The Historical Outlook A JOURNAL FOR READERS, STUDENTS AND TEACHERS OF HISTORY Continuing The History Teacher s Magazine sited in Co-operation with the National Board for Historical Service and under the Supervision of a Committee of the American Historical Association. Albert E. McKinley, Managing Editor Volume IX. Number 7. PHILADELPHIA, OCTOBER, 1918. $2.00 a year. 25 cents a copy. CONTENTS "he French Government, by Prof. Othon Guerlac "he Deeper Roots of Pan-Germanism, by Prof. J. W. Thomp- son [aking History by Popular Education — 'he Trade Routes of Western Asia, by Prof. W. L. Wester- mann PAGE 357 360 368 37° 373 375 379 381 ow Southerners Supported the War for Secession, by Prof. J. S. Bassett ________ changing Fortunes of the Great War, by Prof. L. M. Larson "he Duty of the History Teacher, by Prof. T. C. Smith 'ractical Suggestions for the History Teacher - The Outline Method, by M. S. Gold, 381 ; Observation Work and Practice Teaching, by A. T. Vollweiler, 383 ; Teaching the History of American Politi- cal Parties, by Prof. E. D. Ross, 385; Songs and History Teaching, by C. M. Hallock, 388. >ocuments Relating to the Future of the British Empire, ar- ranged by Prof. A. L. Cross ----- 'eriodical Literature, by Dr. G. B. Richards, 389 ; Reports from the Historical Field, 390; rhe War and the Schools, 391 ; Book Reviews, edited by Prof. W. J. Chase, 392 ; Articles in the Teaching of History, listed by W. L. Hall, 392 ; Recent Historical Publications, listed ^y Dr. C. A. Coulomb, 395. 401 Published monthly, except July, August and September, by McKinley Publishing Co., Philadelphia, Pa. Copyrighted, 1918, McKinley Publishing Co. Entered as second-class matter, October 26, 1909, at Post-office at Phila., Pa., under Act of March 3, 1879 354 THE HISTORICAL OUTLOOK TWO GREAT HISTORIES FOR THESE TIMES Outlines of European History PART II By James Harvey Robinson and Charles A. Beard Medieval and Modern Times By James Harvey' Robinson New editions of these two books will be used in filling school orders this fall. These new editions are the very best books available to give a clear, full, up-to-the- minute understanding of the great days in which we live. These books are not neutral. They are American through and through. GINN AND COMPANY 70 Filth Avenue, New York, N. Y. FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO FOCH Harding's New Medieval and Modern History REVISED EDITION — JUST PUBLISHED By Samuel Bannister Harding, Ph.D. Professor of European History 814 pages. Illustrated An additional chapter of about 30 pages brings this well-known history up to date. The account given in this chapter of the World War from the summer of 1914 to May, 1918, is succinct, graphic, well-balanced and notably free from any undue appeal to the feelings. The inclusion of this new material will keep Harding's New Medieval and Modern History in the very front rank of school text books on European History —the place it has occupied ever since its publication. In its clear and vivid emphasis on social and economic conditions, in its wise selection of salient features, in its varied teaching suggestions and apparatus, it continues to be unexcelled. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY New York Cincinnati Chicago Boston Atlanta A NEW COLLEGE TEXT Modern and Contemporary European History By J. SALWYN SCHAPIRO, Ph.D. Associate Professor of History, The College of the City of New York Under the Editorship of JAMES T. SHOTWELL Professor of History, Columhia University 80 Jf pp. of text, 27 maps. $8. 00. Postpaid THIS important new textbook embraces the period from the French Revolution to the pres- ent, especial attention being given to the epoch since 1870. It gives a well-balanced treatment of the various aspects of European history, the social, economic and cultural no less than the political and military, and describes movements and ideas as well as laws and institutions. Special attention is also paid to international relations and to the causes and conduct of The World War. HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO Books for History Classes in War Times The schools find it now more than ever necessary to bring even the youth in the high school to grips with those severer problems that it will be his in a few years to wrestle with. Here are books that have been written since the present international war began, or which anticipated it — books that offer a background for studying the political and social de- velopments that it has produced. Every live Ameri- can high school needs such live American textbooks as these. Ashley: The New Civics $1.20 Ashley: Modern European Civilization Preparing Botsford: Brief History of the World $1.50 Burch and Patterson : American Social Problems 1.20 Ely and Wicker: Elementary Principles of Economics, Revised 1.10 Herrick: History of Commerce and Industry 1.60 Leavitt and Brown: Elementary Social Science .80 Towne: Social Problems 1.00 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY New York Chicago Boston San Francisco' Atlanta Dallas THE HISTORICAL OUTLOOK 373 creased prosperity for the Near East and a great re- vival in the importance of its routes. Out of this revived importance and interest in the Near East routes has come the Bagdad Railway and its many attendant problems. It is the great Cen- tral Trade Route of old. Its modern form, the rail- way, gives it a tremendous advantage over the Medi- terranean sea routes in so far as that trade is con- cerned which handles the inland products of Western Asia itself. Rail transportation is much faster than that by sea. Goods