Issued December 21, 1910. 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 424. 
 
 OATS: 
 
 GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 BY 
 
 C. W. WARBURTON, 
 
 Agronomist in Charge of Oat Investigations , 
 Bureau of Plant Industry. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 
 1910. 
 
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 
 
 IT. S. Department of Agriculture, 
 
 Bureau of Plant Industry, 
 
 Office of the Chief, 
 Washington , I). C., September 21, 1910. 
 
 Sir: I have the honor to transmit and to recommend for publica¬ 
 tion as a Farmers’ Bulletin the accompanying manuscript on u Oats: 
 Growing the Crop,” prepared by Mr. C. W. Warburton, Agronomist 
 in Charge of Oat Investigations, under the direction of Mr. M. A. 
 Car let on, Cerealist in Charge of Grain Investigations. 
 
 With the single exception of wheat, oats is the most important 
 small-grain crop in this country. In general, however, our climatic 
 conditions are not favorable to the production of this crop, while the 
 methods of growing it do not produce the best results in yield or 
 quality. This bulletin gives the best available information on the 
 proper methods of growing and harvesting oats. The publications 
 of the state agricultural experiment stations have been freely used 
 in its preparation, and experimental data are presented to substan¬ 
 tiate most of the statements made. 
 
 Respectfully, 
 
 Hon. James Wilson, 
 
 Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 Wm. A. Taylor, 
 Acting Chief of Bureau. 
 
 424 
 
 2 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Introduction. 5 
 
 Origin and history of oats. 5 
 
 Description of the oat plant. 6 
 
 Soils adapted to the production of oats. 6 
 
 Types of soil. 6 
 
 Fertilizers and manures. 7 
 
 Liming. 9 
 
 Oats in the rotation. 10 
 
 Place in the rotation. 10 
 
 Common rotations which include oats. 10 
 
 Clearing the land of weeds. 11 
 
 Use as a nurse crop. 11 
 
 Use as a cover crop. 12 
 
 Growing in mixtures with other crops. 12 
 
 Preparation of the seed bed. 13 
 
 Preparation of the seed. 16 
 
 Cleaning and grading. 16 
 
 Treating for smut. 17 
 
 Sowing the seed.,. 18 
 
 Date of seeding. 18 
 
 Rate of seeding... 19 
 
 Method of seeding. 20 
 
 Depth of seeding. 22 
 
 Treatment after seeding. 22 
 
 Cultivation. 22 
 
 Spraying to kill weeds. 23 
 
 Cutting back to prevent lodging. 24 
 
 Irrigation. 24 
 
 Harvesting the crop. 25 
 
 Cutting. 25 
 
 Shocking. 26 
 
 Stacking. 28 
 
 Shock versus stack thrashing. 28 
 
 Thrashing. 29 
 
 Storing the grain. 29 
 
 Yields. 29 
 
 Cost of production. 30 
 
 Varieties adapted to different sections of the United States... 31 
 
 General statement. 31 
 
 New England and New York. 35 
 
 Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland. 35 
 
 South Atlantic and Gulf States. 35 
 
 West Virginia and Kentucky. 36 
 
 Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the Dakotas. 36 
 
 424 
 
 3 
 
4 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Varieties adapted to different sections of the United States—Continued. Page. 
 
 Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and Nebraska. 37 
 
 Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. 37 
 
 Rocky Mountain States. 37 
 
 Pacific States. 38 
 
 Improvement of the crop. 38 
 
 Effect of the source of seed on yield. 38 
 
 Importation of seed oats. 39 
 
 Field selection of seed. 39 
 
 Diseases affecting oats. 40 
 
 The smuts. 40 
 
 The rusts. 40 
 
 Other diseases. 41 
 
 Insects injurious to oats. 42 
 
 Insects attacking the growing plant. 42 
 
 Insects attacking the stored grain. 42 
 
 Summary. 43 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 1. End-gate seeder commonly used for the broadcast seeding of grain- 
 
 2. The end-gate seeder shown in figure 1 in operation in a field of stand¬ 
 
 ing cornstalks. 
 
 3. Disking corn land preparatory to sowing oats. 
 
 4. Stalk cutter designed to cut two rows of cornstalks. 
 
 5. Grain drill in operation on well-prepared ground. 
 
 6. Grain binder at work in an oat field in North Dakota. 
 
 7. A long, uncapped shock in which practically all of the grain is exposed 
 
 to the weather. 
 
 8. A well-built, round shock, capped to protect most of the grain from 
 
 weathering. 
 
 9. Apparatus for elevating grain from the wagon to the bin. 
 
 10. Grains of four varieties of oats which differ in shape, size, and color.. 
 
 11. Two types of oat heads: Spreading, or panicled oats and side, or horse- 
 
 mane oats. 
 
 12. Map of the United States, showing approximately the areas to which 
 
 certain types of oats are adapted. 
 
 13. Smut of oats: Smutted head and head not affected by smut. 
 
 Page. 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 21 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 41 
 
 424 
 
B. P. I.—618. 
 
 OATS: GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Oats is one of the most important grain crops in the North Tem¬ 
 perate Zone. In the United States this crop is exceeded in area and 
 value only by corn and wheat, while in Canada it is even more gen¬ 
 erally grown than in the United States. In Great Britain and Ireland 
 the acreage devoted to oats is little less than that devoted to all other 
 grain crops. In Germany it exceeds the combined acreage of wheat 
 and barley and is second only to rye. In all the countries of northern 
 Europe the oat crop occupies an important place. In spite of its 
 importance, no other grain crop in the United States is handled so 
 carelessly, particularly in the States where the crop is most largely 
 grown; there is little wonder, therefore, that the yields secured are 
 often unsatisfactory and the crop sometimes unprofitable. The aim 
 of this bulletin is to outline the best methods of producing oats, as 
 demonstrated by the work of the agricultural experiment stations 
 and practiced by good farmers. The utilization of the crop is dis¬ 
 cussed in Farmers 7 Bulletin 420, entitled “Oats: Distribution and 
 Uses.” 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF OATS. 
 
 The original wild form of the cultivated oat is not definitely known, 
 although it is believed to have existed in western Asia and eastern 
 Europe. The records do not show that this crop was known to the 
 early Egyptians, Greeks, or Romans, as were wheat and barley. It 
 is probable that oats were first cultivated in northern and central 
 Europe, in what is now Austria-Hungary and Russia. Like several 
 of our other cultivated plants, this grain was carried westward from 
 its place of origin in western Asia and eastern Europe by the migra¬ 
 tion of the inhabitants of that region early in the Christian era. It is 
 probable that oats were first used for feeding animals and that their 
 use as human food was confined to times when other grain or food was 
 scarce. Its general use as food for man is evidently of recent origin 
 and is due to the development of milling machinery. Naturally the 
 people of early times used as food those grains which could be pre¬ 
 pared most easily. For this reason wheat and rye, which thrash 
 clean, were used instead of oats, which remain inclosed in the hull. 
 
 424 5 
 
6 
 
 oats: growing the crop. 
 
 Our cultivated varieties are generally believed to have been 
 developed from Avena sativa, though some botanists claim that 
 Avena fatua, the common wild oat, or Avena strigosa, one of the Euro¬ 
 pean wild oats, was the parent species. Others assert that the oats 
 commonly grown in our Southern States and in southern Europe were 
 developed from Avena sterilis, the wild oat of northern Africa. The 
 side or eastern oat and the naked or hull-less oat, though now widely 
 different in form from the common or panicled type, are believed to 
 have had the same origin, and all are usually classed as varietal forms 
 of Avena sativa. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE OAT PLANT. 
 
 The oat, like most of our other grains, is classed by botanists among 
 the grasses, or Gramineae. It belongs to the genus Avena, which 
 includes in addition to the cultivated oat, Avena sativa, a number of 
 wild species, like Avena fatua, the common wild oat, which are trouble¬ 
 some weeds. None of the closely related plants are of much economic 
 importance, though tall oat-grass and velvet grass are grown to some 
 extent as forage grasses. 
 
 The oat plant produces several jointed, hollow stems, or culms, 2 to 
 5 feet in height, averaging about 3J feet. The roots are small and 
 fibrous, but penetrate the soil to a depth of 3 or 4 feet. The leaves are 
 rather broader and more numerous than those of wheat. The panicles, 
 or heads, as they are commonly called, are usually open, or spreading, 
 but occasionally the branches of the panicle are much shortened and 
 turned to one side, producing the type known as side, or horse-mane, 
 oats. The grain is borne on small branches of the panicle, in spike- 
 lets, which vary in number from 25 to 100 or more. Usually these 
 spikelets contain two grains, though in some varieties several are 
 produced. The spikelet is loosely inclosed within the outer glumes, 
 or chaff, which, with the culms, or straw, become light yellow at 
 maturity. The individual grains are usually tightly inclosed in the 
 flowering glumes or hull, though in the form known as hull-less oats 
 the flowering glumes are easily removed. The hull varies in color with 
 the different varieties, the most common colors being white, yellow, 
 reddish-brown, and black. The kernel is rather more slender than 
 that of wheat, usually much softer, and is thickly covered with fine 
 hairs; it ordinarily makes up two-thirds to three-fourths of the weight 
 of the whole grain. 
 
 SOILS ADAPTED TO THE PRODUCTION OF OATS. 
 
 TYPES OF SOIL. 
 
 In the production of oats proper climatic and cultural conditions 
 are of more importance than the character or even the fertility of the 
 soil. Owing to their greater water-holding capacity loam and clay 
 
 424 
 
OATS: GEOWING THE CROP. 
 
 7 
 
 soils usually produce better crops than sandy soils. Sandy land 
 with plenty of plant food and a moderately stiff subsoil will grow 
 good oats, but heavy, undrained clays are too wet and cold for the best 
 growth of the crop. More water is required to produce a pound of dry 
 matter in oats than in any other cereal, hence the necessity for grow¬ 
 ing this crop on land which naturally retains moisture or which is well 
 filled with humus. On account of their liability to lodge, oats should 
 not be grown on very rich soil or on low, undrained lands. Good 
 drainage is essential also in the prevention of injury from plant 
 diseases. 
 
 FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 
 
 The quantities of the three important fertilizing elements removed 
 by a crop of grain vary somewhat in different portions of the country, 
 as they depend on the yield of the individual crop and the proportion 
 of grain to straw. For this reason no general estimate of the fertilizer 
 removed by an acre of oats can be given. According to Chilcott® 
 under South Dakota conditions a 45-bushel crop of oats removed 
 from the soil approximately 44 pounds of nitrogen, 16 pounds of 
 phosphoric acid, and 37 pounds of potash. A 30-bushel crop of 
 corn removed a little more phosphoric acid and potash and about 
 one-third more nitrogen than the oats, while a 40-bushel crop of 
 barley removed considerably more of all three of these fertilizing 
 elements. A 15-bushel crop of wheat removed but 35 pounds of 
 nitrogen, 9 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 15 pounds of potash. 
 These figures show that nearly as much fertility is required to pro¬ 
 duce a good crop of oats as of any other grain, so that the common 
 practice of using the poorest land on the farm for growing oats is not 
 to be commended. While the oat crop is a vigorous feeder and will 
 do better on poor soils than will most other grain crops, yet the 
 judicious use of fertilizers or manure is usually profitable. The 
 fertilizer problem is made difficult, however, by the fact that on 
 rich soil oats make a rank growth, which often results in lodging 
 and in conditions favorable to rust and other diseases. 
 
 Unless the soil is very low in fertility the direct application of 
 barnyard manure to the crop is seldom advisable. Much more 
 satisfactory results can usually be secured by applying the manure 
 previous to growing some other crop in the rotation, such as corn. 
 The oats will then get the benefit of a part of the manure and of 
 the added humus in the soil, with less danger that'a rank growth of 
 straw will be made at the expense of grain production. On very 
 poor soil the application of a few loads of well-rotted manure some 
 time previous to sowing oats can be made to advantage. The manure 
 should be applied as evenly as possible and should be well worked 
 
 “Bulletin 79, South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 424 
 
8 
 
 OATS: GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 into the soil. Under these conditions the use of a small quantity of 
 raw rock phosphate with the manure is usually advisable. 
 
 Of the three fertilizing elements nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash, 
 phosphorus is most often the one which is not present in sufficient 
 quantities for the best production of oats. This is particularly true 
 of certain types of prairie soils of the upper Mississippi Valley, where 
 a large portion of the oat crop is grown. In a 2-year rotation of corn 
 and oats at the Illinois station in which 200 pounds of bone meal, 
 containing 25 pounds of phosphorus, was applied annually, the 
 average gain in yield of oats in six years was 12.2 bushels to the 
 acre. This was on the plats in which a legume was grown in the 
 corn and which were limed before the experiment was begun. The 
 use of phosphorus without the legume was less profitable, while 
 the addition of potassium to the plats which were fertilized with 
 phosphorus resulted in a lessened yield of both corn and oats. 
 Similar results were obtained in a 3-year rotation of corn, oats, and 
 clover. 
 
 The Ohio station is conducting a fertilizer test at Wooster and at 
 Strongsville on a 5-year rotation of corn, oats, wheat, and two years 
 of hay crops. Professor Thorne a says of this experiment: 
 
 The highest net profit, considering the oat crop alone, is found in a 13-year test at 
 Wooster on the plat receiving a complete fertilizer relatively low in nitrogen and high 
 in phosphorus; the plat receiving phosphorus only coming next and closely followed 
 by that receiving both phosphorus and potassium. In ten years’results at Strongs¬ 
 ville, the only decided profit is found on the plat receiving phosphorus only, although 
 the increase has more than paid for the cost of the fertilizer on the plats receiving 
 phosphorus and nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, and phosphorus, potassium, 
 and a small amount of nitrogen. 
 
