THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE DATE INDICATED BELOW AND IS SUB- JECT TO AN OVERDUE FINE AS POSTED AT THE CIRCULATION DESK. JAM 3 01985 ft S B 1 3 t005 POULTRY HUSBANDRY WORKS BY MR. EDWARD BROWN, F.L.S. Poultry Husbandry. Fully illustrated, Ss. Gd. net, post free 8s. lod. (London: Edward Arnold.) Races of Domestic Poultry. Fully illustrated, 6s. net. post free 6s. 4d. (London : Edward Arnold.) Report on the Poultry Industry in America, is., post free is. 2d. Report on the Poultry Industry in Denmark and Sweden, is., post free is. 2d. Report on the Poultry Industry in Belgium, is., post free is. 2d. Report on the Poultry Industry in Germany, is., post free is. 2d. Report on the Poultry Industry in Holland, is., post free is. 2d. Of all Booksellers. POULTRY HUSBANDRY BY EDWARD BROWN, F.L.S. LATE HON. SEC. NATIONAL TOULTRV ORGANIZATION SOCIETY ; PRESIDENT INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF POULTRY INSTRUCTORS AND INVESTIGATORS ; AUTHOR OF "industrial POULTRY KEEPING," "RACES OF DOMESTIC POULTRY," "POULTRY FATTENING," REPORTS ON THE POULTRY INDUSTRY IN AMERICA, DENMARK AND SWF.DEN, BELGIUM, GERMANY, AND HOLLAND, ETC. ILLUSTRATED NEW YORK LONGMANS, GREEN & CO. LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD iqi5 [A U n^hts reserved] Printed in England PREFACE In 1891 the first edition of " Poultry-Keeping as an Indusliy for Farmers and Cottagers " was issued. The time was propitioMS in that we were on the eve of great developments, equally as t(i advance in consumption of eggs and poultry and efforts for increase of production at home and abroad. Until that time, with the exception of a few lectures which I had given at what is now the Munster Institute, Cork, there was no Agricultural CoUege or educational authority in the United Kingdom which devoted any attention to Poultry as a practical subject. In the year named a large sum of money was granted by Parlia- ment to County Councils, upon whom was placed the responsi- bility for technical instruction. This led to my devoting several years to direct teaching in association with County Councils, and to much of my later work. When the grant was made, our imports of eggs and poultry were in value less than £4,000,000 per annum ; in 1913 they amounted to £10,500,000. In 1891 Irish production did not exceed £2,000,000; in 1913 it was £5,000,000. In the former year British production was certainly not in value more than £5,000,000; now it exceeds £9,000,000. Thus, in the interval production in the United Kindgom has increased by 100 per cent., imports by 162 .\ per cent., and consumption by 122 per cent. That, however, is the least part of the change which has taken place. The whole aspect of affairs has been altered. Instead of prejudice and bitter antagonism, in the main there is sym- pathy and recognition. The most difficult task at the time named was to combat the spirit of disbelief in Poultry Husbandry as a profitable branch of live .stock breeding. To a large extent even that has been ov^ercome. Our greatest immeaiate danger is due to those whoso imagination is vastly in excess of their experience. As to the extent of operations and methods adopted. 38188 vi PREFACE ■what has been accomphshed in a Httle more than two decades forms one of the most remarkable chapters in the records of progress. 1 hat is true in other countries equally with our own. Ihe time has come, therefore, to deal with the subject on broader lines. The former work has served its purpose. To merely revnse it was not enough. When that was written I had studied the methods adopted in France, Belgium, and Denmark as well as at home. Since then I have visited nearly every European country, and also Canada and the United States, in pursuit of knowledge, meeting the men who, as educators or practicians or scientists, are contributing their share to a wider knowledge and an enlarged experience in what is now one of the most important of our rural industries. It has been my desire to embody the result of these observations in the following pages . That the future will assuredly see even greater changes than have 3'et been made cannot be questioned. All now attempted is to record the present position, so far as it is known, and to suggest the lines of future development. This I have endeavoured to do. EDWARD BROWN. CONTENTS CHAPTER PACK I. THE POULTRY INDUSTRY 1 Increase of industry — Poultry - keeping — Recent growth — Great Britain — Ireland — ■Production in United Kingdom — Capacity for production- — ^Consumption of eggs and poultry — •Advancing prices — Effect of high prices. II. THE LINES OF DEVELOPMENT - - - - 13 Extensive or intensive — Farmers and jDoultry husbandry — Relation- ship to cultivation — Arable versus pasture land — ^The Colony system — Fox preservation — Poultry in orchards — Destruction of parasites -— Manurial influence of fowls — -Running fowls — Utilization of waste lands — Specialized poultry industries — District poultry industries — Poultiy farming — 'The place of poultry farms — -Breeding centres — - Day-old chick trade — Intensified methods — Effect on the stock — Bantams — Food cost and j^riccs — Co-operation — -Insti'uction and Investigation. III. THE BREEDS OF POULTRY 36 Pure breeds the basis — Economic qualities— Egg qualities — Table qualities — Maternal proclivities — Consumption of food — Classifica- tion of poultry — Egg-producing races of fowls — -General j^urpose races of fowls — Ornamental races of fowls — Egg-producing races of ducks • — Flesh-producing races of ducks — -Races of geese — -Races of turkeys IV. SELECTION AND BREEDING 50 L'niformity of breeds — -Choice of individuals — Breed versus strain — Limitations of strain— Stmcture of body — Lining a fowl — Size of body in relation to production — Size of body in relation to size of egg — Causes of degeneracy — Line breeding — -Inbreeding — Con- stitutional vigour — Simplicity in selection — -Parental influence — ■ Mendelism — xA.ge of breeding stock — Selecting the breeders — Func- tional variations. \ . ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 70 Skeleton — Sternum — -Scapula and furcula — Wings — -Legs and feet — Head — Digestive organs — Crop — Gizzard — Intestines — Vascular system — -Respiratory organs — Ovai ies — Senses. viii CONTENTS "IIAPTER PAliE VI. CLIMATE AND SOIL IN RELATION TO POULTRY HUS- BANDRY 7!'. Natural advantages — Climatic influences — Moisture in atmosphere- Variations of climate — Soil — Effect of soil on growth — Summary- Soils in relation to breeds — CI ange of condition and environment — Application in practice — North versus south. VII. POULTRY HUSBANDRY ON FARMS - - - - 88 Farms the basis — Eggs or flesh — " Pin money " — Homestead methods — Distributive methods — Portable houses — Enclosed yards — Class of stock — Risks of loss — Hatching and roaring — 'Waterfowl and turkeys — A Cambridgeshire example — A Belgian method — Rough grazings — Labour. VIII. POULTRY ON SMALL HOLDINGS AND ALLOTMENTS - 99 Small holdings— Stock and equi])m(nt — The colony system — A Hertfordshire faim — Rhode Island, U.S.A. — South Shore, Mass., U.S.A. — Chicken production— Sale of duck eggs — Allotments — Division of the land — Poultry allotments — Burnley and its allot- ments — Renaix, Belgium. IX. BREEDING PLANTS AND FARMS - - - - 112 Not poultry farms — Influence of breeding farms — Mainly supple- mental — Small and large plants — Equipment — Exhibiting — Class of stock — Sale of stock birds — Values — Cost of production — Prices of stock birds — Period of demand — Export trade — Eggs for hatching — Production of eggs for hatching — Selection and packing — Day-old chicks — Plant for day-old chicks — Cost of producing day-old chicks • — Chick boxes — Weaned chickens — Pupils. X. INTENSIVE AND SEMI-INTENSIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY 132 Meaning of terms—" Bird-cage " methods— Intensive houses — The commercial aspect — Largo intensive houses — Intensive and semi- intensive— Unit of flocks — The Rancocas plant — A Hertfordshire plant — Intensive plants — Effects of system — Constitutional vigour — Rearing of chickens — The application. _XJ. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF HOUSING - - - L50 Conditional influences — Are poultry houses necessary ? — Aspect and location — General principles — Materials — Roofing — Ventilation — Methods of ventilation— Light — Heating — Floors — Perches — Nests — Draining — Original fonns of poultry houses — Size of houses — ■ Shape of houses — Portable poultry houses — Colony houses — Scratch- ing-shed houses- — ^The litter — Ojien front houses — Range houses — ■ Small poultry houses — Shelter sheds- — ^Fenees and yards — -Hj'gicnic conditions. Xir. GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK - - 183 Where management tells — Causes of infertility — Weak gei-ms — Number of hens to male — Nests- — Sex influences — Mental impressions — Duration of male influence. CONTEXTS !x CHAPTER lAOE XIII. THE FEEDING OF POULTRY - - - - - 1S8 Natural food — Liberty the ideal — 'Artificial foods — Food constituents — Available artificial foods — Influence of cooking — Requirements of the bird body — • Food digestion and assimilation — ■ Hard food and wet and diy soft mashes — Methods of feeding — 'Food tables —Adjuncts to feeding — Use of condiments — Purchase of foods — • Chicken feeding. XIV. FORMATION OF THE EGG AND CHICKEN - - - 202 What an egg is — How an egg is formed — Process of jjroduction — Formation of the chicken — -Fertile and infertile eggS' — Position of the germ vesicle — -Influence of the yolk — First day of development — Second day— Third day — -Fourth day^ — Fifth and later days — - Process of hatching. XV. HATCHING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL - - - 222 Elements in hatching — Places for sitting— Hatching rooms — -Outside feeding cages — Making the nests — Cooling and feeding — -Hatching by turkeys — Choice of eggs for hatching — Register of hatching — Testing the eggs — -Incubators and their use — Ai'e incubators prac- tical ? — Use of incubators— Limitations of artificial methods — -Hen oil — Incubator houses—Types of machines — Tank incubators — -Hot- air incubators — Mammoth incubators — Management of incubators — Moisture — -General hints. XVL REARING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL - - - 253 Places to rear — Chicken houses or sheds — Coops and cooping^ Fresh gromid — -Brooders — Systems of brooding — -Individual brooders — -Colony brooders — -Brooder houses — -Methods of heating — General hints — -The early days — -Feeding chickens— The orphans— Division of the sexes — -Hardening the chickens. XVII. PRODUCTION OF TABLE POULTRY - - - 271 Favourable conditions — The fattening industry — A method of ripen- ing — -Fattening — Cages — -The sheds — Cramming — Food for fattening — Use of milk — Feeding — Feathers and manure — Killing — Dislo- cation of the neck — Shaping — Stubbing— Packing — Caponizing — Dressing and trussing — Milk chickens or Petits Poussins — -Spring chickens — ■ Winter fowls — - Poulets de Bruxelles — • American soft roasters — The Payntcr method — -Shelf brooders. XVIII. THE DUCK INDUSTRY 298 Profitable ducks — -Aylesbury ducklings — -Selection and breeding — - Early breeding — Methods of duck farming — Supply of Eggs — Hatching and rearing — Houses and sheds — Feeding — -The " Walsh " system — Methods of rearing — Belgian systems — Huttegem and dis- trict — A Spartan plan — Feeding the ducklings — -Laplaigne — Methods at Laplaigne — Feeding and fattening — -American duck farms — Duck houses in America — Feeding and killing — Feeding and fatten- ing in Bucks — Killing. X CONTENTS CHAPIER PAGE XIX. GOOSE FARMING 323 Universal decline — Reasons for decline — Reduction in demand — Size of geese — Selling gees& — Places for geese — Housing geese — ■Hatch- ing — Rearing — Feeding goslings — Fattening — German methods. XX. TURKEYS AS FARM STOCK - - - - - 333 More turkeys wanted — Space required — Suitable conditions — Stock birds — Age of breeding stock — Size of domesticated turkeys — Number of hens to male — Houses and roosts — Hatching — Rearing — • Feeding— Turkey poults — Fattening — Killing and dressing. XXI. EGG PRODUCTION AND PRESERVATION - - - 346 Sources of egg supply — Improvements in egg production — Factors in egg production — Unexhausted capacity of hens — Parental influ- ence — Dr. Pearl's investigations — Application — Effect of early laying — Traji nesting — Winter egg production — Profit attainable — ■ Size of eggs — Colour of shells — Preservation of eggs — Object of pre- servation — AVho should preserve — When to preserve — What to pre- serve — 'AMiere to preserve — Methods — How long to keep — After preservation — Infection of eggs. XXII. DISPOSAL OF PRODUCE 366 A producer's question — The egg trade — Grades of eggs — Quality test for eggs — Value of eggs as food — Sale of eggs — Testing — Grading — Packing — Table poultry — Markets for chickens. XXIII. POULTRY DISEASES 379 Improved definition — Scientific research — Prevention the main object — Contributoiy causes— Hereditary influences — Conditional causes — Lessened functional activity — Causation by food — Healthy stock • — Serum prevention — Symptoms of disease — Post-mortem examina- tions • — Parasites — ■ Simple affections ■ — Various suggestions — Moulting. XXIV. THE BUSINESS SIDE OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY - 396 Capital — The standard of life — Not a fanner's question — Basal expenditure — Production returns — Production for market not suffi- cient — Leakages — Houses — Keeping birds too long — Selling old hens — • Manure ■ — Treatment of manure — Food — Appliances — Feathers — 'Labour — Sex^arating the sexes — -Keeping male birds — Accounts. INDEX LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS I. PLATES PLATE PAGE I. Rhode Island Colony Houses - - - - - 19 II. A South Shore Roaster Farm, Mass., U.S.A. - - 105 m. On a Yorkshire Breeding Farm .... 117 IV. Interior of Rancocas Laying House - - - - 139 V, Semi-Intensive House for Layers .... 143 Intensive Poultry House ..... 143 VI. Range of Single Scratching Sheds - - - - 171 VII. Embryonic Development of the Chicken - . .212 VIII. Embryonic Development of the Chicken . . . 213 IX. Embryonic Development of the Chicken - . .217 X. A Mammoth Incubator ...... 248 XI. Interior of Incubator and Brooder House, Geflugel Hubebtus, Huls, Germany ..... 249 XII. A Belgian Carpenter's Flock of Malines - - . 290 XIII. Breeding Pens for Ducks ..... 303 XIV. Straw Coop for Ducklings - - - - - 311 XV. Enclosure for Young Ducks at Laplaigne - . - 315 XVI. Duck-Fattening Houses and Pens .... 319 XVII. Goose-Fattening Sheds, Winsen-am-Luhe, Hanover - 329 XVIII. Testing-Room and Table at Roermond, Holland - - 373 II. FIGURES FIO. 1. Poultry in Orchards 2. Type of General Purpose Fowl - 3. Type of Table Fowl 4. Type of Laying Fowl 5. Skeleton op the Fowl 6. Day-Old Chick Boxes 7. " City " Intensive House - 8. Ventilation Shaft - 9. Farmer's Poultry House 10. Portable Poultry House - 11. Ideal Poultry House: Front V^iew 12. Ideal Poultry House: Back View 13. Tenant Farmer's House with Shutters 14. Spinney for Shelter 22 56 57 57 73 120 135 156 165 166 167 168 169 169 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Large Scratching -Shed House: Froxt Elevation- Leigh Nook Scratching Sheds Bent Iron-Wire Fastener for Gate Formation of the Egg Embryo, Third Day .... Chicken in Shell ..... Close Hatching Box .... Double Hatching Bo.x with Lids - Double Hatching Box .... Hatching House ..... Feeding Cages for Sitters Appearance through Shell during Incubation How to Test an Egg by Candlelight Testing Lamp ..... Incubator House, College Poultry Farm, Theale Interior of Incubator House, College Poultry Farm, T Incubator Shed: Ground Plan Hearson Incubator ..... Section of Hearson's Incubator - Cyphers Incubator ..... Chicken-Rearing in Orchards Coop made from Sugar Box Sussex Coop ...... Square Coop ...... Hearson's Foster-Motheb - . . " . Miller Brooder ..... Outdoor Cyphers Brooder .... Fireless Brooder ..... Canadian Brooder House .... Cyphers Four-Section Brooder An Excellent Type of "Halfway " House Outside Fattening Cages .... Fattening Shed at Buxted Ruddin's Fattening Plant, Liverpool Interior of Fattening Shed Funnel for Cramming .... Neve Crammer ..... Hearson's Crammer - . . . . Shaping Board ..... Sussex Packing Ped .... Double Rearing House for Ducks Rearing Boxes for Ducks .... Duck Houses at Landsmeer House for Geese . . . . . Shed for Turkeys ..... Roost for Turkeys ..... Preservation Tanks ..... Size of Eggs ...... Candling Eggs PococK Ego Box ..... t^-^iifc t POULTRY HUSBANDRY CHAPTER I THE POULTRY INDUSTRY (The gi'owth of egg and poultry j^roctuction on business lines in nearly all countries over the entire glofee within the last two decades has been remarkable. Only those who have had an opportunity by contmuous observation can form any idea of what has been done in this way. Few there are, however, who fully realize the progress made, for much of that is unrevealed. Frequently small in the individual case, it is enormous in the aggregate. The evidences are ever^-where apparent that a con- siderable advance in poultry-keeping on what may be termed business lines — by which is meant that food production is the main object, as distinct from amateurism, breeding for pleasure or exhibition, and maintenance on farms merely to provide for household requirements or to supply the good wdfe with pin- money, which was at one time all too general, and is still met with to a large extent — has been made. In some countries progression is less marked, for there the industrial aspect was already regarded to a considerable extent; in others it has been more pronounced, due to the fact that in these the opportunities for development were much greater. Whilst, therefore, there is no country of which I have knowledge where the poultry in- dustry is incapable of great development, and few in which the limit of production is in sight, the majority have merely made a beginning. In the latter vast opportunities present themselves. Bej^ond all are the unoccupied areas of older and newer countries waiting to be utilized. The human factor is of supreme impor- tance. (Poultry require, and must have, laiid on which to grow and live, from which to obtain their food. 'All the land, how- ever, is useless unless it is occupied by a settled population. What the total production will be when the vast areas awaiting occupation are peopled no one can estimate. What has been 1 I 2 POULTRY HUSBANDRY accomplished is small as compared with what may yet be done. It is all-important, therefore, that each step forward shall be, as far as possible, on lines which make equally for permanencj' and economic success. Poultry-Keeping. — The old term given here fitly expresses what has been the case in the past, with, of course, exceptions such as are noted in the following pages — namely, that the owners " kept " the fowls, literally as well as morally. It is not too much to state that under the older methods, when the poultry were regarded as a non-economic section of the live- stock/and little attempt was made to deal with them as with other classes of farm animals in which productiveness as related to cost was kept prominent^ in view, or when those who adopted more progressive ideas were mainly amateurs, and whose opera- tions could be no more profitable than is an ornamental garden or conservatory, the vast majority of poultry kept were un- profitable in the usual interpretation of the term. The old say- ing that " poultry don't pay " was true when applied to such conditions?) There were, however, abundance of cases of indi- viduals and of districts in different countries by which the falsity of this axiom, except for the indolent and the ignorant, could be proved, and where it was evident that, given good conditions and right methods, more especialty in association with cultivation of one form or another, poultry could be made profitable to an extent equal with, if not to a greater extent than, any other branch of domestic livestock. To realize that . fact, it was necessary for a complete change of methods and ideals to be adopted. Such has been to some extent real- ized. What we have now to aim for is to bring about that ; alteration of system which will make poultry husbandry com- mercial in the fullest sense, so that m the future we may more and more look to the fowls to help keep their owners, rather than the owners keep them. One of the objects of the present work is to show what has been and how it is being done, and, as far as may be, to point out the hne of future development in the light of such experience as is available. Recent Growth. — To those who have contributed their quota to the development of poultry breeding and production as an economic jD^rsuit, the marked advance which has followed such efforts is satisfactory in the extreme, even though the conscious- ness of what may yet be accomplished is paramount. It is not too much to claim that in no branch of rural industry has the same advance been made as in that which we are considering. THE POULTRY INDUSTRY 3 To deal with the different countries in detail would require a very large amount of space, and to attempt it is beyond the scope of the present work. I am compelled, therefore, to briefly generalize in this direction, and to limit special treatment to the British Isles. Suffice it to say that in the majority of European countries, as well as the United Kingdom — more especially Belgium, Holland, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Russia — great advance has been or is being made, the most notable of which is found in Denmark, Ireland, and Russia; that in Canada and the United States the progress to be noted is phenomenal, possibly greater than over the rest of the world; and that in Australia and New Zealand considerable growth is recorded. When we find a small country like Denmark creating within twenty years an export egg trade now reaching more than £2,000,000 in annual value; Ireland advancing her exports of eggs and poultry to Great Britain within the same period from about £1,600,000 to nearly £4,000,000 annually, and that these two products are equal in value to the dairy exports for which that island has alwaj's been famous; the United States estimating her production at nearly $800,000,000 (£160,000,000) per annum, with other nations making advances to a greater or lesser extent; and Ministries of Agriculture in nearty every country seeking to increase and extend poultry-breeding and trade in eggs and fowls, it is at once evident that we are dealing with a pursuit of considerable importance. The once-despised hen is at last receiving the recognition so long denied her, and assuming her place in solution of the great food problem, which, perhaps, is the most serious question presenting itself at this time, both as to prices and volume. Rapid increase in the number of the world's inhabitants, combined with aggregation in dense communities as a result of commercial and industrial developments, make a huge demand upon food resources, and is profoundly altering the whole position of affairs. Nor does there appear any immediate probability of check to this tendency. The consuming poj)ulation of the earth has grown more rapidly than the producing, which fact explains to some extent the rapid advance in prices. What has now to be done is to stimulate to the utmost production on lands which have been long settled, making these yield higher returns, and as far as possible bring into use the uncultivated areas of every country. Whilst, there- fore, more poultry is essential, equally there must be efforts to secure better poultry — that is, to obtain a higher average of yield from what we already possess. Such can only be accom- plished by wide dissemination of knowledge and experience. 4 POULTRY HUSBANDRY Great Britain. — Until the poultry census was taken in 1908, there were no reliable returns as to the poultry population of England, Scotland, and Wales. Ireland and most other coun- tries were able to show statistics ajBfording a basis for com- parisons. During the years 1884 and 1885 poultry were in- cluded in the annual British livestock returns, but these were manifestlj^ incomplete, and did not discriminate between adult and young stock. If these are taken, however, the results afford ground for satisfaction, in that from 1885 to 1908 fowls had increased by 623 (381 to 1,004) per 1,000 acres of cultivated land; ducks mcreased b}^ 23 (68 to 91); geese had decreased by 5 (27 to 22); and turkeys had increased by 6 (15 to 21), propor- tionate to the area named. Taking all together, the net increase was in twenty-three years, if these returns are comparable, 231 per cent. That is quite within a reasonable computation, though far beloAV what is the case in some countries. A correct computation, however, cannot be based upon the grouping together of old and young birds. What must be taken is the number of adult fowls, as these form the productive stock of the country. I have, therefore, extracted from the 1908 census returns the number of birds hatched prior to that year, and worked out the number per 1,000 acres of cultivated land for the respective countries. As, however, fowls and ducks are so much smaller in body, and require much less space than do geese and turkej^sr in the second column under each head of the following table the last-named have been corrected in averages — that is, multiplied by five, on the assumption that the number stated of fowls or ducks is equal to one goose or turkey. This enables us to obtain an indication of what was the position in the year named in relation to the capacity of the country. Average Number of Adult Poultry in Britain (1908) per Thousand Acres of Cultivated Land. Country. Fowls per 1,000 Acres. Ducks per 1,000 Acres. Geese. Turkeys. All Poultry. Ip Corrected Averages. Actual per 1,000 Acres. II li II England . . Wales Scotland . . 560-0 444-8 499-4 30-0 36-9 38-0 7-0 24-7 2-4 35-0 6-9 123-5 8-9 12-0 5-5 29-5 44-5 27-5 602-9 515-3 545-3 654-5 649-7 576-9 Great Britain 538-4 31-9 7-8 39-0 6-1 40-5 584-2 639-8 These figures show that upon the farms of the country there was less than two -thirds of a fowl, or its equivalent, per acre of THE POULTRY INDUSTRY 5 cultivated land in Great Britain, England and Wales being fairly equal, and Scotland, except in a few districts, considerably behind. Such cannot be regarded as a satisfactory condition of affairs, and, as shown later, is far below the capacity of the country. Though the progress made from 1885 to 1908 was considerable, there is abundance of room for development. In addition to the adult poultry, the number of young birds recorded on June 4, 1908, was as follows : Chickens 14,913,000 Ducklings 1,934,000 Goslings 459,000 Turkeys 498,000 The total number of adult and young poultry respectively was almost the same, the older birds being slightly in excess. It is necessary to remember that the figures quoted only apply to occupations of an acre and upwards. Therefore, all allotments of less than an acre, cottage gardens, and fowls kept by other rural and by urban and siiburban residents, are excluded. It is not too much to say that in manj^ districts the numbers recorded would have been more than doubled had these been included. As examples may be cited Lancashire and Yorkshire, where it is certain that the total of fowls kept on plots of less than an acre are vastly in excess of those found on the farms of these great counties. We have, however, to accept the statistics provided. Ireland. — The section of the United Kingdom which has made the greatest advance in connection with poultry husbandry is Ireland, which, as figures given below indicate, is considerably in advance of Great Britain. It was my privilege in 1887 to take part in lajdng the foundations for such development. In the year named I was commissioned by the proprietor of the Weekly Freeman of Dublin, the late Mr. E. Dwyer Gray, M.P., to make an exhaustive inquiry into the poultry industry of that country, with a view to seeing how far it was capable of exten- sion, and the lines upon which it could be developed. The results have indeed been remarkable, not only in respect to an increase of exports, but also to advancement of the prosperity of its i)eople. At that time the way in which eggs and poultry were packed and shipped was about as bad as it well could be, with few exceptions. Coming a little later into competition with produce from France and Denmark, carefully graded and packed and in fine condition, for a time Irish supplies were at a discount, commanding very low prices. Thanks to the efforts put forth, there has been a revolution in these directions, and Irish produce now holds a relatively high place on the British markets, though 6 POULTRY HUSBANDRY there is much yet to be done by adoption of improved methods. Poultry and egg production now occupies the third place in Ireland's rural industries, and has contributed very largely to its prosperity. In 1887, when the inquiry already referred to was made, there were no official figures as to the value of exports. Statistics were, however, obtained from all ports of shipment, from which it was estimated that the total value of eggs and poultry shipped to Britain was £1,666,000. Since 1904 official returns have been available, showing a steady rise. In 1912 the exports were — Poultry ., £ 2,926,582 1,037,771 3,964,353 If feathers are added, the total would be upwards of £4,000,000. The dairy industry, for which Ireland has always been famous, exported butter to the value of £4,159,972, and cheese £32,832, or a total of £4,192,804. One striking fact is that the imports of poultr}^ into Britain in the year named from all colonies and foreign countries was, less re-exports, £725,146, so that Irish supplies were greater by no less a sum than £312,625, which is a remarkable tribute to the efforts of central and other authorities engaged in developing the resources of the country. Taking the same basis as adopted for Great Britain, the fol- lowing are the averages of poultry for Ireland: Average Number of Adult Poultry in Ireland (1913) per Thousand Acres of Cultivated Land. Fowls per 1,000 Acres. Ducks per 1,000 Acres. Geese. Turkeys. All Poultry. 1 Actual per 1,000 Acres. Corrected Averages. Actual per 1,000 Acres. Corrected Averages. Actual per 1.000 Acres. Corrected Avenigcs. 796-8 140-0 31-0 155-0 11-6 58-0 179-4 1149-8 It will be seen, therefore, that the actual number of poultry in Ireland (1913) was greater by 67 per cent, than in Britain (1908), and that the corrected averages was greater by 79 per cent. Production in the United Kingdom. — The figures here set forth enable us to form an estimate as to tho total value of the eggs and poultiy produced in the United Kingdom, leaking the tables as given in the poultry census of 1908 for Great Britain, and adding to these the smaller poultry-keepers who conduct their operations for home consumption or sale, a conservative THE POULTRY INDUSTRY 7 assumption is that producers realize in one way or the other a return of £10,000,000 per annum. In Ireland we have to add to the export figures the home consumption, which may be safely placed at £1,000,000 annually. Therefore, we arrive at the con- clusion that the total wholesale value of eggs and poultry pro- duced in the United Kingdom is at least £15,000,000 per annum. To these, however, should be added all the contributory business done, such as sale of appliances, foodstuffs, stock, and traders' profits, so that the total value of the poultry industry must be nearly £20,000,000 annually. We have also to take into account the imports, which in 1913 were as follows: £ Eggs 9,590,080 Poultry 955,238 10,545,318 Thus the total consumption of these two articles of food is £25,545,318. Such figures are large in the aggregate, but small individually when divided. The annual consumption of eggs is only about 111 per head of the population, and less than one fowl per head per annum, which is an indication that the consuming capacity of the country is far from being reached. In several countries the consumption of both eggs and poultry is higher than in the United Kingdom. As it is, the total weight of the eggs con- sumed reaches the enormous figure of 347,000 tons yearly, on the usual trade basis of 120 great hundreds to the ton, of which nearly 200,000 tons are produced within the British Isles. Capacity for Production. — In this connection it is desirable to seek for guidance as to what are the possible developments of the country, with a view to discernment as to how far increase can be obtained. Thirty-five years ago, when I first studied this question in its economic aspect, the fact which burnt itself upon my mind was that, of the hundreds of thousands of farmers and others in this country, merely a fraction were attempting to deal with egg and poultry production on business lines, as that the latent possibilities of demand for these articles of food were almost incalculable. At a later period it seemed as if much might be done by establishment of special poultry farms. Ex- perience both at home and abroad speedily dissipated that idea. It was seen that a country can only be fed, so far as natural products are concerned, by agriculturists, and that fowls can- not be treated in factory fashion, except m the final processes such as fattening. These must be gi'own and maintained in due 8 POULTRY HUSBANDRY relation to cultivation, as are other classes of stock. After many years of careful study and observation, the conclusion arrived at was that, taking the country as a whole, three adult fowls, or their equivalent, on the assumption that five fowls or ducks are equal to one goose or turkey, could be maintained continuously per acre of cultivated land, without displacement of any other stock or interference with any crop. Upon this basis, which, it maj^ be explained, has nearly been reached in one Irish county, it is possible to form a reasonable estimate of how far the nation as a whole could provide for its own needs. The following cal- culations do not take into account rough grazings, of which there are nearly 13,000,000 acres in Britain alone, but include occupa- tions below an acre in extent: Country. Acres of Cultivated Land. Present Number of Adult Fowls (cor- rected). Possible Number of Adult Fowls (3 per Acre). England Wales Scotland Ireland 24,414,493 2,760,197 4,821,334 14,673,788 15,469,000 1,628,000 2,731,000 15,640,000 35,468,000 73,243,479 8,280,591 14,464,002 44,021,304 140,009,436 Totals . . 46,669,812 A modest estimate is that, on the basis stated of three adult fowls to the acre, there should be a gross annual return in sales of eggs and poultry, or those consumed in the households of owners, equal to £1 per acre per annum. That amount is often exceeded as a result of good management, and I have known as much as 30s. to 40s. per acre realized in this way, which, as sup- plemental to ordinary cropping, is an important addition. It is safer, however, to take the lower sum. Whether eggs, or chickens, or ducklings, or goslings, or turkeys are produced docs not affect the calculation. A further point is the manurial value of fowls, which may be reasonably computed at 3s. 4d. per acre per annum, inclusive of the young stock reared. The results would therefore be — Cc^untrv Possible Annual Value ^°^^^^y- at £1 per Acre. Manurial Value at 3s. 4d. per Acre. England Wales Scotland Ireland £24,414,493 2,760,197 4,821,334 14,673,788 £4,069,082 460,033 803,556 2,445,631 Totals £46,669,812 £7,778,303 THE POULTRY INDUSTRY 9 The full county figures take too much space to quote, but can be worked out from the agricultural returns. That our people could consume all that can be produced is unquestion- able. If every inhabitant ate an egg every alternate day, the annual value for this product alone would be £34,000,000 sterling. There is no apparent reason why such should net be attained; and, in addition, poultry could be consumed to a much larger extent. Consumption of Eggs and Poultry.— Reference has already been made to the respective values of eggs and poultry produced in, and imported into, the United Kingdom, which enables an esti- mate to be made as to the total consumption. The following figures, in the light of what is recorded above, may be regarded as a conservative representation of the wholesale value of these two products: Eggs. Poultry. Totals. British produce Irish produce Colonial and foreign produce £7,500,000 3,750,000 9,590,080 £2,500,000 £10,000,000 1,250,000 5,000,000 955,238 10,545,318 Totals £20,840,080 £4,705,238 £24,545,318 Great though the consumption which is represented by these figures may be in the aggregate, yet it only represents lis. per head of the population, or £2 15s. per family per annum, which is a low average, one capable of great increase. That the very large advance in consumption, of eggs espe- cially, within recent years is due in large measure to changed conditions of life in this and other countries is unquestionable. It is not a mere fashion, but an absolute necessity for food of a highly nutritious nature, yet easy of assimilation. Therefore, we are justified in assuming that consumption will increase at an ever accelerated pace, provided that supplies are forthcoming and prices do not advance sufiiciently to check demand. In another place I have suggested " that changes in environment and habits of life lead, apart from other impelling ckcumstances, to corre- sponding alterations in the class of food consumed. This is abundantly evident with man and animal alike in all cHmates. So long as the people live mainly upon the land, working in the open air, and exercising their muscles and organs bj' hard manual labour, they are able to enjoy and assimilate the coarser, heavier foods; but when their days are to be passed in great cities, ex- 10 POULTRY HUSBANDRY pending their energies in factory, or office, or working with brain rather than muscle, nature craves and demands food of a very different class — food that is high in nutritive values, but with a small amount of fibre, easih' digested, and appetizing. We have here, apart from other reasons, one explanation of the enormous increase in the consumption of what might be termed lighter articles of food, such as eggs and poultry. It is unnecessary for me to do more than mention this fact, save to emphasize that its recognition leads to the conclusion that the change is per- manent, and not transitory. Such being the case, any tendencies to be noted may be regarded as likely to increase rather than decrease."* What is here stated explains the great growth of consumption in all countries, more especially those where indus- trial and commercial developments are taking place. A further factor, however, is that there has been decided advance in the qualities of sujiplies, due to adoption of improved and more ex- peditious methods of marketing, and the stimulation of produc- tion by realization of higher prices. Advancing Prices. — One of the marked tendencies of recent 3'ears has been a steady advance in the prices of nearly all classes of food products, in some more than others. The effect is to enhance the cost of production, though that does not offer an entire explanation. The law of supply and demand largely deter- mines values. So far as eggs and poultry are concerned, it is undoubtedly true that demand has increased much more rapidly than supply, great though the advance of poultry-keeping has been over the entire globe. Several countries which were at one time sending large quantities of eggs and poultry have reduced their supplies considerably, in one or two instances by finding more profitable markets elsewhere, but chiefly owing to greater consumption at home. Special examples are afforded by the British colonies. A few years ago it appeared as if these were to become important sources of our overseas supplies, and for a time the volume of imports from these steadily advanced. Then came a check, and afterwards a steady decline, until now they are a mere bagatelle — only J per cent, of our imports, and less than jV P^^' cent, of our total consumption. Out of everj^ £1,000 worth of eggs and poultry consumed in the United Kingdom, the supplies from British possessions are less in value than £1 sterling. Within the last ten years the prices of eggs and poultry have steadily advanced. It is difficult to obtain absolute figures respecting the last-named, — first, by reason of the fact that * " Ileport on the Poultry Industry in Gemiany," 1912, p. 17. THE POULTRY INDUSTRY 11 market reports are not very reliable, in that birds are usually sold by the piece, varying in accordance with size and quality; and, second, that weights of poultry were not recorded in the Trade and Navigation Returns until 1912. We have, therefore, to rely upon the evidence of traders, which is to the effect that there has been a marked increase. So far as eggs are concerned, we are on surer ground. Since 1904, the advance in price of home-grown eggs has been about 2s. per 120. In the same period — 1904 to 1912 — the avera.ge values of Irish eggs have increased from 7s. l^d. to 9s. Ifd. per 120. With regard to imported eggs, from 1898 to 1904 they were fairly steady, ranging from 6s. 2d. to 7s. per 120. Since the last-named year, when they were 6s. 9d. per great hundred, the rise was constant and rapid, reaching in 1913 a maximum of 8s. 10|d. per 120. Up to that time there had been an equally steady decline in quantities, mainly owing to a greater consumption in German}^ which tapped our sources of supply. That country is now the greatest importer of eggs and poultry, the total value of which is upwards of £12,500,000 per annum, having nearly doubled within fifteen years. The returns of imports of eggs into the United Kingdom from 1904 to 1912 were— Quantities : Great Hundreds. Values. lyO-i .. .. 19,942,594 £(3,730,574 1912 . . . . 19,085,052 8,394,524 Variations .. 857,542 (decrease). £1,063,950 (increase). Thus, for nearly 103,000,000 fewer eggs, or a reduction of 7,000 tons, imported in 1912 than in 1904, we had to pay £1,663,950 more. In 1913 there was a considerable recovery in quantity, mainly from Russia and Denmark, the total increase, as com- pared with 1912, being 2,494,898 great hundreds, the total values an advance of £1,196,078. The average price was 8s. 10|d. The comparisons of 1904 and 1913 were — Quantities: Great Hundreds. Values. 1904 .. .. 19,942,594 £0,730,574 1913 .. .. 21,579,950 9,590,602 Increases .. 1,637,356 £2,860,028 Of the eggs imported during recent years, Russia has been responsible for more than 50 per cent., and of poultry she has sent us more than 40 per cent. These are among the cheapest grades seen upon our markets. In eggs, Denmark sends us nearly 20 per cent, of the total. These countries and the Nether- 12 POULTRY HUSBANDRY lands are the only ones that have made any appreciable increases. Italj' and Austria-Hungary have largely decreased. Effect of High Prices. — So far as I am able to discern, there is no immediate danger of check to consumption of poultry of various grades as a result of enhanced prices. The relative con- sumption is so small as compared with the population, and the number of householders able to buy even higher grades than at present do so, so far limited, that we can equably face a large increase of better quality birds without fear. It is necessary to remember that the great mass of our people never buy poultry except, perhaps, at the Christmas season. The trade is therefore mainh^ restricted to those in comfortable circumstances. Such is not the case with eggs, which are entering to a greater extent than ever into the food of our industrial workers. In the Rhine Provinces of Germany I was informed that the wives of working men find that their husbands are as satisfied with two eggs as if they had J pound of meat at a meal. The fact is that an egg contains more nutriment than ^ pound of beef or pork. Con- sidering that a couple of eggs cost less than half as much as J kilogramme of meat, in view of the great advance in price of the latter, German women use eggs to a much greater extent. CHAPTER II THE LINES OF DEVELOPMENT It is a great gain to have arrived at the stage when general acknowledgment is made that there is need for advance in the poultry husbandry of this country, and also recognition of the fact that opportunities are present enabling such advance to be made. In these respects a great change has come over the scene, which is realizable alone by those who undertook the onerous task of awakening the minds of farmers and others to what was being lost by them. The atmosphere is totally different from what was the case twenty j^'ears ago. Instead of indifference on the part of farmers and others most concerned, and the an- tagonism of those whose interests and sympathies were in other directions, we have hearty co-operation from nearly all classes of the community, and an earnest desire on the part of many farmers to improve this branch of then- operations. The re- sponsibility is not so much in the direction of providing a stimulus as of holding those back who, from excess of imagination, plus want of experience, are desirous of takmg up this pursuit, know- ing little or nothing of what is involved, utterly failing to realize that poultry-keeping must either be part of general farming, or a highly specialized business demanding special qualities and wide knowledge, and should not be undertaken by any who desire to live by it without a thorough training of the most practical character, together either with other means of liveli- hood or sufficient capital for establishment and carrying over the initiatory period. It is above all essential to abandon amateur or fancy ideals, which bj^ their limitations have wrought much harm. " Plajdng at shops " is no qualification for running a business, as many would-be poultry farmers seem to imagine. What has painfully impressed me during interviews with hundreds of mquirers who have sought mformation upon this subject, is the utter absence of any clear understanding of the position. Misled 14 POULTRY HUSBANDRY by extravagant statements of vendors of stock or appliances, or by- articles and statements in newspapers, written without any know- ledge of what is involved, many have risked and lost their all. Extensive or Intensive. — It may be well at this point to state that there are two schools of thought in respect to this branch of natural science — for science it is — namely, those who believe that the future of poultry husbandry is to be purely on extensive lines on the one hand, and those who pin all their faith upon intensive methods on the other. It will be seen below that both these systems will have their place, and that neither can solve the problem alone. They, however, differ only in degree. The basal princijiles must be the same, and one can be the counter- part of the other. At the same time, it must be freely acknow- ledged that for food production the extensive method — that is, poultry husbandry as part of general farming — is, and will always be, the main source of supply. And, further, as a question of profit, owing to lower cost of production, that offers the greater opportunity, and is of more value in respect to the national welfare. Special breeding establishments are contributory thereto, and intensive methods merely supplemental. What we should aim for, as previously mentioned, is development of farm poultry rather than poultry farming, even though it is admitted other plans may to some etxent be adopted. The great American plants, of which so much has been written, and some of which I have visited, are striking examples of what is here set forth. In the light, therefore, of what has already been stated, and experience gained as to demand and opportunities, we may consider what can be done. The growth of past days, great though it may have been, is only a beginning. It may be and is necessary to revise our methods, to adopt new ideas, to abandon notions long held. What we must do is to build upon what has been proved, and to recognize natural laws as far as we understand them, which, however valuable these may be if utilized, are bad enemies to fight, and are certain to come off conquerors. Whether our operations be extensive or intensive — and, in my judgment, the former must be depended upon as the permanent factor in poiiltry husbandrj^ — it is above all essential that there shall be a clear understanding of basal prin- ciples in each direction. It cannot too clearly be emphasized that, whilst certain of these principles apply to every form of poultry-breeding, there are others which are peculiar to each. What can be done under one set of conditions is useless under another. Much loss has arisen by thinking that large farm methods may be successfully adopted on small occupations, and vice versa. THE LTNE8 OF DEVELOPMENT 15 Farmers and Poultry Husbandry. — A very interesting point arises in this connection — that is, the relative number of poultry kept in relation to the size of the respective farms. Greater space does not mean increased production. In fact, it is generally admitted that in all branches of cultivation and livestock the relative productiveness decreases as the area of land individually occupied increases. Such is certainly the case with poultry in all countries. It is where the occupations are modest in size that we find the greatest number of birds i^fo rata. Here the human factor counts. Men are as essential to development of this industry as are land and fowls. A thousand acres of land divided into twenty or fifty holdings will employ ten to twenty times as many people as the same extent of land embraced within a single ring fence. Hence the importance of recent movements for an increase of small holdings and allotments, not alone as a means of providing livelihood to a greater number of people — though that is a question which demands constant attention — but in respect to a fuller development of the national resources in the direction of food-supply. Some most suggestive information is given in the poultrj^ census of 1908, in which is recorded the average number of poultry kept per 100 acres in Great Britain with respect to the size of holding. The figures are given below, with the corrected totals in the last column, on the basis of five geese or turkeys being equal to one fowl or duck. It may be explained that these figures are inclusive of adult and young stock. Average Number of Poultry per Hundred Acres of Cultfvated Land. Class of Holding. Fowls. Ducks. Geese. Tur- Corrected keys. Totals, Above 1 and not exceeding 5 acres 5 „ „ ,50 „ 50 „ ., 300 „ „ 300 acres Total Averages 940 244 77 37 86 21 7 3 8 4 2 7 1,101 3 810 2 104 1 50 1 100 9 2 2 129 Thus it will be seen that there were twentj^-two times as many poultry on occupations of less than 5 acres than on farms of 300 acres and upwards, and nearly six times as many on farms of 5 to 50 acres as on those exceeding the last-named area. What is most suggestive is the reduction of the number of turkeys as the size of farm increases, in spite of the fact that this species demands greater range than other poultry. In this direction 16 POULTRY HUSBANDRY larger farms are failing to meet the country's requirements, and there is no natural reason why the number of turkeys should not be multiplied tenfold thereon in the near future. It is again the human factor that is at fault. Relationship to Cultivation. — In considering this branch of the subject — namely, farm poultry-keeping — it cannot be too strongl}' emphasized that fowls must bear in number and dis- tribution relationship to cultivation. That in this direction there may be variations can be accepted. In some places — that is, upon some soils — more can be kept than upon others. The basis is, however, the same. This question is further con- sidered below under the head of Manurial Influence. What I desire to make clear is that an excess of animal life is certain to induce disease, as a result of tainted ground. That applies to poultry as much as to other stock. Therefore plant growth must be the greater. Practically speaking, many of the failures met with, and all the epidemics which I have seen, have been due to a lack of recognition of what is here set forth. To avoid this, the birds must be distributed over the area available. It is not enough to maintain fowls on the basis already laid down m the previous chapter — namely, three adults to the acre — if all are concentrated around the homestead. In that case the last state would be worse than the first. A striking example of what is here submitted has been seen in connection with turkey-breeding in Connecticut and Rhode Island, in the United States, where a once-important industry has been almost destroyed. Although the farms are fair in size, the birds were, as a rule, kept near the homesteads continuously year by year on the same ground, with the result that the land became turkey sick, a disease known as '' blackhead " broke out, and there was widespread disaster. On farms, therefore, the j)rimarj^ need is for making poultry part of the operations, and to keep only as many as can become a rotation without injury to the ordinary cropping, whatever that may be. Arable versus Pasture Land. — Hitherto the great majority of those who have taken up poultry - keeping, whether as stock breeders or for market requirements, have regarded grassland as most desirable for their purpose, mainly by reason of the fact that pastures supply a large amount of green food, and also that the need for experience as to cropping and cultivation of the soil is obviated. Exceptions are, however, to be found. Where fruit is the first object, and poultry supplemental thereto, the advantages of broken ground have been abundantly evident. Up to the present period those who have adopted the method THE LINES OF DEVELOPMENT 17 of poultry-keeping on arable or dug land have been chiefly fruit- growers^ cottagers^ and small occupiers with a very limited area of ground available. Some very striking cases have been pub- lished of success achieved by the combination named. We all know that when fowls are " yarded/' to use an Americanism, the grass becomes coarse and grows in clumps, which are unsightty, and the herbage fails to completely utilize the manure. Such may be regarded as a sign that the time has come when removal is essential. My observations in Belgium, Dernnark, and elsewhere, as well as in our own country, have shown that much larger flocks of poultry can be kept by arable farmers than has hitherto been thought possible. The opportunities for extension under such conditions are very great. To carry out the work successfully, however, methods nuist be adopted in accordance therewith. The Colony System. — Under certain conditions, one of which is referred to in the next paragraph, it is often felt undesirable to scatter fowls all over a farm. That may be a question of labour or of convenience. What is meant by the colony sj^stem is that a portion of the land is thickly occupied by fowls for twelve months, when they are transferred to another portion of the farm, and that vacated is cultivated or cropped in the usual manner, decided by whether it is arable or pasture. I first saw this system operated upon a large scale in the Little Compton district of the State of Rhode Island, U.S.A., where it has been carried out for a couple of generations. In my " Report on the Poultry Industry in America," it is stated* that " within half a dozen miles of Little Compton in every direction there are scores of farms where poidtry are kept and raised in large numbers. Hundreds of poultry houses can be seen in the course of a mile or so, and it is estimated that half a million hens are kept within that radius. . . . The methods adopted and the houses used are wonderfully uniform, almost monotonous. But these afford an example of what can be done in practical poultry-keeping over a long period of time, for the section has been strong in poultry for sixty years, though the increased production has been most marked within the last two decades." The farms are usually from 60 to 120 acres in extent, comprising both pa,' ture and arable land. On the former stock are fed or the fields cropped for hay, and grain is grown on the latter. As an example of what is done successfully, on Mr. F. Almy's farm of 120 acres at the place named, 1,800 laying hens were kept at the time of my visit, and 3,000 chickens had been reared that year. Forty- * London, 1906, p. 41. 18 POULTRY HUSBANDRY five acres were in use for the poultry, and the rest under crops. Another farm in the same township, owned by INIr. W. N. Sissons, was of 65 acres, whereon were 1,500 laying hens. Of this system more is said as to detail in Chapter VIII. Fox Preservation. — There can be no question that the pres- ervation of foxes for hunting purposes has had a most repressive effect upon poultry husbandry. Frequently I have been in- formed by farmers, when advocating greater attention to poultry, that the loss would be so great, and the bad feeling engendered so considerable, that they did not think it worth their while to run the risk of one or the other. In other instances, not a few of those who have made the attempt have had constant and serious losses in this way, without any compensation at all, or receiving but a moiety of what they claimed, and even then given in a grudging fashion. The actual loss everj^ year must amount to a very substantial sum. That, however, is infinitesimal as com- pared with the check to increase of the industry which would otherwise have taken place, to the great benefit of rural residents and the nation at large. A prominent Cheshire farmer recently stated that the number of poultry on farms could be trebled without material increase of cost were it not for foxes. It is undoubtedly true that a few of the hunts meet claims made upon them promptly and with a moderate amount of fairness. That, unfortunately, is the exception. The larger number pay upon a totally inadequate scale, far below the real value, and after delays which are very annojang. Some there are which go even beyond this. They have refused claims made altogether, or only pay those sent in by farmers over whose land they hunt. As a result, a great amount of bitterness has been engendered, and strong action taken on the part of such as have suffered in this way, which will assuredly increase unless those for whose pleasure foxes are preserved are willing to pay proved claims for poultry killed, and to the full extent of the loss incun-ed. If hunting men are unable to do this, their sport is assuredly doomed. Few there are who desire to see that take place, but the tendencies are all in this direction. Should the time unhappily arrive when the problem of fox-hunting versus poultry husbandry has to be decided — that is, the interests of the few or the many — there can be no question the last-named must come first, in view of the natioaal food-supply. Hunting men will only have to thank themselves for the result. It must be remembered that this sport can alone, in a thickly-populated country, be enjoyed on sufferance. Anything which gives the sense of unfaii- treatment is bound to end such a privilege. A large number of foxes have THE LINES OF DEVELOPMENT 2] been killed, and the number will increase. They are vermin, and it is within the right of anyone to destroy them as a nuisance Attempts have been made to bring about an understanding with hunts, but these have largely failed, owing to the attitude of these bodies. Poultrymen have suffered much in the past, and their patience is wellnigh exhausted. Larger farmers may regard the loss of their wives' poultry with equanimity, but it is a matter of life and death to small farmers and allotment holders. It is stated, with every appearance of truth, that were the cubs properly fed in the rearing season, and the grown animals in winter, much of the difficulty would be removed. If that be so, the blame lies wholly at the door of those responsible for preservation. A further point is that independent men who make claims receive a full and prompt settlement, whilst those to whom the loss is really of serious moment are refused, or .offered inadequate compensation. That gives a sense of wronj which makes for bitterness and retaliation. Poultry in Orchards. — It is now many years since I first called attention to the value of poultry on the vinej-ards of South-Western France, as well as in the orchards of Normandy, where fowls are not alone found profitable, but render great service in destruction of parasitic life which preys upon the bushes, trees, and vines. To some extent there has been develop- ment in this direction since that time, but to a very limited degree. 