sent by sea from Hamburg to Aleppo must be loaded at the place of export and un- loaded at Alexandretta, which is the present mouth into Asia corresponding to the ancient Seleucia (har- bor of Antioch). Then they must be packed upon camels or loaded into cars, and sent forward to Aleppo. The Hamburg-Constantinople-Bagdad Rail- way, with its rail connections, once the standard gauge is established throughout, will make it possible to load a car at Paris, Hamburg, Berlin or Petro- grad and send it directly into the freight depots of Aleppo. The cost of transportation will be, by this one consideration alone, greatly reduced. This di- rect shipment is already possible from any of the great European centers to any place on the railway line in Anatolia, as far as the tunnels through the Taurus mountains, where the narrow gauge tracks for the present necessitate transshipment. It is in this historic setting, as an old political and economic fact revived and modernized, that the Bag- dad Railway scheme appears in its correct perspec- tive. 1 How the Southerners Supported the War for Secession BY PROFESSOR J. S. BASSETT, SMITH COLLEGE. Whatever differences of opinion may exist about the right or wrong of secession, there can be little doubt that once in the war the people of the South gave it a strong and unselfish support. It was a gigantic venture on their part, and in order to carry it through to a successful issue they threw literally their " lives, fortunes, and sacred honor " into the struggle. It was not hard to see that it meant utter ruin, if the venture failed, yet they went forward to the test as gaily and as unreservedly as if the issue had been of the utmost certainty. Happily the things for which they fought are to-day merely academic principles, as one may well see by reading the daily casualty lists in the papers ; but it may help us somewhat in our support of the present struggle if we recall that other series of sacrifices in the hot days of the 'sixties. From the Southern point of view the war was fought to repel invasion. The gray clad men risked their lives to drive back the invaders of their homes. This they could not have done if they had not been bred to the notion that there was something peculiar in the South which made it a section apart from the rest of the United States. .In 1861 the slavery con- troversy was thirty years old; the oldest man of mili- tary age in the South was a youth when it began. All his ideas had been formed in a school whose doctrine was that an attack on his institutions was imminent. In 1861 he felt that the long-dreaded day had arrived, and it was now or never, if he meant to save his home from domination by persons who had no sympathy with it. It was on this fundamental basis that his efforts to win the war rested. I do not mean that all Southerners thought the South should go to war in 1861. Many of them, al- though they felt that they had grounds for resent- ment, held that war was not the remedy. Also, many did not agree with the measures taken to carry on the struggle after war began. President Jefferson Davis had many critics in the South, and there was a wide divergence of views about the wisdom of some of the measures adopted by his government ; but on the one great question of the necessity that every one should do his part in supporting the struggle there was no difference of judgment. The most evident necessity, when hostilities began, was to raise an army. Volunteering was immediately employed for this purpose, and it yielded such good results that the training camps were so crowded that there were not muskets enough to equip the mer/who wished to use them. The Peninsular campaign in Virginia and the campaigns against Grant in Ten- nessee were fought by armies raised on this principle. But by this time it was evident that the struggle was to be so long that the entire man-power of the South would be required to meet the demand. Accordingly, the Confederate Congress enacted the conscription act of April 16, 1862, calling into the service all men from eighteen to thirty-five years of age. In the fol- lowing September the latter age was raised to forty- five. There was no protest against the wisdom of this law. In fact, the men of the South generally held it a reproach if they waited to be conscripted, and they flocked to the enlistment stations in antici- pation of the operation of the new laws. The last effort of the confederate government in calling out its man-power was the law of February 17, 1864, when all the men from seventeen to eighteen and from forty-five to fifty were enrolled in what was known as a reserve force, to be used for home defense. But the volunteers in the regular army included many a boy of sixteen. In the last months of the war hardly a Southern community contained a white man who i For a sensible discussion of this and related questions, see the article upon the " Ottoman Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade," by A. H. Lybyer, in the English Historical Review, XXX, 1915, pp. 577-78, 587. 