 The greatest net profit for the entire rotation for ten years at 
 Wooster was from the plat receiving the complete fertilizer, while 
 that receiving phosphorus and nitrogen returned a slightly smaller 
 profit. At Strongsville by far the largest gain was from the plat 
 receiving phosphorus only; the plat receiving phosphorus and 
 potassium ranked second in net gain. 
 
 The experiments just cited, and others which might be mentioned, 
 show that phosphorus is usually the most important addition which 
 can be made to the soil for the production of oats, but small quantities 
 of nitrogenous fertilizer can often be used to advantage. The oat 
 crop makes most of its growth early in the season, when the weather 
 is cool and before much of the nitrogen in the soil becomes available 
 for plant food. For this reason the application of a small quantity 
 of nitrogen in a readily available form, as nitrate of soda, will hasten 
 its growth and result in materially increased yields. 
 
 424 
 
 “Bulletin 182, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
OATS : GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 9 
 
 Potash can usually be added to better advantage when applied to 
 some other crop in the rotation, as corn or wheat. This element of 
 fertility is usually present in large quantities in clay soils, but is 
 often a valuable addition to sandy or gravelly ones. The loss from 
 the application of potassium in the Illinois experiments just cited 
 was probably due to an excess of that element in the soil, while in 
 the Ohio tests the quantity applied was much larger than would 
 ordinarily be used by the farmer. The application of 10 to 20 
 pounds of actual potash to the acre annually is usually sufficient on 
 loam and clay soils, but on soils that are known to be exceptionally 
 rich in this material its use is unnecessary. 
 
 A good fertilizer for oats on the heavier loam and clay soils is one 
 containing 50 pounds of nitrate of soda and 150 pounds of acid 
 phosphate, applied at the rate of 200 pounds to the acre. On sandy 
 and gravelly soils the addition of 20 to 40 pounds of muriate of 
 potash to this combination is usually beneficial. The exact quantity 
 to be applied and the proportion of the different fertilizing elements 
 depend largely on the nature and the fertility of the soil. The 
 straw of grain crops may be strengthened by the use of fertilizers 
 containing potash and phosphorus, and in this way lodging may 
 sometimes be prevented. Lodging in the principal oat-growing 
 sections, however, is due oftener to the blowing over of the whole 
 plant by heavy winds when the ground is soft from excessive rains 
 than to actual weakness of the straw. 
 
 When the crop is desired for forage rather than for grain, the use 
 of barnyard manure or fertilizers rich in nitrogen is often advisable, 
 as nitrogenous fertilizers induce the rank growth necessary for the 
 production of large yields of forage. 
 
 LIMING. 
 
 Liming alone is not likely to increase the yield of oats. On very 
 sour soils or when used in connection with the plowing under of 
 green-manure crops or stable manure, it may have a beneficial 
 effect. Where lime was applied without manure at the Pennsyl¬ 
 vania station it reduced the yield of oats, but where it was applied 
 in connection with manure it increased the beneficial effect of the 
 manure. This was in a 4-year rotation of corn, oats, wheat, and 
 clover and timothy. The lime was applied at the rate of 2 tons to 
 the acre previous to planting the corn crop. 
 
 While the application of lime or fertilizers to oats may not be 
 directly profitable, the increased } r ields from succeeding crops may 
 often more than make up the deficiency. This is particularly true 
 when clover or a grass crop is to follow the oats. 
 
 61822°—Bull. 424—10-2 
 
10 
 
 oats: growing the crop. 
 
 OATS IN THE ROTATION. 
 
 PLACE IN THE ROTATION. 
 
 Among the factors which determine the place of the oat crop in the 
 rotation are the effect of the preceding crop on the growth of the oats 
 and the effect of the oats on the following crop. Ordinarily oats are 
 not grown after a grass or clover crop, a cultivated crop being used 
 to subdue the sod. In sections where virgin soil is being brought 
 under cultivation oats are usually grown on “old land,” wheat and 
 flax being the crops which are ordinarily grown on sod land if a cul¬ 
 tivated crop such as corn or one of the sorghums is not used. When 
 grown on sod land, especially where the sod consists wholly or in 
 part of clover or alfalfa, oats are inclined to grow rank and lodge. 
 Where there is less trouble from lodging, as in some of the irrigated 
 sections of the West, oats may follow clover or alfalfa. 
 
 At the South Dakota station, in a 3-year rotation including corn, 
 oats, and wheat, little difference was noted between an oat crop 
 following wheat and one following corn. The wheat crop, how¬ 
 ever, was materially better after corn than after oats, so that where 
 these three crops are grown the best plan seems to be to grow the 
 wheat after the corn, making the rotation corn, wheat, and oats. 
 Similar results in favor of this sequence over the one in which wheat 
 follows oats have been obtained at a number of the experimental 
 farms conducted by the Bureau of Plant Industry in the Great 
 Plains area, as reported in a recent publication.® Oats are less 
 influenced by the effect of the preceding crop than are most other 
 grains, so that where wheat, barley, and oats are the main crops the 
 rotation, if one is practiced, is arranged to suit the other grains 
 rather than oats. Where corn or some other cultivated crop is 
 grown, oats usually follow the cultivated crop and are followed by 
 grass or clover, which are usually sown with the oats. 
 
 COMMON ROTATIONS WHICH INCLUDE OATS. 
 
 A common rotation in Iowa and Illinois, and in the surrounding 
 States as well, consists of corn, oats, and grass or clover. Usually 
 this is a 5-year rotation, two crops of corn being grown in succession, 
 followed by oats, with grass and clover seeded with the oats; the 
 grass is allowed to remain for two years, either as meadow or pas¬ 
 ture, and is then plowed up for corn. The rotation is sometimes short¬ 
 ened to four years, either two years of corn and one each of oats 
 and grass or one year each of corn and oats and two years of grass. 
 The first of these two rotations is the common one where clover 
 alone is used as the hay crop. Where winter wheat can be grown 
 
 a Bulletin 187, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. 
 
 424 
 
oats: growing the crop. 
 
 11 
 
 it is customary to use it as a nurse crop for grass or clover. The 
 common rotation where both oats and winter wheat are grown is 
 corn, oats, winter wheat, and grass or clover for one or more years. 
 In Maine and in some of the other potato-growing sections a com¬ 
 mon rotation consists of potatoes, oats, and clover, each one year. 
 In the spring-wheat section, if corn is grown the common rotation 
 is corn, wheat, oats, and grass. In some portions of the spring- 
 wheat belt no rotation is practiced, particularly if corn and grass 
 are not incjuded among the staple crops. In the South oats occupy 
 so small a portion of the cultivated area that they do not commonly 
 figure in the rotation. A good rotation in this section which includes 
 oats consists of corn, with cowpeas sown between the rows; oats, 
 followed by cowpeas; and cotton. In the irrigated sections oats are 
 sometimes grown in rotation with clover or alfalfa. 
 
 CLEARING THE LAND OF WEEDS. 
 
 As oats start into growth early in the season and soon make a 
 dense shade, they are one of the best crops for clearing land of weeds. 
 When used for this purpose, they should be sown rather more thickly 
 than on land that is free from weeds. The crop may be cut for grain 
 or for hay, as desired, but it should be harvested before many of the 
 weeds that grow with it mature their seed. The land may then be 
 pastured to keep down the later growth, or the weeds which develop 
 after the oats are harvested may be cut with the mower or plowed 
 under before they mature seed. If the field is plowed it should be 
 disked or harrowed occasionally to destroy any weeds that start into 
 growth. If fall grain is sown or if the land is used for a cultivated 
 crop the next season, it will be practically free from annual weeds 
 by the end of the second year. 
 
 USE AS A NURSE CROP. 
 
 Oats are very commonly used as a nurse crop for clover and grass, 
 and sometimes, in the irrigated sections, for alfalfa. While not 
 ideal for the purpose, as the foliage is rather too dense and the crop 
 draws too heavily on the soil moisture, good results are usually 
 obtained. The sudden change from dense shade to full exposure to 
 the sun when the oats are harvested sometimes injures the young 
 clover and grass plants. In dry seasons oats may take the moisture 
 from the soil so completely as to check severely the, growth of crops 
 sown with them. Either barley or wheat is more suitable for use as 
 a nurse crop, making less shade and requiring less water. Where 
 oats, are used the selection of small, early varieties is advisable, 
 because they grow less rank and take less water from the soil than 
 the later, larger-growing varieties. They also mature early enough 
 
 424 
 
12 
 
 oats: growing the crop. 
 
 to harvest before the hot weather, which is likely to injure the young 
 grass. Less seed should be used where oats are sown as a nurse crop 
 than when sown for other purposes. Drilling is preferable to broad¬ 
 cast seeding, as the space between the rows admits light and air to 
 the grass and clover plants. 
 
 USE AS A COVER CROP. 
 
 Oats are used to some extent as a cover crop in orchards in the 
 Northern States. They draw rather heavily on the soil moisture, 
 thus checking the growth of the trees and causing the young wood 
 to mature fully before cold weather. Oats make a dense cover and 
 thus protect the soil from intense summer heat. They also furnish 
 considerable winter protection, though the plants make a close mat 
 on the ground after heavy frosts and do not hold snow as well as 
 some other cover crops. The use of peas or vetch with the oats 
 increases the value of the cover, as these crops add nitrogen as well 
 as humus to the soil. The proper dates and rates of seeding for cover 
 crops depend largely on the locality and the practice of the particular 
 fruit grower who uses them. 
 
 GROWING IN MIXTURES WITH OTHER CROPS. 
 
 Oats are sometimes grown in combination with other crops for the 
 production of either hay or grain. In the United States the most 
 common combination of this kind is oats and Canada field peas. 
 Rape is often sown with oats, to be used as pasture for hogs or sheep 
 after the oats are harvested. In Canada, barley and oats are com¬ 
 monly grown together and other grains are sometimes included in 
 the mixture. 
 
 Where peas are grown with oats the crop is used as pasture or cut 
 for feeding green or for hay. A common rate of seeding is 1 bushel 
 of peas and 1J bushels of oats to the acre, though an equal mixture 
 is often used, sowing from 2 to 3 bushels to the acre. Where vetch 
 does well it is sometimes substituted for the peas. A common propor¬ 
 tion is 2 parts of vetch to 1 of oats. The combination of a legume with 
 oats for pasture and soiling purposes increases both the yield and the 
 feeding value of the crop, while the legume adds nitrogen to the soil. 
 
 Numerous experiments at the Ontario Experimental Farm have 
 shown that better yields of grain are obtained where barley and oats 
 are sown together than where either is sown alone. This combina¬ 
 tion is a very popular one in Ontario and its use is increasing. The 
 area of mixed grains, principally barley and oats, grown in the Prov¬ 
 ince of Ontario in 1908 was more than 450,000 acres, while barley 
 alone was grown on 732,000 acres and oats alone on 2,774,000 acres. 
 It is necessary to use a rather early variety of oats when sowing with 
 
 424 
 
OATS : GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 13 
 
 barley in order that the two crops may ripen together, These com¬ 
 bination crops are usually used for feeding on the farms where 
 grown, and are not readily marketable except as feed grain. 
 
 In an experiment at the Ontario Experimental Farm to deter¬ 
 mine the value of various grain mixtures, barley and oats together 
 gave better yields than either alone or in any other combination of 
 oats, barley, spring wheat, and peas. In another experiment, to 
 determine whether a mixture of 1 bushel of oats and 1J bushels of 
 barley could be improved by the addition of a small quantity of 
 other grain, additions of one-half bushel of flax, eminer, spring 
 wheat, and hull-less barley were made on different plats. A 5-year 
 test showed that higher yields of grain were obtained from the 
 barley-and-oats mixture without the addition of any other grain. 
 Various proportions of barley and oats and different rates of seeding 
 were tested at this farm for six years to determine which gave the 
 highest yield. It was found that sowing 1 bushel each of oats and 
 barley produced the largest yield of grain. Similar results were 
 obtained in a duplicate experiment conducted in 1907 and 1908, 
 although the difference in yield of several of the combinations was 
 slight. 
 
 A small quantity of rape seed, 1 to 2 pounds, is often sown with oats. 
 It is good practice, however, to sow the rape two or three weeks 
 after the oats are sown, covering the seed by harrowing lightly. If 
 sown at the same time as the oats it makes so much growth that it 
 interferes with the harvesting of the oats. If the oats are cut with 
 a rather high stubble the rape, if the season is favorable, will at once 
 start into vigorous growth and make excellent pasture for sheep and 
 hogs. Sheep, in particular, do well on this pasture, as they glean 
 any grain which may have been left by the binder. Rape sown in 
 this way may also be cut for feeding green, or when sown with the oats 
 or with oats and peas the entire crop may be cut green, thus furnishing 
 a large yield of succulent feed. 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE SEED BED. 
 
 Less attention is ordinarily given to the preparation of the seed bed 
 for oats than for any other field crop. A common method in the 
 corn belt, where the oat crop almost invariably follows corn, is to 
 sow the seed broadcast on corn land without preparation. This 
 method is now less used than it was a few years ago, when its preva¬ 
 lence was well shown by an inquiry sent out by the Iowa station in 
 1905. Of 452 farmers who replied to the list of questions regarding 
 the preparation of the land for oats, more than 70 per cent neither 
 broke nor burned the cornstalks before seeding to oats, only 13 per 
 cent disked the ground before seeding, and a still smaller proportion 
 
 424 
 
14 
 
 OATS : GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 harrowed before seeding. In other words, nearly three-fourths of 
 those who replied sowed their oats broadcast on cornstalk land with¬ 
 out preparation of any kind. Figure 1 shows the end-gate seeder 
 commonly used in broadcast seeding, while figure 2 shows this 
 machine in operation in a field where the cornstalks are still standing. 
 
