] Av. i. — Nurse and Wolf. I. Alf. Disc. Cler., 24. II. Av., 1; ^Esop., 275; Babr., 16; Apththon., 39. III. Marie, 49; Wright, 77; Reineke, Re. xiv. — Av. iv. 259 Grimm., 330; Ncrvus Avianus, Du Mdril, 262, 268; Scala, 77; Bronx, A., 21, 26; S., 10, 3. IV. H. Sachs, 2, 4, 33; Pauli, 90 {cf 81) ; Eulenspiegel, 96; Gesammt., 69; Wald., i. 86 ; Lafont. , iv. 16 ; Rob. , Oest. ; Goed. Mittel. , 626. V. Cf. Chaucer, Freres Tale, 6957. Av. ii. — Tortoise and Birds. I. Kacchapa Jdtaka, supra, IV., p. 81-2; Wagener Weber, No. 5 {Ind. Stud., iii. 339) ; Somadeva, ed. Tawney, ii. 685. II. Av. 2; JEsop., 419; Babr. , 115. Cf. yElian, vii. 17 (JEschylus' death). III. Gab., 53; Bayeux Tap., pi. vi. (see frontispiece) ; Joh. Sarisb. , Polycrat. , p. 4 ; Boner 64. IV. Wald., i. 87 ; Mer., 139. V. North, Bidpai, p, 259 ; Gosson, School of Abuse, ed. Arber, p. 43. Av. iii. — Two Crabs. II. Aristoph. Pax. , 1083 ; Schol on Athen. , 695 ; Apolod. , ix. 50; Av. , 3; Babr., 109; yEsop. , 187; Petronius Sat, 42.— Ellis. III. Boner, 65. IV. Wald., i. S8 ; Lafont., xii. 10. Av. iv. — Ass in Lion's Skin. I. Siha-Cama-Jdtaka, supra, II., pp. 57-8; Pants., iv. 7, v. 7 (Benf. , ii. 309, 339, i. 462, 494) ; Somadeva, ii. 65 ; Tutinameh, Rosen, ii. 149, 218 ; Hitopadesa, iii. 4; Weber, Ind. Stud., iii. 338; Bieek, RF in Afr., 79 (Hare). II. yEsop. , 333; Plato, Cratyl., 411a.; Lucian, Fiscal., 32; Pseudol, 3; Drapet., 13; Babr.-GitL, 218; Avian, 5; Tzetzes, 9, 321; M. Tatius, Progym., f. 8. III. Berach., 47 ; Reineke, Grimm., 354 ; Dial. Creat., 108 ; Holkot, mor., 35; Mapes, Poems, p. 36; Odo.,35; Gatos, 22; Brom. , P., 12, 16, R. 5, 5 ; Boner, 66. IV. H. Sachs, i. 5, 587; Eras- mus, Adag, ' Asinus ap. Cumam ' ; Geiler, Narrenschiff, 593 ; Wald., i. 90; Kirch., i. 165; Lafont., v. 21 — Rob., Oest. ; Meril, 140; Liebr. , VK., 119; De Gub., i, 378. — Tawney. V. Og. 70, L. 224, C. 42, J. 157, T. 109, Cald. 2, Cr. 49 ; R. C. Jebb, Bentley, p. 73. Thackeray, Newcomes, i. 260 SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. Av. v. — Frog and Fox. II. Av., 6; JEsop., 78; Babr., 120. III. Boner, 68; Albertus, 49. IV. H. Sachs, i. 4, 981 ; Fischart, Frosch- gosch ; Wald., i. 91. V. C. 43, T. 4. Av. vi. — Two Dogs." 1 II. Av., 7; y£sop., 224 (Nevel, 214); Babr., 104. III. Boner, 69 ; Berach., 31. IV. Wald., i. 92, ii. 98. Av. vii. — Camel and Jupiter. I. Mahabharata, xii. 4175 (Weber, IS., iii. 355) ; Talm. Scathed., 106b ; Rodiger, Chrest. syr., xxiv. § 5 ; Benf., Pants., i. 302. II. Av., 8; ^Esop., 184; Babr.-Gitl., 282 ; Gab., 34; Syntip., 59; Aphthon., 15. IV. Basile, Pentam., ed. Lieb. , ii. 166; Erasmus, Chil., iii. 5, 8; Wald., i. 93. V. L. 78, C. 45. J- 49. T. 96. ' Av. viii.— Two Fellows and Bear. II. Av., 9 ; Babr., 140 ; ^Esop. , 311 ; cf. Ph., v. 2. III. Dial. Creat., 108; Abstem., 209; Nov. Av., Meril, 271; Brom., A., 21, 20. IV. H. Sachs, 2, 4, 86 ; Luther, Tischr. ; Fischart, Garg., 36; Lafont., v. 20; Pauli, 422; Kirch., i. 87 ; Rob. , Oest. V. L. 227, C. 46, J. 52, T. 120. Av. ix. — Two Pots. I. Ecclesiastiais, xiii. 2 ; Benf. , i. 346 ; Pants. , ii. , str. 13, 14, Dukes Blum. § 530. II. Av., 11 ; /Esop., 422 ; Babr.- Gitl., 184. III. Berach., 33; Brom., A., 14,38. IV. Kirch., vii. 117a; Alciati, emblem, 166; Wald., i. 96; Lafont., v. 2— Rob., Oest. V. L. 229, C. 48, J. 125, T. 124. Av. x. — Lion and Bull. I. Rodiger, Chryst. syr., § 8. II. Av., 13 [Goat] ; ^Esop., 396; Babr., 91. III. Boner, 78. IV. Wald., i, 85; De Gub., i, 378. Av. v. — Av. xvi. 261 Av. xi. — Ape and Son. II. Av,i4; Babr. , 56; JEsop., 364. III. Rom., App., 36 ; Marie, 74 ; Berach. , 50 ; Boner, 79. Av. xii. — Crane and Peacock. II. JEsop., 397(Xevel) ; Av.,15; Babr., 65. III. Boner, 81 ; Berach., 41. V. C. 49, T. 69. Av. xiii. — Hunter and Tiger. I. Kolle, Afric. nat. lit., 9; Baldo, 28. II. Av., 17; ^Esop. , 403 ; Babr. , 1. III. Gabr. , 34 ; Boner, 3. IV. Wald., ii. 2 ; Kirch., vii. 97; Grimm, KM., 72. — Oest. Av. xiv. — Four Oxen and Liox. I. Loqman, 1. II. Av. , 18; .Esop. , 394; Babr., 44; figured Helbig, Untersuch. , 93 (Crusius, Leipz. Stud. ,ii. 248). III. Boner, 84 ; Berach., 51. IV. Morlini, 12 ; H. Sachs, iv. 3, 229; Wald., ii. 1. — Kurz. V. C. 52, J. 187, T. 3. Av. xv.— Bush and Bramble. I. Shemoth Rabba ap. Dukes' Blumenlese, § 505. II. Av., 19; iEsop., 125; Babr., 64. III. Berach., 54; Nov. Av., ed. Meril, 275 ; Boner, 86. IV. Waldis, ii. 3 ; Kirch., vii. 59 ; Florian, i. 15 — Oest. V. L. 237, C. 83. Av. xvi.