874 THE HISTORICAL OUTLOOK was not in the military service or engaged in some form of industry necessary to support the army. Another test of sacrifice was in raising revenues. Three means were open to the confederate authori- ties — taxation, the issue of bonds, and the circulation of treasury notes. Each was employed to the limit of its possibility. Taxation was peculiarly re- stricted by the conditions existing in a very rural region. The people, long accustomed to buying their merchandise on credit to be paid for in bulk by hand- ing over their crops to the factors who had supplied them, had carried on their business on an unusually small amount of money. What little they had was soon paid into the treasury to satisfy the claims of the tax-collector or in exchange for confederate bonds. That done, direct taxation became a slender reliance for obtaining the large sums that the war demanded. As for indirect taxes, export and import duties, from which much had been expected in the beginning, the blockade of the Southern ports made the foreign trade such a small affair that these taxes yielded next to nothing. If the South could have exported her cot- ton supply during this struggle, she could have bor- rowed freely in Europe, in which case the result of the war might well have been far different from what it proved to be. The sale of confederate bonds turned out to be a disappointing thing, partly because the people, find- ing their cotton unsaleable, had little money with which to buy, and partly because the bonds which they took in exchange for the produce they sold to the government were forced on the market at steadily falling prices in order to obtain the funds needed for ordinary purposes. So rapidly did the bonds depre- ciate that the government was forced to limit bond sales in order to protect its credit. The only resource left was to issue treasury notes, or confederate money. The financiers of the confed- eracy well knew what dangers lurked in such a process, but they could not help themselves. Issue after issue was made to meet the necessities of the hour. Inflation was the inevitable result. Confed- erate money became so cheap that it was wittily said that the ladies of Richmond carried their money to market in their baskets and brought their purchases home in their purses. In the third year of the war it took twenty confederate dollars to buy one dollar in specie. Long before this, however, specie had dis- appeared from circulation. The government had gathered all it could lay hands on and sent it out of the country to buy needed supplies, specie being the only money it could use in such transactions. Some of the best fighting done by the confederate soldiers was done by men whose only pay was in confederate bills worth so little that the men who received them had little hope of getting enough for a month's pay to buy a pair of shoes for wife or daughter. The Southerners are noted for good nature under calamity. Under such burdens as the war brought they manifested the best of spirits. Mrs. Clayton tells of one of her friends who drew a thousand dol- lars from a bank in Richmond and rode off blithely to spend it all on an evening's entertainment of his friends. It cost twenty-five dollars an hour to hire a carriage to go to a reception, and in equal amount was paid for a brace of ducks. Yet dinners and re- ceptions were never so well attended in Richmond, nor so much enjoyed. Southerners were brought up to think less of money than some of their brethren who lived in sections where careful business habits were common instincts. They would face the situa- tion to the end in a care-free spirit, because it was their habit to face danger without gloom. Gloomi- ness came at last, in the last days of the war; but it was the depression arising from the certainty of com- ing defeat for the cause they loved, not from the hard- ships they faced. None knew better than they what failure would mean. Financial ruin was certain. The loss of the slaves would of itself be a vast sacrifice of wealth. It is true the negroes would still be with them as hired laborers, and if the owners were forced to pay wages they would at least be relieved of the expense of sup- porting the entire slave population. What was lost in one way would be nearly regained in the other. But it was not to be denied that slaves were wealth to the possessor. They furnished the basis of credit, and with that went the possibility of doing and being all the things wealth makes possible. More than this, the destruction of slavery would go far toward the destruction of the crystallization of Southern society. Through several generations a number of leading families had built up each com- munity. They had given it its ideals, its initiative, and its social standards. They were the keystone of Southern life. They could not keep their feet as leaders if slavery were overthrown. The Southern plantation was the unit of Southern life. The worst catastrophe that defeat brought to the South was the breakdown of this unit, leaving the people to begin the slow process of rebuilding other units on a new basis. The old planter was to be thrown into the dis- card, and those who had been in the middle or in the lower class were to be thrown up into prominence. Life had to be built all over again. It was the con- sciousness of this impending disorganization that took all the heart out of the Southern people of the leading class when they came at last to realize that their united efforts were to end in failure. For the men of the middle class, the small slave- holders and the farmers who worked with their own hands, the war was equally a calamity. It is true that it was to bring them opportunities they had not had before, but they were hardly able to see so far into the future. Their immediate concern was the loss of the cause for which they had fought. Be- tween them and the planters was no distrust. To- gether they had stood before the war, together they stood in the struggle, and together they would stand in calamity. In fact, the results would be bad enough for all. There was no capital in the South, except the capital invested