1 find from the agricultural returns that in 1912 there were upwards of 320,000 acres under fruit in England and Wales, which ought to maintain fowls to an average of at least five adult fowls per acre; and the same might be said of hops, of which there were upwards of 34,000 acres. How many are now maintained it is impossible to surmise. One example of what might be duplicated throughout the fruit-growing districts is that of the farms owned by the Messrs. John Chi vers and Sons, of Histon in Cambridgeshire, which firm has 1,000 acres under fruit grown for the purpose of jam-making. Upon these they are maintaining about 5,000 laying hens, the eggs from which are mainh' utilized in the factory. The prin- ciple adopted is to place the houses for adult fowls, whether layers or breeding stock, and also the chickens in coops and brooders, in the orchards, giving them free range. The same is done on the strawberry-beds at certain periods of the year. No wire netting is used. Thus the conditions are essentially natural, extensive, not intensive. The result is that everything is favourable in the extreme. So abundant is the food obtainable that the cost is reduced to a minimum , and the manager informed 22 POULTRY HUSBANDRY me they could scarcely give the birds little enough, as they could practically obtain as much as they required — that is, the older birds. During the early stages, such would not apply to chickens. It means that what would be wasted is thus utilized, and the food cost, which is ever the greatest, is very low indeed. Such must profoundly afiEect the financial result. Fig. 1.— Poultry in Orchards. Destruction of Parasites. — This is not all the benefit derived, although of considerable importance. Apart from all other con- siderations, fowls render a great service in checking the increase of parasites, which multiply enormously and are very destruc- tive where cultivation is carried out on intensive lines. Svich has been the experience of the Messrs. Chi vers, as of other fruit- growers, causing considerable loss. The fowls have rendered very great service in this direction. As proof of what is here stated, experience has shown that on the larger fruit-trees com- monly attacked by the winter moth, it was a usual thing to find fifteen to twenty moths on the grease-bands. Where fowls are in the orchards these are almost entirely cleared, and if any can b(^ traced, they do not at most exceed one or two. It is THE LINES OF DEVELOPMENT 28 well known that land planted with strawberries following wheat is often devastated A\ith the crane-fly. The effect of allowing fowls access thereto prior to the fruit-farming has been to prac- tically clear them of that pest, confirming evidence which was given to me in America. The raspberry beetle is very destruc- tive to that fruit, and by eating into the buds causes great loss. As many as thirteen have been discerned on a single head. These pests go down the vines in the afternoons or on the ap- proach of stormy weather, when the fowls, if given the oppof- tunity, devour them. On the 29 acres at Histon devoted to raspberries, the beetle has been cleared by the fowls, to the great gain of the owners. And, finally, there has been no saw- fly caterpillar on the gooseberry bushes where fowls have been run. Manurial Influence of Fowls. — So far as agriculturists are concerned, there is a further benefit from extensive methods of poultry-keeping — namely, the manurial influence, when produc- tion is not beyond the power of the soil to utilize. In Chapter I. an estimate is given as to what would be the total value of fer- tilizing elements were the farms of the United Kingdom ade- quately stocked with poultry. An example of what has already been accomplished is found in one section of Belgium with which I am well acquainted. Belgian occupiers realize the value of manure, of which not a drop or particle seems to be wasted. It is freely acknowledged that the fertility of the soil has been raised considerably by the keeping of fowls and ducks. The most noticeable instance is met with in what is known as the Campine district, which extends from the city of Malines east and north to the Dutch frontier. At one period this was an arid sandy plain, covered with fir-trees and incapable of cultiva- tion. Some of it remains in the same condition, but consider- able portions have been brought into use as market -gardens. The story is deeply interesting and highly suggestive. About forty years ago poultrj^-breeding was taken up by the peasants in this district on a somewhat extensive scale, primarily with the object of raising chickens for sale to the fatteners on the other side of Malines. The land was of little use for other pur- poses, and, although there was not much natural food for the fowls in the soil, it was dry, the fir-trees provided abundant shelter during the hot daj^s of summer, and 'a"mo derate amount of insect life was obtainable. Eggs, also, were and are pro- duced in large quantities throughout this district, though on such soil they are smaller in size and inferior in quality to those from hens kept on the richer lands. In the summer of 1897 I 24 POULTRY HUSBANDRY paid a visit to the district. Already a very marked change had taken place. The land near to Malines had been so enriched by manure from the ponltrj' that it was xmder cultivation. For a distance of about five miles from that city the trees were cleared, and market -gardens for production of asparagus and vegetables formed upon the old woodlands. At that time it was freely acknowledged this result was largely due to the fowls, which were being bred in gi-eater numbers all over the Campine country. I was not, however, prepared for the developments which had taken place twelve years later, when the district was again visited. At the earlier period I drove to Rymenam, Keerbergen, Piitte, and Grasheide, through the fir-woods, in which were cot- tages of a very humble type, attached to each of which were about 12 hectares (nearly 30 acres) of land, with very small clearances aroimd the dwellings, little more than gardens. The people depended chiefly upon poultrj^-rearing for their incomes. At one place visited — a small inn — I was told that the owner had already by the month of June sold 350 birds, and had 400 more for disposal. In the previous year his sales of poultr}^ amounted to 4,000 francs (£160). At Grasheide I found a school-house in the midst of fir-woocls, which came right up to the buildings on all sides. The teacher, M. Vanden Borchacht, reared about 4,000 chickens every year. By 1909 the whole aspect was altered. As we drove in the month of October to the places named, it was to find the fir-trees gone and the land under cultivation. Market-gardens, grain, and roots, have taken the place of fir-woods, owing to the improved fertility of the soil as a result of poultry kept thereon during a single generation. After the trees are removed it takes about two years to bring the ground into good condition, and, of course, it is capable of further improvement.* Unfortunately, as shown below, pros- perity has led to intensification, by which the manure became excessive. That, however, does not affect what is here set forth as to the value of fowls for improvement and fertilization of the land. And in respect to uncultivated areas, this aspect of the case is supremely important. Some further evidence is given in Chapter XVII. Running Fowls. — Originating in the North of England, so far as commercial poultry is concerned, a system has been adopted which is capable of \sdde extension, though specially suited to combined agricultural and industrial areas, such as the manu- facturing villages of East Lancashire and West Yorkshire. * Vide " Report on the Poultry Industry in Belgium," by Edward Brown, F.L.S., London, 1910, pp. 14 and 15. THE LINES OF DEVELOPMENT 25 Arrangements are made between the poultry -keepers, who are usually operatives, and farmers, for the former to place poultry houses out iipon the farmers' fields, and to maintain an agreed number of fowls thereon. The advantages of this system will be apparent in that, not only does the farmer receive rental for the land over which the fowls are permitted to run, but also he insures for his land in a very cheap way a considerable quantity of manure, thus imjjroving the value of his crops ; whilst, on the other hand, the poultry-keeper, who is usually landless or has only a small allotment, is enabled by the system here described to keep a very much larger stock of fowls at less risk than if he were obliged to rent the land. The method is more suitable for grazing counties than where arable lands prevail. There is no reason, however, why in every grazing district the plan might not be followed, and it would probably have wide-reaching in- fluences if properly carried out, in that, ajiart from the immediate benefit derived, it would give opportunities to cottagers for keeping poultry and improving their position. To carry out this system, arrangements should be clearly defined. The poultry-keeper must move his houses about in accordance with the wishes of the farmei-, for if a house were allowed to stand too long in one place the herbage around would be injured or destroyed. On the other hand, the farmer must give access to his fields, which occasionally involves trouble. With mutual desire, however, to meet each other these difficulties can be overcome, and it is foimd, from the fact that the system is increasing, though somewhat slowly, that the advantages of this sj^stem are receiving recognition. Under these conditions portable houses are preferable, in that the manure is more evenly distributed, and all danger of tainted soil is obviated, whilst the supply of natural food will be more abundant. As a rule the number of fowls should not exceed ten per acre on the land actually occupied. The rent charged is usually 6d. per bird, or 10s. per flock of twenty-five, per annum. Utilization of Waste Lands. — In the United Kingdom are nearly 30,000,000 acres of land not under cultivation, divided as follows : Under Cultiva- Not Cultivated tion (Acres). (Acres). Total Land (Acres). England Wales Scotland Ireland 24,414,493 7,979,717 2,760,197 1,989,454 4,821,334 14,249,132 14,673,778 5,573,419 32,394,210 4,749,651 19,070,466 20,247,197 Totals 46,669,802 , 29,791,722 76,461,524 26 POULTRY HUSBANDRY These figures do not include the Isle of Man and Channel Islands. A considerable portion of the uncultivated land consists of moun- tains and bogs, which could not be used in any way. Among the remainder, rough grazings form a large part. In England and Wales these comprise 3,774,655 acres, or nearly half. In Scotland the proportion woiild be much larger. Probably there are in the four countries 10,000,000 acres that could be used for poultry, which would contribute materially, as in the Campine country (see above under Manurial Influence) to their im- provement. I am convinced that there is a great future in this direction. The breeding of all classes of poultry might be developed thereon, not alone for production of eggs and of flesh, but also the hatching and rearing of stock birds raised under conditions that would make for constitutional vigour, and, if sold to farmers and others living within the cultivated areas, would do much to counticract the tendencies towards degenera- tion which mark our present methods. Pullets might be bred and sold in this way at five to six months old, to be replaced by others annually or every second year. As the cost of produc- tion would be small, the prices at which they could be sold would encourage a large and profitable trade to all concerned. Some areas would be excellent for ducks and geese, and scores of thousands of turkeys might be bred on the dryer hill-lands, to be sold off for fattening in the autumn. Specialized Poultry Industries. — There are several branches of poultry husbandry in which there is a large measure of specializa- tion, in that these are general over given areas, and that the methods adopted cannot be followed by ordinary farmers who do not make poultry-breeding one of their leading objects. These include the breeding, rearing, and preparation for market, of chickens, ducklings, goslings, and turkeys, all of which are treated fully in the respective chapters. As a rule turkeys are kept all their natural life on the place where they are hatched; therefore that branch is self-contained. Such is not the case with chickens — at least, where the finest specimens of market birds are produced. The finishing process, known as fattening, is distinct from that of hatching and rearing. With regard to ducklings, those who keep the breeding stock sell eggs to men who specialize in hatching, rearing, and fattening. Whilst with goslings, though that business is less than was at one time the case, the rearing and final fattening are usually in distinct hands, and carried out under totally different conditions. Duahsm in this way has many advantages, distributing the earnings and preventing concentration and monopoly. A further point is, in THE LINES OF DEVELOPMENT 27 every branch of table poultry, that the climatic and soil condi- tions must be favourable, iipon which more is said below. Within these limitations the country as a whole has possibilities of great development. In this direction also there is a great opportunity for production of large fowls for sale in the winter months, on similar lines to what is done in America and Belgium, as also of milk chickens. District Poultry Industries. — Several branches of poultry-keep- ing have attained their greatest development as a result of general adoption over a given area, which are small or large in accordance with local conditions. That is specifically the case with the production of table poultry, whether in this or other countries. The evidences are that the success attained is largely dependent upon such being the system adopted. In connection with egg production the same is not necessary to an equal extent. That branch is of more universal application to the farming of any section of the country, whether it be near to or remote from the consuming centres. It is for this reason we find poultry-keeping with a view to eggs met with in almost every county. It is also true that the demand for eggs would appear to have grown much more rapidh^ than that for chickens and other classes of poultr}-, which remain a luxurj^ to the greater number of our people, whereas eggs form a part of the food in all but the poorest households. The advantages of laniformity in production are very great, and conducive to success. These may be briefly stated as follows : 1. Reputation counts for much in all departments of trading, and in itself generally is creative of demand. 2. The force of example and the influence of competition are powerful factors, doing much to improve and maintain the quahtj^ of any product. 3. Specialized work, such as fattening poultry, requires skilled operators, and the work must be done on a scale to afford these men adequate rewards. 4. Wliere production throughout a district is general, the sale is greatly simplified, whether that is by means of co-operation or through the ordinary trade channels. Uncertainty and irregu- larity account for much loss and many failures. Unless the produce of any district is voluminous enough to make handlmg profitable, prices must be low, bj^ reason of the fact that the relative expenses are in inverse ratio to the quantity. 5. Under the conditions here set forth, good quality produces much better returns as a result of the reputation already referred to, provided that a reasonably adequate supply is available. 28 POULTRY HUSBANDRY Poultry Farming. — In these days of huge enterprises, of com- binations and trusts, the idea of l)ig poultry farms, where laying hens could be kept by the thousand, where eggs could be pro- duced by the hmidreds of thousands, or chickens turned out by the gross every daj' when thej' are most in demand, has fascin- ated many minds. Flaming accounts have been published of such enterprises, generally when only partially in being, expres- sive of the hopes rather than the accomplishments of the pro- moters. For sixty years attempts have been made in that direc- tion, but without exception, save in duck-farming, these have failed purely as a market j)roposition, mainty because livestock do not lend themselves to " factorj^ " methods. Or, as Dr. Raymond Pearl has wisely said : " Chickens are not machines ; they are living creatures. A poultry plant is not a factory. It partakes much more of the nature of a girls' boarding-school, with a strong leaning on the part of its inhabitants towards suffragette doctrines." The expenses are too great for the returns. If establishments like these could be made a com- mercial success, a new development of poultry husbandry would present itself, and the provision of a more regular supply of eggs and chickens would be of the greatest benefit to the nation at large as well as the indivichials concerned. The fact, however, is that no one of these poultry farms which restricted itself to supplying the market with eggs and poultry for consumption has ever been permanently successful. I have visited many such, both in Europe and America, with the result stated. The Place of Poultry Farms. — Those which have succeeded have done so by reason of the fact that their largest source of income has been b}^ sale of stock birds, eggs for hatching, day-old chicks, etc. Of these there are a goodly number in Britain, and the owners in some cases have made handsome competencies. It is unnecessary to name them, as their ad- vertisements are to be found in all poultry publications. The fact is these are poultry-breeding farms, holding a similar rela- tionship to food-producers as do the seedsmen to farmers, or the nurserymen to fruit-growers. That they contribute eggs and poultry for food to some extent is true, yet the output is a surplus. As an example, at one of the most heralded American poultry plants, which some time ago published a balance-sheet, out of a total sale in one year equal to $27,000, more than half the returns — in fact, nearly 55 per cent. — were for other than market supplies. In other cases the percentage has been much greater. Here we see what is the true place of special poultry farms. THE LINES OF DEVELOPMENT 29 or, to use a better term, breeding or stock farms. That they are necessary and occupy an important position is unquestionable. Theu' success, however, depends ahnost entirely upon develop- ment of a trade in stock birds, eggs for hatching, and day-old chicks, by means of which they serve a valuable purpose in su|)plying a higher type of birds, directly or indirectly, giving that attention to improvement of the stock which can scarcely be undertaken by the farmer or ordinary poultry-keeper, who is willing to pay a good price for what they have to sell. Such is entirely different from breeding for exhibition, as the main object is a higher standard of i^roductiveness. Every encourage- ment should be given to those who desire to undertake what is an important contribution to the general well-being. At the same time it must be realized that those who enter upon such a pursuit must have special qualifications, and plan their opera- tions to meet demand in the directions indicated. Further, where the work is to be a means of livelihood it must be upon a sufficiently generous scale to yield an adequate return. What we want to see is the increase of these breeding farms, concur- rently with that of commercial poultry husbandry, throughout the country, in which direction there is abundance of scope, so long as the true basis is recognized. Breeding Centres. — It was, I believe, my own suggestion which led to establishment of the first breeding centres in Ireland. That was in 1889. The object was, in an impoverished country where there were few places that good utility stock was produced, and, moreover, the people whom they were destined to serve could not afford commercial prices for such stock or eggs for hatching, to supply reliable stock or eggs for hatching at a cheap rate. Hence, unless some such system were adopted, that im- provement of the various classes of poultry, which was of vital necessity if any progress were to be made, was impossible. The influence has been enormous. It is not too much to say that the great advance made in actual production has been largely influ- enced by these stations. Those who are able to compare the class of poultry seen over the greater part of Ireland in, say, 1890, with what now prevails, will be able to realize how great the change has been. The system here referred to has been adopted in Denmark, Germany, Holland, Russia, and Sweden, and is now being extended rapidly in Scotland. Where by im- poverishment of people from any cause it is found desirable to expend public money for their uplifting, the establishment of such centres is fully justified. I found in Germany that some- thing like 3,000 of these subsidized centres have been formed, as 30 POULTRY HUSBANDRY a result of which private enterj)rise is subjected to a competition which cannot be met, for the reason that the prices charged for stock, eggs, etc., are unprofitable. To some extent this is com- pensated b}' the premiums granted, but not wholly so. Later observations in Holland have revealed a like result. In this connection it should be remembered that in nearly every section of Britain south of the Grampians there have been and are a large number of private poultry-breeders, who have taken a great share in the improvement of economic races of domestic poultry, before public authorities came into it, the destruction of whose businesses would be an act of injustice. Day-Old Chick Trade. — One of the most remarkable develop- ments of recent years has been the rapid growth of a trade in day -old or baby chicks. Although the purchasing of eggs for hatching is still a huge business, yet it is often very unsatisfac- tory both to the vendor and bu3^er. The latter merely obtains for a money payment the possibility of getting a batch of chicks, and is apt to be disappointed if the result is not what he ex- pected. The business also lends itself to chicanery and trickery on both sides. As a result complaints are rife. About the year 1895, when on a visit to France, I found two establishments at which a large business was being done in the sale of newly- hatched chicks, which were found to be able to stand a long journey without apparently suffering therefrom. That example was speedily tested, and has grown greatly, so much so that hundreds of thousands of these birds are sold every season. The purchaser pays a little more for what he buys, but receives live birds, not eggs. More information in detail is given in a later chapter. That the business is capable of great extension cannot be doubted. There are, however, dangers which require to be avoided. Too often those who undertake the work of hatching, in their desire to obtain early eggs in order to keep their in- cubators full and meet the demand for birds, do not pay suffi- cient attention to the age and constitutional vigour of the breed- ing stock, often obtaining eggs from immature fowls kept under bad conditions, with the result that there is degeneracy in the progeny. This practice may do much harm, and has aheady done so. It is not enough to send out chickens that will arrive safely. Intensified Methods. — That the future will see a great increase of int-ensification in poultry husbandry is evident. In fact, such must be true if the needs of a rapidly growuig population are to be provided for That can only be successfully accomplished if THE LINES OF DEVELOPMENT 31 the balance of Nature is maintained between animal and plant life. It is, unfortunately, true that many of the " bird-cage " methods which have been advocated carry the seeds of their own destruction. We could ignore the extravagant claims put forth if it were not that many people are misled, and venture their all in this way. Were half the statements true, the rest might be forgiven. The disproportion, however, between fact and fiction is very wide. These abnormal and unnatural methods are suited for backyard poultry-keepers whose space is very limited, and as a supplemental pursuit or a hobby to meet the needs of their own households, provided that the closest atten- tion is paid to management in every way by giving the birds as much exercise as possible, and renewing the stock every one or two years, not attempting to breed from birds kept under these conditions. One reason why so many artisans take up poultry- keeping is to supply the requirements of their households. Beyond that is a desire to have an alternative, if only a partial, source of income in case of loss of work or other causes. As a means of livelihood it cannot be admitted that the system may be conducted on a large scale. Apart from the cost of equip- ment and labour, there are other considerations. Experience in America and Belgium show that degeneracy leads to disease and loss. That is not the way to build up a profitable and permanent industry. Effect on the Stock. — In this connection a very serious condi- tion of affairs has to be faced — namely, the effect of continued breeding under highly intensified conditions upon the vigour of the stock. The claim has been made that to succeed intensively it is necessary to buy stock from birds which for generations have been bred in that manner. That is the way of failure, and explains in part the high average of mortality among chickens bred and raised on intensive lines, in which many poultry farms must be included, both in Europe and America, and of which the disastrous epidemic in Belgium in 1912 and 1913 is an example. What seems evident is that it will get worse, and not better, until the true facts of the case are realized. In certain directions we can intensify methods up to a given point. For instance, laying hens can be so kept and profitably. They are usually more productive than upon farms. So long as they are not bred from, and are killed off when their work is done, no harm results. Table chickens and ducklings may also be profitably forced for early maturity. In neither case is there any question of transmission of influence. What has to be kept in view is that — although during the infantile stages chickens may be reared on fairly 32 POULTRY HUSBANDRY intensive lines, and such niaj'^ be continued if they are destined to an early death, also that laying hens may be kept thickly together — it is of supreme importance that breeding stock shall have sufficient range, affording them opportiniities of abundant exercise, together with hygienic conditions and natural food, so as to make for constitutional vigour which will be transmittible to their progeny. And, further, it is essential that chickens during the adolescent period of development shall have plenty of space if they are destined to be breeders or layers. AVhat is necessary, therefore, is that, for the permanent suc- cess of intensive methods, the breeding stock must be on range, and that those chickens which are to be reared to adulthood shall be given an abundance of space during the post-infantile period of growth. Such imposes a restriction which is unavoidable and must be recognized. Bantams.— There is one branch of poultry husbandry, for in such may be included provision for household needs, which in this country has not received attention — namely, the keeping of bantam fowls for the sake of their eggs and flesh. Hitherto they have mainly been regarded for their ornamental or exhibition qualities, although bantam breeders have frequently claimed that in relation to the space occupied by them, and the food cost, as compared with the number of eggs and the quantity of flesh produced, they are among the most profitable of domestic fowls. The eggs are small in size, as the birds are in body, but both are very fine in quality. As pointed out in ray " Report on the Poultry Industry in Belgium," the keeping of these birds by suburban and urban residents is much encouraged in Belgium, for the reason that, as the products are not marketable, there is not the temptation to sell, and therefore the children get them, which is a great gain. Multitudes of people living under the con- ditions named could keep bantams with profit for supply of their own tables. A further point is that the}^ are less likely to be a nuisance to neighbours than larger fowls. Food Cost and Prices. — That the poultry industry in the United Kingdom has been built on cheap foodstuffs cannot be ques- tioned. Had the high prices of the seventies been maintained, it is improbable that the advance made w^ould have resulted. Any serious increase in food cost would have considerable influ- ence in checking development. As an exami)le, I was informed in Sweden that the cost of producing eggs was Is. per 120 greater than in Denmark, owing to duties upon imported grain. Taking 1901, the minimum year as to prices of wheat during the present THE LINES OF DEVELOPMENT 33 century, I find the actual and av^erage increases of the three leading classes of grain and of imported eggs to be as follows : 1901. Per Imperial Quarter. 1911. Per Imperial Quarter. Increases per Imperial Quarter. Wheat Barley Oats Three grains Eggs s. d. 26 9 25 2 18 5 Per Great Hundred. 6 5 8. d. 31 8 27 3 19 10 Per Great Hundred. 8 4 Per Cent. 18-38 8-28 2-26 10-54 29-87 Thus it will be seen that, whilst the advance in cost of food- stuffs averaged slightl}^ over lOJ per cent., which would be in excess of the fact, as the cheaper foods would be used, eggs in- creased by nearly 30 per cent, in the same period, so that the advantage to the jiroducer is very considerable. It is always safer, however, to take two quinquennial periods, and the fol- lowing table is quoted from the Illustrated Poultry Record :* 1901-1905 AS COMPARED WITH 1907-1911. I 1901-1905. 1 190r.l911. Per Imperial Per Imperial Quarter. Quarter. i Increases. Price. 8. d. 4 8 1 7 5 1 3 Per Cent. Wheat Barley Oats Eggs 8. d. i 8. d. 27 11 i 32 7 24 25 7 17 11 18 4 Per Great Per Great Hundred. Hundred. 6 9 8 16-71 6-6 2-32 18-52 The myth is thus disposed of that the cost of production is relatively higher than the increased price of eggs. Co-Operation. — A factor which is exerting great influence in relation to poultry husbandry, in some countries more than in others, is combination on the part of producers so far as the sale of their produce is concerned. That is especially the case in Denmark, Holland, and Ireland, and is being developed rapidly in the remote districts of Scotland. To a much more limited extent has this form of co-operation been applied in England and Wales, German}^ and Sweden. In other countries the trade is mainly in the hands of merchants. That it will be adopted to a much greater degree in the future is apparent, when pro- ducers have been educated in the principles and undei-stand the advantages of this sj^stem, which will transfer the centre of * November, 1912, p. 58. 34 POULTRY HUSBANDRY gravity from the trader to the producer, to whom it is a question of supreme importance, and who, as he bears the responsibility for quahtj^ and expedition in marketing his goods, will realize much better returns than has hitherto been the case. It is necessarj^ however, to remember that in the three countries first named immediate consumption is conaparatively small, and that the bulk of the eggs and poultry must be exported if the business is to be successful. Hence there are no competitive factors to take into account. It is the latter which cause co-operation to make slower growth in what may be termed consuming countries, owing to the local demand for supplies. For example, I do not know of anj' county in England, and only two or three in Wales, which provide for their own needs in eggs and poultry the entire year round. In a very large proportion consumption is several times greater than production. As a consequence, producers and consumers are so near to each other, and prices are so good, that there is no need for, and limited opportunity of organization on, co-operative lines. In a number of rural districts societies have been formed, and proved of the greatest benefit. That is not the only influence. Traders have been compelled by fear of co- operation to revise their methods, to pay better prices, from which poultry-keepers have obtained great benefits and con- sumers received a higher grade of supplies. It is not the trade done which counts, but the influence exerted. Even societies which have not succeeded as business propositions have paid their cost a hundi'edfold in this manner. As time goes on, and especially as small holdings and allotments increase, co-opera- tion in its application to marketing will find greater opportunities. Instruction and Investigation. — With the growth of poultry husljandry, the need for instruction in principles and method on the one side, and investigation into problems which arise on the other, become more and more apparent. One aspect of this question I have already presented in another place. " In every aspect of life, advance from natural to what may be termed artificial conditions involves considerations, and often difficulties, which were unrealized, or, if known, regarded as un- important. That fact is seen in no direction more than in poultry breeding and jjroduction. With enlarged vision ques- tions assume a totally different phase. There is, however, a further point — namelj^, increase of numbers and modification of methods are themselves frequently contributory to checking attainment of the object in view, mainly by weakening the physical resistance. What would have been easily combated under more natural conditions exercises a powerful influence. THE LINES OF DEVELOPMENT 35 It is not until men have experienced the loss arising from abroga- tion of that balance which Nature maintains for preservation of all organic life, that they have to confront problems the solution of which are essential to success. We require to bring into our purview the marvellous advance of pathological knowledge which has marked recent j^ears, to study how far genetics and Mendelian theories will assist practical poultrymen, and to inquire into the relationships of breeds to their environment. It is the business of the investigator and experimentalist to probe these questions, to discern as far as possible how the equilibrium may be restored, to discover the way of avoidance of whatever is antagonistic, to apply enlarged knowledge in other directions to poultry-breed- ing, and to seek for shorter cuts to the end in view, as it is of the instructor to bring within the purview of those engaged in the pursuit the result of such inquiries, together with the experi- ence of others."* Unhappily, the United Kingdom, though France was first and England second in provision of systemized poultry -teaching, has been far behind in both that and investigational work. It is North America, both Canada and the United States, that has made the greatest advance in each direction. Every country that seeks to develop poultry husbandry must follow these examples, and by elementary and advanced poultry instruction, together with careful scientific research and practical experi- mental work, place the industry on a firm and sure basis. * Presidential Address, International Association of Poultry Instructors and Investigators, London, July, 1912. CHAPTER III THE BREEDS OF POULTRY That puritj^ of race in foAvLs or other poultry makes for pro- gression cannot be disputed. Nature herself works on those lines. Natural selection, as we understand it, not alone tends to elimination of the least fit, in so far as vigour of constitution is concerned, but also to inducing fixity of type, even to colora- tion of plumage and to general external characters, the object and purpose of which are unknown, under equal conditions of climate, soil, and food. In that way uniformity is secured over a greater or lesser area. It is to this fact we owe the evolution of many of our breeds of poultry, or at any rate the basis upon which these races as we know them to-day have been formed, Wliat, however, has been an even more powerful factor, even if supplemental to natural influences, is that which we call " arti- ficial selection " — namely, the compulsory and often arbitrary mating of poultry by man with some special end in view. To that we owe many breeds or varieties. The production of these is by no means terminated. Both natural and artificial influ- ences must be taken into consideration. Often artificial selec- tion is clisregardful of the environment, which in itself induces modifications the breeder is unable to overcome, and which change the typo to a considerable extent. Pure Breeds the Basis.' — It would be a waste of time and space to discuss whether pure-bred stock is preferable to mongrels. The entire position of the United Kingdom as a great breeding centre has been built up on its pure races of horses, cattle, and other varieties of stock. If mongrelism were to be preferred, then all the efforts of breeders for the last hundred years have been in vain, and the sooner we abandon the system the better will it be for all concerned. Whilst it may be conceded that sometimes pedigree and high-class breeding is carried to an extreme, and that competition for prizes does not encourage 3y owing to the absor])tion of a large part of its contents as food by the embryo " (Marsliall). From this time onwards the juincipal business of the chick, for such it may now be termed, is to grow, and it only rtnuiins necessary to indicate a few of the changes which take place, bringing about the distinctive type of the species and variety. As already seen, the feathers begin to appear on the ninth elay. Then the sacs in which they are containeel commence to force their way through the skin, and by the thirteenth day these are found all over the body, to the length of | inch, anel can be recognized as feathers by the nakeel eje. They, how- ever, remain in the sacs until hatching, when these sheaths burst anel are thrown off. On the eighth day the beak begins to show itself, first as a chalky-looking mass, which by the twelfth day has developeel into a horny beak, though still soft. It is not until the thirteenth elay that the nails take their form, and by the sixteenth elay these, together with the beak, harelen considerabh'. About the sixth elay movements can be discerned in the embryo, but these are comparatively slight until the fourteenth day, for it retains the same position all this time — luvmely, the boely is at right angles to the long axis of the egg. At the perioel namcel a eletinite change of position is to be noted, for the birel now moves so that it lies lengthwise in the egg, its beak touching the inner shell membrane, the air-space at the broael enel having greatly increased in size. This is the position a chii^k nnist occupy in order to make its way out of the shell, for if not so placed we shall have a false presentation, and probably inability on the part of the chick to make its way out. By the twentieth day the chick has grown so as to till all the shell except the air-siaace. The position is very beautifully shown by Fig. 20, drawn after Nature, anel from which the shell and membrane have been removeel. By this time the j^olk has been almost entirely absorbed, anel what remains in the sac is ch'awn into the body, the walls closing over it at the umbilicus. FORMATION OF THE EGG AND CHICKEN 221 This yolk serves to supply the chick's need for two to three clays after hatching, for Nature always provides in this manner for the first separate existence on the part of its creatxares. Process of Hatching. — ^^Ve have only now to describe the actual process of hatching. When ready for this work, the chick has only to lift its head and pierce the inner shell membrane, which it can easily accomplish under normal conditions, when it at once commences to breathe the air contained in the chamber. The doing so causes the pulmonary circulation to become func- tionally active, and the blood now ceases to flow through the umbilical arteries. As a result the allantois shrivels up. its purpose having been served. The head is lifted into the air chamber, and the chir-k has now room to deal blows upon ihe Fio. 20.— Chicken in Shell (immediately before Hatchixo). shell, which repeated upon the same place result in fracture of the shell. Turning round a little, this process is repeated, and so on until the shell is broken round about one-third from the broad end. When completed, by pressing its head against the broad end and its feet against the other portion, it is enabled to throw off the shell, and so it steps out into the world (Plate IX. , 5) . Briefly stated, we have here the process of development ; l)ut whilst we can observe and describe many of the processes taking place within the shell, the mystery of life itself, as of the in- fluences which give us the great divergences of type in our fowls, are still among the great secrets of Nature, who seems to say, and in no hesitating manner, " Thus far shalt thou go, and no farther." We may speculate in this direction, but of positive knowledge there is comparatively little. CHAPTER XV HATCHING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL In the setting of hens there are many essentials to success. I do not mean that unless these are observed hatching is im- possible, for eggs will frequently hatch under the most untoward conditions and in spite of most disadvantageous circumstances. Such a state of affairs cannot be reckoned u}ion. The first /essential to success is vigour and stamina of the stock birds. ^The dangers of inbreeding have alreadj^ been pointed out, and one of the most frecpient residts is that large numbers of the eggs produced are infertile, or become addled, or die during the early stages after hatching. Many instances could be cited in proof of this contention. Vigour of stock is absolutely necessary if the progeny are to be healthy and strong, and we require strong, healthy, untainted birds upon good nnis. Con- ditional influences are also important. Without parental vigour all efforts will be in vain. Eggs with strong germs hatch better, even where the conditions are less favourable, than those where every influence is helpful, but the parents are weaker in con- stitution. Elements in Hatching.— ^Heat, moisture, and oxygen appear to be the factors at work in the production of chickens from eggs) Heat is, of course, supplied by the hen, who also, if she be a gocd sitter, will see to the cooling, though as a rule it is better not to trust entirely to her for this. Moisture is beyond her control if the place of sitting is allotted to her. In some districts there is no trouble whatever on this score, as the atmosphere is natiirally and sufficiently saturated for the requirements of eggs. In others great care has to be taken, or dryness of the atmosphere will be fatal to successful hatching. Seasons also differ. A dry spring will demand more attention to the question of moisture than a moist one, and thus the poultry-kee]Der has to use his brains if he wishes to be successful. There is another 222 HATCHING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 223 influence which must be referred to, as it is a most important one to all those whose places are subject to cold easterly winds. It needs no description to impress this fact upon most poultry- keepers. What is the influence of east Avinds upon our fowls and then- eggs has never been satisfactorily explained, but eggs are less fertile, fertile eggs are very likely to be addled, and hens often go on strike, unless they are set in places much more com- fortable than fall to the lot of the majority of human beings. That explains why some seasons are unsatisf actor3\ Here, again, vigour in the parents is of supreme importance. Places for Sitters. — ^Where only two or three batches of eggs are to be hatched during the season, there need not be much difficulty in providing for them. A hen can be^etirLSQnae-ciuiet oiithouse or shed, where the work-will probably go on without any hindrance. In this case, if the house or shed can be given up to the hen entirely, it will only be necessary to provide a square box without a bottom, which, standing either upon the earth, if its floor be of that material, or upon sand or earth, if it has an artificial floor, will be the simplest arrangement. This box should be made to com- pletely cover the hen, but without a front, so that she can leave the nest whenever she wishes so to do. If it is thought desirable, such a box can be used with a door in front, so that, if necessity should arise, the hen can be enclosed. The form of hatching box commended is without bottom (Fig. 21), and for ordinary-sized fowls is made about 15 inches square, and 18 or 20 inches high. The material (wood, of course) is I or I inch boards, and it is built with solid back, sides, and top. The upper part of the front forms the door, which is the width of the box, and 15 inches high. A piece of deal 3 or 4 inches in depth, according to the height of the box, forms the lower section of this front, or, if a 20-inch-high box, the bottom piece may be 3 inches, and a similar lath, 2 inches wide, fixed at the top of the front. The loose portion is made the door, and is hinged at the bottom, fastening to the top by a button. When the door is open it falls downwards, and thus provides a firm footing for the hen in entering or leaving the nest. Three ventilation Fig. 21. — Close Hatching Box. 224 POULTRY HUSBANDRY holes should bo marie in each of the sides and back quite close to the top, a row al)out 4 inches from the botlnni, and half a Fio. 22. — Double Hatching Box with Ltds. dozen in the top, to which a handle can be, fitted. They are specially needed if there is a door to the box. ; Wire netting may })e stretched across the bottom as a protection against rats. 23.— Double Hatching Box. which is a very necessary precaution where these pests are troublesome. Fig. 22 shows a doTd)le })ox with lids, speciallj- for nse in hatching -rooms. Suc^h boxe>s can be used anywhere HATCHING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 225 whether one or a score hens are set in the same place, and they can also be utilized as lajang boxes when the hatching season is over. Where only a few hens are to be set, we should advise that later in the season (except in unusually cold weather) — say after the early part of April — ^the hens have their nests made out in the open. Some shelter will be necessary, but if one of the hatching boxes be used, all that will be required is either a rough covering or a coop, or the hen can be set in a coop, and then will not need to be disturbed when her chickens come out. On farms there are often sheds scattered about which can also be utilized. One of the difficulties of this plan — at least, in many parts of England — is that foxes are preserved. A capital arrangement in such districts is a double sitting box (Fig. 23) with runs. Hatching-Rooms. — By the expenditure of a little trouble, arrangements can be made by which a large number of hens can be set in a single room. In selecting a room for the purpose of sitting hens, it is desirable to have one as little subject to variations of temperature as possible, for there is then much less danger from sudden frosts. It must be clean and sweet. If the atmosphere is somewhat moist, it will be none the worse, moisture being a most important element in hatching operations. Then, again, if it is rather dark hens will sit all the better ; but in any case the sitting-room should be darkened, if it is not already sufficiently so. The thing to avoid most of all is a hot, dry place, for there it will be almost impossible to succeed in hatching operations. The plan I have adopted, and with the greatest success, is to place several of the hatching boxes already described in a special house, with their backs to and about a foot from the walls. In a room 15 feet square sixteen or eighteen of the hatching boxes can be accommodated, and I have had as many as twenty at one time. Each box should be at least C inches removed from its neighbour, so that there may be a free current of air all round, for air is a most important factor in the hatching of eggs. Thousands of eggs are addled, or the chickens asphj'xiated, by foul air with which they are surrounded, and which the chicken, if it can be so termed at that early stage, within the shell, is thus compelled to breathe. There should be a layer of fine earth — say 6 or 7 inches thick' — on the floor, upon which the hatching boxes are to be placed. This layer is better if continued entirety around the room, and in no case should it be merely enough for the box to stand upon. The reason for this will be explained afterwards. It will thus be seen that, 15 22G rOULTRY HUSBANDRY when the boxes are all placed in position, the doors will face towards the centre, for it is necessary to have doors on, or lids to, the hatching boxes when this plan is followed. The form of hatching house illustrated in Fig. 24 is French in idea, and can be confidently recommended. It consists of a shed fitted with sitting boxes in two tiers. These boxes differ from those already described, in that they have lids on top, and the hens are lifted off the nest. Outside the house is a covered shed, where the feeding cages are placed, as described in the next paragraph. HATCHING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 227 Outside Feeding Cages. — ^An excellent arrangement (Fig. 25), which has proved most effective, simplifies the work where a large number of hens are sitting at one time. As a rule in France baskets are employed with lids on top, and the nests made in much the same way as already recommended. Outside the hatching-room, under a shed, is a row of half a dozen square coops with barred fronts. Every day each hen is placed in one of these coops for about half an hour, in order to feed and dust herself, during which time the basket or the hamper is left oj)en so that the eggs may be cooled. The floor of the coop is thickly covered with fine dry earth or ashes, which the fowls enjoy and thus rid themselves of parasites. If six hens be fed at the same time, and each one be removed to the feeding cages in rota- tion, there is no danger of returning them to the wrong nest. We may here mention that a mistake is made in not cooling eggs sufficiently. Later observations have shown that, with a room Fig. 25. — Feeding Cages for Sitters. temperature above 45°, an hour is not too long after the first week. More harm is done by under than over cooling, for there is much truth in the old sajdng, " A close sitter is a bad sitter." Making the Nests. — In making the nests within the boxes, a shovelful of earth or ashes is first placed therein, and then hollowed out into saucer shaj)e, taking care that all the corners are filled, lest any of the eggs roll there and be chilled. There are breeders who use damp grass sods, but, as the object of both earth and sods is to give that cool dampness which is so essential to successful hatching, earth is to be preferred, as it can be made to fill up the box better. Upon this earth a nest is made of fine straw, oaten preferred, and which is all the better if well beaten or rubbed in the hands before being placed in the nest. When completed, the nest should be slightly below the level of the cross-piece at the front. The eggs should have no tendency to roll out, but always strongly incline to the centre of the nest. As a rule, when eggs are placed in a hatching box. 228 POULTRY HUSBANDRY and a broody hen piit down before it, she will go on at once of her own accord. Sometimes, however, that is not so. A de- sirable plan, therefore, in setting hens, when they are put to a strange nest, is to let them have a few addled or dummy eggs at first. This is to j)revent valuable eggs being wasted. When boxes with lids are employed, the hens must be placed on the nest. Cooling and Feeding. — If there are twelve or fifteen hens sitting at one time, and all these have to be liberated for feeding and dusting separately, it will be seen that the attention of someone will be pretty fully taken up. The hens must be allowed out daily, and they cannot be let out together, or there will be con- flict, resulting in general disaster. That can be obviated by the plan already recommended. If the time of an attendant can be given to the sitting hens, a simple way is to open the door of each box in turn, give the hen half an hour, then close her in, and open the next. Should any not have come off, they must be lifted, both for their own sakes and the cooling of eggs. The earth or ashes below the box will provide much of the moistness needed b}^ the eggs; but in a very diy place, or during dry weather, it is desirable to keep the earth moist by pouring on it, around the box, a jMnt of hot water daity. This is much to be preferred to moistening eggs themselves, a plan which does more harm than good. Nests should be examined every day. When a hen has to be lifted off, as where lidded boxes are used, it is necessary to exercise very great care in doing it, to avoid breaking any eggs. Hens usually tuck the eggs tightly under their wings, especially when disturbed; and if a hen be lifted up bodily, the chances are all in favour of an egg droj^ping down upon others in the nest and making a general smash. Some- times an egg is accidentally broken, and the contents adhere to her breast and to the shells of eggs remaining in the nest. If this be the case, a further breakage is certain to result iniless the matter be put right. Should a hen foul her nest, which should never take place if she is let out at regular periods, the same result may accrue. It is to prevent this kind of thing that wc advocate daily examination of nests. And as it is desirable not to allow a hen to be disturbed more than is necessary, that should take place at the time of feeding. Hens should be fed on hard grain, such as wheat, or barley, or oats. They should be provided with fresh water daily, and have a good dust bath. Hatching by Turkeys. — In some parts of France large numbers of chickens are hatched under turkeys, and the same i)lan has HATCHING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 229 been tried successfully in this country. Should a hen turkey become broody in her first year, when it is inadvisable to breed from her, she may be usefully employed in this manner. Not only will she cover twice the number of eggs and brood three times the number of chickens that can be given to an ordinary hen, but she is most reliable, is less affected by weather, and ready when called upon at three or four days' notice. Moreover, the male birds can be used in this way as well as the females. Choice of Eggs for Hatching. — Selection of eggs to be used for hatching purposes does not usually receive the attention which its importance demands. Given that such selection has been from birds mated specially for reproductive values, the eggs themselves must be carefully chosen. Those that are abnormal in size, whether over or under the average, in shape, or shell formation, should be rejected. What we have to seek for is a strong-shelled, well-shaped egg, which may be slightly above the average in size, as there is always present the tendency towards recession to the normal in the last-named direction. It is undoubtedly true that the size of egg has little actual correlation to the ultimate size of bodj^ of the chicken from it. Many of the breeds which produce large eggs are small-bodied, and vice versa. At the same time, size of egg for marketing is an important factor in the realizable values. If undersized eggs are selected for hatching, we are breeding from the hens that lay these, and passing on to the next generation the same tendency. By selection the size of egg can be materially im- proved in a few generations, and small eggs be eliminated. At the same time this must be done gradually and with judgment. Eggs which are much larger than the average of the breed are often infertile, and in any case are weaker than those conforming to the usual standard. Eggs should also be used as fresh as possible. If held even for a few days, they should be kept in a cool place. Register of Hatching. — It is an excellent plan to have a book containing a register of the hatching operations, so that records can be kept for reference, both present and future. Each sitting box should have attached to it a card or label, easily seen by the attendant. The following is a simple form for the purpose: Breeds of eggs Date set . . . . . . . . Date to hatch . . . . . . Number of eggs . . . . . . Number fertile on seventh day .. Eggs broken . . . . . . Chickens hatched . . . . Remarks . . . . . . . . 