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RADFORD'S

CHITECTURIA

DRAWING

Complete Guide toWork
of Arc hitect's Office

DrawingtoScale-Tracing
Detailing — Lettering
Rendering-Designii^

Classic Orders

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Radford's

Architectural Drawing

Complete Guide to Work of Architect's Office

Drawing to Scale — Tracing — Detailing —

Lettering — Rendering — Designing —

Classic Orders of Architecture

A COMPLETE AND THOEOUGH COUESE, CLEAELY WEITTEN

AND BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTEATED; SUITED ALIKE

TO INDIVIDUAL STUDY AND CLASS

INSTEUCTION

Prepared under the Supervision of

WILLIAM A. RADFORD

President of the Radford Architectural Company, Editor-in-Chief of "Rad-
ford's Cyclopedia of Construction," "American Carpenter and Build-
er," "Radford's Details of Building Construction," etc.

Assisted by

LOEING H. PEOVINE, B. S.

Instructor in Architectural Engineering, Department of Architecture,
University of Illinois

and

ALFEED S. JOHNSON, A.M., Ph.D.
Editor in Charge Cyclopedia Department Radford Architectural Company

A Companion Volume to
'BRADFORD'S MECHANICAL DRAWING

THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL COMPANY
Chicago, lU.

THE EADFOED ARCHITECTUBAL COMPANY

Preface

All that stands between thousands of practical carpenters
and builders in this country and a greater success is the
lack of facility in architectural drafting. Ambitious men,
both young and old, are turning to architecture — the draw-
ing of plans — as their big opportunity for advancement.

''Radford's Architectural Drafting" has been specially
written and illustrated to help these men to reach this goal.
It is practical, clear, direct. It goes straight to the point,
telling the learner what he wants and needs to know with-
out fuss, flurry, or theoretical nonsense. It is complete.
It is arranged in logical order for satisfactory individual
study.

The importance of neat drafting and lettering on plans
can not be overestimated. Architects rate their draftsmen
according to the way they do their work ; and the architects
are themselves judged by the way their drawings go out.
Careless drafting and amateurish lettering have more than
once lost for an otherwise good man a desirable job or a
nice commission.

This book, together with its companion volume, "Rad-
ford's Mechanical Drawing," has been prepared to furnish
ambitious men — whether apprentices or experienced build-
ers, students in school or young draftsmen in offices — a
practical, thorough, and satisfactory course in draftsman-
ship, drawing, sketching, rendering, and designing. One
who is already in the work can well begin with this Volume
2, the more advanced drafting and designing work as done
in the best architects' offices. Others should start with
Volume 1 and master the foundation principles of mechani-
cal drafting, the use of the drafting instruments, etc.,
before proceeding with the architectural course.

Table of Contents — Volume I

Mechanical Drafting Page 1

The Draftsman's Outfit — Instruments and Materials — Testing
Instruments — Use of Instruments — Drawing to Scale — Pencil-
ing and Inking— Geometrical Constructions — Approximations —
Projection (Orthographic, Oblique, Isometric, etc.) — Planes of
Projection — Ground Line — Quadrants — Plans and Elevations —
Direction of Oblique Lines ; Slope — Profile Plane — Auxiliary
Planes of Projection — Intersection and Development — Non-
Developable Figures — Intersection of Planes — Of Plane and
Curved Surface — Of Plane and Cylinder— Of Solids — Visibility
of Lines of Intersection — Development of Prism, Pyramid,
etc. — Intersection of Cylinder and Prism — Of Curved Surfaces
— Approximate Developments — Problems in Drafting for Con-
struction (Finding Miters, Developing Mouldings, etc.) — Picto-
rial Drawing — Perspective Projection — Isometric Drawing —
Non-Isometric Lines — Isometrics of Cylinders, Cones, etc. —
Oblique Projection.

Working Drawings Page 145

Qualifications of the Draftsman — Detail Drawings — Assembly
Drawings — I'reliminary Sketches — Requirements of Good Draw-
ings — Explanatory Notes — Conventional Lines — Shade Lines —
Blue-Prints — Tracing — Dimensioning — Extension Lines — Over-
All Dimensions- — Finished Surfaces — Sections — Cross-Hatching
— Conventional Representations of Materials — Lettering of
Drawings — Spacing — Drawings for Building Construction —
Working Plans (Basement. First Floor, etc.) — Structural
Drafting — Solid and Built-Up Members — Rivets and Bolts —
Reading Drawings.

