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^-tf ' s * *./"/%_ 
 
 THE 
 
 CATECHISM 
 
 OF 
 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 REV. T. WILSON. 
 
 LONDON : 
 DAMON AND CO. 58, HOLBORN HILL. 
 
LONDON : 
 H. VV. MARTIN, 19, Cursitor Street, Chancery Lane. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Lesson I. 
 
 Rome ] 
 
 Lesson II. 
 Rome — Continued 3 
 
 Lesson III. 
 The Goths, Vandals, and Huns 4 
 
 Lesson IV. 
 The Eastern Empire 6 
 
 Lesson V. 
 The Empire of the Saracens , y 
 
 Lesson VI. 
 The Empire of the Franks 12 
 
 Lesson VII. 
 The Normans 15 
 
 Lesson VIII. 
 The Germanic Empire 18 
 
 Lesson IX. 
 The Empire of the Turks 21 
 
 Lesson X. 
 The Crusades, or Wars of the Cross , 23 
 
 Lesson XL 
 Europe in the 13th and 14th Centuries 28 
 
 Lesson XII. 
 Decline and Fall of the Greek Empire 31 
 
IV CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Lesson XIII. 
 Spain 33 
 
 Lesson XIV. 
 Portugal 37 
 
 Lesson XV. 
 The Northern Nations of Europe in the 1 3th and 14th 
 
 Centuries 39 
 
 Lesson XVI. 
 Poland, Prussia, Denmark, and Austria 43 
 
 Lesson XVII. 
 Sardinia and Savoy > 46 
 
 Lesson XVIII. 
 Switzerland 47 
 
 Lesson XIX. 
 The Netherlands 49 
 
 Lesson XX. 
 Russia 51 
 
 Lesson XXI. 
 Persia 53 
 
 Lesson XXII. 
 China 55 
 
 Lesson XXIII. 
 Hindustan, or India 57 
 
 Lesson XXIV. 
 America 60 
 
 Lesson XXV. 
 The City of London 64 
 
 Lesson XXVI. 
 Literature of Europe 65 
 
 Lesson XXVII. 
 
 Science and Literature in Europe 68 
 
 Inventions and Improvements 72 
 
CATECHISM 
 
 OF 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 When does Modern History commence ? 
 At the fall of Rome, which took place in the 
 year 410. 
 How long had she then endured ? 
 Upwards of 1,000 years, during which she had 
 increased from a petty settlement to a vast and 
 splendid city, the capital of a vast empire ; her 
 armies were almost everywhere victorious ; her 
 senators were famous for their wisdom, and her 
 nobles for wealth ; and the city itself was one 
 of the wonders of the world. 
 Who at length conquered Rome ? * 
 
 Alaric, the king of a fierce and barbarous tribe 
 of people from the north of Europe, invaded 
 
1 CATECHISM OF 
 
 Italy, and at last penetrated to the gates of 
 Rome. The Romans, terrified at his approach, 
 sought for peace, which was granted on their 
 promising to pay an enormous ransom. 
 
 Did the Romans keep their word ? 
 No ; when the time of payment came, Honorius, 
 the Roman emperor, contemptuously refused to 
 pay the promised tribute. 
 
 What was the consequence of this refusal ? 
 The whole army of Goths, with the incensed 
 Alaric at their head, again invaded Rome, and 
 at last reduced it to such extremities, that Ho- 
 norius once more sued for peace, promising to 
 pay 5,000 lbs. of gold, and 30,000 lbs. of silver 
 as the price of peace. 
 
 Did the Goths grant this request ? 
 Yes ; they consented once more to be bribed, but 
 demanded as a securitjr for the payment of the 
 money, that several of the chief citizens should 
 give up their children as hostages. 
 
 How did the Romans now keep their faith ? 
 When Alaric demanded the stipulated sum, the 
 perfidious Honorius again refused ; once more 
 the barbarians laid siege to Rome, took it by 
 storm, plundered it, and finally burnt the greater 
 part of it to the ground. 
 
 Did no part of the city escape ? 
 Yes ; Alaric showed great moderation in his re- 
 venge. He gave orders that his soldiers should 
 be sparing of blood ; that no senator should be 
 put *to death ; that all should be spared who 
 fled into the churches for refuge ; and that the 
 public edifices should be preserved. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 3 
 
 When did Alaric's death occur ? 
 Not long after the taking of Rome, whilst he 
 was meditating the conquest of Africa. He 
 was succeeded in his kingdom by his brother 
 Ataulphus. 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 What was the state of Rome after her capture by 
 
 the Goths ? 
 She continued to linger on, but with diminished 
 power, for nearly 70 years. 
 
 Who next invaded her ? 
 She was assailed on all sides by several barbar- 
 ous tribes, and at length, in the year 455, Gen- 
 seric, the king of the Vandals, landed in the Ti- 
 ber, and took the city by storm. 
 
 How was this invasion of the Vandals worse than 
 
 that of the Goths ? 
 The city was entirely given up to the fierce 
 and licentious soldiery for 14 days and nights, 
 and they showed neither mercy or pity. Every 
 part of the city was pillaged, and neither pub- 
 lic nor private buildings escaped destruction ; 
 and great numbers of the Roman citizens were 
 carried away captives into Africa. 
 
 What great event next befel Rome ? 
 About 20 years later she was again taken by 
 Odoacer king of the Heruli. Rome was then 
 
4 CATECHISM OF 
 
 in far too weak a condition to resist, and ac- 
 cordingly Augustulus, the last of the Roman 
 emperors, went out to meet his invaders, and 
 resigned into their hands the insignia of his 
 sway. His life was spared, and he was allowed 
 to retire to the neighbourhood of Rome. Odo- 
 acer assumed the power and title of king, and 
 thus put an end to the Empire of the West, 
 in the 1229th year from the foundation of 
 Rome. 
 How long did Odoacer reign ? 
 He never assumed the purple or diadem of em- 
 peror, but was content with the simple title of 
 king, the name of no country being attached 
 to it as his dominions. After a prosperous and 
 prudent reign of 14 years, his fortunes sank 
 before the superior genius of Theodoric, the 
 king of the Ostrogoths. 
 What became of the empire of Rome under The- 
 odoric ? 
 Under his sway all traces of the imperial govern- 
 ment were swept away or entirely changed, 
 and Italy was formed into a kingdom. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 THE GOTHS, VANDALS, AND HUNS. 
 
 Who were the Goths ? 
 They were a fierce and barbarous tribe of peo- 
 ple, known at different times under the names 
 
MODEUN HISTORY. O 
 
 of Getae, Goths, and Germani, who dwelt in what 
 is now Germany, Sweden, and Norway. 
 
 After the fall of the Western Empire, where did 
 
 the Goths settle ? 
 They over-ran nearly the whole of Europe ; a 
 considerable portion of the population of every 
 country in this division of the globe, excepting 
 Russia, Poland, and Hungary, being of Gothic 
 origin and descent. 
 
 Why are Russia, Poland, and Hungary to be ex- 
 cepted ? 
 Because in them the Slavonic race predomi- 
 nates. 
 
 Who were the Vandals ? 
 They came from Silesia and Bohemia, and in 
 the beginning of the fifth century, together 
 with the Suevi and Alani, vanquished the Franks 
 and crossed the Rhine. Ultimately, after set- 
 tling in Spain, they were harassed by the Visi- 
 goths, and passed over into Africa, which be- 
 came the chief seat of their power. 
 
 Who were the Huns ? 
 A nation who inhabited a part of Sarmatia, and 
 from thence having passed over to the country 
 on the banks of the Don, drove out from it the 
 original inhabitants, the Alani, and almost des- 
 troyed them. 
 
 Did their power afterwards increase ? 
 Yes; in 411 the Huns under Attila threatened 
 the Western Empire with entire destruction, 
 and gradually made themselves masters of all 
 the northern countries from the borders of Per- 
 sia to the banks of the Rhine. 
 
 b 3 
 
O CATECHISM OF 
 
 Was the name of Goths applied to no other 
 tribes of people than the first who bore the 
 name ? 
 Yes ; the Alani, Suevi, and other mixed tribes, 
 were often called by the general name of Goths. 
 Where did the Alani, Suevi, and Vandals after- 
 wards settle ? 
 They passed the Pyrenean mountains and de- 
 solated all Spain, from whence, as we have 
 before seen, the Vandals crossed over into 
 Africa. 
 What were the two great divisions of Goths ? 
 The Ostro or East- Goths, and the Visi or West- 
 Goths ; the former chiefly from the coast of the 
 Black Sea ; and the latter from Dacia and Pan- 
 nonia. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 At the time of the fall of the Western, what was 
 the state of the Eastern Empire ? 
 It seemed like the Western, to be fast verging 
 towards its fall. 
 What new empire was about to rise ? 
 That of the Saracens ; a people who are said to 
 have assumed their name, to induce the belief 
 of their being the legitimate descendants of 
 Abraham by Sara ; whereas in reality they were 
 
modern history. 7 
 
 Ishmaelites, or descendants of Abraham by 
 Hagar. 
 
 Before this time, how had the Saracens or Arabs 
 
 lived ? 
 
 They were a Nomadic or wandering people, liv- 
 ing chiefly in independent tribes, and acknow- 
 ledging no superior but the head of their tribe. 
 Those in the interior were almost entirely shep- 
 herds, while those on the coast lived chiefly by 
 fishing and piracy. 
 
 Before the appearance of Mahomet what was their 
 
 religion ? 
 They worshipped idols ; but retained something 
 of the Jewish religion in the rite of circumci- 
 sion, frequent washings, and abstaining from 
 certain meats ? 
 
 Of what rank was Mahomet ? 
 The principal of the Arabian tribes was that of 
 Koreish ; and of this tribe Mahomet was a 
 prince, though his entire wealth consisted of 
 but one slave and five camels. He was born 
 in the year A.D. 571, 
 
 What great improvements did Mahomet bring into 
 
 the religion of the Arabs ? 
 He taught his followers to believe in one God, 
 Almighty, Eternal, Creator of all things ; to 
 pray to this God seven times a day ; to love all 
 men ; to assist the poor and needy and protect 
 the injured ; and to show kindness to inferior 
 animals. 
 
 Were there no other points in his religion worthy 
 
 of being noticed ? 
 Yes ; many others are worthy of being noticed, 
 
8 CATECHISM OF 
 
 only to be condemned. Unbridled indulgence 
 of the passions was permitted, and the highest 
 reward of the good Musselman in the future 
 state was to consist in sensual enjoyments. 
 Four wives were permitted to each of his fol- 
 lowers, and an unlimited number of concu- 
 bines. 
 Did Mahomet reject all the Old Testament reve- 
 lation ? 
 No ; many of its truths are to be found in his 
 system, blended with much that is false and 
 wicked. He taught his followers that God had 
 at sundry times sent diverse prophets on earth 
 to keep alive the knowledge of the truth ; and 
 that the most eminent of these were Abraham, 
 Moses, Jesus Christ, and Mahomet — who was 
 the last and greatest of all; thus blasphem- 
 ously making himself to be greater than the 
 Son of God. 
 In what form did he deliver his precepts to his 
 followers ? 
 In a book which he called the Koran, and which 
 he declared to have been delivered to him by 
 the Angel Gabriel. 
 Where did his preaching commence ? 
 In the city of Mecca, his birth-place ; beyond 
 the walls of which, it is probable, that his reli- 
 gion would never have spread, had he not been 
 persecuted, and at length banished. 
 Whither did he fly ? 
 To Medina, where, after he had gained some 
 friends, with the sword in one hand and the 
 Koran in the other, he exhorted his disciples to 
 
MODERN HISTORY. if 
 
 strive for empire and dominion in this world, 
 and eternal happiness in the next. 
 
 With what success did the prophet meet ? 
 In a few years all Arabia was subdued to his 
 empire and religion ; and from this country his 
 doctrines spread throughout the vast empire of 
 the east, the whole of which gradually gave way 
 before the victorious arms of the Saracens. 
 