230 POULTRY HUSBANDRY Testing the Eggs. — At one time many poultry-keepers had a divided objection to interfering with the eggs during the time of sitting. That has been shown to be a sentimental objection, for there are very many advantages in testing them. When hens are doing the work, or the eggs are in incubators, the eggs should be tested during the process. This is preferably on the seventh day, and then by candle or lamp light. The object of this test is to see how many of the eggs are fertile, so that those that are clear can be taken away; and as they are still good for culinary purposes, it will be evident on that account alone there is a very strong argument in favour of the system. In large establishments some hundreds of eggs can be saved every year in this manner, which will represent a respectable item in the year's returns. There is another and still more important argument in its favour — namelj^, the space occupied by these useless eggs can be filled up, and the work either of hen or machine be used for such eggs as are of real value for hatching purposes. For instance, if thi'ce hens are set at one time — and two or three should always be set to- gether — and on the first examina- tion it is found that one-third of the eggs are infertile, when the useless ones are removed there will be just sufficient for two hens, and the third hen can be set again with a fresh batch of eggs. The fact is that this test enables, as a rule, as many chicks to be hatched with two-thirds the number of hens which would be needed under the other system. Coming to the method of examination. Fig. 26 represents external appearance of eggs when tested by light during the process of development. First remove all eggs from the nest, cither when the hen is feeding or after lifting her off for the purpose, and hold them between a candle or lamp and the eye. The best time to do this is at night, and a candle or lamp can be }ilaccd at a convenient height for the purpose. Then take an egg in the left hand, holding it between the forefinger and thumb, using the other fingers of the 2nd day. 5th day. 8th day. 11th day. 19th day. Infertile or addled egg. Fig. 2G.— Appearance through Shell during Incubation. HATCHING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 231 hand as a shade to keep the light from the eye. The right hand is next put around the part of the egg left exposed, and the fuigers of that hand used also as a shade (Fig. 27). The object is to only permit the light to be seen bj^ the eye through the body of the egg, and a very little practice will enable anyone to hold it properly. Some use black cardboard, cutting in it an oval hole scarcely so large as the egg; and there are also egg-testers sold at about a shilling each, made of tin covered partially with black cloth. These are perhaps the simplest, though we have always been able to test much more quickly when using only the hands, as ah'eady described. In Fig. 28 is shown a powerful testing lamp, bj' which the germ can be distinguished at forty- eight to sixty hours. When the egg is fertile, the appearances ^vill Fig. 27.- -HOW TO TEST AN EgG Candlelight. 28.— Testing Lai be seen as in Fig. 26. In this way we can tell whether the egg is fertile. If infertile, it is clear to the end, no matter how long it is sat upon. Incubators and their Use. — Artificial incubation has fascinated many minds for several centuries, and those who object to the adoption of this system may perhaps be surprised to learn that for nearly 2,000 years artificial hatching and rearing have been followed in Egypt, China, and other countries. The Egyptian egg ovens offer the most striking example of what can be carried out in the modification of natural methods. It has been stated that there are at the present time in Lower Egj^pt several hundred of these hatching establishments, in some cases with a capacity 232 POULTRY HUSBANDRY of 40,000 eggs at one time. No useful purpose would be served in giving a description of these ovens, which are evidently of a most primitive character, and dej)end upon the skill of the operator to a remarkable extent. The operators are members of families who have carried on the work for centuries, and hire themselves out to the proprietors for the hatching season. In the ovens no effort seems to be put forward to secure ventilation or regulation of temperature, and heat is engendered by the burning of dried camel dung on shelves above the eggs, the latter being placed in heaps upon the floors. I have endeavoured from time to time to obtain some reliable figures as to the jDcrcentage of hatching, but without success. In one case, how- ever, I was informed that the loss of eggs by death in shell is enormous, amounting frequently to as much as 60 per cent. The first records with which we are familiar as to any attempts in Western Euroj)e are contained in a work written by M. c^e Reaumur, of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris, the English edition of which was published in 1750. M. de Reaumur tried many methods, including the Chinese system of hatching by means of dung, obtaining the necessary heat from decomposition of that material. The results were not encouraging. During the last century many attemj)ts were made in this direction. At the first great International Exhibition in 1851 an incubator was exhibited, made by M. Cantello, and which commanded a large amount of attention. It was on a large scale, and the inventor, believing that the heat was communicated to the eggs by actual contact of the hen, used india-rubber on the lower side of the tank, resting it upon the eggs. The machine did not command any amount of success, and soon passed into oblivion. Manj' other attempts were made. The first I had personal ex- perience with was the " Bojde " incubator in 1877 — a most in- genious machine, but far too intricate and expensive. A little later a smaller machine was patented on the Cantello principle, but from want of an efficient method of regulation, in which the " Boyle " was almost perfect, and from the fact that large num- bers of the chicks hatched were crushed by the weight of the water and the sagging of the india-rubber, it did not succeed. These and other machines were far too intricate, cumbersome, and costly, and it was not until the year 1878, when M. Rouiller, Princii^al of the French School of Aviculture at Gambais, intro- duced his hydro-incubator, that this system of hatching became at all practical. The machine named, which is still used in a modified form to some extent in France, had no lamp or regulator, the heat being maintained by the removal of a portion of the HATCHING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 233 water in the tank every twelve hours, and the substitution of a relative quantity of boiling water. Although under these con- ditions fine regulation was impossible, I hatched very success- fully with it. The trouble involved, however, was considerable. Modifications of this machine were made, but it is not too much to say that the introduction of the " Hearson " incubator in 1883 made the adoption of the sj'stem possible to a degree not known previously. ]\Ir. Hearson's invention, which is fully described later, was in all respects a remarkable advance upon anything that had gone before, and brought the system within the compass of poultry-keepers of every grade. To the gentleman named poultrj^-keepers in all parts of the world owe a great debt, and his invention has extended the opportunities of poultry -keepers to a degree never yet fully recognized. Are Incubators Practical ?— Within the past few years the increase of artificial methods of hatching and rearing chickens has been enormous. When incubators were first brought out they were very unreliable, but the experience gained, and the increase of knowledge as to the opportunities underlying this system, have led to a realization of the importance of hatching by other than the natural methods. Much of the increase of use, however, is due to the undoubted growth of the poultry industry in this countrj^ to which artificial hatching has contributed, and it has been found again and again that those who were more progressive and adopted the newer methods succeeded where others had failed. Thus the laggards have been compelled in self-defence to follow in their footsteps. The use of incubators at one time was practically confined to fanciers and amateurs, and to a few of those who kept poultry for profit, but this is no longer the case. Instead of being a fad on the part of the few, artificial hatching is now a practical necessitj\ The great advantage offered by incubators is the increase of power on the part of the breeder. Instead of being limited in his hatching by the vagaries or natural instincts of his hens, he is now in a position to hatch at almost any season of the j'ear. One of the results of our breeding during the paso twenty years has been to reduce the suj^ply of broody hens, owing to the development of egg production. This in itself is partially the result of the introduction of artificial methods, because breeders dare not have bred for egg production to the same extent if they had been compelled to depend upon hens alone. The use of incubators has been enormously increased from this fact, and also the wide dissemination of the non-sitting varieties. To use an American expression, there can be no question that incubators 234 POULTRY HUSBANDRY " have come to stay/' and it is difficult to realize what our position would have been without them. Nor are incubators used in isolated instances, and many of those who read these pages would be surprised to find the number of machines which may be at work upon one place. Poultry breeders with six to ten incubators are common, and there are a few instances where from twenty to a hinidred are now in use at one establishment. Use of Incubators. — Believing that the future of the poultry industry in this country largely depends upon the adoption of artificial methods of hatching and rearing, it is desirable to indi- cate the reasons for that opinion. The irregularitj^ of hens at other than the ordinary season has been a frequent complaint. Not only are these uncertain as to when they will become broody, but there is always an amount of risk that, should the weather become suddenly colder, they may desert the eggs, which is a very serious matter early in the season and with valuable eggs. Moreover, every hen has to lay a number of eggs before she evinces any signs of broodiness, and these may be more valuable as potential chickens than for marketing purposes. It is impos- sible to use them unless other hens are available or we have an incubator. By machines we can hatch at any season of the year when fertile eggs are to be obtained, which is an important con- sideration for early chickens and for pullets intended to lay the following winter. A further recommendation is that with the great increase of non-sitting varieties of poultrj^ and the gradual elimijiation of those breeds which set early and often, breeders are finding sitters scarcer everj^ year; many of the most popular varieties, even though thej^ are sitters, by reason of having been bred to develop production, are comparatively late in becoming broody. We do not desire, however, to dethrone the hen from her position. The better plan is to use both systems. Until hens are ready to commence work we must depend upon incu- bators; so soon as they show the instinct, then it is desirable to take advantage of it. Limitations of Artificial Methods. — At the same time, nccessaiy though artificial methods arc, and acknowledging the vast im- provements made in these machines, the fact has become evident that these are second-best, and that there is something in Nature's own way which no machine invented has been able to supply. Whether this problem will ultimately be resolved it is impossible to suggest. Careful observations over a very long period, and extended experience in many countries, have made that fact evi- HATCHING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 235 dent. In some cases the mortality in incubator chickens has been enormous. I do not attribute that to the use of incubators alone, but to a combination of influences. In fact, I am inclined to the opinion that machine hatching has been responsible to the smaller extent. In many instances those who have used incubators, in addition have kept the breeding stock within confined areas, have bred almost entirel}^ from pullets, and fed upon forcing lines, often using closelj^ related birds, all of which have made for degeneracy, although the final bad results are unfairly attributed to the incubator alone. The question is therefore a very serious one. In experience I have found that, taking a whole season's operations, which is the real test, the percentage of chickens hatched was higher under hens than with incubators, and that the chickens, when reared for stock or lajing purposes, have greater constitutional vigour. All that we have been able to learn and do has not enabled us to reach the natural standard. Incubators are an absolute necessit}^ but their position is to supplement, not take the place of, hens. Wherever and whenever possible, the latter should be employed for production of breeding stock, lea^^ng the machines to hatch layers and table chickens or ducklings, in which direc- tions the opportunities are greater than ever. I do not suggest than an incubator may not be employed, say, for bringing out early birds. It is their persistent use year after year that is to be avoided in the breeding of stock birds. Hen Oil. — A theory has been advanced of late that chickens hatched b}^ artificial methods lack something which is imparted to the egg by the hen, and the fact is cited in support — which must be obvious to all observant poultry-keepers — that the shells of eggs under hens are coated with a very fine film of oil. The suggestion made is that this oil imparts a degree of \igour to the chick which cannot be obtained M'hen artificial methods are employed, or that it prevents evaporation. Such a sugges- tion has met with a considerable amount of opposition. Dis- cussing this question with the late M. Van der Snickt of Brussels, he informed me that in Belgium the reason why artificial methods of hatching had not in raanycases been adopted by the peasants in some districts, is that they strongly hold the opinion here expressed. He stated that it is a common practice on the part of Belgian peasants to kill an old hen and to rub the eggs over with part of her fat, even when these are to be covered by hens. Upon this point, however, we have no definite information, and cannot do more than simply mention the theory as put forward. 236 POULTRY HUSBANDRY Incubator Houses. — ^Tlic increase of artificial incubators has developed the need for arrangements, where this work is carried out upon a large scale, suited to those conditions. In many places, where only one incubator is used, it is not at all difficult to provide that the machine shall be kept quiet and supplied with the attention and management it requires. If we multiply the number considerably, it then becomes necessarj^ to make other arrangements. It is easity understood that, if only one incubator is at work in a room, the amount of influence upon the atmosphere by the burning of an oil-lamp for maintaining the temperature would be comparatively small ; but if there were a dozen incubators, the exhaustion of oxj^gen would be very rapid indeed. Hence experience has shown that, unless great care is taken in this direction, there is danger of the results being less satisfactory when operations are upon the larger scale. That is so, however, in all departments of life ; what can be done on a small scale does not necessarily follow when the amount of work accomplished is greatly increased. In America, poultry breeders have of recent years largely adoj)ted the system of incubator cellars, as they are called, the greater part of which is underground, but that system has not been found necessary in our own country. We must bear in mind that in America the winters are very much colder and the summers hotter than with us, and these incubator cellars have been devised specially to counteract the extremes in one direction or the other. There can be no question that for one or two machines, and in the ab- sence of a special house, a cool, sweet cellar is one of the best places for incubator work, by reason of the fact that it is cooler in summer and warmer in winter than an ordinary building above-ground. In many cases, unless they are specialty built, ventilation is bad, and there is frequently a close smell which betokens impurity of atmosphere, I have been much surprised in visiting some poultry plants to note the disregard of efficient ventilation, and that the object is to crowd as many machines as possible into a given space, both of which conduce to failure. Eggs containing living embryos all the time are practically breathing, certainly after the first week. A constant circulation of air is required to carry from the egg the gases formed, and to replace these by oxygen, which can only be if the atmosphere is pure and abundant. Overcrowding involves denial of suitable conditions, and want of efficient ven- tilation lack of what is the most important element. In our incubator house (Fig. 29) we allowed 2 cubic feet of air- space for every egg undergoing the j^rocess, and that is the mini- HATCHING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 237 mum, combined with a constant circulation of fresh air, in the direction of successful operation. In this country an above- ground building is to be preferred for larger incubator houses, and in these ventilation is much easier of accomplishment. In this connection I describe an incubator house which was used most successfully. The accommodation in the house was for twelve incubators, although there was sufficient room to place other four should they be reqiiired. The house (Fig. 29) was 32 feet in length by 16 feet in width, divided into two sections, one 27 feet by 16 feet, and the outer room or porch 5 feet by 16 feet. The whole stood upon concrete foundations, with a floor of Staffordshire tiles, so that it was solid and firm. The walls were 8 feet 6 inches in height at the eaves, rising to 11 feet at the apex of the gable, and the walls made of double boarding, the wood employed being red deal an inch in thiclviiess, and well put together. Between there was a lining of felt. The roof consisted first of inch boarding, upon which was laid felt, and covered finally with corrugated iron. It will be seen that the substantial character of the building had the effect of making the incubator- room less subject to outside atmospheric influences than would be the case if the walls and roof were built of lighter material. Fig. 31 shows the ground-plan of shed. In a building of this kind the consumption of oxygen in the atmosphere when twelve lamps are burning, and also to supply the 1,200 eggs — which was the capacity of the machines at work — must be verj^ considerable, and, after careful consideration of this question, a system of ventilation was adopted which was a novelty. Outside were eight 3-inch pipes, their terminals 5 feet above the ground, as shown in the illustration. These were carried down outside to within a foot of the floor, and then entered the building, the air passing through regulating gratings inside, so that the current could be controlled. The object of bringing the air in below the level of the machines was in order that, as it ascended, such as was required for the eggs could pass directly into the incubators without being contaminated by the lamps, whilst at the same time the lamps themselves were sup- plied with perfectly fresh air. In the apex of the gables we had large regulating ventilators, so that the air entering a little above the floor was drawn upwards to the lamps and the machines, and then passed out above. This method of ventilation proved an ixnqualified success. During warmer weather more air could be given by opening the windows. It may be explained that these windows — of which there were four — were all on the east side of the house. Under no circumstances should windows in 238 POULTRY HUSBANDRY incubator sheds be on the south side, or even on the west, be- cause during the hotter months of the year that would raise the temperature of the room to a very large extent. In order to provide against excessive heat, this incubator house was placed HATCHING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 239 under the shade of a very large wahiiit-tree, keeping it cool in summer. As already explained, the building was divided into two parts — namely, the larger room for the incubators themselves (Fig. 30) ; and the outer room, where the stores were kept and the lamps were cleaned. This outer room was fitted with cupboards, the tops of which were covered with lead, for cleaning and refilling the lamps, and thus there was no danger of oil being spilled near the incubators. Large double doors opened from the outside. 240 POULTRY HUSBANDRY first into the small room, and from there into the inciihator-room. Inside were tables for cooling and testing the eggs. These were fitted with flanges, so that as the eggs were tested thej^ could be UTOR 1 1 1 1 i 5 laid upon the tables without any danger of rolling off. For the work of testing, the shutters fitted to the windows could be closed. Of course, the cost of a house such as described is considerable, but it is imiDossible to work successfully under antagonistic con- MATCHING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 241 ditions, and those who go in for incubation upon a large scale will find that the capital exj)ense is justified. Types of Machines. — One result of the great increase in the use of incubators has been to stimulate their production, and many machines are now offered for sale. So long as the Hearson patents were in force, that type stood alone, and there was no serious competitor. With the removal of any restriction, we have many others which are confessedly copies of the " Hearson,'' and are sold as such, in some cases with minor modi- fications. Within the last few years a new class of incubator has appeared, on what is known as the hot-air principle, and it will be sufficient if we select for description one representative machine of each class. In selecting an incubator, we must look to excellence of manufacture, but primarily to the principle upon which it works. The struggle is between the tank and hot-air machines, both of which have their advocates. Our predilection has been, and is yet, in a variable climate such as that prevailing in the United Kingdom for the tank machine under ordinary conditions. We have found, however, the " Cyphers " to yield satisfactory results. This may be explained by the fact that in our incubator shed the variations of temperature were minimized greatly, and the most favourable conditions provided. The fact that incubator cellars are largelj^ employed in America may explain why hot-air machines have there met with so great a success, though a better knowledge of essential factors in incuba- tion, and consequent modification in the machines, has helped this result. In selecting the " Hearson " and " Cyphers " incu- bators as representatives of their respective types, we do so with- out suggesting that other appliances are not equally efficient. Tank Incubators. — ^The English incubator which has attained the greatest amount of success is the " Hearson " (Fig. 32), and its widespread use in all parts of the world stamps it as an almost perfect machine. It is excellently designed and carefully made, with a marvellously delicate regulator, well applied to the purpose in view. The regulator consists of a small metal capsule, formed of two pieces of thin brass sheet, soldered together at the edges. Inside are about twenty drops of a liquid which boils at the tem- perature required to be maintained (104°). So long as this capsule is not subjected to sufficient heat to make the contents expand, the pieces of brass remain close together, but when the warmth is high enough they distend considerably. The power thus generated is used to work a lever, by means of which a cap is raised from the escape chimney. The hot air from the lamp, 16 242 POULTRY HUSBANDRY instead of entering into a tube running through the water tank, passes o&, and the temperature immediatelj' sinks again. We have known this regulator keep an incubator to within half a degree for weeks, in spite of var^nng weather. The eggs are laid in a concave drawer upon perforated zinc, below which is a water traj^ ; and as fresh air can only enter from below, and has to pass through a cloth soaked with water, it becomes charged with moisture, by which means this important element is pro- vided for. All that is required is to see that the air is not very Fig. 32. — ^Hkakson & I^cLBAToIi cold as it enters the inlet, for then there is danger of too little water being absorbed b}' it. The " Hearson " incubator is made in several sizes, from a dozen eggs upwards, but we prefer the use of those of fifty to two hundi'ed egg capacity, as these are found more reUable. Further details are given in the section di-a"wing on p. 243 (Fig. 33). Hot-Alr Incubator. — ^This machine, as already- explained, is of American make, and has been largelj- sold in Europe. Its external appearance is shown in Fig. 34. Not ha\'ing a tank considerabh' reduces the cost of production, but it differs dis- HATCHING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 243 tiuctly in other respects from the machines which are ahnost universal here, apart from the question of hot an-. In the fu'st place, the method of ventilation is altogether changed; there is no bottom supply of an-, nor are there any holes for either inlet or escape in the egg chamber of the machine. In appearance wo have the same compact bod}^ with a lamp at one side. Fresh air is drawn upwards by the side of the lamp, and is moistened Fig. 33. — Section of Hearson's Incubator. A A. — Tank of water. B B. — ^lovable egg tray. C C— Water tray. D D D. — -Holes for fresh air. E E. — -Ventilating holes. F. — ■Damper. G. Lever. H.— Lead weight. K K. — Slips of wood. LLL. — 'Lamp chimney and flue pipe. M M iL — Non - conducting material. N. — -Tank themiometer. 0. — -Needle for communica- ting the expansion of the capsule S to the lever G. P. — -Milled head screw. R.— Filling tube. S. — Thermostatic capsule. T. — Petroleum lamp. V. — -Chimney for discharge of surplus heat. W.— Chimney for discharge of residual products of combustion. The overflow tube is the upper one, situated at the right-hand side of incubator, and the lower tube is for emptying the tank. in so doing, the heated air passing into an upper chamber above the egg drawer without being affected by the fumes of the lamp. The air chamber has at the bottom a framework upon which is stretched felting, which should be replaced every two or three 5'ears, through which the heat has to find its waj^ downwards. It will be realized that in this passage, which must be compara- tively slow, there are no streams of hot air, and the heat is dis- 244 POULTRY HUSBANDRY tributed by diffusion, which secures regularity and uniformity of temperature. The heat now passes do vvn through the egg chamber and into a lower chamber, from which it is drawn outwards bj' the heat of the lamp. It is claimed in this way that there is an even distribution with regidar circulation, and that therefore an even temperatiu-e is maintained. At first, in machines of this class, moisture was not sui)plied, as it was said that there is always enough moisture in the atmosphere to supply the needs of the chickens. That is no longer suggested, as nearly all in- cubators of this t3'j)e have a moisture supply near the lamp. The absence of a moisture traj'^ does away with the necessity of an influx of cold air, and therefore all the air j^assing into the machine is warmed. The makers state that as it enters the air increases in moisture, and by the time it reaches the air chamber its relative humidity is equal to that of the outer air. The regulator consists of a double- action thermostat. It is many years since the thermostat was first tried in this country, and given up because it was less delicate than the capsule invented and introduced b}'^ ]\Ir. Hearson. The makers of the "Cyphers," however, have now greatly improved the thermostat, and the power is more than sufficient to main- tain regularity of temperature. The fumes from the lamp escape by a chimney, over which a cap is placed similar to that met with in various English machines, and is regulated by that cap. There are several other points in this incubator which are interesting. In the first place, there is no drying box; the trays do not quite fill the egg chamber, and the chickens coming forward to the light — as there are windows inserted in front — drop down below the egg tray and remain underneath. This is an interesting change which could scarcely be adopted with safety if the inlet of air were from below, but, as the hot air descends upon the eggs, the air is not contaminated by the chickens. Trays are provided divided into different compartments, so that the eggs from different breeds may be kept in the same incubator, and distinct for registration and rearing purposes. Fig. 34. — "Cyphers" Incubator. HATCHING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 245 Mammoth Incubators. — ^The egg ovens of Egypt are hatching- rooms rather than incubators. Within recent years many at- tempts have been made in this direction m Europe and America, more especially the latter, due to the enormous advance of poultry husbanch-y, to the establishment of large poultry farms, and to the trade in day-old chicks supplied from hatching centres, in all of which economy of labour is an important consideration. In practice, however, it has been found that the form referred to was not successful. Regulation of temperature was very difficult under such conditions, and, also, I am of opinion that the massing of great numbers and reduction of ventilation to conserve heat explain the failures. As a result, the types which have been introduced of late are heated from one source. In this way one of these " Mammoth " incubators may have a capacity for almost any number of eggs. That there will be an increasing demand for apparatus of this kind cannot be questioned. How far it will extend is a question to be determined. Their use will be restricted to the few, and, generally speaking, it will always be that the majority of farmers and others will prefer to have their owTi machine, in wliich case smaller incubators are likely to be more profitable. From the fact that changes are taking place in the types of large incubators, I do not attempt any description, as those now in use may be changed. Management of Incubators.— The fact of having an incubator is, however, not in itself the primary question. These machines, however ornamental and well made they may be, are absolutely useless unless they effect the purpose in view — ^namely, the hatching of strong, liveable chickens. Hence the importance of proper management. For more than sixty j'-ears it has been possible to hatch chickens artificially. In the earlier days, undoubtedly, these birds were very inferior in natural vigoiu" to those brought out by orcUnary methods, due to many causes with which it is unnecessary at the present time to deal ; in fact, it was at one time an axiom that chickens could be hatched arti- ficially, but not reared. The explanation was that they lacked stamina and strength. The consequence was that, even where the percentage produced was a satisfactory one, the number reared was exactly the reverse. For a long time it was not easy to understand the reason for this state of things. Part, un- doubtedly, depended ui)on the treatment of the chickens after they emerged from the shell. I beheve that some of the mor- tality in chickens was owing to the system of removing them from the incubators very speedily after they were hatched, as well as to coddling during^thejDeriod of raising. More however. 246 POULTRY HUSBANDRY was due to a failure in realization of several points in respect to the machines themselves. Experience has shown that success with any incuhator depends to a considerable extent upon even- ness of temperature, but even more to the arrangement for the supply, during the entire period of development, of fresh, pure air. A badly-ventilated incubator woidd undoubtedly residt in a large number of chickens dead in shell, varying in the extent of their development, to some degree, upon the vigour of the embryo. In seeking to conserve the heat, the danger with many machines was that the chickens whilst in the shell were not supplied with the amount of oxygen reqiiisite for their develop- ment. Until this point was understood, there can be no question that incubators were most unreliable and doubtful as to their value. The inventor of the " Hearson " incubator must be given credit for being amongst the first to make provision for a constant supply of fresh air. At the same time, even with a machine so good as the " Hearson," much depended upon the conditions under which it was placed. Any mechanism can only operate sviccessfully within its limitations. An important point is the temperature at which incubators should be operated. If we were able always to keep machines in the usual spring temperature — say 60° F. — attention to this point would be needless. But we have to provide against varia- tions, and must act in accordance therewith. Our object is to keep the eggs whilst hatching as near 102° F. as possible, as that is about the heat of a hen. In the majority of incubators it is impossible to keep the registering thermometer among the eggs, as it would either not be seen easily or would be liable to break. Hence, in nearly all makes it is above the eggs. For that reason it does not record the actual temperature, but of the stratum of air immediately above. In a machine with bottom ventilation, and in which is constantly going on a conflict between the heat from above and the cool air entering below, the difference js greater than where the air circulates downwards; but in both cases every inch makes an appreciable difference . For these reasons, the temperature at which a tank incubator is worked, as represented by the thermometer, should be varied in accordance with the following table (hot-air machines one degree less) : Degrees F. Degrees F. Degrees F. Degrees F. 70 103 Room Egg chamber 40 106 50 105 60 104 80 102 HATCHING, NATUEAL AND ARTIFICIAL 251 It will be found that running incubators on this basis will maintain eggs all through at practically the same temperature. Moisture. — ^That a certain amount of moisture is required in the air surrounding the eggs during the incubatory period is an luidoubted fact; but even at this date, after upwards of thirty- five years in the practice of artificial hatching, it is impossible to state with any degree of certainty what weight of water vapour per cubic foot of air is necessary. In practically all incubators, whether of the tank or hot-air type, some means are provided of adding moisture to the air in the egg chamber. In machines of the former type this addition is brought about by use of a water tray under the egg drawer; in the latter type a damper which delivers its moisture to the ingoing air is employed. As it is impossible to give any definite figures in this connection, we advise all operators to adhere strictly to the instructions given by the maker of the incubator they are working. The whole question of the influence of moisture in incubation requires solution, but, although experimenters are working along this line, no definite results have accrued. It is our opinion that, for the successful hatching of a large number of liveable chickens, all eggs should lose a definite proportion of their original weight during the first nineteen days of incubation, but at the present there is no simple way of determining the exact rate or extent of the loss. Until such time as more exact information is to hand, the advice given above should be followed. General Hints. — ^The following general hints should be observed by all incubator workers, in addition to directions sent out by makers of each machine : 1. Place the machine where there will be a constant supjily of fresh an-, but carefully avoid draughts. 2. If possible, keep the temperature of the room at from 55° to 65° F. 3. See that the water trays are regularly supplied with water, which should be first warmed. 4. Always warm eggs before putting into the machine by washing in water heated to 80° F. This is specially imjDortant when there are eggs already in the drawer. 5. Mark the eggs with the date when put in, and that when due. Also, if there is no turning apparatus, put signs " X " and " " on two sides to know how far they should be turned. This should be done twice a day, but must be once. 6. Cool the eggs twice a day, for ten minutes in winter, and for fifteen minutes in summer; but if the room is warm longer 252 POULTRY HUSBANDRY eooling is recommended. In tank machines the lamp flame should bo lowered or removed whilst the eggs are being t\u-ned and cooled. 7. Observe the temperature of egg di-awer whenever the in- cubator is attended to, as a guide to its correct worldng. 8. Do not open the egg drawer too often whilst hatching is proceeding; when the chicks are out, remove the empty shells, and place the chicks in drying box, where one is provided. 9. Always keep the lamp clean, properly supplied with oil, and do not burn it higher than is necessary. 10. See that there are no vibrations or jarring shocks in the incubator -room, as these cause deformity in the chickens. CHAPTER XVI REARING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL Provision for rearing chickens varies to a much greater extent than does hatching. In this direction there can be no absohite uniformity. Much depends upon the conditions available and the opportunities presenting themselves. A further point is that, whilst the natural and artificial methods of rearing must necessarily differ, practically speaking the period during which such differences exist only extends over the first six to eight weeks of life, after which these disappear. When the birds are intended for early killing, the system of growing adopted is a non-natural one, in whatever manner the chicks are hatched and reared. That aspect of the case is dealt with in succeeding chapters. Therefore, whilst there must be differentiation as to the early stages of rearing, such disappears at a later period. Place to Rear. — Chickens require dry conditions, more espe- cially in the cooj) or house where they spend the nights, and also on the surrounding ground. Damp is fatal to them, more so than any influence against which they have to contend. The ideal spot is on the southern slope of a hill on which are an abundance of bushes or trees. If, however, such could alone be used, that would limit the work to a comparatively few people. All others must make the best possible use of their conditions, as these cannot be altered. At the same time there is generally a measure of choice. The prime factors are^ — first, a dry, kindly soil, well drained, so as to rapidly carry off the water in wet weather; second, for early broods, a position which at one and the same time enables them to take advantage of all the sunshine there may be, and yet protects them against strong, cold winds and driving rain ; and, third, that the soil shall be good, containing as much of natural food as possible, more especially after the infantile stage has passed. Sand is deficient in this respect, and should be avoided. Insect and grub life, and green food, are necessary to healthy and rajjid growth, and exercise in seeking 2.53 254 POULTRY HUSBANDRY for the former conduces to development. Clay soil, b}' reason of its cold nature, retards growth. Whilst that is not serious where birds are intended to be matured as laj'ers, for table birds it would cause an increase of cost in feeding, and the birds would never be as good in flesh qualities. One jaoint nmst be empha- sized — ^that during hot weather exposure to intense sunlight is detrimental, and at the period named as much shade should be given as possible. What we have to do is to guard against extremes of heat or cold, and to conform as far as possible to the natural rearing season. ■^ ;. :,MM .^^gl^ ajfljik • '''^^iiiflwH ^9 ■ lb l^^wlu^^^^^^^^l f^^i H M HHill IP w 1 1 Fig. 35. — -Chicken-Rearinl; ix Oiuii Chicken Houses or Sheds. — ^During the ordinary period of the year, whether the birds are reared in coops or brooders, the plan to be universally adopted is to place these out in the open. When, however, it is necessary to undertake this work in the winter season or very early in the year, a house or shed m which the coop or brooder can be placed is valuable in the extreme, as it affords the shelter which is essential, more esjiecially as the chicks then bred are usually of the more susceptible races, less able to withstand adverse conditions. Under these conditions. REARING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 255 if they are to be reared artificially, and the number warrants the cost, the plan commended is to build a brooder house as described later. One of the best arrangements I have ever seen consisted of a large, lofty, open-fronted, thatched shed, about 60 feet in length and 20 feet deep, wherein the coops were placed, and the chicks given freedom to range within its limits. They were practically in the open air all the time, and, as the floor was thickly covered with fresh earth from time to time, they found abundance of exercise. The practice was to use this only in bad or very cold weather, and to move the coops outside whenever fine. It would hardly pay to erect such a structure, and on few places is one available. When, however, that is the case, even if used for other purposes during the greater part of the year, it will help materially m the work of winter rearing. This is not a question of coddling — for that is an economic blunder — but merely of equalization of the conditions. If the operations warrant erection of such a structure, it need not be out of use when vacated by the chickens, as it may be found useful for other purposes, such as a fatting shed, or even as a house for layers, or for growing chicks which camiot be out in the open. Coops and Cooping. — If only a few batches of chickens are to be raised uj)on a farm, suitable provision can easily be made for them. Each hen and her brood can be provided with quarters in sheds or outbuildings, and be given freedom during the day. With extension of the work, however, it is necessary to coop the hens, not alone for shelter and protection, but to prevent injury to chickens, as hens are usually very pugnacious. Many different forms of coops are in use, some of which are too elaborate and needlessly expensive. The simpler these are, the better. When coops are out on open fields, it is necessary that they shall afford protection against enemies — ^not merety the predatory fox, but the insatiable rat — otherwise anj^thing more than a simple box with open front is not required. Even under the circumstances named, whatever leads to insufficiency of ventilation is harmful in the extreme, and it is m that direction where so many coops are unsatisfactory. As to size, I am con- fident that it would be preferable if coops were somewhat larger than at present — say about 2 feet square — as that would allow a greater amount of room and of air-space for the inmates. Where the front is barred — and that should alwaj's be the case — ventilation is provided for. Upon drier soils a wooden floor is undesirable, and the inmates are much more comfortable even without hay or straw. If rats are troublesome, fine meshed-wire netting may be stretched across the bottom, in which case a 256 POULTRY HUSBANDRY handful of soft covering material is necessary. On very cold or damp ground a wooden floor ma}' be used, but nailed upon cross- pieces, so that the floor boards do not rest upon the earth. This should bo loose from and fit inside the coop, thus facihtating cleaning. It may be dispensed with altogether when the con- ditions are more favourable. Coops should be well limewashed out and kept rigidly clean. Forms of Coops. — It is unnecessary to describe at length the different forms of coop in general use, some of which are repre- sented in the illustrations. As already stated, these appliances Fig. 36. — Coop made from Sugar Box. may be made very cheaply. In the Illustrated Poultry Record was described one which is within the limits of all, consisting of a Tate sugar box. This, with a few nails and an hour's work, will form a handy, serviceable coop, that may be used as a sitting box also, at a cost of 4-|d. To make, the lid must be taken off the box, and the nails removed, when they can be straightened and used again. One side will form a floor, if required, and the other should be carefully taken off. Two of the lid strips must be cut as a long triangle, 3 inches at the front to 1 inch at the back, and fastened above the open sides, with four narrow pieces inside to hold them firm. The laths, taken from the open side. REARING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 257 must now be nailed above the sloping pieces, and with a strip from the lid will make a top having the requisite slope to carry off the rain. There will be just enough remaining of the lid to cut into bars for the front, two of which should be made loose to let the hen in and out. One of the earliest forms is the Sussex coop (Fig. 37), which is still largely used. It is triangular in shape, and presents at front the appearance of an A. This generally stands about 24 or 27 inches high in the centre, and is the same width at the ground. The sides and back are solid, but the front is made of up- right laths, one of which is loose, so that when raised the hen can get out. Of course, the laths, as in all coops, are sufficiently apart to allow the chicks to pass between them. It usually has no floor, but in such dry districts as Surrey and Sussex a floor is not needed in any coop. This type may be regarded as old- fashioned, but it is none the worse on that account. Another is shown in Fig. 38, which is built square, and may either be gabled or have a top sloping from front to back. In- FiG. 37. — Sussex Coop. Fig. 38. — Square Coop. stead, however, of the shutter, which is undesirable, a preferable arrangement is to have fine wire netting aj)on a frame closely fitting the front, as marauders can thus be kept out. When a wire run is used, that will effect the same object. In fact, a run should general^ be used for the first few days, except when the hen is allowed out; otherwise the chicks are liable to stray and not be able to find the way back. 17 258 POULTRY HUSBANDRY Fresh Ground. — A most important point in the management of naturally reared chickens is that the coops shall be moved on to fresh soil daily. Nothing will more speedily taint a piece of ground than a brood of chicks, and to maintain them in health it is desirable that they be given sweet, fresh earth to run over. Fortunate^, during the growing months earth quickly sweetens again. ^Vhere a large number of coops arc emplojed, these should be arranged in rows widely apart, so that in moving the same space shall not be occupied for at least a week or ten days. Where chickens are reared on a very restricted area, and it is impossible to move the coops sufficiently, fresh soil should be brought and placed under and within these. Grass sods may also be used in the same manner. Such removal and absolute cleanliness are the chief factors making for success in rearing. Brooders. — ^\Vhen first introduced, biooders were of the indi- vidual type; that is, whilst accommodating a larger number in one batch than could be cared for by a single hen, the flock was a vinit, and handled as such. Practically speaking, each lot formed a colony or household, separately controlled, in which artificial warmth was substituted for the natural. The brooder was moved on to fresh ground in the same manner as are coops. That system was in conformity with smaller operations, and it may freel}' be acknowledged that, provided the apparatus is good ancl the management efficient, in actual results it is still the most satisfactory. With, however, breeding on a much larger scale, and especially as artificial methods of hatching enable greater numbers of chickens to be brought out at one and the same time, the c^uestion of labom' became a verj^ serious one. To brood a thousand chickens would thus mean a score of separate brooders, not alone invohang a hea\^^ capital expenditure, but the regula- tion of twenty lamps, the jfeeding of twenty groups of chickens, and the cleaning of twenty of these apparatus, the combination of which appears to be an unnecessarj^ expenditure of effort and of time. Only those who have undertaken such a task can realize what is involved, and in unfavourable weather the risks are considerable. As a consequence, with the growth of poultry husbandry in respect to extent of operations, the desire to concentrate the chickens in greater numbers and to adoj)t a central method of heating became generally manifest. In this direction much has been learnt and unlearnt. Many of the methods adopted failed. They ignored the fact that chickens are living entities, ancl are not amenable to what may be termed a factory system. It is unnecessary, however, to describe such methods, as they have REARING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 259 passed into oblivion. Costly though the experience has been, the value is considerable, for we know more fully what to avoid. It nia}'^ be freely and frankly acknowledged that an increase in the number of chicks massed together enhances considerably the risks involved, as these birds are more liable to diseases of various forms, whilst the mortality is usually much larger. That is not peculiar to jDoultry, but is experienced in every branch of animal life. Systems of Brooding. — At the present time the methods adopted resolve themselves into three classes — namely, first, individual brooders, each distinct and operated separately; second, colony houses, fitted with a portable brooder which can be removed when heat is no longer required; and, third, range brooder houses. As shown below, the last-named vary con- siderably, especially in the method of heating. Up to the present time, even for the rearing of table chickens to be killed at an early age, the third method has been least successful, and in some cases the mortality disastrous in the extreme. Here, again, the choice lies between distributive and ultra-intensive methods, and the latter has come off second-best to a considerable degree. In Chapter XVII. a system is described of rearing chickens on shelves or in flats, and under Individual Brooders reference is made to the heatless method of rearing. Individual Brooders. — ^The first brooder I used was in 1877, a very primitive affair which need not be described. Keeping the lamp burning at the right power was no joke, especially in bad weather, of which there appeared to be an abundance that season. In spite of many difficulties the final results were remarkably successful. Out of about eighty chickens all save two were rearecl. The apparatus was placed under a rough shed, and the birds could not leave the brooder without full exposure to air and wind and rain. Encouraged by this success, the following year I built a shed in which to place the rearer, giving the birds plenty of sj are under cover, but so arranged that they could go oidy outside wl'.en I thought fit. What appeared to be more favourable conditions proved less successful. The lyro rata mortality was greatly increased. That lesson has never been forgotten. It may be equally applied to present conchtions, probably explaining much loss that arises, although there doubtless were other contributory causes, such as increase of numbers beyond the capacity of the machine. For the small poultry-keeper who buys a batch of day-old chicks, and has not a hen available to take charge of them, a 2G0 POULTRY HUSBANDRY simple and inexpensive brooder may be used, of which several similar forms are sold. It must, however, be under a cover or be placed in a coop, as it is not made for outdoor work. Brooders of this type can be made out of tubs, and a paraffin barrel cut in Fig. 39.— Hearson's Foster-Mother. two would make a couple when fitted with loose floors, lamp, casement, and chimneys. Plenty of ventilation holes are a necessity. One great advantage is that the flocks are small. A type which is largely employed for outdoor work is shoAvn in Fig. 40.^Miller Brooder. Fig. 39. Of this there are many representatives, as nearly every appliance maker lists one built on this principle. These brooders practically combine house and brooder in one, and are fitted with handles for lifting or with wheels, so that they can be easily removed. Some have hinged tops or covers, whilst others REARING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 261 have a sliding lid, the latter of which is a distinct improvement. Usually they are in two compartments : first, the brooder proper, and, second, the covered run. In the " Hearson " the former is fitted with a small radiating tank or boiler, heated by a lamp placed in the covered run, so that no fumes can enter the sleeping compartment; in others the lamp is placed therein, surrounded by a wire guard to keep the birds from it. There have been intro- duced apparatus with three compartments: (1) The brooder, (2) the inner compartment with wooden floor, and (3) covered run without floor. In practice, however, these triple-compartment brooders have not proved of any advantage. Where what is known as the dry method of feeding is adopted, the preferable plan is to have only two sections and add a floor to the run. Another type of outdoor brooder is shown in Fig. 41, which differs essentially from English forms, and has been designed to meet scratching require- ments on the part of chickens. It has two compartments. That at the back, as seen in the illustration, is the brooder proper. In this is a " hover " — ^namely, a ■ circular board, with flannel fastened to the edges, radiating the heat, obtained from a lamp placed below, upon the chicks. The inmates arc not restricted, and can pass in and out as they think fit. Frequently, when older, tlicy prefer to sleep outside the "hover." A slope leads down to the non-heated compartment, in which grain and seeds are fed in litter. A netted run is often fixed in front, access to which IS obtained by means of a small door. .Save that the lamp is somewhat awkwardly placed, I have found this form of brooder excellent in the results obtained. Within recent years fireless brooders — that is, without arti- ficial heat — have been introduced, and with some measure of success, though not as great as expected. In these, by conserva- tion of natural body heat of the chicks, it has been found that during the greater part of the j^ear chickens can be reared success- fully; and whilst they may not grow as rapidly as in heated brooders, they are more \igorous and feather much better. This Fig. 41.— Outdoor Cyphers Brooder. :i02 ruULTRY HUSBA^'DHY leads to consideration of the question whether a hen gives warmth to the brood or simply prevents elimination by covering and sheltering them. In our climate, however, jiractical experience has shomi that in winter and wet weather the insides of these fireless brooders become damp, and chills result, which, however, may be due to condensation of moisture as a result of insufficient ventilation. The problem here indicated has yet to be solved. It would be a great gain if heat could be dispensed with, both as to cost of apparatus and labour. We have not, however, arrived as yet at that stage. I cannot, therefore, do more than mention this class of brooder. Where many machines fail is that they are dark and insuffici- ently ventilated. Conservation of heat and reduction of cost in Fig. 42. — Fireless Brooder. operation are dearly purchased if we deny to the birds the elements and conditions essential to growth and development. Colony Brooders. — The first colony brooder that I saw was in France, man}- years ago. An ordinary portable house was fitted with a brooder which could be removed when the chickens no longer required heat. In large measure this arrangement was due to the fact that French breeders regard it as desirable for chickens to remain in the environment with which thej' are familiar. What they suggest is, move the house and the chickens together to fresh ground, but not the chickens from the house. For that something is to be said, although it would jiro- foundly modify our present methods, by ^\'hich we appeal- tc assume that fowls have no feelings whatever. At Cornell University, in the State of New York, Professor J. E. Rice has introduced successf uDy houses of a similar class, in REARING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 263 which were placed brooders heated by gasolene, capable of removal as the birds arrived at an age when heat no was longca- required. These were placed in runs where the birds remained all the time. There is no reason, however, why such a system should not form an integral part of an extensive method of rearing, in connection 13.