— Fisher and Little Fish. I. Cf. Benf., i. 427. II. Av., 20; ^Esop., 2%, cf. 231; Babr. , 6. III. Berachyah, 55 ; Dial. Creat. , 48 ; Ysopet- Avionnet, 12. IV. Waldis, i. 83 ; Kirchhof, vii. 119 ; LafonL, v. 3— Rob., Oest V. L. 216, C. 71, J. 72; Cr., 54 ; cf. prov., A bird in hand, &c. 262 SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. A v. xvii. — Phcebus, Avaricious and Envious. I. Benf., Pants., i. 498, 304; 1001, Tag., 9, 84; Wide- awake stories, 215, cf. 409. II. Av., 22. III. Berachyah, 107; Joh. Sarisb., Polycrat., 7, 24; Holkot., 29; Ysopet- Avionnet, 13 ; Meon, Fabliaux, i. 91 ; Boner, 88 ; Scala, 106 b. ; E?ixemp., 146; Bromy. , J., 6, 19. IV. H. Sachs, 1, 489; Pauli, 647; Waldis, ii. 5; Chamisso, Abdullah — Oest., Rob., Temple, G. Paris, Lit. franc., § 76; Liebr. Germ., ii. 245, ZV. 117. V. Gower, Conf. Amant, II. ii. ; L. 238, C. 133, T. 122. Av. xviii.— Thief and Weeping Child. I. Cf Pants., iii. 3 and plls. (Benf., i. 357). II. Avian, 25 ; cf. Philogelos, 33. III. YsopetAvionnet, 14. IV. Waldis, ii. 9 ; Kirch., vii. 132. V. C. Merry Tales, 91. Av. xix.— Lion and Goat. II. Av.,26; J£ sop., 270. III. Boner, 90. IV. Waldis, i. 78; Kirch., vii. 118. V. L. 210, J. 126. Av. xx. — Crow and Pitcher. I. Talm. Ab. sara, 30*; Synt., 8; Sophos, 8. II. Av., 27; Dositheus, 8; ^Esop. , 357; iElian, hist, nat., ii. 48; Plut., Terrestriana ; Syntip. , 8. III. Cf. Rom., Oest., iv. 13; Ysop. -Avion., 15 ; Berach. , 88. IV. Simplicissimus, 2, 12; Waldis, ii. 7; Kirch., vii. 121 {cf 29) — Oest. V. L. 239» C. S3' J- 47. T. 62 ; Cr. 38. Av. xxi. — Villein and Young Bull. II. Av., 28. IV. Waldis, ii. 10. Av. xxii. — Man and Satyr. II. Av., 29; ^Esop., 64; Babr.-Gitl., 183. III. Boner, 91 ; Berach., 58. IV. H. Sachs, ii. 4, 48 ; Waldis, ii. 11 ; Lafont., v. 7. V. L. 243, C. 55, T. 113 ; Cr. 42. Av. xvii. — Al. i. 263 Av. xxiii. — Ox and Rat. II. Av., 31 ; Babr., 112 ; .Esop., 299. IV. Wald., ii. 13. Av. xxiv. — Goose with Golden Eggs. I. Suvannaha?nsa Jtitaka, supra VIII. p. 67 ; Pants., 3, 5 (Benf., i. 361) ; Wagener- Weber, No. 4 ; Sophos, 61 ; Loq- man, 12. II. Avian, 33; Babrius, 123; sEsop., 343. IV. Waldis, ii. 15 [cf. iii. 32) ; Pauli, 53 ; Lafont. , v. 13 — Oest. V. L. 247 (Hen), C. 57, J. no; Cr., 22; Clouston, Pop. Tales, i. 123, seq. Av. xxv. — Ape and Two Children. II. Av. , 35; ^Esop. , 366 (Xevel) ; Babr., 35; Oppian, Cyneg, it 605. III. Ysop.-Av. (Rob. ii. 514); Berachyah, 67, 104. IV. Waldis, ii. 16 — Kurz. V. L. 248, C. 186. Av. xxvi. — Wind and Pot. II. Av., 41; iEsop., 381 ; Babr.-Gitl., 165. Av. xxvii. — Wolf and Lamb. II. Av., 42 [Kid]; ^Esop., 273; Babr-GitL, 132. III. Boner, 30. IV. Waldis, i. 49. ALFONCE.* [From the Disciplina Clericalis of Moses Sephardi, a Spanish Jew, christened Petrus Alphonsus, 1106.] Alf. i. — A. Trial of Friendship. B. Egypt and Baldach. A. — I. Cardonne Mil. asiat., i. 78 ; Jellinek, Beth Ham., VI. xiv. 10. II. Polyan. Stratig. , i. 40, 1. III. Alf. ii. 8 ; Mart. Polon. Serm. ; Ex., 9, C. ; Scala cell, n b. ; Dial. * As the remaining Tales are of a different genre to the Fable proper, I have not attempted any thoroughness in the parallels, though the Disciplina Clericalis would well repay complete inves- tigation. 264 SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. Great., 56; Lucanor, 48 (York, 36); Castoiement (Mdon, ii. 39; Legr., ii. 379); Gesta, 129; Boner, app., 6. IV. H. Sachs, 107 ; 2, 2, 39 ; Goedeke, Every Man, 1-7 ; Radloff, i. 191 ; Gering, Islensk sEventyri, 50. B. — I. 1001 Nights (Hagen, 9, 1 ; Caussin de Percival, 9, 1, 55) ; Scott, Tales, 253 ; Hammer, Rosenol, 2, 262 ; Kblle, Afric. nat. lit., p. 122. III. Alf., iii. 2-14; Scala, 11; Dial. Creat., 56; Brom., A., 21, 11; Gesta, 171; Liber opium, 2, 20, 2; Enxempl., 92; Castoiem. (M£on), 2. 52 (Legr., 2, 385); Altris zc. Profilias (ed. Grimm, 1846). IV. Bocc. , x. 8; Hardi, Gesippe ; Cecat. nouv. nouv., v. 28 ; Chevreau, Gesippe et Tite, 1658 ; H. Sachs, i. 2, 181, iii. 2, 4; Der matin der seine frau nicht kennt, 1781 ; Ger., Islensk sEventyri, 51 — Schmidt, Beitr. 111, on Alf., p. 98. V. Lydgate, Tale of Two Merc haunts ; R. Edwards Tragedy, 1582 ; G. Griffin, Gesippus, a Tragedy, 1841 — Warton, I., clxxxvii. Alf. ii. — Money Trusted. I. Sindibad, 25; Syntipas, 22; Cardonne, mil., i. 61; 1001 Nacht, Bresl., 386 (Loiseleur, 652) ; Scott, Tales, 207 — Loiseleur essai, 119. III. Alf., 16, 1-10 ; Castoiem. (M£on, ii. 107; Legr., ii. 403); Gesta, 118; Brom., R. , 6, 1; Enxempl. , 92. IV. Bocc. , viii. 10 ; C. nov. ant. , 74 ; Gering, 69 — Schmidt, Beitr., 91-95 — Oest. V. Jack of Dover, 14. Alf. iii. — Lye of Oil. III. Alf., 17, 1-12 ; Vine. Bell., m., i. 1, 26; Enx., 334; Castoiem. (M. Legr., iii. 62), ii. 113; Gesta, 246 (Grasse, ii. 151). IV. Pauli; Gering, Isl. sEv., 70— Oest. Alf. iv. — Money Recovered. I. D'Herbelot (suppl. Galland), 225 b. III. Alf., 18; Vine. Bell., m., 1, 1, 27; Scala, 21 b. ; Enxemp., 311. IV. Timoneda, Patranas, 6 ; Cinthio, i. 9 ; Doni, Marini, c. 80 ; Pauli, 115; Kirch., vii. 13; Ger., 71. V. Merry Tales and Answers, 16; Pasquil's Jests, p. 17; Old Hobson, 20. Al. ii. — Al. viii. 265 Alf. v. — Dream-bread. I. Sindibad-nameh, 35, p. 175 ; Hammer, Rosenol, No. 180, ii. 303 ; Mesnevi, 2, 288 ; Toldoth Jesu, ed. 1705, p. 51 ; Benf. , Pants., i. 493. III. Alf., 20, 1-8 ; Cast. , p. 127 ; Vine. Bell., m., 1, i, 26; Brom., E., 8, 14; Gesta, 106; Scala, 73 b. ; Enxempl. , 27 ; Boner, 74. IV. Cinthio, i. 3; Gering, 72; Pitre Fiabi, 173. V. Dunlop-Liebr., 280; Clouston, Pop. Tales, ii. 86-95'; Crane, Ital. Folk Tales, 154. 