 When did Mahomet die ? 
 He died suddenly at the age of 64, in the year 
 633, in the midst of his conquests in Syria 
 (where he had taken several towns), and was 
 buried at Medina. His flight from Mecca, 
 which took place about 13 years after the pro- 
 mulgation of his faith, is termed by the Ma- 
 hometans the Hegira, and is used by them as a 
 point to date from, like the Christian era with 
 us. The year answers to A.D. 622. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 THE EMPIRE OF THE SARACENS. 
 
 When did the empire of the Saracens become re- 
 nowned for extent and power ? 
 In the eighth century when the dominion of the 
 Visigoths in Spain was reft away from them by 
 the Saracens, who invaded and overran the 
 whole country. 
 What countries did their empire comprise when at 
 its height ? 
 
10 CATECHISM OF 
 
 Spain and Portugal in Europe ; in Africa, the 
 States of Barbary and Egypt, and almost all the 
 Southern parts of Asia ; Syria, Phenicia, and 
 Mesopotamia, which were taken from the Eas- 
 tern Empire in one campaign, and finally the 
 vast empire of Persia itself. 
 
 Under whom was the last of these conquests achiev- 
 ed ? 
 Omar, the second successor after Mahomet. 
 
 What great loss did literature sustain about this 
 
 time ? 
 The wonderful library at Alexandria, founded by 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, was destroyed by the 
 lieutenants of Omar, who affirmed that all the 
 knowledge contained in this vast collection of 
 books was either comprised in the Koran, and 
 therefore superfluous, or not comprised in it, 
 and therefore unnecessary. The library is said 
 to have consisted of more than 700,000 volumes. 
 
 Which was the first capital of this empire ? 
 
 Mecca, the birth-place of Mahomet; but the 
 power was afterwards transferred, at first to 
 Couffa, a city on the banks of the Euphrates, 
 and finally to Bagdad. 
 
 How long did the descendants of Omar continue 
 
 on the throne ? 
 A succession of 19 kaliphs (as the Saracen sove- 
 reigns were called) of his family, termed Ommi- 
 ades, reigned at Mecca and Couffa ; after which 
 began the dynasty of the Abassides, or descen- 
 dants of Mahomet by the male line. During 
 the reign of the second of these kaliphs, the 
 empire was transferred to Bagdad. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 11 
 
 When did Bagdad become most famous ? 
 In the middle of the ninth century, under the 
 celebrated kaliph, Haroun Alraschid, Bagdad 
 became most renowned as the great seat of 
 learning and science, and to it philosophers and 
 literati nocked from all parts of the East. 
 For what sciences were the Arabians remarkable ? 
 For medicine and astronomy. They had also 
 some acquaintance with mechanics, were well 
 skilled in geometry, and were most probably the 
 inventors of algebra. 
 While Bagdad thus flourished under caliph Alras- 
 chid, what rival city vied with her in learning and 
 magnificence ? 
 Cordova, in Spain ; which had been the residence 
 of Abdalrahman, the last heir of the Ommiades, 
 who when the caliphate was possessed by the 
 Abassides fled into this country, and was soon 
 after acknowledged sovereign of all the Moorish 
 possessions in the south Of Spain. 
 What remains of the power and magnificence of 
 the Moors are still visible in Spain ? 
 The Moorish structures in Spain were principally 
 erected during the eighth, ninth and tenth cen- 
 turies, and several which still remain convey to 
 us an idea of opulence and grandeur almost be- 
 yond belief. The mosque of Cordova, complet- 
 ed about the year 800, is one of the most re- 
 markable of them. 
 What caused the downfall of the empire of the 
 Saracens ? 
 The refusal of their separate states and govern- 
 ments to acknowledge one head. 
 
12 CATECHISM OF 
 
 What was the consequence of this ? 
 Egypt asserted her independence, and became the 
 residence of a sultan ; Mauritania became under 
 an absolute prince the kingdom of Morocco; 
 Syria revolted, and Tunis, Algiers, and Tripoli 
 soon followed the example, while Cordova obey- 
 ed a race of princes of the ancient family of 
 Omar. 
 
 Whom did the caliphs invite to their assistance ? 
 The Turks, who not long after seized the govern- 
 ment for themselves, left the caliphs but the 
 mere name of authority, and gradually subdued 
 the greater part of Asia. 
 
 After the Saracen empire was thus divided, did the 
 
 separate sovereigns pay any respect to the caliph 
 
 of the east ? 
 Yes ; they still acknowledged him as the succes- 
 sor of Mahomet, but not as their temporal su- 
 perior. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 THE EMPIRE OF THE FRANKS. 
 
 Who were the Franks ? 
 A tribe of Gothic origin, originally from the 
 banks of the lower Rhine, and Weser, who 
 with some other petty tribes having formed a 
 league for mutual defence against Rome, took 
 thence the name of Franks or Freemen. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 13 
 
 Who is the first sovereign of this united people 
 
 mentioned in history ? 
 Pharamond ; but of his existence even we have no 
 very credible account, and Clovis, the grandson 
 of Merovius, the kinsman and successor of Pha- 
 ramond, is generally considered to be the true 
 founder of the monarchy ; the first race of 
 French kings being called Merovingians, from 
 Merovius the head of the race. 
 
 What were the other great families of French 
 
 sovereigns ? 
 The Carlovingian, so called from Charlemagne ; 
 and the Capetine from Hugh Capet, of which 
 the houses of Valois and Bourbon were branches. 
 
 What were at this time the great divisions of the 
 
 land of France ? 
 Two ; Austrasia, the eastern division, and Neus- 
 tria the western, which the four sons of Clovis 
 divided between themselves at his death. 
 
 What is the general character of the reigns of the 
 
 Merovingian kings ? 
 
 The whole period of their reigns was almost an 
 uninterrupted scene of anarchy and confusion, 
 through the frequent rising and usurpation of 
 the chief officers of the state, the mayors of the 
 palace. 
 
 To what height did their power rise ? 
 They held the French monarchs in almost entire 
 subjection, and left them little more than the 
 title of king ; until the time of Pepin, the father 
 of Charlemagne, who deposed Childeric III, the 
 last of the Merovingian race, and fully asserted 
 that power of which his predecessors had possess- 
 ed but the name. c 
 
14 
 
 CATECHISM OF 
 
 How long did the Merovingian family reign ? 
 There were about forty princes of the family of 
 Merovius who reigned during 332 years. 
 
 Who succeeded the Merovingians ? 
 Pepin the Short, the father of Charlemagne, was 
 the first of the Carlovingians who reigned 235 
 years until the time of Hugh Capet, whose reign 
 began in 987. 
 
 Why was Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, so 
 
 called ? 
 From his great success, power, and talents. His 
 empire reached beyond the Danube ; Dalmatia 
 and Istria were subdued ; the barbarous nations 
 as far as the Vistula, conquered and rendered 
 tributary ; the greater part of Italy was van- 
 quished ; and his talents were yet more re- 
 markable in the civil and political regulation of 
 the empire than in war. 
 
 How was it that the line of Charlemagne was at 
 
 last excluded from the rightful succession of the 
 
 throne of France ? 
 On the death of Louis V, or the Idle, as he was 
 called, his uncle Charles, Duke of Brabant and 
 Hainault was the right heir to the crown ; but 
 Hugh Capet, Count of Paris, one of the most 
 ambitious and powerful of the nobles, defeated 
 the forces of his rival, and was elected sove- 
 reign by the unanimous voice of his peers, 
 A.D. 987. 
 
 How long have the family of Capet reigned ? 
 
 Upwards of 800 years, down to the present time. 
 
 The house of Valois, one of the branches of the 
 
 Capetian line succeeded in 1328, and continued 
 
 to reign until the death of Henry III, in 1589. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 15 
 
 Who succeeded him ? 
 Henry IV, of Bourbon, whose descendants occu- 
 pied the throne until the year 1793, when the 
 monarchy was abolished at the great revolution, 
 and the government became a republic, which 
 it continued to be until Napoleon Buonaparte 
 was declared emperor in 1804. 
 
 What became of Buonaparte ? 
 After a long career of success and bloodshed, 
 and being the victor in many battles, he was at 
 last overcome by the combined forces of Europe, 
 at Waterloo, near Brussels, June 18, 1815, 
 and was forced to surrender to the allied 
 powers. He died in 1821, a miserable exile in 
 the Island of St. Helena ; and the ancient line 
 of Bourbon was restored to the throne. 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 THE NORMANS. 
 
 Who were the Normans, Norsemen, or North- 
 
 men 
 
 ? 
 
 Another race of Gothic origin who inhabited 
 Scandinavia. They began to commit depreda- 
 tions on their neighbours during the reign 
 of Charlemagne, who however, was powerful 
 enough to prevent their making any conside- 
 rable encroachment on his dominion. 
 What countries did they subsequently invade ? 
 
16 CATECHISM OF 
 
 About the year 844 they made almost simultane- 
 ous attacks on France, England and Spain. Spain 
 succeeded in repelling the invaders, but in both 
 the other countries, the Norsemen were more 
 successful. During the reign of Pepin, King of 
 Aquitaine, who through fear had united his 
 forces to those of the Norsemen, France, Ger- 
 many, Flanders, and England, were successively 
 ravaged. 
 
 Who was the most distinguished of the Norsemen 
 
 chieftains ? 
 Raoul, or Rollo, who attempted to get a footing 
 in England A.D. 885, but not succeeding he 
 proceeded to France. Here his followers settled, 
 and becoming united with the Franks, produced 
 that race who were to be the future conquerors 
 of England in the 11th century. 
 
 Who was the great opponent of the Norsemen, or 
 
 Danes, as they were at first called in England ? 
 Alfred the Great, a Saxon prince, grandson of 
 Egbert, who about 400 years after the arrival of 
 the Saxons in Britain ruled over all the kingdoms 
 of the Heptarchy. Before his death, in the year 
 900, he had almost completely defeated the 
 Danes, and left his kingdom in a high state of 
 prosperity. 
 
 Why had the Saxons come to Britain ? 
 A deputation had been sent into Germany, by a 
 British king, Vortigern, begging the Saxons to 
 come over to England and assist the natives 
 against the Picts and Scots, a savage people of 
 the northern part of the island. 
 
 What was the result of this deputation ? 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 17 
 
 The Saxons came, A.D. 450 ; drove the Scots and 
 Picts back to the north, and next turned their 
 thoughts to the reduction of the Britons them- 
 selves. This they finally accomplished, and their 
 power was established under the chiefs who 
 founded the kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy. 
 What right had William, Duke of Normandy, to 
 claim the throne of England ? 
 Edward the Confessor had nominated him his 
 successor, by will, and his rival Harold had 
 taken an oath to remain his obedient subject, 
 and to support his claim. 
 When was the Norman power established in Eng- 
 land ? 
 In 1066, when Harold was defeated and slain at 
 the battle of Hastings, and the Saxons com- 
 pletely routed. 
 What was the state of central Europe during this 
 period ? 
 It was invaded and ravaged by the Huns, Hun- 
 garians, or Magyers, who extended their armies 
 into Greece and Italy. Germany was the long- 
 est exposed to their hostilities, and accordingly 
 suffered the most. 
 
18 CATECHISM OF 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 THE GERMANIC EMPIRE. 
 
 When did the empire of Germany arise ? 
 About the year 843, theWestern Empire was di- 
 vided into the three sovereignties of Germany, 
 Italy, and France ; and after the deposition of 
 Charles the Fat, the empire of Charlemagne 
 subsisted only in name. Arnold, or Arnulph, a 
 bastard son of Carloman, made himself master 
 of Germany ; and considered himself, as empe- 
 ror, to be master of France, though that coun- 
 try was possessed by Eudes and Charles the 
 Simple ; while Italy was divided between Guy, 
 Duke of Spoleto, and Berengarius of Friuli. 
 How long did this continue ? 
 About the year 962, the empire of the west was 
 completely restored and given to Otho the Great, 
 who was crowned emperor of the Romans. 
 Who was the first of the Saxon dynasty of empe- 
 rors ? 
 Henry the Fowler, who was elected emperor by 
 the states of Germany, A.D. 919. He was a 
 prince of great ability, and soon changed the 
 state of affairs for the better ; under him the 
 disorderly nobles were united ; the Hungarians 
 vanquished, and the empire freed from a most 
 disgraceful tribute imposed during the preceding 
 reign. 
 Who succeeded Henry I ? 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 19 
 
 His son Otho the Great, who united Italy to the 
 empire, and became the most celebrated charac- 
 ter of his age in Europe. He is famous for the 
 subjection in which the popedom was kept du- 
 ring the greater part of his reign. 
 