— Canadi-vx Brooder Hi'Tse. with which the advantages of distribution and free range woidd be secured. In fact, my own view is that future developments will be more on these lines than has been the case heretofore. The doing so would minimize cost of equipment ; and although labour of attention to the brooders would be greater than under 264 POULTRY HUSBANDRY concentrated conditions, the lessened requirements of the birds after the first few daj^s woidd more than compensate ; and dangers arismg from massing larger numbers together, and of earth con- tamination, would be avoided — that is, where the land available is sufficient for the purpose. For this work single individual brooders — i.e., withovit runs — could be used. In Fig. 43 is represented an apex Canadian brooder house, in which the brooder is placed, though the form of the main building, so long as suitable, is not of great importance. Nothing could be better for this purpose than an ordinary open-fronted poultry house. Brooder Houses. — It has ah-eady been indicated that, as opera- tions in respect to poultry husbanch'y have increased in extent, the tendency is to mass the birds in greater numbers. That is seen in the case of adult lajnng stock, as previously referred to. It is equally so with chickens and ducklings. Probablj' within recent times the one has led to the other. It is an attempt to apply the factory sj^stem. Some of the plans laid dowTi have been complete in the extreme. Several years ago particulars were published of a horseshoe house for chickens, embracing, if I remember rightly, twenty-five to thirty compartments. The plan was to hatch, say, a couple of hundi'cd birds every third day, moving onwards regularl}^ from one section to another, so that when the last was reached these would be of an age and in fit condition for killing. Many other trials have been made on a less pretentious scale. The only trouble was that these schemes do not work out in practice. Perfect on paper, thej' were imperfect in execution. In these and a multitude of other cases the mistake made is in attempting too much, and in disregarding natural factors which are powerful in the extreme. I do not suggest that a brooder house may not be of the greatest service, and, in fact, should always reconmiend one of a moderate size, more especially for early batches of chickens or ducklings, or even such birds as are intended for killing. In these directions the advantages are obvious. That, however, is a different proposition to use of long-range brooder houses entirely. I am inclined to the view that the short history of some of the more pretentious poultry plants was due, iii part, to false systems of rearing, leading to degeneracj^ of the stock, combined wdth soil taint in the runs, which could not be avoided as a result of im- movability. In fact, the last-named point indicates an insuper- able barrier to success in these big brooder houses, where, to meet capital and other charges, the numbers maintained must annually be very large. I have seen structm-es of this class 250 feet long. REARING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 265 skilfulty designed, and the system carefully carried out, but they did not pay. That is the final test. Nor is the question determined by methods of heating. After trials have been made by circulating water and hot-air pipes of various kinds, it would appear that those who have tested these methods most fully have reluctantly been compelled to revert to individual brooders, even when these are placed in long brooder houses, so that each flock may be treated as a unit and not as part of a great mass. That being the case, the virtue of large houses has disappeared. My own suggestion is that, where this system is preferred, the plan to follow is to have ten 30-f eet houses rather than one of 300 feet. If wisely distributed the risks of earth or soil taint can at least be minimized, which is an important factor. This may appear a compromise, but all Fig. 44. — Cyphers Four-Section Brooder. successful businesses are that, and poultr^^ husbandry is not exempt from the same influence. For houses what are known as sectional brooders (Fig. 44) may be employed, as in these only one heater is required. These are made in varying lengths, and, as they are separately fitted, they can be used in any suitable building. Each section as shown is 3 feet long, 18 inches wide, and 11 inches high. They are fitted with pipes heated by a lamp at one end . Except for experimental work, in which ecpiality of conditions is important, I regard the individual brooders as preferable. Methods o£ Heating. — In the long-range brooder houses to which references have been made, where water or hot-air pipes are used, a furnace is employed, thus simplifying the work. Under such conditions fire risks are reduced, but flexibility is wanting. On the establishment of Herr P. Sweers at Huls, near 2CG POULTRY HUSBANDRY Crefeld, Germanj^ the heat is supplied by means of a boiler l^laced in a well at one end of the brooder house. Pipes pass under the floors of the brooders, which are insulated, so that they are cool. Air enters from below, and, passing over the pipes, is warmed, ascending through a metal cone, working in a thread screw, by means of which the supply of heated air can be more or less regulated. Above is a revolving hover working on the same screw, and the height can be graduated in accord- ance with the size and age of the inmates. For individual brooder lamps, whether i;sed outside or indoors, petroleum is generally used. And in colony brooders gasolene is often pre- ferred, for which a special burner must be employed, as it is very inflammable. General Hints. — ^The main points to be observed in the artificial rearing of chickens are — First, that there shall be no overcrowding. Also every bird must have sufficient sjoace. Greater success is achieved with smaller flocks, say thirty to fifty, than with very large ones. Second, that fumes from the lamp must not enter the brooding compartment. It is here where many cheaper machines fail. Third, that whilst for the first few days warmth must be well maintained, say 90 degrees or even a little higher, it should be gradually reduced until at four to five weeks it need not exceed 65 to 70 degrees. In mild weather the temperature should be further reduced during the day. Fourth, regular attention to lamps and flues is essential, and absolute cleanliness is of supreme importance. Fifth, for chickens in outside brooders as much sunshine as possible in winter and as little in summer is desirable. We need to strike the happy mean in temperature. The Early Days. — For the first twenty -four to thu-ty-six hours after a chicken is hatched it needs no other food than is provided by Nature. The yolk l)ag, which is absorbed into the abdomen IH-ior to the breaking of the shell, contains all the food needed for the time already stated, or even longer. Harm is often done by forcing young chickens to eat, and it is not improbable that de- rangements of the stomach are set up in this way, especially as rich food is often given. When the projjer time comes, there will be no need to force eating. The cravings of Nature will remove all necessity for that. But the hen ought to be fed well, and when the anxiety of her maternal trial is over she will be ready for and need something calculated to brace her up again. The late M. Van der Snickt, of Brussels, declared the chickens at REARING. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 267 liberty can go four days before any food is supplied, and will be much more vigorous than if fed earlier. I have proved that statement up to seventy-two hours. Feeding Chickens. — ^The whole question of feeding young chickens deserves the fullest attention, as upon it will largely depend the future of the birds. As already stated, there has been a revolt against pampering, but it is necessary to avoid going to the other extreme; one would be just as unsatisfactory as the other. The plan which I adopted for many years has been to feed, after the first twenty-four hours, for three or four days upon hard- boiled eggs and breadcrumbs, slightly moistened with milk ; but I am bound to confess chickens are reared without the egg quite as successfully as with it. After the third day of egg-feeding it was customary to give alternately for the next fortnight Spratt's chicken meal, oatmeal, ground oats, and boiled rice, all properly prepared by steeping or cooking. From the period named the boiled rice was given very seldom, and broken wheat or buck- wheat, or in some cases crushed oats, were added to the diet. My experience has been that this system, properly caried out, yielded in the great majority of places the maximum of results when rearing took place under hens; but it was not found nearly so satisfactory when brooders were employed. A few years ago all appearances were that artificial rearing on a large scale was an absolute failure, due to the heavy mortalit3^ That was equally true in Europe and America. In our own case deaths reached in one year 40 per cent., and in others the average was much greater. After observations and experiments extend- ing over three seasons, when everything possible was done in the way of prevention, I came to the conclusion that it was due to weakening of the system by denial of the opportunity for exercise. The sj'stem described below tells how this was overcome. It is natural for the organs of the body to be used as much as possible, and experience has shown that hens which have to work in this way for their living lay better and are healthier than if they are fed withoiit giving them anything to do, as is often the case with birds in confinement. The latter system may be desirable when the birds arc to be killed off, but not when they are to be kept as laying machines. It was this fact which led to the adop- tion of the scratching system in connection with the rearing of chickens. The chief trouble which we had in rearing was seen in an inflammation of the bowels, leading to diarrhoea or dysen- tery, and in some cases the lungs also were affected. I need not descrilje the affection further, because most of those who have attempted to rear chickens in the winter season have had similar 268 POULTRY HUSBANDRY experience. It would appear that this trouble was due either to dampness or to want of exercise, because the same food was employed as at other periods of the year and under other con- ditions when it was most successful. The lack of exercise, how- ever, seemed to make the birds more subject to chill, and thus the dampness would affect them to a greater extent. The plan adopted was as follows: The large brooder house had the floor littered to a depth of several inches with cut chaff ; in the open-air brooders were fitted floors to the covered runs in makes that were suitable. So far as feeding was concerned, the main idea was that the birds should have to work for their living, and the food be to a large extent seeds and small grain. All the time grit in abundance was thrown amongst the chaff, and it is surprising the quantity of that material the birds will consume. Of course grit is an absolute essential, otherwise the chickens would be unable to digest the seeds and grain. In addition there was supplied plenty of water, which should be given fresh two or three times a day, and an abundance of green food — lettuces or young cabbages. In fact, success hinged largely upon the green food suj^plied. The birds consume a very much larger quantity of water than would be the case if they had principally soft food. The point to consider is that the chickens, after their morning feed, cannot possibly secure an}' of the seeds without working for them. These all fall to the bottom of the chaff, and the chickens scratch to find the seeds; in finding one they cover up the rest, and so on all day. It is no question of being fed so many times a day, because they are alwaj^s eating and always working. The percentage of loss after the system was introduced was in- finitesimal. The system here recommended is not in any sense cheaper than the old method, and unless care is taken it may be considerably dearer; but it is rather a question of growing a fair percentage to a killing age. Judgment has to be exercised in supplying sufficient food without giving too much. The chaff needs to be renewed about every ten or fourteen days, oftener if the number of chickens is considerable. When taken away, it is a very excellent plan to throw the chaff into the scratching sheds for adult fowls, and they will generallj^ find something that is worth working for. Dry feeding alone is not desirable. The best results have followed when a proportion of soft food, as shown below, is given after the second week, otherwise the chicks make slower progress. The following is the dietary which has proved most successful under this system: REARING, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 269 First fortnight : IVIillet, dari, buckwheat, canary-seed, in equal parts, and granulated meat. Second fortnight : Spratt's meal, cooked rice or oatmeal, diied off with ground oats, adding a little bone-meal and 15 per cent, of meat as morning feed ; grains as above, with broken wheat added at other periods of the day. Gradually reduce the canarj'-seed. When a month old : Abolish small seeds and add cracked maize. When six weeks old : Barley-meal, toppings and meat, mixed and given warm in the morning; whole wheat, barley, oats, and cracked maize; green food all the time. A word of warning is necessary where it is intended to fatten Fig. 4,5.— An Excellent Type of " Halfway " House. the chickens. Under these circumstances thej^ should be fed to a greater extent upon soft food after they are a month old, other- wise the crop will not be expanded enough to enable them to bear the cramming during the final stages — that is, to hold sufficient food for the best results. The Orphans. — ^As a rule 3'oung birds when about six to eight weeks old, whether raised naturally or artificially, are left to their own resources. Provision must thus be made for the orphans. What this provision will be depends upon the season of the year, and, to a certain extent, the nature of the chickens. If the weather is warm, and they are of a hardy race, they may be put 270 POULTRY HUSBANDRY at once into a portable house similar to that shown in Fig. 45. In this ease it will be desirable to provide special perches, but bent breast-cones would result if they were allowed to roost on ordinary narrow perches. These special perches should not be less than 6 inches broad,' and have the edges carefully rounded off. At one time we used broad shelves, but the 6-inch perches are in every way as good. Some breeders do not permit their chickens to roost on perches until thc}^ are well grown, but make a thick bed of sand or straw on the floor. In unfavourable weather it is often desirable, especially with chickens that are artificially reared, to transfer them to what is known as a cold brooder. If to be used under cover, it is enough to l)uild a roomy frame upon which canvas is tightly stretched, forming a cage or inner compartment, or to use a large well-ventilated box. The object is simply to afford protection against cold at night. Division oJ the Sexes. — ^A wise plan is to separate the sexes in chickens as soon as these can be distinguished. Breeds differ in attainment of maturity, so that no fixed time can be stated. Usually the combs of the young cockerels are the first indications of sexual development, and as soon as these are evident the time has arrived when separation should take place. In the lighter and quicker-growing breeds that will be from six to eight weeks after hatching, and in the heavier races two to three weeks later. Hardening the Chickens. — Except for such birds as are to be killed at an early age, with which there should be con.stant and even rapid growth, it is necessary to build up a strong constitu- tion, to secure which object a measure of hardening is desirable. Wherever possible, the wiser course is to put the birds out on range, where their foraging instinct can have full play, in the which they will obtain the exercise which leads to bone and muscle development. That can usually be clone with safety at from ten to twelve weeks, according to the breed. During this period the food should be entirely grain, which may be placed in hoppers to insure a sufficient suppl}'. Where the environment compels restriction they should be in large runs, in which is a roomy scratching shed, and the food supplied in litter. CHAPTER XVn PRODUCTION OF TABLE POULTRY Under ordinary conditions specialization either for the pro- duction of eggs or flesh was practically non-existent. The former were eaten or sold Avhen forthcoming, and the surplus chickens or older birds were killed when ready. Such could only continue so long as the state of affairs was primitive, and the volume of supply as great or greater than the demand. For several centuries in some countries and areas a measure of specialization has been adopted. Nature herself works in that direction, evolving, as a result of climate and soil, races which are better for one quality than another, in which case the development of either fecundity or meat properties respectively is at the expense of the other In this way, plus selective influences, we find breeds in some districts are known for a special quality. Thus the south-eastern counties of England and the south-eastern districts of Ireland have become famo\is for their chickens, the south Mildands of England for ducks, and East Anglia for turkeys. The same is true on the Continent of Europe, where in France several districts, notably the Bresse country and parts of Normandy, have produced the highest grade of chickens, and in Belgium and South Germany areas are found in which meat properties have received special attention. The primary point, therefore, is that conditions shall be favourable. Eggs may be produced almost anywhere, but not table poultry. In what may be termed the egg districts svirplus birds will always be found, and the greater the production the larger the number of these. Information is given in Chapter VI. as to the influence of soil, which is of very great importance in meat production. S\iitability in that direction, and also a plentiful supply of milk for the fatten- ing process, are the essential factors. The Fattening Industry. — In the following paragraphs is given information as to the methods adopted, mainty based on English 271 272 POULTRY HUSBANDRY practice, to which is added experience in other lands. That there has been great growth in this branch of poidtrj' husbandly is evident, and the future will \uidoubtedly see deveIoi))nents on a wider scale. Even in America and Russia and Hungary, where at one time the system was -unknown, has it been realized that the fattening process is economic, and that to kill a bird in lean con- dition is wasteful in the extreme. We are simply applying to poultrj^ the prmciples which are adopted in connection with larger stock — namely, that an animal or bird should be fed off prior to killing, and that by such method the edible portions of the body can be greatly hicreased. With respect to chickens and fowls, in three weeks from 1 to 3 pounds can be added to the weight, mainlj^ of the flesh, in accordance with the size and capacity for development, at a cost of about eightpence. Im- provement in softness and quality of the meat and of general appearance are also considerable . As examples , when this system was adopted in America and Russia, the position and value of birds from those countries was enormously enhanced on English and other markets. In France many farmers' wives are skilful fatters, and thus finish off the birds reared by themselves. Some of the finest specimens I have ever seen were the result of such methods. Elsewhere the work of rearing and of fattening is generally dis- sociated. Such is true in all countries with which I am familiar. Collectors scoiu' the district around for bnds to fill the cages, buying from farmers and cottagers who rear them. Carts loaded with pens of fowls form a common sight in Sussex and West Kent, to be met with on every road and lane. Sometimes a man may be met with a cage upon his back, used for byroads, and he meets the cart at a determined point. These back-cages are made curved, and hold a couple of dozen birds, built in two tiers. When filled they are no light load. The higglers know just where to go, and when a supply of chickens will be ready for them. In Belgium the plan is for the rearers to bring their lean birds to fixed markets, where they are met by fatteners who purchase in that way. Many attempts have been made to combine the work of breed- ing, raising, and fattening. Except when operations are on a comparatively smaller scale, as in France, these have failed. It would be a great gain if this finishing process were more widely known, especially in the neighbourhood of residential centres, where a direct trade can be secured. In those districts not in this favoured position, the produce of which must pass through trade channels, the marketing problem is supremely important. PRODUCTION OF TABLE POULTRY 273 and the dual system has great advantages. Those who raise the birds obtain much better prices than would be possible if each had to find buj'crs, and the fatteners are able to organize a better, larger, and more regular supply. Moreover, the work of fattening is highly specialized, requiring considerable skill and experience. A Method of Ripening. — Fattening is a method of ripening. Fat or oil laid upon the various tissues throughout the body softens, and has the effect of making them more tender. This is the same process found working in all Nature. Fruits fill out, and are plumpest and sweetest when they are ripe. In both cases the ripenmg, if continued too long, tends to decay. It is just as reasonable to say that grapes are not good to eat at their prime, because if allowed to hang longer they go bad, as it is to say that the fact a fowl goes back if fattened too long is a proof that fattening is a wrong system. Breeders and layers should be kept in lean, hard condition. At the same time we can realize the vahie of fattening for fowls destined to immediate slaughter. This immediate slaughter is absolutely necessary when birds have been fed up in the way named, for the fat upon their tissues prevents the organs performing their functions pro- perly, so that diseases of various kinds are soon generated. The great Liebig was accustomed to say that all fat is a disease. That had reference to human beings, who are not intended for slaughter, and his dictum must not be regarded as applicable to the preparation of table fowls. Fattening. — In fattening poultry, or, in fact, any other animals, two things are absolutely necessary. First, that the food supplied shall tend to the production of flesh; and, second, that the con- ditions under which fowls are kept shall eliminate as little of the oil or heat fuel as possible. It may be well here to explain that, although the term "fattening" is emploj-ed, merely laying on an excessive quantity of fat or oil is not meant, such as was at one time the case with cattle and sheep; the addition of the fat is necessary, in that, as already explained, it softens and ripens the flesh. The reason why the flesh of a ripened fowl is finer in flavour and more digestible is that fat takes the place of water in the tissues. , This, when cooked, melts and softens the flesh, whereas water evaporates and leaves it dry and harder. Professor Warington, F.R.S., calls attention to the fact that the rates of consumption and of increase vary considerably in different parts of the period. As a fattening animal increases in size the (piantity of food it consumes also somewhat increases; the stomach at the same times becomes larger. When the animal 18 274 POULTRY HUSBANDRY becomes very fat, the consumption of food falls off again, and the rate of increase at this jDoint is much diminished. As fattening advances, the daily increase in live weight becomes gradually produce a steadily smaller, and the same amount of food \vj diminishing amount of increase. * " Chemistry of the Farm." Loudon: Vinton and Co., Ltd. PRODUCTION OF TABLE POULTRY 275 Cages. — ^There are many different methods adopted by fatters, but one general idea appears to prevail. During the milder months of the year many fowls are partly, and sometimes wholly, fatted in outside cages, placed under the lee of some hedgerow, or where they can be protected from wind and rain. In the Uckfield district of Sussex, and in Kent, a large amount of fruit is grown, and these orchards are utilized for the accommodation of outside fattening cages. Fig. 46 shows an example. These outside pens or cages, as, in fact, those inside also, are very simply made, consisting of laths of wood, generally about 1 inch wide and 1| inches apart, except the bottoms, which have the laths narrowed below, so as not to catch the droppings. Each cage should be 7 feet 6 inches long, 20 inches from back to front, and the same in height, divided by laths into compartments of 30 inches, holding three or four birds. To each compartment is fitted in front a sliding door. The cages, Avhich are usually in single tiers, are raised about 3 feet above the ground, upon what are called stages — cross-pieces of scantling supported ))y posts fixed m the ground. In not a few instances everything is of the simplest and cheap- est description, and the opportunity is taken of a slack season to put together what further cages are likely to be required either for renewal or extension of operations. They are also made and supplied at reasonable prices. Shelter against wind and rain is most important, A thick hedge is very serviceable against wind, but the tops of the cages should be covered in with a sloping wooden or corrugated iron cover, or branches of trees, which are regarded as best of all, by reason of the fact that they are coolest, allowing for the circulation of air. In front is fitted a long wooden trough, made V-shaped, and suspended by cord or resting upon supports, in either case easily removable. The usual plan is to keep the birds m these cages for from a week to ten days, feeding them twice a day from the trough. Large numbers of birds are never crammed, but supply a demand for half -fatted chickens, and it is wise to keep this trade in view. The birds are considerably improved as compared with the lean specimens, and should command better prices. In many dis- tricts it will be well at first to supply half-fatted chickens until there is an inquiry for those finished off completely; and m summer there is very little demand for fully -fatted specimens. The Sheds. — ^When the birds have been fed a week to ten days from the troughs, if it is intended to finish them fully, they should be removed to covered sheds, of which there is a great variety. Some are very rough indeed, and evidently built with the one idea of cheapness, whilst others are of a more complete type. In 276 POULTRY HUSBANDRY not a few cases barns and other biiildings have been adapted to the purpose of fatting sheds, and where this is done they are loftier and warmer during severe weather than is possible with wooden erections. There are, however, some f atters in Sussex who do not use sheds at all, but fatten entirely in the open air, giving such shelter as may be obtained from hedges and a rough board covering. At the establishment of Mr. J. Oliver, near Heathfield, long sheds are employed with open ends. Under ordinary conditions, it is found that the best results are obtained if the fatting cages are in single tier, because they can be more easily cleaned. In America, Hungary, and elsewhere, I found that cages were Fig. 47. — Martin's Fattening Shed. stacked in three to five tiers. Apart from the question of ventila- tion, unless the most rigid cleanliness is maintained, this system soon causes disease. Whatever the form of pen employed, it is necessary to remove the droppings daily, to limewash the house out frequently, and to treat the pens in the same manner between each occupancy. An excellent plan when cages are in smgle tier is to have a sloping board below the pens, sprinkling upon it fine earth and lime, and scraping it down daily. The use of powdered lime, Izal or other disinfecting powder, or a solution of perman- ganate of potash, is advisable, to destroy )nicrobcs. It is im]ios- siblo to lay too nuich emphasis upon cleanliness in the fatting sheds and cages, whether m the open or under cover. PRODUCTION OF TABLE POULTRY 277 It is unnecessary to describe at length the various sheds in use, some of which are shown in the ilhistrations. These vary in size with opportunities and requirements. The main points are that they shall be well ventilated and not be overcrowded, yet protect the birds against exposure. Diu-mg the process the chickens require an abundant supply of oxygen to facilitate digestion. It is here where many sheds I have seen in other countries fail. In fact, the great difference between the English method and those adopted on the Continent and in America is thus indicated. The largest fattening plant in this country is at Liverj)ool, where Irish birds are fattened to meet the requirements of the steamship t'lG. 4s.— Interior Huddin's Fattening Shed, Liverpo trade. The shed consists of a large building formerly used for tramway stables, and has capacity for nearly 16,000 birds. As the illustration shows, the cages are suspended by wire strands from the roof, which facilitates the work of keeping clean. Cramming. — ^The methods of fatting adopted are four in all: (1) From the trough; (2) by hand; (3) by funnel; and (4) by machine. 1. This method has been already referred to, and it is chiefly employed for the production of half-fatted specimens, which may either be kept in the ordinary pens or in a house and run, holding 'a dozen or a score of birds, which can be moved on to fresh ground as often as necessary. It is fitted with troughs 278 POULTRY HUSBANDRY at either side. One of these appliances, 6 feet long by 3 feet wide, is large enough for a dozen birds, and it is a siiital)le form for ordinary farmers. In Belgium the famous Coucou de Malines are fatted entirely from troughs, but they are kept in closely-covered sheds during the entire process. 2. Some of the finest fowls which are produced both in England and France are crammed by hand. The process is, however, slow, so that it is only suitable where labour is abundant and cheap. In a large establishment it would be impossil)le to get Fig. 49. — Interior of Fattening Shed. through the work if hand cramming were depended upon. The food is mixed to a thick paste, and formed into pellets or boluses about f inch in length and -| inch thick. There are two ways in which feeding takes place. In the one a sufficient number of the boluses are prepared, and the operator takes hold of the bird's head, either in the pen or out of it — in the latter case firmly gripping it between his body and left arm — opens the mouth with the thumb of his left hand, dips the bolus into a vessel of whey or milk, inserts it into the mouth, presses it down the thi'oat with his finger, and then carries the food into the crop by running his PRODUCTION OF TABLE POULTRY 279 finger and thumb down the outside of the gullet. The second plan varies somewhat. The operator sits upon a stool, with a lot of the paste and a bowl of whey or milk before him. The bird is placed upon his knees, its legs held firmly by them, the left hand holding the wings, and he places a small quantity of the food, after dipping it m the milk, into its mouth, allowing it to swallow in the usual manner, there being no actual cramming. Both these methods are very simple. In some instances a combina- tion of the two methods is adopted. 3. Cramming by funnel is largely carried out in Southern Normandy. In this case the food is made into liquid form, about the consistency of ordinary cream. A specially-made funnel (Fig. 50), the nozzle of which is carefully turned to prevent injury to the bird's throat, is inserted into the gullet until the orifice enters the crop, which can be felt by the finger, and the food is spooned therein until the crop is full, when the funnel is with- drawn. In operation the process requires a much shorter time than it takes to describe, but care must be taken, or there is great danger of choking the fowl. These funnels can be purchased at a reasonable price, and sj)lendid quality of flesh is produced in this manner. 4. Cramming by machine is found to be the most expeditious, and the first cost is speedily saved in the labour bill. An expert operator can feed 250 birds in an hour, so that the duration of insertion is very short. Many people have the idea that this system is a cruel one, but it is not so. A careless or inexpert operator can hurt the subject, but it does not pay him to do so, as any injury to the throat or mouth would cause inflammatory action to be set up, and it would die. The tube which passes down the throat is made of indiarubber, and, as the cartilaginous rings of the neck are flexible, it enters quite easily. The way in which the fowls anticipate the feeding-time, after the first day or two, shows how they regard the operation. The machines employed are — (1) the Neve (Fig. 51), which is largely used in Sussex; and (2) the Hearson (Fig. 52). In both the quantity of food can be regulated to a nicety, and the great thing is to cease pressure the Fig. 50.— Funnel for Cramming. 280 POULTRY HUSBANDRY monient sufficient has been placed in the croj). A most important point in connection with the fattening of poultry is to give the food regularly, and if there is any remaining in the crop from the previous meal, not to give any at all. Several French cramming machines are made for liquid food, and attached to them is a long piece of indiarubber tubing, fitted with a spring top or nozzle, so that the birds can be fed in pens without taking them o\it, the liquid flowing when the spring is released . In this case the nozzle is only placed into the mouth, not passed down the throat. The Fig. 51.— Neve Crammer. head must be held well up and the neck stretched to allow easy swallowing. Food for Fattening. — The food supplied to the fowls during the process of fattening is of very great importance, and upon it must depend both the quantity and flavour of the flesh. This must always be soft food, never hard corn, as the latter would take longer to digest, from the fact that the birds are in confuiement and would not give the same results. The reason why animals fatten better at rest is well explained by Professor Warmgton, PRODUCTION OF TABLE POULTRY 281 F.R.S. He says that economy of food is promoted by diminishing the demand for heat and work. An animal at rest will increase in weight far more than an animal taking active exercise on the same diet. In the same way, the increase from a given weight of food will be less in winter than in spring or autumn, a far larger proportion of the food being consumed for the production of heat when the animal is living in a cold atmosphere. Hence the economy of feeding animals under cover during winter. If, however, the temperature becomes so high as to considerabl}' Fig. 52. — Hearson's Crammer. increase the perspiration, waste of food again takes place, heat being consumed in the evaporation of water. The temperature most favourable for increase is, apparently, about 60° F. Quiet- ness and freedom from excitement are essential to rapid fattening ; the absence of strong light is therefore desnable.* In Sussex and the south-eastern counties the food almost entirely employed is ground oats, which is largely prepared in the Valley of the Medway, millers there making a speciality of this product. There is no reason why it should not be produced * "Chemistry of the Farm." Loudon: Vinton and Co., Ltd. 282 POULTRY HUSBANDRY elsewhere. It is necessary that the mill-stones shall be sharp and run very low. Ground oats must not be confoinided with oatmeal, as they have not been kiln-dried — at any rate, to the same extent — ^but are fresh oats ground very fine, husk and all. The powder from oatmeal mills is often, however, used for this purpose. It is found in experience that English and Scotch oats are unsuitable for this jDurpose, as they contain too much moisture, and will not grind fine enough unless they are highly kiln-dried. Conse- quently the plump, hard Russian oats are preferred, and from them the best samples are produced. The usual price for pure ground oats ranges from £9 to £10 per ton, varying in accordance with the market rates for oats. Cheaper kinds are often sold, but these are usually adulterated with fine thirds, and it is better to obtain the purer, even though the cost may be higher. A mixture which is often employed consists of one part ground oats, one part fine Indian meal, and one part fine sharps, costing about £6 10s. per ton. In Belgium finely-ground buckwheat is universally used, giving good results, and in France buckwheat - meal and fine barley-meal are largely emploj^ed, both of which are very good; but by reason of the greater amount of lime in ground oats they produce the finest flesh. Use of Milk. — With the meal should always be mixed soured skim-milk, butter-milk, or whey from the curds. In Sussex the first-named is alone adopted, and one of the largest fatters some- times pays as much as £20 in a week for milk during the busy season. Whole milk is much more expensive. The globules of butter-fat in it are too valuable, and can be substituted at a much cheaper rate. Surprise is often exjiressed that soured rather than sweet milk should be used. In practice it is found that the former gives the better results, the acid generated by the turning of either milk, butter-milk, or whey, causing more rapid digestion than would be the case if it were sweet. Not onty is the milk itself soured, but when mixed with meal, as is usually done immediately after one time of feeding is over, it is allowed to stand for several hours, until a slight fermentation has taken place. There are distinct disadvantages from the giving of soured milk, and one is that there is always a greater tendency on the part of the birds to scouring ; but f atteners who have tried both systems declare that the soured skim-milk yields the better results, in that the birds will eat longer and digest their food more quickly than if sweet milk is employed, and at the same time there is less danger of what is known as crop-sickness. It is claimed that the acid generated in the milk has the tendency to prevent sickness, and also stimulates the appetite, and there PRODUCTION OF TABLE POULTRY 283 seems to be a considerable amount of reason for this statement. A further advantage to the fattener is that he has not the same necessity to obtain his milk at the time when it is required, and, in fact, in many of the fattening establishments great vats of milk are allowed to stand for weeks before using, bought up as obtainable. Milk contains a large amount of phosphates, which have the effect of whitening the flesh. Not only is this true in respect to chickens, but also ducklings, goslings, and turkeys. The use of milk at the time of feeding off the turkeys before killing is found to residt in beautiful colour of flesh. Milk is one of the most valuable foods we have, and in some parts of the country, the dairy districts especially, skim- milk is almost a waste product. Butter-milk does not appear to yield quite the same results. It contains a little more in the way of fat, and is somewhat richer, but, as already stated, it is employed in Belgium, and might be iised wherever it is available in this country. The late Mr. Lewis Wright* made a very interest- ing suggestion as to soured skim-milk: " The sour milk keeps the digestive organs in proper activity, without the use of fresh vegetables, which would otherwise be necessary. Tell a Sussex fatter to use ' boiled milk ' and the green food which would then be required, and see what he would say." Feeding. — A question is frequently asked as to what influence the increase of fat upon animals and birds, which are specially fed for table purposes, has so far as the edible qualities are con- cerned. The contention, which is often put forward, that when- ever fattening takes place there must be a certain amount of waste, cannot be questioned. It is impossible, when we develop the proportion of fat in the flesh, that we can confine this only to the parts of the body which are consumed as food, because the entire system is affected. In fattening, whilst the muscle is increased largely in bulk and weight, there is at the same time a considerable distribution of fat on the intestines and internal organs. It is equally true that the greater part of the fat which is added to the food during the preparation of table poultry is beneficial, in that the globules of fat are distributed through the muscles upon the body, increasing these in bulk, adding greatly to the weight of the bird, and at the same time improving both the colour and quality of the flesh. If we take any animal or bird in lean condition and feel the muscle, it is hard, whereas when the animal or bird has been fatted the muscle is soft, but more bulky. It is necessary that the muscle shall be what has been termed " soft." * " New Book of Poultry," London, 1902, p. 121. 284 POULTRY HUSBANDRY A rcoognized rule amongst both poulterers and cooks is that an old bird and a lean bird should never be roasted, but always boiled. The reason for this recommendation is that dry heat, by withdrawing from the muscle the moisture contained therein, leaves the tissue hard and fibrous, and consequently less palatable, whilst it is distinctly inferior in digestive properties. The action of the water during boiling is to soften the flesh by soaking, and rather to increase the bulk as a consequence of the absorption of moisture into the flesh. When a bird is in fat condition, however, it is found that the action of even dry heat does not have this effect, in that the globides of fat distributed through the tissue, by melting retain and increase the softness of that tissue. For that reason ccoks lard certain kinds of meat during the process of cooking, in order to retain the moisture and to prevent the escajDe of the natural juices. Otherwise our meat would be dry throughout, the same as it is on the outside, and we know ver}^ well that this would reduce its nutritive properties, and at the same time make it more difficult of digestion. Even with fat birds, when they are placed in dry heat, there must be an amount of evaporation; but that is not an evaporation of fat, only of a proportion of moisture in the fat, the oily property still remaining in the flesh. Fat is not mixed with the food whilst the fowls are fed from the troughs, but when put on to the crammer | ounce should be allowed for each bird per day, or a tablespoonful for every ten fowls, gradually increasing it to double that quantity. Fat may be bought in barrels for this purj)ose ready for use, but in most of the larger towns butchers' scraps can be purchased at a cheap rate, and should be clarified and stored ready for use as required. It must, of course, be melted and thoroughly mixed with the meal and milk. Sometimes it is foinid necessarj^, espe- cially during hot weather, to take steps for keeping the blood cool. A little flowers of sulphur is laseful to this end. Some falters boil nettles, and, after chopping them uj), mix with the food. Fowls should alwaj's be fed twice a daj^ and at regular times. The exact hours will vary in accordance with the season of the year. In summer seven o'clock in the morning and six o'clock in the evening will be found the most suitable, but in winter eight in the morning and four in the afternoon will be better. In this case the evening meal should be rather fuller than that in the morning. Frequently it is found that birds when first put up fret by reason of the confinement, and, instead of putting on flesh , PRODUCTION OF TABLE POULTRY 285 actually lose weight. To prevent this, they should be kept with- out an}^ food for the first twenty -four hours, or, if they have come a long journey, for the first twelve hours, by which time they are so eager for food as to forget about anything else. They then take a hearty meal and are content. Or a little broken maize may be spread on the top of the food in the trough in order to tempt them to eat. Coarse grit added to the mixture will be of benefit. When trough-fed, all that remains must be taken away as soon as the birds are satisfied. Some fatters feed only once on Sundays, which is found to do no harm, though that is usually a question of labour. Feathers and Manure. — ^Where larger numbers of fowls are fatted, the feathers and manure form important items, and should be carefully collected and disposed of to the best advantage. Fatters have informed me that they were able to pay their wage- bill by the sale of these articles. Feathers should be sorted and dried ; manure must be kept dry and under cover, and it is in demand by market-gardeners, selling at from £2 10s. to £3 per ton. If the fatting establishment is run in connection with a fruit or ordinary farm, an outlet will be found for it in this way. Killing Fowls. — All classes of poultry should be kept without food for twenty-four hours before they are killed, the object of which is to empty the crop and intestines. Partly digested food rapidly decomposes after the bird is dead, and if left there a great amount of loss arises as a result. This is fre- quently indicated by a green appearance of the skin over the crop, due to chemical action, which reduces the value consider- ably, as the flesh also is affected, more especially in warm weather. Not alone is this denial of food most important, so that the bird will keep for a longer period, but also it will be much easier to draw. No cruelty is involved, as the body reserves would enable it to live for several days without any food whatever. Killing fowls is by no means difficult. One method is to hang the birds up by the legs, and then thrust a pointed knife into the roof of the mouth, rather in a backward direction than to the top of the skull. This is in order to reach the brain, for then death ensues very speedily, and with very little pain to the victim. The birds should be allowed to hang until the blood has ceased running, and be plucked immediately. In all cases where fowls are killed to be sent to market they should be plucked by the farmer, and the value of feathers he will obtain will more than repay the labour of plucking, though this is not 286 POULTRY HUSBANDRY its object. A si^ecial knife should be employed; iSpratt's Patent sell one very suitable for this purpose. Dislocation of the Neck. — ^The common method of killing fowls is by dislocation of the neck, and there can be no question that in the hands of an expert operator this plan is most expeditious, and with the minimum of pain to the victim. It is not easy to follow the method from a printed descrij)tion. The bird should be held firmly by the legs in the left hand, which can grasp the ends of the wings also, the head in the right hand between two of the fingers back of the skull, so that the comb lies in the palm, the back of the bird upwards. The legs are then pressed against the left hip, and the head laid against the right thigh near the knee. Next the fowl should be rapidly and firmly extended or drawn to its full length, and at the same time the head is sud- denly bent backwards, by which means the neck is dislocated just below the junction with the head, and death iumiediately ensues, as all the large vessels are torn across. The operator must not be nervous, nor yet afraid, performing the work firmly and expeditiously. Muscular action will take place for a few minutes, but if the operation is effective no pain is suffered. It is always better to pluck whilst the fowl is still warm, as the feathers then come out easily and the skin does not tear. There is no cruelty involved by doing so, for all sensation is at an end, the brain, which is the centre of all feeling, being completely severed from the body. In plucking, the operator should sit down, hold the legs in the left hand, the head hanging between his knees, so that the blood flows towards the head and gathers in the neck, without making anj^ mess. It is better to di'aw the feathers with an upward pull — that is, the opposite way to which they lie on the bod}'. An expert operator can kill and pluck twelve birds per hour. Shaping. — Shaping is carried out in Surrey and Sussex as part of the fyrocess, and is one reason why Surrey fowls look so much superior to those not finished off in the same manner. This system is, moreover, so simple that it can be adopted at very small expense, shaping boards being very easily made. Fig. 53 shows one built in three rows, capable of holding thirty to thirty- six birds at one time. For smaller producers it can be built with one row, and the cost of material for construction of the larger size would not be more than four shillings. Each trough is made V-shaped, the front of which is rather narrower than the back. These troughs consist of only twelve pieces of wood — namely: '" (1) The two upright ends, 36 niches by 7 inches; (2) three troughs. PRODUCTION OF TABLE POULTRY 287 each made of two pieces, at right angles, the back board 6 inches wide and the front 5 inches, and 30 inches long; (3) the bottom stay; (4) three loose boards, ^ inch shorter than the troughs and 4 inches^wide. It is better to use plain deals | or f inch thick, and fit the whole firmly together. The modus operandi is as follows: As soon as the birds are plucked, which should be done carefully and thoroughly, the hocks are tied loosely together, so that the legs are fiat against either side of the breast. Before doing so, however, some of the more skilful fatters draw the meat upwards by means of the hands, which undoubtedly improves the appearance of the bird, though it must be done carefully to prevent breaking of the skin. Ihc Fig. 53.— SiiAriNG Boakd. operator strikes the stern against a wall, thus flattening and making it fit the shaping trough more easily. Each bird is laid in the trough breast downwards, with the neck and head hanging over the front. The first bird is pressed firmly against the end of the trough, and a weight or glazed brick laid by the side to keep it in position. When the second and succeeding birds are placed m the trough, the weight is moved along until quite full. It is necessary that they should be i:)acked firml}^ and tightly in this way. Next a loose board, 4 inches wide, and ^ inch shorter than the trough, is laid upon the back of the fowls, just behind the wings. Upon this are placed three or four heavj^ glazed bricks, or two weights (56 pounds for jDreference), and the fowls 288 POULTRY HUSBANDRY are allowed to remain in the trough for several hours — in fact, until they are quite cold and set. Stubbing. — ^^Miatever the system of shaping adopted, it is necessary that the bird be plucked carefully, and it is customary in some parts to employ the services of persons called " stubbers." If an}^ of the feathers, and especially the short quills, are left in the flesh, they will, of course, materially depreciate the appear- ance. We desire to urge upon every producer the duty to him- self and the industry at large of turning out the fowls in the very best manner possible. 8ome fatters arc very fond of breaking the breast-bone of fowls, and this is frequently done in Sussex. It is a most objectionable i)ractice, and one that ought never to be adopted. As a rule, all Surrey and Sussex fowls arc singed immediately they are plucked and stubbed; and when properly done this custom is most desirable, as it is simply clearing Fig. 54. — Sussex Packing Ped. the skin of surplus hair and feathers. The flesh must not be Ijlacked. Straw alone should be used. Packing. — Much carelessness is shown in the packing of dead poultry, which needs especial care. I have seen crates of chickens opened, and their value materially reduced by reason of bad packing, many of the birds being " barked '' or other- wise damaged. These ought to be packed firmly and evenly, and if this is done they will carry long distances in perfect safety. In this country specially-made crates, or " peds," as they are called, are employed, which combine lightness with strength. These (Fig. .'54) are lined out with straw, with layers of the same material between each row. The birds are placed with the sterns to the sides, and in double rows. In France Hnen cloths, which are first dipped in milk, are often employed, and for the better class of fowls thev are to be recommended. It PRODUCTION OF TABLE POULTRY 289 may be mentioned that some of the railway companies are willing to supply hampers free of charge for conveyance of dead poultry. In order to obtain the best results, chickens should always be killed where they are fatted, otherwise much of the benefit obtained by the system will be lost. A fatted fowl will lose a considerable portion of its added weight if sent to market alive, due to the change of condition. The same thing is found in connection with larger stock. In these days of refrigerating chambers there is no difficulty in keeping dead poultry for several days, in order to avoid glutting the market. Caponizing. — Before leaving this subject, it is important to deal with the question of caponizing. There can be no question that the system of caponizing is one that deserves considerably more attention than it has ever received in this country. If for no other cause, it could have been reasonably expected that pecuniary motives would lead farmers and large poultry-keepers to adopt the system; cockerels caponized, and pullets made into poulardes, grow to a very much larger size than those not so treated, and it is true that the quality of the meat is much improved; not only so, but male birds which could not be kept together without great danger of constant conflicts will live in peace and amity. Upon the ground of profit, it is strongly recommended that all male fowls intended for table in the autumn should be caponized, because the surplus cockerels can thus be made the most of, and will realize for the breeder more than they otherwise would. The best birds to operate upon are chickens which have never yet crowed, and when about eight to twelve weeks is the right age. They must be kept without food for thirty-six hours or more before being operated upon. A good light (sunshine, if possible) should be chosen to operate in, and the full light should be allowed to shine in the chicken's side when opened. First take two good thick pieces of strmg or thin cord 3 feet long; to one end of each attach a weight, or any equivalent in the form of a brick or stone, fastening the other end of the string to the chicken's legs. Then lay the bird on its left side, and drop the weighted end of the string over one side of the operating-table. Now tie the free end of the second string round the bird's wings near the body, and di'op the weighted end of this string over the other side of the table. The chicken will thus be properly secured, and the operator must stand so that its back will be towards him. The small feathers from hip-bone to ribs, over the last rib, must now be plucked off, and the ribs and feathers all round should 19 290 POULTRY HUSBANDRY be wetted with a sponge dipped in quite cold water ; or ice can be used if preferred. This wetting will serve to keep the feathers out of the operator's way, and will also numb the sensations of the fowl, so that it does not appear to feel the operator's knife. Stick the knife in | inch deep between the first and second ribs from the hip-bone, and cut downwards and forwards to the end of the ribs. Turn the knife, and cut nearly up to the backbone. Now put in the spreader, which is one of the instruments used, tempering the tension by a rubber band provided for the purpose to suit the size of the fowl, and with the spreader open the ribs, after which split the inside striffin that covers the bowels. The upper testicle will now be exposed, and should be grasj)ed by the grippers, which should be given one entire turn over so as to separate the testicle from its attachments, except the spermatic cord, and pull the testicle out. Treat the lower testicle in the same waj^ It is necessary to be careful not to rupture the large vein under the testicles, and also to get the whole of the latter out. The bird may be untied and allowed to go without the incision being sewn up, but for a few days it should not be allowed to Hy up to roost. Birds ma}^ in this manner be caponized in any number, and without loss of more than 1 or 2 per cent. Large breeds of poultry, when caponized young and well fed until ten or eleven months old, and then fattened, will weigh 10 to 15 pounds each, and the meat on them will be found of the tenderest and most succulent description. It is to be noted that the chief dangers found in practice with all systems of caponizing is in tearing the veins near the testicles, which results in the bird's bleeding to death, and in the losing of the testicles amongst the intestines, which latter is almost certain to cause mflammation and death. These seldom happen, except through want of care or inexperience, but it is important to have a good light in order to prevent it as far as possible. Dressing and Trussing. — ^Fowls which are being marketed in the usual manner must never be drawn or cut in any way, as the final work is performed by the poulterer in accordance with his customer's requirements. When chickens are sold direct to customers, it is better if the}^ can be delivered ready for cooking. Cooks are not nearty so expert at this business as thej^ were for- merly, and, further, they naturalh^ prefer to have a bird which does not entail the labour necessary if it is sent undrawn. In some parts of the United Kingdom the method adopted by poulterers is by no means the best, and the following explains, as far as possible in print, the system which gives the most satisfactory results. For this purpose a special knife is required, and a trussing needle PRODUCTION OF TABLE POULTRY 293 (12-mch preferred, as then it can be used for turkeys, which are trussed in the same manner), and some fine, strong string. Milk Chickens, or Petits Poussins. — ^Milk chickens are very young birds, usually five to eight weeks old. They go under the same designation in Belgium, where they are more popular than with us. In France they are called petits poussins. To a somewhat heavier class of bird in America is given the name of " squab broiler." So far as the great mass of consumers is concerned, this class of chickens are practically unknown, simply by reason of the fact that they are too expensive. The cus- tomary plan is to serve one to each guest, and at great houses, the chef brings them round as the piece de resistance of the feast. When plump and well cooked, these occupy the place of the most delicious dish that can be obtained among all the various grades of poultry, as the flesh is beautifully tender, and wonder- fully abundant if the birds are killed at the proper stage. Attempts have been made from time to time to introduce the raising of these milk chickens in this country, but except here and there the business has not grown to any extent. Some years ago an effort was made to establish a so-called chicken farm in Belgium, where poulets de lait could be turned out by the thousand, reared upon shelves. That did not succeed. The mortality on the one side and the expenses on the other were too great to allow of profitable continuance. Formerly the majority of milk chickens sold upon our markets — that is, in London; for the demand in provincial centres is very small indeed, and uncertain at that — were imported from France. In the Seine-et-Oise department of that country large numbers are reared, as the demand in Paris is considerable. Probably all the best specimens are still derived from there, and in flesh qualities these are superior to any others. Within recent years the greater portion of the milk chickens upon our markets have come from Germany, and as they reach us through the port of Hamburg that name is given to them. The districts in which they are produced are found in the provinces of Oldenburg, Hanover, Schleswig-Holstein, and around Lubeck, near the Dummer See. The production is very large indeed. Within one comparatively limited area in Hanover, near to the little town of Winsen, it is estimated that 300,000 to 400,000 are bred and killed every year, the great majority of which are despatched to London. This is a great corn- growing district, and a considerable number of the farmers produce a few hundreds each every year; whilst a fair proportion of the labourers and their wives add to their incomes in this 294 POULTRY HUSBANDRY manner, thus supporting what has been stated previously — namely, that it is a means of adding to income, not a business by itself. As the chickens are sold for killing when five to seven weeks old, the prices obtained, varying from 9d. to lid. each, leave a fair margin of profit for the labour ravolved, as it is well known that, inclusive of cost of egg and food, they can be raised to that age at 4d. to 5d. each, provided, of course, there is no heavy mortality to reduce the returns. That has been avoided from the fact that the rearing