356. Alf. vi. — Labourer and Nightingale. I. Benf., Pants., i. 381; Vartan, 13; Simchot hanefesk (Heb.), 42 b. ; Barlaam, iv. 29 ; Loiseleur, p. 171. III. Alf., 23, 1-6; Cast.; cf. Schm., p. 150; Dial. Creat., 100; Scala, 7 b. ; Wright, p. 170 ; Legenda aurea, c. 175 ; Enx- emp., 53; Legrand, iii. 113; Gesta, 167; Mystere du roi Advents, ap. Parf. , hist, du theat. franc., 2, 475; Marie, i. 314, ii. 324 ; Du Meril, 144 ; Hist. Litt. de la France, xxiii. 76. IV. Kirch., iv. 34; H. Sachs, i. 4, 428; Luther, Tischr., 612 ; Wieland, Vogelgesang (Werke, 18, 315) ; Ger., Isl. sEv., 75; Uhland ap. Germ., iii. 140. V. Lydgate, Chorle and Bird ; Way, Lay of Little Bird, ap. Swan Gesta, 2, 507-13 ; Caxton, Golden Legend, 392 b. ; Dunlop- Lieb., p. 484, n. 84. Alf. vii. — Crookback. I. Vikram, tr. Burton, p. 108 * (proverb). III. Alf. , viii. 2 ; Cast., 75; Enxem., 13; Legr., ii. 376; Gesta, 157; Boner, 76. IV. C. nov. ant. , 50 ; Pauli, 285 ; Gering, 60. Alf. viii. — Disciple and Sheep. III. Alf. , iii. 3 ; Gering, 66 ; C. nov. ant. , 31 ; Enx. , 85. IV. Don Quix., i. 20 ; Pitre, Fiabi, 138 ; Grimm, KM., 86. V. Crane, Ital. FT, 156, 356. * " Expect thirty-two villanies from the limping, And eighty from the one-eyed man, But when the hunchback comes. Say, ' Lord defend us.' " 266 SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. Alf. ix.— Wolf, Labourer, Fox and Cheese. I. Cf. Benf., i. 349; Blumenthal, JR. Meir, 165 ; Vartan, 17. III. Alf., 24. IV. Gering, Isl. /Ev. t 76. Alf. x. — Husband, Wife, and Mother-in-Law. III. Alf. , 12 ; Gesta. IV. Gering, 64. Alf. xi. — The Bawd. I. Sindibad-nameh, 11 ; Syntipas, 11 ; Mishle Sandebar (Heb.) ed. Cassel, 98-104; Scott, Tales, p. 100; Habicht 15, 117; Tutinameh, p. 24; Vrihai Katha, ap. Quart, 0?'ient. Mag., 1824, ii. 102; Somadeva, ed. 1829, p. 56 Loiseleur, 106-7. HI. Alf., 141-8 ; Vine. Bell., m. 3, 9, 5 Scala, 87 ; Gesta, 28 ; Wright, 13 (p. 16, cf. p. 218) Enxem., 234; Castoiem., 292; Adolphus, ap. Wright, 178 IV Bocc. , v. 8 ; H. Sachs, 4, 3, 28 ; Schmidt, Beitr., 106-8 Keller, VII. Sages, cxlv. ; Gering, 67 ; Oest. V. English Fabliau, Daine Siriz ap. Wright, Anecd. Lit., 1-13. Alf. xii. — Blind Man and Wife. III. ' Cf. Schm., 43 ; Keller, VII. Sages, ccii. ; Gering, 63. Alf. xiii. — Tailor, King, and Servant. III. Alf., 21. [In Stainhowel, this is preceded by two others, Alf., 10, 6; 11, 1 = Gesta, 122, 123.] IV Pitre Fiabi, 186; Kirch., i. 243; Gering, 73. V. Crane, 357. • POGGIO. [From the Facetice of Poggio Bracciolini, first printed about 1470.] Po. i. — A too Holy Gift. IV. Pog., 1; Lessing Werke, 1827, xviii. 9; Bebelius, fac, ed. 1660, p. 279 ; Diet, danecd. , i. 192. [Preceded in Stainhowel by Pog. 10.] AL. ix. — Po. viii. 267 Po. ii. — Hypocrite. IV. Pog. , 6 ; Bebelius, 282 ; Montaigne, ii. 3 ; Mayen de Parvenir, ii. 121 ; B. Rousseau, Epigr. Po. iii. — Disappointed (Omitted). IV. Pog., 45 ; Kirch., i. 339 ; Cent. nouv. nouv., 80. Po. iv.— Hunting does not pay. IV. Pog., 2 : Rim., 18 ; Morlini, 77 ; NugeB Docttz, 56 ; Straparola, xiii. 1 ; Geiler, Narrenschiff, 148^ ; Kirch., i. 425. — Oest. in Hannover, Tagespost, Feb. 7, 14, 1867. V. Merry Tales and Answers, 52 ; Pasquils, 62. Po. v. — Monstrosities. IV. Pog., 31-4 ; Licetus, De Monstris. Po. vi. — Buried Dog. III. Brom., D. , 7, 13; Meon, iii. 70. IV. Pog., 36; Pauli, 72 ; Malespini, 59 ; C. nouv. nouv., 96 ; Guccelette, iv. 22 ; Brenta, Arcadia, 525 ; Conv. Serm,, i. 154 ; Diet, danecd., ii. 451 ; Gil Bias, v. 1. V. Dunlop-Liebr., 297. Po. vii. — Fox, Cock, and Dog (Rom. iv. 18). I. Kukkuta Jataka, supra, XIV., pp. 75-7. II. iEsop. , 225. III. Marie, 52; Brom., 7, 8; Grimm, RF., exxii. ; Reinhartus, ii. 1175. IV. Pog., 79; H. Sachs, ii. 4, 75; Luther, Tischr. ; Kirch., iii. 128 ; Lafont., xii. 15 ; Goethe, xl. 14. — Oest. [Inserted here by Stainhowel from his Rom. iv. 18 to end the book. What follows is from Machault's and Caxton's additions]. Po. viii. — Women Disputing. IV. Pog., 78. 268 SYNOPSIS OF PARALLELS. Po. ix. — Debtor. IV. Pog., 164. Po. x. — Genoese. IV. Pog., 202; Guicciard, 175; Democr. ridens, p. 66 ; Roger Bo7itemps, p. 40 ; Past, agrdables, 209. PO. XL — PlLLMAKER. Po. xii. — WlDOW. [Neither in Poggio.] Caxton. — Worldly and Unworldly Priest. [Added by Caxton to clear out, as it were, the bad taste of the Poggiana from our mouth ; probably a true anecdote of his time.] INDEX. [Including a reversed Index to the chief collections collated in the Synopsis of Parallels. Such items are preceded by cf., and the books of the Romulus and the Extravagantes are indicated by the Roman numerals i.