Index Page 186A

Table of Contents — ^Volume II

Architectural Drafting .... Page 187

General Requirements — Negotiating with Owner — Scale of
Drawings — Changes in Plans — Preliminary Sketches — Per-
spective Sketches — Competition Drawings — Working Drawings
(General and Detail) — Scale and Full-Sized Drawings — The
Plan — Layout of Rooms, etc. — The Elevation — Use of the
Orders — Characteristics of Types of Buildings (Residence,
Library, Schoolhouse. Office Building, Warehouse, etc.) —
Colonial Architecture — General Composition — Treatment of
Elevations — Location of Openings — Scale Details — The Section
— Full-Sizing — Reproducing Drawings (Blue-Printing, White-
Printing, Hectograph I'rocess, etc.) — Tracing Cloth — Architec-
tural Forms — Conventional Symbols (Drain and Sewer Pipe,
Lighting, Heating, etc.) — Sizes of Furniture — Materials of
Construction- — Shades and Shadows — Direction of Light —
Shadows of Points, Lines, etc. — Details of Construction —
Cornice — Floors^Lath and Plaster — Flashing and Counter-
Flashing — Doors — Porches — Fireplaces— Stairs — Windows, etc.

Sketching; Pen and Ink Rendering; Wash

Draw iNG Page 298

I'rinciples of Sketching — Pencils and Paper — Method— Laying
Out a Drawing — Rendering (in Pencil, in Ink, in Water-Color)
— Wash Drawings.

Orders of Architecture; Architectural

Lettering Page 317

Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite Orders —
Entablature, Column, Pedestal — Architrave, Frieze. Cornice —
Column Details — Units of Measurement — Classic Mouldings —
Forms and Proportions of Letters — Spacing — Titles and
Inscriptions — Types of Letters for Various Uses.

Index Page 343

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Architectural Drafting

It would be a commonplace to insist on the
advantage to all property owners and to all
classes of workers engaged in building construc-
tion, of a knowledge of the principles of archi-
tectural design. It is equally important that
they should know how to read and interpret
intelligently the working drawings that are the
guides to the details of actual construction, and,
if need be, to make these drawings themselves.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

The first impression given by a set of draw-
ings applies as well in Architectiu'e as in any
other line of work. So often we hear it said,
"It certainly makes a good impression." Apply-
ing this same principle to architecture, let us
consider a few general requirements in order
to finish a set of plans in ^he best manner, and
also have them appeal to a person not familiar
with architectural work.

The drawings should be complete in every
respect. They should be fully dimensioned
with plain figures; all material plainly marked
by arrows; each room named, for the sake of
reference; and the various parts of the work

187

188 ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING

carefully explained by explanatory notes. Make
these notes clear, concise, and with no mistaking
the part to which they refer. While the title
of each page may be lettered in a more elaborate
letter, make all explanatory notes plainly let-
tered. Drawings in general have but few notes
of explanation. Make it a rule to explain fully
all the questionable portions of a building.
This applies to the plans, as well as the eleva-
tions, sections, and details. In the arrange-
ment of notes, if there are those that do not
refer to an};^ particular portion of the drawing,
place these notes over the sheet, to make it
well balanced. Do not try to crowd them into
one corner of the sheet or along one edge. Place
them where they will make the drawing as a
whole look the best.

Architectural drawings should have some
character to them; the lines should be firm and
straight, making them a full, even thickness.
Very often good drawings are spoiled by the
lines, being very poor and also too faint. Use
a good, heavy line, and make it look as if it
was there for a purpose.

One way in which a drawing can be made
attractive and "snappy," as you will hear archi-
tects say, is to overrun all corners and inter-
sections of lines, slightly. In mechanical draft-
ing other than the work of the architects, it is
always required to stop the lines at the corners,
making the drawing exact and very mechan-
ical in appearance. The architect, however, is

AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING

189

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190 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

allowed some liberties in his work. He will
resort to methods, to improve the looks of his
di'awings, which would not be pei*missible in
other work.

Referring to Fig. 1, it will be seen that the
corners and intersections are emphasized by the
overrunning of the lines. This does not mean
long lines past the corners, but just enough to
show a sharp intersection. A little practice will
soon enable a draftsman to do this w^ork skil-
fully, and once this method is adopted it will
be used on all future work, as there is no com-
parison in the general attractive appearance of
two drawings, in one of which this method is
used, and in the other the strict mechanical
method is adhered to. The actual time con-
sumed in getting out a drawing is less with the
method described than with the true mechan-
ical drawing, in which it is necessary to start
and stop at exactly a certain point. In mechan-
ical drawing, it is frequently necessary, after
two lines at an angle have been drawn, to go
over the first line in order to continue it a short
distance to the exact corner.