is well distributed, and the quantit}^ named is due to the work of a large number of individual breeders. Here is the secret of success. As in the case of the Sussex production of table chickens, the primary stages of the work are in many hands, and only the final stage concentrated. To that end it is requisite that there must be uniformitj^ of operation within an adequate area, in order to insure a sufficiency of supply. Isolated action is useless, unless it be on a very large scale. The birds, when ready, are sold to dealers, who undertake the work of killing, plucking, and marketing. Spring Chickens. — ^From April to early June there is a very large demand for what are known as sj)ring chickens — that is, birds eleven to fourteen weeks old. As a rule these have not been fattened in the manner described above, but simply fed for a couple of weeks before killing on food in which soured skim- milk is used freely. It is entirely a question as to whether these birds have been kept growing all the time, and are killed at the right age. Immediately prior to the time when the birds cast their chicken plumage and the sexual instincts will be more fully developed, the body will be found heavier, the flesh more abundant and softer than will be the case afterwards, until three to four months have elapsed. That is the time they should be killed, and if of the right breeds will weigh from 2 to 3 pounds. Such birds do not need fattening, except what has already been stated, and usually command good prices. In fact, sold at 2s. 6d. each they are probably more profitable to the producer. They must, however, be marketed during the months mentioned, as the prices are lower later. Winter Fowls. — During the autumn and winter months there is a fair demand for larger birds weighing 7 to 9 pounds, for which good prices are paid, though the trade has not been developed in Britain to the same extent as in other countries. Such have always formed an important part of jjoultry husbandry in France, notably in the Bresse country and in Normandy, PRODUCTION OF TABLE POULTRY 295 where the splendid fowls marketed at Christmas and Mardi Gras (Shrove Tuesday) are among the finest I have ever seen. Al- though large in size — 1 have seen a couple of La Fleche weighing 23| pounds dead — ^they are beautifully soft in flesh, which is very abundant. That is true of the Bresse, du Mans, and others. The secret is to keep the birds growing and to fatten off in the best manner. Most of the cockerels are caponized, but the perfection for flesh is the French poularde — ^that is, a pullet which has never laid an egg. Poulets de Bruxelles. — ^In Belgium a great industry has been developed in the provinces of East Flanders and West Antwerp, which will be foimd fully described in my " Report on the Poultry Industry in Belgium." Unfortunately, the districts referred to have been devastated by an epidemic, as a result of which hundreds of thousands of chickens have died. This has been entirely due to the false methods adopted in connection with the conditions under which the stock has been maintained, to the false systems of breeding, hatching, rearing, and feeding, during the earlier stages. vSo long as those who reared the birds did so on open ground, giving both parents and chickens liberty, all went well. With increase of numbers and concentration upon limited, manure -tainted areas, the result has been what is stated above. That will alwaj-s be the case when such methods are adopted, as these are destructive of natural vitality, and birds want all that they can possibly conserve. I am firmly convinced that this industry can regain its former position, provided the extensive system is resumed, and the false methods followed of late are abandoned, making the poultry part of a rotation, and not keeping birds on the same ground year after year consecutively. Usually, these Malines fowls, or poulets de Bruxelles, as they are called, are from five to eight months old. They carry an abundance of excellent flesh, which is fine in texture and white in colour. The trade done with Germany is a very large one, and was, until this outbreak of disease, very profitable to all concerned. American Soft Roasters. — In the State of Massachusetts I visited a section, to the south of Boston Bay, where a similar branch of poultry husbandry has been developed with great success, for the supply of Boston and other markets. In the work a considerable number of raisers are engaged, each of which sells from 3,000 to 6,000 chickens a year. The breeds used for this pm'pose are the Light Brahma (American type) and the 296 POULTRY HUSBANDRY White Plymouth Rock, both of which, although slow growers, develop big frames. The farms upon which the work is done are usually about 40 to 60 acres; the land is light and somewhat poor, but there is a good deal of scrub upon it. The colony house system is very general, both for breeding stock and older chickens. In a few cases long-range houses with divided yards are used for breeding stock, but the chickens are raised in scattered colony houses. It is customary to jilough up the land each year and plant with rye grass. Both natural and artificial methods of hatching are employed, chiefly the latter, and the chickens are reared in brooder houses until they can dispense with heat, when they are placed in colony houses. Here they are kept in flocks of fifty until sold for killing. These houses are 7 feet by 6 feet, with netted fronts. The inmates are given free range on the scrub land, of which not more than 10 acres are used at one time ; and as it is only occupied for seven months of the year, when vacated it is cropped to vitilize the manure and sweeten the soil. The method of feeding is simple in the extreme. Hoppers are kept both in the brooder and colony houses, con- taining cracked Indian corn, wheat, and beef -scrap. At one time Indian corn was largely employed, but several of the feeders are finding that wheat gives better results. In some cases dry mash is supplied, more especially during the later stages. Cab- bages are freely given, and rye grass, when available, is eaten by the birds, who have a plentiful supply of fresh water. It is claimed that under this system the birds make steady progress, retaining the softness of flesh which is regarded as essential. For the smaller roasters, in demand during the spring and summer. White Plymouth Rocks are said to be the better, as they grow quickly and make 5 to 6 pound specimens. But for the winter trade, when 8 to 10 pound birds command the highest prices, the slower-growing Light Brahma is preferred. The cockerels of the last-named are alwaj^s caponized. It may, however, be mentioned that these South Shore Roasters are sold alive by the breeders, and that the final work is done by special- ists, who kill, pluck, and sell. There is no actual fattening, for the birds are selected as they come into plump condition. These sell wholesale on the markets at Is. 2d. to Is. 6d. per pound, and retail at Is. 6d. to 2s. per pound. In France, Belgium and America success depends upon the industr}^ being that of a district, as is the case in our south- eastern counties. I am convinced there are great opportunities elsewhere for creation of similar district industries, and that a greater demand can be created for winter fowls. PRODUCTION OF TABLE POULTRY 297 The Paynter Method. — ^An experiment has recently been made on behalf of the English Board of Agriculture, with the object of showing that chickens could be profitably raised by small holders on intensive lines, but up to the present has not been determined. The idea was that of Mr. F. G. Paynter, who has devoted himself to this question for several years. He claims that, on a holding of, say, 16 acres, 4 acres should be used each year for chickens, and by changing the area form a four-course rotation. Thus 12 acres would be under crops each year, which, if properly cultivated, should yield a substantial profit. In the experiment referred to, all the eggs were purchased, hatched in incubators, the chickens raised in brooders, and the birds sold alive at twelve to sixteen weeks old. The poor averages in hatching, the heavy mortality, and the high cost of feeding, made the profits small for the cost and labour involved. Whether further tests will show a better result remains to be seen. Were that possible, a new field would be opened. Shelf Brooders. — ^More than twenty-five years ago I visited Germany to inspect a farm in the Metz district, where an attempt was being made to hatch chickens artificially and rear in rooms of an old chateau. That was a failure. In America I saw tests being made with the same idea, but the birds were kept on shelves. More recently a large amount of money was lost in England in the same way on two occasions. In all the difficulty was identical — namely, that the mortality was excessive. There is and must be no finality in poultry husbandry. At the same time, those to whom profit is essential will be well advised to leave such speculative methods to others who have money to burn, until these have been proved. CHAPTER XVm THE DUCK INDUSTRY In no branch of poultry husbandry have there been greater developments, equally in Europe and America, than production of ducklings, which, whilst not likely to attain the same promi- nence as egg production or the raising of chickens, is of consider- able importance. A noteworthy featiae is that it has proved successful both in the hands of smaller men and where extensive operations are carried out, as described below. In the former case, as a rule, the object is to produce birds to meet a seasonal demand, for which high prices are obtainable. That is specially the case in England, Belgium, and France. Although this section of the industry has not grown to any great extent, it is of considerable value, economically and socially, in that a large number of breeders thus obtain a partial or entire livelihood. During the sj)ring months of the year there is a profitable demand for ducklings at what may appear excessive prices, which leave a considerable margin of profit. Where operations are con- ducted on a more extensive scale, the general demand is supplied,, usually at a later period, when rates are not so good. That there are limitations to the possibilities of this trade cannot be contro- verted, even though these are not yet in sight. A ducklmg forms an expensive dish which is beyond the means of the great mass of householders, especially as the amount of flesh upon it is com- paratively small. Ducklings are birds nine to twelve weeks old, in accordance with the breed, killed prior to the time when the duckling feathers are cast and the adult plumage assumed. On fully-grown winter ducks the flesh is usually abundant, and in some breeds fuller in flavour and higher in nutrition than is the case with that of ducklings. I question, however, whether these can be produced profitably, as ducks are heavy eaters. Duck- breeding is a highly specialized business, needing considerable skill. Those who undertake it should proceed cautiously, and in accordance with their experience. THE DUCK INDUSTRY 299 Aylesbury Ducklings. — ^At one time this branch of poultry husbandry was almost entirely restricted to Buckinghamshire, of which the Vale of Aylesbury was the centre. Within recent years it has extended into Bedfordshire and Oxfordshire, so far as that section of the country is concerned. Now in Norfolk, Suffolk, Lancashire, Lincolnshire, and in Cambridgeshire, duck- raising on advanced lines is to be met with. The pre-eminence which once marked Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire, and Oxford- shire, is no longer theirs, although the highest -priced ducklings are sent from the three counties named. At one period it was contended that there were some special virtues in the district, more especially the gravel found in the celebrated vale, which explained the quality of the ducklings. That, however, is with- out justification. The duckers of Bucks believed that they need not fear any competition, and, finding the industry a profitable one, refused to advance with the times. It was not for many j^ears after incubators had been successfully operated for duck- hatching in other parts of the country that the duckers would even consider the desirability of adding to their productive power in this manner. Many of the younger men have recog- nized the necessity for progressive methods. Selection and Breeding. — ^The first point to be regarded is selec- tion of the stock birds, which is of great importance, not only with regard to breed — though that is a most necessary con- sideration — but also as to age and time of hatching. For early ducklings there is nothing better than the Aylesbury as a pure breed. It is a rapid grower and fattener. A cross, however, between the Aylesbury and Pekin, using a Pekin di^ake to Ayles- bury ducks, is often found hardier. It is important to obtain the ducks good and from an undoubted source, so that they may be pure. Thej^ should be large, well-grown, and early hatched. Early Breeding. — One of the most imj)ortant points in connec- tion with duck-keeping is securing the best prices by having ducklings placed on the market early in the season. In order to do this they must be bred early ; but with many duck-keepers the difficulty is to obtain eggs in late autumn and early winter. If ducks or other fowls are allowed to breed when they like, if the stock ducks are themselves late-hatched, if they are fed carelessly, in all probability eggs will not begm to appear before March, when it is altogether too late to hatch spring duck- lings; therefore those who desire to be successful in the produc- tion of ducklings for spring marketing should proceed to work in the autumn. That the business is a profitable one cannot be 300 POULTRY HUSBANDRY doubted. It is estimated that about £70,000 is annually paid to the duckers of the Aylesbury and Leighton Buzzard districts for ducklings. Ducks are very hardy, and will thrive almost anywhere if they have a reasonable share of attention ; and as good prices can be obtained in the great towns of Britain, there is a large margin of profit to the producer. Methods of Duck Farming. — ^Large numbers of ducklings can be reared on a small area, as the whole period from the time of egg production to killing should be comprised within three months. Moreover, these birds can be raised very thickly, and thus there is rapid overturn. It is no uncommon thing for 1,000 to 1 ,500 ducklings to be reared on a single acre of land, and within a period of six to seven months. The chief danger under con- ditions like these is that the land should become so charged with manure that there is not time for exhaustion of the ammonia before another season comes round. We believe that, to some extent at any rate, the fact stated explains why many duckers in the Aylesbury district have not succeeded to the same extent as was the case formerly; and, for reasons which will be after- wards explained, the land occupied during one season by duck- lings should not be so used again for three or four years. In the meantime it should be heavily cropped. I have no desire to discourage small poultry-keepers — indeed, the reverse — ^but it must be pointed out that there are limitations imposed by Nature which we must attempt to break through. Consequently duck-raisers should not occupy the whole of their land in any one year, but be able to move on to fresh ground from time to time. For this reason small holders and farmers should succeed better than cottagers. Supply of Eggs. — ^It will be realized that under such intensive conditions as we have already mentioned the keeping of stock birds would do much to restrict the space available for rearing, which explains why as a rule in this country duck-raisers do not keep breeding stock. In the United States the plan is not fol- lowed, for Tipon the great farms met with in that coimtry breeding stock are kept and the ducklings raised. The plan here recom- mended — ^namely, of securing eggs from breeders — is to be pre- ferred, as there is less danger under these circumstances of en- feeble ment of the stock or of overcrowding the ducklings. It is to be remembered that stock birds must have liberty and water. When we say they must have liberty, that applies more to the question of water than of land. The system of buying eggs is almost universal throughout the ducking districts, and that plan THE DUCK INDUSTRY 301 has been followed also by Mr. P. Walsh, of Fleetwood, to whom references are made more fully later on. Under the system referred to, the breeders secure good prices for then- eggs, and thus the business is profitable to them. Unless stock have sufficient exercise, we should not expect them to produce eggs with strong embryos, which is the most important point. Reliable ducks' eggs command good prices. In May 2s. per dozen would be a fair price for ducks' eggs, but in December 12s. per dozen is frequently paid. That is a matter of supply and demand, though the value of a duck's egg in December is also measured by the fact that the possible duckling within it may be worth 7s. or 10s. in May, whereas one hatched in April would not realize more than a third or a quarter that sum. Contracts for eggs are often made at 3s. to 3s. 6d. per dozen for the entire season. Hatching and Rearing. — ^The hatching hens are accommodated in outhouses and sheds, and often 150 hens may be seen at work in maternal duties at one time. Every day they are fed and the nests examined, but this is simple compared with the labour involved at the end of four weeks, when the young ducks begin to appear. As already stated, incubators are now used to a considerable extent. Ducklings have one special characteristic, in that they need little brooding, so that the progeny of half a dozen sitters can be placed imder charge of one hen, and proud she will be of her large brood. From the very first the feeding has in view development of flesh and not bone. Consequently only those meals which are strongest in flesh and fat formers are used. For the first few days hard-boiled eggs (infertiles), rice, and bread, are given, after which barley-meal, mixed with scrap or tallow-cake, grains, and toppings, form the staple diet. On such feeding as this the growth is simply marvellous — they can be seen to grow. Kept in batches of about fifty, they are fed with the greatest regularity, and it must not be forgotten that in every pen is placed a trough of the famous gravel found in the Vale of Aylesbury, for which almost miraculous powers are claimed. To it is attributed almost all the merits of the Aylesbury duck — quality of flesh, rapidity of growth, and delicate pink of the bill, which is one of its distinctive marks. The birds appreciate this grit, and duckers use large quantities of it. Some of the ducklings sent to market have never known what it is to be in water, but as a rule they are now and again permitted a bathe or a swim. The pens in which they are kept are none too large, but there is reason in this, and fresh straw is supplied every day, their greatest enemy being cramp, to which they 302 POULTRY HUSBANDRY are very subject if exposed to cbaughts or the place be too damp. The skill of the feeder is exemplified by the rapidity with which he can have the ducklings ready for market. They are heavy eaters, and every day of life means a serious addition to the cost. Further, the earlier they are ready, the more certainty of securing the best market, and the vacating of space for other batches. The majority of the ducklings sent from Aylesbury are seven or eight weeks old, but it is jDossible to have them ready at six weeks. They must be killed as soon as they are ready, and not kept a day longer than the hour when they are ripe, or they will go rapidly back. Killing and plucking are carried on at great pressure, for it is no inicommon thing for a ton of ducklings to be despatched from this district in a single day. This would represent about 7,000 birds per month. Houses and Sheds. — The arrangements made for the housing of the adult ducks must necessarily depend upon the opportiniities of the breeder. Where space is limited, and there is small fear of injury being wrought by the birds, they may be given full liberty and allowed to wander where they like. Under these circumstances the houses can be scattered about in the most convenient places. A duck house does not need to be as lofty as one for chickens, because ducks sleep upon the ground. For a breeding pen of thirteen birds — that is, ten ducks and three drakes, which may be all kept together — a house 6 feet by 4 feet 6 inches allows plenty of space. This house may be either gabled or a lean-to, and it should be thoroughl}^ well ventilated; in fact, the front is better if it is made with wire netting, so that it can be left open. Where the birds must be kept within a measure of confinement, a house should be placed in the neigh- bourhood of running water or a pond, and yards enclosing both water and land can be arranged. A mistake is frequently made in placing the houses too near the water, and a great amount of cramp in the breeding stock results. The house should be upon thoroughly diy soil — cky, that is, even during the winter or wet season — because we must bear in mind that although ground may be some distance from the water, yet percolation means that, unless the place where the house is located is considerably above the level of the stream, it will be damp. Around the house should be an enclosed yard, which may be made of 2 -feet wire netting or of low hurdles. The object of this is that ducks, if they have the opportunity, will lay anywhere rather than in then- house, and frequently on the water. That can be prevented by keeping them within the enclosed THE DUCK INDUSTRY 305 yard until 10 or 11 a.m., by which time nearly every bird that is going to lay that day will have produced her egg. Under the conditions named, duck-breeding is of the simplest character, because the birds have plenty of water to drink, and they can be fed the same as ordinary poultry. Feeding. — ^The treatment of ducks when mated is of great im- portance, for all preparations will be useless unless there is a supply of eggs. Food given must be good and plentiful, but certainly not of a fattening nature, or the ovaries will become so clogged that the birds will be unable to produce eggs; hence Indian corn should not on any account be used, except in very small quantities, because of its fattening quality. The staple food should be barley-meal, mixed with about half its bulk of thirds or pollard if the barley-meal be good and floury; but if it be of commoner quality, then so much of the thirds need not be used. Butcher's offal, liver, and scraps, are all good, if well boiled, chopped fine, and mixed with the meal. But where these are not available, or in too limited quantities, there is nothing better than tallow greaves, or scrap-cake, as it is called in some places, for it is rich in the elements required. It should be broken up and boiled or simmered for a couple of hours until it is quite soft, when it and the liquor in which it has been boiled should be mixed with the meal. Another excellent plan is to make a contract with hotels for taking their waste scraps, which can generally be done on satisfactory terms. Whatever is used in this way is better boiled, and then mixed with the meal. It is important, however, to warn against use of diseased meat, which ought never to be employed. Some duck raisers give boiled horse-flesh to their birds, and if sound nothing can be better; but so many horses obtained in this way are diseased that it is necessary to utter a warning against their use. Of course, meat given must not be too fatty. If fed judiciously, meat will give that necessary stimulus to the egg organs that is needed in winter, and yields elements required for a constant supply of eggs. The meal should be well and thoroughly mixed, adding as much boilmg water as is requu'ed to make it into a crumbly mass, for on no consideration must it be given sloppy. It is better to feed from troughs, as this prevents waste of food, and what is left can be removed when the birds are satisfied. Stock ducks ought to be fed twice a day — first, as early as possible in the morning, and, second, about an hour before they retire for the evening; the former should always be as soon after daylight as can be. It is an excellent plan to throw a handful or two of oats into the water in which the birds swim or bathe during the day. 20 30G POULTRY HUSBANDRY The " Walsh" System. — ^VVhat has been stated above applies to the methods usually adopted where operations are on a modest scale, in the hands of individual producers. It now remains to describe a large duck farm upon which the methods are entirely different. It has been in operation for more than twenty years, entirely upon utility lines, without any contributory returns in the shape of sale of stock, eggs for hatching, etc. The whole business is in the hatching and raising of ducklings for market. This is owned by a Lancashire farmer, Mr. Peter Walsh, and is situated near Fleetwood. The soil is a clay loam, slightly undu- lating, and windswept, as it is within sight of the Irish Sea. As may be expected under such conditions, very early ducklings are not obtained, nor birds of the highest quality. The limita- tions of the environment are fully realized. Fig. 55. — Double Rearing House for Ducklings. This farm consists of 25 acres, on which, as no breeding stock are kept and the rearing is intensive, the same ground is not used in successive years. The farm buildings are substantial, providing accommodation for offices, incubator rooms, stores, plucking shed, and chilling-rooms. Everything is of a rigidly practical nature, plain, simple, and inexpensive, almost to a fault. In fact, cheapness is evident everywhere, save in the incubators and chilling plant. Not a penny is spent that can be avoided. No breeding stock are kept. Thus the land is available en- tirely for rearing. The eggs purchased number about 60,000 per annum, derived from many sources and districts. Such method has many disadvantages, in that supplies are often un- reliable and uncertain, and there can be no control over the class of bird from which eggs are obtained, which means inferior THE DUCK INDUSTRY 307 quality, as the district does not produce more than a moiety of eggs required. On the other hand, the maintenance of 800 breeding ducks is avoided, which would otherwise be requii'ed, and the risks of tainted ground obviated, as is the saving of labour. It is a question of economics, and in this case the balance is thought to be on the side of the present system. Methods of Rearing. — The hatching is entirely artificial. The machines, of which eighty are in use, are accommodated in two large rooms, with a total capacity of 14,000 eggs. These are closely packed together in rows, standing upon wide benches with tray rests in front and joassages between. Great attention has been paid to ventilation by sliding shutters below the level of the machines and ventilators in the roof. The atmosphere is kept moist by use of wet sand, and the eggs are damped at each time of turning, which is carried out twice a day. One very interesting observation is that low fertility and high vitality are usually associated. The methods of rearing are such as I have not seen elsewhere. Along one side of the incubator-room is a broad bench, upon which are placed L-shaped boards which fit together, forming sections about 30 inches long by 12 inches wide and 11 inches deep. When dried off in the incubators, the young ducklings are placed in these, about fifty to each compartment, where they remain for seven da^'s. No heat is applied, but the room is always maintained at a comfortable temperature bj^ the incu- bator lamps. The bench is covered with peat-moss litter and cleaned regularly. For feeding the section boards are removed. AVhen the birds are a week old they are transferred outside, and placed in rough boxes or packing-cases laid upon their sides (Fig. 56) . Four of these are used, grouped with the open tops to form an uncovered square in the centre, from which the ducklings cannot escape except by going into the cases. As these packing- cases are bought very cheaply, the cost of equipment is small. No heat is applied, and the object is to harden them off without undue exposure. From whichever quarter wind may blow they are perfectly sheltered. Here they remain for seven days more, when transference again takes place to open runs, formed by putting down 2 -foot wire netting. In these runs large packing- cases are used as houses, two or three in accordance with the size of the birds. Here they remain until ready for killing — that is, about six or seven weeks. Lamps, suspended on poles, are kept burning in the runs all night, as it is found the birds are much quieter than if entirely in the dark. The features of this plant, so far as rearing is concerned, are its 308 POULTRY HUSBANDRY simplicit}', its low cost for equipment, and mobility. The danger of tainted runs by use of fixed houses is entirely avoided. Belgian Systems. — ^Natural conditions in several provinces of Belgium are responsible for the wide distribution of ducks, though there are sections not so favourable as are others. Well- watered plains and valleys offer excellent facilities for duck- FiG. 56. — Rearing Boxes for Ducklings. breeding, and the great rivers, with their contributory streams, afford favourable oj^portunities in this direction. In two dis- tricts dealt with below the industry is large and highly specialized. Throughout the country ducks are kept by a great number of farmers, few in number, it is true, but large in the aggregate. There is a very general idea that ducks help to keep the land sweet. Upon what that opinion is based I do not know, but it THE DUCK INDUSTRY 309 is undoubtedly true that duck manure is very valuable and fosters the growth of the finer grasses. Evidence of such result has been found in our own land. Around Ghent large numbers of ducks are to be seen, though that is not one of the places referred to. Throughout Flanders and Hainault ducks are to be found everywhere, and the same can be said as to other districts generally. The demand for these birds is very large, as also for their eggs, which are thought to have the flavour of those of wild birds, and are specially valuable for cooking purposes. The system adopted, with, one exception, has been followed for cen- turies, varjang considerably from those met with in England. Fig. 57. — Duck Houses at Landsmeer. Huttegem and District. — One of the most important centres for this industry is in the valley of the Escaut, near the city of Audenarde, in East Flanders. On both sides of the river above Audenarde the valley is flat and broad, flanked by hills of a fair elevation, consisting of water-meadows, which are flooded in the autumn, remaining under water until the end of February, when they are drained. These meadows, which extend several miles from the city named, beyond the village of Huttegem, are communal property, and upon these ducklings are raised in large numbers. Here they find an abundance of rich natural food, and in return greatly improve the land by their manure. It is 310 POULTRY HUSBANDRY no uncommon sight during March and April to .see a hundred thousand ducklings on the meadows. In April the birds are removed and the land left for hay. When that crop is cut the meadows are used for cattle and chickens. When flooded, the valley is one vast lake, nearly two miles in width. The road and dwellings by Bevere, and on to Huttegem, are just above the water-line. It is in these dwellings where the duck-breeders live. Such is the scene of a remarkable industry. Cultivation of the fields other than the water-meadows is good; the houses, however, are primitive and not of a high order of comfort. A Spartan Plan. — As a rule, breeding ducks are accommodated in one of the ordinary farm ])uildings, which are usually spacious, but cannot be said to conform to our ideas of light, ventilation, or cleanliness. The ducks wander all over the meadows in search of food, but are not allowed out until after they have laid. They return in the evening to their own quarters, when they are shut up for the night. Hens are almost entirely used for hatch- ing, and a local breed called the Huttegem is kept for the pur- pose. This is a large-bodied fowl, coming into lay very early, and, in fact, becoming broody after producing seven or eight eggs. The maternal instinct is so strong that the hens of this breed will sit for three months without a break, contentedly taking three nests of eggs in succession. When the ducklings are hatched, they are kept very warm for a couple of days, frequently in the dwelling-room, by the side of the fireplace, after which they are transferred to coops made of straw. These coops are placed in the farmyard for a fcAV days, after which they are removed to the open. The reason for the use of straw is that the coop can be easily moved, and when it becomes dirty is burnt to destroy all parasitic life. At first the hens have cords tied to the legs staked in front of the coops. At a later stage they are put out on the meadows, where natural food is abundant. Hardihood characterizes the Huttegem duck, necessitated by the method followed. Young birds for breeding are employed to secure early eggs, as hatching commences in August, so as to have ducklings ready for January, when sale commences. The season is a short one, ending in April, when the birds are removed from the meadows. It is " a stolen harvest." Rearing upon the Continent of Europe during the winter is more difficult than in the United Kingdom, as the weather is less favourable. AVhat- ever it may be, the ducklings have to bear it; there is no cod- dling; if too weak they die. On one occasion I visited the Audenarde district early in February, when the watercourses were frozen and the ground covered with snow. Even under THE DUCK INDUSTRY 313 those conditions the ducklings were placed out in the open and allowed to go into the water, access to which was given by breaking the ice. The English plan has been to keep the young birds from swimming in water which is very cold, as that is thought to retard growth and induce cramp, but the Flemish peasants do not fear any such consequences. Feeding the Ducklings. — ^Whilst worms and plants are chiefly depended upon, these are not enough to secure rapidity of growth, and food supplied is liberal. For the first three or four days a mixture of hard-boiled eggs, chopped fine, buckwheat -meal, and Indian meal, and made into a paste, is fed upon sacks, together with worms, after which two or three feeds a day are given of either steeped buckwheat or of buckwheat -meal mixed with maizemeal, the birds getting what natural food they can on the meadows. On this diet they grow well and rapidly, but, as already stated, do not make the size attained by our Aylesburys in the same time. There is no fattening in this section of Flanders. When the ducklings are about six weeks old they are sold to the professional duck feeders at Lebbeke and Merchtem, who finish the work. One point to be noted, however, is that the water-meadows are communal land, and that the flooding and draining are regulated by local authorities, the peasants having feeding rights thereon. It is stated that nearly 200,000 ducklings are raised annually in the district, but that they are decreasing somewhat. Laplaigne. — ^The other section of Belgium where duck-raising is carried out on industrial lines is at Laplaigne, in the pro^^nce of Hainault, on the French border, and, like Audenarde, on the Escaut River. Here is a great plain, on one side of which is Fontenoy, famous as the scene of an important battle in 1745 when the English and their allies were defeated by the Frenc under Marshal Saxe. It is low-lying land, divided by water- courses, and in some cases below the level of the river. A con- siderable portion consists of water-meadows, as at Huttegem, under communal control, and flooded every j^ear. Here is bred a small duck of somewhat uncertain type, but very rapid in growth, producing fine and abundant flesh, which is greatly in demand at Brussels, Lille, etc. Upwards of 100,000 are pro- duced anniuiUy in the commune of Laplaigne, which can be fully credited, for ducklings seem to be everywhere, both in large and small flocks. One breeder raises annually about 10,000 birds. A distinctive difference between the Huttegem and Laplaigne ducklings is that the latter are reared practically all the year 314 POULTRY HUSBANDRY round. The birds are ready for killing in seven wecks.'by which time they weigh 3 to 3| pounds. Methods at Laplaigne. — In many respects the system adopted resembles that already described in connection with Huttegem, and it is^ therefore, not necessarj^ to describe it in detail. But there are differences of importance. In the first place, incubators are here emploj^ed almost entirely, made necessarj^ by the fact that the ordinary fowls of the district are Black Braekels, which would be useless as sitters, equally because they are small in size of body and unreliable. The results are said to be very satis- factory, and the introduction of these appliances has led to a great extension of the industry. A second difference is that during the first fortnight the hen and her brood are enclosed during the day within hurdles, which are placed by the side of, and cross, the watercourses, where they have access to the small stream, on the banks of which a large amount of natural food is obtained. After that period they are given full liberty. The same system is adoj)ted of helping them to find worms, as already mentioned. Another method is that no artificial heat is pro- vided for the dvicklings, but they are very fond of sleeping during the day on beds of fresh stable manure placed in convenient positions, whence they obtain a considerable amount of natural warmth. Sheds made with hurdles and straw are distributed, into which the ducklings can go when disposed to obtain shelter, and the older ducklings are permitted to wander among the trees, which are found in clumps here and there. Feeding and Fattening. — ^As distinct from what has already been stated as to Audenarde, the work is completed at Laplaigne by fattening and killing the ducklings. The method of feeding generally followed is that the food supplied consists of crushed wheat or buckwheat-meal, and mixed with cooked potatoes, to which a little meat-meal is added. This mixture is prepared with water into a paste. Probably the reason whj^ meat-meal is added arises from the acknowledged fact that, as a consequence of the large number of ducklings bred and kept on the meadows practically all the year round, -worms are becoming scarce, as might be expected, for the land does not appear to be so rich as at Huttegem. What effect a continued deficiency of worms will have, and how far it will increase the cost of production, remains to be seen. That meat will form a good substitute cannot be doubted. The food named above is continued all the time, except that during the last two weeks, when the birds are being fed off, steeped buckwheat forms part of the diet, as that is found PLATE XV. 1 1 4 Enclosure for Young Ducks at Laplaigne. THE DUCK INDUSTRY 317 to give firmness to the flesh. When this stage is reached the duck- lings are kept in open-fronted sheds with outer yards, so that they do not obtain much exercise, and as a consequence increase rapidly in weight. American Duck Farms. — In America the methods adopted have been on totally different lines, in that production has mainly been on great plants, many of which have been very suc- cessful. A considerable number of these duck farms are to be found in the States of New York, especially on Long Island, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. It is estimated that from the section of Massachusetts around South Easton and Wrentham half a million ducklings are marketed annually. Other differences between Eiu'opean and American methods are — (1) That in the latter the buildings are substantial and have fixed yards. That is a saving in labour, and probably in cost of equipment, but involves risks of tainted soil. In fact, one large duck breeder said to me that if he were commencing again he would have movable houses, as there was a steadily increasing tendency after some years to loss of virility. (2) That as a general rule the breeding stock are kept upon these duck farms, which system, whilst possessing many advantages, yet in the absence of special precautions tends to degeneracy, more es- pecially where birds are reared and maintained within small enclosures. (3) That what is known as the " drj^ " system is adopted in many cases, by which is meant the breeders are not provided with their natural element — ^water — to swim in. (4) That artificial methods of hatching are used for breeding stock as well as those birds which are to be killed. Duck Houses. — ^Upon one plant — that of Mr. James Rankin, at South Easton, Massachusetts — the houses for breeding ducks are 216 feet long by 20 feet deep. Each compartment is 20 feet by 10 feet, and accommodates twenty-five birds, four drakes to twenty-one ducks. The yards in front are 100 feet long by 10 feet wide. These runs provide no water for swimming, and the ground is swept over every week, whilst in the autuimi, when the breeding season is over, they are planted with rye grass to sweeten. The breeding house on the farm of Weber Brothers, at Wrentham, Massachusetts, is 260 feet by 20 feet, and similarly ar- ranged. In each case the divisions are low removable boards which can be easily stepped over. On both plants several long houses are provided for the growing stock. Many of these are heated on the pipe system, and the others are used when the birds no longer require artificial heat. It is significant, however, to find that 318 POULTRY HUSBANDRY the Weber Brothers believe that better results would be obtained if the breeding stock had water in which to swim, which they are endeavouring to secure; and also, at the time of my visit, that, in spite of all their efforts to sweeten the land by planting, it was showing signs of becoming tainted. Feeding and Killing. — The food given varies considerably from what is used in England. On one plant, from the first, the food consists of four parts wheat bran, one part Indian meal, with enough of low-grade flour to make the mass crumbly but not pasty; and, for the first feed, about 5 per cent, of sharp grit, but after that 2 per cent, is regarded as sufficient. As the birds grow older the size of the grit is increased. After the third day about 5 per cent, of fine beef scrap is added, soaking it a little before mixing, and when about a week old green rye is given if available, or finely chopped cabbage or lettuce. When stale baker's bread can be obtained, it is used instead of the bran. As the birds reach a fortnight old more Indian meal is added, making the proportions three parts bran to one part of the Indian meal, and when the birds are fattening the mixture consists of two parts of Indian meal, one part of wheat bran, one part of low-grade flour, 10 per cent, of beef scrap, 10 per cent, of green food, and 3 per cent, of grit, proportions by measure. Feeding and Fattening in Bucks. — ^Reverting to English methods, it will be realized that a most important part of the work is the feeding and fattening of the chicklings. In the Aylesburj^ district feeding varies considerably in accordance with individual ideas, and also with what food is available. Many breeders use hard-boiled eggs chopped fine and mixed with boiled rice, though some give toast soaked in water. After three days to a week of this feeding, the birds are put upon Burmah rice (carefully simmered) and toppings (which is the local name for fine sharps or middlings), or upon barley-meal and toppings, a variety being given in order to stimulate the appe- tite. The manner of treatment described is continued until the ducklings are five weeks old, by which time they should have grown to a large size. Now a different plan must be adopted, for the frame thus built up must be covered with the flesh, and feeding should be to that end. The ducklings are divided into flocks of about twenty each, as near as may be alike in age and size. The best manner is to feed the birds from long wooden or metal troughs, of which there should be a sufiicient number to allow every duck to find a place. The quantity of food can only be gauged by the appetites of the ducklings, and the attendant THE DUCK INDUSTRY 321 will soon find out how much is necessary without allowing any waste. It is a great deal better to be rather short than permit them to overeat. No water must be supplied until they have eaten, and then only in small quantities ; and they should not be allowed to swim until a day or so before they are to be killed, when a bath will clean their plumage. In the Aylesbury district the food supplied during the final three weeks is of a fattening nature, and large quantities of greaves or scrap-cake are used for this purpose. Whilst there should be variety in the food, so as to tempt the appetite, it is believed that rice properly prepared is the finest of all for this purpose, as it is cooling to the blood, stimulates the appetite, lays on flesh, and is easy of digestion. The best rice for feeding is the coarse kind with its husks, called in some places " paddy " rice. It can often be purchased at 8s. to 10s. per hundredweight or less, and at that price is a cheap food for fattening. The method of preparation is important, as it must never be given uncooked, and can easily be spoiled in the preparation. If the proportion of 1 quart of rice be taken, 3 quarts of water should be added, and I pound of broken greaves, with a little seasoning powder. The whole should then be placed in a vessel, and allowed to simmer (not boil) until the rice has swollen and ab- sorbed all the water, which it will do in two or three hours. The rice should then be broken up, and given to the birds when it has cooled down somewhat. For variation, Indian meal mixed with thirds or pollard may be used. In that case the greaves or meat-scraps should be boiled, and then, with its liquor, mixed in the meal, all making a crumbly, friable mass. Too often the importance of green food during the process of fattening is for- gotten, but a supply of such as may be available should be given every day. Nettles, boiled and mixed with the food, are largely used. Fresh lettuces are also good, but they are not to be obtained at some periods of the year, and then cabbage should be substituted. Green food is cooling to the blood, and tends to keep the birds healthy. Another most important matter is that of supplying grit, for without it the ducklings will be unable to digest their food properly. The quantity they will consume is proof of its value, and a boxful should always be within their reach. Ducklings undergoing the process of fattening should not be allowed to swim in water, but, as we have already said, they must have water to di'ink. A further point to be observed is that ducklings during the fattening stage should not be disturbed or frightened, and even the presence of strangers will retard growth. It must be remembered, however, that the system 21 '322 POULTRY HUSBANDRY here described is only suitable for birds intended to be killed at an early age. Where breeding stock is to be raised, the system adopted should not tend to force growth, as this would do harm, and the food supplied should be throughout the whole period similar to that given during the early stages, and after the first two or three weeks — except the weather is verj^ cold — it is better to allow the ducklings access to water, so that they may SAvim. It will be found that they will be longer in reaching maturity, but their vigour of body will be verj^ much greater. Killing. — ^Ducklings should be starved for twenty-four hours, and are killed by breaking the neck,''as in the case of chickens. A barrel should be provided with slots cut in the top, in which one leg is placed, to allow the bird to hang head downwards for two or three minutes, so that the blood may drain well from the body. Then they are plucked comj)letely, except upon the wings and head and 2 inches down the neck. The wings are turned, and the birds laid breasts upwards upon a flat board about 15 inches wide, the heads hanging over the side. As soon as half a dozen are ready, another board is laid on top and heavily weighted. They should be allowed to thoroughl}^ cool, and are packed in baskets holding a dozen, and each lot should be even. Packing ducks whilst w^arm is a fatal mistake, often causing them to reach the market in a green state. Cost of Raising Ducklings. — ^The cost of feeding ducklings, as we have already mentioned, is an important item, and hence the importance of early maturity and of marketing during the duckling stage, for profit depends upon whether that is accom- plished. Taking into account cost of egg, of incubation, and of feeding, a duckling at nine weeks cannot be produced under Is. 6d. to 2s. if the labour is undertaken by the breeder, and to do so requires economy in feeding and management. Where labour has to be paid for, and interest paid on equipment of plant, 4d. to 6d. more must be added, even where the operations are upon an extensive scale. On this scale a duck at fifteen weeks will have cost Is. beyond the sum named, and will be of less value than it was as a duckling. Of course, where less intensive methods are adopted the expense can bo minimized; but the returns will be reduced to an equal extent. The plan we have described will only be profitable for the production of ducklings early in the season, leaving a large margin under proper nuinage- ment, where the conditions arc favourable and the markets satisfactory. Feathers enter largely into the question of profit, but these are dealt with in a later chapter. CHAPTER XIX GOOSE FARMING The branch of poultry husbandry which ha« alone cleclmed durmg recent years is that of goose-breeding. In all others great advances have been made. What is here stated is not restricted to any one country, but is almost universal — at any rate, wherever progressive farm conditions prevail, even to a lesser extent. The reasons for the decline referred to are given below. So far as the United Kingdom is concerned, the following .figures, which are all we have available, show the comparative statistics relating to the goose for 1885 and 1908 in Great Britain, and for 1885 and 1912 in Ireland. 1SS5. 1908. England Wales Scotland Ireland (1885, 1912) Totals .. 615,724 234,146 35,440 2,133,609 494,000 192,000 26,000 1,731,934 3,018,919 2,443,934 These are inclusive of old and young birds, and do not, there- fore, represent the breeding stock. It will be seen, therefore, that the reductions in Britain are as follows: England, 1967 per cent.; Wales, 18 per cent.; Scotland, 26'63 per cent.; Ireland, 12-09 per cent. The same tendency is evident in other lands, even in Germany, where the eating of goose flesh in greater than in any other country. Reasons for Decline. — Save in those countries where the land is mainly open and largely rough pasture, fewer geese are kept than was formerly the case. During my observations throughout Germany, almost everywhere that fa-t was recorded. The supply is chiefly Russian, from seven to nine million live geese 323 324 POULTRY HUSBANDRY being imported annually. As cultivation increases, geese decline. Such was true in France, in Denmark, and in Northern Italy, as it has been in Great Britain and Ireland. With enclosures the IH'ofitable growing of these birds is lessened. In days gone by they were bred and reared on common lands, where they found the major part of their food at no cost to the ownei-s. That there was great benefit thus derived cannot be doubted. Un- fortunately, over large areas, as has been succinctly expressed, the common was stolen from the goose, which is more serious in its idtimate effect than stealing the goose from the common. That, however, is not all. Wherever cultivation has advanced, farmers have found that they could turn theii- fields to more profitable advantage, and avoid the damage they feared to crops and pastiu'es. With the decline of arable land and laying down so much of the countrj- to grass, man}' of those who had been accustomed to buy annuall}' a fiock of goslings for putting on the stubbles have ceased to do so, which explains whj' the imports of lean live geese from Ireland and the Continent of Europe have decreased to so large an extent. At one time that was a huge trade, but it has shrunk greatly. It must be admitted that farmers know their business well, for, in view of lower returns, the contraction of opj)ortunity means that what might at one time leave a moderate margin of profit no longer does so. The result is indicated in the poultry census of 1908, wherein it is shown that on the farms of Great Britain there were only eight adult geese per thousand acres of cultivated land. Although Ireland has nearly twice as man}' of these birds as in the whole of Britain, due to its greater extent of open lands, the same tendency is to be noted. The total number of geese bred annually in the United Kingdom is about 1,700,000, or slightly over one-fifth of a goose per family of five persons per annum. That is indeed a poor result. Reduction in Demand. — What has here been stated would probably not have taken place to nearly the same extent had the decline in suj)plies, as is generally the case, been accomi^anicd by a corresponding increase of values. Such has not, however, been found, otherwise we might have sought an explanation in the influence of higher prices. In multitudes of households a goose is never found upon the table from one year end to another, the reasons for which are worthy of study. Formerly there was a great demand for geese at the Christmas season. That was the treat of the domestic festival. Goose clubs enabled even those with modest means to indulge to this extent, and the sale through their media was very large indeed. If no bird of this GOOSE FARMING 325 class was purchased at any other time, then it made an appear- ance. Such is no longer true to the same degree, so far as our own country is concerned, although in the last year or two an increased sale and better prices have been noted. The demand is for other classes of meat. The change in taste is by no means restricted, however, to this instance. It is not merely a question of fashion. Size of Geese. — ^Throughout Southern Europe the type of goose generally met with is smaller in size of body than those found in the western and northern countries of the Continent. These are, in my judgment, descended from the Roman goose, still to be found in Italy. During visits to the last-named country, as to Southern Germany and Austria-Hungary, I realized that this was the common type. Plump, fleshy specimens, weighing in the late summer 8 to 9 pounds, are to be seen on the market^;, and appear to meet with a steady demand. These birds come within the piirchasing power of a large number of householders, which would not be the case with larger specimens. As is well known, such foreign geese as are imported into Britain are smaller than native supplies, or even those from France. Poul- terers report that within recent years the demand on our markets has been for birds of a more moderate size. The question is, therefore, whether by the introduction of smaller races than the Embden and Toulouse, such as the Roman, we could not rehabili- tate the goose in popular favour, provided, of course, that these were fleshy in relation to the total Aveight. Selling Geese.— Were what has just been suggested carried out, and geese of a size more in keeping with the requirements of ordinary householders offered for sale, there is everj^ probability that we should find a much larger demand from Michaelmas onwards. There is also another development which I should like to see tried — namely, the selling of parts of a goose. That plan is common in many Continental countries, more especiallj^ where larger geese are common, as in France and Northern Germany. In the latter this system is carried out most com- pletely. Every part of the goose appears to be utilized. Even the skin is cooked in cheap restaurants, and is said to make a highly appreciated dish among the poorer sections of the com- munity. Places for Geese. — ^The best places for keeping and breeding geese are on the borders of commons, moors, or waste lands. There is an abundance of areas in all parts of the countrj^ where flocks might be kept, thus utilizing ground of no value at present. 