-v. Titles in italics refer to fables mentioned. A few addenda and corrigenda are also given. See Democritus, Fox, Cat, and Dog, Misprints, Romulus of Nilant, Theognis.] Abraham ibn Ezra, 174, cf. iii. 16. Abstemius, 8o«, 170;?. Accursius, ijn. Adelard, 175. Ademar, xx. 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 139, 182, 183^, 215, cf. i. 1, 3, 4, 6-8, 10-13, 15-18, 20, ii. 1-4, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17-20, iii. 1, 2-7, 12-20, iv. 3, 8, 12, 15-17, 19, v. 3, see ' Anonymus Nilanti.' Adrian IV., 184. ^Elian, 62, cf. i. 8, Av. 2, 20. -Eschylus, 26, 127. zEsop, legendary life of, xiv. xx. 4, 217 ; who wrote, xvi. 36 ; an authentic fable of, 27 ; why his name connected with Fable, 30, 211 ; himself a Fable ? 37 ; Herodotus' account of, 37; life, epoch, master, birthplace of, 38 ; a barbarian slave, 41, 211 ; name un-Greek, 41, 148 ; similar in sound to Kasyapa, 148. yEsop, Greek. See Greek prose yEsop (and so for other languages). "/Esopus ad Rufum." See Rufus. African origin of fable, theory of, 92. African Fables (Bleek, Kolle, &c), cf. i. 2, 6, ii. 10, iv. 12, v. 3, 4, 16, Av. 4, 13, Al. ib. Agur, proverbs of, Indian origin of, 132-4. Alcaeus, 28. Alexis, 100. Alexandria Library, 34, 212. Alfonso, Fables of, xiv. 15472, 198-200, 217, cf. i. 9, iii. 2, v. 1, Re. 3, Av. 1, Al. 270 INDEX. Alfred, King, Fables attri- buted to, 160, 162, 165. Alfred of England, xvi., xx. source of Marie de France 163, 167 ; identified, 167 helped by Berachyah Nak dan, 177, 216 ; date of, 168 mentioned, 171, 177, 179, 186, 19572, 216, 217. See Appendix, LBG, Marie, Romulus of Marie. Allegory, 148, 204, 21772, 220. Alsop, 19222. Ambition, symbols of, 97 and n. Anacharsis the Scythian, 143, 144. Androclus (iii. 1), II, 52, 140, 153. Angevin Empire, xvii. 180, 215. Animism, 46 and n, 206, 207. Anonymity of Folk-lore, 30 ; yEsop's Fables exception, 30. ' Anonymous Neveleti.' See Galfred, Walter. 'Anonymous Nilanti,' xx. 5. See Ademar. Anta Jdtaka, 66. Ape and Fox, 13, 26, 14072. Apes, Fables about, 126, 140 ; etymology, 14822. Aphthonius, 73, cf i. 5, 12, ii. 8, 20, iii. 13, iv. 6, 12, 15, 17, v. 1, Re. 1, Av. 1, 7, 17. Appendices to Phsedrus, xx. "13, 1422, 139, cf. i. 3, 12, 17-20, ii. 4, 8-10, iii. 1-6, 8-1 1, 13, 14, 16, 17, iv. 3, 6-8, 11- 19. Appendix to Romulus, cf. v. 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 14, 17. See LBG, Romulus of Marie. Arabian Nights, cf. Re. 6, Av. 17, Al. 1, 2. Arabic iEsop, larger recension of, xvi. 156-8; Paris MS., contents of, 221-4. Arabic numerals, 12822. Arabic translations, 166-7. Archilochus, 26, 2972, 14022, cf. i. 13. Aristophanes, 28, 30 and n, 12372, 198, cf. i. 13, Re. i, 2, Av. 3. Aristotle, 27, 128, 212, cf. i. 8, iv. 9. Armenian Fable, xvi. 15672, 177 and n, 18472. See Ere- mia, Vartan. Ashton, J, 193. Ass' Heart, 94, 95, 88, 10172, 166, 169. Ass a?id Lapdog, (i. 17) 6, 11, 9722. Ass and Suckling Pig, 70, 139. 153. Ass and Watchdog, 50. Ass in Lions Skin (A v. 4), 28, 52 ; Indian, 58-60, 106, 126, 129, 142, 153, 18272. Assyrian Fable, 41, 206, 207, 209. Athoan Codex of Babrius, 20. "Avadanas," 84, 88, 10172, cf. i. 5, 19, iii. 4, 16, Re. 16. Avaricious and Envious (Av. 17), 50, 126, 153. Avian, xiv., xx. ; date, 16 and n, 214 ; mentioned, 4972, 50, 52, 61, 159, 16972, 186, 215 ; Indian elements of, 125-8, 153, 214 ; interpolated in Romulus, 18572 ; in Bayeux Tapestry, 185 ; cf. i. 20, iii. 15, iv, 4, 6, 15, 17, 20, v. 6, Av. 1-27. Babrius, xx. 18-24 ; a Ro- man, 1972, 21, 214 ; date, 22 ; source of Gk. prose iEsop, 23, 24; Gitlbauer's INDEX. 271 edition of, 23 ; his source, 22, 214 ; compared with Phaedrus, 34, 36 ; morals in, 156 and n ; source of Synti- pas, Syriac, Armenian, and Loqman, 156ft ; mentioned, 51ft, 94, 104, 114, 122, 128, 147, 214, 216, 219, cf. i. 2, 3 (Gitlbauer), 5-8, 10 (G.). 12, x 3 (G.), x 5- 17-20. ii- 1 (G.). 3, 8,10 (G.), 14 (G.), 15,16, 19, 20, 111. 2, 3 (G.), 7, 13- 15. iv. 1, 3, 4 (G.), 5, 9 (Gabrias), 13 (G.), 15 (Gabr.) 16, 17, 20, v. i, 4, 6, Re. 1 (G), 3 (G.) )4 -7- 8 (G.),9. 10 (G.) f 12-15 (ah G), 16, i 7 (G),Av. 1-3, 4(G), 5, 6, 7 (G.), 8, 9 (G.), 10-16, 22 (G.), 23-25, 26 (G.), 27 (G.). See Gabrias, Ignatius. Bacher, W. , in, 120ft. Back, Dr., noft, 113. Bacon, F., 170 and n, cf i. 1. Bacon, R., 167, 168, 177. Balaam, 154ft. Bald Man and Fly (ii. 12), 52 ; Indian, 64, 65, 139, 153. Baldo (Latin verse trans, of Bidpai), cf. hi. 2, iv. 9, v. 1, 3. 