Very often, a few minutes spent on careful
lettering, indicating materials, and an additional
explanatory note, will be the winning feature
of a set of drawings.

Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon
alwaj^s being on time, whether in office work
or in getting out drawings. When a time is
set for the completion of any drawing, or a time

AECHITECTUKAL DKAFTING 191

of meeting arranged, have your work ready at
that time, and keep yoiu* appointment exactly
as arranged. Before setting a time of comple-
tion, be sui'e you are giving yourself time to
do the work completely, and then see to it that
your work is ready at that time.

The architect's services usually consist in
preparing the necessary studies or preliminary
sketches, working drawings, specifications, and
large-scale and full-size details, together with
a general supervision of the work. For this
service, there is usually a price based upon a
minimum percentage of the completed work.
This percentage varies in different States and
localities, from 3i/> to 7 per cent. As the work
progresses, or different sets of drawings are
completed, payments are made. If we consider
the architect receiving five per cent commission,
one-fifth the entire fee is due upon the com-
pletion of the preliminary sketches, two-fifths
upon the completion of the working di^awings
and specifications, the balance being paid as the
work progresses. This percentage is based on
the total cost of the buildings. These prices are
those adopted by the Chicago Ai'chitects' Busi-
ness Association. Should work on the di'awings
be abandoned, a charge should be made for
services for the amount of work done.

This will give an idea as to the general
prices charged, and the usual times of payment.
It does not pay to do work at a small percent-
age, for the work on the drawings and specifi-

192 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

cations will necessarily have to be inferior and
incomplete.

The scales at which drawings are usually

made are % in., 1/4 i^v V2 i^-> % ^-y % i^-> ^V2
in., and 3 in., to the foot. These are convenient
for all parties concerned. We see that by using
the first three scales we can use the regular
divisions on a rule, without having an architect's
scale. The last scales are also convenient for
the same reason. Take, for instance, a detail
drawn at 3-inch scale; then we see that 1^4 i^^^
equals one inch, and an ordinary rule can be
used to advantage. On the actual construction
work, the foreman always uses his two-foot rule
for scaling the drawings ; and if the above scales
are used, they are easily read from an ordinary
rule.

A complete set of drawings should include a
smn^ey, or City Engineer's plan, of the lot, on
which the outline of the building is marked; a
foundation plan; a plan for each floor; a roof
plan; an elevation of each side of the house;
all necessary %-inch scale detail sections; all
necessary elevations of interior finish; large-
scale details of the window-frames and sash and
interior trim; and any other details of unusual
construction. After the contract is let, then
get out full-sized details.

Should any changes be necessary after the
drawings are completed, secure the owner's
written order for such changes. If everything

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 193

is in writing, there can be no cause for dispute,
especially in the matter of changes.

METHOD OF GETTING OUT DRAWINGS

The prospective client, by appointment or
otherwise, meets the architect in his office. The
general scheme is talked over, and the various
subjects are discussed, such as the lot, location,
size, etc.; the amount to be put into the build-
ing, or the cost; the time of beginning and
completion; the owner's general idea of the
requirements; and the architect's fee. A time
is set for the getting-out of the preliminary
sketches. All of this information is arranged,
and entered in a book for future reference.

At the appointed time, the client appears
again, and the preliminary sketches are talked
over, changed, and revised, and any new infor-
mation is noted. After another visit or two
by the client, the sketches are accepted. The
working drawings are begun, usually made at
%-inch or 14-inch scale. These drawings are
carefully inspected by the head draftsman, num-
bered, dated, and signed.

These drawings are then reproduced by some
method— usually blue-printed— bound, and sent
to the contractors for bids or proposals on the
work. After the contract has been let, the full-
sized drawings are made.

194 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS

Architectural drawings may be classified as
follows :

Preliminary
Drawings

Working
Drawings

Sketches

Perspective Sketches
Competition Drawings

General
Detail

'Scale Details
Pull-Size Details

Preliminary Drawings

Preliminary drawings are small studies of
the proposed new work, freehand or otherwise,
at a small scale, finished in an attractive man-
ner. There are three classes of preliminary
drawings — namely. Sketches, Perspectives, and
Competitive Sketches.

Preliminary Sketches. In architectural work,
no matter whether you are an architect dealing
with an owner or client, or a draftsman getting
out working drawings, it is always better to
make a preliminary sketch of the arrangement,
detail, etc., as it saves time and much erasing
and changing on the scale drawings. By pre-
liminary sketches we mean the sketching free-
hand on paper to show exactly just how you
will draw it with the T-square and triangles.