 A good seed bed can hardly be prepared with fewer than two disk- 
 ings, and usually at least one harrowing is necessary. Where oats are 
 to be sown on corn land on which the stalks are still standing it is 
 good practice to break the stalks before disking. This can readily be 
 done, especially on a frosty morning, by dragging a heavy pole or iron 
 
 rail broadside across 
 the field. The stalks 
 can then be cut with 
 a disk harrow much 
 more readily than if 
 left standing. Where 
 there is much trash on 
 the land it is some¬ 
 times advisable to rake 
 and burn the stalks 
 and weeds before disk¬ 
 ing. This is common 
 practice in some sec¬ 
 tions. Ordinarily this 
 humus-making mate¬ 
 rial should not be de¬ 
 stroyed, but should be 
 worked into the soil. 
 If the disks of the disk 
 harrow are sharp they 
 will cut the stalks into 
 short pieces, which 
 soon decay, and much 
 of the trash will be 
 covered by the disk¬ 
 ing and harrowing. Breaking the stalks and cutting them with a 
 stalk cutter in the fall hastens their decay. A disk harrow in opera- 
 
 Fig. 1 . —End-gate seeder commonly used for the broadcast seeding of 
 grain. The smaller hopper is for grass or clover seed. Power for 
 operating this seeder is supplied from one of the rear wheels of a 
 wagon by means of sprocket wheels and a chain. 
 
 tion on cornstalk land is shown in figure 3, while figure 4 shows a 
 stalk cutter designed to cut two rows of cornstalks. 
 
 It is always advisable to sow oats as early in the spring as the land 
 can be worked, but proper preparation should not be sacrificed to 
 gain a little time in getting the seed into the ground. Oats do best 
 when sown in a rather firm seed bed, with 2 to 3 inches of loose, mellow 
 soil on the surface. This can best be secured on cornstalk land by 
 breaking the stalks, double-disking either by lapping half or cross 
 disking, and thorough harrowing with the spike-tooth harrow. 
 
 424 
 
OATS : GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 15 
 
 Lapping half with the disk harrow leaves the surface more nearly 
 even than when the field is cross-disked. The disks should be set to 
 
 Fig. 2 .—The end-gate seeder shown in figure 1 in operation in a field of standing cornstalks—a common 
 
 but not a good method of seeding. 
 
 run 3 or 4 inches deep. After the seed bed is in good condition the 
 seed should be sown and the field again harrowed. 
 
 Fjg. 3.—Disking corn land preparatory to sowing oats. 
 
 The land is 
 Spring plowin 
 
 seldom plowed for oats which follow a cultivated crop, 
 cr is not usually profitable, as there is little time to allow 
 
 to *•' A 
 
 424 
 
16 
 
 OATS : GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 the subsurface to become compact, and the land is rarely in proper 
 condition to plow before the oats should be sown. Soils which are not 
 likely to blow or run together can sometimes be plowed in the fall to 
 advantage, particularly if grass seed is to be sown with the oats. A 
 fine, smooth, mellow seed bed can thus be prepared. Fall-plowed 
 land should be double-disked about 3 inches deep before seeding and 
 harrowed both before and after seeding. 
 
 At the Ohio station in a 6-year test in which plowing 6 to 7 inches 
 deep was compared with disking 3 or 4 inches deep, with thorough 
 
 subsequent prepa¬ 
 ration in both cases, 
 an average yield of 
 52.8 bushels to the 
 acre was harvested 
 from the plowed 
 and 48.7 bushels 
 from the disked 
 land, a gain in fa¬ 
 vor of plowing of 
 4.1 bushels. Sow¬ 
 ing on spring- 
 plowed land at the 
 Kansas station gave 
 an average yield for 
 five years of 27.4 bushels to the acre, as compared with 25.5 bushels 
 from sowing on fall-plowed and 25„1 bushels from sowing on un¬ 
 plowed land. A moderately loose seed bed with a firm subsoil, such 
 as is ordinarily produced by thorough disking and harrowing, gave 
 better results at the Illinois station than either a very loose or a firm 
 seed bed. 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE SEED. 
 
 Fig. 4.—Stalk cutter designed to cut two rows of cornstalks. 
 
 CLEANING AND GRADING. 
 
 Seed oats should be carefully screened and graded before sowing. 
 This work is ordinarily done with the fanning mill, the light oats and 
 some of the trash being taken out by a current of air, while the small 
 oats and most of the weed seeds are removed by means of screens. 
 The process should take out one-third or one-fourth of the oats, but 
 if the seed is very light a much larger proportion should be removed 
 by the fans. Many of the small, light oats will not germinate at all, 
 while others produce weak plants, which materially reduce the yield. 
 Screening also greatly reduces the proportion of weed seed, thus pre¬ 
 venting the spread of weeds and further favoring the growth of the 
 oat crop. 
 
 Experimental tests of graded seed naturally fall into two classes, 
 one in which the same weight or measure of all the different grades of 
 
 424 
 
oats: growing the crop. 
 
 17 
 
 seed is sown and one in which the same number of seeds is sown on 
 the different plats. Most of the tests belong to the first class, in which 
 the same rate of seeding by weight is used for all grades. In a test 
 of this kind which was conducted for eight years at the Kansas 
 station, heavy seed gave an average yield of 30.9 bushels to the 
 acre, common seed 29.9 bushels, and light seed 27.5 bushels. The 
 common seed used was the seed as it came from the thrasher, the 
 light and heavy grades being obtained by running the seed through 
 a fanning mill. These grades were usually taken from the ordinary 
 seed, but in the last year of the experiment, when the greatest differ¬ 
 ence was noted, the heavy seed was taken from the heavy grade of 
 the previous year and the light seed from the light grade. In an 
 experiment conducted at the Ohio station for seven years average 
 yields of 46.3, 44.8, and 42.6 bushels were obtained from the heavy, 
 common, and light seed. The yield of straw and the weight per 
 bushel were both slightly heavier from the heavy seed than from 
 either of the other grades. 
 
 At the Ontario Experimental Farm even more marked results in 
 favor of large seed were secured, using the same number of grains 
 of each grade to the acre. In a 7-year test average yields of 62, 
 54.1, and 46.6 bushels to the acre were obtained from heavy, medium, 
 and light seeds, respectively. In a test in which the heavy seed was 
 selected from the heavy grade and the light seed from the light grade 
 of the previous year, the difference in yield and in weight per bushel 
 in favor of the heavy seed continually increased. The test was con¬ 
 ducted for twelve years. The difference in weight per bushel in 
 favor of the heavy seed in the first 4-year period was 3.2 pounds, in 
 the second period 6 pounds, and in the third period 9.5 pounds. The 
 differences in yield per acre were 10.4, 15.8, and 22.4 bushels, respec¬ 
 tively, for the three periods. 
 
 TREATING FOR SMTJT. 
 
 The yield of grain and the quality of the crop can also be materially 
 increased by treating the seed for smut with formalin or hot water.® 
 An easy and effective method of treatment is to sprinkle the seed 
 oats with a solution made of 1 pound of formalin to 40 gallons of 
 water. The seed should be spread out on a clean floor, thoroughly 
 sprinkled, and shoveled over until all of the grain is well moistened. 
 It should then be covered with blankets or canvas and allowed to 
 stand for several hours. It can then be sown at' once or spread 
 out in a clean place to dry. The seed will run through the drill 
 much more readily if dried before seeding. The rate of seeding 
 should be somewhat increased to allow for the swelling of the seed. 
 
 a A full description of these methods of smut treatment is contained in Farmers’ 
 Bulletin 250, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, 1906. 
 
 61822°—Bull. 424—10-3 
 
18 
 
 OATS: GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 Care should be used not to put the treated seed into sacks, bins, or 
 machinery in which the smut spores have not been killed by treat¬ 
 ment. The cost of the smut treatment was estimated by Professor 
 Close, of the New York State station, at 1.4 cents to the bushel. 
 
 SOWING THE SEED. 
 
 DATE OF SEEDING. 
 
 One of the greatest essentials in growing oats is to get the seed 
 into the ground early. This crop grows best in cool climates and in 
 cool weather, and is often materially injured by a few hot days 
 when it is near maturity. Frosts or even hard freezes after the seed 
 is sown seldom injure it, so that, as a rule, oats should be sown just 
 as soon as the ground is in condition to work in the spring. In 
 fact, a few farmers in the Northern States are now sowing the ordi¬ 
 nary spring varieties of oats in the fall, just before the ground freezes. 
 The seed usually does not germinatQ in the fall, but begins growth 
 with the first warm days of spring. The advantages claimed for 
 this practice are that the fall seeding lessens the spring rush of work 
 and that the seed gets an earlier start than is possible with spring 
 seeding. The dangers incident to fall seeding include germination 
 in the fall and subsequent winterkilling, freezing after the seed ger¬ 
 minates in the spring, and injury from alternate freezing and thawing 
 and continued cold, wet weather. While the practice has not yet 
 been tested enough to justify a statement of its value, it seems to be 
 worthy of limited trial, particularly in the drier sections, where it is 
 most likely to prove a success. Some Ohio and Indiana farmers 
 have grown good crops of oats from seed sown broadcast on the 
 snow in February, depending on later freezes and thaws to cover 
 the seed. Seeding in this way can not be generally recommended, 
 as the chances of loss are too great. 
 
 All tests conducted by the experiment stations are favorable to 
 early spring seeding as compared with later seeding. In time-of- 
 seeding tests conducted for five years at the Illinois station the 
 earliest date gave the highest yield in three of the tests, while the 
 second and third dates, respectively, gave the highest yields in the 
 other two tests. In these tests seeding was begun as early as possi¬ 
 ble in the spring and continued at intervals of about one week to 
 May 1. The best dates for seeding seemed to be from March 25 to 
 April 8. Similar results in favor of early seeding were obtained in a 
 5-year test at the Kansas station. The highest yield was from seed- 
 mg about March 8, and there was a material decrease in yield for 
 each week of delay in seeding. Seeding the first week in April 
 yielded only about half as much as that done early in March. A later 
 
 424 
 
oats: growing the crop. 
 
 19 
 
 test at this station showed better results from sowing in the latter 
 part of March than at an earlier or a later date. 
 
 The exact date of seeding naturally depends on the locality and the 
 season. Seeding of spring oats begins in the South in the latter part 
 of January or early in February, and in the Northern States is not 
 completed until May. The best date in Kansas, Missouri, southern 
 Illinois, and Kentucky ranges from March 10 to March 25. For 
 Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, central and northern Illinois, Iowa, 
 and Nebraska the best date is usually from March 25 to April 15, 
 though a somewhat later date may sometimes be necessary. In 
 the Northern States seeding during the latter half of April is advis¬ 
 able whenever possible, though in favorable seasons seeding before 
 the middle of the month can often be done to advantage, and in 
 unfavorable ones, in the extreme North, May seeding is necessary. 
 In the Rocky Mountain and Pacific States seeding is governed so 
 largely by local conditions that no definite dates can be given. In 
 some districts, owing to the distribution of the rainfall, late seeding 
 may be more uniformly successful than early seeding. 
 
 RATE OF SEEDING. 
 
 The rate of seeding depends on the locality, the condition and 
 fertility of the soil, the method of seeding, and the size of the seed. 
 As with other crops, less seed is required in dry than in humid sec¬ 
 tions. Fertile soils require less seed than poor ones, as on rich land 
 the plants grow larger and tiller more. More seed should be sown 
 on weedy land or on land not well prepared than on clean, mellow 
 soil. Drilling requires less seed than sowing broadcast. More 
 bushels of large-grained than of small-grained oats should be sown 
 on an acre. The number of grains in a measured bushel of oats 
 ranges from 500,000 to 750,000, according to the variety. The large- 
 grained varieties usually grow ranker and the plants occupy more 
 space than the small-grained ones, but the difference in the size of 
 the plants does not equalize the difference in thickness of stand 
 caused by the greater number of plants produced by a bushel of 
 small-grained oats. 
 
 In general, the rate of seeding in the upper Mississippi Valley 
 ranges from 8 to 12 pecks to the acre, but in the drier sections of the 
 West this rate is reduced by half. In the irrigated sections 6 to 8 
 pecks is the common rate. Where the usual rate in broadcast seeding 
 is 12 pecks, 10 pecks will be sufficient if the seed is drilled. 
 
 Many experiments have been conducted to determine the best 
 rate of seeding in different localities. These experiments show, in 
 general, that tillering depends very largely on the thickness of the 
 stand and that within certain limits the plants on thinly seeded 
 
 424 
 
20 
 
 oats: growing the crop 
 
 plats will tiller sufficiently to bring the number of stalks up to that 
 produced by thick seeding. Thus, there is often little difference in 
 the yield of grain or straw harvested from widely differing rates of 
 seeding. Sixteen tests at the Ohio station, in which oats were 
 seeded at rates varying from 4 to 11 pecks to the acre, indicated that 
 the heaviest seeding was most profitable. There was little difference, 
 however, in the yields of seeding at the rates of 8, 9, 10, and 11 pecks. 
 In general, the weight of straw was greatest from the lightest seeding, 
 and the weight per bushel and the yield of grain greatest from the 
 heaviest seeding.' A 9-year test at the Indiana station showed best 
 results in drilling when the seed was sown at the rate of 8 pecks, 
 though there was little gain over 9, 10, and 11 pecks. Seeding at 
 the rate of 10 pecks is recommended when ordinary methods of 
 preparation and seeding are followed. 
 