in land, that was not to be swept THE HISTORICAL OUTLOOK 375 away by the ruin that impended. Into confederate bonds, and confederate money had gone every kind of saving. People who were in debt, and there were many of them in a country whose business was so seriously demoralized by war, would not be able to pay. The thriftless man would have to sell to wipe out his obligations, the thrifty man would see his mortgages and notes of hand become nearly valueless through the general depreciation of property that had formerly been considered good security. Never did a community come nearer to general bankruptcy than the South through the failure of its struggle for inde- pendence. It is evident that most Southerners saw their com- ing catastrophe by the middle of summer, 1864. Why, therefore, did they not give up the struggle at that time? If thev had acted on a mere basis of self- interest they would, probably, have given up. But there was something else in the struggle. The psy- chologist may call it what he wills ; the Southerner called it honor. For the sake of his honor he would not submit. He fought the dire fight out to utter ex- haustion; and to this day he has not been sorry that he chose that course rather than the less ideal way of saving what he could through throwing himself on the mercy of his opponents. In doing so he lost much of his property, no doubt; but he handed down to his children some of the best ideals of human living. He showed them how to give themselves for their con- victions. It was his opportunity to prove his loyalty, and he met it without flinching. The example he gave to the world is to-day a part of the common stock of American ideals, and it is not too much to say that it will not be lost on the men of the present time. The Changing Fortunes of the Great War BY PROFESSOR LAURENCE M. LARSON, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. During the past two months (July and August) the military situation on the more important battle fronts has suffered material and even startling changes. The power of the Central Monarchies reached its high- water mark with the fourth German offensive of the present year's campaign, which began on the 9th of June. Six weeks later it was becoming evident that in both military strength and prestige the Teutonic empires had entered upon a period of serious decline. The end of the war may yet be far distant; but at this writing the Allied nations are looking toward the future with more real confidence in the outcome than at any other time since America entered the war. I. The Turn of the Tide. This belief that the situation has actually changed to the disadvantage of the enemy is based on the progress of a series of events, movements, and under- takings, the more important of which may be listed as follows: 1. On June 15, after long and elaborate prepara- tion, the Austrians launched their " hunger offen- sive " in the valley of the Piave Eiver. It is re- ported that a million men were thrown against the Italian lines. The drive made only slight progress, however, and after a week's fighting it ended in de- feat before the counter-thrusts of the Italians and their allies. 2. On July 6 the Italians suddenly attacked the Austrian lines in Albania. This offensive was of minor character, but it gained some territory for the Italians, and further served to emphasize the earlier defeat of the Austrians on the Piave. 3. Nine days later (July 15) the Germans opened their fifth great offensive. Their armies crossed the Marne on the first day, and at certain points they ad- vanced their lines about two miles. But there was no further progress ; the " peace offensive " failed. 4. On the fourth day of this drive General Foch struck at the wedge that the enemy had driven south- ward between the Vesle and the Marne. The attack was successful, and since that date the Allied com- mand has retained the initiative. More than two- thirds of the territory lost to the Germans since March 21 has been recovered. 5. During the past year, and especially during the past four months, a vast American army has been landed and organized on French soil. At this writ- ing its total strength is well past 1,500,000. Ameri- can forces in constantly growing numbers have been employed in checking all the five German offensives, and have been used effectively in the aggressive oper- ations of the Allied armies since General Foch seized the initiative on July 18. 6. In August the Allied governments finally reached an agreement in the matter of giving assist- ance to the anti-German elements in Russia. Brit- ish, Japanese, and American troops have been landed or have appeared at five different points in the ter- ritories that once were Russia: on the Murman coast, at Archangel, on the Caspian shore (at Baku), in western Turkestan, and at Vladivostok. 7. The neutral governments have apparently con- cluded that Germany faces inevitable defeat. On August 22 it was announced that the Swedish govern- ment had finally concluded a commercial agreement with the Allies, according to the terms of which a large part of the Swedish shipping will be placed at the service of the enemies of Germany. In view of the fact that Germany was, in the years before the war, the " best customer " of the Swedes, this agree- ment becomes very significant. 