 Who was the last of the Saxon dynasty of empe- 
 rors ? 
 Henry, Duke of Bavaria, who was elected emperor 
 of the west, on the death of Otho III, from whom 
 he was descended in the female line. He died 
 1024. 
 
 By whom was the power of the emperors contested ? 
 By the popes ; between whom and the emperors 
 a constant struggle for pre-eminence continued 
 for a long period. 
 
 When did this struggle begin ? 
 In the reign of the emperor, Henry IV, whose 
 authority was much weakened by his long mi- 
 nority ; he having succeeded his father when 
 only five years old. 
 
 What circumstances favoured the policy of the 
 
 popes ? 
 Edward the Confessor had conferred the chief 
 ecclesiastical dignities of his kingdom on fo- 
 reigners, who were devoted to the interest of 
 the pope. In Spain, the new provinces wrested 
 from the Moors, became firm allies of the Roman 
 See, as the spread of Christianity tended to make 
 Norway and Sweden ; but the most powerful 
 allies, supporting papal authority, were the Nor- 
 mans who had settled in England and Italy. 
 
 When did the power of the popes reach its greatest 
 
 height ? 
 
20 CATECHISM OF 
 
 Under Hildebrand, who became pope with the 
 title of Gregory VII, A. D. 1073. His two great 
 objects were to enforce the celibacy of the clergy 
 and the right of the pope to invest bishops with 
 the pall and ring that belonged to their dignity. 
 Henry IV, then emperor, soon saw a new power 
 established, gradually becoming greater than his 
 own, and entered into an alliance with the Nor- 
 mans against their common enemy. 
 What was the end of this quarrel ? 
 
 The emperor was cited by Gregory to answer 
 before the council at Rome, on a charge of pro- 
 tecting excommunicated bishops, and granting 
 investitures ; and, having refused to obey the 
 summons, was solemnly excommunicated, and 
 finally, after suffering many indignities, forced 
 to stand barefooted and to fast for three days in 
 the depth of winter, in an outer court, and even 
 then the sentence of excommunication was only 
 suspended. 
 What was the fate of Gregory ? 
 
 Rodolph having been elected by the discontented 
 nobles of Germany, after the deposition of Henry, 
 the pope again excommunicated Henry and sent 
 to Rodolph a crown of gold. But Henry en- 
 raged at this, assembled an army, and defeated 
 and slew Rodolph, forced the Germans into sub- 
 mission, and after having been twice driven from 
 the gates of Rome, at length procured the in- 
 stallation of Clement III as pope ; while Gre- 
 gory soon after retired to Salerno, where he was 
 seized with a mortal disease, A.D. 1086. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 21 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 EMPIRE OF THE TURKS. 
 
 Who were the Turks or Tartars ? 
 The barbarous tribes inhabiting those regions 
 anciently called Scythia. 
 What was the position of their territory ? 
 It lay to the north of mount Caucasus, and ex- 
 tended eastward, to the wall of China. 
 What is the character of the Eastern or Byzantine 
 Empire, during the ninth, tenth, and eleventh cen- 
 turies ? 
 It is little better than'a scene of usurpation, fa- 
 naticism, and perfidy. Civil dissensions dis- 
 tracted the state ; demoralization pervaded all 
 ranks, and dishonour and profligacy triumphed 
 in the palace. 
 Who were its invaders during this period ? 
 The Saracens, who penetrated almost to the very 
 gates of Constantinople ; the Normans who in- 
 vaded Sicily ; and the Seljukian Turks who en- 
 tered Asia Minor. 
 Whence was the term Seljukian derived ? 
 From Seljuk, one of the most renowned of their 
 chiefs. 
 How came the Seljukian Turks to cross the river 
 Oxus ? 
 They were invited to do so by the Ghaznevid 
 sultans, and having finally settled in Khorassan, 
 they seized on Bagdad. About the year 1070 
 
22 CATECHISM OF 
 
 they were powerful enough to expel the Greeks 
 from Syria, and take possession of the greater 
 part of Asia Minor. 
 
 Where did the power of the Ottoman Turks com- 
 mence ? 
 In Asia Minor: where the Seljukian dynasty 
 soon gave way to that of Othman, who wrested 
 from the Byzantine empire Prusa, the ancient 
 capital of Bithynia (A.D. 1327), and made it 
 his own metropolis. 
 
 When was the Turkish power first established in 
 
 Europe ? 
 In 1358, when Soliman, the grandson of Ottoman, 
 crossed the Hellespont, and captured Gallipoli. 
 
 Who is generally regarded as the founder of the 
 
 Turkish empire ? 
 Othman, or Ottoman (born 1285), who led out a 
 band of Turks from Bithynia, a province of 
 Asia Minor, where they had taken refuge, 
 against the Tartars, and made considerable con- 
 quests. 
 
 Who had been before this period the great leader 
 
 of the Mogul Tartars ? 
 Zenghis Khan, who, with his immediate descen- 
 dants, overran and subdued the greater part of 
 Asia, including Russia, Tartary, China, and 
 Hindostan; and at length died, A.D. 1266. 
 
 What is the present capital of Turkey ? 
 Constantinople, the residence of the sultan. It 
 is situated near the mouth of the Bosphorus, 
 and is a fine and well built city. 
 
MODERN" HISTORY. 23 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 THE CRUSADES, OR WARS OF THE CROSS. 
 
 What were the crusades ? 
 Expeditions undertaken by the christian powers 
 of Europe to gain possession of the holy city 
 Jerusalem, and expel the Turks from the land 
 of Palestine. 
 
 Who first raised up the spirit of the crusades ? 
 Peter the Hermit, a native of Amiens, who tra- 
 velled through the greater part of Italy, France, 
 and Germany, everywhere rousing the people, 
 and preaching the duty of expelling the infidels 
 from the holy citj^. 
 
 What was the effect of his preaching ? 
 His enthusiasm spread through all ranks of 
 people ; some were moved by really religious 
 motives, others by the mere hope of acquiring 
 rich territories iD Palestine ; but all were stirred 
 with the greatest zeal — kings, princes, bishops, 
 clergy and warriors, with one accord pressed 
 forward to the work. 
 
 What pope encouraged the people to join in the 
 
 crusades ? 
 Urban II, at the Council of Clermont, where the 
 war was sanctioned, and multitudes assumed 
 the badge of the cross, to restore which to its 
 rightful position was, as the clergy said, the 
 object of their expedition. 
 
 When did the first band of crusaders set out ? 
 
24 CATECHISM OF 
 
 Soon after the Council of Clermont, 1095. They 
 numbered about 80,000, among whom were 
 many disorderly and ambitious nobles, and still 
 more than all, groups, eager both for plunder and 
 enterprise, with a mixed multitude of fanatics 
 and adventurers. Under the guidance of Peter 
 the Hermit this vast host marched through 
 Bulgaria and Hungary towards Constantinople. 
 
 How many reached their destination ? 
 Scarcely 20,000 ; their progress was marked by 
 rapine and hostility in every country through 
 which they passed ; and having at length 
 reached Constantinople, and having been trans- 
 ported in the emperor's ships across the Bos- 
 phorus, they were met in the plain of Nicea, 
 and cut to pieces by the Sultan Solyman. 
 
 But was this the only result of the preaching of 
 
 Peter the Hermit ? 
 No ; a much larger force, consisting of several 
 hundred thousands, was put under the guidance 
 of Godfrey of Bouillon, Hugh, brother of the 
 French king, and Robert, eldest son of William 
 the Norman, with other noted generals. This 
 enormous host marched by the same route, and 
 though many fell off by the way, when on the 
 plains of Nicea they amounted to upwards of 
 60,000 foot, and 100,000 horse. 
 
 With what success did they meet ? 
 The Saracens, overpowered by numbers, were 
 twice defeated ; and the crusaders, pursuing 
 their success, penetrated at length to Jerusalem, 
 which, after a siege of five weeks, they took by 
 storm, and with savage fury put to death the 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 25 
 
 whole of the inhabitants who were either Jews 
 or Mahometans, sparing neither age nor sex. In 
 the year 1099, Godfrey was proclaimed King of 
 Jerusalem, and the crusaders divided Syria and 
 Palestine into four separate states ? 
 
 What was the effect of this division ? 
 The Turks began to recover strength, and the 
 crusaders were obliged to beg for aid from their 
 christian brethren in Europe. This caused a 
 second crusade, which was undertaken in the 
 year 1146, when 200,000 French, Germans, 
 and Italians, under Hugh, brother of Philip I, 
 set out for the Holy Land, but all met with the 
 fate of the first adventurers. Meanwhile, at the 
 preaching of Bernard, 300,000 men under 
 the Guidance of Louis VII, and Conrad, Em- 
 peror of Germany, enrolled themselves under 
 the standard of the Cross, and perished misera- 
 bly — the Germans being defeated by the Sultan 
 at Iconium, and the French at Laodicea. 
 
 Who joined in the third crusade ? 
 France, England, and Germany, each furnished 
 armies, headed, by their respective sovereigns, 
 Philip, Richard the Lion Hearted, and Frederick 
 Barbarossa. But this expedition was scarcely 
 more successful than the last ; the German em- 
 peror died in Asia, and though Richard and 
 Philip met with some success, they became 
 jealous of each other's fame, and the French 
 monarch retired in disgust to France. Richard, 
 thus left single-handed to cope with the illus- 
 trious Saladin, most nobly continued the con- 
 
 n 
 
26 CATECHISM OF 
 
 test, until his army being at length reduced by 
 conquest, famine, and fatigue, he concluded an 
 honourable treaty with his rival, and after vari- 
 ous adventures reached England, where he found 
 that his brother John had usurped the crown : 
 having been treacherously assisted by the king 
 of the French. 
 What was the object of the fourth crusade ? 
 The object of this expedition, scarcely to be 
 called a crusade, was the destruction of the 
 empire of the East. It was at first successful ; 
 and under Baldwin, Count of Flanders, the ad- 
 venturers sacked and plundered Constantinople. 
 But Baldwin was made emperor only to be 
 cruelly murdered by the Greeks, who, com- 
 bining with the Turks and Bulgarians, de- 
 throned him, and cutting off his legs and arms, 
 exposed him to be devoured by wild beasts. 
 Were any other expeditions of a similar kind un- 
 dertaken ? 
 Yes, several others; for the enthusiastic spirit 
 was still as violent as ever, and still pervaded 
 all ranks. The last great crusade was un- 
 dertaken by Louis IX, King of France, A.D. 
 1248. 
 With what success did this meet ? 
 After some success in Egypt, whither he had set 
 out with his queen, his three brothers, and all 
 the chivalry of France, Louis was utterly 
 defeated, and fell into the hands of the enemy. 
 He was glad to purchase his liberty for an 
 enormous ransom, and returned to France ; but 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 27 
 
 in a second expedition against the Moors in 
 Africa, his army and himself were destroyed by 
 a pestilence in 1270. 
 
 Was England concerned in this crusade ? 
 While Louis was on the coast of Africa, Ed- 
 ward, son of Henry III, and afterwards King 
 Edward I, led an army to the Holy Land, and 
 fought bravely, but with no considerable result. 
 This expedition is sometimes called the seventh 
 crusade. With this ended those memorable 
 expeditions, in which it is computed that up- 
 wards of two millions of Europeans perished in 
 the East. 
 
 What had been the state of affairs in the East, 
 
 previous to the setting out of the last crusade ? 
 Genghiskhan, with his Tartars, had issued from 
 the countries beyond Taurus, upon Persia and 
 Syria, and massacred indiscriminately Turks, 
 Jews, and Christians, A.D. 1227. The orders 
 of Christian Knights, especially the Templars, 
 made a most desperate resistance, but the Chris- 
 tians were entirely defeated, though their fate 
 was for a time retarded by the crusade of Louis 
 IX. They retained a few places on the sea 
 coast, but their affairs were in a most wretched 
 condition, and so continued to the end. 
 