6, 15. Banyan-Deer Jataka, 113. " Barlaam and Josaphat," 170ft. Bat, Birds, and Beasts (hi. 4), 140, 153- Bavdru Jataka, jjn. Bayeux Tapestry, 181-3, 215, cf. i. 2, 8, 15, 20, Av. 2 [Frontispiece]. Beast-Anecdote, 103, 207. Beast-Satire, 159, 205, 206, 208. Beast-Tale, 159, 205, 206, 208. Belly and Members (hi. 16), 6 ; Egyptian, Indian, Chinese, Persian, Roman, Jewish, in New Test., 82-8, 117, 161, 183. Benares, 146 and n. Benedictus le Puncteur, 176 and n, 177. See Berachyah. Benfey, T., xv. 46, 51, 52, 60 and n, 70ft, 72.71, 73, 95, 98, 126, 152/2, 18472, 209, 219 ; views on Indian origin, 102- 4; cf. plls. pass., and see Bidpai. Bennet, C. , 196ft. Bentley, xvii. , 18 and n, 218 ; Jebb's Life of, 28, 192ft. Berachyah ha-Nakdan, xvi., xx., 123ft, 168-78, 180, 216 ; an English Jew, 175-6 ; assists Alfred, 177 ; cf i. 1-9, 12-18, 20, ii. 1-4, 8-io, 15, hi. 7-9, 14, 15, 17, iv. 3, 8, 10, 12, 15-17, 19, 20, v. 2, 5, 8, 9, 16, Av. 4, 6, 9, n, 12, 14-17, 20, 22, 25. See Benedictus. Bharhut, stupa of, Jatakas figured on, 75, 79. Bibliography, 187 and n, 201ft. Bickell, 132ft. Bidpai, xx. 25, 41ft, 50-54, 104, 153, 216, 218 ; parallels from, 90-101 ; date of, 103 ; late, 107 ; Jataka elements in origin of, 146 ; cf. i. i, 3 5, 9, 10, 12-14, I 5 (Capua), 17, 18, 20, ii. 1, 3, 10, 12, 13-15, 29, hi. 1, 2 (Baldo), g, 14 (Capua), 16, 20, iv. 1-3, 9 (Baldo), 12, v. i, 3-5, 6 (Baldo), 8, 10, 15 (Baldo), Re. 1-3, 6, 16, Av. 4, 7, 9, 16-18, 24, Al, 5, 6, 9. See Baldo, Benfey, Pantscha- tantra. Bird Caged, 115. Bird and Waves, 113, 130. Bird with Two Heads, 84, 88. 272 INDEX. Blades, W., xi. Bleek, 13772. See African Fable. Blind Doe, 14972. Boccaccio, 229, cf. Al. 1. 2, 11. Blumenthal, A., 12072, cf. iii. 14, Al. 9. Boethius, cf. Re. 14. Boner, 185, 23072, cf. i. 1-4, 6-8, 10, ii. 2, 3, 6, 9, 12, 16, 19, 20, iii. 2, 6, 13, iv. 6, 9, 17, 20, Av. 2-4, 6, 10-15, J 7» 19, 22, 27. See Carlyle. Borrowing Theory, 44-6, 97, 202, 209. Boy and Thief (Av. 18), 126, 153- Bozon, N., 185. Brahmadatta in Benares, 55, 69 ; significance of, 147. Brahman, Tiger and Jackal, 50, cf v. 4. Brer Rabbit identified with Buddha, 11372, 136 ; his foot, i37- Brandt, S., 218. British Museum, xiv. 19172 ; Burneian MS. at, 5. Bromyard, 185, cf. i. 1, 3-7, 10, 13, 16, 18, 20, ii. 2, 3, 7, 10, 15, 17, 19, iii. 1, 4-7, 13, 15, 19, iv. 3, 8, v. 3-s, 9, Re. 14, Av. 1, 4, 8, 9, 17, Al. id, 5. Buddha, 53 and 72, 58, 61, 69, 79, 113, 129, 147, 212, 213, 23372 ; identified with Brer Rabbit, 11372, 137; his foot, 137- Buddhism, influence of, on negroes, 136 ; on Neopytha- goreanism, Essenes, Chris- tianity, 138. Bullokar, W., 191. Burmann, 12, 13, 1472. Burneian MS. of " Romulus," 5. 18372. Burton, Sir R. F., 92, 15472., 267 and 72. Butting Goats, 52, cf v. 10. Cainozoic stratum of Bidpai, 51, 104, 157. Caldecott, R., 196, 229. Camel and Jupiter (Av. 7) ; Indian, 81 and 72, in, 226, 142, 153- Camel-bird (ostrich), 204. Campbell, "Tales, W. High- lands," cf. iii. 2, v. 3. Carlyle, 23072, cf. ii. 20. Calf and Ox, 70. Cat and Chicken (Re. 4), 63. Cat and Parrot, 2872. Cat and Weasel, zi6n. Catalan ^sop, 18772, cf i. 8. Caxton, W., xi.-xiii., xx. 4, 9 and n, 13, 15, 16, 25, 38, 47 and 72, 51, 67, 71, 15272, 158, 186, 187-92, 189, 190, 217, cf i. 8, v. 1, Al. 6, p. 268. Ceylon, 54 ; home of Indian Fable, 144, 145, 213. Chaff, straw, and wheat, 115. Chain of tradition, strength of, 97. Chapbook, 193, cf. ii. 15, iv. 3. I2 - Charlemagne, 215. Chaucer, 185- and n, cf. v. 3, 8, Av. 1. Chemnitzer, 19272. Cheyne, Prof., 13272, 13372. Chicken and Fox, 170. Chinese iEsop, 21972. Chinese Fable. See Avadanas, Hiouen. Choliambics, 21, 22, 23, 214. Christianity, influence of Bud- dhism on, 138 ; sensual chas- tity of mediaeval, 200. Church, visible, doctrine of, founded on fable, 87. INDEX. 273 Classical scholars neglect lite- rary history, 3472. Clodd, E., 13772. Clouston, W. C, 126, cf. ii. 12, iii. 9, v. 4, Av. 24, Al. 5. Cobet, 12172, 15072. Cock and Bat, 115. Colombo, Bishop of, 64, 10672. Comet Fables, 159. See Fa- bulai extravagantes. ComTe, J., 18272, cf. i. 2, 8. See Bayeux Tapestry. Conceited Jackal, 73, 777?, in, 129. Conventions of fable, 208, 209. Coraes, ijn, ign, 2472. Cosquin, 210. Countryman and Snake (i. 10). 28 ; Indian, 81, 128, 139, 143, 153- Country?nan, Son and Snake (ii. 20) ; Indian, 92-4, 139, 153, 166. Crabs, Two (Av. 3), 28. Crane and Peacock (Av. 12), 71, 127, (Crow by mistake) J 53- Crane, T. F., cf. ii. 15, Al. 5, 8, 13- Crane, W., bad "morals" of, 14972 ; designs of, 196, 229. Crocodile, fable about, pro- bably Indian, 140, 153. Crow and Fox (i. 15), 2972, 52 ; Indian, 65, 139, 153, 182. Crow and Pitcher (A v. 20), 114, 127, 153, 209. Croxall, S., 193, 195, 229. Crusius, O., xv. 21, 122, 219, cf. Av. 14. Culladhanuggaha Jdtaka, ^9- 60. Culture beyond Fable, 208. Cunningham, Sir A., 7172, 73". 77- Cyprian Fable, zzjn. VOL. I. Cyril, 21572, cf. i. 15, iv. 17. Cyrus, Fable of, 26. 88. See Piper turned Fisherman. "Daniel Derond a, "quoted 11772. Dates, importance of, 47 ; of Gk. Fable, 47. See JEsop, Babrius, Berachyah, Marie. De Gubernatis, 4572 ; specimen of his theory, 23772, cf. plls. . pass. Delphian Oracle, 38, 39. Demetrius Phalereus, xx. 33- 6, 123, 124, 13972, 143, 203, 212, 214. Democritus, 28, 129 (Theognis by mistake). I Derenbourg, J., 15472. I Derivates of Phaedrus, xv. , xx. ; of Ademar and Romulus, 1572, 178-9. Devadatta, 56, 23372. D'Herbelot, 41, cf Al. 4. Dimitrief, 19272. Diogenes Laertius, 28. Dipi Jdtaka, 62. Dispute of Senses, 84, 8672. Dog and Shadow (i. 5), 6, 28, 51 ; Indian, 58-60, 101, 129, 153. 