 In a 6-year test at the Illinois station, the heaviest yield of grain was 
 produced by seeding at the rate of 10 pecks. At the Iowa station 
 slightly better yields were obtained from sowing a small-grained, 
 early variety at the rate of 12 pecks than from 6, 8, or 10 pecks, but 
 materially increased yields were obtained from seeding a large¬ 
 grained, later variety at the 12-peck rate. In Nebraska the highest 
 net return from a small, early variety was from seeding at the rate of 8 
 pecks when the seed was drilled and at the rate of 10 pecks when 
 the seed was sown broadcast. In a 6-year test at the Kansas station 
 the highest yield was obtained from the heaviest seeding, 16 pecks, 
 though the increase over seeding at the rate of 10 pecks little more than 
 made up for the extra seed required. 
 
 METHOD OF SEEDING. 
 
 Two methods of seeding oats are in common use, drilling and sow¬ 
 ing broadcast. The greater portion of the oat crop is sown broadcast 
 and the seed covered with the disk or smoothing harrow. The ideal 
 method of seeding is one which distributes the seed evenly over the 
 ground and covers it to a uniform depth of about 1 inch. Neither of 
 these results is obtained in broadcast seeding, but both results are 
 possible by drilling. Less seed is necessary, the depth of covering is 
 more nearly uniform, the seed germinates more evenly, and the 
 growth throughout the season is better when the seed is drilled. 
 A grain drill in operation on well-prepared land is shown in figure 5. 
 
 While some experiments show slightly better results from broad¬ 
 cast seeding than from drilling, others show a decided gain from 
 drilling. 1 he Illinois station compared drilling and broadcast 
 seeding at Urbana for three years, sowing half of each of their variety 
 plats in each manner. All other conditions were the same, except 
 
 that in one of the three years during which the test was con- 
 424 
 
OATS : GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 21 
 
 ducted 4 bushels to the acre were sown on the broadcast plats as 
 compared with 3 bushels on the drilled plats. The average yield for all 
 plats for the three years was 5.3 bushels to the acre annually in favor 
 of drilling. Similar tests for three years at Dekalb, Ill., gave an 
 average gam for drilling of 2.7 bushels, while two years’ work at 
 Sibley showed a gain for the drilled plats of 3.6 bushels to the acre. 
 In addition to the increased yield, the advantages of drilling were 
 stated to include evenness of stand, regularity of growth, uniformity 
 of heading and ripening, and smaller quantity of seed necessary. It 
 was also observed that clover was less liable to injury when the grain 
 crop was removed if sown with drilled oats than if sown in broadcasted 
 oats. 
 
 Fig. 5.—Grain drill in operation on well-prepared ground. 
 
 In a 7-year test at the Kansas station the use of the drill increased 
 the yield about 4 bushels to the acre, broadcast seeding averaging 
 26.24 bushels and drilling 30 bushels. In a 6-year test at the Ohio 
 station slightly better yields were obtained from broadcast seeding 
 than from drilling 2 inches deep. At this station, however, when 
 different depths of drilling were compared, materially better yields 
 resulted from drilling 1 inch deep than from drilling at depths of 
 2, 3, or 4 inches. It is quite probable that drilling 1 inch deep would 
 have given better yields than sowing broadcast. The Nebraska 
 station obtained better yields from sowing broadcast than from 
 drilling, though the gain was but 0.9 bushel, or 1.5 per cent, in a 
 4-year test. A material increase was obtained from drilling at the 
 Iowa station. 
 
 424 
 
22 
 
 OATS: GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 DEPTH OF SEEDING. 
 
 Most of the experiments favor shallow seeding. At the Ohio 
 station the average of two years’ results showed a yield of 3.56 
 bushels to the acre greater for the 1-inch than for the 2-inch depth, 
 and 7.73 bushels to the acre greater for the 1-inch than for the 3-inch 
 or the 4-inch depth. Covering only 1 inch deep gave better results at 
 the Illinois station than sowing at greater depths. At the Nortli 
 Dakota station in 1898 slightly heavier yields on the average were 
 obtained from the deeper seedings, though the largest yield of all 
 was from the shallowest seeding, 1 inch. 
 
 If the seed is sown broadcast it should be covered by a shallow 
 disking or thorough harrowing. Usually, if the field has been double- 
 disked and harrowed and is in good condition before seeding, har¬ 
 rowing twice will cover the seed sufficiently. At best, however, it 
 is impossible in broadcast seeding to cover all the seed to the same 
 depth; some seed is left on the surface and does not germinate at all, 
 while a small portion is covered so deep that its germination is consid¬ 
 erably delayed. 
 
 TREATMENT AFTER SEEDING. 
 
 The yield of oats can sometimes be increased by treatment after 
 the crop is sown. The most common methods for thus increasing the 
 yield include cultivation, spraying to kill weeds, and irrigation. 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 On loose soil rolling can sometimes be done to advantage after the 
 seed is sown. The Wisconsin station found that the temperature of 
 rolled soils was higher than that of soils not rolled. For this reason 
 germination and early growth can sometimes be hastened by rolling. 
 On soils which are inclined to pack and bake the roller should be used 
 with caution, as its use is likely to increase this tendency. A light 
 harrowing after rolling, to break the crust and hold the soil moisture, 
 is beneficial. 
 
 On land which lias been plowed in the spring or which for some 
 other reason is loose and open the use of the roller or the subsurface 
 packer may sometimes increase the yield of oats. At the Canadian 
 Experimental Farm at Lacombe, Alberta, on a soil of loose texture 
 containing considerable humus, the use of the packer after seeding 
 increased the yield in 1908 and 1909 from 69.45 bushels for the un¬ 
 packed to 83.36 bushels for the packed plats. In 1908 one variety 
 was grown, using three rates of seeding, while in 1909 two varieties, 
 each at two rates of seeding, were grown. 
 
 Cultivation of small grain, with the harrow or weeder is seldom 
 practiced, but experiments indicate that this work can often be done 
 t° advantage, particularly in regions of light rainfall. This cultiva- 
 
Oats: growing the crop. 
 
 23 
 
 tion usually takes the form of two or three harrowings with the spike- 
 tooth harrow or weeder. If the harrow is used, the teeth should be 
 set rather slanting, so as not to pull out the young grain. Cultivation 
 with the harrow is sometimes of advantage on very weedy ground, 
 even where the rainfall is ample, as the weeds are readily killed when 
 small. The harrow should be used, however, only on drilled fields 
 and only after the young grain is well rooted. Harrowing at inter¬ 
 vals of a week, beginning about three weeks after the grain is sown 
 and continuing until it begins to make stems, is an efficient method 
 of checking weed growth and conserving moisture for the oat crop. 
 If grass or clover seed is sown with the grain no cultivation should be 
 given. 
 
 Experiments conducted at the Nebraska station indicate that har¬ 
 rowing drilled oats is profitable in seasons when the rainfall is normal 
 or below, but injurious when it is above normal. Cultivation of grain 
 sown broadcast resulted in a loss, even in dry years, as a considerable 
 number of the plants were pulled out by the harrow. The average 
 difference in a 7-year test in favor of harrowing grain in 6-inch drills 
 was 4.8 bushels to the acre. In the four years in which the cultivation 
 of drilled grain was compared with that sown broadcast, the average 
 increase from cultivating drilled oats was 5.3 bushels, or 9.1 per cent, 
 while the loss from cultivating oats sown broadcast was 1.9 bushels, 
 or 3.3 per cent. The cultivation generally consisted of two or three 
 harrowings with a smoothing harrow or weeder. The weeder was 
 preferred for this work, as it did not carry trash and was less severe 
 on the young plants. The harrowings were done at intervals of a 
 few days, usually from three to five weeks after seeding. Sowing the 
 oats in drills 12 inches or more apart gave lower yields than in drills 
 6 inches apart, even though extra cultivation was given. A single 
 year’s test at the Kansas station was unfavorable to the cultivation 
 of drilled oats. 
 
 Large weeds which develop with the crop, if not too numerous, can 
 often be removed by pulling or cutting without much injury to the 
 growing crop. The gain from preventing the spread of the weeds 
 should more than repay the necessary loss from trampling in removing 
 them, which will be slight, particularly in drilled oats. 
 
 SPRAYING TO KILL WEEDS. 
 
 Several of the common weeds of grain fields can be kept in check 
 by spraying. Wild mustard, which is particularly prevalent in por¬ 
 tions of Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota, is 
 readily destroyed by spraying with iron-sulphate a (copperas) solution, 
 
 a Detailed directions for spraying with iron sulphate are given in Bulletin 179, 
 Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, and in Bulletin 80, North Dakota Agri¬ 
 cultural Experiment Station. 
 
 424 
 
24 
 
 oats: growing the crop. 
 
 using 75 to 100 pounds of granulated iron sulphate to 50 gallons of 
 water. Copper sulphate (blue vitriol or bluestone) is also effective, 
 using 12 to 15 pounds to 50 gallons of water. The usual application 
 is 50 to 55 gallons of the solution to the acre. Spraying can be done 
 most effectively before the older weeds come into blossom, as the pods, 
 if allowed to develop, will ripen seed even after the leaves are killed 
 by the spray. Spraying will not seriously injure the young grain or 
 grasses, while it kills or materially checks the growth of mustard and 
 many other weeds. Clover and alfalfa are both rather severely injured 
 by the application of any chemical that will kill weeds. The cost of 
 spraying with the iron-sulphate solution is about $1.25 to the acre. 
 Small patches may be sprayed with a bucket pump or a knapsack 
 sprayer, but for large fields a wagon fitted with a tank and suitable 
 nozzles should be used. These machines can be purchased from 
 dealers in spraying apparatus. The type of machine commonly used 
 for spraying potatoes on a large scale is equally effective in spraying 
 to kill weeds. 
 
 Professor Bolley, of the North Dakota station, found the iron- 
 sulphate solution effective in checking or killing wild mustard, rag¬ 
 weed, kinghead, cocklebur, corn cockle, bindweed, and a number of 
 other serious weed pests in the Red River Valley. Professor Olive, 
 of the South Dakota station, states that the weeds which were entirely 
 killed by the spray in an experiment conducted by him included 
 mustard, ragweed, bindweed, milkweed, pigweed, and peppergrass. 
 
 CUTTING BACK TO PREVENT LODGING. 
 
 At the Iowa station cutting back the plants to the base of the 
 third leaf above the ground when most of the plants had produced 
 the fifth leaf caused the crop to mature slightly later, but materially 
 decreased the amount of lodging and increased the yield. This 
 experiment was conducted for but one year, but it is in line with the 
 rather common practice of pasturing winter grain crops when the 
 growth becomes too rank for the best production of grain. 
 
 IRRIGATION.a 
 
 Oats require rather more water for their best development than 
 wheat, though there is great difference in the varieties of both grains 
 in this respect. It is also generally believed that oats require more 
 water than barley, though some experiments indicate the contrary. 
 Irrigation ol oats is practiced to a considerable extent in the Rocky 
 Mountain and North Pacific States, particularly in Montana, Idaho, 
 
 ^ a Farmers’ Bulletin 399, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, 1910, entitled “Irrigation of 
 Grain,” describes (he methods of applying water to grain crops and gives other details 
 of irrigation practice. 
 
 424 
 
OATS: GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 25 
 
 and Utah. The water is ordinarily applied at two irrigations, though 
 three or four are frequently given. When two applications are made 
 the first is usually just before heading begins, while the second and 
 much heavier one is at the time when the grain begins to fill. Opin¬ 
 ions vary greatly as to the supply of water needed by this crop. It 
 is probable that 15 to 20 inches is the most profitable quantity, 
 though where plenty of water is available much more is ordinarily 
 applied. The quantity of water to be applied depends upon the 
 nature of the soil. The danger, especially where water is plentiful, 
 is in overirrigation. 
 
 The average depth of water applied to oats at the Wyoming station 
 was 21 inches, slightly more than was applied to wheat and barley. 
 The largest return to the acre was received at this station when 43.6 
 inches of water were applied, but the largest return per inch of water 
 applied was with an application of 16.6 inches. This leads to the 
 conclusion that when one has a large area of land and a small water 
 supply, the best use of the available supply will probably be made 
 when a larger area is irrigated with it than is common. 
 
 At the Nevada station the largest acre yield of oats was obtained 
 from two irrigations, with a total application of 10.7 inches of water. 
 An increase in the number of irrigations and in the depth of water 
 supplied decreased the yield. The largest yield to the acre-foot of 
 water was obtained from one irrigation, using 7.2 inches of water. The 
 Utah station found that the maximum increase in the yield of oats 
 for each additional inch of water was reached at about 15 inches. 
 From the results at this station it was computed that where 30 
 inches of water on 1 acre would produce 85 bushels of oats the same 
 quantity applied to 2 acres (15 inches to the acre) would produce 
 113} bushels. The net profit from this extension of the irrigated 
 area, however, is much less than the figures indicate, owing to the 
 increased cost of plowing, seeding, and harvesting. 
 
 HARVESTING THE CROP. 
 
 CUTTING. 
 
 Oats are usually cut with the grain binder, though in the drier 
 sections the header is used, and occasionally the crop is harvested 
 with the combined harvester and thrasher. A binder in operation 
 in a field of oats in North Dakota is shown in figure 6. When the 
 straw is very short, owing to dry weather, or when the crop is badly 
 lodged, cutting with the mower may be necessary. The grain may 
 then be raked and put into cocks, which should be well built so as to 
 shed rain. The proper time to cut oats is when they are in the hard- 
 dough stage. If cut before this time, the grain is not well filled, 
 
 424 
 
OATS : GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 C 2G 
 
 shrivels in curing, and is light in weight. If allowed to become fully 
 ripe before cutting, a considerable portion of the crop shatters out 
 and is lost in harvesting, and the danger of damage from storms is 
 also increased. Where a large acreage is to be harvested it is advis¬ 
 able to begin cutting when the grain is about to pass out of the milk 
 
 Fig. 6.—Grain binder at work in an oat field in North Dakota. 
 
 stage, otherwise a considerable portion of the crop is likely to become 
 too ripe before it can be cut. 
 