Let us consider the architect dealing with a
client. The first thing is an arrangement of the

COLONIAL EXTRAXCE TO HOUSE AT HOPKIXTON, MASS.

AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 195

rooms, or the plan is fii'st studied. For this
work, tracing paper will be found very easy to
work with and very convenient. The use of a
sheet of co-ordinate paper under the tracing
paper will be found very convenient. The
squares on the co-ordinate paper will serve as a
guide in drawing straight lines; and also the
squares as ruled on this paper can be used as
a scale — one square representing one unit, as a
foot or an inch.

Very often the owner of the proposed new
building will have some scheme or arrangement
of rooms that he would like; therefore, try to
have him give you a rough sketch of such
arrangement; even a drawing with single lines
for walls, and cross-lines indicating windows,
will be very helpful. A drawing as shown in
Mg. 2 is just what you want from your client.

Having received either this sketch or a list
of the requirements, you are ready to start your
preliminary sketches. Spread down the co-ordi-
nate paper, and over this lay a sheet of tracing
paper. These may be held down with thumb-
tacks or weights of some sort placed on opposite
ends. Assume each square of the paper to
represent some unit, as one inch, or one foot, or
ten feet; and lay out first the property lines.
Then commence on the building proper. Make
no attempt at trying to make exact lines; let
these sketches be more of freehand drawing.
Mark off the approximate sizes of rooms by
rectangles, and try the various arrangements,

196

AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

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tect *€ts an Idea of the Arrangement.

AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 197

endeavoring to secure an ideal arrangement.
Make no attempt at trying to show double lines
for wall lines; let it be a free and eas}^ sketch
of single lines.

Don't be satisfied with one arrangement of
the given requirements. Over this first sketch
lay another sheet of tracing paper. Perhaps
you can use some parts of the first sketch, and
revise other parts. Study your problem, and
be fully acquainted with the requirements.
After completing this second arrangement, try
to imagine difficulties that this arrangement
would present, and how they might be remedied.
Make another sketch; don't be satisfied until you
have made half a dozen different sketches.
After having considered all the possible arrange-
ments of the requirements, then take the
sketches, spread them all out before you, and
see if you have solved the problem.

Now commence with a clean sheet of tracing
paper over the co-ordinate paper, and make fin-
ished sketches; that is, lay out the wall lines
carefulh", put in the windows and doors, letter
the rooms, and get these drawings into shape to
submit them to the client. Make them so that
he will understand clearly the arrangement you
have sketched.

For filling in the walls to indicate the walls
and the windows, it will help the appearance
to color the walls on the back side of the paper
with the pencil. This gives a subdued color to

198 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

the walls, and increases the clearness of the plan
or drawing.

Prepare small sketches of possible treatment
of the elevations, and submit these also with
the plan. These will now do for you to submit
to your client (see Fig. 3). Be very sure that
you have studied the problem thoroughly, and
be prepared to answer all questions your client
will probably ask. The client will very soon
form an opinion of your ability by the way
you handle his work.

When these first preliminary sketches are
ready, notify your client, unless you have had a
previous time of meeting set. If this be the
case, then be sure to have your work ready for
him at the appointed time. Remember, your
client is a busy business man, a man who is
always used to keeping his appointments, and
expects everyone to keep theirs.

After these first sketches have been sub-
mitted, and carefull}^ gone over, make an ap-
pointment for the next meeting, at which time
you will have the final preliminary sketches
ready. There will always be changes and addi-
tions on these sketches; and the fewer times
the client has to be consulted, the better im-
pression you will make. Therefore, after this
first meeting, understand thoroughlj^ your
client's objections and changes, ask questions
to make sure you do understand, and go back
to vour office determined to make the revisions

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

199

r»(?5T Floor Piw9K

Fig. 3. First Sketch Ready to Suljmit to Owner.

Original drawn at scale of %" = I'-O", all freehand and drawn on

co-ordinate paper.

200 ARCHITECTUHAL DRAFTING

and that the next sketches submitted will be
approved.

For the next sketches, it is very often more
satisfactory to use the T-square and triangles,
and a scale, and make small, sketchy drawings.
Tack down your tracing paper, and lay out to
a small scale the general arrangement (Fig. 4).
Every little detail need not be attempted on
these sketches; but make them straight-line
drawings, using more care in the finishing of
such drawings. Make all plans necessary, show-
ing the arrangement on all floors ; also an eleva-
tion. Make them attractive, and letter com-
pletely.