165. Dog in Manger (v. n), 18672, 19272, 19472, 209. Dogs and Hide, Indian, 72, 139, 142, 153. " Don Quixote," cf. Al. 8. Dragon and Hart (v. 4), 52, 13772. Dramatis personae of Fables changed, 142. Dressier, xx. , 13, 1472. Droll, 202, 206. Dukes, L., 96, ii072, 114, cf. i. 8, Av. 9, 15. Du Meriil, xv., xx., 1, 16472, 165, 17772, 219, cf. plls. pass. S 274 INDEX. Duplessis, xx. Dutch y^Esop, xx. 179, 187, 217, 229. Eagle and Fox (i. 13), 28, 30^. Eagle and Raven (i. 14), 51, 61, 139, 153. Eagle and Tortoise (Av. 2), Indian, 61, 126, 127, 153, 182, 183. Eagle and Weasel, 62. Eagle hoist with own Petard, 26, 127, and n. Eberhard, 15522. Ebert, 215^. Egyptian Fable, 42, 82, 88, 209. " Ecclesiasticus," 13472, cf. A v. 9. "Eliot, George," 31, 3372, 11772, 14972. Ellis, R. , 1372, 16, 6472, 12572. England, home of Fable, xvii., 178-85 ; nidus of Romance, xvii. 181. English words in Marie, 162-4. Ennius, 8872, cf. Re. 7. Ephesian Widow (iii. 9), 13, 52, 140, 153, 183?*. Erasmus, cf. ii. 15, Av. 4. Eremia, xx. ; Fables of, 177 and n. Erythraean Sea, 6172, 127, 144. Escurial, 20072. Essenes, 138. European ^Esop, 186, 187. Fable, of ^Esop, 27 ; oldest, 82 ; definition of, 204 ; dif- ferentia of, 206 ; future of, 220 ; morality of, 20872. Fabliau, 200 ; an English, cf. Al. 11. Fabliaux (Barbazon, Le grand, Meon), cf. iii. 9, v. 3, Av. 17, Al. 6. t5). 170 Fabricius, 1972. Fabula extravagantes, xx. 43, 159, 186 and n, 195, 252. Fabulce rhythmicce, xx. 178. Facetiae, 200-2, cf. Po. 1-12. Fairy Tale, 190, 206. See Folk Tale. Fallacy of Priest of Neptune, 109. Farmer and Moneylender, 50. Fausbbll, xv. 55 and n, 59, 61, 62, 65, 66, 67, 6g, 71, 72, 73. 75- Fedde, 1772. Feer, L., 146, 14772. Fir and Bramble (Av. 114, 126, 153. Fly on Chariot-wheel, and n. Folk-etymology, mythology re- garded as, 25. Folk-lore, Gk. Fable part of, 40 ; theories of resemblances in, 44 ; terminology of, 206. See Borrowing Theory. Folk-tales, 194 and n, cf. ii. 9, 10, 15, iii. 2, 9, v. i, 4, 5, 7, 10, 12, 16, Av. 13, 17, Al. 1-13. See Campbell, Crane, Gering, Grimm, Temple. Fox and Cat (v. 5), 52, i86n. Fox, Cat and Dog, 139, mis- take for Fox, Cock and Dog. Fox and Ape, 13, 42. Fox a?id Crabs, 4972. Fox, Cock and Dog (Po. 7), 75- 139. 153- Fox and Crow (i. 15), 2872, 52 ; Indian, 65, 139, 153, 182. Fox and Fishes, 113, 130, 170. Fox and Goat (Re. 3), 52, 6o«, 18272. Fox and Grapes (iv. i), 52, 140, 153, 18272. Fox a?id Hedgehog, 28. Fox, Hedgehog, and Ticks, INDEX. *75 /Esop's Fable, 27, 30, 7477., 170. Fox and Lion, 26, in. Fox and Stork (ii. 13), 46, 140, 153- Fox and Wolf (iii. 6), 28/z, 140. 153- Fox as Singer, n 5-6. Freeman, Prof., 1837?. French, iEsop, xx. 187, see Machault ; language used by mediaeval English Jews, 176 ; scholarship, 1, 14. Frohner, xx. Frogs desiring King (ii. 1), 6, 52. Fuchs, 165 and ?i, cf. ii. 15. Furia, 17/2, 1977, 2977, 79. Gabrias, xx. 18, 2i«, 24/z, cf. i. 2, 5, 7, 8, 10, 15, ii. 10, 16, iii. 3, iv. 6, 9, 13, 15, 17, v. 1, 4, Re. 1, 5, 7-9, Av. 2, 13. Gaidoz, H., 131, 135 and n. Galfred, 178 and n. See Walter of England ; cf i. 1-20, ii. 1-20, iii. 1 -17. Gatha, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 69, 71, 72, 73, 75, 78, 149, 213, 214. Gay, J., 197. Ge'llert in Midrash, 113 ; Bud- dhistic, 113, 130. Gerard, xx. 179. Gering, 19972, cf. i. 10, ii. 10, Al. 1-13. German ^Esop, xx. 174, 186, 187 ; scholarship, 3, 14, 161 and n. See Stainhowel. " Gesta Romanorum," cf. i. 17, ii. 10, iii. 1, 20, v. 4, 13, Re. 14. Ghivizzani, xx. 187/z. "Gil Bias," cf. Po. 6. Gitlbauer, 23, 25, 132. See Babrius. Glinka, 19277. Glossary, xix. Goat and Compasses, 17677,. Goethe, cf. i. 6, 8, iv. 9. See ' ' Reynard the Fox. ' ' Goncharof, 19272. Goodman and Serpent (i. 10), 52; Indian, 81 and ?i, 139, 153. See Countryman. Goodman, Son and Serpent (ii. 10), 52 ; Indian, 92, 106, 139, 153. See Countryman. Goose with Golden Eggs (Av. 24), 52; Indian, 67, 126, 129, *S3> 1 97 n . *99«- Gottheil, R. , xix. 157/2, 22i«, Gow, J., xix. Gower, 184^, 185, cf Av. 17. Graesse, 21677. Graetz, H., 118, 13277, 133. Grasshoppers, 26n. Greek Fables, source of Latin, 17 ; ancient enumerated, 26-28 ; part of folk-lore, 29, 30 ; Indian elements of, 15277. See Demetrius, Nico- stratus. Greek prose ^Esop, xx. 17 ; editions of, xjn ; derived from Babrius, 24 : differences from Phasdrus, 166, 169 ; translated by L'Estrange, 191 ; by Townsend, 195 ; cf i. 2, 3, 5-10, 12, 13, 15, 17- 20, ii. 1, 3, 4, 8-io, 13, 15, 16, 19, iii. 2, 3, 7, 12-15, I 9> iv. 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 13, 16, 17, v. 1, 4, 6, 9, n, Re. 1-17, Av. 1-20, 22-26. Grimm, 3177, 44, 45, 190, " Kindermarchen," cf ii. 9, 10, iii. 9, v. 5, 12, 16, Av. 13, Al. 8. Grisebach, cf iii. 9. Grote, 337?. Gruppe, 209, 210. 