8. During the same week the German foreign office was considering the probable effects of a threat from the Spanish government to seize and use German 376 THE HISTORICAL OUTLOOK ships interned in Spanish ports, if the German U-boats should continue the destruction of Spanish ships. II. The Lengthening of the British Battle Line. The more recent undertakings of the British army have again called the world's attention to the initia- tive and resources of the British Commonwealth. The Union Jack now floats over a long series of " fronts " from Ypres to Vladivostok. The bulk of the Eng- lish army is no doubt fighting in Flanders and Picardy ! but there are also important British com- mands in northern Italy, at Saloniki, and at various points in Asia. In Palestine and Mesopotamia large forces, composed chiefly of native Indian soldiery, but under English command, have made considerable progress in wresting those ancient lands from the Turk. Recently it has been reported that British forces have found their way from Mesopotamia to Baku and from India through eastern Persia into Turkestan. Of these advances little is known, but they are likely to prove of considerable importance. The Allied army that is working its way northward from Vladivostok is made up in part of British sol- diers. The German who studies the more distant regions of the war map will no doubt be interested to find that British forces have placed themselves squarely across most of the great commercial routes leading from Europe to the Near East, the Far East, and southern Asia. 1. Austria has long hoped to come into possession of Saloniki, the most important port on the Aegean Sea ; but the Saloniki front, in which England shares, prevents the Hapsburgs from realizing this ambi- tion. 2. The Bagdad Railway, with its Syrian branch, which was to carry German power to the Suez Canal and the Persian Gulf, and divert a large part of the Asiatic trade to Prussian ports, has lost its value to the commercial barons of Germany since the fall of Bagdad and Jerusalem. 3. The more recent German dretm of commercial expansion through Russia and Ukraine along the Si- berian Railway and the routes farther south is likely to remain a dream only. Two railway lines running from the shores of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov to the Caspian lands converge at Baku; it was doubt- less the fact that Baku is an important point on one of the great routes to the Orient, rather than the wealth of the neighboring oil fields, that determined the British authorities to send an expedition into this region. Just across the Caspian from Baku another railway line continues the eastward course along the Persian frontier and past the historic cities of Bok- hara and Samarcand, almost to the Chinese frontier. The British expedition into Turkestan has doubtless been sent to seize and hold some important point on this line. The Union Jack is also in evidence at the Pacific terminal of the Siberian Railway. The Allies, with the English among them, have also landed troops _on the Arctic coast of Russia, and are in control of the two most important ports in that i region: Archangel and Alexandrovsk f Catherine Har- bor). From these ports railways run into the in-i terior of Russia — from Alexandrovsk to PetrogradJ and from Archangel to Moscow. In the event ofl military operations in northern Russia the occupa-j tion of these points is a matter of great importance.) Serious operations are, however, not likely to be un-J dertaken by either side for some months to come, al the winter season on the shores of the White Sea isi long and severe. III. The Czechs and Slovaks in Siberia. The most promising development in Russia during the past summer has been the singular and wholly unexpected activity of the Czecho-Slovak prisoners! of war in the territories east of the Volga River. The Czechs are the Slavic inhabitants of Bohemia and Moravia. The Slovaks are a kindred people living east of the Moravians in northern Hungary. The languages spoken in these three areas are closely re-1 lated, and the Czecho-Slovak people may be regarded as forming a distinct nationality. For some time there has been a strong nationalis-j tic and anti-German movement in Bohemia ; and among the Slovaks there has been much dissatisfac-j tion with their subjection to Hungary. In the preseni war the Slavic subjects of the Austrian emperor havd not been ardent supporters of the imperial cause. Iij various ways the Czechs and Slovaks have founc their way into the armies of the Allies ; both in Italjj and on the western front their regiments have eni gaged the German enemy. But it is in Siberia that these peoples have found their great military opportunity. During the lasl year of Russian participation in the war Czechs and Slovaks in large numbers entered the Russian line! as prisoners of war or deserters. When the Bolshej vik leaders seized the government and made " peace j with the enemy, these Austrian Slavs found them! selves in a difficult position. To return to Bohemi| or Hungary was neither wholly safe nor to their li ing; accordingly the}' applied to the Bolshevik rulerl for permission to leave Russia, their purpose beinf to join the Allies in France. Permission was finalll secured, and about 100,000 men with considerably equipment set out on the long journey to Vladivol stok, where they hoped to find shipping to some Eng| lish or French port. The Germans learned what these Slavs were plar ning, and naturally interposed objections. Troubll soon broke out between the Bolsheviki and these tray eling Bohemians, most of whom were still in soutli eastern Russia and western Siberia. The disagred ment led to hostilities and the Czecho-Slovaks founl it necessary to seize large sections of the Siberiaj Railway. There were at the time several centers of opposi tion to the Bolsheviki in Siberia. A counter-revok