 What has been the supposed effect of these wars ? 
 The improvement of European manners ; but we 
 find no improvement in the times immediately 
 succeeding. Two centuries, scarcely less dark 
 and barbarous than the preceding, were yet to 
 come, ere the revival of letters may be said to 
 have taken place. The papal power increased; 
 
28 CATECHISM OF 
 
 the characters of many kingdoms were materially 
 changed, and the lower classes began to ac- 
 quire weight and importance. Chivalry too, 
 with its accompanying benefits and evils, was 
 much advanced by these wars. 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 
 EUROPE IN THE 13th AND 14th CENTURIES. 
 
 How was Germany governed in the beginning of 
 
 the 13th century? 
 By Frederick II, who paid homage to the Pope 
 for Naples and Sicily, afterwards possessed by 
 his brother Manfred, who usurped the crown, 
 which rightly belonged to his nephew Conra- 
 den. The pope, jealous of the growing power 
 of the emperor, gave the investiture of Naples 
 and Sicily to Charles of Anjou, who overcame 
 and slew his rivals. The Sicilians, to revenge 
 this act of the cruel usurper, murdered in one 
 night every Frenchman in the island. This 
 horrible massacre, which is termed the massa- 
 cre of the Sicilian vespers, happened on Easter 
 Sunday, 1282. 
 
 When may the house of Austria be said to date 
 
 its rise ? 
 From the year 1274, when Rodolphus of Haps- 
 bourg, a Swiss baron, was elected Emperor of 
 Germany. The electoral princes, jealous of 
 
MODERN HISTORY. '29 
 
 each other, could not make an unanimous choice 
 of one of their own number, and accordingly 
 selected Rodolph, who had formerly been stew- 
 ard of the household to the King of Bohemia. 
 Having been once his superior lord, the king 
 could ill bear to pay the usual homage for his 
 Germanic territory, and upon his refusal to do 
 so, was dethroned by the Emperor of Austria, 
 and the kingdom has ever since remained a part 
 of the empire. 
 
 Did the emperor's authority extend into Italy ? 
 No ; throughout Germany it was firmly esta- 
 blished, but the three Italian states of Venice, 
 Genoa, and Pisa, were independent, opulent, 
 and flourishing ; while most of the European 
 kingdoms, except England, were exhausted, 
 feeble, and disorderly. During the reign of 
 Henry III, the authority of parliament was 
 strengthened by the establishment of the House 
 of Commons, while, not long after, the example 
 of the English was followed in France, where 
 Philip IV, 1308, summoned the Third Estate, 
 or Commons, to the national assembly, which 
 had previously consisted of the nobles and 
 clergy. 
 
 What was the revolution of Switzerland in the 
 
 beginning of the 14th century ? 
 Three of the Swiss cantons having combined 
 against Austria, a small band of 400 or 500 
 defeated an immense host of Austrians in one 
 of the mountain passes ; and the struggle ended 
 in the Swiss, after 60 pitched battles, securing 
 for themselves their dear bought liberty. Each 
 
 d 3 
 
30 CATECHISM OF 
 
 of the 13 cantons then became independent, 
 and all were united by a solemn treaty to suc- 
 cour each other in time of need. 
 
 Did the contest between the secular and papal 
 
 power still continue ? 
 Yes ; it continued unabated, though the power 
 of the pope received several severe checks ; the 
 Emperor of Germany refused to acknowledge 
 the supremacy of the pope ; a solemn council 
 declared him independent of the See of Rome, 
 and the Universities of Oxford and Paris cen- 
 sured and condemned the increasing power of 
 the popedom. 
 
 Why was the Council of Constance called in 
 
 1414 ? 
 It was called by the Emperor Sigismund, who 
 judged this a favourable opportunity for decid- 
 ing all differences between the factions of the 
 French and Italian cardinals, who had elected 
 three different popes. In this council the three 
 pontiffs were degraded, and a fourth elected. 
 
 "What other business was transacted at this 
 
 council ? 
 John Huss, the undaunted disciple of Wickliffe, 
 was tried for heresy in denying the hierarchy, 
 and satirizing the immoralities of the popes and 
 bishops, and condemned to be burnt. Such also 
 was the fate of his friend, Jerome of Prague, 
 who, as it is said, displayed at his execution the 
 eloquence of an apostle, and the constancy of a 
 martyr, 1416. 
 
 What two great errors did Wickliffe in England 
 
 principally attack ? 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 31 
 
 The doctrine of trans instantiation, and the su- 
 premacy of the pope. 
 What discoveries were made about this time ? 
 Those of gunpowder and printing. Gunpowder 
 by Swartz, a German monk ; and printing by 
 Guttenberg, in Germany, 1439, whence it was 
 introduced into England by Caxton, the first 
 English printer. 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 DECLINE AND FALL OF THE GREEK EMPIRE. 
 
 When was the Greek empire first invaded by the 
 
 Turks ? 
 About the middle of the 14th century the Turks 
 crossed over into Europe, and took Adrianople, 
 and the emperor concluded a most humiliating 
 treaty with them. 
 
 What was the result of the Turkish invasion ? 
 Tamerlane, the prince of the Usbek Tartars, was 
 invited by the Asiatics to protect them against 
 the Ottoman power, and having summoned the 
 Turk to renounce his conquests, received for 
 answer a proud defiance. Not long after, near 
 Angoria, in Phrygia, the Turks were completely 
 defeated, and Bajazet, their sovereign, made 
 prisoner by Tamerlane. 
 
 Where did the conqueror fix his empire ? 
 He made Samarcand his capital, and received 
 there the homage of all the eastern princes. The 
 city became for a time renowned for learning 
 
32 CATECHISM OF 
 
 and polite literature, but gradually relapsed into 
 its ancient barbarism. 
 On the death of Tamerlane, what became of the 
 Turkish power ? 
 The Turks again meditated the destruction of 
 Constantinople, and were only prevented from 
 attacking it by the invasion of their own empire 
 by John Scanderberg, Prince of Albania, who 
 with great talent and military skill maintained 
 his independence against the whole of the Turk- 
 ish forces. 
 When was the Eastern Empire finally over- 
 thrown ? 
 In the year 1453, the Turks assailed Con- 
 stantinople both by sea and land, took it by 
 storm, and massacred such of the inhabitants 
 as opposed them. 
 What followed the storming of Constantinople ? 
 The conquest of Greece and Epirus ; and the 
 power of Venice, which effectually opposed that 
 of Greece, alone prevented a like fate from 
 overtaking Italy. The resources of Venice by 
 sea were at this time almost unrivalled. 
 Which was now the most important rival of Ve- 
 nice ? 
 Genoa, also a port on the Mediterranean, and an 
 independent republic, governed by a doge (or 
 duke) and senate of twelve. 
 What is the present government of the Turks ? 
 An absolute monarchy ; the power of the sultan 
 being subject to no control but the precepts of 
 the Koran, which it would be held impious to 
 transgress. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 33 
 
 Who is the sultan's chief officer of state ? 
 The Grand Vizier, who, with six subordinate 
 viziers, constitutes a supreme tribunal, the 
 power of which is absolute throughout the em- 
 pire, except in cases where the culprit is a Ba- 
 shaw or a Janizary. All dignities are depend- 
 ent solely on the sultan's pleasure. 
 
 Whence do the revenues of the Grand Seignior 
 
 arise ? 
 Here also the despotic nature of the government 
 is plainly apparent ; for the revenues arise from 
 direct taxes and customs on the subjects, an- 
 nual tributes from the Tartars, and the confis- 
 cations of estates, from the highest to the 
 lowest subjects in the empire. No project on 
 which the sultan may determine is deemed too 
 arbitrary or too expensive to be for a moment 
 rejected by his subjects. His word is the final 
 dictum of the law. 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 How was Spain originally peopled ? 
 The earliest colonists of Spain were Carthagini- 
 ans from Tyre, the first among the eastern na- 
 tions that engaged in traffic by sea. 
 
 What was the nature of the earliest revolutions 
 
 since the christian era ? 
 
34 CATECHISM OF 
 
 In the 5th century great part of the country was 
 overrun by the Vandals, who in their turn gave 
 way to the Visigoths, The kingdom of the 
 Visigoths was in the 8th century subverted by 
 the Moors, whose power continued in Spain 
 until the close of the 9th, when the christian 
 kingdoms of Navarre and Leon were founded. 
 Was Spain ever under the dominion of Rome ? 
 Yes; from about 200, B.C., to the invasion of 
 the Vandals. 
 What was the last stronghold of the Moorish 
 power in Spain ? 
 Granada, which was captured by Ferdinand, 
 King of Arragon, in 1492, when he not only 
 captured their city, but finally expelled them 
 from Spain. 
 What were the kingdoms of Spain in the 13th 
 century ? 
 Leon and Castile, Navarre, Arragon, Portugal, 
 and Moorish Spain, all of which were subdued 
 but Granada. 
 When was a change made in their divisions ? 
 Towards the end of the 15th century, when Fer- 
 dinand of Arragon, by his marriage with Isabella, 
 Queen of Castile, united the whole into one 
 kingdom, and not long after entirely subdued the 
 Moorish power in Spain ; while, at the begin- 
 ning of the 1 6th century, Portugal, which had 
 hitherto been a Spanish province, became an in- 
 dependent kingdom. 
 What maritime discoveries were made during the 
 15th century? 
 The Cape of Good Hope was discovered by Vasco 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 35 
 
 de Gama, and not long after, India was reached 
 by the same intrepid voyager. 
 
 Who was De Gama, and what other discoveries 
 
 were made about this time ? 
 De Gama was a Portuguese ; but Columbus, a 
 Genoese, was sent out by Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bella, and first discovered the West Indies, and 
 within a few years the continent of America. 
 During the 16th century Mexico and Peru were 
 invaded and conquered by the Spainards, and a 
 westward passage to the East Indies achieved 
 by Ferdinand Magalhaens, a Portugese, 1519 ; 
 who also discovered the islands since called the 
 Ladrones and Philippines. 
 
 In whose age were the discoveries of Mexico and 
 
 Peru made ? 
 In the age of Charles V, who succeeded Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella on the throne of Spain. He 
 also became Emperor of Germany on the death 
 of his grandfather, Maximilian, A.D., 1519. 
 Charles was also grandson to Ferdinand and 
 Isabella, by Johanna, their daughter. 
 
 What was the character of Charles V ? 
 He was both a warlike and a wise prince, and 
 during his reign Spain equalled on power and 
 greatness any of the European states. Under 
 him Spain possessed territories in Italy, in 
 Africa, America, and the Netherlands. The 
 latter rebelled against the cruel bigotry of his 
 son and successor, Philip I, and in 1581 as- 
 serted their independence. 
 
 Did the power of Spain continue in other respects 
 
 unabated long after this ? 
 
36 CATECHISM OF 
 
 No ; from the death of Philip II, Spain gradual- 
 ly declined ; while under Philip III she was 
 compelled to make peace with the Dutch, and 
 restore some confiscated estates to the House 
 of Nassau. 
 
 What was the state of Spain under Philip IV ? 
 Its disorders and losses increased ; for not only 
 did the Dutch seize on Brazil, while the French 
 invaded Artois ; but Portugal, hitherto a pro- 
 vince of Spain, now declared her independence 
 and became a separate kingdom, after having 
 been for 60 years subject to Spain, A.D. 1640. 
 
 Of what house w T as Charles V and his immediate 
 
 successors ? 
 Of the house of Austria, which, after Charles II, 
 was succeeded by the house of Anjou, in whose 
 favour, after many years of bloodshed and strife, 
 the contest terminated. The first sovereign of 
 the new line was Philip, Duke of Anjou, 1713. 
 
 Was England concerned in this contest ? 
 Yes ; and by the treaty of Utrecht, signed in 
 1713, she gained from Spain possession of Mi- 
 norca. 
 