276 INDEX. Hahn, 19472, 202, cf. v. 4, 5, 10. Halm, 17, 77, 126-7, I 7°« See Gk. prose JEsop. Hamburger, no//, 119//, 112/2, 116/2, 5^ i. 8. Hardy, 54/2, 72. Hare and Elephant, 60/2. i7<2/-£ and Hound, 28. Harris, 137, cf. v. 3, 4, 16. Hare in African Folk-lore, 137/2. Hare with many Friends, 197. Hartung, 121. Hazlitt, W. C, 32, 194. See Proverbs, English. Head and Tail of Serpent, T.xyi. Heart, seat of sense, 94, 95/2, 126 and n. Hebraisms in Greek . ^ll 11 ' 2I 8, cf. i. 1, 6, 15, ii. 1, 14, 15, iii. 9, Po. 1. L' Estrange, 191 ; source of Russian Fable (?) 192, 193 ; mentioned, 218, 229, Libyan Fable, xvi. 121, 124, 125, 127, 20972 ; true mean- ing of, 128 and n. Liebrecht, 80, 81, 10072, cf. i. 10, 17, iv. 1, Av. 4, 17, Al. 5, 6, Po. 6. Lightfoot, Bp., 13872. 278 INDEX. Lion and Ass (iv. io), 74. Lion and Crane. See Wolf and Crane. Lion and Man (iv. 15), 21 and n, 14972. Lion and Mouse, 6, 11, 52; in India and Egypt, 90-2, 139. 142, 153- Lion and Oxen (Av. 17), 7772, 115, 126, 153. Lion reanimated, 113. Lion's share (i. 6), 6, 7472, 166 ; two versions, 166, 169, i82n. Lion's Traces, 170. Livy, 88, cf. iii. 16. Longperier, 135. Loqman, xx. 41, 48, 50, 154, 155 ; doublet of Balaam, 154a, 216 ; cf. iii. 16, iv. 6, 12, 15, Av. 14, 24. See Appendix. Losaka Jdtaka, io6n. Loth, 156. Lueanor, cf. i. 15, 20. Lucian, 29, cf. ii. 5. Luther, 1, 15, 20372, cf. i. 1-12, 15, ii. 1, 2, 20, v. 4, Av. 8, Al. 6, Po. 7. Lydgate, 185, r/". Al. 1, 6. Lytton, Lord, 199. Machault, J., xx. 4. 9, 186, 229, 267. Macrobius, 16. Mahabharata, 80 ; parallels from, 81, 82, 104, 153, cf. i. 10, iii. 16, iv. 20, Av. 7. Mahaffy, Prof., 92. Mahosadha Jdtaka, io6n, 130, 131. Makasa Jdtaka, 64 and n. Mall, E. , xv. 160 and n, 161- 164, 219. Man and Idol, 52, 169 and n, Man and Pit, 169 and n. Man and Serpent. See Country- man. Man and Tiger, 50, in, 120 and n. Man, Lion, and Serpent, 184. Man with Two Wives (Re. 16), in, 139, 140, 153. Mapes.W. , 185, cf. iii. 19, Av. 4. Marcus Aurelius, 22. Marie de France, xv. xx. 158, 159-167, 179, 217, 219, cf. i. 1-20, ii. i-ii, 15-18, 20, iii. 4, 5, 7, 8, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, iv. 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16, 17, 19, v. 23-9, Av. 1, 11, Al. 6. Martial, 31, cf. ii. 20. Maspero, 82 and n. Mavor, 194 and n, 229. Meir, Rabbi, xx. in, 112, 120 and n, X22, 12372. Menander, 33, 35. Menas, M., discovers Babrius, 20, 22. Mercury and Statue Seller, 3i- Mercury and Two Women, 140-1, 153. See Three Wishes. Meril. See Du Menl. Mesnevi, 49, cf. v. 9, Al. 5. Mesozoic stratum of Bidpai, 54*, 89, 104. Metempsychosis, 89. " Midrash Rabba," 70, 72, 8572, 96, 11172, 115. Middle English derivate of Marie, 163 ; translations of, 164. Migne, 8872, 19972. Migration of illustrations, 7672. Milesian Fable, 12772, 203, 212, 217. Miller, Joe, 32 and n, 33 and 72, 214. "Mishle Kobsim," 120, 121. INDEX. 279 " Mishle Kubsis," 122, 136. " Mishle Shu'alim," 120, 122, 123, 13972, 168, 217. Misprints in Caxton, x., xi. ; in Talmud, 121 ; in Introduc- tion, p. 127, Crow (Crane) ; 131, in (on); 143, Phoedrus (Phaedrus) ; 148, Afcrwros {Atauiros) ; 164, athcle (athele) ; 19272, Russial (Russian); 19672, iun (inn). Mistranslation, 74, 162, 163. Morality of Fable, 20872. Morals of Fable, their origin, xvi. 148-50, 20472, 214, Morris, R., 58, 62, 66, 67, 72, 73. 75- 78, 113. 174. 2l8 «- Mountain in Labour (ii. 5), 101. Mouse-Maiden, 11, 28 ; Indian, 98-101, 139, 142, 153, 162, 166, 169. See Vixen-Maiden. Mouse and Frog (i. 3), in, 139. 153- Mouse and Ox (Av. 23), 114, 126, 153. Mulier, C. F., 24. Mulier, L. 5, 14. Mulier, M., 14, 44. Mules Pedigree, 170. Munchausen. 5072. Munika Jdtaka, 69, 115. Musset, A. de, cf. iii. 9. Nacca Jdtaka, 71 and n. " Xakdan," 168, 175. Neckam, 179 and n, 185, cf. i. 2-9, 13, 15, 17, 18, 20, ii. 1, 5, 8, 9, 12, iii. 1, 7, 12, 13, 15, 16, iv. 3, 6, 9, 10, 13, Neubauer, A., 174, 176. Neveiet, 2672, 27. 218. Nicholas of Pergamus, 21672, cf (Dial. Creat.) i. 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 16, 18, 20, ii. 1, 10, 15, 20, 111. 1, 13, iv. 12, 17, v. 4, Av. 4, 8, Al. 1 a. Nicostratus, source of Babrius, XX. 22, 24, 36, 122, I23, I24, 214. A ightingale and Hawk, earliest fable, 26 and n. "Nights with Uncle Remus," 7272, 137. Nilant, xx. 5, 218. See Ro- mulus of Nilant. Norman love of Fable, 181. North Wind and Sun, 28. Nutt, A, , xix. Oak and Reeds (iv. 20), Indian, 81, in, 126. 142, 153; from Avian not Phaedrus, 1837?. Obscene Jest, 200-3. Odo of Sherington, 185, cf. i. 3, 8, 12, ii. 1, 2, 15, iii. 5, iv. 7, 8, v. 9, Av. 4. Oesterley, xv., xviii. , xx., itz, 5, 972, 11, 17872, 18672, 18772, 21972, 229. See plls. pass. Ogiiby, 191, 229. Old Testament, Indian ele- ments in, 134 ; foreign elements, 13472 ; cf iv. 17, Re. 6, 13. Ophir, 10672, 131, 160. "Oriental LXX.,"44, 150, 152. Original Fables, 143 and 72. Origins, interest of, 15. Ovid, 21. Ox and Heifer, in, 126, 153. Oxen and Pig, ill, 129. Paleozoic stratum of Bidpai, 54, 60, 104. Papyrus, age of, 92. " Pantschatantra," Benfey's in- troduction to, 46, 6o». See Bidpai. Pandects, cf iii. 4. 