326 POULTRY HUSBANDRY and, by providing profitable labour for farmers and cottagers, add to their incomes. All that is needed for food, except when fattening, will be a little corn or meal at night, as they will forage for the rest. It is better if the number kept is sufficient to let a boy drive them to their feeding-ground and tend them during the day. They should be under cover at night in a com- fortable house, and with good straw bedding. A pond or stream is by no means imperatively needed, but when it can be given is conducive to their well-being. It is an interesting fact that in many respects geese arc very similar to sheep, and what- ever land is suitable for one is equally favourable for the other. The writer can remember how at one period many labourers reared a small flock of geese upon the commons, and where these still remain that custom is followed. It may be accepted as a recognized fact that it is much better for the work to be divided Fig. 58. — House for Geese. between rearing and feeding; land which is suitable for the former is frequently not calculated to give the best results in the final stages. Housing Geese. — ^The goose is a hardy bird, but at the same time requires protection during \nifavourable seasons of the year. Fig. 58 shows the design of a very useful form of house, which is equally suitable for geese as for turkeys, where a special building must be provided. In the majority of places, however, some vacant farm building can be used in this way. The house should be large enough to allow 10 square feet of floor for every bird; and whilst there should be perfect shelter overhead, it is better to either partially or entirely bar the front of the house, so that the birds may have plenty of fresh air. The building should be lofty and well ventilated, and we prefer erections which are at least 7 feet 6 inches in height. It must be thoro\ighly dry, and a great amount of loss will be avoided if care is taktn in this direction. Although geese are water-fowl. GOOSE FARMING 327 the same remarks apply as in the case of ducks, and it is better if the floor is elevated a little above the level of the outside ground, so that there maybe no danger whatever of dampness. An excellent plan is to litter out the house well with straw or dried leaves, either of which forms a very valuable manure when impregnated with the droppings from the birds, which must be driven in at night. If their food is given in the evening, there will be no difficulty in securing their return home. Hatching. — ^Young geese commence laying about the middle or end of Februarj^ and older birds a month later. It is much better to breed from the more mature birds ; j^et if early goslings are required, the latter cannot be waited for, as they are con- siderably later in commencing to lay. When the strain is a good one — strong, and not at all inbred — then the eggs from young birds can be taken without fear, and will hatch out well, the only drawback being that they do not grow quite so fast as those from older stock. In no case should they be kept for breeding. In the case of white geese, if the eggs are left in the nest, as soon as about fifteen are laid the mother will show a desire to sit; but if they are removed regularly, she will probably lay nearly twice as many before desiring to do so. The latter is the plan usually adopted, and half the eggs are generally set under large ordinary hens, giving four to each. Some breeders never allow a goose to sit at all, considering that they are unsafe, being heavy and clumsy. If this plan is adopted, the eggs must be regularly sprinkled in the nest, as the shells are very hard and thick, or otherwise the young birds will not be able to break through. Some geese lay two clutches of eggs in one season, but they have to be early bred and from a good strain to do so. The time of incubation for geese is thirty days, and it is better not to disturb the nest during the time, except in case of accident, as the mother is very spiteful and pugilistic. Should her mate be near, it may even be dangerous to do so, as they have great power in their wings, and can deal a tremendous blow. A regular attendant, however, soon becomes familiar to them, and he need not be so careful. Rearing. — As soon as hatching is over, plenty of food and water should be placed near the goose, so that she may satisfy her own appetite, and then both her mate and herself will attend to the little goslings. Goslings are about the easiest of all domestic poultry to rear, and when once hatched require very little looking after. They are unlike chickens in that thej' do not require brooding to the same extent. When hatched, place 328 POULTRY HUSBANDRY them in a roomy coop or crate, 30 inches square, but it is better not to give a large run at first. The coop must be situated in a sheltered position, as the sun's rays are fatal to young goslings. If there are jolenty of bushes or trees about, that is simple, for the coop can be placed under their lee; but if the situation is open and bare, some shelter must be improvised. The coop can then be made with a large caved roof. In addition, hurdles, in which has been interlaced furze, should be provided, and if freely scattered about these will be welcomed by the goslings. An excellent plan is to cover the coop with furze, as that keeps it cool. In all cases the coop should be bottomless, for the goslings are unable to hold their feet on a wooden floor, and are very aj)t to injure themselves by slipping about. Goslings are not usually hatched until the weather is open and mild, and are not delicate by nature; but the coop should be made roomy, as the 3'oungsters grow very fast. When about ten days old they can be liberated from the run, and will prove splendid foragers. At this period they may be removed to a house or shed. Feeding Goslings. — Early feeding must be all in the direction of building up a frame on which the flesh may be laid. The best food from the first is barley-meal and wheat. The whole grain should be scalded and dried up with meal. Variations may be made by giving ground oats, or by boiling potatoes and drying them up with the meal. When about two months old the birds may be fed on raw grain and sliced potatoes. Such feeding, however, is expensive for ordinarj^ purposes; that is why maize is generally used. Goslings are also very fond of young grass, green onions, chickweed, and an early cabbage hung within their reach will be highly appreciated. No other special ]:)rovision is necessary except the giving of water, which must not be forgotten. Young goslings, if the fields are clear of their crops, should be allowed to wander about most of the day when the weather is at all fine, but they ought to be placed under the care of a lad, so as to prevent their wandering away too far and overrunning themselves. He can easily keep them in order and bring them home at night. For reasons which have already been explained, economy in feeding is most important in connection with goslings, and every ounce of unnecessary food given is to a large extent wasted. In many districts, especially on the richer soils and during a fairly moist summer, with the exception of a little food — say any good meal made into a paste in the morning, and a few oats or wheat steeped in water in the evening — they will not require any supplied food at all. They are essentially grass-eaters, and GOOSE FARMING 331 will find practically the whole of their sustenance. The goose raiser should bear in mind that his business is not to substitute artificial for natural food, but to give the former in order to make up for any deficiency of the latter. During a very dry summer the birds will recpiire to be fed constantly, because at that season there is no natural food available, and conseciuently they must be pro\ided with an abundance, more especially of green food. Fattening. — Geese arc altogether different from ordinary fowls, or even ducks, in one respect, and a mistake is sometimes made in the final fattening off by putting each bird into a separate compartment. Geese never thrive in this way, and, instead of getting fatter, actually pine away. They appear to be miserable without company, and each lot should be killed together, or the ones left behind rapidly lose flesh. tSome birds fatten quicker than others, and as they are seen to get into ripe condition, which can best be decided by the state of their appetites, they had better be killed off. As soon as they are as fat as they will be, the desire for food begins to slacken, and then it is that they should be despatched, or they will lose flesh instead of gaining it. The food should be soft in the morning, and corn in the afternoon, a large trough of clean water being always at hand, but not so that they can get into it. The soft food may consist of barley- meal mixed with Indian meal and pollard, and the corn of wheat and barley, which are better if steeped. Plenty of grit must always be provided. German Methods. — In Germany consumption of goose flesh is enormous, and is almost universal, varying from the goose breasts of Pomerania to the pate de foies cjras of Strassburg. Although there has been an advance in production in a few provinces, that is small as compared with the demand, owing to the rapidly increasing popidation and greater p^irchasing power. As a result vast quantities of live geese are imported, chiefly from Russia. In the vicinity of nearly all the great cities are huge fattening establishments, several of which I have visited. These are supplied by goose trains, consisting of special three-decked vans, some of which I have seen on arrival. One of these at Berlin had brought 15,000 geese from the Russian frontier. The system adopted is fully described in my " Report on the Poultry Industry in Germany." The goose-fattening plants are in many cases on an extensive scale, splendidly ecpiipped with large roomy sheds, plucking, chilling, and packing rooms. At one of those visited there was accommodation for 10,000 geese. The food given varies in 332 POULTRY HUSBANDRY accordance with markets. For lower-quality birds maize is largely used, as it is a cheap food and makes for bulk, even though that consists of oily fat, and therefore is not economical to the buyer. For the better-class trade oats and what is called crusted barley are used, producing abundant and firm flesh. Smaller specimens are fed three weeks, in which time thej^ will increase in weight by 4j to 5h pounds. Larger specimens are fed four weeks, growing by 6f to nearly 9 pounds. If the feathers are plucked, they can be fed for six weeks, and exceptional specimens have been known to add 13 to nearly L5| pounds to the weight. All are dry-picked, as scalding spoils the fat. CHAPTER XX TURKEYS AS FARM STOCK Nearly four hundred j^ears ago the turkey" was first introduced into this country. It speedily became a favourite dish with the wealthier members of society, continuing as a luxury until the latter half of last century, when it came into more general con- sumption. The demand is now general among all classes of the community, and would advance more rapidly but for the fact that inadequate supplies maintain prices to a high point, usually beyond the reach of our industrial population, who, however, are provided for to some extent by imports, which sell at much lower rates than do the best qualities of home turkeys and of French. As a rule. South European birds are lacking in flavour and cUy in flesh. They are, however, much cheaper than our own. More Turkeys wanted. — A reasonable estimate is that about two million turkeys are annually consumed in the United King- dom, of which rather less than 25 per cent, are foreign. The finest imported come from France, almost rivalling our own, as the French are skilful breeders and feeders. In spite of growing demand, there has not been any marked increase of production within recent years, which is surprising in view of the fact that under suitable conditions and with proper management there is no more profitable branch of live-stock, provided the occupa- tions are large. This is essentially a farmer's fowl, demanding a considerable amount of space to roam over. The recorded number of tmkeys in the United Kingdom is as follows : Adults. . Young Turkeys. England (1908) Wales (1908) Scotland (1908) . . Ireland (1913) 1 t(j,000 395,000 26,000 61,000 27,000 42,000 70,428 963,046 Totals . . b69,428 1,461,046 333 334 POULTRY HUSBANDRY It is evident production could bo doubled without danger of outrctiching demand. Presuming that the above figures are correct, the relative number of young birds to adults is remark- ably small. Respectively these are — In England 2-7 young to 1 old bird. In Wales 2-34 In Scotland l'5u ,, ,, „ In Ireland 5'65 ,, ,, „ (Such can in no case be profitable. The average ought to be at least eight to ten young turkeys to each adult. At the present time the total consumption does not appear to be more than one tmkey annually to every twenty-three inhabitants in the United Kingdom. Space required. — Within the last few years serious losses have followed the adoption of more intensive methods in turkey - breeding, especially in America, where the effects have been most disastrous, devastating what at one time were great turkey- producing districts in New England. During mj^ visit to some of the chief centres, I could come to no other conclusion than that this result was owing to tainted soil, following the keeping of birds beyond its capacity — that is, by concentration rather than distribution. On farms visited it was revealed that, even where there was plenty of land for the numbers maintained and bred, these have been kept and reared near to the homesteads, with the result that the soil was " turkey-sick,'' and various diseases, principally what is known as " black-head," carry off the young birds. We have not been without examples of the same nature in this country, though less serious and in isolated instances, which ought to be a warning. Again, it is desirable to emphasize that the turkey is more suited to those who occupy larger or medium-sized farms than upon small holdings. There can be no question that under suitable conditions, where plenty of space is available, there is no branch of farmmg which can be made to yield a greater amount of profit. The number of turkeys nnist in every sense be relative to the amount of land available, and that land nuist be cultivated in a regular manner to its fidlcst extent. There is no reason whatever why in many parts of the country turkey- raising should nut be increased enormously. Suitable Conditions. — A very common impression is that tiukeys are delicate. There can be no question whatever that during certain stages of their growth they require careful atten- tion. A word is said below with regard to this delicacj'. My TURKEYS AS FARM STOCK 335 point is to recognize that under many conditions the turkey would be found delicate by reason of the unfavourable nature of the soil. These birds can withstand cold, and even rain does not affect them so adversely as many people imagine, because it is well knowai that there are vast quantities of tm-keys raised in Ireland and in some of the western districts of England. The question which anyone who is taking up turkey-farming must consider is the nature of the soil. Damp and heavy lands are fatal to success, and neither breeding stock nor the young birds will thrive or prove profitable under such conditions. As I have explained in the chapter dealing with climate and soil, heavy land is colder by reason of the large amount of moisture con- tained therein, which checks the growth of young and adversely affects the older birds. Moreover, even if the turkeys are grown to a killing age, their flesh will never be so good as if they had been raised upon a more kindly soil. I do not advocate for one moment that they should be kejDt upon sand, for the nature of sandy soil is by no means favourable to the extent frequently imagined. The better the land, provided that it is light or medium in its nature and well drained, the better the turkeys will be, and the less trouble will they cause to the owner. The conditions which are most suited to this industry are where the land is hilly or undulating. There the natural cUainage is generally good. It is undesirable to attempt rearing the birds in low valley lands, as these are generally damp. Any farmer, therefore, who is contemplathig extending his enterj)rise, and raising considerable numbers of turkeys, should in the first place consider the nature of his soil. If it comes within the category mentioned, even though the elevation should be considerable, there are no objectionable external reasons relative to the position. Flat land, it is obvious, is not nearly so good, as it is seldom well drained, although large numbers of turke3\s are raised in the neighbourhood of the Fens. A finther point to consider is that wherever turkeys are bred there must be plenty of natural shelter. Hence we should be inclined to shut out considerable areas of countr}- which are practically treeless, and where, consequently, the birds would be unduly exposed. Within the last few 3'ears several attempts have been made in this country, although the same plan was carried out even as far back as three hundred years ago, to breed turkey's under more natural conditions than upon ordinary farms. The stock are placed in woods, and allowed to live there in the way which would be the case in their wild state. No interference takes place with them; they breed when and where they like, and as 336 POULTRY HUSBANDRY soon as the number increases beyond a certain stage, or when any birds are wanted, they are shot. This system deserves encouragement, because it should be the means of providing those who raise turkeys for market with vigorous stock birds, and in this manner correct the tendency, which is always evident under domestication, to enfeeblement. To claim, however, that this is the only way in which turkeys should be bred is to abso- lutely ignore the fact that the industry is not intended merely for the purpose of providing either sport or pleasure for a few wealthy folk, but as a source of income for our agricultural community. If turkey-raising were to be restricted to the conditions we have named, for every hundred who now raise these birds there would be only one who could possibly do so. Stock Birds. — ^The male turkey to a larger extent than is generally assumed influences his progeny. That is true if he were mated with only one hen ; but when he will serve a dozen or a score of females, and be the progenitor of all their poults for that season, it is at once evident that his direct influence will be twelve or twenty times that of each individual hen in the flock. Any deficiency in one hen will apply to her brood and no more, whereas inferiority in the male will influence those bred from all the hens. To put it on a weight basis, if, by lack of size or weakened constitution, the poults of one turkey hen when matured are 1 pound each below the average, the owner may lose returns for, say, 12 pounds; but if the cock is the cause, all will be affected, and with ten hens 120 pounds may be sacrificed. Further, lowered vitality in one hen may mean infertility in her eggs or death of the j^oungsters ; but should the cock bird be at fault, then the loss will be commensurately greater. Whilst, therefore, it is desirable to make careful selection of the hens, as shown below, and any neglect in that respect is to be depre- cated as false economy, the choice of the male is of tenfold greater importance, by reason of the wider influence exerted by him. In selecting a male turkey, he should be well developed in breast and body, without excessive size, have a strong, long frame and limbs, be active in habit, carry himself in a stately manner and freely disport his plumage, be ready to resent the presence of strangers, and be quick and strong in voice. If in addition to these he owns a satisfactory parentage, he can hardly fail to give satisfaction. A further point is that he should have been reared under favourable conditions, where there was plenty of scope for his wandering spirit. There is a greater difference in weight between the male and TURKEYS AS FARM STOCK 'S3: female turkey than is the case with other kinds of poultry. That aj)pears to be true equally with the wild and domesticated sj ecics. As will be seen by the following table, taking 100 as the mean for the male, the figures shown indicate the relative weights of the females: Dorking fowl Minorca fowl Plymouth Rock fowl Aylesbury duck . . Toulouse goose . . Bronze American turkey 100 79 100 86 100 82 100 90 100 72 100 OD So that in standard-bred birds the female turkey is only a little more than half the weight of the male. At the same time, her influence in respect to the size which poults bred from her will ultimately attain is considerable, anel consec[uently it is desirable that she shoukl not be small. She should be fully elevelopeel in length anel depth of boely, be active in habit, j-et c[uiet in dis- jjosition, anel amenable to control. A turkey hen which makes a gooel forager is more likely to proeluce vigorous poults than if she is an indolent " stay at home." Apart from structure anel size of boely of the indivielual, it may be expecteel that the elaughter of a gooel mother will reprcduce the maternal instinct satisfactorily. The turkey hen is dignified rather than assertive in carriage, anel has a soft, flute-like voice. As her plumage is less brilliant than that of the male in the colour breeels, so long as she conforms to the racial characteristics, it is unwise to accord any great weight in that direction. ' Age o£ Breeding Stock. — ^The consensus of experience is that the elomesticateel turkey is much less vigorous than the wild species, specially indicated by elifficulties in rearing, which are thought to be greater than in almost any other class of poultry. The explanation may partly be from the fact that such domes- tication has been comparatively recent, anel that these birds have not fully adapteel themselves to the changeel conditions, though after four centuries that should not be the case. I have no eloidjt whatever that the most potent reason for weakness in the poults is elue to the use of innnature stock, a fact which is becoming recognizeel by breeelers, though not nearly to the extent necessary. It is generally accepted that a turkej' does not attain maturity until it is nearly three years olel. That being SJ8 l^OULTRY HUSBANDRY so, from such ago onwards should bo the period when the birds will transmit to their progeny the greatest amount of constitu- tional vigour. On the other hand, if mated before maturity is attained, or, rather, before it is approaching, and such is continued in successive generations, gradually lessened powers are the result. (Such is scientifically true and in accordance with practical experience. The period of mating, however, should not be luiduly delayed, otherwise functional activity may be checked and fertility lessened. A safe rule will be not to use yearlings of either sex as breeders, and to regard that as the period of growth . Matings should be made when two years old, and can be continued for three years. As there is no advantage in ver}^ early hatching of turkeys, the temptation to use young stock, as when breeding table chickens and ducklings, is absent. The one cU'awback to the use of older males is that they sometimes tear the hens, but that can be prevented by cutting the spurs. The disproiiortion, aJixad}' referred to, in size of male and female turkeys makes it all the more necessary that the latter shall be as old as the former, and if either is the younger it should be the male. Size oJ Domesticated Turkeys. — It is a very conunon opinion that the wild-turkey is nnich larger than any of our domesticated races, but fuller inquiry does not justify such a view, and it would be against all experience with other species. In this connection there is a very important question for the breeder, namely. What weights should the stock be when mated ? — that is, in relationship to the general standard. To a con- siderable extent size in our domesticated races is abnormal, and by neglect we should find reduction very speedily. Turkeys are kept entirely for their meat qualities, and therefore volume of flesh is of importance. We require bulk of frame, a deep keel, a long sternum, and stout legs, abundantly covered with strong, thick muscles, but we do not want fat, which adds to the bulk, and at the same time checks the functional and muscular activi- ties. Therefore, both in the case of cocks and hens the body should be kept hard and firm, and, so long as the skeleton is large, heavy weights are undesirable, but more so in the former than the latter. Hens weighing IG to 17 pounds, and cocks scaling at 20 to 22 pounds, will produce c^uicker -growing and ultimately heavier poults for the market than would fat specimens weighing several i)ounds more. The capacity to fatten must be there. That is frequently a family quality. Apart from the use of yearlings for stock, sometimes we find t irkey breeders who keep the small, weedy specimens, which TURKEYS AS FARM STOCK 339 can only be sold at reduced prices, for the next season's work. That is a foolish action, and needs no more to be said in con- demnation. Others grow all in the same manner, and then pick out in December such as they wish to retain. Selection of those that are intended to be used as breeders eighteeen months later should be made in the early autumn before the fattening or feechng-off stage commences, and given a free run where they can find the greater jiart of their food until the supply is reduced. Number of Hens to Male. — One impregnation will usually fer- tilize the entire batch of eggs laid by a tiukey hen. Therefore, as the number j^roduccd by her is not large, a male can be used for a considerable flock. There are great variations in the immber of eggs produced by individual hens. Record has been made of one bird laying eighty eggs in a suigle season, but that is very exceptional, and as a rule one-fourth to one-half that number would be more general. We have no definite data as to how many eggs would be fully fertilized, but probably a dozen to fifteen would be the maximum. Therefore, increased pro- duction would necessitate successive service. Tm'keys are not, however, kept to produce eggs, except for hatching purposes, and there is nothing to be gained by increasing unduly the inimber laid. That this can be effected is unquestionable in the same way as with other jioultry — namely, by removal of eggs from the nest as they are laid. In this manner many breeders obtain from twenty to thirty eggs before the hen commences to sit, the excess of which above her capacity to cover are given to yearling hens or ordinary fowls. In experience it is found that an active two-year-old male can be used with, a score of hens, reducmg the number m succeeding seasons until ten is his final year's harem. As a rule only one batch of eggs is produced each season, though sometimes a second lot will be obtained in the summer, which are not, however, usually worth using for hatching. Houses and Roosts. — ^Not much need be said upon these points, for the reason that, in the case of houses, the less they are used the better. Turkeys should always be kept separate from other poultry and treated si)ecially. He would be a poor farmer who housed his horses and pigs, his cattle and sheej^, in one buikUng. AMiere large trees are available for shelter, the better plan is to jilace roosts below them similar to those shown in Fig. 60, and let the buxls live in the open all the time. Sometimes a large roomy shed or barn is available, which is useful for adult birds. The only disadvantage is that frequently care k not taken to 340 POULTRY HUSBANDRY secui-e sufficient ventilation, and that the birds do not during the day range to any great extent. Where a house has to be built, that shown in Fig 59, made of furze bushes, would be very valuable during the fattening stage. A house 40 feet by 15 feet. and 10 feet to the eaves, will accommodate forty turkeys — that is, allowing 15 square feet of floor space, or 150 cubic feet of air space, for every adult. The earth should be dry, and may be littered with chaff, in which grain may be fed to be scratched s f^ ~ ■ \ .. Hit Fig. go. — Roost for Turkeys. for. Perches made of tree branches, as seen in Fig. 60, can be placed at the back, 3 feet above the ground. The only excuse for using houses for turkeys is when foxes are troublesome, except in the month before the birds are killed. TURKEYS AS FARM STOCK 341 Hatching. — One of the peculiarities of the turkey, due probably to her more recent domestication, is that she prefers to lay in a nest of her own choosing. Up to the present time artificial incubation has not been found successful in connection with turkeys, although one of the leading turkey breeders in Suffolk, Mr. Gage Harper, employs an incubator for use in the last two days, simply to bring the young chicks out. He does not recom- mend the eggs being kept in an incubator during the whole period. Turkeys make splendid sitters and mothers, and, as there is no advantage in too early hatching, the hens usually become broody c^uite soon enough for our purpose. Where the turkeys are roosting in the trees it is an excellent plan to put two or three boxes or empty barrels upon their sides in some out-of-the-way corner. Very often it will be found that the turkey hen, imagining that she has discovered a place of which no one else knows anything, will commence to lay there. At this period it is necessary to observe her very carefully, and to remove the eggs as they are laid, leaving a dummy in the nest. W^ien she has produced about fifteen eggs some may be left there, and it will be seen that she will commence her sitting operations. If desired, she can be allowed to sit in the same place ; but as many of the best breeders prefer to have the birds under control, when she has become thoroughly settled upon the nest, she may be removed at night elsewhere without much fear of breaking her off. That plan is certainly desirable, because otherwise the male is apt to disturb her and cause mischief to the eggs. Where turkeys are put upon nests of the kind last referred to, these should be in boxes at least 30 inches square, and be there treated in exactly the same manner as described previously for fowls. It is well to mention that sometimes a turkey hen can be induced to lay twenty to thirty eggs. Under these circumstances she may be provided with fifteen, and the remainder placed under a quiet, well-feathered, and good sitting ordinary hen. If that plan is adopted, when the hatching is completed the entire batch may be given to the turkey for rearing, as she is able to brood a much larger number of chicks than she can cover eggs. We must not forget that turkeys are very close sitters, and therefore it is essential to see that they come off the nest every day for feeding. A turkey hen, if allowed, would feed upon the nest, but that is neither good for herself nor for the embrj'os. If she is carefully handled, and removed to an open yard, and there given food, water, and a dust bath, she will return to her nest reinvigorated for another day's duties. The period of hatching is about twenty-eight dajs. 342 POULTRY HUSBANDRY The advantage of using an incubator for the final stage is that there is no fear of the young chicks being crushed by the mother, as is often the case with such heavy birds. Rearing. — ^^Vhen the young birds are hatched, they should be left in the nest for at least twenty-four hours before they are removed; but it is better that the hen should be well fed at once. Large roomy coops of the ordinary pattern are required for turkeys, and, for the first few days, to these should be added wooden -framed runs, about 1 foot deep, and covered with netting, because it is generally admitted that tm'key chicks are slow in assuming full activity. These runs will not be required for more than about ten days, except when ordinary fowls are employed. Under such circumstances the hens must be con- fined for a longer period. At the end of ten days the turkey hens may be given their liberty, as thej^ will not be likely to lead the chicks astray too far, in which direction a turkey is more reliable than a fowl. It is essential, however, that the hen and her brood shall be closed in at night. Coops should be placed where they will be sheltered from unfavourable winds, and be about 30 yards apart, x^referably on arable land. These must be moved on to fresh ground every day. In districts where there is plenty of natural shelter that is all required in the way of protection. Mr. Gage Harper, who is one of the most successful rearers in East Anglia — a district which is wind-swept during the spring months of the year — follows a plan that can be recom- mended. He always plants a field in rye-grass, and as soon as the rye is from 24 to 30 inches in height lanes are cut with a mower in various directions through it, generally north-west to south-east. In these lanes the coops are ]3laccd, and, as a result, the young turkeys have all the benefit of fresh ground and of sunshine, and at the same time the wind sweeps completely over them. A further benefit is that the hens will be found to strip the heads of the grass, which the chicks devour greedily. For older birds he frequently has oats planted, and the ears are consumed whilst in a green state in the same manner. The period of cooping is about eight weeks, when the red usually begins to appear on the heads, and by this time the coo])s are moved gradually towards the perches or trees, when it is found that both the mother and her l)rood begin to roost there. Prac- tically, by that time the difficulties of tiu'key-raising are at an end, for with the appeaiancc of the red upon the heads the birds are much hardier than was the case previouslJ^ The treatment in summer is comparatively simple, as the birds roost either in the trees or in the house previously described. TURKEYS AS FARM STOCK 343 In some districts where foxes and other enemies abound, it is necessary to take special steps to protect the birds. To this end, if the birds are kept in the open, the earth around the trees and under the roosts is thickly strewni with gas-lime and asa- foetida, the pungent odour of which is generally sufficient to keep marauders from the birds without doing any harm to them. The gas-lime, however, must be renewed as frequently as is necessary, otherwise loss \vill result. Feeding. — Stock turkeys may be fed in the same manner as prescribed for ordinary fowls, but we must not forget that they obtain a large amount of green-stuff and natural food during their foraging expeditions, and that supplied to them should be subsidiary. It is important in the case of the breeders to keep them in good condition, for which purpose full liberty is essential. The food provided may be an\- of the ordinarj^ grains, but in addition a few peas or beans are very helpful, as they are low in fat and in carbo-hydrates. It is better to feed whole grain than .soft food. Young turkeys are first fed on hard-boiled egg, chopped fine, with boiled rice and soaked stale bread, or rice simmered in milk. The rice should be mixed when quite soft with sifted oatmeal, Spratt's meal, or ground oats, until it is crumbly moist. They should be fed five or six times in the day, the first feed to be as soon as possible after daylight, and the last about six o'clock in the evening. When a week or ten days old, gradually change the food, introducing barley-meal or ground oats mixed with middlings, also buckwheat or wheat (the latter shoidd be boiled), and — most important of all — plenty of young onions choppeel fine. Any kinel of tender green food is useful, but onions are most valuable. Young clover, or lettuce, or elanele- lion, or nettles, can all be used with advantage. As soon as the birds have " shot the red," they may be fed upon green oats, wheat, buckwheat, and barley, varieel with boiled wheat elried off with barley-meal. The great requisites for successful tiirkey- rearing are — (1) a dry, comfortable house and run; and (2) gocel and proper feeding. On cold or wet days mix a little seasoning ■ in the soft fooel, and give every day for the first three months a little choppeel meat or Spratt's crissel. Bone-meal or fresh bones shoulel be mixeel with the food, anel there should be a plentiful supply of grit. It is necessary to move the coop every day. or the grounel will become tainted. When the young birds are about a fortnight old, let the hen out of the coop for about an hour a elay. which may be gradually extendeel in time. A elry summer is most harmful to the turkey raiser, for thep 344 POULTRY HUSBANDRY the supply of natiiral food and of green food is very scanty. Under these conditions a fuller diet is essential, chiefly in the direction of a more plentiful supply of green food. Those who have plenty of woodland will find a hot summer less harmful than where the land is more open, as the cool shade of the trees prevents the growth thereon being burnt up to the same extent. It is frequently noted that at Christmas turkeys run smaller in size than if the summer has been cool and moist. Turkey Poults. — ^When in America, I was interested to note that a considerable trade during the summer is done in what are called " turkey poults " — that is, young turkeys killed when about ten weeks old, weighing 3 to 4 pounds, at which age they are very flesh}^ indeed and fine in flavour. The price realized was four to six shillings each, which ought to leave a large profit. I learnt that, as there is a considerable demand for these, many turkey breeders are accustomed to hatch a much larger number than they desire to rear for autumn sale, killing off all beyond such as are intended for Thanksgiving and Christmas, and thus considerably enhance their returns. I cannot but think that, if these young turkeys were offered for sale in Britain, they would be very popular indeed, and a great impetus be thus given to this branch of poultry husbandry. Fattening. — ^Upon arable farms turkeys should be fed upon the stubbles, as they are splendid foragers, which means a great reduction of cost for food. Such specimens as are intended for use or sale as stock birds will continue to be fed in the same way as other stock poultry ; but if they are to be fatted, it is desirable to get them into good condition, which can best be accomplished by putting them on to growing roots or cabbages. This treatment is continued until about November 1, after which time they are fed, as soon as liberated in the morning, with soft food, usually consisting of ground oats, or barley and wheat meals. When satisfied, they wander off to the fields until feeding-time in the afternoon, when they are jjrovided with all the food they care to eat. About November 20 — that is, five weeks before Christmas — begins the final stage of the process. The turkeys are put up to fatten in a dry, comfortable shed, which must be large enough for the number of birds to be ac- commodated. For this purpose the form shown in Fig. 59 is the best type. Broad perches are used, which must not be more than 3 feet above the ground. These sheds are better if pro- vided with open yards. Food and water are placed in troughs conveniently situated, and away from the perches. When put TURKEYS AS FAR]\I STOCK 345 up to fatten, the turkeys are given all the food they will eat. The morning feed consists of barley-meal, wheat-meal, buck- wheat-meal, or ground oats. Farmers who have good customers and produce the best birds mix the meals with soured skim-milk, and give milk to drink instead of water — an inexpensive addi- tion, and one which considerably improves the flesh. Although not much used, there can be no doubt that the addition of a little pure fat — about J ounce per diem — to the soft food is highly beneficial, softening the flesh. Cooked potatoes can also be added with advantage. The afternoon feed consists of whole barley, oats, buckwheat, and a little maize, and these are more easily digested if steamed or soaked in hot water. When fully satisfied, all food should be removed, the troughs emptied both morning and evening, and washed after the morning meal of soft food. In every case there must be a plentiful supph' of coarse grit and sand available to the fowls, and a little slaked lime or old mortar will be an improvement. Without grit the turkeys cannot possibly digest their food properly, and without effective digestion flesh production will never be complete. A supply of coarsely powdered vegetable charcoal should be pro- vided. Turkeys can be crammed by machines, as are fowls; but this process is not necessary. Killing and Dressing. — ^The usual method of killing a turkey is to first fasten the legs and wings with soft string, which must be strong enough to bear the weight. By means of that fasten- ing suspend it to a beam, head downwards, so that the head will fall about midway on the operator's body. Pass the left arm round the turkey, so that its tail will point behind. Take its head in the right hand, with fingers under the throat, and thumb at the base of the skull; now give a sharp, sudden, strong jerk downwards, and a .sharp twist upwards and sideways, and death will be instantaneous, though there may be considerable muscular exertion for a time. If it is thought desirable to bleed, that can be secured by cutting the throat; but this must be done at once. Turkeys can also be killed in the same way as fowls, already described. CHAPTER XXI EGG PRODUCTION AND PRESERVATION The growth within recent years of demand for and consump- tion of eggs has been phenomenal in nearly every country, more especially those wherein industrial and commercial developments have taken place to the greater extent. As a consequence, this stimulus to increased production has led to adoption of methods which were at one period scarcely contemplated. What may be, termed " factory " sj^stems have been tried in many countries, and are receiving a greater amount of attention than ever before. These are referred to in the earlier chapters. My present pur- pose is to consider the questions involved in detail, in order to show what progress can be recorded, together with the prospects of further development. It must be admitted that up to the present time the advance made has not proved equal to antici- pations formed, for reasons which are stated below — that is, when we regard the question as a commercial proposition, in which the relation of cost in production to returns is the de- termining factor. No industry can be permanently successful except the margin affords a living profit. That is the problem awaiting solution. Sources of Egg-Supply. — Experience in what may be termed " producing countries " shows that practically the only profitable method of egg production is in association with general agriculture, either by farmers or small occupiers. The few sporadic attempts made to establish special egg plants have failed. In the consuming countries the last-named have contributed a greater volume of supplJ^ Even these, except in association with sale of breeding stock, etc., have not proved successful. It is an undoubted fact that in every country the main source of egg-supply is the ordinary farm, and that specialized produc- tion provides for but a small moiety of the national require- ments. In the United Kingdom the latter is probably not more 346 EGG PRODUCTION AND PRESERVATION 347 than 10 per cent, of the total consumption, inchisive of si;ch as are prccluced by fowls in the hands of fanciers, amateurs, urban and suburban residents, and those who operate upon intensive lines. The main sources of supply are, therefore — 1. General Farms, upon which no poultr^^ specialization is attempted. That there has been considerable advance in this direction within late years is apparent, both as to number and nature of fowls kept and to methods adopted. From what is stated in Chapter II., it is evident that the capacity of the country is far from being reached. Under such farm conditions the cost of production is at the minimum. Even though the average fecundity may be considerably less than where more intensive methods are adopted, the profit is substantial. For that reason I have devoted the greater part of my time and thought to promote increased production on extensive lines as part of general farming. 2. Special Poultry Farms. — On these there is, and must be, a greater or lesser measure of intensification, which gives rise to difficulties, apart from the greatly increased cost of production, for which as yet no solution has been found. Something has been done, more especially by introduction of scratching sheds. I believe that more can be accomplished in the future, probably b}^ a complete and entire dissociation of operations in breeding the pullets and producing the eggs. Upon present lines — namely, intensively breeding as well as intensively keeping during the laying period of life — I am more than doubtful as to the ultimate issue. In this direction there is much to be learnt ere we can hope to see any clear light. 3. Cottagers and Allotment Holders. — Whilst production under these conditions is individually small, it is considerable in the aggregate, and might be very much greater. In this case, also, the cost is small and the margin satisfactory. Every facility should be afforded to this class. Those who hinder or prohibit the keeping of poultry in rural districts by cottagers or agri- cultural labourers, as is sometimes the case, deserve the severest condemnation for their tyrannical action. 4. Urban and Subvrban Residents. — Here, again, the number of fowls kept may be individually small, yet the total is great. Urban and suburljan poultry-keepers mainly consume the eggs ]iroduced in their own households, so that these do not enter into the ordinary trade. That, however, is in it.self a very important contribution to the national supj)ly. As opportunities increase, which must be the case when our cities and towns are reorganized 348 POULTRY HUSBANDRY on sounder lines, this branch will advance, althoTigh it will never become a great factor in feeding our people. Improvements in Egg Production. — That there have been con- sidera])le developments in the average production of eggs by hens can be freely accepted. It is true that exceptional pro- ductiveness has always been known, as records abundantly testify. That in itself is not of moment. What we have to regard is the average production of an entire flock, not what a few will do in this way. If the latter can be used in the breeding- pen as a means of raising the former, then their value is increased a hundredfold. Consecpiently, to know which are the better layers is essential. My opinion is that the greater average production referred to is due to introeluction of better laying races than formerly found, when the fowls were of a heavier type. In this respect, the influence exerted by Mediterranean and American races has been verj^ great indeed. What has now to be done is to raise the average egg production of our fowls as well as to increase the number of layers. It is in that direc- tion efforts have been mainly directed within recent years, though not as yet with the permanent results hoped for. Fre- cpiently some progress has apparently been made, but it was of a temporary character. My own view is that breeders are in too great a hurry. They have sought to accomplish in a year or two what would need a cycle of time, if even it were then pos- sible. They have to learn how to make haste slowly. The lure of the 200-egg hen has led them astray. They have failed to realize that the hen which is the heaviest layer may be the least desirable as a breeder, anel does not possess the power of trans- mitting this equality. Upon that question more is said below. Factors in Egg Production. — ^W^hatever the method adopted — Avhether extensive, intensive, or semi-intensive — ^there are cer- tain factors which must be taken into account, each of which has its place. Probably there are others iniknown to us. I do not discuss the question at great length, for the reason that actual knowledge is limited, and many observations and experi- ments are as yet incomplete. Hence positive knowledge cannot be claimed. Views long helel are undergoing a process of re- consideration, whilst new theories are being tested. It is at present largely a epiestion of ebb anel flow. There are, however, certain factors which have made for im- provement, in some cases to a lesser extent than might have been hoped for. These are briefly dealt with below. As already inelicated, an uneloubted improvement in the EGG PRODUCTION AKD PRESEKVATION 349 average egg production upon farms has taken place within the last three decades. To a large extent that is due to introduction of lighter-bodied races which are naturally prolific, and which, by then- adaptability to new environment and responsiveness to good treatment, have proved of great value. Racial^, therefore, these have helped in the direction indicated. At the same time, individual selection has also been more carefully carried out, and also, by getting rid of older hens in a systematic manner, instead of keeping for years, the average jaroduction has been raised. It is undoubtedly true that, when a hen is bred and fed for heavy egg production, her jDeriod of profit over the cost of maintenance does not usually exceed three j^ears. As a rule she is most prolific in the first breeding season, decreasing by about 25 per cent, in the second, and to a like degree in the third 3'ear, in each of which latter she is nioie valuable as a breeder. That an}' progression which may be made will depend largely upon racial and individual selection cannot be doubted. A further influence which has operated in the same direction is the improvement of environmental conditions. Mcdcm poultry houses are vastly superior to those formerly in use. Instead of the close, crowded, ill- ventilated roosting-placcs at one time general, adoption of spacious scratching sheds, open- fronted, light, and airy, has done much to improve fecundity. Upon that jjoint references are made in Chaj^ter XI., to which, however, may be added that an adequate supply of oxygen is essential to the complete digestion of food, and that with the larger amount of nutritive elements required, as the number of eggs produced is increased, the consumption of that element is necessarily laiger. The effect of changed conditions is also stimulative in this direction, though that is not always the case. Most changes, however, are favourable. It is often found that production, either of eggs or of flesh, is enhanced when transference takes place from one country or one district to another — at any rate, for the first two or three generations, when the influence appears to lose its efiect to some extent. That explains to a degree why a breed is usually more prolific in a new environment than was the case in its original habitat. If that is correct, it would strengthen the practice of regularly obtaining fresh stock. Feeding exerts a powerful influence, and may be beneficial. Excess of food tends to reduction of fertility and also of fecundity. If plain and containing the egg constituents without an undue amount of fat, the instinct of fowls may be trusted to determine quantity. U])on this aspect of the question our knowledge is 350 POULTRY HUSBANDRY superficial as yet, although some progress has been made. Fre- quently food is supplied in a form which, by tempting the appe- tite, hinders production. Even where that is not the case, it is possible to increase the number of eggs at a cost which makes the doing so unprofitable. Above all is the question of constitutional vigour. Weakly hens are sometimes good layers. Where that is the case they usually consume more food, so that the expense is enhanced. If used as breeding stock, the progeny will assuredly suffer, making for the degeneracy referred to in Chapter IV. Unexhausted Capacity of Hens. — An idea has been generally l)revalent that a hen could not lay more than about 600 eggs during her whole period of life. If she produced a larger inunbcr in her first or second year, the ovaries would be more rai)idly exhausted ; if fewer, then she might continue to be i)rofitable much longer. Whence this theory arose need not concern us. That it has had considerable acceptance is undoubted. Dr. Raymond Pearl has clearly shown* that it has no basis whatever. Pro- fessor James Dryden, of Oregon, records that one of his White Leghorn hens laid 664 eggs in three years — namely, first year, 240 ; second, 222 ; third, 202 — and that in another case 691 eggs were laid in four years. Dr. Pearl mentions a Leghorn hen with a total of 969 eggs in seven years — 1902, 105 eggs; 1903, 163; 1904, 188; 1905, 159; 1906, 160; 1907, 133; and 1908, 111; thus averaging u^J wards of 138 eggs per annum. These figures apply to eggs actually j^roduced. What is of importance is whether there is any latent capacity ujion which breeders may hope to ch-aw. Until recently no data was available in this direction. In the report of the Maine Station referred to. Dr. Pearl records observations made by Miss Maynie R. Curtis as to the number of oocj^tes, or ovules, visible to the naked eye, found in fifteen hens killed after laying had commenced, to which were added the number of eggs already produced, the winter production, and the discharged follicles, the latter of which indicate that many oocytes are discharged that do not form eggs. (See table on p. 351.) From the table is seen that the number of odcytes in the nine Plymouth Rocks averaged 1,51977; in the four White Leghorns, 2,47575 ; in the Cornish Game, 1,550 ; and in the cross-bred, 2,000. The variations of individuals in the two leading breeds are, however, very great, indicating that there is no fixity. What we learn is that the latent egg capacity in all these hens was very great. * Kejiort of Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, l'J12. EGG PRODUCTION AND PRESERVATION 351 Upon the observations made Dr. Pearl says: " The data now in hand, even at the very lowest valuation w^hich may be jolaced upon them, indicate clearly that there must be some other factor than the anatomical one involved in the existence of different degrees of actual fecundit}^ in the domestic fowl. It clearly is the case from that table that, when one bird has a winter record of twice what another bird has, it is not because the first has twice as many oocytes in the ovary. On the contrary, it appears that all birds have an anatomical endowment entirely sufficient for a very high degree of fecundity, and, in point of fact, quite equal to that possessed by birds w^hich actually accomplish a high record of fecundity. Whether or not such high fecundity- is actually realized evidently depends, then, upon the influence of additional factors beyond the anatomical basis. It is reason- able to supiiose that these factors are physiological in nature." Number of Visible Oocttes ix Ovaries. Breed. Date Date hatched. killed. 1 Total Xunibcr of Eggs laid 1.1 Life. ■Winter Pro- duction. Dis- clurgid Follicles. Toi.-il Visible Oocytes. i I'.UO. I'Jll. Bailed Plymouth Rock. . June 1 Mar. 28 10 3 17 1,226 ,, ,, ,. . . ., 2 „ 30 10 12 1,666 .. „ l! „ 10 7 8 914 ,, .. .... ., 2 „ 14 17 5 12 1,174 ., . . April 28 April 4 34 3 49 2,306 ,, ,, ,, . . June 2 Mar. 24 10 23 1,194 ,, ,, ., . . „ 2 „ 24 15 17 2,101 „ .. May 19 „ 17 19 5 24 1,576 1909. 1910. ,, ,, •• Mar. 30 July 7 23 21 1,521 \\'liitc Lcglioni . . May 18 Doc. 20 198 54 75 2,452 „ 28 „ 15 197 32 217 3,605 „ 21 „ 13 10 11 1,701 ,, June 14 „ 22 2 43 2,145 Coniitih Indiau Ciamo . . April 21 1910. July 12 1911. 52 13 54 1,550 Cross- bivd Mar. 31 Mar. 20 124 lot) 50 2,000 Parental Influence. — At one period the common practice among farmers and ordinary poultry-keepers was to introduce among their general flocks of fowls pure -bred males. When carried out upon a systematic basis — which was very seldom — the effect was considerable. Where it failed was owing to the fact that the males were selected for racial characters rather than inherent productiveness, and that arbitrarj' changes of breed took place, frequently in accordance with fashion or 352 POULTRY HUSBANDRY fads. As a result, apart from increased vigour due to crossing, the influence upon fecundity was small as a permanent factor. It may be pointed out that, in the breeding of farm animals of all kinds, the male is regarded as more than half the strain, and that the greater efforts for improvement are in that direction. Then came the time of the trap-nest, by introduction of which the supremacy of hens in resjject to productiveness was at once accepted, almost without question. Records obtained in this manner were startling in the extreme, revealing the fact that variability in fecundity was greater than had been thought. Pullets bred from the same parents, at the same time, and treated in the same manner, were found to lange to an enormous extent in the number of eggs individually produced. It was at once assumed that elimination of the drones, and breeding from the most prolific, was the true method of rapidly advancing the average of the whole. Results, aj)parently, for a time justified this assumption. Unquestionably, imjarovements were effected for two or three years, in some cases longer. Then reaction took place, more especially where operations were on a larger scale, and averages fell to or below the original mean of the race. This was not, however, always the case, as indicated by what has been accomplished in the hands of a few breeders in Europe, America, and Australia. Wliere that has been true, it is evident an equal amount of selection has taken place with male birds chosen as breeders, sons of hens which were heavy layers. In that direction we should probably find explanation of the suc- cess attained. My own view is that the great mistake has been in using for breeding purposes the excessive layers. It is almost an invariable rule that the extreme or exceptional individual, in which any quality is found developed to the highest point, has not the power of transmitting this quality to its progeny, and that as a breeder it is of less value than those which approximate to the mean of the race. All the time a tendency to regression is present. Any weakening of natural vigour due to abnormal 't production, by reduction of the overstrained force, makes for that regression. In my judgment that is where a serious mistake has been made within recent years. Dr. Pearl's Investigations. — ^\Miat must be termed the failure of the trai)-ncst to accomplish all that was anticipated, due to unwarranted reliance upon its records, and to the use of hens exhausted by excessive production, although such records are essential and valuable in the extreme, has led to investigations regarding the problem of fecundity, which, whilst incomplete, promise to help in finding a solution, luiless they, again. EGG PRODUCTION AND PRESERVATION 353 are not carried to an extreme. In this work Dr. Raymond Pearl, of Orono, Maine, occupies the leading position. His researches form the most notable contribution to poultry husbancky hitherto made. Operating on extensive lines, and with records covering several years, the material available has enabled him to take broad views of the subject. For present purposes it will be sufficient if a brief summary is given of the conclusions arrived at by Dr. Pearl, which are as follows : The record of fecundity of a hen, taken by and of itself alone, gives no definite, reliable indication from which the probable egg production of her daughters may be predicted. Further- more, mass selection on the basis of the fecundity records of females alone, even though long-continued and stringent in character, failed completely to produce any steady change in type in the direction of selection. Fecundity must, however, be inherited, since (1) there are widely distinct and permanent (under ordinary breeding) differ- ences in respect to degree of fecundit}^ between different standard breeds of fowls commonly kept, and (2) a study of pedigree records of poultry at once discovers pedigree lines (in some measure inbred, of course), in each of which a definite, particular degree of fecundity constantly reappears generation after generation. High fecundit}' may be inherited by daughters from their sire, independent of the dam. This is proved by the numerous cases where the same proportion of daughters of high fecundity are produced by the same sire, whether he is mated with dams of low or of high fecundity. High fecundity is not inherited by daughters from their dam. This is proved by a number of distinct and independent lines of evidence. A low degree of fecundity may be inherited by the daughters from either sire or dam, or both. Results show that, on the average, the daughters of birds laying from 150 to 190 eggs in the year laid much better than the daughters of " 200-egg " hens. This result is, obviously, of great importance in its relation to the general question of the effect of selection for increased egg production. Continued selection of highly fecund females alone could not even be expected to produce a definite and steady increase in average flock production. The gametic constitution of the male plays so important a part in determining the fecundity of the daughters that any scheme of selection which left this out of 2.3 354 POULTRY HUSBANDRY aoco\int was really not systematic at all, hut, rather, almo.st altogether haphazard. It has been re])eatedly shown that the same proportion of daughters of high fecundity maj' be obtained from certain mothers of low fecundity as can from those of high fecundity, proyided both sets of mothers arc mated to males of the same gametic constitution. To apply what is stated aboye, the conclusions arriyed at are that the male influence in egg production is more potent upon immediate progeny than that of the female, and that selection of such male from a family of heavy layers is of supreme im- portance. Whether mating with low-fecundity hens, eyen though the first generation of pullets may be good layers, will not result in reaction, as I suggest would probablj^ be the case, is a question for further and prolonged investigation. Breed- ing from abnormal layers results in rapid regression. As I have stated previously, it is not the heavy layer that is valuable for breeding, but the parents from which she sprang. Application. — So far as the great mass of farmers and ordinary j)oultry-keepers are concerned, from what is indicated above, and by complication of the problem, it cannot be expected that these can carry to a conclusion the methods necessarily to be adopted. In the main, trap-nesting is not within the compass of their operations, demanding more time than they can afford to give, considering the possible returns. Moreover, the need is less imperative than in the case of specialist poultrymen, by reason of the fact that, as already shown, the cost of feeding and pro- duction is much less than must be the case with the latter, to whom an increase of average number of eggs may mean success, and its absence betoken failure. Those who attempt egg pro- duction on wholesale lines would find it necessary to give atten- tion to these problems, and attempt at least to apply the methods suggested in their breeding. Where the general poultry-keeper will realize any imj)rovement in breeding which ma}' follow their adoption will be by buying stock, and especially male birds, from specialists who apply such methods in breeding. Oppor- tunities in this direction are greater than ever. What must, I am firmly convinced, ultimately come to pass is a division of operations between production of breeding stock and of eggs for eating, and that it is inadvisable to use for re- productive purposes those hens which have proved most prolific as layers. Only in this way can permanency be secured. Mass- ing for egg production may be possible; massing for breeding never has been, or, I believe, will ever be. The two must be kept distinct. EGG PRODUCTION AND PRESERVATION 355 Effect of Early Laying. — ^Within the compass of every poultry- man, whether large or small, is increase of average egg production by enhancement of winter egg production, for the reason that hens which lay most eggs at that season during their first year are, almost without exception, those which prove to be most produc- tive. In this manner much may be accomplished without attempt- ing to enter into the problems of breeding already referred to. Dr. Raymond Pearl has based many of his observations upon fecundity in the winter period, on the ground that " the produc- tion during the months of March, April, and May, is practically worthless as an index or measure of the true, innate, or consti- tutional fecundity capacity of the individual. During all these months (in northern latitudes) all hens which are not diseased, malformed, infantile, or senile, lay anywhere from well to verj^ well." Upon this most important point further valuable evidence is forthcoming. In the Twelve Months Laj^ing Competition of the Utility Poultry Club, 1912-13, wherein were 600 competing birds, the following results, taken from the published report, are recorded: Average Egg Production for Complete Year of Birds commencing to LAY AT Different Times. Birds which laid 10 or more eggs in first four weeks (October 15 to November 12) 187-r> Birds which laid at all in first four weeks .. .. .. 