 What is the general character of the Spaniards ? 
 They are a haughty and indolent people, al- 
 though not wanting in generosity or feelings of 
 honour. Their religion is Roman Catholic. 
 They are zealous disciples of Rome, and are 
 bigoted, and generally ignorant. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 37 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 How is Portugal connected with Spain ? 
 It forms the western part of the same peninsula, 
 and, as we have seen, was for many years a 
 Spanish province. 
 
 For what were the Portuguese famous in the 15th 
 
 century ? 
 They were famous as the earliest maritime dis- 
 coverers ; and in the year 1420, the Portuguese, 
 after having explored a part of the African 
 coast, before this time unvisited, discovered 
 Madeira, where they founded a colony, and 
 planted the vine and sugar cane. 
 
 What followed this discovery ? 
 A bull was obtained from the pope, granting to 
 the Portuguese all future discoveries between 
 Cape Horn and India ; and among these were 
 the Verde Islands, and the Cape of Good Hope, 
 from whence De Gama sailed on, and arrived at 
 length on the coast of Malabar, where subse- 
 quently the city of Goa was taken by storm, 
 and became the residence of a Portuguese vice- 
 roy. 
 
 What was the computed income of the Portuguese 
 
 from the Spice Islands only, and what arose from 
 
 that branch of trade ? 
 200,000 ducats. The Venetians, ever jealous of 
 any rising maritime and commercial power, 
 
 E 
 
38 CATECHISM OF 
 
 offered to be the sole purchasers of these spices, 
 but were refused ; and the wealth consequent- 
 ly flowed into the seaports of France ; and 
 Lyons, Tours, Abbeville, Marseilles, and Bour- 
 deaux, became immensely enriched. 
 
 When did the great revolution in Portugal take 
 
 place ? 
 The revolution in Portugal (anciently Lusitania), 
 was effected in the year 1640, when the Duke 
 of Braganza, of the ancient royal family com- 
 manded the troops. He was urged on in his 
 ambitious views by his wife, and finding the 
 nation favourable to his views, was proclaimed 
 king at Lisbon. No great change in govern- 
 ment was ever so speedily and easily effected ; 
 the guards of Spain were defeated, and the par- 
 tisans of the old government put to the sword. 
 Not long after, the example of the capital was 
 followed by most of the principal towns through- 
 out the empire. 
 
 Did Spain again attempt to establish her power 
 
 in Portugal ? 
 Yes ; she has done so several times since, but 
 failed. In the year 1688 the Portuguese were 
 declared a free and independent people by the 
 treaty of Lisbon. 
 
 How was Portugal then governed ? 
 By an absolute monarchy. The consent of the 
 Cortes, or National Parliament, consisting of 
 clergy, nobility, and commons, was formerly 
 necessary before taxes could be imposed or the 
 royal succession settled ; but their meetings 
 are now entirely discontinued, and the king, 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 39 
 
 with a council of state, transacted all ordinary 
 business. 
 When did the Portuguese government again be- 
 come constitutional ? 
 Don Pedro, on the death of the king his father, 
 John VI, resigned the crown to his daugh- 
 ter, Maria II, and the new constitution was 
 sworn to by the nation and by Don Miguel. 
 After Pedro's return to Brazil, which had been 
 previously ceded to him, and now ranked as an 
 independent state, his brother Don Miguel, 
 though he had sworn to maintain the consti- 
 tution of Portugal, usurped the throne and over- 
 threw the constitution. Hence sprung the long 
 series of civil wars, which nearly to the present 
 time have rendered Portugal a scene of blood- 
 shed, but have ended in establishing the queen 
 upon the throne. 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 
 THE NORTHERN NATIONS OF EUROPE IN THE 
 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES. 
 
 What was the state of these nations during this 
 period ? 
 Their history presents to us but little more than 
 scenes of sanguinary conflict and rude barbar- 
 ism. 
 
40 CATECHISM OF 
 
 How were the dominions of Denmark and Sweden 
 considerably increased ? 
 By the expeditions undertaken against the Scla- 
 vonians and other barbarous nations, which, 
 while they increased the territory of these king- 
 doms, gave them also a higher rank among the 
 states of Europe. 
 What was the condition of Prussia about the mid- 
 dle of the 13th century ? 
 It was invaded by the Knights of the Teutonic 
 order, and finally subdued in 1283 ; while Hun- 
 gary, after having suffered no less from the 
 invasion of the Mongolian hords, at length be- 
 gan somewhat to recover her lost rank and pos- 
 sessions. 
 What conquests had these Moguls achieved ? 
 They had invaded and almost entirely subdued 
 the greater part of Asia, and many of the 
 north-eastern nations of Europe ; but about 
 the middle of this century their empire was 
 destroyed. 
 What event happened towards the end of this 
 century affecting the northern nations ? 
 Sweden, Norway, and Denmark were united 
 into one state by Margaret, who has been called 
 the Semiramis of the north, under the treaty of 
 Calmar, which was signed in A.D. 1397. 
 When was this union dissolved ? 
 In the 15th century, when the Swedes becoming 
 irritated by the severity exercised on them, and 
 the favour shown to their Danish fellow sub- 
 jects by the successors of Margaret, sepa- 
 rated from the union, and chose a sovereign of 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 41 
 
 their own. Their choice fell upon Charles 
 VIII, one of their native nobles ; and during 
 the remainder of this century the Swedes strug- 
 gled manfully and continually for their inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 But what occurred to the kingdom of Denmark ? 
 In 1450, Christian I, of Oldenberg, was made 
 King of Denmark, and in his family the royal 
 succession has continued to the present time. 
 
 When did the principles of the Reformation first 
 
 reach Denmark ? 
 Frederic I, successor of the tyrant Christian II, 
 invited the Lutherans to preach in his kingdom. 
 What Frederic thus began, Christian III com- 
 pleted; and in the year 1536, the Romish 
 worship was suppressed, The change was not 
 long in reaching Norway, which shortly after 
 lost its independence, and became subject to 
 Denmark. 
 
 Of what countries does the kingdom of Sweden 
 
 now consist ? 
 Sweden, Norway, and part of Lapland. 
 
 When was the independence of Sweden esta- 
 blished ? 
 By Gustavus Vasa, who, to revenge the massacre 
 of the Swedish nobles, barbarously committed 
 by Christian II, urged the brave peasants of 
 Dalecarlea to rebellion, and being at length 
 victorious, established his country's indepen- 
 dence, and was crowned king, 1523. Among 
 the slaughtered nobles was the father of the 
 Swedish hero, who, with upwards of 90 other 
 
 e 3 
 
42 CATECHISM OF 
 
 nobles and senators, had been the victims of 
 the tyrant's perfidy. 
 What other celebrated monarch has Sweden pro- 
 duced in more modern times ? 
 Charles XII, whose extraordinary achievements 
 and wondrous heroism have placed him in the 
 highest rank among the conquerors of past 
 ages. He was a monarch at 15, and after be- 
 ing crowned in 1697, and passing the greater 
 part of his glorious reign in military operations, 
 died nobly at the siege of Frederickshall, in the 
 year 1718, after a reign of 21 years. 
 What was his first campaign ? 
 Poland, Russia, and Denmark having joined in 
 an invasion of his kingdom, the young monarch 
 . first marched to Copenhagen ; and not only 
 forced the Dane to lay down his arms, but to 
 make full indemnity to the Duke of Holstein, 
 whose dominion he had attacked, while Poland 
 advanced upon Livonia. He next turned his 
 arms against Russia, and in one battle (at 
 Narva, A.D. 1700), with a force not equal to 
 one-fourth of his adversary's, defeated 50,000 
 Russians, slaying 30,000, and taking the re- 
 mainder prisoners. 
 Did Charles take vengeance also on the Poles ? 
 Yes ; he penetrated into their country, subdued 
 both the capitals Warsaw and Cracow, deposed 
 Augustus their king, and placed on the throne 
 his own dependent Stanislaus. 
 What great reverse did he meet with ? 
 The defeat at Pultown, when 9,000 Swedes 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 43 
 
 fell in the field, and 14,000 were taken pri- 
 soners. 
 
 What ensued on this memorable battle ? 
 With the wreck of his army he succeeded in 
 reaching Turkey, and making an alliance with 
 the Grand Seignior. But though his enemies, 
 the Russians, were defeated by the combined 
 forces, Charles XII at length quarrelled with 
 the Turk, and was driven from that country. 
 He finally returned in disguise to his own coun- 
 try, and having conceived the design of wrest- 
 ing Norway from Denmark, was shot at the 
 siege of Frederickshall, 1718. 
 
 Who was a recent famous king of Sweden ? 
 Charles John Bernadotte, to whom Sweden was 
 ceded by the Russians, Prussians, and Austri- 
 ans, A.D. 1814, at which time also Norway was 
 once more taken from the dominion of Den- 
 mark, and attached to Sweden. 
 
 LESSON XVI. 
 
 POLAND, PRUSSIA, DENMARK, AND AUSTRIA. 
 
 When did Poland become a kingdom ? 
 In the year 942. When the Teutonic Knights in 
 the 14th century were masters of the Prussian 
 dominions, Poland also suffered from their op- 
 pression. But the Poles were at length roused 
 
44 CATECHISM OF 
 
 to insurrection, and not only regained their for- 
 mer possessions, but added to them several 
 Prussian provinces. 
 What revolution took plaee in their form of go- 
 vernment during this century ? 
 It became an elective monarchy, and subsequently 
 the only one of that kind in Europe. Its ex- 
 istence as a kingdom ceased at the end of the 
 18th century, when the Polish hero, Kosciusko, 
 bravely endeavoured to rescue his country from 
 her oppressors. But brave and undaunted as 
 were his struggles for freedom, they were fruit- 
 less ; the combined power and treachery of 
 Russia and Prussia at length overcame him, 
 and Poland became the prey of Russia, Austria, 
 and Prussia, A.D. 1772. 
 When did Prussia become a kingdom ? 
 In the year 1700, when Frederick the Great was 
 crowned her first king. Her form of govern- 
 ment is that of an absolute monarchy, founded 
 on a military basis. Her revenues are small, 
 but still equal to the expenses of the state, as 
 she has neither a navy or colonies to support. 
 Prussia has since that time gradually increased 
 in power during the last century, although she 
 suffered much during her war with France. 
 Of what does the kingdom of Denmark consist ? 
 The peninsula of Jutland forms the greater di- 
 vision of the kingdom ; the remainder of which 
 consists of the islands, Zealand, Fanen, and 
 some other smaller ones at the mouth of the 
 Baltic Sea. Holstein and Sleswick also, 
 duchies of Lower Germany, belong to Den- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 45 
 
 mark ; and her capital city, Copenhagen, is 
 situated on the island of Zealand. 
 
 Of what form is her government ? 
 The government, formerly elective, in 1660 be- 
 came absolute and hereditary ; the people vo- 
 luntarily resigning their liberties into the hands 
 of the sovereign. 
 
 What is the situation of Austria ? 
 It is one of the central countries of Europe ; 
 bounded on the north by Bohemia and Mora- 
 via, on the east by Hungary, and divided into 
 Upper and Lower Austria by the river Ems. 
 
 But is this what is termed the Austrian empire ? 
 No ; it is only Austria proper ; the empire, in- 
 cluding Bohemia, Moravia, part of Silesia, 
 Hungary, Sclavonia, Transylvania, Bosnia, and 
 part of Servia, with many other towns and dis- 
 tricts. Austria exceeds all the other provinces 
 of Germany in fertility of soil, salubrity of air, 
 and beauty of country. 
 
 When was Austria erected into an archduchy ? 
 It was erected into a marquisate by Otho I, and 
 into a duchy by the Emperor Frederick Barba- 
 rosa ; but the Emperor Rodolph, of Hapsburgh, 
 seized Austria from Othogar, King of Bohemia, 
 and it then became an archduchy. Since then 
 the kingdom has gradually increased in extent 
 and power, and but little trace remains of the 
 humble Counts of Hapsburgh. In the year 
 1740, however, the Styrian imperial family be- 
 came extinct, and was succeeded by that of 
 Lorraine, to which the present emperor be- 
 longs. 
 