The next meeting with your client should be
the last one so far as the sketches are concerned.
Have him look over all your sketches closely;
go over them with him, pointing out the changes,
telling him the advantages to be gained by this
or that arrangement, and convince him that you
know your business. He will finally see things
yoiir way, and he will tell you to go ahead with
the work. If you see he is satisfied with the
arrangement as shown him on the sketches,
secure if possible his initials of approval (in
ink) on each sheet. Don't ask Mm to "sign
these sketches," as if you were an owner and
he a lease-holder. If there is anything a busi-
ness man hesitates to do, it is to sign his name
to a paper of any kind. Use a little tact, tell
him that you want him to be perfectly satisfied;
and in order for him to be sure he is going to

ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING .

201

Porch

riQ3T ruooQ Plan

Fig. 4. Final Preliminary Drawing.
Drawn with T-square and triangles to scale.

202 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

get the arrangement that suited him, he can
O. K. the sketches that he approves, and thereby
have a check on the working drawings so that
they will be sure to be what he wants. On the
other hand, you are protecting yourself by this
signature. Very often your client may forget
that he ordered this or that change in your
sketches; he might in some cases refuse to pay
you yoiu" agreed commission, because you did
not do this or that thing which he ordered. If
you have his signature on the sketches, and
you have followed these sketches exactly, you
will not fear the outcome should the case go to
law for settlement.

The same general method of procedure will
apply if you are a draftsman getting out scale
details. Get out freehand sketches on tracing
paper, several of them; decide which is the best
method before making the regular scale details.
If you are a new man in an office, submit your
best sketch for the construction to the head
draftsman, and let him see that you are studying
your work, endeavoring to get the best method.
Learn to make your sketches clear and well
executed. This comes only by practice in
sketching.

Much time and money can be saved on the
cost of getting out the drawings if only you
learn to make these sketches well and complete,
so that when you are ready to make the final
drawings, you can start and know definitely just
what they will include.

AKCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 203

It will be found very convenient to use a
soft pencil. Never use a hard pencil on your
drawings, no matter whether they are the
sketches or scale drawings.

It is very necessary for a draftsman to know
how^ to make preliminary sketches. Very often
a new draftsman's ability along architectural
lines is tested by these preliminary sketches,
their make-up, the method of getting them out,
and the time taken to get them ready. If a firm
finds out that you can make attractive and yet
practical preliminar}^ sketches, you will soon
find out that you will not be required to serve
your time at tracing drawings or details, as most
draftsmen have to do upon entering a new office.

Perspective Sketches. A perspective is a
representation of a building or object as it ap-
pears from a fixed point. These sketches are usu-
ally drawn at a small scale, either freehand or
mechanically. The lines should be lightly drawn
or sketched, as strong lines will be objection-
able in the rendering or coloring of the drawing.
The rendering may be in pencil, ink, water-
color, or sometimes in crayon, and prepared
upon almost any kind of paper (see Fig. 5).

Competition Drawings. These are more or
less preliminary sketches. As a general thing
it is only occasionally that a firm enters a com-
petition; but if it should, let the draftsman show
that he knows how to prepare such drawings.
By competition drawings, we mean drawings
that are submitted in a competition. The firms

204 AKCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING

may be imdted to submit competition designs,
in which case it is called a closed competition;
or the requirements may be published in some

Fig. 5. A Freehand Perspective Sketch.

architectural paper, and anyone may submit
drawings, in which case it is called an open
competition. The drawings submitted for the
open competition are more of the nature of
sketches than in the closed competition. Usu-
ally, in the closed competition, each firm invited
to submit drawings will be paid for their work
even though unsuccessful in being the winner.
There is generally a sum paid for such drawings.
Thus, in a closed competition, an architect is
paid for his time and can afford to get out a
better class of drawings. These are usually
drawn on regular drawing paper, carefully laid
out to scale, and all inked in. The sheet is then
water-colored and made as attractive as possible

ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 205

in this manner. In other words, these drawings
are laid out as carefully, except at a much
smaller scale, as working drawings; only the
important dimensions are put on.

In the open competition, the work is usually
done on tracing paper. The plans are laid out
at a small scale, made very sketchy, and the
pencil is allowed much freedom in the lines.
With this sort of drawing, it is necessary to
study the requirements, make sketches, and
decide for yourself which answers the require-
ments the best. There will be no client to criti-
cise yoiu" work, but you will have to do this for
yourself and submit your sketches as final
sketches to the client. The first-floor plan is
laid out, and the surrounding premises are also
laid out. Trees and shrubbery also are put on;
and walks, drives, and gardens are shown. Since
this is on tracing paper, very little water-color
is used. Use the pencil to show everything,
and upon your ability to use jouv pencil — and
a soft one, too — will depend much of the success
of yom* drawings. After these sketches have
been made, they are lettered and titled attrac-
tively, and then mounted on cardboard. This
mounting is usually done by pasting the corners
only, and not attempting to paste the whole
drawing. Ordinarily, a border of some sort is
placed around the card, and any other finishing
touches that will make the drawing attract
attention are added. Thus we see that competi-

206 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

tion drawings are only preliminary sketches
finished a little better than for the ordinary class
of work.