107-7 Birds which did not lay in first four weeks .. .. .. Ifil-i Birds which did not lay in first eight weeks (October 1.5 to December 10) 155-8 Birds which did not lay in first twelve weeks (October 15 to January 7) 106-5 At the Munster Institute, Cork, a similar competition was held in 1912-13. In this case the results are even more sug- gestive — ^namely : Eight hens which produced an average of 57 eggs in first three months (November, December, and January) averaged in total year 200-00 Eight hens which produced an averag^e of 19-90 eggs in first three months averaged in total year . . . . . . 9fi-25 Eiglit hens which produced an average of 1-25 eggs in first three months (6 did not lay at all) averaged in total year 47-88 Other facts, doubtless, had an influence in all these cases. The fact, however, is evident that an increase of production in the winter period is accompanied by a total increase for the entire year. That simplifies the process of selection, as it is only necessary to trap-nest for, say, four months out of the twelve. Trap-Nestirg. — As a means of determining the fecundity of hens, with a view to obtaining data referred to already, what 3r)(i POITLTRY HUSBANDRY is known as the trap-ncst is valuable and indispensable. The principle is the same — namely, the hen enters a box with a trap to lay her egg, bnt cannot get ont again until released. By the use of leg-rings or bands — of which the best form is the coloured celluloid rings made by Hills Rubber Company, of Reading, Berks, which firm have devised a complete code by ten colours. the variations of which enable large numljers of hens to be distinctively marked — the eggs laid by each individual lien are credited to her on forms prepared for that purpose. Thus, tables can be prepared .showing results for each period of and the entire twelve months. The work entails labour, and should only be applied to selected birds. It, however, reveals facts which the breeder must know h)r guidance in his breeding operations. Winter Egg Production. — In order to obtain the best residts in egg production, it is most important that winter laying be in- creased. Great numbers of the pullets hatched in this coimtry do not begin operations until after Christmas, and thus the best part of the winter egg trade is altogether missed. It ought to be the ideal in the minds of all poidtry-keepers to have each indi- vidual pullet laying by November 1, which can be accomplished provided that the birds are hatched early enough, and at the same time are reared in a proper manner. It is impossible in this connection to lay down any hard-and-fast rule, becaiise a great deal depends upon the nature of the breed kept, the class of soil, and the method of rearing. Upon heavy soils chickens do not grow so quickly as upon the hghter lands, and the same is true as to the more exposed and colder parts of the country. In respect to the different breeds, we can hatch, say. Leghorns a month to six weeks later than Wj^andottes, and they will com- mence laying before the Wyandottes. Thus, each poTxltry- keeper must experiment for himself. There is another advantage which arises from bringing pullets on early — namely, that we secure sitting hens much sooner than would otherwise be the case; and, further, the following year these pullets will moult earlier and come into lay again sooner than do the later -hatched specimens. The points for breeders are — (1) Early pullets ; (2) young birds; (3) not to break off sitting hens in the summer, as the rest is beneficial; (4) careful selection in breeding; and (5) the choice of winter laying (general purpose) breeds. Profit Attainable. — ^Upon the question of cost of egg production there are many different opinions. Up to the present time observations in this direction are limited, and in many cases not EGG PRODUCTION AND PRESERVATION 357 very reliable. Much must necessarily depend upon economy in feeding and in management. Frequently such statistics as are available are either from small poultry-keejoers, whose house- holds sujjply a b}^ no means small portion of the food required, or, on the other hand, from those who feed exjoensively, and are compelled to pay for labour. We have evidence to show that, where operations are conducted upon a sufficiently large scale, when the fowls are able to forage for a large part of their food, and grain and meal are purchased in the cheapest markets and fed judiciously, a flock of hens can be maintained at a cost not exceeding 4s. to os. each per amium. Whatever expense is incurred beyond the figure named is unnecessary. To pay such a charge, each hen must produce in the twelve months forty to sixty eggs, according to the season of the j^ear when laid, before profit can be hoped for. The reward of the poultry-keeper will depend upon the number of eggs secured in addition thereto. If the average production is not more than sixty eggs per annum, whilst there will be no loss, gain will not be realized. If he secvues an average of 100 eggs per annum, he should find a margin of 3s. per hen; but if 120 be the average, 4s. 6d. per hen will reward his efforts; whereas if he secures an average of 160 eggs, then he may faM}- expect a profit of 7s. 6d. per hen. That should be the objective of every poultry -keeper. In this connection we have not counted the cost of the stock. If the work is properly systematized, the laying hens should practically cost nothing. Upon a farm where 500 laying hens are bred, half should be renewed everj^ J^ear, and hence it will be necessary to breed oOO to 600 chickens, of which probably half will be pullets. If bred at the right season, the cockerels can be sold off at 2s. to 2s. 6d. each, and that amount should pay the cost of rearing two birds, so that the pullets at three to four months old will have cost practically nothing, and the additional feeding to bring them to the time of profit will be more than compensated bj' the sale of the old hens. Size of Eggs. — It may be true that " an egg is an egg," no matter what its size, shape, coloin-, or age, may be. At the same time, however, we have to take into account market re- quirements, and to consider what is needed in order to obtain the best returns. This question is discussed in the next chapter. The question arises as to whether anything can bo done to improve the size of eggs. .Some breeds of poultry naturalh" lay large eggs, notably the Minorca, Andalusian, Dorking, and Scotch Grey ; and in some cases these eggs are, if anything, ratner 358 POULTRY HUSBANDRY too large for the trade, to which reference has ah-eady been made . Still, the fault is on the right side, and where these breeds are used pure or as crosses their influence will help considerably in the desu-ed direction. Those classes of poultry which meet market demand most nearly are Campines, Leghorns, Anconas, Houdans, Plymouth Rocks, and Orpingtons. Several of our most prolific breeds of poultry — notably the Hamburgh and the Wj^andotte — lay eggs which are distinctly smaller in size. There is, however, at hand a method of imjiroving the size of eggs, as it is possible with every breed to modify considerably the weight of egg, either in a forward or backward direction. The system is a simple one — namely, by selection of the eggs for hatching. It will be easily realized that if, in order to secure early birds — which in itself is often a very important point — we take the eggs just as they come, and these be small, we emphasize that tendency, as we are breeding from the hens which naturally lay the smaller-sized eggs. It ought to be an axiom with every poultry-keeper never to set either an ab- normally large or small egg, unless it is intended to kill the chickens at an early age, when size is of lesser importance. A further tendency towards the perpetuation of small-sized eggs is due to the practice, which so many people follow, of hatching from eggs produced bj^ young pullets. This is a mistake, and, as far as possible, breeding and laying stock should be descended from hens fully matured — that is, not less than eighteen months old. Colour of Shells. — In some home markets the highest price can always be obtained for eggs which have a tinted shell, and the best class of traders find that these eggs are almost constantly inquired for by their customers. In spite of the fact, which is generally acknowledged, that the colour of the shell does not indicate the quality of the egg, and that a white-shelled egg produced under the same conditions is as rich and has an ecpially nutritive value as the egg having a tinted exterior, the prefer- ence indicated above must be taken into account, otherwise — especially during the plentiful season — the same price cannot be obtained in some markets for eggs which are all white as when there is a considerable proportion of tinted shells. Amongst the best class of consumers, where boiled eggs are simply an item on the breakfast-table, there can be no question that a nicely tinted-shelled egg looks better in a silver stand than one which is pure white, and appearance nnist alwaj^s be taken into consideration. The breeds which produce tinted-shelled eggs are without exception sitters, although there are certain breeds wliich evince EGG PRODUCTION AND PRESERVATION 359 the maternal instinct that produce white-shelled eggs. The following list will show the breeds which give tinted shells amongst those commonly kept, and they are placed as far as possible in accordance with the depth of the tint: Langshans. Wyandottes. Cochins. Brahmas. Plymouth Rocks. Faverolles. Orpingtons. Coucou de Malines. Game. Rhode Island Reds. In addition to these, there are other breeds which are not kept for egg production, notably the Indian Game and the Malay. We must therefore look, in the first instance, to the above breeds to give us the tinted shells, cither b}^ keeping stock pure or l)}^ using these breeds for crossing purposes. Preservation of Eggs. It is a little more than a hundred years ago that the first recorded patent was taken out for the preservation of eggs — the Jajaie method of lime-water, which is still largelj^ used. Since that time a multitude of other systems have lieen brought for- ward, some of which have proved successful, but the great majority either offered no advantages over those already em- ployed, or were commercially impracticable. Until the problem of enhanced winter egg production is solved, preserved eggs we want, and must have. Were it not for these, the prices of eggs from Se])t ember to Janiiary would be prohibitive. Object of Preservation. — As the spring has been, and ahvays will be, the time of year when eggs are produced in the greatest number and prices range lowest, the object of preservation is to transfer a portion of the supplies from the plentiful to the scarce, from the cheap to the dear season; not only to secure the higher rates then obtainable, but to avoid glut by removing the surplus. As is stated in my " Report on the Poultry In- dustry in Denmark and Sweden," " Not only is the trade in preserved eggs profitable in itself, but, by relieving the glut during the spring, those sold at that season of the j'car command much better prices than if forty to fifty millions more Danish were placed on the market." It is freely acknowledged in Denmark that the success achieved would never have been realized had not preservation been adopted. Who should Preserve ? — Discussion has often arisen as to who should undertake the work of preservation. In many Conti- 360 POULTRY HUSBANDRY ncntal countries, in America, and to a lesser extent at home, this is done by private traders or companies, who purchase eggs as a speculation, hold them for the necessary period, and sell at such time as they think well to do so. That the benefits to producers are considerable is apparent. The enhanced demand thus secured has increased spring prices, which is due to the fact that large quantities have been taken off the market, and have thus prevented the lower rates which would otherwise have pre- vailed. In connection with local co-operative societies in the United Kingdom, as in Denmark, preservation takes place in the locality where the eggs are jnoduced, so that supplies can be put down at an early date after they are laid. When the work is undertaken on a large scale at a few centres, the eggs are drawn from a wide area, and, consequently, the}' are stale before storage takes place. My observations in Europe and America have shown that frequently the eggs are from ten to twenty days old ere the process is commenced. Under such conditions results can hardly be satisfactory. Hence preservation should be undertaken by poultry-keepers themselves or by co-operative depots or traders in the immediate localities where the eggs are produced. When to Preserve. — ^Much depends upon the time of year when the eggs are put doAvn. M}^ advice has always been to sell for present consumj)tion whenever a reasonable and profitable price can be secured. Hence it is largely a question of siirplus. Apart from the price, which is an important factor, as it is useless preserving unless there is a margin of profit, eggs are better in everj^ way, both as to quality of contents and strength of shells, during the natural lajang season. The best months are April and May. Experience has shown that the eggs laid dming those months keep better than those obtained before or after. Prior to the middle of March, and from June onwards, i)rices do not usually allow profit to be secured. Moreover, summer eggs seldom keep as well as those laid in the spring, even though preserved for a shorter period. What to Preserve. — ^The final result, so far as quality is con- cerned, depends largely upon the method of preservation adopted, upon the conditions under which the eggs are ke])t during the entire period, and on their treatment after they arc taken out for sale; but, however perfect all these may be, they will utterly fail unless, when subjected to the process, eggs are of first-rate quality. It is this fact which is so often forgotten, more especially by producers and traders who operate on a small EGG PRODUCTION AND PRESERVATION 361 scale. A really new-laid egg, provided the conditions are favovir- able, will come out six months later excellent for cooking purposes, having, however, lost something of its pristine value; whereas a second-quality egg will emerge with even a greater loss, and therefore inferior by so much to the first. A stale egg will probably come out bad, totally unfit for food. Hence it is all-important that the eggs selected for this purpose shall be 362 POULTRY HUSBANDRY really fresh, chosen because they are full, strong in the shell, well formed, and sound in every way. The slightest flaw or crack will be fatal. Every egg should be carefully and rigidly tested before it is preserved, and all those which cannot grade as new-laids should be sold for immediate consumption. As already stated, it is in this respect that many Continental and American eggs fail. A further point is that infertile eggs keeji better than those which contain a living germ. That has been known for 2,000 years, and later experience, more especially in connection with sui:)plics from South Australia, have fully confirmed its truth. If farmers and others would keep separate breeding-pens, using eggs from these for hatching, removing the males running with the ordinary laying stock from March onwards, such eggs as are pre- served would turn out much better than is the case at present. Where to Preserve. — The temperature to which the eggs are subjected during the preservation period will exert considerable influence for good or evil. It should be remembered that they have to pass through the hotter months of the year, when the tendency in all buildings above-ground is to rise above the safe point, unless they are kept in cold storage. More than 40° F. means change in the egg contents, and the higher the tempera- ture the more rapid the change. For that reason preservation generally takes place in cellars, either wholly or partially below- ground, and any windows or ventilators should be on the north or north-west side, so that the sun's rays may not find access^. One preserving plant which I visited at Aarhus, in Denmark, was entirely under-ground, and with a mass of buildings above and on the south side, so that, entering on a summer's day, it felt almost like an ice-house. Here the eggs are accommodated in large cement tanks, each holding about 70,000. These tanks are about 10 feet square and 5 feet deep. The cellars are well ventilated, and practically the temperature is equable all the time. This is typical of many cellars I have visited on the Continent, both in Eastern and Western Europe. Eggs may be kept in galvanized iron tanks, each holding about 5,000. These are convenient where quantities are not very large, as they are soon filled, and thus are not disturbed until the time comes for sale. They cost about 25s. each. As this sj^stem grows, it will be found profitable to build special cellars for the work, as in Denmark and elsewhere. Methods — 1. Buttering. — Those who only intend to keep the eggs a few weeks for home consumption will find it enough if EGG PRODUCTION AND PRESERVATION 363 they butter the eggs — that is, rub a little fresh butter over the shell, and store in a cool place. Or they maj^ use glycerine or any sweet fat for the purpose, taking care that the shell is coated. 2. Lime-Water. — ^This, the oldest method used, is probabl}'^ employed more than all other s^^stems combined. The great bulk of Continental eggs received in water are " limed." It has also the practical merit of being the least expensive. For large ojoerations I have no hesitation in saying that it is to be preferred, in spite of the fact that the shells are thickened by de- posits of lime thereon. An advantage to retailers and consumers is that the fact of " pickling " is revealed b}^ the rough shells. The solution is formed by mixing freshly-slaked lime with water — say 1 pound to 2 pounds of the lime to each 5 gallons of water, stirring it well two or three times a day until the whole forms a milky fluid, when 1 pound of salt is added to the above quantities. After standing a few hours to settle, the liquid is poured into the vats or tanks or tubs, whichever are used, when they are ready for the eggs. It may be observed that the virtue of the lime, as of the silicate of soda referred to later, is to kill all life in the water, which thus keeps sweet and i)ure. The quantity required is not so great as might be imagined, and if the tank is one-quarter filled at first, more can be added as required. The eggs should not be less than 4 inches from the top, so that they may be entirely covered by the liquid, which forms a skin or film, and prevents dust or dirt reaching the eggs. 3. Water-Glass. — For smaller operations the system which has become most popular is by means of what is popularly called " water-glass," which is a solution of silicate of scda, the value of which for this purpose was discovered some years ago by a Ger- man chemist. The results obtained are excellent — quite equal to those of lime-water, Avithout thickening or roughing the shell to the same degree. The shells come out clean and fresh -looking. The solution is generalfy sold of full strength, and a 5 per cent, mixture is about right — that is, 5 per cent, of water-glass to 95 per cent, of water. The latter should be pure, and preferably boiled, mixed hot, but allowed to become quite cold before use. It has been found that a stronger solution affects the flavour of the eggs. A desirable plan is to fill the tanks three-quarters full with a solution consisting of f pound of water-glass to each gallon of water, and, when the eggs are all in, add to the top a solution of 1 j)ound water-glass to the gallon. This method is more expensive than lime-water. Small quantities bought in 364 POULTRY HUSBANDRY time will cost about Id. per score eggs; but as the silicate of soda can be purchased in bulk at about 8s. per hundredweight, for large quantities the cost, apart from labour of preparation, of preserving fluid will work out at Is. per 1,000 eggs. Lime- water in many districts would not cost more than Id. to l|d. per 1,000. 4. Cold Storage. — I do not need to say much under this head- ing, in spite of the fact that in Canada and the United States it is largely and almost universally adopted. It requires to bo carried out by speculative traders or companies, and on a large scale. Nor have the results been satisfactory, as there is a strong tendency to the formation of moulds, and eggs preserved in this way go bad rapidly after they are brought into the normal temperature. Something has been done to improve this weak- ness, but when eggs have to be retailed out in half-dozens other methods of preservation are superior. The best temperature at which to keep the eggs is 29° to 30° F. There must be a constant circulation around them of pure, fairly dry air, and, when re- moved, it seems to be necessary to change from one room to another, each slightly warmer. 5. Other Metlwds need not concern us here. A method has been recently introduced by which air is exhausted from the egg, which is then dipped into hot paraffin wax. That is only suit- able for adoption on a large scale, as a special plant is required, and the patent is in jDrivate hands. Such "sealed" eggs as I have seen were very good indeed. How Long to Keep. — ^The time of sale of preserved eggs is from September to Januarj^ and hence six months is the average period for which they are kept. Observations made by Mr. J. Henrick, B.Sc, of the Aberdeen University, have shown that with water-glass longer keeping causes changes which would make the eggs undesirable as food. In America much trouble has arisen from holding eggs over to another year. That is undesirable in every wa}', and eggs should be consumed in the autumn following their preservation, whether the price realized be profitable or otherwise. After Preservation. — ^When lime-water or water-glass is used, the tanks can be emptied rapidly by use of a perforated scoop with turned edges, because the liquid acts as a buffer, preventing breakages if handled gently. The operators should use india- rubber gloves and gauntlets. As they are taken out, the eggs are well washed in running water, and then placed upon wire trays, which may be stacked after draining to diy, which soon EGG PRODUCTION AND PRESERVATION 365 takes place if they are in a good current of air. Finally, before packing, they should be rigidly tested, so as to remove all that are bad or doubtful; and in all cases they should be sold as preserved eggs. Infection of Eggs. — Modern systems of preservation, more especially by cold storage, have revealed moulds and bacteria which develop under these conditions. The most serious of these are known as " red rots " and " black rots," the former of which is supposed to be the result of exposure to cold and damp, such as a wet nest or packages, and by bacterial penetration cf the shell. It is very contagious, one egg so affected spreading infection to others. Black rot is thought to be a result of ovarian or embryonic action. Moulds are due to vegetable growth arising in low temperature. All eggs, therefore, should be tested in strong light before preservation, and any showing reddishness in the yolk be rejected. Also, testing should take place before sale. CHAPTER XXII DISPOSAL OF PRODUCE Production of any class of food is but part of the work of feeding our great populations. Equally important is that cf organization, so that supplies may be brought to the consunur in the best possible condition, in the most expeditious manner, and at the least cost. The complexity of our modern life, with vast aggregations of people unable to produce their own food- supplies, have at once added to the difficulties of the problem, increased cost by reason of the services rendered, and at the same time created a demand which formerly was unknown. As a consequence of changed conditions and inadecj^uacy of home supplies of eggs and poultry, the imports of these two products have grown enormously. What is true in the United Kingdom is equally the case in Germany, and apparently is becoming so in the United States of America. In Chapters I. and II. the question is discussed, and need not be further dealt with, as the facts stated are generally recognized. A Producer's Question. — ^Manufacturers recognize that organi- zation for the sale of their goods is essential to complete success, and, as far as possible, keep the control within their own hands. That explains the important place occupied by trading members of the community. A good salesman can command his own price, which he well earns. Such was, and is to a considerable extent, the weak point of our present agricultural system. The Danes solved the problem by the adoption of co-operation; the French, Russians, and later the Dutch, by private traders. What we have to recognize is that marketing is a producer's question first and last. Any loss arising as a result of bad methods falls upon him, to the greatest extent where his opera- tions are small, and he has no alternative outlets available. Those who undertake the work of distribution must be re- munerated for their services. Consumers will not pay more 360 DISPOSAL OF PRODUCE 367 than what they think an article is worth, preferring to go with- out. Hence the return which the poultry-keeper will receive for his goods is determined by the ultimate value, less the inter- mediary expenses and profits. As that value is largely a ques- tion of quality and conformity with market requirements, a study of the latter is necessary. The object of all engaged in poultry husbandry shovild be to obtain the highest possible returns, which can alone be by supplying the higher qualities and meeting the requirements referred to. Until this side of the work is generally reorganized, poultry-keeping will not realize its full development. That there has been a steady rise in the standard of quality in eggs anel poultry' — the former especially, as the neeel was greatest — within recent years, is unquestionable. That there is much yet to be accomplished is equally correct. The Egg Trade. — Taking eggs in the first place, the ekmand is a very variable one. There are, however, principles which may be generally applied. What has not been sufficiently recognizee! is their nature, which may be stated as follows : Eggs form a perishable product. Eggs rapidly deteriorate, varying somewhat in accorelance with the conditions under which they are kept; but nothing can prevent deterioration. The egg contents change in accorelance with the time they are kept. Eggs decrease in value every day after they are laiel. Not every new-laid egg in point of time is a first-quality egg. Appearance, as in everything else, has considerable money value in eggs. That in some districts the quality standard is lower than in others is recognized. Where that is the case prices are corre- siiondingly lower. As freshness is largely determineel by the perioel which elapses between the time of laying and when finally sold to the consumer, in which distance to travel and methods adopteel in marketing have great influence, it is evielent why j^ro- ducers within a reasonable raelius of the point of consumption can, if the system adopted be favourable, supply a quality which is impossible to those at a greater elistance. Negligence, however, sacrifices a large portion of this advantage. Apart from preserved eggs, which come under another category, distance is a supreme factor, anel explains why values decrease as the radius of supply increases. Of imported supplies, the following are the minimum periods in which eggs can reach our markets from the time of laying: French and Dutch, 4 to 6 days; Danish, 7 to 9 elays; Italian anel Austro -Hungarian, 14 to 21 days; 368 POULTRY HUSBANDRY Russian, 28 to 40 da5"s. Except those received from the first two countries named, no imported egg can possibly bo of the first quality. Grades of Eggs. — In the better retail trade eggs are classified as follows : 1. New-laid, 3 to 5 daj's old. 2. Breakfast, 6 to 10 days old. 3. Fresh, non-preserved, which may be n month old or more. 4. Cookers, in autumn generally preserved, or brought from the more distant countries. 5. Nondescript, inclusive of small eggs and preserved. Only Nos. 1 and 2 are fit for boiling, which is the supreme test of quality. No. 2 are largely used for poaching or frying. An egg that would be objectionable if cooked in the shell can be used when broken out, by reason of escape of the gases accumu- lating therein as a result of greater age. Quality Test for Eggs. — The following notes, which were first published in the Illustrated Poultry Record (December, 1910), and afterwards widely disseminated as a leaflet, show what are the methods of determining quality in an egg : 1. Size. — Many eggs weighing If ounces are of equal nutritive value to others which weigh 2j ounces, as the larger volume is almost entirely water. During the greater part of the year, whilst an egg scaling at 1| ounces is only 6"25 per cent, less in weight than one turning at 2 ounces, and probably contains as much actual nutriment, its retail value is 12 to 15 per cent, less, and generally is sold for cooking. Consumers demand, and retailers must supply, eggs which each weigh at least 2 ounces — i.e., 15 lb. for 120, or over ; and in some markets 17 lb. eggs are preferred. 2. Shape. — In this respect there are considerable differences. Some eggs are long and narrow, others almost as broad as thej'- are long, while still more are between the two. The last-named are preferred, though this is not of great moment, so long as the shell is even and not abnormal. Anything in the direction of malformation militates against the value. 3. Evenness and Strength of Shell. — ^Roughness of the outer envelope is undesirable. In the autumn and winter a rough shell generally denotes preservation by lime-water. Therefore the smoother the better. A strong, thick shell may mean that the proportion of edible matter to the total weight is less than is the case when the calcareous covering is thin; but such is more DISPOSAL OF PRODUCE 369 than compensated by the fact that there is lesser evaporation if the shell is close and thick, and the carrying quality is greater. 4. Bloom. — A new-laid egg has a bright, shiny coating to the shell, which is called " bloom," and experienced buyers can Fig. 62.— Size of Eggs. tell the age more or less by the appearance. For that reason washing is undesirable. A dirty-shelled egg is useless for the best trade. 24 370 POULTRY HUSBANDRY 5. Colour of Shell. — ^WTiilst it may be tnie that there is no appreciabl}^ greater vahie in a tinted than in a white-shelled egg, there is an undoubted demand value in some markets. Consumers, and therefore retailers, like a fair proportion of brown eggs, as they are called, and prefer to deal with those who can supi)ly them. It is thought in the scarcer months that these are less likely to be preserved. What is within an egg is of the gieater importance, because in this way is determined the real value — the actual food. Unless that is in the best condition, all else goes for nothing. The buyer may be misled by oiitward appearance, but the ultimate judgment depends upon the egg contents. That the quality can be gauged through the shell is unquestionable. For that reason, testing by light is universal. 6. " New-Laidness." — By this is meant that the contents shall be as nearly as jjossible what they were at the time when voided by the hen. If an egg is boiled when, say, one or two days old, it is found that the white does not inspissate to the extent that it will later, but remains milky, clothy, and flaky. The elements which make for that state disappear in three to five days, when the egg betokens its age. Something has gone which influences flavour and quality. Such eggs do not command the top prices. 7. Fulness. — One sign of " new-laidness " is that the egg fhall be full, by which is meant that the air-space is scarcely visible. I have made observations as to the evaporation of eggs, and find that, under normal conditions, out of 120 eggs, 1 egg contents disappeared in the first 6 days, 2 egg contents disappeared in 13 days, 3 in 21 days, 4 in 29 days, 5 in 36 days, 6 in 47 days, and 7 in 60 days, so that, as a matter of weight, this is impor- tant. The test was made in cool weather. In the hot months, or if kept in a warm place, the loss would be much greater. Ex- amination by light reveals the size of air-space, and if that is large the value is depreciated. 8. Brightness. — B}^ this is meant clearness of contents through the shell, represented by dull opaqueness. There must be no spots which represent moulds, or dark areas, general^ betokening development of the germ, or bacterial colonies in the white. 9. The White and the Yolk Ligaments (chalazse) must be strong and firm, and also the yolk be round. A flat j'olk means age. These are not revealed until the shell is broken. 10. Colour of Yolk. — ^The best eggs have a reddish-yellow yolk, not pure yellow. Again, that is unascertainable until the shell is broken. 1 1 . Infertile eggs keep better than those which have been im- DISPOSAL OF PRODUCE 371 pregnatecl. I am convinced that, if infertile eggs could be guaranteed for market purposes, they would soon win favour. Large producers may easily secure this result, and small ones also if they set themselves to do so. Li this connection it should be mentioned that the value of an egg is fixed, not on the farm where it is laid, not in the local packing-room, but by its condition when delivered to the con- sumer. An egg which might be of first qualitj' in Norfolk, or Somerset, or Wales to-day, may be only secoiul cpiality in London or Manchester to-morrow. Value of Eggs as Food. — ^Weight for weight, an egg contains more nutriment than any other class of food. There is no bone or gristle, and the proportion of water is no greater than in meat. The only non-edible portions are the shell and outer membranes. A dozen eggs, costing as much as 1 pound of meat, will yield a greater amount of nutritive elements. That is one reason for rapidly-increasing demand. Flesh appears to be more feeding than eggs, due to the fibre which it contains. That, however, has no food value. Moreover, eggs can be served in scores of different ways, presenting the most palatable forms. They enter into the composition of innumerable dishes. The main factor is to recognize their perishability, and to market as rapidly as possible. Where that is the case, a profitable outlet is always available. Our chief danger at the present time is checking consumption by too rapid advance in prices. Sale of Eggs. — Conditions have to be considered in relation to methods adopted. Over very large areas of Great Britain — that is, in residential, manufacturing, and commercial dis- tricts — local production is but a small moiety of immediate con- sumption. In the Metropolitan area, between 800 and 900 millions of eggs are eaten annually, of which, probably, not Jj; per cent, are produced within the immediate radius. In Lancashire, although poultry husbandry is a verj' important branch of farm- ing, especially upon the small holdings which are so numerous in that county, and the more intensive methods of poultry- keeping have advanced rapidly upon allotments, consumption is five times as great as production. The same is true in many other areas. Something like three-fourths of the population of England and Wales live in urban districts. The methods usually adopted are as under: Direct Sale to Consumers. — ^That specially applies to districts where producers and consumers are contiguous, and the latter can be easily reached by the former, or the two can meet in local 372 POULTRY HUSBANDRY markets. To an increasing extent this system is impossible as density of population advances. Sale by Producers lo licluilers. — 'i'liis niclhud is that of greatest advance, and in many cases entails the least cost for distribution. Where supplies are sufficient, and of the quality required in the great centres of population and at holiday resorts, it yields an excellent return. Local Traders. — ^\\^here the volume of produce is individually small, and must be bulked to reduce cost of transit, the pi-oducer is unable to reach distant markets, and it would not pay him to undertake that task. Therefore an intermediary must be found between him and the distributing retailer. In some cases this works satisfactorily, in many others not, especially as rings are often formed to keep down prices, and there is no alternative outlet. The great hindrance to progress is that all-round rates are paid, so that improvement of quality is checked. Co-Operation. — In Denmark the egg trade has been largely built up on a co-operative basis, and the same system, to a lesser extent, is adopted in Ireland, Holland, and Scotland. Under certain conditions — that is, where no great local demand exists — the same system has proved successful in England and Wales. Such failures as have occurred were chiefly owing to a large existing local demand, and that prices did not allow sufficient scope for increase. As a competitive factor co-operation has proved of the greatest value, compelling traders to improve their methods. Also, by throwing responsibility for quality upon producers, it has had a great educational influence. Auction Sales. — ^Regular sales by public auction have been established at a few centres, where buyers collect to purchase. These are, however, more perfectly organized in the Netherlands, usually upon a co-operative basis. Eggs are sold as from their place of origin, so that reputation is an asset; and by the use of a mechanical apjmratus, fully described in my " Report on the Poultry Incbxstry in Holland," the work is simplified. Probably this sj^stem will find adoption to a greater extent. Testing. — All high-quality eggs are tested for quality, generally by the retailer, so far as native supplies are concerned. The place of test should be as near the point of production as pos- sible, and by those who are in close touch with producers, paying for supplies in accordance with the quality. In that case testing ought to be undertaken by the local trader or co - operative society. The object is not merely to discern bad and stale eggs, but to divide the best from the better, the better from the good, as each have individual values. DISPOSAL OF PRODUCE 375 For that purpose a dark room or cupboard is required. Shutters to the former and heavy curtains forming the latter will exclude light sufficiently for the purpose. The method of testing is by passing light thi-ough the egg, so as to reveal internal conditions. A powerful lamp, gas-jet, or electric bulb, is encased in a black metal cone or box, on the side of which are one or more apertures, slightly less in size than an egg. When the last-named is revolved by hand against this opening, the size of air-space and general appearance are revealed. This individual examination is the most perfect test. In Denmark and elsewhere strong lights are enclosed in a well, the sides of which are formed by powerful reflectors. On the top fits a tray holding 120 eggs, so divided that no light can pass except through the eggs. That is a more rapid method. An apparatus is used in Holland consisting of a revolving table on which are several openings, into which fit trays holding fifty eggs each. One-fourth the table is at a time in a dark cupboard for testing, there resting over well lights, as already mentioned. At- tendants outside place the trays in position, and re- move after testing, each lot being passed into the cup- board in turn by revolving the table (Plate XVIII.). By one or other of the methods named eggs are assorted in accordance with their respective qualities. The single test is better than that in mass, although entailing an increase of labour. Grading. — Continental and Irish eggs arc shipped in large cases holding twelve long hundreds — that is, 1,440. The packing material is straw or wood-wool, or both. As a consequence, the eggs must be very closely graded, every one being of identically the same size; otherwise, as no divisions are used, breakages would occur to a very large extent. It is necessary that each egg shall be firmly held b}^ the layer of packing material above and below. So carefully is this work done that eggs are carried Fig. G3. — -Candling Eogs. S76 POULTRY HUSBANDRY across Europe with hardly a crack. As a rule there are six grades, 13 pounds to 18 jwunds per 120. Where other packages are used, as described below, it is enough to grade into three sizes: namel}^ (1) eggs 17 pounds per 120 — that is, 2^ ounces each and upwards; (2) 15 pounds per 120 — 2 ounces each ; and (3) under 15 pounds. The proportionate sale value of the last-named is much less than indicated bj' re- duction in weight, due to the fact that these are mainly used for cooking purposes, and not for boiling. At the same time this measure of rough grading is most important for another reason. Abnormally large and very small eggs should be consumed at home, and not sent to market. A big egg dwarfs all others in the case, making these look smaller than they are; whilst a small egg spoils the appear- ance of the entire lot. Evenness in size makes for satisfaction. Packing. — Where eggs are sent short dis- tances, and especially if forwarded direct to retailers, they are often packed in large baskets holding about 1,200, or less. There are now several forms of egg boxes which are simple and convenient. These boxes have been greatly improved of late. One form which is largely in use is fitted with square cardboard sections, and has wood-wool between the layers. Renewals of fittings and wood-wool are very inex- pensive, and it is light and easily handled. The contents can be rapidly unpacked, which is most important. The Dairy Outfit Company, of King's Cross, London, make a series of excellent boxes (Fig. 64) with felt layers, which carry the contents most securely and are very largely used. Many other forms are on the market, meeting the requirements already named. One most important matter is that the packing shall be clean and sweet. Eggs are very susceptible to external influences, and if they are packed in dirty or fusty material they will assuredly be affected thereby. Inattention to this matter, or the sending out of dirty eggs, due to want of clean straw in the nests, will reduce their value. Fig. 64.— Pocock Egg Box. DISPOSAL OF PRODUCE 377 Table Poultry. — In considering the sale of poultry, especially of the better qualities, it is important to remember that the trade varies considerably. Even in London, where the highest prices are realizable, the trade of poulterers differs in accordance with their position. Much higher prices are obtainable in the West End and a few suburban districts than elsewhere, and supplies must be graded in accordance with the recpiiiements of retailers. At some provincial centres good prices can be obtained; but it is not too much to say that first, or even second, quality birds will not at present sell remuneratively in the greater part of the country. Hence it is found, on the one hand, that fatters send their- best specimens to London; whilst provincial poulterers, when they require such birds, order them through the Metro- politan markets. With eggs, our object should be to get into direct touch with retailers without any intermediaries, in order to avoid unnecessary profits and to insure rapidity of transit. In respect to chickens and ducklings, it is found more profitable to send supplies to salesmen in London, as they are able to grade the fowls in accordance with the requirements of poulterers, and can thus obtain higher returns than if sent direct to the trader. The plan here suggested is found fairly satisfactory by fatters of chickens in Sussex and West Kent, and the duckers in Bucks and Beds. In provincial markets, and especially for lower grade birds, selling direct to the traders is to be recom- mended. Their trade, however, is not for higher -class specimens. Markets for Chickens. — A most important point is, How are the chickens, raised in districts where fattening establishments do not exist, to be marketed ? When lean birds are selling in Sussex at 2s. 9d. to 3s. 6d. each, they are often to be purchased in other districts at from Ls. 6d. to 2s. 6d. each. Ultimately we may hope to find fattening extended greatly, and the work of finishing off completed where the birds are reared. In the mean- time our object should be to bring fatters into touch with breeders. Except in the fattening districts, where the collection is very well organized, and the whole countryside is scoured b^^ higglers buying uj) birds, traders frequently do not obtain a sufficient supply, nor is there regularity. A buyer may go into a local market, and one week find a considerable number of chickens, whilst the next week there may be hardl}' any at all. Hence the business is speculative to a considerable extent, and he nuist allow a good margin for profit — greater than should be the case, or would be so, if he were sure of securing a proper supj)ly — ^to the detriment of the producer. 378 POULTRY HUSBANDRY What we have, therefore, to consider is whether it is not pos- sible to adopt another system in this country. Of course, we have markets in all dii-ections, but these are very general, and buyers cannot tell what is likely to be brought forward. In one or two of the southern counties regular sales have been insti- tuted, and these undoubtedly serve a good purpose; but the system has not sj)read sufficiently to warrant buj^ers from the fattenmg establishments attending and obtaining a commen- surate supply. We must aim for something on a larger scale. Supposing in any district a market is instituted of the nature found in Belgium and France, the wisest plan would be — at first, at any rate — to fix these monthly or fortnightly, and to take steps for the producers to attend in large numbers with theii- fowls for sale. That is a distinctly better plan than the creation of another race of middlemen, because the competitive spirit will be more manifested, and any benefit accruing will go into the pockets of the producers rather than of the collector or higgler. If a market were held fortnightly, and the breeders all round set themselves to have their birds ready for the markets, they would then be able to take them in sufficient quantities, and the buyers would be very speedily able to regulate their trade, having a very clear idea as to the number that they were likely to obtain. In fact, they would come into touch with the producers, and obtain a very close estimate as to the supply during each season. Of course, in many cases the bu3'ers would represent fatteners, and thus the prices would be distinctly better than are met with at the present time. CHAPTER XXIII POULTRY DISEASES In no departinent of human knowledge has greater progress been made within the last fifty years than in medical and veterinary science, consequent upon Avhich not only is there a more complete and scientific definition of disease, but a fuller realization of the causes, together with appreciation of bacterial and other inciting influences, and, to a lesser extent, ability to combat disease in one way or another, though in that direction we appear to be only at the beginning. On the other hand, it would seem to be true that, as a result of greater aggregation of human beings and animals, massed together in communities, and more intensive conditions of life, the tendencies to develop- ment of disease are greater than ever. Such is certainly the case with poultry, following upon a vast increase of numbers and other influences named below. That in former times there were losses by disease among domestic fowls cannot be ques- tioned. Inquiries reveal, however, that these were com- paratively few and isolated. It was not until the numbers of birds- kept upon a given place were largely increased, and methods adopted which tended to diminution of natural vigour in fowls, and therefore lessened ability to repel attacks of bac- terial and parasitic enemies, together with the conditions which are favourable to their rapid development and virility, that the question became of serious importance, combined with which is the economic value of poultry, now niuch greater and con- stantly advancing, not individually to the same extent as col- lectively. One fact must ever be regarded — namely, that power to prevent disease may be the determining factor as to further development of poultry husbandry. Scientific Research. — ^During the early days of i:)ouItry hus- bandry, empirical methods in the treatment of poultry diseases were unavoidable, by reason of the fact that scientists had not 370 380 POULTRY HUSBANDRY applied themselves to study of this class of livestock. Poultrymen had to do the best they could, and to accept the consequences. Aa a result, it was often thought wisest and cheapest in the long- run to kill a fowl seen to be sick. With advent of the exhibition system and the increased value of individual birds, greater atten- tion was given to the question, equally in the direction of cure and prevention. A breeder felt that he was warranted in expend- ing money and time in saving a fowl worth, perhaps, several pounds, which was not the case when its value was measured by pence. To that fact may be attributed the increased atten- tion given to diseases of poultry. With development of poultry husbandry on more extensive lines, where whole flocks were attacked, probably involving loss over wide areas, the importance of the question was to some extent realized. It became not merel}^ a matter of individiuxls, but of flocks and of communities, compelling attention on the part of Government departments. The first decided step in this direction was when the French Ministry of Agriculture instructed the late Professor Louis Pasteur to undertake an investigation into an outbreak of what is known as chicken cholera, which was then devastating the farms of that country. That example has been followed in several instances, some of which are referred to below. This subject has to be considered in two directions: First, diseases which are individual — that is, isolated cases, either single birds or limited groups — wherein the loss is apparently small, although probably more wide-reaching than is gener- ally supposed, owing to inherent weakness transmitted to the progeny, thus making for degeneracy of the stock; and, second, those forms of disease that become epidemics which by dissemina- tion cause great immediate loss, not merely on the place of origin, but bj' infection of considerable areas. I have seen several such epidemics or their effects in Britain, L'eland, America, Belgium, and Italy, the results of which were disastrous in the extreme, involving an enormous amount of loss. Prevention the Main Object. — ^When disease occurs, except in minor (•()m])laiii(s, a cure is frequently impossible. In no case can it be i)rolitabie. The small comparative value of each unit means that, ai:)art from danger of infecting others, such value may speedily be expended by a course of treatment. What has to be sought for is the cause, in order that, by its removal, further developments may be prevented. Frequently such cause cannot be discovered until a vast amount of loss has taken place. In fact, not until the infection is more general are stejDS taken to investigate outbreaks. That is always the case, even with human POULTRY DISEASES 381 beings. Probably there is no instance in which adequate pre- ventive measures have been adopted mitil the necessary com- pulsion was ajiplicd by disease in epidemic or other forms, in- volving great mortality. Hence, it was not until poultry hus- bandry became of sufficient importance to warrant expenditure of public funds in the w^ork of investigation, and the labour of scientists in this direction, that serious attempts were made. For example, a recent epidemic involved the direct loss of at least £.50,000 within one or two provinces of Belgium in a single season, ruining many producers, and threatened with destruc- tion an important rural industry. The time has fully arrived, therefore, when the question must be dealt with on broader lines, to which end the co-operation of scientists whose training enables them to pathologically investi- gate diseases of poultry, in order that the causes may be re- moved, is absolutely necessar^^ Fortunately, in several coun- tries the services of such men and women are now available, though not to the extent which is demanded by the importance of this question. That, however, is not enough. Whilst re- search into the nature of disease and its development, discovery of bacteria and parasites which are the active and immediate cause, and how these may be combated, are of very great value and importance, that deals with but part of the subject. What must be diligently sought for are the contributory conditions, whether involved in breeding, methods of treatment, environ- ment, feeding, etc., in order that prevention may be effective, which should ever be the main object of all investigation. Prac- tice and science must act in unison. The knowledge of advanced practitioners who have studied hygiene and sanitation, and that of investigators whose interest is in purely scientific research, are equally necessary. Without such combination we shall not attain effective methods of prevention. It is essential to clearly state the position, because some reports which have been pub- lished as to outbreaks of disease are incomplete, in that they stop at the point where these would be understood by poultrj-- keepers, whose interest in a disease is limited by their desire to avoid it. Contributory Causes. — ^For the reason that the subject cannot any longer be treated superficially, in that it is too serious and requires exhaustive consideration, I do not propose to deal with the treatment of affected birds, but indicate, as far as our know- ledge goes, what are the causes of disease in poultry, with such methods of prevention as are understood. We shall ultimately arrive at the stage when, as is already the case in some countries. 