46 CATECHISM OF 
 
 Who succeeded Rodolph of Hapsburgh ? 
 Albert, whose tyranny and injustice formed a 
 strong contrast to the equity and moderation 
 of his predecessor, and eventually caused the 
 revolution of Switzerland, of which some can- 
 tons had formed part of the hereditary domi- 
 nions of the house of Hapsburgh. 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 
 SARDINIA AND SAVOY. 
 
 When was Sardinia invaded ? 
 It was invaded and conquered by the Spaniards 
 in 1303, in whose possession it remained until 
 1708, when it was taken by an English fleet, 
 and given to the Duke of Savoy with the title 
 of king. 
 
 Who was the first king ? 
 Victor, who abdicated the throne in favour of his 
 son, 1730. It then, not long after, became an- 
 nexed to Italy, and Buonaparte was crowned 
 king of the whole, 1805. At the downfall of 
 Napoleon, however, in 1814, it was again re- 
 stored to the rightful sovereign, Victor Ema- 
 nuel, with the addition of Genoa. 
 
 Of what ancient country did Savoy form a part ? 
 Of Gallia Narbonensis. It shared the general 
 fortune of Switzerland until the year 1040, 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 47 
 
 when Conrad, Emperor of Germany, gave it to 
 Herbert, with the the title of earl. In the year 
 1417, it was erected into a duchy by the empe- 
 ror at the request of the Earl of Savoy. 
 How is it connected with Sicily ? 
 In 1713 the last duke, having taken Sicily by 
 the assistance of England, was made King of 
 Sicily, which, at the peace of Utretcht, he 
 changed for Sardinia, 1718. The dukedom is 
 now possessed by the King of Sardinia ; for 
 though a great part of the country was added 
 to France in 1796, seized by the French, 1798, 
 they were ultimately repulsed, and it was re- 
 stored to Sardinia, 1816. 
 
 LESSON XVIII, 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 When did the great revolution of Switzerland 
 
 take place ? 
 In the year 1315, when the Swiss, anciently the 
 Helvetii, always a brave and resolutely inde- 
 pendent people, revolted against the oppression 
 of Austria. Three of the cantons, namely, 
 Schwitz, Ury, and Underwalden, then united 
 their forces, and with a small army of 400 or 
 500 men defeated an immense host of Austrians 
 in one of the mountain passes. This brave and 
 
48 CATECHISM OF 
 
 undaunted spirit soon spread through the rest 
 of the country, and after upwards of sixty pitch- 
 ed battles, won and secured the dear bought 
 liberty of the Swiss. 
 
 What is the constitution of Switzerland ? 
 The thirteen cantons were united by treaty for 
 common defence, that in case of foreign hostili- 
 ties each was to furnish succour in proportion 
 to its extent and power ; while with respect to 
 internal policy each was to be independent. 
 The governing diet is composed of members 
 sent from each of the cantons, the president of 
 which is styled Landamman of Switzerland. 
 
 Was this independence ever lost ? 
 Yes, for a time the Swiss were subject to France, 
 but in the year 1803 a second constitution was 
 offered to them by Napoleon, which was ac- 
 cepted. This divided the country into 19 can- 
 tons, and fixed the government of the country 
 in a diet, composed, as before, of a member from 
 each canton. 
 
 How did the Swiss endeavour to keep alive the 
 
 military spirit of the nation ? 
 By employing their troops in time of peace in 
 foreign service for hire. These troops have 
 ever been distinguished in foreign service for 
 the same qualities which render them remarka- 
 ble at home, — their constant fidelity and un- 
 daunted and persevering bravery. These noble 
 qualities, together with the economy and in- 
 dustry of the Swiss, have enabled them to at- 
 tain, considering the size of the country, a high 
 rank among the nations of Europe. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 49 
 
 LESSON XIX. 
 
 THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 What is the character of the Nether (or Lower) 
 Lands ? 
 Generally speaking, one unbroken flat, not va- 
 ried by the least hill or rock. Some of the 
 provinces are even below the level of the sea, 
 from which they are protected by immense dikes, 
 and partly by sand hills cast up by the ocean 
 itself. 
 Of what does the kingdom of Holland or the Ne- 
 therlands now consist ? 
 It now comprises the territory of the ancient re- 
 public of the seven united provinces, as well as 
 some portion of the province of Limburg. 
 Who were the ancient inhabitants of the Nether- 
 lands ? 
 The Batavi, whom Caesar, in his German inva- 
 sion, found dwelling on the banks of the Rhine. 
 Batavia and Friesland were in 843 incorporated 
 with the then newly created kingdom of Ger- 
 many, under governors, who afterwards became 
 independent; and from about A.D. 1000 until 
 the end of the 11th century, the country was 
 divided into duchies, counties, and imperial 
 cities. 
 Among these who were the chief ? 
 The Counts of Flanders, whose power gave way 
 to that of the house of Burgundy. After the 
 
 F 
 
50 CATECHISM OF 
 
 death of Charles the Bold, the last duke of Bur- 
 gundy, the Netherlands passed under the domi- 
 nion of Austria; and subsequently, in 1548, 
 under that of Spain, when Charles V, by 
 pragmatic sanction, united with Spain the 17 
 united provinces. 
 
 How long did the Netherlands continue under the 
 
 dominion of Spain ? 
 Until the tyrannical persecution of their sove- 
 reign drove the Hollanders into open rebellion, 
 and caused them to renounce their allegiance 
 to Philip III, and to form for themselves the 
 celebrated republic afterwards called Holland. 
 This consisted of seven provinces ; and in 1648 
 their independence was fully acknowledged by 
 the other European powers. 
 
 What was the state of these provinces during the 
 
 remainder of this century ? 
 Not peaceful ; for they were engaged in war with 
 England and France, and at the beginning of the 
 next century in the war of the Spanish succes- 
 sion. Throughout the 18th century there was a 
 continual struggle for power between the house 
 of Orange and a republican party, which ter- 
 minated for awhile in 1747, when William IV 
 was made stadtholder of all the seven pro- 
 vinces. But this again broke out in 1786, and 
 in 1794, when the republican power rose by 
 the aid of the French, and the stadtholder was 
 obliged to flee to England, the provinces took 
 the name of the Batavian republic, and the re- 
 maining part of the Netherlands was called the 
 Belgic republic. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 51 
 
 Into whose power did the kingdom then fall ? 
 Into that of France, in whose hands it continued 
 until 1813, when the people, encouraged by the 
 disasters of the French, expelled them, and re- 
 called their lawful sovereign. 
 
 When were Holland and Flanders again united ? 
 In 1815, when the seven northern, and the ten 
 southern provinces, after being separated for 
 200 years, w 7 ere again united under the title of 
 the Kingdom of the Netherlands. This union, 
 however, lasted but until the year 1830, when 
 the Belgians, growing dissatisfied, revolted, and 
 claimed their independence of the Dutch This 
 independence was acknowledged in 1830, and 
 Leopold, Prince of Saxe Coburg, was appointed 
 their king. 
 
 LESSON XX. 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 How was Russia anciently peopled ? 
 Probably by wandering tribes of Scythian origin. 
 They did not become at all renowned in his- 
 tory until the year 900, about which time they 
 invaded the city of Constantinople. Both the 
 attacks which they made were frustrated ; the 
 one by a tempest, and the second by the opera- 
 tion of Greek fire, with which the enemy de- 
 stroyed the Russian fleet. 
 
52 CATECHISM OF 
 
 Under what foreign dominions did Russia succes- 
 sively fall ? 
 About the middle of the 11th century the Poles 
 invaded and conquered the greater part of Rus- 
 sia ; but it is uncertain how long they retained 
 their dominion. A tribe of Tartars next in- 
 vaded and conquered it, A.D. 1200, and to 
 them it remained subject until about 1540, 
 when John Basilowitz restored its independence. 
 
 What was its state at this time as to civilization ? 
 
 Up to this period Russia still continued in a 
 
 state of rude barbarism, almost unequalled in 
 
 Europe, and it had made but little advancement 
 
 up to the commencement of the 1 8th century. 
 
 What great event in the history of Russia then 
 
 took place ? 
 Russia became an empire, and Peter the Great 
 first assumed the title of emperor or czar of all 
 the Russias, which was recognized by all the 
 powers of Europe. 
 
 Why was he called the Great ? 
 From his wise and prudent policy in governing 
 his country, and the great efforts he made to 
 introduce into it a knowledge of the modern 
 improvements in the arts, and the cultivation 
 of science. That he might himself become ac- 
 quainted with engineering and ship building, he 
 travelled through Holland and England, and la- 
 boured as a common workman in the dockyard 
 at Deptford. 
 
 What was the effect of Peter the Great's labours ? 
 
 In 36 years he raised his country from a state of 
 
 semi- barbarism to a high degree of military 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 53 
 
 power and political importance. But even in 
 the midst of this, much that was barbarous and 
 savage in habits and customs still remained, and 
 still does remain in the Russian empire. 
 
 By whom was Peter the Great succeeded ? 
 He died 1725, aged 53, and was succeeded by 
 Catherine, whom he had raised from the hum- 
 ble cottage of a Livonian peasant to be his 
 wife, and at his death commanded to be made 
 empress. 
 
 What has occurred since the reign of Catherine ? 
 But little worthy of notice, except the intolerable 
 and despotic cruelty of the Russian despots to 
 the unfortunate nation of Poles, whom they de- 
 prived of country, and almost entirely of exist- 
 ence as a nation ; and the memorable defeat of 
 the vast French army under Buonaparte. 
 
 Who is the present emperor ? 
 Nicholas, great-grandson of Peter the Great, and 
 brother of the late Emperor Alexander. 
 
 LESSON XXI. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 What great historical event happened to Persia in 
 
 the 15th century ? 
 
 It underwent a sudden religious revolution. The 
 
 followers of Mahomet had, up to this period, 
 
 held that his kinsman Omar had been the pro- 
 
 f3 
 
54 CATECHISM OF 
 
 phet's successor ; but a new sect now sprung up, 
 asserting that Ali, another of his kinsmen, was 
 his successor. Ali'was the son-in-law of Ma- 
 homet, and at the head of the sect which as- 
 serted his claim was Ismael his descendant. 
 Ismael enforced his opinions by the sword, and 
 eventually subdued all Persia and Armenia as 
 the empire of his descendants. 
 
 Which king among these is worthy of notice ? 
 Shah Abbas, the great-grandson of Ismael. His 
 sway was despotic, but most skilful ; and un- 
 der him Persia reached the height of her 
 prosperity. In the reign of his son and suc- 
 cessor, the Great Mogul seized on Candahar, 
 and the Turks, their old enemies, on Bagdat, 
 1633. 
 
 How long did his dynasty remain on the throne ? 
 Until the beginning of the 18th century, when 
 a second revolution terminated the dynasty of 
 the Sophis, and the regal power passed into the 
 hands of the Affghan Tartars. 
 
 To whom did they in turn give way ? 
 To Kouli Khan, who gained the mastery of the 
 Affghans, and restored the rightful line to the 
 crown. This, however, was but for a time. 
 Kouli Khan at length seized the government 
 for himself, with the title of Nadir Shah. 
 
 What events have marked the more recent history 
 
 of Persia ? 
 
 The inroads of the Tartars have since then much 
 
 harrassed Persia, in addition to frequent civil 
 
 commotions ; but peace has been made with 
 
 her old enemy, Russia, and there is now reason 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 55 
 
 to hope that the march of civilization is spread- 
 ing more widely through the land, and bring- 
 ing with its usual attainments, the blessing of 
 truth and order. 
 What is the government of Persia? 
 It differs in no essential respect from that of 
 Turkey. No rank is held in Persia but that 
 annexed to office ; and possession of even this 
 depends entirely on the caprice or will of the 
 monarch. 
 
 LESSON XXII. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 What is the character of the early history of the 
 
 Chinese ? 
 All the accounts which we possess, are to be re- 
 garded rather as mythical than historical. The 
 Chinese historians refer a part of their history 
 to the time of the creation, and a second period 
 to that of the flood, when they say their land 
 was but partially flooded. Their authentic his- 
 tory may be said to commence about 1,000 
 years before Christ. 
 