 SHOCKING. 
 
 If the grain is ripe or in the hard-dough stage when cut it may be 
 placed at once in round shocks, which should be capped to prevent 
 damage from rain and dew. The best quality of grain can be 
 harvested under these conditions. If the grain is green or if the 
 bundles contain a considerable quantity of weeds, they should be 
 allowed to cure for a few hours before shocking, and should then be 
 placed in long shocks, which may or may not be capped. Long 
 shocks allow the sun and air to penetrate much more readily than 
 round ones, and are to be preferred when the grain is not well 
 cured. A common form of long, uncapped shock in which most of 
 the grain is exposed to the weather is shown in figure 7; a round, 
 capped shock in which practically all the grain is protected from 
 weathering is shown in figure 8. Equally good protection is afforded 
 by capping the long shocks. Grain which is wet from dew or rain 
 should be allowed to dry before it is placed in shocks. In sections 
 where strong winds prevail during the harvest season capping is not 
 advisable, as the caps blow off and the grain in the cap sheaves is 
 injured by contact with the ground. 
 
 424 
 
oats: growing the crop 
 
 27 
 
 Fig. 7.—A long, uncapped shock in which practically all of the grain is exposed to the weather. 
 
 Fig. 8.—A well-built, round shock, capped to protect most of the grain from weathering, 
 424 
 
oats; growing the crop. 
 
 28 
 
 STACKING. 
 
 Where grain is stacked it is important that the stacks be well built. 
 If the stacks are so carelessly put up that they will not shed water the 
 o-rain might much better be allowed to stand in the shock. The bottom 
 of the stack should be set up from the ground slightly by laying 
 down old rails or other material to keep the grain from coming in 
 contact with the earth. This will prevent the absorption of moisture 
 from below. The shape of the stack is less important than the 
 manner in which the bundles are laid. They should be so placed 
 that only the butts are exposed, and so that water will readily run 
 off the sides of the stack and not penetrate enough to wet the grain. 
 The round form of stack probably sheds water better than the long 
 ricks sometimes constructed. If the rick is built the top should be 
 covered with straw or wild hay to keep out water. 
 
 SHOCK VERSUS STACK THRASHING. 
 
 Whether oats are to be stacked or allowed to remain in the shock 
 until they are thrashed depends very largely on local conditions. If 
 there is a reasonable certainty that a thrashing outfit will be avail¬ 
 able after the grain has had time to cure in the shock but before it is 
 exposed unnecessarily to weathering, the relative cost of shock and 
 stack thrashing is the point on which the decision must be made. 
 According to investigations conducted by the Minnesota station in 
 cooperation with the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Agri¬ 
 culture, the labor cost of thrashing from the shock in southern Minne¬ 
 sota was 4.3 cents to the bushel, while that of stack thrashing was 
 5.2 cents. In northwestern Minnesota the relative labor cost of the 
 two operations was 3.6 cents and 4.9 cents. It is probably safe to 
 assume that stacking adds about 1 cent a bushel to the cost of pro¬ 
 ducing oats. 
 
 In the report of the investigations just mentioned the relative 
 merits of shock and stack thrashing are thus compared: 
 
 The possibility of improving the grade of grain enough to pay the additional cost of 
 stacking and stack thrashing depends in any locality upon the availability of machines, 
 the availability of labor, and the climatic conditions prevailing at harvest. Intelli¬ 
 gent stacking of grain during a majority of Minnesota harvests is cheap insurance 
 against bleached, sprouted, and bin-burnt grain. If the weather is favorable and a 
 machine can be put in the field as soon as the grain is fit to thrash, a slight saving will 
 be made as compared with stacking and stack thrashing. On the other hand, if the 
 shocks must weather for several days or, in some cases, for several weeks before a 
 machine can be obtained, the loss in grade is considerable and stacking the grain would 
 have been profitable. 
 
 rhe conclusion reached in this report is that on the ordinary small 
 farm in Minnesota stacking is to be regarded as the better practice. 
 
 424 
 
oats: growing the crop. 
 
 29 
 
 
 In general, conditions during harvest in the greater portion of the 
 oat-growing sections are similar to those in Minnesota, and on small 
 farms stacking oats is generally to be recommended. On the larger 
 farms of the West where there is less danger from rains and where a 
 thrashing machine is available at the time the grain is ready to 
 thrash, shock thrashing will no doubt continue to be the general 
 practice. 
 
 THRASHING. 
 
 The grain should be thoroughly dry when it is thrashed, as it not 
 only thrashes better but there is danger that both the grain and the 
 straw will heat and mold if thrashed when damp. It is important 
 to see that the thrashing machine is thoroughly cleaned before 
 thrashing is begun. This will not only prevent mixing the grain 
 with that from a neighboring farm, but will also check the spread of 
 weeds which may be carried from place to place in the separator. 
 The operation of the machine should be carefully watched to see that 
 all the grain is removed from the straw and that the separation of the 
 grain from the chaff and dirt is as complete as possible. The con¬ 
 caves should be so set that they will remove all the grain, but not so 
 close that they will hull it. The straw should be carefully stacked, so 
 that it will be injured as little as possible by rains. If there is 
 available room, running the straw into the barn is both economical 
 and convenient. 
 
 STORING THE GRAIN. 
 
 Oats, like other grains, should be stored in bins that are protected 
 from the weather and well set up from the ground, so that the grain 
 will not absorb moisture. The grain should be dry when it is put in 
 the bin and should be kept dry, as otherwise there is considerable 
 danger that it will become musty and discolored. Mustiness not only 
 lowers the feeding value of oats, but may make them dangerous to 
 the health of the animals. It is important that the bins be so con¬ 
 structed that they may be kept free from vermin and so that the 
 grain can be easily handled. Placing the bin as near as possible to 
 where the oats are to be used is desirable. An apparatus for elevat¬ 
 ing the grain into the bin is shown in figure 9. In sections where 
 grain weevils and other insects seriously affect stored grain, the build¬ 
 ing of tight bins which can be fumigated is sometimes necessary. 
 
 YIELDS. 
 
 In the United States the highest yields of oats are harvested in the 
 North Pacific and Rocky Mountain regions where the crop is irri¬ 
 gated or the rainfall is heavy. Under irrigation the production of 
 100 to 125 bushels to the acre is not uncommon, while vields of 150 
 
 424 
 
30 
 
 oats: growing the crop. 
 
 to 175 bushels are sometimes reported. The average yield of the 
 United States for the ten years from 1900 to 1909, as reported by the 
 Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Agriculture, has been 
 slightly less than 30 bushels. New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Min¬ 
 nesota, and North and South Dakota ordinarily report average 
 yields of 32 to 37 bushels. Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
 Iowa, and Nebraska usually average rather lower, from 27 to 35 
 bushels, while the lowest figures of all are obtained in the Southern 
 States, where the average production ranges from 12 to 20 bushels 
 to the acre. Individual farmers in all these States harvest much 
 better yields than the figures just given. In several of the States 
 where irrigation is practiced the average yield is more than 40 bushels 
 
 Fig. 9.—Apparatus for elevating grain from the wagon to the bin. 
 
 to the acre. In comparison with the average yield of the United 
 States of about 30 bushels to the acre, the average yield of oats in 
 Germany is about 50 bushels, in the United Kingdom 45 bushels, in 
 France 28 bushels, and in Russia 20 bushels. The cool, moist climate 
 of Germany and of the United Kingdom is particularly well adapted to 
 the production of high yields of oats, which are further increased by 
 the good methods of cultivation practiced. 
 
 COST OF PRODUCTION. 
 
 Estimates of the cost of producing an acre or a bushel of oats 
 vary greatly. Much depends on the labor used in preparing the 
 land for seeding, the yield produced, the cost of thrashing, and the 
 rent or interest charges on the land. Professor Hume, of the Illinois 
 
 424 
 
OATS : GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 31 
 
 College of Agriculture, estimated the cost of producing 33 bushels of 
 oats to the acre in central Illinois, in the cheapest possible manner, 
 at $5.45, or 16 cents a bushel, land rental not included. The cost 
 of producing oats in three different sections of Minnesota was re¬ 
 ported by the Minnesota station as $9.84, $8.83, and $6.31 to the 
 acre, respectively, with land rental included. Owing to the differ¬ 
 ence in yield the cost of producing a bushel of oats in these three 
 sections was practically the same, 21 cents. The cost of producing 
 a bushel of oats at Ottawa, Canada, was estimated in 1903 at 21.7 
 cents. The acre cost of production under irrigation is much greater 
 than where there is no irrigation, but the cost per bushel is not 
 materially increased, owing to the greater yields. Farm estimates 
 of the cost of production are usually lower than the figures just 
 given, as farmers often fail to take into account the depreciation in 
 value of the farm machinery and other items which are properly 
 chargeable to the crop. 
 
 The ordinary cost of producing 33 bushels of oats to the acre in 
 Illinois, with the land rental included, according to Professor Hume, 
 is $11.84. At 26 cents, the prevailing price per bushel in Illinois at 
 the time this estimate was made, this crop would sell for $8.52 an 
 acre, or at a loss to the farmer of $3.32, while a crop of 100 bushels, 
 which cost $20.21 to produce, would sell for $26, or a profit of 
 $5.79. At 38 cents, the average price in Illinois in December, 1909, 
 the 33-bushel crop would return a small profit, while the 100-bushel 
 crop would return a liberal one, at least $15 to the acre, allowing 
 for a slight increase in the cost of production. At 26 cents, the aver¬ 
 age farm price in Minnesota for 1904, 1905, and 1906, when the esti¬ 
 mates of cost of production in that State were made, the net profit 
 in the three sections was $2.38, $2.35, and $1.36 per acre, respec¬ 
 tively. The narrow margin of profit shown in all these figures 
 indicates the necessity for increasing the acre yield of oats if the 
 crop is to be grown at a profit. 
 
 VARIETIES ADAPTED TO DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 GENERAL STATEMENT. 
 
 Varieties of oats may differ in the size, shape, or color of the grain, in 
 the length of time they require from seeding to maturity, in the shape 
 and size of the panicle, in the yield of grain or of straw, and in the 
 time when they may be sown. The grain may be large, medium, or 
 small; it may be long and slender or short and plump; the color may 
 be white, yellow, black, gray, or brownish-red. The grains of four 
 varieties of oats which differ in size, shape, and color are shown in 
 figure 10. The difference in the time necessary to reach maturity 
 
 424 
 
32 
 
 OATS : GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 for different varieties at any given place is from fifteen to twenty-five 
 days; all varieties mature more quickly in the central portion of the 
 United States than in the northern part. In the southern and 
 central portions of the country the earliest varieties may mature in 
 eighty-five to ninety days; in the cooler climate of the north the 
 later varieties may require one hundred and twenty-five to one 
 hundred and forty days. The panicle may be open and spreading, 
 or closed and turned to one side (side oats), or it may be anywhere 
 between the two extremes. Heads of both side and spreading oats 
 are shown in figure 11. Two varieties which are very similar in 
 appearance may differ widely in yield of grain or of straw. Most 
 
 Fig. 10.—Grains of four varieties of oats which differ in shape, size, and color. A , Sixty-Day, with medium¬ 
 sized, slender, yellow grain; B, Red Rustproof, with large, plump, reddish-brown grain; C, North Fin¬ 
 nish Black, with medium-sized, moderately plump, black grain; D, Swedish Select, with large, plump, 
 white grain. 
 
 of the varieties grown in the United States are adapted to spring 
 seeding, but a few, like Winter Turf, are sown in the fall in the 
 Southern States, while others, like Red Rustproof, may be sown 
 either in the fall or the spring. 
 
 The number of varieties of oats grown in the United States is very 
 large, though the number well adapted to the conditions in any 
 particular section is comparatively small. Several hundred varietal 
 names are to be found in the catalogues of American seedsmen, but 
 in many instances different names are applied to the same variety 
 by different seedsmen or in different sections of the country. A 
 good example of this is to be found in the Winter Turf oat, which 
 is variously known as Gray Winter, Virginia Gray, Turf, Grazing, 
 
 424 
 
oats: growing the crop. 
 
 33 
 
 Virginia Winter, and Winter Turf, while several similar names are 
 less commonly applied to it. Every year new varieties of oats are 
 offered by seedsmen, while other names are omitted from their lists, 
 
 Fig. 11.—Two types of oat heads: Spreading, or panieled, oats (on the left) and side, or horse-mane, oats 
 
 (on the right). 
 
 and varieties which may have been common in some sections ten 
 or fifteen years ago have now almost entirely disappeared from 
 cultivation. 
 