382 POULTRY HUSBANDRY public research stations will be in operation, at which investiga- tions can be made, whether for individuals or communities, and advice given, at which the staff shall consist of men who are poultry pathologists in the true sense, in that they have special- ized upon this branch of livestock. Up to the present time veterinary surgeons have devoted very little attention to poultry, because it did not paj^ them to do so. The owner of a horse or a cow can afford to pay an adequate fee for advice if it is sick, which fee would be three or fo\ir times the value of a hen. That has been the great difficulty hitherto. With increase of numbei s, it is a question of flocks rather than of individuals. Hereditary Influences. — ^It may probably be true that many diseases from which fowls suffer are not directly transmitted to their progeny. As examples, chickens hatched from eggs laid by hens suffering from tuberculosis in one or other of its forms, even where the lungs are affected, or from liver disease, do not immediately show signs that the parental disease is inherited, and sometimes may escape altogether if the conditions and methods of feeding are favourable. At the same time it is within general knowledge that such progeny are especially prone to suffer from the same disease at a later period of life. The con- sensus of medical opinion is that, whilst the diseases named are not directly inherited, the tendency is present in that, either by general constitutional or organic weakness, there is not the full power of resistance to attacks of bacteria. By that is meant the organ affected in the parents has a lessened degree of vigour in the descendants. On the other hand, we have evidence that bacteria or parasites may be passed by the hen into the egg, and thence to the chicken hatched from it, which is thus born to die. In the epidemic already referred to, which spread largely over parts of Belgium in 1912 and 1913, Professor Frateur, of Louvain University, discovered the same germ in eggs laid by infected hens as found in the parents. As a consequence, we have a further indication of the importance of using only sound stock for breeding purposes. By this I do not mean that, if an otherwise valuable bird has a bad cold, or even shows signs of indigestion, it shoiild be discarded, as these are local and temporary affections which will cure themselves if left alone, and have no permanent influence. Any class of poultry that reveals indications of a serious affection should not be used for breeding. Aciite diseases which are more rapid in their effects are less dangerous, for these usually end in death, or leave the birds so debilitated as to be useless. What have specially to be guarded against are the insidious affections that show few external signs, and are much POULTPvY DISEASES 383 slower in their development. Even with these, however, evi- dences are generally present that indicate debilitation. The line of safety is to avoid all risks. Personally, I believe that to seek for stock which are immune to disease is a vain quest. What we have to do is to prevent disease by favourable conditions and adoption of right methods. Conditional Causes of Disease. — ^Probably the greater number of affections and diseases, chronic and active, are due to bad en- vironment, even though some of these maj' apparently arise from other influences. It is impossible to limit the effects of non- hygienic or insanitary conditions, which may develop in a dozen different ways. As these have been dealt with in previous chapters, it is unnecessary to do more than re-emphasize the essential importance of the question here raised, namely, that — Want of proper and efficient ventilation deprives the bird for several hours daily of oxj'^gen sufficient for its needs, and, by compelling it to breathe air charged with carbonic acid gas, im- poverishes the blood, overtaxes the lungs, and, if continued, so weakens the whole system as to render it unable to withstand attacks of diseases, whether chemical or parasitic. Want of light in the house affords the conditions most favour- able to increase of bacteria and parasites, which, by preying upon the fowls, gradually reduce their power of resistance. Sunlight is the most powerful germicide known. Lack of cleanliness has the same effect as that stated above, in addition to which, however, is the action upon the body through the atmosphere, more especially as seen bj^ ammonia from manure. Dampness, either in the house or the soil, appears to reduce the vitality by more rapid elimination of heat, leading to chills, and often causing inflammation in certain organs. Probably that which has been responsible for the greatest amount of disease is tainted soil. Not only does it act like slow poison upon the system, but also the manure offers a medium in which injurious parasites develop rapidly. ^^^len all these various conditional influences are found in com- bination, as is frequently the case — for negligence is seldom in one direction — we have, on the one hand, reduction of power to combat antagonistic influences, and a great increase in the enemies and influences to be met. Under such circumstances everything is favourable to development of disease. Lessened Functional Activity. — One of the penalties which frequently follows domestication is abrogation of the need for 384 POULTRY HUSBANDRY seeking food, more especially where birds are kept within en- closures and all food has to be supplied. Under these conditions, the danger of reducing the physical powers by absolute disuse is a very positive one. Young creatures may take exercise for the verj'^ pleasure of it. That, however, does not continue for long. In this respect there is a great difference in breeds, some of which are much more active than are others. Yet all are affected to a greater or lesser extent. The effect upon growing stock is seen in an undoubted, though perhaps scarcely per- ceptible, weakening of the system, which reacts upon frame, muscles, and organs, and the power of resistance to malign influences. As decrease of exercise, combined with an abundant supply of food, is usually followed by increase of fatty deposits in the body, the functional activity is checked ; and if such birds are used for breeding, degeneracy in the progeny results, even where disease does not immediately supervene. Causation by Food. — A famous surgeon once informed me that 9.") per cent, of his patients could have jirevented the need for consulting him by greater care in diet. In poultry, also, a vast amount of diseases affecting the blood and digestive organs are distinctly due to the use of unsuitable and rich food, and too much of it. I have practically come to the conclusion that soft food, except for birds intended to be killed, and for layers that are not to be used as breeders, is not so beneficial as was formerly sup- posed. Hard corn and green food in smaller quantities, supple- mental to what can be found naturalh^ would go far to obviate a great amount of disease, more especially if given in the way which compels exercise. Rich food is non-economic, but has much more serious effects as a direct cause of disease. Healthy Stock. — From what is stated above, it will be evident that, whilst conditional influences are powerful factors in pre- vention of disease, and where these are unfavourable cause a great amount of loss, in a large number of instances infection is transmitted from one bird to another. The introduction of a diseased specimen is frequently the immediate cause of outbreaks in one form or another. Exhibitions are responsible for a large ajnount of disease, as is the practice of forwarding birds in old baskets and hampers which have not been disinfected, and which by their structure provide harbourages for bacteria and para- sites. An affection may be dormant, and therefore unsuspected, only revealing itself as a result of change in condition. What, however, has to be kept in view is that the introduction of a diseased bird will be harmful to the degree that the^ poultry POULTRY DISEASES 385 with which it comes in contact are in the condition favourable to infection, otherwise the parasites he may thus introduce would be unable to exert their influence. It has been claimed that a perfectly healthy man can work in a cholera hospital with- out risk. Such fact explains why some birds and flocks escape, whilst others readily fall victims to epidemic and other diseases. Unless and until measures be taken to prevent disease at the source by breeding from healthy stock, kept under sanitary conditions and treated in a right way, the dangers of epidemic and other diseases must be considerable. As a measure of pre- caution, all newly-introduced birds should be isolated for at least two weeks before they are allowed to mix with the other stock. By doing so, time will be allowed for latent disease to declare itself. A further valuable precaution is that birds dying of disease shall be destroyed, so as to prevent spread of infection. That is often neglected. Serum Prevention. — ^The late Louis Pasteur during his in- vestigations into chicken cholera recommended inoculation by serum for prevention of that disease. The same course has been adopted in other countries, and with success, though the dura- tion of influence appears to be comparatively short, necessitating repetition at intervals. One of the most striking examples of what has been done is in Holland, The Serum Institute at Rotterdam sends out operators as required, who inoculate fowls against chicken cholera and Klein's disease, of which there have been several serious epidemics in the Netherlands. The results have proved very successful in checking spread of the disease, mainly by rendering imnnme for a time the non-affected birds. As a means of dealing with outbreaks when these occur, and of limiting their scope and effect, such treatment is most valuable. As a permanent factor, I cannot regard it as possible or de- sirable. The labour and cost of inoculating all fowls on each farm in a district, say every year, would be great, and the benefit would be small unless this were done. That would deter the majority of farmers from keeping poultry, or they would refuse to adopt such system. As an occasional expedient, serum treat- ment is valuable. What must be sought for are the methods of prevention, applying these as generally as possible. Symptoms of Disease. — Many affections from which poultry suffer can be diagnosed without difficulty, as the sj'mptoms are apparent. Among these may be included attacks of various internal and external parasites; diseases affecting the nervous system, the skin and comb, the crop, the limbs, the oviduct, the 25 38G POULTRY HUSBANDRY digestive organs, and accidents. In these a mistake can hardly be made. When we consider diseases of a more complex nature, it is evident that the same symptom may be indicative of several distinct diseases. That is specially true in respect to tempera- ture, breathing, ai^pcarancc of the plumage, and the evacuations. To some extent, it is alone by careful study of symptoms in com- bination that a guess — and it is generally nothing more — can be made as to what is the true nature of the disease. With the more serious affections a correct diagnosis is practically im- possible until the later stages, or after death, when a post- mortem is made. Under these conditions, it is of great impor- tance that there be such examination, so as to reveal the cause and lead to measures of prevention. Although knowledge in this direction is very incomjilete, I quote below a table,* which is the best published up to the present time: Symptom. Abdomen swollen Belching of gas . . Breathing abnormal — -i.e., too rapid, too slow, wheezing, whistling, snoring, or in any way different from abnoimal Choking . . Comb pale Discuses wliich the Symptom named may indicate. Peritonitis, dropsy, white diarrhoea. Inflammation of crop. Diseases of the respiratory system, arsenic poisoning, pericarditis, gapes, air-sac mite. Arsenic poisoning. Tuberculosis, dropsy, air-sac mite, infectious leukaemia, white diarrhoea. Enteritis. Liver disease, blackhead, congestion of lungs, pneumonia. Liver diseases, visceral gout. White-comb. Simple constipation, indigestion, inliamma- tion of oviduct. Arsenic poisoning, copper, lead, or zinc poisoning, ejiilepsy, " harvest-bug." Cough . . . . . . . . Diseases of the respiratory system. Comb first pale, but later dark . . Comb very dark . . Comb yellow Comb with white powdery scurf Constipation Convulsions Crop enlarged and hard Crop enlarged and soft Diarrhoea Nostrils, discharge from Emaciations Eye, expansion of pupil . . Eye, sticky discharge from Face swollen Droppings bright emerald green Fever marked Crop- bound. Inflammation of crop, enlarged crop, gas- tritis. Diseases of the alimentaiy tract, arsenic poisoning, copper, lead, or zinc poisoning, blackhead, tuberculosis, cholera, roup, white diarrhoea. Diseases of the respiratoiy system. Tuberculosis, aspergillosis, visceral gout, mites, white diarrhoea. Arsenic poisoning. Catarrh. Roup. Cholera. Peritonitis, aspergillosis, infectious leu- kajmia, inflammation of oviduct. * "Poultry Diseases and their Treatment," Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, 1911. POULTRY DISEASES 387 _ . Diseases which the Symptom Symptom. „_^^jgj ^^^^ indicate Lameness .. .. .. Tuberculosis, aspergillosis, rheumatism, scaly leg, bumble foot. Legs roughened, with scales Scaly leg. raised Mouth, mucous discharge from. . Congestion of tlu- lung-!, pneumonia, gapes. Mouth, whit* cheesy patches in Roup, easiker. Nausea and vomiting . . . . InHammatiou of the crop, copper, load, or zinc poisoning. Neck bent backwai-d . . . . Strychnine poisoning, congestion of the brain, wry-neck. Neck limp Limber-neck. Paralysis . . . . . . . . Copper, lead, or zinc poisoning, strychnine poisoning, apoplexy, heat pro.stration. Saliva, copious secretion of . . Arsenic poisoning. Skin puffed out in blisters . . Emphysema. Skin scaly and encrusted . . Body mango, favus. Staggering Congestion of the brain, log weakness. Thirst excessive . . . . Hypertrophy of the liver, peritonitis, asper- gillosis, tapeworm. Tongue hard and dry . . . . Pip, diseases of the respiratory .system. Tumoui-s on head . . . . Roup, chicken-pox. Urates yellow . . . . . . Cholera. Vent, mass of inflamed tissue Prolapse of oviduct, projecting from Vent, skin inflamed . . . . Vent gleet. Generally speaking, however, whenever a bird is sick, that fact can be discerned by its appearance, common to all affections. The work referred to on this point says: " A sick fowl is usually quiet, and does not move about unless disturbed. It stands or sits with the neck contracted, so that the head is pulled well into the body, giving the bird a ' humped - up ' appearance. The eyes are often closed, entirelj' or partly, giving the bird a sleepy appearance. Often the feathers are roughened, and stick out all over the body. The comb and wattles may be dark, or, on the other hand, may be very pale." When seen to bo sick, a bird ought at once to be isolated, and a hospital should alwa^'s be provided where the numbers kept warrant such an arrangement. Post-Mortem Examinations. — Where an outbreak of disease appears to be serious, application for advice should be made either to the veterinary deparments of the various Boards of Agriculture in London, Edinlmrgh, or Dublin, or to a qualified expert. It is, however, desirable that the poultryman should know how to make a post-mortem examination. The following description is taken from Poultry : " Let it be understood that a \ery large number of poultry which die are victims of some entirely simple complaint, such as enlargement of the liver or tuberculosis in the lungs. Ihese complaints are easily recognizable, and there is no reason at all why any farmer or amateur poultry -keeper should not be able 388 POULTRY HUSBANDRY to form a general opinion as to whether his poultry are dying off from some such complaint as one or other of these. Take the dead bird and lay it on a wooden table, or on a piece of strong board, breast uppermost. Spread out the wings and the legs, putting a small nail through the joint of each wing and Ihrough the centre of each foot. It is not necessaiy for the biid to be entirely plucked; it will be enough to pluck the breast, and when this has been done pinch up the skin at the point of the breast-bone, and cut it straight through, from the vent to the crop. Having done this, draw back the skin on both sides, so as to leave the flesh fully exposed, and then with a sharp knife cut through the flesh on both sides of the breast-bone, and with a strong, blunt-pointed pair of scissors cut out the centre of the breast-bone entirely, taking particular care in doing so not to injure the heart, as a flow of blood from the heart will interfere with subsequent operations. When this has been done, the principal organs will be seen clearly exposed. " First of all examine the liver. To be perfectly healthy, it should be of a rich chocolate-brown colour, free from any specks, and free from any discoloration (although there are sometimes post-mortem cliscolorations at the edges, which are easily recog- nizable). If the liver contains any specks, it is unhealthy, as it should not be what is known as ' pasty ' or ' rotten.' Healthy and firm to the touch, and of the proper colour, is the general description to apply to the liver. The heart should then be lookecl at, and it should also be quite firm, free from any ex- cessive covering of fat, and also quite free from little nodules of tuberculosis. Another thing about the heart is that it should be even-lobed — that is to say, it should not be distended on one side and empty on the other; if it be so, the probability is that the bird has died from heart failure, and, supposing it is known that the bird did die suddenly, this can at -once be accepted as the cause — syncope, failure of the heart's action, which always ends in very sudden death, the bird simply dropping down dead without any warning. The lungs, which will be seen on either side at the back of the heart, are spongy-looking bodies of a pink colour. If a piece of one of the lungs can be cut off and be placed in a bowl of water, it should float, not sink, or it will be unhealthy. Always look at the lungs for tuberculosis, which is usually to be detected there, and is indicated by little cheesy nodules in the substance of the lungs, which cannot pos- sibly be mistaken ; sometimes the lungs and the heart will all be eaten by these tuberculous masses. If no disease has been found so far, proceed to examine the crop and the gullet, also the wind- POULTRY DISEASES 389 pipe. With regard to the crop, it might also be examined first, if it is full of food, and apparently in a state of congestion, to see whether there be a stoppage in the opening from the crop to the pro ventricle. The gullet and windpipe can also be ex- amined, to see if there is anj'thing unhealthy about them. Similarly, an examination can then be made of the intestines, and, in the case of a hen, the egg organs can be carefully dis- sected, to see whether there is a broken egg, or whether any egg substance has escaped into the cavity of the abdomen and set up inflammation. " There is no difftculty about making an examination of the skull, and the amateur, with a little practice, will very easily be able to do this. The way to set about it is to start at one corner of the mouth, and with a j^air of sharp-pointed scissors cut around the skull to the other corner of the mouth; it will then be quite an easy matter to lift up the skull from the back, and the brain will be clearly seen. This should be perfectly clear, and if there be any trace of a slight effusion of blood, it will be positive evidence of an apoplectic seizure, and will con- firm the symptoms, which are delirium, resulting, after a few hours' or a few daj^s' helplessness, in death. These, then, are the principal points, and any amateur can make a simple, matter-of-fact examination such as has been described, very often with considerable satisfaction to himself." Parasites. — ^Disease is in many cases caused by parasites, which also prey upon poultry, reducing their vitality. Of these are many forms. What we must accomplish is keeping them in check. Professor F. V. Theobald, M.A., in an article appear- ing in the Journal of the Board of Agriculture, made the following suggestions : " Infestation is alwaj's worst in dirty and neglected runs and roosts, and such arc a standing danger to more cleanly neigh- bours. Cleanliness and freedom will always put these pests under a disadvantage — not only cleanliness of the nests, walls, and floor, but also of the ceilings and perches. To suppress these pests, the houses should be cleaned down at least twice a year with a wash made of lime, sulphur, and soft-soap, the ceilings, walls, and nests, having a good coating. The wash should be fairly liquid, so as to run into every crack and crevice. Early spring and autumn are the times for these applications. The perches are best treated with boiling water and soft-soap, or with an emulsion of kerosene or creosote. This latter in- secticide is most beneficial, especially in regard to mites. "Special attention should be paid to the nests; they should 390 POULTRY HUSBANDRY be frequently cleansed and changed to keep off fleas and other parasites. Neither nest-boxes nor perches should be fixed; relays of each should be at hand, so that they can be changed to insure complete disinfection. The nest-boxes should be now and then cleaned out, and dressed with hot lime and sulphur, or with a solution of corrosive sublimate. Either dusting the prepared nests with Persian insect powder or putting a little sawdust or sand soaked in naphthaline at the bottom will keep off these dejoredators. Wood-shavings or wood-wool in the nests instead of straw is most beneficial. No lice or fleas will live in it, owing to the aromatic odour given off from the wood. Care, of course, must be taken that the remedies employed do not affect the eggs in the nest. " Schneider's suggestion of fumigating the roost with sul- phiu-et of carbon, put in small phials in the corners of the houses, etc., where they cannot be ujxset, is very successful so far as killing the pests goes, but this method is not cpiite safe to recom- mend. Regarding the infestation of the birds themselves, Avhite precijiitate seldom fails. The heads and necks of young chicks should be early dressed very sparingly, and repeated when necessary. White precipitate is a strong irritant poison, and needs the greatest care in its use, especially in young chicks. It is best obtained as an ointment from the chemist's. Hens selected for sitting should have a small quantity of this oint- ment rubbed in under the vent, head, and sides, and then be well dusted with insect powder. Sitting hens are greatly tortau'cd by parasites, and their young are often lost by neglect of these simple precautions. The skin should be first moistened with soft-soa]3 and water prior to dusting the birds with insect powder (pyrethrum). Some breeders prefer flowers of sulphur. Dust baths are the natural remedy for lice and mites, and fowls shoidd never be kept without them. Sand mixed with a small quantity of creosote will generally keep the birds free from vermin. Finely-divided gypsum mixed with a small quantity of paraffin or carbolic is still more successful for these dust baths, quickly getting rid of any lingering pests that the birds cannot reach." Simple Affections. — Below are dealt with a few affections that are more or less local, and in which treatment may be attempted by the poultryman: Crop-Bound. — ^This is the commonest form of crop trouble, and is generally caused by careless feeding. If green food be withheld for a time, and then given in unlimited quantities, the fowl will eat to repletion; and as the crop cannot deal with this mass of undigested food all at once, it becomes hard, and not POULTRY DISEASES 391 only itself cannot pass into the stomach, but effectively bars the way for other food. This same result may be caused by feeding new grain, which, swelling in the crop, becomes a solid mass, or by the presence of a twig, or some undigestible substance that has been swallowed by the fowl. The proof of a bound crop is purely external, but is, fortunately, very easily discernible. Instead of the organ having a firm, close appearance — in fact, not being seen — it hangs down like a bag, and on feeling it we find that there is a lump or ball of food inside. If the trouble is discovered early, cure is comparatively easy. The first step is to pour some salad-oil or melted lard down the throat, and then to work gently the crop contents by the hand. This, if properly and effectively done, will soon cause the food and the fluid to mix, and when the mass has been well broken up, it will in the course of a few hours pass away. When the kneading process is ineffectual, then an operation becomes necessary. The process is to make an incision length- wise in the upper part of the crop, about 1| inches in length. This should be cleanly made through the skins with a very sharp sterilized knife or lancet. Through the incision the contents of the crop may be removed, using for that purpose a small egg spoon. Sometimes the mass is so hard that it cannot pass through the aperture, and in that case it must be broken up, which can be accomplished with care and patience. This mass is usually very offensive, and, to remove any contaminating matter remaining, the organ should be washed out with warm milk and water, or any weak non-poisonous disinfectant. It is also desirable to pass the fuiger, well pared and oiled, into the orifice, so as to be certain that there is no obstruction of the oesophagus, otherwise the whole process may have to be repeated. This done, the incision must be sewn up, for which a small bent needle should be employed, as by it the skin can be easily gathered together, using white silk or horsehan. The inner skin should be sewn first, and then the outer. Soft Cro}). — In some instances, when the crop is distended, there is no mass of food, and the distensoin is a surcharge of water or air in the crop. The cause is difficult to determine, but probably arises from some inability on the part of this organ to perform its functions. When discovered, an attempt should be made to expel the contents by holding the fowl upside down, and pressing the crop with the hands. If this does not secure the desired effect, it then becomes necessary to puncture the crop. A coarse darning needle will answer very well for the purpose, and the incision, when made, will not need stitching- 392 POtJLTRY HUSBANDRY A fowl found to be affected should be kept in a pen by itself, where it cannot obtain any food except that supplied to it, and be fed three times a day with a small quantitj^ of toasted bread. Sojt Eggs. — One of the earliest forms of derangement of the egg organs is indicated by the laying of soft eggs. Sometimes, however, this is merely due to want of shell-forming materials, chiefly with fowls in confinement. When birds are kept in small runs, and commence to lay these soft eggs, the first thing is to see whether \\\cy have sufficient calcareous materials. If this is found to l)e the case, it will generallj' be discovered that over or improper feeding is the cause. The egg organs have been unduly stimulated, so that thej^ are unable to retain the egg until coated with the shell. Lajing must be checked by the withholding of food having the slightest stimulating tendency, and bj^ the giving of an aperient. For the latter there is nothing better than a pill composed of 1 grain of calomel and | grain of tartar emetic. A little iron may be given in the water as a tonic, and the food should consist of boiled rice and potatoes. We have known, however, soft-shelled eggs caused by the hen being frightened, and to i^revent this the nests should always be in as quiet a place as possible. At times it is found that the presence of some irritant in the egg passages causes this trouble, and when that is so, the simplest way is to try a dose of castor- oil. Egg-Bound. — Another form is when the hen cannot lay her egg, which blocks up the oviduct. This may be caused by a contraction of the passage, or by abnormal size of the egg. The noticeable symptoms are a frequent visiting of the nest without any result, and a depression of the tail and wings, the bird showing evident signs of distress. If the egg is very large, the first step is to soften the vent with pure salad-oil. Should that treatment fail, inject an ounce of the same oil an hour afterwards. In making the injection, care must be taken not to break the egg, as that would probably be fatal to the hen. In more obstinate cases good will residt from the use of warm treacle, in which sonie chopped groundsel has been mixed. This should be given in doses of a tablespoonful at a time at intervals of an hour, until the necessary relief has been effected. Small doses of castor-oil may be substituted, but this is not so good. In very obstinate cases the holding of the vent over a jug of boiling water, in which 10 drops of iodine to a quart of water is added, so as to well steam the organ, usually gives relief. When the egg produced is of the regular size, it betokens contraction of the passage, which is more serious, as that indicates inllammation. POULTRY DISEASES 393 Leg Weakness. — ^Young birds, especially of the heavier varieties reared artificially, are often troubled with a failure of the legs which prevents their moving about freely. Usually it takes the form of the bird squatting on the ground. If not treated at once, the joints become stiff, the toes curl up, and, when the sufferer attempts to walk, it can only do so on its elbows, or first leg-joints, which soon, from the friction, become enlarged, and have the skin worn off on the under-side. This weakness may be caused in various ways. Very often it is due to a more rapid growth of the frame than the legs are able to bear, and when that is the case no one can be blamed for it, as climatic influences may have been at work that could not be foreseen. Too fre- quently it is the result of forcing, or of a wrong system of feeding. It is most important that in all efforts to obtain size the develop- ment of both frame and flesh should go on at the same time. In a few instances we have known leg weakness to come from keeping the young birds on wooden floors. The first step should be to cease at once the giving of all food that has the slightest tendenc.y to increase the flesh, and to substitute that which will be used in the direction of bone formation, as well as to compel as much exercise as possible in seeking for food. Scaly Legs. — ^Yellow-legged birds are very subject to a form of elephantiasis, to which the name of scaly legs is commonly given. There are two forms of it. The one is due to the presence of a small insect on the legs, which is very contagious. The other arises from a deficiency of the oily secretion, thus causing the skin to chy ;ip and split into divisions like scales. Both are easy of cure. For the parasitic form the remedy is, after washing the legs and scrubbing them with a nail-brush, to apply sulphur ointment. For the other kind a preparation made of equal parts of vaseline and zinc ointment, applied daily, will be the best remedy. White-Comb. — Generally due to overcrowding, to bad feeding, and the absence of green food. The comb becomes covered with scurf, which, if not checked, in process of time extends down the neck, and the feathers fall off. It is really a form of scurv5\ When white-comb appears, there should be immediate attention to the food, and a wholesome and liberal diet, pure water, grit for the assistance of digestion, and an abundance of vegetables, with strict regard to cleanliness. A good aperient should be given two or three times, and some sulphur mixed with soft food. The comb should be anointed with a little vaseline. The birds when cured should have a good tonic. Worms. — Very often, when birds are troubled with worms, it is difficult to discover what is the matter with them. The chief 394 POULTRY HUSBANDRY or perhaps the only symptom noticed is that they mope or hang about. When worms are present, the safest and best proof is by an examination of the dropj^ings, in which worms will gener- ally be seen if the bird is so troubled. The cure is, happily, not a very diflficult one. The best remedy, so far as my experience goes, consists of capsules of turpentine, one or two of which, followed in twelve hours by a dose of castor-oil, have always been sufficient to expel the troublesome parasites from the system. Various Suggestions — Egg-Eating. — ^The cause of egg-eating is sometimes difficult to determine, but usually it is simply a bad habit. A blown egg should be filled with a strong mixture of mustard and cayenne pepper, closing up the ends with gummed l^aper. Leave this in the nest, and, if the hen tries to eat it, she will obtain a dose she does not like, which may prove a deterrent. Sometimes the habit is due to want of shell-forming materials, a supply of which will stop the trouble. Placing the nests above-ground and in a quiet place will generall}^ prevent egg- eating. Feather -Eating. — Feather-eating is one of the most annoying practices that trouble the poultry-keeper, and is both difficult to account for and to cure. It arises, no doubt, from the want of something which the hens require, and which they are able to find for themselves in a natural state, for fowls with a wide range seldom show it. The want may be lime, or flesh food, such as worms and grubs, or the habit may be encouraged by the presence of insects in the feathers, which latter can be pre- vented by a dust bath. Those hens which are usually the culprits had better be removed at once, as the habit will scarcely be broken off if kept with the cock. Pluck the stumps of the feathers out of the cock, and wash the bare places w^ell ; then rub on vaseline or olive-oil, mixed with a tenth part of carbolic acid. Give the birds plenty of exercise by burying the corn and letting them work for it, and also hang a piece of meat or a cabbage by a string just where they can touch it, and so that it will swing about. Some bone-meal should also be given in the soft food. Professor Theobald says: "There are two kinds of feather- eating — viz., ' self -feather-eating,' and the eating of other birds' feathers. The former is entirely due to the mites living upon and irritating the roots of the quills, and, so far as is known, the latter is caused by the same acarus. The form on the fowls makes its appearance about April, and is most prevalent in spring and summer. The mites can be easily found amongst the white, powdery matter at the base of the quill. The minute young are POULTRY DISEASES 395 transmitted during copulation. The fowls pluck out the feathers to destroy the irritation caused by the mites at their base. Prevention and Remedies. — ^As the disease is contagious, isolation of the affected bird is the first step, especialh^ if it be a cock. The mites readily yield to treatment with oil of cloves rubbed into the infected area. One part of creosote to thirty of lard or vaseline is still more sviccessful." Moulting. — The moulting of birds is an operation which usuallj'^ takes place every year, and is the casting of one set of feathers and replacing them by entirely new ones. There is a constant change of, and growth in, the feathers all the year round, ))ut only during the moulting season is there anything like regularity in the process. Moulting makes a considerable demand upon the system. Chickens hatched during the first four or five months of the j^ear obtain their adult plumage about September or October; but this cannot be called a moult, and the first one takes place about the following September. Every year this becomes later and more j^rotracted. Hence the plan advocated for laying fowls — namely, killing off birds before their first or second moult, when they are still good for table purposes, and before they have to be kept withoiit any profit. The time during which birds are moulting is a somewhat critical period, its nature depending very much upon the stamina and constitution of the breed. There is a considerable amount of difference in the way which the various breeds come through the moult. Some of the hxirdier varieties pass through it both rapidly and easily, whilst others find it most protracted and difficult. The usual period of moulting for a strong bird in its first or second year is six to eight weeks, in which time the old feathers are completelj^ cast, and new ones occupy their place ; but it is no uncommon thing to find weak or old birds taking three months, with the result that winter arrives before they get through it, and they do not recommence laying until the following spring, so that several months are lost, and when the produce is most valuable. All that is necessary for healthy birds is to give warm food once a day, mixing in it some seasoning powder, and lean meat with a little grain, such as buckwheat and hemp- seed, in the middle of the day. In the cbinking water put a little sulphate of iron and sulphuric acid — say two pieces of the former, the size of nuts, and ten ch'ops of the latter, to a gallon of water, and, of course, this must be renewed ever^^ day, as fresh water is most important . CHAPTER XXIV THE BUSINESS SIDE OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY Formerly there were two ideas commonly held by agricul- turists which profoundly influenced the way in which poultry were regarded in connection with farm operations. These were, first, that j^oultry as stock could not be made profitable as could other animals, but that, by the utilization of. food which would otherwise be wasted, they contributed in some slight degree to promote the general prosperity of the farm. That view was held by many who were not antagonistic to poultry as such. And, second, that whilst the fowls might provide an interest for, employment to, and " pin-money " for, the female members of the household, or by forming a minor pursuit help in food-supply for the family, this branch of livestock was beneath the notice and not worth th(; labour of men. Both of these positions have been frankly abandoned. Abundant proof is forthcoming that, under proper business control, poultry husbandry in association with farming, whether the occupation be large or small, can be made one of the most profitable branches ; and that, whilst women will alwaj^s occupy a prominent place in relation to poultry culture, and that for many of the operations they arc better qualified than men, the wider outlook of the latter and their greater ojiportunities are essential factors. It is a man's and a woman's business. Each is the complement of, and a necessity to, the other. Capital. — Under farm conditions the ordinary cpiestionsof capital in respect to poultry husbandry do not enter. As the poultry side develops, expenditure there must be for houses and appliances, though this need not be great, more especially if the business be built up gradually. Rent, buildings, labour, and working capital, are either not required, or are small compared with what would be necessary on a poultrj^ farm, whether that be for production of market eggs and poultry, or as a breeding cstab- 396 THE BUSINESS SIDE OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY 397 lishment. Under the former conditions, what is stated above, together with purchase of fresh stock, is all that has to be pro- vided for. Even vipon a good-sized holding, unless there be any measure of specialization, £50 to £100 will cover all the capital that need be expended. Upon small holdings £10 to £25 will often be enough. The question assumes a totally different phase when operations are primarily limited to the poultry, and such cultivation as there may be is secondary. Then capital is required for every- thing. It must be sufficient to provide money during the formative period, and for the time before returns can be secured. Where so many promising enterprises have failed is that, whilst the capital was perchance enough to establish and equip the plant and purchase the stock, there was no margin to provide means of living during the first two years — that is, until profits could be realized. As this question is of consider- able importance, and there is a great danger of misunderstanding the facts of the case, it must be considered at length. The Standard of Life. — First and foremost it is essential to know that the standard of life is an important factor, for upon that will largely depend the scope of operations, and whether the profit obtained is satisfactory or otherwise. A labourer whose wages are from 15s. to 20s. per week, who does not pay more than 2s. or 3s. in weekly rent for house and garden, and who can make his poultry fit in with other work, would feel that he was on the highroad to fortune if he earned £20 per annum out of his fowls. He and his family would do the work, there would be no false pride in the selling of the produce, and he would not spend money on ai)pliances more than to a very limited amount. At the other end of the scale is the standard set up by many who require a house to live in which will give them modern comforts, probably with a good garden, maybe a stable for a pony or a motor-car; they have ideas about what work they can and cannot do, and would be unwilling to sell their own produce. Hence it will be seen that in their case expenditure is on a higher plane, that cost of production is greater, and that, therefore, the overturn must be correspondingly increased. It is not too much to say that many failures in poultry-farming have been due to the basal and living expenses being on a scale which could not possibly be supported by the amount of business done. Three hundred lajing hens might (I do not say would) maintain life in a four-roomed cottage — a simple life all the time — but would be totally inadequate for an eight-apartment dwelling with its greater comforts and expenses. In poultry- 398 POULTRY HUSBANDRY farming, it must be remembered, as Ruskin says, that " the true benefit is to extinguish a want — in living with as few wants as possible." Not a Farmer's Question. — l>elieving, as I do, that whilst the great bulk of eggs and poidtry must ever be produced by ordinary farmers, and what ma}- be termed special poultry farms are essential to the progress of the jioultry industry, it may be pointed out that the operations which would yield a satis- factory profit to the former would spell failure to the latter. The farmer has practically no basal exjienses. Rent, taxes, labour, have to be met whether he keeps a single hen on his place or not. With him it is simply a question of a few special capital outgoings, such as those for stock, houses, and appliances, and for feeding the birds. The cost of production is much less than can ever be the case on special plants, and, moreover, the fowls will help him in his ordinary cultivation by manuring the ground. They will find, too, an important part of their food at no cost to him. Under these conditions the manurial value of fowls is greater than the rental value of groimd occupied by them, and therefore rent should not be charged. My contention has ever been that, properly managed, every hen kept by a farmer, whether he has five or five hundred, will return him a living profit over the food cost, varying, of course, with the class of bird kept and its productiveness. Basal Expenditure. — Before profits are realizable by the poultry farmer, what arc known as establishment charges must be met. The margin beyond, if any, is his remuneration. It is necessary, therefore, at the outset to see what these mean, becaiise by so doing we shall be in a better position to appre- ciate both the scope of operations and the amount of capital calculated to secure a successful issue. At this point it is desirable to state that a common mistake is to charge rent of dwelling, and in some cases household expenses, against the poultr\^ farm. That ought never to be, as these are personal charges. Production Returns. — Looking at the question first from the standpoint of production for market, it is possible to see what scale of operations will be necessarJ^ It has been proved that a hen kept for egg-laying can be made to yield a gross profit of 5s. per annum over the actual cost of food. But that will only be where the average fecundity is satisfactory^ — say 110 to 120 eggs per annum, where feeding is careful, and good markets are available, all of which profoundly affect the result. THE BUSINESS SIDE OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY 3S9 If wc take 4r. as a safer estimate, then 300 la\nng hens must be maintained to provide for the £60 establishment expenses alread}^ named. If 600 hens are kept, there should be a profit on this item of £00 per annum, to achieve which more land than 10 acres .should be .secured. That need not, however, influence the result, as the rent of any additional land .should be more than met by the crops taken therefrom. More than 600 hens would involve additional capital for houses, etc., and for labour, so that the gain would not be on the same ratio. In some districts it is found profitable to go in for raising table chickens, though that is so for only a few months of the year, whilst the establishment charges continue for the entire twelve months. To meet the £60 referred to above, 800 chickens must be bred and sold. AVith the space and labour involved in the sum named, without any attempt at fattening, 2,000 might be raised, in which case a profit to the owner of £90 per annum might be obtained. Bej^ond 2,000, more land, more labour, more capital, would be needed, reducing pro rata the additional gain. Of course, in many instances a combination of the two branches woidd give better results. Production for Market not Sufficient. — What has been stated above indicates at once why so many ventures have failed — namely, because they were on too limited a scale to yield the margin of profit required by their owners beyond establishment expenses — and why farmers succeed in production for market where specialist plants do not. It also explains the great American plants, where thousands of lajing hens are kept. I do not say that we shall never attain success in that direction, but the end is not yet in sight — not, at any rate, so far as the purely marketing trade is concerned, though we are nearer to it than was true a few years ago. It is the farmer who makes money out of egg and poultry production for market, not the specialist, who must gain his rewards by increasing not so much by quantity as by enhance- ment of returns for the same number. Hence poultry farmers are those who make their money as breeders, not as food j)ro- ducers, though they should ever keep that side in view, making it subsidiary, however, to the other. Poultry husbandry needs the farmer as producer, the specialist as breeder. Leakages. — Many there are who appear to imagine that success is to be achieved by the amount of money expended. That capital in one form or another, for it is not always represented by money, is a necessary fertilizing element is an undoubted fact. 400 POULTRY HUSBANDRY That it can be wasted is equally true. That many expend rela- tively large sums needlessly is equally correct. Expensive houses, appliances, and foods, do not make for success, as they enhance the cost of i)roduction, destroying all chance of profit. Some of the most successful poidtrj-men have built up their businesses on a very small money capital, securing their living during the earlier stages in other ways. It is not, however, in the direction of great expenditure that many poultrymen fail to attain the measure of success that is within their grasp, but rather by neglect of small economies which steadil}' tap their jmssible profits. Such leakages, small in themselves, make a formidable total in the aggregate, and it is these which need to be carefully watched. They can best be defined by the term " waste." That brings no return, and often entails greater loss than is represented by the immediate depletion of cash. Capital expenditure is necessary, and, when wisely made, is in itself an economy, but waste can never be economical. Houses. — Good houses are a necessity, and it is generally cheaper in the long-run to spend more at the outset on well-made erections which will last a considerable time, than to buy or erect those flimsy poultry houses which are only too common. A low-priced house is seldom cheap, and should be avoided by the poultry -keeper. On the other hand, too elaborate buildings are a mistake. Economics in houses are not alone covered by first cost, but also by the keeping of the buildings in good repair. Small renewals should be made as they are required, often avoiding the need for larger outlay. " A stitch in time saves nine." How often do we find that five minutes' labour, not given at the proper moment, involves a considerable loss ! Houses regidarly painted or tarred will last for j^ears; neglected, rot sets in due to damp. Any loss which arises from neglect of these reasonable precautions is absolute waste, a reduction of profit, both imme- diate and in the future. Keeping Birds too Long. — No fowl shoidd be kept a day longer than is required or is profitable to the owner, and yet this is a very common mistake, esiicciall}^ among smaller poultry-keepers. There is a general feeling that it is a pity to sell a hen Avhilst she is laying, and thus, instead of disposing of her in June or July, when prices for old birds are good, the fowls are kept. When they fall into moult, they at once lose much of tlieir value, and 5^et are consuming food all the time, and have tdtimately THE BUSINESS SIDE OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY 401 to be sold at low prices, whilst in the meantime they are occupy- ing space that would be better employed for the year -old birds and for the growing chickens. Selling Old Hens. — " It is easj^ enough to sell young chickens, but what about the old hens V is a problem often presented for solution. At first it maj^ seem to be a difficult}', but that is not the case in reality. At certain seasons of the j^ear there is a good demand for these hens, and at fair prices, principally for use by Jews. Wherever a Hebrew colony is found, there a trade can be done in this direction; but it must be borne in mind that the birds have to be killed by the Kosher butchers, and must not be sent forward dead, as is the case with fowls for Gentile consumption. In London there is a regular market. Various salesmen make a speciality of the trade, and they are on the lookout for suitable birds. When the stock of j)oultrj^ is properly managed, every year half the laying hens should be got rid of, their place to be taken later on by the young pullets. The best time to get rid of them is about June or the early part of July, when the}' will have given their sjiring quota of eggs, and before the market is seriously affected either by the influx of game or supplies of foreign chickens. If the business is systematized, the older birds have not fallen into the moult at the time named, and thus, having only passed through one of these annual castings of the plumage, they do not make by any means bad eating if fed up or crammed for a fortnight or three weeks. Unless they are killed then, it is more than likel}^ that they will have to be kept three months longer, when the prices will be considerably lower, and all the food consumed meanwhile is practically used to no l)urpose. Manure. — One of the directions in which a great amount of waste takes place is in the manure produced by poultry. This statement does not apply to farms where the birds are to a large extent at liberty, for in that case the soil receives the enriching influence, which is distributed in accordance with the movements of the birds. That this influence is very considerable cannot be doubted, for there are many cases where land has been very greatly improved as a direct result of the keeping of fowls upon it, and steps should be taken to prevent any waste in that manner. ^Vhere, however, the greatest amount of loss is met with is the manure produced in the houses, and unless care is taken very valuable material is either thrown away or so dealt with that its virtue is lost. Upon a farm the wisest plan is to scatter 26 40: POULTRY HUSBANDRY the manure as any ordinary fertilizer, but to do this it must be kept to the right season of the year. The manure produced by poultry is greater than is commonly supposed. Observations made upon the College Poultry Farm, Theale, in 1907, afford important data.* The following were the results arrived at: Production of Manure. Weight of Annual Annual Bird. Manure per Weight Wciglit 1 Week. (Moist). (Dry Matter). lb. oz. lb. oz. lb. oz. i 1. Wyandotte cock 1 13 94 4 38 2. Favcrollo hen 1 Hi 99 9 36 3. Growing chicken (14 weeks) 1 2^ — — 4. Fatting bird 1 131 __ — . 5. Aylesbury duck 101 340 14 70 5 (). Uoose 10 1 523 91 7. Turkey 4 n 212 53 8 Analysis revealed very considerable variations in the com- position of manure produced by different birds under different conditions. The results as recorded in the above test are sho\Mi in the table on p. 403. Taking the qtiantities of manurial constituents in the above samples, and estimating their value on the following basis — Nitrogon . . . . 12.s. per unit {i.e., 1 per cent, per ton). Phosphoric acid . . 3s. ,, Potash . . . . 4s. „ we arrive at the relative values when in moist and au'-dried conditions respectively: Estimated Values of Fresh Manure per Ton. Nitrogen. Plio.sphoric Acid. rotash. Totals. f. d. 8. d. 1 8. d. 8. d. 1. Fowl at liberty 21 3 ' 2 2 20 2 2. Fowl in confinement . . 17 8 2 2 2 21 10 3. Fattening fowl 27 4 2 11 2 2 32 5 4. Buck 14 7 3 3 1 1 7 19 5 5. Goose G 4 7 1 4 8 4 1 (i. Turkey 12 3 2 1 11 IG 2 i 7. One-month cliicken . . 20 1 5 1 1 9 23 8 8. Three-months chicken 10 10 1 1 ! 1 1 13 Jourmd of the Board of A:(?( if r r FA O}. INCSCP0S3 LC4C0IJ The "THERMOS" FOSTER MOTHER The "THERMOS" Lampless Foster Mother maintains the warm temperature for rearing chickens, independently of any change of atmosphere, for 24 hours or more. ENTIRELY NEW METHOD OF HEATING WITHOUf A LAMP. A cylinder of stout metal is charged with a substance in green crystals which, when once heated, gradually radiates heat as from a living body and cannot be quickly cooled. NO OTHER METHOD OF HEATING IS EQUAL TO THIS. The advantage over any form of lamp or hot water tanks must be appreciated at once. NO LAMP. NO RISK. NO EXPENSE. NO FAILURES. NO TROUBLE. NO WASTE. Catalogue of 'Poultry yj ppliances, post free. DAIRY OUTFIT CO., Ltd., King's Cross, LONDON, N. 5 advertisp:mexts THE WORLD^S PRIZES STILL CONVERGE TO CATFORTH If anything in this world is provable, surely it must be plain to you that my successes in the Great Laying Competitions of the World unmistakably prove the undoubted leadership of my laying strains ; not only that, but the records of my birds emphasize their stamina in combating the varied climatic conditions. HERE ARE MY RECENT SUCCESSES 1st Prize, 1913— ist and 3rd Prizes, iQM— North American International. 1st Prize, 1913 — ist and 3rd Prizes, 1914— Missouri State, U.S.A. 2nd Prize, British Columbia, 1914. 1st Prize, 1913— 2nd and 3rd Prizes, 1914— Stores, Conn., U.S.A. and Prize, Sedlescombe, England, U.P.C., 1914. 2nd and 3rd Prizes, Burnley, England, 1914. If you want to revitalize your stock, Tom Barron's strain will help you to add a permanent value to every fowl you raise. Send for my Current List and Catalogue. I EXPORT TO EVERY POINT OF THE WORLD'S COMPASS. TOM BARRON, CATFORTH, Near PRESTON, ENGLAND. 6 ADVERTISEMENTS By Royal Warrant '^^$^^$ ^" ^•^- "'^ ^"'^• " In IZAL they had put in their hands a worthy and formidable weapon for batthng against the bacillus." — Sir Jas. Crichton-Browne, F.R.S. Against Influenza. — Mr. T. W. Toovey writes : " Prevention is better than cure, so now we give IZAL daily to all the birds. One liquid ounce of IZAL is added to each 8 gallons of liquid used for mixing the soft food. The result has been so beneficial that it should be known." Against " The Gapes." — Mr. A. Dinsley writes : " IZAL is the best dis- infectant and the only one which I have found capable of penetrating the chitinous coating of gape-worm ova." IZAL Disinfecting Powder Dusted among the feathers instantly rids the birds of all pests. IZAL Fluid, 1 3 pint, 2/- quart, 6 - gallon. IZAL Powder - 5/- per 50-lb. cask. Sent carriage paid on receipt of remittance. ASK FOR FREE COPY OF "HEALTHY POULTRY. NEWTON CHAMBERS & CO., LTD., THORNCLIFFE, NEAR SHEFFIELD. ADVERTISEMENTS MARK YOUR HENS CLEARLY (HILLS COLOURED EXPANDING/ BANDS \ DO NOT INJURE LECSj DO NOT FALL OFF CLEAN BRIGHT SURFACE. SAMPLE FREE. HILL S COLOURED EXPANDING BANDS AND CODE. Finest Spring Quality. Bright Distinct Colours. Best English Make. Really Self=Closing Sample Set of 4 Sizes and 10 Colours. Post Free, 6d. HILL'S RUBBER CO., LTD., P.O. Dept., Market Place, Reading. AT ALL BOOKSELLERS. UTILITY POULTRY KEEPING, ELLEN C. DAVIES, CONl RIliUTOR -Id " THE I'OUI.TKY WOKI.D," ' I'OfLTRV,' " AGKICUl.TL'RAL OAZEn E," ETC- Illustrated. 2s. 6d. net. "It fills an almost entirely unoccupieil place in English poultry liteniture. Books there are in plenty, but tho'ie that deal fully and sensibly with the useful side of the subject are few and far between ; and for her concise and eminently practical treatment of the matter in its .several branches Miss Davies is to be congratu- l.ited."-y^V«//rf«v«'/./V. " Here we have a book of a useful type which em- bodies a great amount of eusful information put in a form that can be easily understood. It is marked by commonsense treatment of the subject."— y«a/ c/ i/ie Sationai Poultry Organisation Society. "A thoroughly good manual. Every contingency of the life of poultry, from the incubator to the table, is fully dealt \\\\\\."—Yorkshnc Post. LONDON : EDWARD ARNOLD. CYPHERS STANDARD INCUBATORS ''BUSINESS INCUBATOR OF THE AGE." The Ii:cubator/or those -who aie in the Poultry Busiucss for rrolit. The Cyphers Free Bulletin Service will interest you. Bulletin No. 2:— "Dry Feeding by the Hopper Method." There .Tre 2^ others, ec|iKi!ly interesting, and all absolutely FREE to Cyphers Company CYPHERS INCUBATOR COMPANY, Balfour House, 119 125, Finsbury Pavement LONDON, E.G. P VL and MICE JIL ^^ destroyed by DANYSZ VIRUS. Harmless to Human Beings, Domestic and other Animals, Poultry, etc. S[ ecial Prices to larger users : Tubes, 12 - per dozen. Quart bottles (making 5 lbs. bait). 6 - each. Post Free. Cash with Order. DANYSZ VIRUS, Ltd., j 52, Leadenhall Street, London, E.C. ADVERTISEMENTS Egg Boxes THE WORLD'S STANDARD EGG BOXES /Is'tTcd by the leading Egg Merchants and Collecting Depots. The following letters speak for themselves : Arisaig and District Agricultural Society, Ltd. " The boxes received from you are simply splendid ; they are still, after two years' use, as good as new, and only once were there any chipped eggs in a consignment, and that was owing to some carelessness on the railway. They are most excellent value. John Jones, Esq., Llwynmawr, Bala, N. Wales: " I am well pleased with the egg boxes I had from you. They answer the same purpose as boxes that cost more than double. I have not seen anything equal to your boxes for carrying eggs by rail." , If you arc a packer of eggs in any qNantity and ivish to eliminate the cost of BROKEN EGGS, urife noiv for full particulars and prices to STREET & DISTRICT COLLECTING DEPOT, LTD. STREET FARM, STREET, S.O., SOMERSET. SUDAN DARI AS A POULTRY FOOD AND FOR STOCK OF ALL CLASSES. The special atiention of poultry keepers is called to the value of Dari as poultry food not, as hitherto, alone for chichens,hnt also for adult stock inclusive of laying hens HIGH PERCENTAGE OF NUTRITIVE ELEMENTS. 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