 What was the state of the empire then ? 
 It was divided into petty and independent states, 
 between which was an almost continuous war- 
 fare. 400 years after this was the age of the 
 great philosopher Confucius ; but it was not 
 
56 CATECHISM OF 
 
 until after several hundred years had passed 
 away, that the government became monar- 
 chical. 
 
 When did the incursions of the Tartars begin ? 
 About 200 years before the time of Christ, 
 when the Chinese were often compelled to buy 
 off, by paying large tribute, the unwearied and 
 savage invaders, who eventually were to be- 
 come their masters and rulers. 
 
 When was China first united under one supreme 
 
 government ? 
 In 585, when the two great northern and south- 
 ern divisions were formed into one empire, 
 and the capital fixed at Honan. 
 
 What great bulwark of national defence did the 
 
 Chinese erect against their enemies the Tartars ? 
 What is called the great wall of China, which 
 extends for nearly 2,000 miles, in an almost 
 uninterrupted line, across mountains, valleys, 
 plains, and declivities. 
 
 Did this serve as an effectual barrier ? 
 No ; the Tartars eventually triumphed, and 
 founded the line of emperors at present on the 
 throne. 
 
 What features are worthy of notice among the 
 
 Chinese ? 
 
 The excessive population of the country, which 
 has been variously estimated at 200 millions, 333 
 on Lord Macartney's authority, and 307,467,000 
 according to the last census ; while the popu- 
 lation of Pekin, the present capital, has been 
 stated as double that of London, though but 
 with very little probability. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 57 
 
 What is the character of the Chinese ? 
 The character of the Chinese themselves is that 
 of an ingenious and mechanical people, some of 
 whose manufactures far exceed in beauty any 
 of our own, especially the carving in wood and 
 ivory. They have, however, but little origi- 
 nality, and many of their most ingenious and 
 clever performances are but skilfully executed 
 copies. 
 
 Of what description is the present government ? 
 It is purely despotic, and is exercised most ab- 
 solutely over a bigoted, narrow-minded, and 
 jealous nation, who, nevertheless, have some 
 redeeming qualities in that they are generally 
 peaceable, docile, and industrious. 
 
 Among our modern discoveries, which do the 
 
 Chinese claim as their own ? 
 Those of printing, gunpowder, and the mariner's 
 compass ; and there appears to be good reason 
 for believing that they possessed a knowledge 
 of them many centuries before their discovery 
 in Europe. 
 
 LESSON XXIII. 
 
 HINDUSTAN OR INDIA. 
 
 From what source is it probable that this country 
 was originally peopled ? 
 It appears probable from tradition, and other 
 
58 CATECHISM OE 
 
 evidence, that the hindoos are descended from 
 some tribe of people inhabiting the central 
 plains of Asia. 
 
 When may the modern history of Hindustan be 
 
 said to commence ? 
 At the latter part of the 10th century, when it 
 was invaded by a tribe of Tartars, who were Mo- 
 hammedans, from whose hands, after various 
 revolutions, the government passed into those 
 of the Affghans. 
 
 When did the Mohammedan empire in Hindostan 
 
 begin to decline ? 
 In 1316, the Mohammedan power being suc- 
 ceeded by that of the line of Timur, or Tamer- 
 lane, whose dominions gradually extended to 
 the Ganges. The Tartar dominion however 
 in its turn began to decline, and petty indepen- 
 dent princes to rise upon its ruins, until about 
 the middle of the 18th century (1753), when 
 its dissolution may be said to have taken place. 
 
 What then became of the empire of the Tartar or 
 
 Mogul emperors ? 
 Its last monarch became a pensioner of the Eng- 
 lish East India Company, under whose control 
 the whole dominion gradually sunk, 1753. 
 
 What Europeans first obtained dominion in Hin- 
 dustan ? 
 The Portuguese; who, about the year 1498, 
 first landed on the Malabar coast. Their do- 
 minion gradually increased, until the beginning 
 of the 19th century, when the English, Dutch, 
 and French began to settle on the coast, and 
 the Portuguese power declined. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 59 
 
 Do the French and Dutch now hold any posses- 
 sions in India? 
 At present, the French possessions consist only 
 of Pondichery, which was restored to them by 
 the English at the peace, while the Dutch do- 
 minion has altogether ceased. 
 Do any monuments of the ancient Hindoos still 
 remain ? 
 Yes ; many wonderful ones, which tell plainly 
 of their former magnificence and civilization. 
 Such are the vast temples of Elephanta and 
 Salsette cut in the solid rock, and the huge 
 piles of Chillambrum and Seringham ; in addi- 
 tion to the remains of hill fortresses, the struc- 
 ture of which clearly evinces no small progress 
 in the arts, while the state of many of their 
 national manufactures was considerably in ad- 
 vance of all European nations of the age. 
 What was the chief characteristic of their man- 
 ners and customs ? 
 The almost despotic spirit of caste which per- 
 vaded ail ranks of society. These castes were 
 four in number, each exercising their own pe- 
 culiar trade or profession, and never intermar- 
 rying with each other. 
 How were these castes distinguished ? 
 The first caste, of Brahmins, was entirely devoted 
 to religion and the sciences ; to the second was 
 committed all civil power in the government of 
 the state, and from it were chosen the sove- 
 reigns, magistrates, and soldiers ; husbandmen 
 and merchants constituted the third ; while the 
 fourth was composed of artizans, labourers and 
 servants. 
 
60 CATECHISM OF 
 
 What has been the effect of this spirit ? 
 A singular permanence of manners and institu- 
 tions, which still, as it ever has done, charac- 
 terises this ancient people. 
 
 LESSON XXIV. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Is the early history of America well known ? 
 No ; until its discovery by Europeans nothing 
 worthy of reliance is known. It long appeared 
 a mystery how this vast continent, situated as 
 it was, should have been found peopled through- 
 out. Now, however, since the northern extre- 
 mity has been more accurately defined, it is 
 clearly seen how the narrow strait which sepa- 
 rates it from Asia might be crossed, and how 
 the tide of migration first reached the shores of 
 America. 
 
 How was the discovery of America by Europeans 
 
 effected ? 
 By the single efforts of one noble and high- 
 minded man, named Columbus, who with diffi- 
 culty collected the necessary means for equip- 
 ping his few small vessels. He continued to 
 sail westward until he landed at St. Salvador, 
 one of the Bahamas, and not long after reached 
 Hispaniola and Cuba. 
 
 What parts of the continent were subsequently 
 
 discovered ? 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 61 
 
 Newfoundland, and some of the northern coast, by 
 an Englishman, named Sebastian Cabot; then 
 by the Portuguese, Labrador ; next, the coast of 
 Brazil ; and about the same time the coast of 
 Mexico. Within 30 years nearly the whole 
 length of the vast continent had been coasted, 
 and the conquests of Mexico and Peru, by Cortes 
 and Pizarro, made Europeans acquainted with 
 the eastern coast. 
 
 What effect had the conquest and colonization of 
 
 America by Europeans on the other nations ? 
 It affected materially the fortunes of both hemi- 
 spheres, and particularly the new one. The 
 cruelty and iniquity which attended this con- 
 quest in the first instance, are perhaps une- 
 qualled in history. The natives of Peru and 
 Mexico, after suffering the most ruthless cru- 
 elty, were reduced to a state of wretched bond- 
 age, while those of the West Indies were almost 
 exterminated. 
 
 How have these islands been since peopled? 
 The unhappy tribes of Africa have been by fraud 
 and violence kidnapped by Europeans, carried 
 off as slaves, and inhumanly condemned to the 
 lash of the West Indian slave driver. 
 
 To whom does America owe its name ? 
 To Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine merchant, 
 who some years after Columbus had discovered 
 the West India islands, is said to have first 
 touched the mainland of America. 
 
 What is meant by the American revolution ? 
 The rebellion of the United States against the 
 authority of England, the mother country. 
 
 G 
 
62 CATECHISM OF 
 
 What was the cause of this rebellion ? 
 Britain claimed the right of imposing taxes on 
 these states without their consent. This the 
 states refused to acknowledge, alleging that no 
 representative of their nation was a member of 
 our parliament, and therefore the parliament had 
 no right to impose taxes. After much fruitless 
 discussion of the question, both sides had re- 
 course to arms. 
 What events followed upon this ? 
 The struggle which ensued was long and san- 
 guinary, and at last terminated in the freedom 
 of the states being recognised by the other 
 European powers, and even by Britain herself, 
 1783. 
 When did the Americans first renounce all con- 
 nexion with the mother country ? 
 In 1776, when the campaign had already extend- 
 ed through two years. During this time, and 
 for several succeeding years, the contest was 
 maintained with unabated ardour, and various 
 success by both parties. The good fortune of 
 the Americans was mainly owing to the patriotic 
 bravery of their renowned leader, Washington, 
 whose efforts at length wrested from Great 
 Britain an acknowledgment of their indepen- 
 dence, under the title of the United States. 
 What possessions in America still remain to Great 
 Britain ? 
 But a comparatively small proportion of what 
 once constituted her American dominions ; " an 
 assemblage of vast, ill-defined, and straggling 
 territories." These are Upper and Lower Ca- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 63 
 
 nada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and some 
 islands at the mouth of the river St. Lawrence, 
 Newfoundland, and some of the most important 
 of the West Indian Islands, while in South 
 America, she holds the colonies of Essequebo, 
 Berbice, and Demarara, and a portion of Guiana. 
 
 When was the first British settlement made in 
 
 North America ? 
 In the 4th year of James I, 1607, in Virginia ; 
 while the second was New England, founded by 
 the Plymouth company, in 1614. Soon after 
 this date a large body of dissenters fled from 
 England, purchased the Plymouth patent and 
 built New Plymouth. 
 
 What is the situation of Mexico ? 
 Mexico forms the greater part of the extensive 
 tract of land which connects together Northern 
 and Southern America. After its conquest by 
 the Spaniards, it became one of their chief vice- 
 royalties, but it is now an independent kingdom. 
 
 What is the present condition of Peru and Chili ? 
 Both these countries at the beginning of this cen- 
 tury threw off their allegiance to Spain, and 
 were declared independent states ; not, however, 
 without much bloodshed — and, in Upper and 
 Lower Peru, almost constant civil war ; the 
 reign of order and justice being now but imper- 
 fectly restored. 
 
 When was Brazil first discovered ? 
 Its coast was first touched by Vincent Pinzon, 
 one of Columbus' companions, A.D. 1499 ; and 
 in the following year another part of the coast 
 was discovered by a Portuguese. 
 
 What is its subsequent history ? 
 
64 CATECHISM OF 
 
 It became the object of contention between Spain, 
 Portugal and France, and even England. The 
 Portuguese eventually gained possession of the 
 greater part of it, and under their rule, about 
 1699, it reached to a great height of prosperity. 
 Its government has been noticed in a former 
 lesson. It became an empire in 1822. 
 
 LESSON XXV. 
 
 THE CITY OF LONDON. 
 
 When do we find mention first made in history of 
 
 London ? 
 As a chief town of the Trinobantes, the people of 
 the famous Cassivelaunus, in the time of Julius 
 Caesar, and in the year 50, it was considered an 
 important city by the Romans, who strongly 
 fortified it. A.D. 294 it was walled, and a 
 palace built there ; about the middle of the 
 seventh century it became the seat of a bishop- 
 rick, and in 885 it was repaired by order of 
 Alfred the Great. 
 
 By whom was the Charter granted to the city ? 
 By King John, who granted the Londoners the 
 power of choosing a lord mayor out of their 
 own body annually (this office having pre- 
 viously been for life), and to return or depose 
 sheriffs at pleasure, and their common council- 
 men annually. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 65 
 
 What great calamity happened to the city in the 
 
 seventeenth century ? 
 In the year 1666, the greater part of the city was 
 destroyed by fire, after having been, during the 
 previous years, desolated by a most fatal plague, 
 which carried off vast numbers of the inhabi- 
 tants. So deeply had this fearful scourge pe- 
 netrated into the recesses of the great city, that 
 nothing less, it is imagined, than the awful fire 
 which broke out during the following year, 
 could have ever sufficiently cleansed and puri- 
 fied the air so as entirely to get rid of infection 
 and contagion. 
 