Should you be successful in the competition,
the method of getting out the working drawings,
scale details, and other drawings, is the same
as for any other work.

The chances are that you will rarely have a
chance to get out competition drawings; but
should the opportunity come, grasp it, and do
your best.

Working Drawings

By working drawings we mean drawings
complete in every respect, with dimensions,
sizes of rooms, etc. In other w^ords, they are
the drawings giving all the necessary informa-
tion to completely build the structure as drawn.
This division of drawings may be divided into
general and detail drawings, the latter being
subdivided into scale and full-size.

The architect who is mindful of his client's
welfare will furnish a complete set of drawings.
The clearest, simplest, and most exact working
drawing is the best. Some architects feel that
working drawings do not require the best work.
The making of good, clear, complete drawings
cannot be emphasized too strongly.

The Plan. In the plan we see an arrange-
ment of the rooms for the different floors that
approaches the ideal as nearly as possible. The
plan should present the conveniences of arrange-

AECHITECTUEAL DKAFTING 207

ment. In the following description we shall
consider the plan of a residence, as it will clearly
set forth the logical arrangement of parts. The
description, as noted, will be limited to residence
w^ork, since this class of building is likely to
afford a student his first opportunity for inde-
pendent, original work.

The same reasoning could be extended and
applied to any class of building. Usually the
first-floor plan is worked out first, as it is the
most important, since the greater part of the
day is spent in this portion of the house. The
upper floors, being used almost entirely for bed-
rooms or minor rooms, can be worked out to
conform to the outline of the first-floor plan.
The basement usually is devoted to the heating
apparatus and its accessories, the laundry, store-
rooms, and such. Therefore, the first-floor plan
will govern the outline of the basement walls;
and the basement rooms will be arranged inside
the basement walls, as determined by the first-
floor plan.

In residence work we see two classifica-
tions—the city house and the country house.
The city house gets its sunlight from the front
and rear, being usually built in between adjacent
houses where there is no chance of sunlight from
the sides. A country house gets its ligh't from
all fom^ sides; that is, it is built in a part of
town where the lots are of sufficient width to
give plenty of light and air. The city house

208 ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING

usually has a lot 20 to 30 feet wide, and it is
a question of the best arrangement for light as
well as comfort. The country house usually
has a lot 50 to 60 feet wide; and it is not un-
common to see a house built on two lots, giving
all the more room.

Let us, therefore, consider the first-floor plan.
Upon entering a residence, we usually step into
a vestibule. This room, while small and inferior,
yet is one of the most important rooms in the
house. The vestibule should be well lighted,
which can be done by means of glass in the
front door, by side lights along the sides of the
door, by a transom, and by glass in the door
leading into the living room. The vestibule
should be provided if possible with a closet (it
need not be large), in which a person's every-
day hats and wraps may be kept, also all rub-
bers and umbrellas. It is very evident that
this will be the first need upon entering a home —
a place to dispose of one's coat, hat, etc., before
entering the home proper. It is all the more
urgent in a mild, rainy climate. In case a closet
cannot be provided, there should be a seat with
a hinged cover, and a stand for umbrellas, with
the usual furniture for holding the coats and
hats. This room, as already said, need not be
large, as usually not more than two people are
ever in the room at the same time. In some
residences there is no vestibule, but it is almost
a necessity in the best class of work.

AECHITECTURAL DEAFTIXG 209

From the vestibule, we now come to the
reception room. This room is usually large, with
but little fui'niture. The main stairway leads
up from one side of this room and is made quite
ornamental. The other side is usually open,
or separated by columns or grill-work from the
living room. At one end of the reception room,
one frequently sees a fireplace, more or less
elaborate.

Turning now to the living room, let us study
the requirements of this room. Here is the
room the famih^ will spend most of the time in.
Often one end is set apart for a nook or library.
There should be a large open room with a fire-
place of brick or stone or tile or other suitable
material, ornamental or plain, or the mantel may
be of wood.

Provide plenty of windows, especially on the
sunny side of the house. Nothing will dispel
gloomy feelings or worry quicker than plenty
of surdight and fresh air. For the nook, if there
is one, build in shelves for books, put in a seat
with a hinged cover, also a fireplace. In this
room, the quiet hours of the day are spent;
therefore make it comfortable and convenient.
A very convenient arrangement is to place a
seat on one side, with bookshelves on the other;
also a few shelves at one end or above the seat,
for cmTent books or periodicals. Provide a
plate-rail around this nook, for the placing of
china, ornaments, or bric-a-brac.