 424 
 
34 
 
 OATS: GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 No definite lines can be drawn between the belts where certain 
 varieties or types of oats succeed and others fail. Local conditions 
 of soil, climate, altitude, and latitude materially influence the adapta¬ 
 tion of varieties, and there is naturally considerable overlapping 
 along the borders of the belts. Figure 12 shows approximately the 
 areas to which certain types or varieties are adapted. The unshaded 
 portion, comprising the entire northern portion of the United States, 
 with a large part of the Rocky Mountain section, is generally suitable 
 for the production of the large-grained, medium to late maturing 
 varieties. Those which are usually grown are white in color, as Clydes¬ 
 dale, Big Four, Swedish Select, Lincoln, White Russian, and Tar¬ 
 tarian. The two varieties last mentioned are side oats, a class which 
 
 Fig. 12. Map of the United States, showing approximately the areas to which certain types of oats are 
 adapted. In the unshaded portion rather late maturing, large-grained white oats are usually best; in 
 the lightly shaded portion early, small-grained, yellow varieties are most important; while in the heavily 
 shaded portion brownish-red or gray varieties, which in the warmer sections are sown in the fall, are 
 most certain to succeed. 
 
 can be grown with profit only in this section. Black or yellow varie¬ 
 ties are occasionally grown, while on the dry farms of the Rocky 
 Mountain States early oats like the Sixty-Day and the Kherson are 
 frequentty sown. In the region shown as the lightly shaded portion 
 of the map, largely confined to the Missouri and central Mississippi 
 valleys and including practically all the Great Plains region, small- 
 grained, early, yellow varieties, like the Sixty-Day and the Kherson, 
 are best adapted. In the southern portion of this area two early 
 varieties which are also adapted to the southern belt, the Burt, with 
 light-brown grains, and the Red Rustproof, which is reddish-brown in 
 color, succeed equally as well as the Sixty-Day and the Kherson, 
 
 424 
 
OATS: GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 35 
 
 while in the northern portion the later, white varieties adapted to the 
 northern belt succeed in favorable seasons. In the entire southern 
 portion of the country, which is heavily shaded on the map, the varie¬ 
 ties which do best when sown in the spring are the Burt and the Red 
 Rustproof. For fall seeding the Winter Turf, a hardy, medium-sized, 
 gray oat, and in the warmer portions of the area the Red Rustproof 
 are the varieties which are usually used. 
 
 The best basis for recommendations as to varieties for any given 
 section is furnished by the variety trials conducted by the agricul¬ 
 tural experiment stations, but these can not always be taken as a 
 guide, as varieties which do well on the type of soil represented by the 
 station may not succeed on some other type of soil in the same State. 
 The varieties mentioned in the following paragraphs are those which 
 have done particularly well in the station tests or which are in 
 common cultivation in the particular section under discussion. 
 Other varieties might generally be mentioned which under some con¬ 
 ditions would succeed as well as or better than those which are dis¬ 
 cussed. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND AND NEW YORK. 
 
 The type of oats commonly grown in the Northeastern States is 
 medium to late in maturing, with large, usually rather short and 
 plump, white grain. The varieties commonly offered by seedsmen in 
 this section are Clydesdale, Probsteier, Welcome, Canadian Cluster, 
 American Banner, White Tartar, and Swedish Select, or, as it is incor¬ 
 rectly called, Washington or Swedish. Little work in variety testing 
 has been reported by the experiment stations in this section. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA, NEW JERSEY, DELAWARE, AND MARYLAND. 
 
 The conditions in the States of this group are so diverse that general 
 recommendations as to varieties are difficult to make. Most of the 
 varieties mentioned in the previous paragraph are quite commonly 
 offered by Pennsylvania seedsmen and are adapted to the higher por¬ 
 tions of that State and of New Jersey and Maryland. The leading 
 varieties of oats at the Pennsylvania station are Joanette, Big Four, 
 Japan, and Lincoln. The Sixty-Day, an early variety, has given ex¬ 
 cellent results in the last few years. The hardier winter oats, such as 
 Winter Turf and Red Rustproof, can usually be grown with success in 
 the lower portion of Maryland. Where a spring oat is desired for this 
 section or for Delaware best results can usually be obtained from early- 
 maturing kinds, such as Sixty-Day, Burt, or Red Rustproof. 
 
 SOUTH ATLANTIC AND GULF STATES. 
 
 Wherever climatic conditions will permit in the South Atlantic and 
 Gulf States it is advisable to grow winter oats of the Winter Turf 
 or Red Rustproof types. Winter Turf is the hardier of the two 
 
 424 
 
36 
 
 OATS : GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 and is rather better for pasture and for hay production, but where 
 good yields of grain are desired Red Rustproof should be grown. 
 Where the growing of winter oats is uncertain, as in the mountainous 
 sections, or where, for other reasons, it is desired to sow oats in the 
 spring, Red Rustproof, Culberson, and Burt are commonly grown. 
 In some sections, particularly in portions of Tennessee, the Burt, or as 
 it is also known, the Ninety-Day or May, is most popular. At the 
 Virginia station the' Silvermine is the leading variety in recent tests, 
 while the Culberson is the winter oat usually grown. At the Tennes¬ 
 see station Kherson and Sixty-Day have given good yields from spring 
 seeding. The Appier is a popular variety of the Red Rustproof type 
 in some sections, particularly in Georgia and Alabama. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA AND KENTUCKY. 
 
 In West Virginia and eastern Kentucky, on account of the high 
 altitude, varieties of oats are grown that are commonly found farther 
 north. The best varieties in a test at the West Virginia station were 
 White Russian, Big Four, American Banner, and Silvermine. At 
 the Kentucky station Badger Queen, American Triumph, and 
 American Beauty were among the leading kinds. In central and 
 western Kentucky early oats like Burt, Sixty-Day, Red Rustproof, 
 and Kherson should do well, while Winter Turf is grown as a winter 
 oat in some sections and is worthy of more extended trial. 
 
 MICHIGAN, WISCONSIN, MINNESOTA, AND THE DAKOTAS. 
 
 As conditions are more favorable for the production of oats in the 
 States along the northern border, a wider range of varieties can be 
 grown with success than in any other section. In unfavorable 
 seasons, particularly in southern Wisconsin and Minnesota and in 
 South Dakota, early varieties like Sixty-Day and Kherson will make 
 the best yields, but in more favorable years the larger, later ones will 
 do best. In Wisconsin, Minnesota, and North Dakota and in the 
 Rocky Mountain States, side oats like White Russian and Tartarian 
 reach their best development, but even here they usually do not 
 yield as well as some of the varieties of the open-headed type. The 
 results of variety trials at the Michigan station have not been pub¬ 
 lished in recent years, but in general the varieties that do well in 
 Wisconsin and Minnesota succeed in Michigan. Sixty-Day, Kherson, 
 Silvermine, and American Banner are the leading varieties at the 
 Wisconsin station in recent years. Swedish Select, the most popular 
 oat in W isconsin, has given the highest yield at this station for a 
 longer period. At the Minnesota station American Banner, Early 
 Gothland, Kherson, and Sixtv-Day have yielded best. The high 
 place held by the Sixty-Day and the Kherson oats in the tests at 
 these two stations is largely due to the fact that at least two of the 
 
 424 
 
oats: growing the crop. 37 
 
 years covered by these tests have been extremely unfavorable to the 
 production of late oats. 
 
 At Fargo, N. Dak., in the Red River Valley, Sixty-Day, Tartarian, 
 Abundance, Siberian, and Lincoln have been the leading varieties, 
 while at Edgeley the best yields have been harvested from Abun¬ 
 dance, Siberian, Sixty-Day, and Silvermine. Early Mountain, Kher¬ 
 son, Tartarian, and Banner Rave been the best of the well-known 
 varieties at Dickinson, though several kinds recently imported from 
 Europe have done well. At Williston the Silvermine, Siberian, and 
 Probsteier have made the best showing. At the South Dakota 
 stations Kherson, Swedish Select, and Sixty-Day have been the 
 highest yielding varieties. 
 
 OHIO, INDIANA, ILLINOIS, IOWA, AND NEBRASKA. 
 
 At the Ohio station Siberian, Sixty-Day, Improved vYmerican, and 
 Joanette were the leading varieties in a recent test. Big Four and 
 Silvermine have also given good results. At the Indiana station the 
 leading varieties are Great Dakota and Silvermine. Early oats 
 usually yield best in Illinois, Iowa, and Nebraska, as late ones are 
 likely to be severely injured by hot weather when the grain is filling. 
 At these stations Sixty-Day and Kherson are among the leading 
 kinds. Burt and Red Rustproof have also done well in Nebraska, 
 while Silvermine and Swedish Select have been good varieties in the 
 Iowa tests, and Siberian is one of the best at the Illinois station. 
 Silvermine, Big Four, Swedish Select, and other large, rather late, 
 white oats will give good yields in the northern parts of these States 
 in favorable years, but in unfavorable ones Sixty-Day and Kherson 
 will produce more grain. Early Champion is an early oat which is 
 extensively grown, while Lincoln, Clydesdale, and Green Russian 
 are also quite popular. 
 
 MISSOURI, KANSAS, OKLAHOMA, AND ARKANSAS. 
 
 Most of the oats grown in these States are of the Red Rustproof 
 type. At the Kansas station Sixty-Day and Kherson have given 
 equally as good results as Red Rustproof; at the Oklahoma station 
 Red Rustproof and Kherson have been the leading varieties. Variety 
 trials of oats have not been reported recently from the Missouri and 
 Arkansas stations, but it is probable that the 3 varieties mentioned 
 will give as good results in those States as in Kansas and Oklahoma. 
 Winter oats can be grown with a fair degree of success in some por¬ 
 tions of Arkansas and Oklahoma. 
 
 ROCKY MOUNTAIN STATES. 
 
 In the Rocky Mountain States, where oats are grown under irriga¬ 
 tion, the large, late, white varieties give the largest yields and are 
 
 424 
 
38 
 
 oats: growing the crop. 
 
 the most popular. On the dry farms early kinds, like Sixty-Day and 
 Kherson, usually make the best showing. The Swedish Select is also 
 a good dry-farm oat. At the Montana station, under irrigation, 
 Progress, Clydesdale, Big Four, and Improved American are among 
 the leading varieties. Swedish Select and White Russian are also 
 grown on the irrigated farms of Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho. 
 In Colorado Kherson, Sixty-Day, and a variety developed by the 
 experiment station and known as Colorado No. 37 are popular, 
 particularly on the dry farms. The varieties grown on the irrigated 
 farms are about the same as those grown in Montana and Wyoming. 
 
 PACIFIC STATES. 
 
 The conditions in western Washington and Oregon and in the irri¬ 
 gated sections of these States and of Idaho are very favorable to the 
 growth of oats. The highest yields are usually harvested from large, 
 white oats like Big Four, Improved American, and Swedish Select. 
 Side oats are also rather popular. In the dry-land sections there is 
 no better variety than Sixty-Day. Where conditions are favorable 
 for winter oats the varieties known as Black Russian and Gray Winter 
 (Winter Turf) are grown. In California the Red Rustproof, or, as it 
 is commonly known, Red, or Common California, is usually grown. 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF THE CROP. a 
 
 EFFECT OF THE SOURCE OF SEED ON YIELD. 
 
 Thorough cleaning of the seed grain and sowing only that which 
 is large and plump has already been recommended. The procuring of 
 seed oats from distant localities more favorable to the production of 
 the crop is often advocated, particularly in sections where the grain 
 is of poor quality, or following partial failures. If there is a reasonable 
 certainty that the seed thus obtained is of a variety adapted to the 
 region where it is to be grown, the purchase of new seed from a 
 distance can be made with considerable promise of gain. If, how¬ 
 ever, the variety is unknown or is likely to be one not well adapted 
 to local conditions, the change of seed should be made with caution. 
 For instance, the large, late varieties of oats commonly grown in 
 Canada and in the irrigated districts are not likely to give any better 
 yields when sown in Iowa or Illinois than are the varieties commonly 
 grown in those States, even though the seed of the latter is of poor 
 quality. The Kansas station found that by grading the seed each 
 year and sowing only plump, sound grain, the yield could be increased 
 over that from seed procured from other sections. At the Virginia 
 
 a A more complete discussion of this subject is contained in Circular 30, Bureau of 
 Plant Industry, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, entitled “The Improvement of the 
 Oat Crop.” 
 
 424 
 
OATS : GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 39 
 
 station, in a very unfavorable year, 10 per cent more grain was 
 produced from home-grown seed than from that of the same varieties 
 brought from a distance. 
 
 IMPORTATION OF SEED OATS. 
 
 Most of our best varieties of oats have been brought from Europe, 
 where much more attention has been given to the improvement of 
 the crop than in this country. The European varieties do best here, 
 however, when grown under conditions similar to those in the regions 
 where they were developed. A good variety of oats from Sweden 
 can be expected to give much better results in Minnesota or Wisconsin 
 than in Illinois or Iowa, because the conditions are more nearly the 
 same, while one from central or southern Russia is most likely to 
 succeed in our own Central States. Thus, the Kherson and the 
 Sixty-Day from southern Russia are proving of great value in 
 Nebraska, Iowa, and Illinois, while the varieties from Sweden, 
 Germany, and northern Russia are doing best in Wisconsin, Minne¬ 
 sota, and the other Northern States. The importation of oats from 
 foreign countries, though it is an interesting and valuable part of the 
 work of the Department of Agriculture and the experiment stations, 
 can hardly be undertaken by the farmer. A comparatively small 
 portion of the varieties imported prove to be marked successes. 
 
 FIELD SELECTION OF SEED. 
 
 In addition to the mechanical selection of the large, heavy seed by 
 the fanning mill or similar means the farmer can increase the yield 
 and the quality of the oats he grows by selecting the best heads or 
 the best plants in the field. These can be thrashed together and 
 sown in a seed plat separate from the main crop, or the individual 
 heads can be planted in separate rows and used for the development 
 of pedigreed strains. While good results can be obtained from 
 growing this selected seed in bulk, as first mentioned, the most 
 reliable method of improving the quality and yield of the oat crop is 
 by the selecting and testing of strains developed from individual 
 plants or heads. Those which are inferior should be discarded from 
 the first year’s test, and the really superior ones increased and again 
 selected. The hybridization of oats is a difficult process, and the 
 selection of the hybrids and their fixation as pure types is a problem 
 which should be left to the professional plant breeder. Much can be 
 done in the improvement of the crop through the selection of the 
 best individual plants, however, to increase the yield or the propor¬ 
 tion of kernel to hull. This proportion is an important consideration, 
 as it so materially affects both the feeding and the milling values of 
 the grain. 
 