28o INDEX. Panther, fable about, Indian, 140. Parable, 204 and n. Parallels, xviii. 27 ; of Indian and Greek fable, 46, 48 ; Synopsis of, 229-68. Paris, G., 372, 522, 14, 83, 151, 18022, cf. Av. 17. Paris, Matthew, 18472. Paris MS. of Arabic .Esop, xx. 157, 221-4. Parodies, 197. Partington, Mrs., Indian, 72. Partridge, Monkey, and Ele- phant, 170. Paul, St., Fable of, 86, 88, cf. iii. 16. Pauli, cf. i. 4, 7, 19, iii. 15, v. 16, Av. 8, 17, 24, Al. 3, 4, 7, Po. 6. Peacock and Nightingale, 71. Peacock, fables about, Indian, 71, 139, 140, 153. Pedigree of Caxton's JEsop, xviii. xx., 230. "Pentamerone,"£/".Re. 6, Av. 7. Perotti, xx. 13. Phsedrus, literary source of, xvi. 16, 35, 212 ; is our ./Esop, i, 158 ; derivates of, xx. 6 ; M. Hervieux on, 2, 3 ; missing fables of, 6 ; one restored, 13 ; date and birth- place, 1772; "jests of," 31 and ?z ; parallel with Babrius, 35, 36 ; Indian elements of, 139-141, 153 ; mentioned, 71, 74, 80, io8n, 124, 13972 ; cf. i. 1-20, ii. 1-20, iii. 1-20, iv. 1-19, v. 4, Av. 8. See Appendices to Phaedrus. Phalaris, 1822, 19272. Pictorial yEsops, 195-6. Pig and Whistle, 196/2. Piper turned Fisher (Re. 7), 26, 88. See Cyrus. Pithoean Codex of Phaedrus, 7«. Planudes, xiv. 18, 1972. Plato, 2622, 28, cf. iv. 12, Av. 4(?)- Plautus, cf. ii. 15. Pliny, 145. Plocanus, 144-5. Plutarch, 29, 39, cf. ii. 13, iii. 3, 16, iv. 9, 13, 15, Av. 20. Poggio Bracciolini, xiv. 4, 32, 1397?, 200-1, 217, cf. Po. 1-10. Political use of Fable, 39, 40, 184, I927Z, 2l8/2. Polynesian Fable, 206, 207. Pope, cf. i. 12, iii. 16. Pots, Two (Av. 9), 52 ; Indian, 96-7, in, 134%, 14922, 153. Prato on Belly and Members, 8422, cf. iii. 16. Priaulx, O., 14472. Proverbs of Agur, Indian, 132-4. Proverbs related to Fable, 108 and n, 205 and n ; Arabic, 205 ; Greek, cf. i. 8, Re. 13 ; Indian, cf. Al. 7 ; English, cf. i. i, 6, 15, 17-19, ii. 15, v. 10, Re. 7, 10, Av. 16. Pythagoreanism, 138, 1477?. Quatrains of thought, an In- dian literary artifice, 133 and n. Queen's Library, copy of Cax- ton at, xiv. Rabelais, cf. i. 1, ii. 5, iii. 16. Raju, R., 49 and n, cf. i. 18, iii. 14. Ralston, 64, 19272. Rankine, Prof., 19672. Ranutio d' Arezzo, xx. 25, 186. See Remicius. Rawlinson, 41. INDEX. 281 Regnier, 1897?, cf. i. 8 (IV.)- Remicius, xx. 25, 125, 159, 203. See Ranutio, cf. Re. 1-17. " Reineke Fuchs," 171 and n. Reynard the Fox, 159, 171 and n, cf. i. 6, 8, io, 12, 15, ii. 1, 15, 20, iii. 6, v. 1, 4, 5, 7-10, 13, 14, Re. 6, Po. 7. Rhode, E. , 20372. Rhodopis, 37, 141. Rhys-Davids, T. , 56, 57, 65, 69, 7072, 71, 113, 130, 146, 147, 215 ; views on Indian fable, 107-9. Richard I., 176, 179, 184 and n, 216. Richard III, xi. Riese, A., iitz, 12, 1437?. Rig Veda, 132-3, cf iii. 20. Robert, xx. 1, 187, 219, 229, 252. See plls. pass. Rbdiger, 15772, cf. ii. 8, Av. 7, 10. Rohini Jataka, 54. Roman Fable, 88. Romance, England, the nidus of, xvii. 181. Romulus, xx. 4, 5, 125, 139, 169, 186, 198, cf. i. 1-20, ii. 1-20, iii. 1-20, iv. 1-19, Po. 7. Romulus of Marie, 161. See Appendix to Romulus. Romulus of Nilant, 572, i6t, 178 ; Collation (accidentally omitted from Synopsis), Rom. Nil. 1-17=1. 1-9, 12- 18, 20: i8-24=ii. 1-6, 8: 25-37=™- 1. 2, 4. 5. 7. 9> 10, 13-17, 20 : 38-45 = ™. 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 17, 19. Roth, 122??. "Rufus," 5, 18372, cf i. 1-4, 6-18, ii. 1-5, 7-15, 19,, hi. I ~3> 5 _ 8, 10-20, iv. 1, 4, 5. Russian Fable, source of, 192. See Krilof. Rutherford, W. G., 1372, 23 and n, 2972, 41, 105-6, 10872, 12m, 12372, 15072. Ryland, H., xix. Sachs, Hans, cf i. 2, 8, 12, 13, ii. 1, 3, 7, 8, 10, 17, iii. 2, 3, iv. 8, 17, v. 1-5, Re. 16, Av. 1, 4, 5, 8, 14, 17, 22, Al. 1, 6, 11, Po. 7. Sakuna Jataka, jjn. Sakvamuni, 53, 212. See Bud- dha. Salisbury, John of, 184, 185, cf. iii. 1, 16, Av. 2. Salmon, Lamb mistaken for, 193. Samos, home of yEsop, 38. Sanjivata Jataka, 114. Sausages the Pig, 69. Schakama Jataka, 57-8. Schechter, S. , xix. Schiefner, 64, cf i. 8 (I.). Schmidt, V., 154^, 19972, cf. Al. 1.-13. Schneider, xjn, ign. Scorpion and Camel, 114. Seneca, cf v. 13. " Sepande" clue in Marie, 163. Serpent and Ass, 28. Serpent and Crab, 28. Serpent and Eagle, 28. Shah's justice, 131^. Shakespeare, 2>jn, 11472, cf. i. 2, iii. 16. Sheep and Cow (iv. 19), 13. Sheep and Dog, 27. Shepherd and Wolf, 114. Sheppev, John of, xx. 185, cf i. 8 (in.). Simon bar Kappara, 122/2. Simonides, 28 and 72. Sindibad, cf. Al. 2, 5, 11. Smith, Sydney, 32, 7272. Socrates, 30, 129. Solomon's judgment, probably 282 INDEX. Indian, 130-4 ; at Pompeii, Solon, 28, 39, £/. 11. proem. Somadeva, cf. v. 3, Re. i, Av. 2. Sophocles, 28. Sophos, 49, 155, 156,