Opening from the living room we usually

210 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING

find the dining room, separated by sliding doors.
This room should be more or less private, but
by means of double doors it may be thrown
open when desired. In the dining room, build
in a sideboard, and provide a small shelf or two
for pretty china, vases, or ornaments. Back of
these shelves a mirror is usually set. A French
beveled-plate mirror is used in the best work.
There should be the "counter," or the main
shelf, projecting from two to six inches beyond
the shelves and drawers below. Below the
counter, provide a long drawer that will take
a table-cloth as folded when laundered. A
drawer for silver is also directly under the
counter. Below this, there may be either
drawers for other table linen, or shelves enclosed
by glass doors for displaying china or cut glass.
This sideboard should be made an attractive
feature of the room. There might also be an-
other case of shelves and drawers for additional
table linen and dishes. There should be a plate-
rail aroimd the room, on which to hang cups or
to place china or ornaments. This room should
have, if possible, an east exposure, since the
first meal of the day should be served in a bright,
cheery atmosphere.

It will be necessary to have a serving pantry
between the dining room and kitchen. There
should be double-acting doors. This greatly
facilitates the carrying of dishes from one room
to another. In this pantr should be a wide
shelf or counter which will be used in the prep-

AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 211

aration of the meal. Above are shelves with
sliding doors, and below are drawers for differ-
ent articles of food. Provide always plenty of
drawers and shelf room. In a small room,
sliding doors will be found much more con-
venient than swing doors, as they are much more
easily handled and take up much less room in
opening and closing. If possible, there should
be built in this room a refi-igerator. If not here,
place it in the kitchen. This refrigerator should
be provided with an outside door through which
the ice may be replenished from the outside,
thereby doing away with the ice man coming in
at all hours and in bad weather tracking mud
into the house.

The kitchen, while in the rear of the house,
requires careful thought. The housekeeper
usually spends the greater part of the morning
here; therefore give this room, if possible, an
east exposure. Make the windows low enough
so that a person sitting can see out. For the
kitchen table and sink, have a window near.
This will not only be an aid to better light, but
will give the housekeeper a chance to see out
through the window. Place a sink as near the
pantry and dining room as possible; also, as
mentioned above, so as to be near outside light.
In the kitchen will be found a cooking range or
gas stove, or both. Place these, if possible,
where they will get a cross-draft; in other
words, place them between a door and a window,
or between windows, so that the odor during

212 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

the preparation of a meal will be carried away.
Of course there is necessary a flue for the range,
and there should also be one for the gas stove
to carry off the odors of the gas and the ovens.
The kitchen table should be convenient to the
stoves. There should be built-in shelves and
cupboards for the kitchen-ware and the pots and
kettles. Either in the serving pantry or some-
where in the kitchen, provide a tilting bin for
the flour. This can be very easily done by
making the bin pivoted at the outside corners, to
allow the bin to tilt out. Hooks or pivots for
swinging a barrel of sugar would also be a great
convenience. Do not make the kitchen large;
make it small, comjjact, and convenient, to save
the housekeeper all unnecessary steps. There
will also be necessary rear stairs, one to the
basement and one to the attic. These stairs
should be about 3 feet 6 inches wide, as boxes,
furniture, etc., are all taken up or down these
stairs ; so do not make them too small.

Having decided upon a satisfactory arrange-
ment of the lower floor, we now consider the
upper floors. These are devoted to the bed-
rooms and other rooms where more privacy is
desired, such as the sewing room, the study, or
the nursery. As has been said, the first-floor
plan determines the outline of the second-floor
plan. The number of bedrooms is determined by
the size of the famil}'. There will be required
also a guest room and a servant's room.

As to the requirements of a bedroom, make

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

213

ample-sized rooms. The usual articles of furni-
ture will be the bed, a dresser, a chiffonier, a
small table, and sometimes a writing desk or
an additional table of some sort. Provide plenty
of closet room, with a window, if possible, in it.
In the closet should be a number of shelves, a
hook strip around the three sides. The closet
should be finished, so far as plaster and inside
finish are concerned, as well as the other rooms.
The question of closets is important; therefore,
consider them an essential part of every house.
On the second floor provide a bathroom con-
venient to all rooms, yet far enough away from
the main hall to be private. The bathroom is
usually crowded into any remaining space that
may be left after bedrooms have been consid-

Fig. 6. Layout of a Very Small Bathroom.

ered. This, however, is not a satisfactory way
of doing, since the bathroom should be as con-
venient in arrangement as any other room. In
the bathroom the usual necessary fixtures are
a bathtub, a lavatory or wash-bowl, and a water-
closet. In more expensive homes a foot-bath
and a sitz bath are provided; sometimes a
shower bath also. There should be ample room
for the placing of these fixtm'es, with plenty of

214

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

room around them. In Fig. 6 is shown the
smallest room that can accommodate the neces-
sary fixtures. While this will serve in the
cheapest houses, yet the arrangements shown in
Figs. 7 and 8 are much better.