 424 
 
40 
 
 oats: growing the crop. 
 
 DISEASES AFFECTING OATS. 
 
 THE SMUTS. 
 
 The most common diseases of oats are smut and rust. There are 
 two smuts of oats, both of which destroy the grain. In the common, 
 or loose smut, all the parts of the flower or grain, including the chaff, 
 are replaced by a black, powdery mass of spores. Heads of oats 
 affected by this smut are shown in figure 13. In the less common 
 form, the covered smut, the grain is destroyed but the smut spores 
 remain inclosed in the glumes. The manner of infection and growth 
 is the same with both kinds of smut, as the smut spores enter the grow¬ 
 ing parts of the young plant at germination and grow with it until 
 they develop in the head, turning all or a part of the grains into 
 masses of spores. Both the loose and covered smuts of oats are 
 easily destroyed by the formalin treatment described on page 17. 
 The loss from oat smut is considerable, being variously estimated at 
 from 2 to 10 per cent of the crop. Unless definite counts of smutted 
 heads are made the injury is usually underestimated, as the smutted 
 heads usually appear earlier and are shorter than those which bear 
 grain, so that many are not noticed in a casual inspection of a field. 
 At a conservative estimate of 3 per cent the annual loss from this 
 disease is about 27,000,000 bushels of oats, which, at 40 cents a 
 bushel, are worth nearly $11,000,000. 
 
 THE RUSTS. 
 
 The rusts are easily recognized by the appearance of irregular, 
 roughened areas on the leaves and stems, which at maturity dis¬ 
 charge large numbers of red or black spores. The most common 
 rust of oats is the crown rust, usually known as the red or leaf rust, 
 though the stem rust also commonly occurs on this grain. The crown 
 rust does not injure the crop as seriously as the stem rust, which, 
 when it occurs, makes its appearance a few days later than the crown 
 rust, and is likely to do serious damage. These rusts take the food 
 from the stems and leaves of the oat plant that would naturally go 
 to the development of the grain, and as a result the grain is light 
 and shriveled. No accurate estimate of the damage done by the 
 rusts can be made, but it is probably even larger than that done by 
 the smuts. There are no known means of combating the rusts when 
 they occur. The damage may be somewhat reduced, however, by 
 early planting or by the planting of varieties which mature before the 
 black rust develops and by planting on well-drained land, as mois¬ 
 ture is essential to the development of rust. The Bed Rustproof oat 
 is quite resistant to rust in the South, where the disease is usually 
 prevalent, but is much less resistant in other sections. Drilled oats 
 are less liable to injury from rust than those sown broadcast, as light 
 
 424 
 
OATS : GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 41 
 
 and air can penetrate between the drill rows. Rank growth result¬ 
 ing from rich soil, excess of nitrogenous fertilizers, or abundant 
 moisture also favors the development of rust. 
 
 Fig. 13.—Smut of oats: Smutted head (on the right) and head not affected by smut (on the left). 
 
 OTHER DISEASES. 
 
 Several other diseases sometimes damage the oat crop, but none 
 of them is so common or causes so much damage as do the rusts and 
 smuts. In very wet seasons mildew occurs where the growth is rank 
 
 424 
 
42 
 
 OATS : GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 and the oats have lodged from storms: Cold, wet weather early in 
 the season may cause the leaves of the oats to turn yellow, but usu¬ 
 ally the plants recover when conditions for growth become more 
 favorable. The injury may become serious if the unfavorable 
 weather continues for some time. Spikelet blight, a disease which 
 is readily recognizable by the presence of white, barren spikelets as 
 the heads develop, is sometimes quite prevalent, but the real nature 
 of the trouble is not well understood. Blade blight, supposedly a 
 bacterial disease causing yellowing of the oat leaves, is believed by 
 some to be associated with spikelet blight. It has recently been de¬ 
 scribed by Prof. Thomas F. Manns, of the Ohio station. No preven¬ 
 tive is known for either of these blights. Ergot, which is often com¬ 
 mon on rye and some of the wild grasses, occurs rarely on oats. 
 
 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO OATS. 
 
 INSECTS ATTACKING THE GROWING PLANT. 
 
 Oats are probably less subject to insect injury than any other 
 important small-grain crop. The chinch bug, the spring grain- 
 aphis a or so-called 11 green bug/’ and the army worm are perhaps 
 the most destructive, but severe damage from the attacks of even 
 these insects occurs at rather infrequent intervals. Oats are much 
 less frequently injured by chinch bugs than wheat, rye, or barley. 
 The best preventive measure is the burning of rubbish along fences 
 and in fields in which the bugs may hibernate. The spring grain- 
 aphis frequently appears on young grain plants of all kinds, but 
 causes noticeable damage only in an unusually cold, wet spring, pre¬ 
 ceded by an unusually mild winter, when conditions are especially 
 favorable to its development and at the same time unfavorable to 
 the rapid increase of its natural enemies. As it frequently makes 
 its appearance in small areas, from which it spreads over the field, 
 plowing under these areas as soon as noticed is sometimes effective. 
 
 INSECTS ATTACKING THE STORED GRAIN. 
 
 Among insects commonly attacking stored grain are the grain 
 weevils and the Angoumois grain moth. They are usually more 
 frequently found in other cereals than in oats, as the oat hull affords 
 considerable protection. Injury can be checked by fumigation with 
 carbon bisulphid 6 or with hydrocyanic-acid gas. c Both of these 
 
 a Detailed descriptions of these insects, with methods of control, are contained in 
 the following circulars of the Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture: Cir¬ 
 cular 93, “The Spring Grain-Aphis,” and Circular 113, “The Chinch Bug.” 
 
 b Farmers’ Bulletin 145, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, 1902, entitled “Carbon Bisul¬ 
 phid as an Insecticide,” gives complete directions for the use of this gas in fumigating 
 grain. It may be obtained free on application to the Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 c Circular 112, Bureau of Entomology, which contains directions for fumigating 
 stored cereals with hydrocyanic-acid gas, may be obtained without cost on applica¬ 
 tion to the Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 424 
 
OATS: GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 43 
 
 are dangerous poisons and must be handled with extreme cau¬ 
 tion. Tight bins from which the gases can not escape are neces¬ 
 sary. Carbon bisulphid is more commonly used than hydrocyanic- 
 acid gas for fumigating grain. The vapor given off by the bisulphid 
 is highly inflammable, hence no fire, lighted cigars, etc., should be 
 brought near it when it is being used. The gas produces unpleasant 
 effects when inhaled, so that care should be taken not to breathe 
 much of it. It is heavier than air and sinks to the bottom of the bin 
 when the bisulphid is placed in vessels on top of the grain or poured 
 on it. From 1 to 2 pounds of the bisulphid is sufficient to fumigate 
 1 ton of grain or 1,000 cubic feet of bin. Open bins will require a still 
 larger quantity. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Oats were probably first cultivated in eastern Europe and western 
 Asia, where the original wild form is supposed to have existed. 
 
 The oat belongs to the grass family and is known botanically as 
 Avena sativa. 
 
 This crop grows best on soils with good water-holding capacity, as 
 it requires a great deal of moisture. When grown for grain, phos¬ 
 phorus is usually the most important fertilizing element which can 
 be added. Very rich soils, especially if deficient in phosphorus, cause 
 rank growth, with lodging as a result. When grown for hay or for¬ 
 age nitrogenous fertilizers may be used. 
 
 Oats are usually grown in the rotation after a cultivated crop, 
 and are used as a nurse crop for grasses or clover. They are some¬ 
 times grown in combination with other crops. When grown with 
 barley large yields of grain for feeding can be obtained, while with 
 Canada field peas or vetch excellent forage is produced. 
 
 Oats do best on a rather loose, well-prepared seed bed. The com¬ 
 mon method of sowing the grain broadcast on cornstalk land without 
 preparation and covering it with the disk harrow is careless and 
 uncertain. Thorough preparation of the seed bed is strongly advised. 
 
 Only plump, heavy oats should be used for seed. The seed should 
 be treated for smut before sowing. The formalin treatment is 
 effective and is easily applied. 
 
 Drilling usually gives better germination, a more nearly uniform 
 stand, and higher yields than broadcast seeding. The rate of seeding 
 varies with the locality and other factors. In the upper Mississippi 
 Valley 2\ to 3 bushels are usually sown to the acre. Oats should be 
 sown as early in the spring as the ground can be worked. 
 
 In dry-farming sections harrowing drilled oats while the plants are 
 small increases the yield. Spraying with a solution of iron sulphate 
 to kill weeds is recommended by some of the agricultural experiment 
 stations. The largest yield of oats per inch of water applied is usually 
 obtained in the irrigated sections by the use of 15 to 20 inches. 
 
 424 
 
44 
 
 OATS: GROWING THE CROP. 
 
 Oats are usually harvested with the grain binder, set up in shocks 
 of 10 or more bundles, and allowed to cure for ten days or two weeks. 
 They are then stacked or hauled direct to the thrasher and thrashed. 
 In the humid regions a better quality of grain is usually obtained at 
 slightly increased cost from stack thrashing than from shock thrash¬ 
 ing. Where there is little rainfall there is no advantage in stacking. 
 The mixing of grain in the separator and the introduction of weeds 
 from neighboring farms by the thrashing outfit should be carefully 
 avoided. The thrashing machine should be adjusted to remove all 
 the grain from the straw and to remove the trash from the grain. 
 The grain should be stored in clean, dry bins, well protected from the 
 weather, and kept free from vermin. 
 
 The average yields of oats vary from 15 to 25 bushels in the South¬ 
 ern States, from 25 to 40 bushels in the Northern States, and from 
 35 to 45 bushels in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific States. Yields 
 of 100 to 150 bushels to the acre are sometimes produced in the 
 Northwestern States, particularly in the irrigated regions. 
 
 The cost of production is estimated at from 20 to 25 cents a bushel. 
 The cost per bushel of very low yields is considerably greater. 
 
 Many varieties of oats are grown in the United States. These vari¬ 
 eties differ in the size, color, and shape of the grain, the length of 
 time required to attain maturity, the shape and size of the head, 
 the yield, and in winter hardiness. The number of varieties adapted 
 to any particular section is comparatively small. In general, reddish 
 brown (Red Rustproof) or gray (Winter Turf) oats are adapted to the 
 South; early oats, usually yellow in color (Sixty-Day and Kherson), 
 to the Central States; and white, large-grained, later varieties (Swedish 
 Select, Clydesdale, Silvermine, etc.) to the Northern States. 
 
 The improvement of the crop can be effected through the seed by 
 grading and sowing only the large, plump grain, by bulk selection of 
 the best plants, and by individual plant selections. The latter is 
 the only method by which pedigreed varieties can be established. 
 Good varieties are sometimes obtained by importation from foreign 
 countries. 
 
 The principal diseases of oats are smut and rust. Smut may be 
 controlled by the use of the formalin solution; good preventive meas¬ 
 ures against rust are the sowing of early varieties and sowing only on 
 well-drained land. 
 
 The principal insect enemies of growing oats are the spring grain- 
 aphis, the chinch bug, and the army worm. The remedies applicable 
 to other small-grain crops apply to oats. Grain weevils and moths 
 do rather less injury to oats than to other grains, because the hull 
 of oats serves as a protection; fumigation with carbon bisulphid or 
 hydrocyanic-acid gas is recommended for these insects. 
 
 424 
 
FARMERS’ BULLETINS 
 
 Bulletins in this list will be sent free, so long as the supply lasts, to any resident 
 of the United States, on application to his Senator, Representative, or Dele¬ 
 gate in Congress, or to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Because 
 of the limited supply, applicants are urged to select only a few numbers, choosing 
 those which are of special interest to them. Residents of foreign countries should 
 apply to the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, 
 D. C., who has these bulletins for sale. Price 5 cents each to Canada, Cuba, and 
 Mexico; 6 cents to other foreign countries. The bulletins entitled “Experiment 
 Station Work” give briefly the results of experiments performed by the State experi¬ 
 ment stations. 
 
 22. The Feeding of Farm Animals. 
 
 27. Flax for Seed and Fiber. 
 
 28. Weeds: And How to Kill Them. 
 
 30. Grape Diseases on the Pacific Coast. 
 
 32. Silos and Silage. 
 
 34. Meats: Composition and Cooking. 
 
 35. Potato Culture. 
 
 36. Cotton Seed and Its Products. 
 
 44. Commercial Fertilizers. 
 
 48. The Manuring of Cotton. 
 
 49. Sheep Feeding. 
 
 51. Standard Varieties of Chickens. 
 
 52. The Sugar Beet. 
 
 54. Some Common Birds. 
 
 55. The Dairy Herd. 
 
 56. Experiment Station Work—I. 
 
 60. Methods of Curing Tobacco. 
 
 61. Asparagus Culture. 
 
 62. Marketing Farm Produce. 
 
 64. Ducks and Geese. 
 
 65. Experiment Station Work—II. 
 
 69. Experiment Station Work—III. 
 
 73. Experiment Station Work—IV. 
 
 77. The Liming of Soils. 
 
 78. Experiment Station Work—V. 
 
 79. Experiment Station Work—VI. 
 
 81. Corn Culture in the South. 
 
 82. The Culture of Tobacco. 
 
 83. Tobacco Soils. 
 
 84. Experiment Station Work—VII. 
 
 85. Fish as Food. 
 
 86. Thirty Poisonous Plants. 
 
 87. Experiment Station Work—VIII. 
 
 88. Alkali Lands. 
 
 91. Potato Diseases and Treatment. 
 
 92. Experiment Station Work—IX. 
 
 93. Sugar as Food. 
 
 96. Raising Sheep for Mutton. 
 
 97. Experiment Station Work—X. 
 
 99. Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. 
 