 What is the present population of London ? 
 Upwards of 2,000,000 ; while some idea may be 
 formed of her commerce, when we find that in 
 1834, 1,280 trading vessels entered the port ; 
 and, that since that time their number has 
 greatly increased. 
 
 (For the History of England, &c, see Catechism of 
 English History in this series. J 
 
 LESSON XXVI. 
 
 LITERATURE OF EUROPE. 
 
 FROM THE REVIVAL OF LETTERS TO THE END OF 
 THE 15TH CENTURY. 
 
 Who were the first restorers of letters in Europe ? 
 The Arabians ; who carefully translated into 
 
 g3 
 
66 CATECHISM OF 
 
 Arabic the copies of ancient authors, which 
 they had procured from the east. For, as their 
 dominions were increased by fresh conquests, 
 their learning and civilization went hand in 
 hand with victory, and the conquered people 
 had much cause to thank their warlike invaders 
 on this ground, whatever other reasons they 
 might have had for complaint. 
 Where was this example soon followed ; 
 By Charlemagne, who caused translations from 
 the Arabic to be made, and founded several 
 universities, as at Bologna and Paris ; also by 
 our own King Alfred in Britain, some of whose 
 good seed, in spite of the intervening and bar- 
 barous disorders of the kingdom, was vital, even 
 until the arrival of the Normans in the 11th 
 century, who themselves brought with them 
 some taste for letters. 
 What tended much to keep this spirit alive, when 
 once fairly roused in England ? 
 The labours of monks in abbeys and other religi- 
 ous houses, who were most indefatigable in tran- 
 scribing and preserving copies of ancient manu- 
 scripts. And among much that was unworthy 
 of their industry, many most precious relics of 
 antiquity were preserved and copied again and 
 again with a care most jealous and unwearied. 
 Into what did this taste for learning of an exclu- 
 sive kind degenerate ? 
 Gradually into a cultivation of such subtleties of 
 scholastic divinity as were almost equally bar- 
 barous with the ignorance of the preceding age. 
 Who may be accounted the first to have detected 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 67 
 
 the fallacy and emptiness of the school philosophy, 
 
 as it was termed ? 
 Roger Bacon, a Friar of great learning and intel- 
 lect. He possessed not only great original 
 powers of mind, but unwearied application ; 
 and, not content with the mere acquisition of 
 information from books or men, endeavoured by 
 experiment and observation of nature, to test 
 the knowledge he had acquired. In the prose- 
 cution of this design his discoveries were nu- 
 merous and important, both in astronomy and 
 optics, as well as chemistry, medicine, and me- 
 chanics. There is some ground for believing 
 that he was not unacquainted with the compo- 
 sition of gunpowder and the construction of the 
 telescope. 
 
 What was the prevailing taste in the 12th and 13th 
 
 centuries ? 
 The poetical compositions were almost entirely 
 of a light and trifling nat ure, consisting of dia- 
 logues, ballads, and satires on love, which were 
 celebrated by the wandering minstrels or trou- 
 badours. Many fragments of these compositions 
 till remain ; and much of their fabulous and 
 chivalrous spirit is to be found in the histories 
 of the age ; such as the chronicles of Monstre- 
 let and Froissart, Matthew of Westminster, 
 Philip de Comines, &c. 
 
 What was the state of classical learning in the 
 
 15 th century ? 
 Many of the ancient authors were widely known, 
 and copies of them were made with much care 
 and labour ; and though during the early part of 
 
68 CATECHISM OF 
 
 this century, France and England showed but 
 slight symptoms of the spirit of reviving litera- 
 ture, a brighter period was at hand, in which all 
 the western part of Europe began to rouse her- 
 self as it were from the long slumber of dark 
 superstition. 
 
 LESSON XXVII. 
 
 SCIENCE AND LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM THE 
 END OF THE 15TH TO THE END OF THE 1?TH 
 CENTURY. 
 
 What is specially to be noted at the beginning 
 
 of this period ? 
 The rapid advance made by Europe generally in 
 history, polite and classical learning, fettered as 
 in a great measure it still was by the Aristote- 
 lian philosophy, which even then still remained 
 engrafted on all theological learning. 
 
 What great philosopher at last arose whose genius 
 
 tended to break these fetters ? 
 Lord Bacon at the beginning of the 1 7th century, 
 who, as Friar Bacon had done before him, prose- 
 cuted his study rather by experiment and observa- 
 tion of nature than by conjecture and reason. 
 
 What other philosopher lived about the same 
 
 time ? 
 Galileo, in 1609, constructed telescopes, and in 
 support of the theory of the planets published 
 by Copernicus more than a hundred years be- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 69 
 
 fore, made several important discoveries. Kepler 
 also made deep researches into the laws of as- 
 tronomy, and the discoveries then made paved 
 the way for many improvements in the sciences 
 of nautical astronomy, navigation, and calcu- 
 lations. 
 What society for the encouragement of science 
 was founded during this century ? 
 The Royal Society which originated in the private 
 meetings of a few learned and scientific men, 
 and was in 1662 incorporated by Charles II. 
 A similar institution was founded in France 
 about the same time ; and both the English and 
 French institutions have done much for the ad- 
 vancement of intellectual and scientific research. 
 For what was the latter part of this century re- 
 nowned ? 
 For being the era of Newton and Locke. 
 What are the chief particulars of the life of 
 Newton ? 
 Sir Isaac Newton, when quite a young man, 
 had made many most important discoveries, and 
 lived to devote the whole of a long life to intel- 
 lectual labour and research. His diligence and 
 application were unwearied. To him we owe 
 our knowledge of the laws of gravitation, which 
 connect and regulate the whole machine of the 
 universe ; while his theory of light and colours 
 furnish us with the foundation of the science 
 of optics, and on his philosophical work, the 
 Principia, is based the whole structure of mo- 
 dern atronomy. 
 Of what kind were the labours of Locke ? 
 
70 CATECHISM OF 
 
 John Locke applied himself to the study of the 
 human mind, and " from the simple fact that all 
 knowledge is progressive, and that an infant 
 gains its ideas gradually through the medium of 
 the senses, he drew the conclusion that there 
 are no innate ideas in the mind, but all are 
 either immediate perceptions conveyed by the 
 senses, or acts of the mind reflecting on those 
 perceptions." 
 
 What progress did poetry make during this pe- 
 riod ? 
 The great epic poet after the time of Tasso the 
 Italian, was Milton, whose poem of " Paradise 
 Lost" will bear comparison with the finest mo- 
 dels of antiquity. 
 
 What was Spenser's character as a poet ? 
 Spenser, in the 1 6th century, rests his fame upon 
 his fine poem, the " Faerie Queen," in its way 
 unrivalled ; but this is rather to be regarded as 
 an allegorical romance, than an epic poem. 
 
 What other great names have descended to us from 
 
 the age of Elizabeth ? 
 Shakespeare, whose unrivalled compositions in 
 tragic and comic poetry have been, and will ever 
 be, the admiration of the world. Raleigh as 
 an historian, a poet, and philosopher ; Surrey, 
 Sydney, and Harrington, Cowley, Waller, and 
 a host of others of not inferior merit as wits and 
 poets. 
 
 Who are the most famous poets in the age next 
 
 to that of Milton ? 
 Dryden, who, it has been said, carried the artificial 
 style of poetry to the height of perfection ; and 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 71 
 
 Pope, whose exquisite melody and rhythm of 
 verse have never been equalled ; and whose 
 manners and delicacy of wit were as remarkable 
 as his power of versification. 
 What great prose writers flourished in this period ? 
 Addison, Steele, and, at a later period, Johnson ; 
 all three renowned for the series of elegantly 
 written essays, criticisms, and tales which they 
 published in the form of periodicals. Addison is 
 remarkable for the elegant and polished style of 
 his writing, its chasteness, purity, and correct- 
 ness ; Steele, for the wit, humour and vivacity 
 of his style, which is at times more familiar and 
 idiomatic than that of Addison ; while Johnson 
 is remarkable for the classical grandeur, severe 
 morality, and nervous power of expression, 
 which characterise his writings on all subjects. 
 
INVENTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS. 
 
 Before 
 A.D. 900. 
 
 Archery in- 
 troduced into 
 England about 
 450. 
 
 Bells in- 
 vented by Pau- 
 linus of Nola, 
 400. 
 
 England 
 first so named 
 by Egbert, 829. 
 
 SiLKintoduc- 
 ed into Europe, 
 550. 
 
 Stone build- 
 ings in Eng- 
 land, 674. 
 
 Water- 
 mills for grind- 
 ing corn, at 
 Rome, 555 ; 
 com anciently 
 pounded in mor- 
 tars. 
 
 Century 
 Xth. 
 
 First tuneable 
 set of bells bung 
 up in Croyland 
 Abbey, 960. 
 
 Clocks and 
 dials first set up 
 in churches, 
 913. 
 
 Century 
 Xlth. 
 
 Bridge, the 
 first stone one at 
 Bow, near Strat- 
 ford, 1087. 
 
 Century 
 Xllth. 
 
 Glass win- 
 dows in private 
 houses in Eng- 
 land, 1180; 
 window glass 
 first in Eng- 
 land, 1557. 
 
 Mariner's 
 Compass said to 
 be used in Ve- 
 nice, 1260 ; 
 much improved, 
 1576. 
 
 Century 
 XUIth. 
 
 Coals disco- 
 vered near 
 Newcastle, 
 1234. 
 
 Glasses, 
 magnifying, in- 
 vented by Roger 
 Bacon, 1260. 
 
 Magic Lan- 
 thorn invemed 
 by Roger Ba- 
 con, 1253. 
 
 Spectacles 
 invented, 1299. 
 
 Weights 
 and Measures 
 fixed to one 
 standard in 
 England, 1257. 
 
 Century 
 XlVth. 
 
 Gunpowder 
 invented, 1330. 
 Guns, great, 
 
 invented, 1330. 
 At battle of 
 Crescy, Edward 
 had four pieces 
 of cannon. 
 
 Gold first 
 coined in Eng- 
 land, 1344. 
 
 Century 
 XVth. 
 
 Engraving 
 
 on metal first 
 invented, 1423. 
 
 Printing in- 
 vented by J. 
 Faust, in 1441 ; 
 William Caxton 
 brought wooden 
 tvpes into Eng- 
 land, 1471. 
 
 Sugar grown 
 in Madeira, in 
 1419; in Canary 
 Islands, 1503; 
 carried to West 
 Indies by Por- 
 tuguese and by 
 the Spaniards, 
 1510. 
 
 Watches at 
 Nuremberg,* in 
 1477 ; brought 
 from Germany 
 to England, in 
 1577. 
 
 Centuries 
 XVI & XVIIth. 
 
 Barometers 
 invented, 1626. 
 Marine ditto, 
 1700. 
 
 Coffee first 
 into England, 
 1641. 
 
 Bible trans- 
 lated into Eng- 
 lish by Tyn- 
 dal and Cover- 
 dale, 1534. 
 
 Blood, Cir- 
 culation of, 
 through the 
 Lungs, by Mi- 
 chael Servetus, 
 1553, fully con- 
 firmed by Har- 
 vey, 1628. 
 
 Guineas first 
 coined in Eng- 
 land from gold 
 brought from 
 coast of Guinea. 
 
 Paper made 
 at Darttbrd, in 
 Kent, 1588. 
 
 Potatoes in- 
 troduced first 
 into England 
 by Hawkins, 
 1563. 
 
 Soap first 
 made at Lon- 
 don and Bristol, 
 1524. 
 
 Tea brought 
 first into Eu- 
 rope by Dutch 
 Company,1591. 
 
 Ship, first 
 two-decker built 
 bv Henrv VII, 
 (1509), of 1,000 
 tons, which cost 
 £14,000. 
 
 H. W. MARTIN, Printer, 19, Cursitor Street, Chancery Lane. 
 
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