 101. Millets. 
 
 103. Experiment Station Work—XI. 
 
 104. Notes on Frost. 
 
 105. Experiment Station Work—XII. 
 
 106. Breeds of Dairy Cattle. 
 
 113. The Apple and How to Grow It. 
 
 114. Experiment Station Work—XIV. 
 
 118. Grape Growing in the South. 
 
 119. Experiment Station Work—XV. 
 
 120. Insects Affecting Tobacco. 
 
 121. Beans, Peas, and Other Legumes as Food. 
 
 122. Experiment Station Work—XVI. 
 
 126. Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. 
 
 127. Important Insecticides. 
 
 128. Eggs and Their Uses as Food. 
 
 131. Household Tests for Detection of Oleomar¬ 
 garine and Renovated Butter. 
 
 133. Experiment Station Work—XVIII. 
 
 134. Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. 
 
 135. Sorghum Sirup Manufacture. 
 
 137. The Angora Goat. 
 
 138. Irrigation in Field and Garden. 
 
 139. Emmer: A Grain for the Semiarid Regions. 
 
 140. Pineapple Growing. 
 
 142. Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food. 
 
 144. Experiment Station Work—XIX. 
 
 145. Carbon Bisulphid as an Insecticide. 
 
 149. Experiment Station Work—XX. 
 
 150. Clearing New Land. 
 
 152. Scabies of Cattle. 
 
 154. Home Fruit Garden: Preparation and Care. 
 
 155. How Insects Affect Healtli in Rural Districts. 
 
 156. The Home Vineyard. 
 
 157. The Propagation of Plants. 
 
 158. How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. 
 
 162. Experiment Station Work—XXL 
 
 164. Rape as a Forage Crop. 
 
 166. Cheese Making on the Farm. 
 
 1 vfi 
 
 169. Experiment Station Work—XXII. 
 
 170. Principles of Horse Feeding. 
 
 172. Scale Insects and Mites on Citrus Trees. 
 
 173. Primer of Forestry. Part I: The Forest. 
 
 174. Broom Corn. 
 
 175. Home Manufacture and Use of Unfermented 
 Grape Juice. 
 
 176. Cranberry Culture. 
 
 177. Squab Raising. 
 
 178. Insects Injurious in Cranberry Culture. 
 
 179. Horseshoeing. 
 
 181. Pruning. 
 
 182. Poultry as Food. 
 
 183. Meat on the Farm: Butchering, Curing, etc. 
 
 185. Beautifying the Home Grounds. 
 
 186. Experiment Station Work—XXIII. 
 
 187. Drainage of Farm Lands. 
 
 188. Weeds Used in Medicine. 
 
 190. Experiment Station Work—XXIV. 
 
 192. Barnyard Manure. 
 
 193. Experiment Station Work—XXV. 
 
 194. Alfalfa Seed. 
 
 195. Annual Flowering Plants. 
 
 196. Usefulness of the American Toad. 
 
 197. Importation of Game Birds and Eggs for 
 Propagation. 
 
 198. Strawberries. 
 
 200. Turkeys. 
 
 201. Cream Separator on Western Farms. 
 
 202. Experiment Station Work—XXVI. 
 
 203. Canned Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies. 
 
 204. The Cultivation of Mushrooms. 
 
 205. Pig Management. 
 
 206. Milk Fever and Its Treatment. 
 
 209. Controlling the Boll Weevil in Cotton Seed 
 and at Ginneries. 
 
 210. Experiment Station Work—XXVII. 
 
 213. Raspberries. 
 
 218. The School Garden. 
 
 219. Lessons from the Grain Rust Epidemic of 1904. 
 
 220. Tomatoes. 
 
 221. Fungous Diseases of the Cranberry. 
 
 222. Experiment Station Work—XXVIII. 
 
 223. Miscellaneous Cotton Insects in Texas. 
 
 224. Canadian Field Peas. 
 
 225. Experiment Station Work—XXIX. 
 
 227. Experiment Station Work—XXX. 
 
 228. Forest Planting and Farm Management. 
 
 229. The Production of Good Seed Corn. 
 
 231. Spraying for Cucumber and Melon Diseases. 
 
 232. Okra: Its Culture and Uses. 
 
 233. Experiment Station Work—XXXI. 
 
 234. The Guinea Fowl. 
 
 235. Preparation of Cement Concrete. 
 
 236. Incubation and Incubators. 
 
 237. Experiment Station Work—XXXII. 
 
 238. Citrus Fruit Growing in the Gulf States. 
 
 239. The Corrosion of Fence Wire. 
 
 241. Butter Making on the Farm. 
 
 242. An Example of Model Farming. 
 
 243. Fungicides and Their Use in Preventing Dis¬ 
 eases of Fruits. 
 
 244. Experiment Station Work—XXXIII. 
 
 245. Renovation of Worn-out Soils. 
 
 246. Saccharine Sorghums for Forage. 
 
 248. The Lawn. 
 
 249. Cereal Breakfast Foods. 
 
 250. The Prevention of Stinking Smut of Wheat 
 and Loose Smut of Oats. 
 
 251. Experiment Station Work—XXXIV 
 
 252. Maple Sugar and Sirup. 
 
 253. The Germination of Seed Corn. 
 
 254. Cucumbers. 
 
 (0 
 
II 
 
 255. The Home Vegetable Garden. 
 
 256. Preparation of Vegetables for the Table. 
 
 257. Soil Fertility. 
 
 258. Texas or Tick Fever and Its Prevention. 
 
 259. Experiment Station Work—XXXV. 
 
 260. Seed of Red Clover and Its Impurities. 
 
 262. Experiment Station Work—XXXVI. 
 
 263. Practical Information for Beginners in Irri¬ 
 
 gation. 
 
 264. The Brown-tail Moth and How to Control It. 
 
 266. Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture. 
 
 267. Experiment Station W r ork—XXXVII. 
 
 269. Industrial Alcohol: Uses and Statistics. 
 
 270. Modern Conveniences for the Farm Home. 
 
 271. Forage Crop Practices in Western Oregon 
 
 and Western Washington. 
 
 272. A Successful Hog and Seed-corn Farm. 
 
 273. Experiment Station Work—XXXVIII. 
 
 274. Flax Culture. 
 
 275. The Gipsy Moth and How to Control It. 
 
 276. Experiment Station Work—XXXIX. 
 
 277. Alcohol and Gasoline in Farm Engines. 
 
 278. Leguminous Crops for Green Manuring. 
 
 279. A Method of Eradicating Johnson Grass. 
 
 280. A Profitable Tenant Dairy Farm. 
 
 281. Experiment Station Work—XL. 
 
 282. Celery. 
 
 283. Spraying for Apple Diseases and the Codling 
 
 Moth in the Ozarks. 
 
 284. Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape 
 
 East of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 286. Comparative Value of Whole Cotton Seed 
 
 and Cotton-seed Meal in Fertilizing Cotton. 
 
 287. Poultry Management. 
 
 288. Nonsaccharine Sorghums. 
 
 289. Beans. 
 
 290. The Cotton Bollworm. 
 
 291. Evaporation of Apples. 
 
 292. Cost of Filling Silos. 
 
 293. Use of Fruit as Food. 
 
 294. Farm Practice in Columbia Basin Uplands. 
 
 295. Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food. 
 
 296. Experiment Station Work—XLI. 
 
 298. Food Value of Corn and Corn Products. 
 
 299. Diversified Farming Under the Plantation 
 
 System. 
 
 301. Home-grown Tea. 
 
 302. Sea Island Cotton: Its Culture, Improve¬ 
 
 ment, and Diseases. 
 
 303. Corn Harvesting Machinery. 
 
 304. Growing and Curing Hops. 
 
 305. Experiment Station Work—XLII. 
 
 306. Dodder in Relation to Farm Seeds. 
 
 307. Roselle: Its Culture and Uses. 
 
 309. Experiment Station Work—XLIII. 
 
 310. A Successful Alabama Diversification Farm. 
 
 311. Sand-clay and Burnt-clay Roads. 
 
 312. A Successful Southern Hay Farm. 
 
 313. Harvesting and Storing Corn. 
 
 314. A Method of Breeding Early Cotton to Es¬ 
 
 cape Boll-weevil Damage. 
 
 316. Experiment Station Work—XLIV. 
 
 317. Experiment Station Work—XLV. 
 
 318. Cowpeas. 
 
 319. Demonstration Work in Cooperation with 
 
 Southern Farmers. 
 
 320. Experiment Station Work—XLVI. 
 
 321. The Use of the Split-log Drag on Earth Roads. 
 
 322. Milo as a Dry-land Grain Crop. 
 
 323. Clover Farming on the Sandy Jack-pine 
 
 Lands of the North. 
 
 324. Sweet Potatoes. 
 
 325. Small Farms in the Corn Belt. 
 
 326. Building Up a Run-down Cotton Plantation. 
 
 328. Silver Fox Farming. 
 
 329. Experiment Station Work—XLVII. 
 
 330. Deer Farming in the United States. 
 
 331. Forage Crops for Hogs in Kansas and Okla¬ 
 
 homa. 
 
 332. Nuts and Their Uses as Food. 
 
 333. Cotton Wilt. 
 
 334. Experiment Station Work—XLVIII. 
 
 335. Harmful and Beneficial Mammals of the 
 
 Arid Interior. 
 
 337. Cropping Systems for New England Dairy 
 
 Farms. 
 
 338. Macadam Roads. 
 
 339. Alfalfa. 
 
 341. The Basket Willow. 
 
 342. Experiment Station Work—XLIX. 
 
 343. The Cultivation of Tobacco in Kentucky 
 
 and Tennessee. 
 
 344. The Boll Weevil Problem, with Special Refer¬ 
 
 ence to Means of Reducing Damage. 
 
 345. Some Common Disinfectants. 
 
 346. The Computation of Rations for Farm Ani¬ 
 
 mals by the Use of Energy Values. 
 
 347. The Repair of Farm Equipment. 
 
 348. Bacteria in Milk. 
 
 349. The Dairy Industry in the South. 
 
 350. The Dehorning of Cattle. 
 
 351. TheTuberculinTestofCattleforTuberculosis. 
 
 352. The Nevada Mouse Plague of 1907-8. 
 
 353. Experiment Station Work—L. 
 
 354. Onion Culture. 
 
 355. A Successful Poultry and Dairy Farm. 
 
 356. Peanuts. 
 
 357. Methods of Poultry Management at the Maine 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 358. A Primer of Forestry. Part II: Practical For¬ 
 
 estry. 
 
 359. Canning Vegetables in the Home. 
 
 360. Experiment Station Work—LI. 
 
 361. Meadow Fescue: Its Culture and Uses. 
 
 362. ConditionsAffectingtheValueofMarketHay. 
 
 363. The Use of Milk as Food. 
 
 364. A Profitable Cotton Farm. 
 
 365. Farm Management in Northern Potato¬ 
 
 growing Sections. 
 
 366. Experiment Station Work—LII. 
 
 367. Lightning and Lightning Conductors. 
 
 368. The Eradication of Bindweed, or Wild Morn¬ 
 
 ing-glory. 
 
 369. How to Destroy Rats. 
 
 370. Replanning a Farm for Profit. 
 
 371. Drainage of Irrigated Lands. 
 
 372. Soy Beans. 
 
 373. Irrigation of Alfalfa. 
 
 374. Experiment Station Work—LIII. 
 
 375. Care of Food in the Home. 
 
 377. Harmfulness of Headache Mixtures. 
 
 378. Methods of Exterminating Texas-fever Tick. 
 
 379. Hog Cholera. 
 
 380. The Loco-weed Disease. 
 
 381. Experiment Station Work—LIV. 
 
 382. The Adulteration of Forage-plant Seeds. 
 
 383. How to Destroy English Sparrows. 
 
 384. Experiment Station Work—LV. 
 
 385. Boys’ and Girls’Agricultural Clubs. 
 
 386. PotatoCultureon Irrigated Farmsof the West. 
 
 387. The Preservative Treatmentof Farm Timbers. 
 
 388. Experiment Station Work—LVI. 
 
 389. Bread and Bread Making. 
 
 390. Pheasant Raising in the United States. 
 
 391. Economical Use of Meat in the Home. 
 
 392. Irrigation of Sugar Beets. 
 
 393. Habit-forming Agents. 
 
 394. Windmills in Irrigation in Semiarid West. 
 
 395. Sixty-day and Kherson Oats. 
 
 396. The Muskrat. 
 
 397. Bees. 
 
 398. Farm Practice in the Use of Commercial Fer¬ 
 
 tilizers in the South Atlantic States. 
 
 399. Irrigation of Grain. 
 
 400. A More Profitable Corn-planting Method. 
 
 401. Protection of Orchards in Northwest from 
 
 Spring Frosts by Fires and Smudges. 
 
 402. Canada Bluegrass: Its Culture and Uses. 
 
 403. The Construction of Concrete Fence Posts. 
 
 404. Irrigation of Orchards. 
 
 405. Experiment Station Work—LVII. 
 
 406. Soil Conservation. 
 
 407. The Potato as a Truck Crop. 
 
 408. School Exercises in Plant Production. 
 
 409. School Lessons on Corn. 
 
 410. Potato Culls as a Sourceof Industrial Alcohol. 
 
 411. Feeding Hogs in the South. 
 
 412. Experiment Station Work—LVIII. 
 
 413. The Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home. 
 
 414. Corn Cultivation. 
 
 415. Seed Corn. 
 
 416. Cigar-leaf Tobacco in Pennsylvania. 
 
 417. Rice Culture. 
 
 418. Game Laws for 1910. 
 
 419. Experiment Station Work—LIX. 
 
 420. Oats: Distribution and Uses. 
 
 421. Control of Blowing Soils. 
 
 422. Demonstration Work on Southern Farms.