Should more fixtures be added, the room

1©

rig. 7. Fig. 8.

Two Plans of Conmnodious Bathrooms.

should also be made larger to accommodate
them. There will also be required a medicine
chest, usually built into the wall directly above
the lavatory, or these can be bought at furnitm-e
stores, ready to hang on the wall. There should
always be a mirror in the door of this chest.
Provide a built-in closet with swing doors for
the upper half and drawers for the lower half.
The finish of this room, as well as the shape of
the mouldings, should be such that the dust will
not easily settle on them, and that they may be
frequently washed to remove any accumulation
of dust.

In most homes, the two main floors are all
that are required for living rooms. The attic
is usually low, and can be fitted up with store-

Eh
02
P

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 215

rooms. The construction of the roof should be
such that soot and dirt cannot come through.
This is ordinarily accomplished b}^ using build-
ing paper under the shingles or roof covering.
There should be an attic stairs, convenient and
easy of ascent.

For the basement, the furnace will require a
part of the space, together with a coal room.
This coal room should be built dust-tight, and
have a window convenient to a driveway for
the unloading of coal. The size of coal room for
different classes of coal, is indicated below under
the heading ''Dimensions." There should be a
laundry with laundry tubs, or a room where the
family washing may be done. The remaining
space in the basement may be divided to suit
the owner's wishes; sometimes a work-room, a
store-room, a drying room, a shop, msLj be placed
here.

It is very essential to have a concrete floor
over the entire basement. This will do away
with a great deal of dirt and dust that otherwise
would be carried from the basement all over the
house. There should be an outside entrance,
as well as an entrance from the kitchen or
serving room.

Thus we see the usual requirements for the
different rooms of the house. The essential
rooms have been considered. In addition to
these, if the price will warrant it, there may be
other rooms and conveniences, such as a den
or study, additional store-rooms, an extra guest

216 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

room, a nursery, a pantry off the kitchen for
storing the supplies of the kitchen. A clothes-
chute would be very convenient also. This chute
is a vertical shaft connecting the bathroom with
the laundry in the basement. There is a door
into this chute at the bathroom, and one on the
first floor. It should be lined with wood, with
the pieces placed vertically to offer no obstruc-
tions to the passage of clothes. The purpose is
evident, being a means of conveying the soiled
linen from the second and first floors to the base-
ment, and thereby saving carrying them from
all over the house in a basket to the basement.

In summing up this portion of the work, let
the draftsman put in all conveniences in the way
of cupboards, shelves, and drawers wherever
there is a space, corner, or portion of a wall. In
this way you make a favorable impression upon
the housekeeper, and if this is done, the *' battle
is more than half won."

Fig. 9 is a first-floor plan, showing the
arrangement, the dimensions, and all necessary
information to give the builder a complete
understanding of the work.

The Elevation. Having considered briefly
the general methods used in the drawing of
architectural plans, we shall now consider the
elevations. By elevations we mean the different
"views" of the building. These should show
exactly the appearance of the building when
completed.

Use of the Orders. It will be assumed that

AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTIXG 217

the reader is familiar with the Orders of Archi-
tecture (see below under heading "Orders of
Architectm-e"), and that he knows the names
of the various parts of an Order.

From a study of the Orders, we see that each
one has three main divisions, the entablature,
the column, and the pedestal. These are in turn
divided into parts, the entablature consisting of
the cornice, the frieze, and the architrave; the
column has a capital, a shaft, and a base or
plinth; and the pedestal, a cap, a die, and a base.
Generally speaking, an elevation — especially the
principal one — shows these component parts of
an Order. They may not be classically correct in
proportions, but the parts are more or less
prominent, and should be used as a basis for
design of all classes of work.

Let us take a residence for an example.
Study an elevation of a good type of this class
of building. We see that the basement wall up
to the first-floor line corresponds to the pedestal
of the coliunn, a strong, massive part to support
the building above. This pedestal is usually
capped by a projecting coiu'se we call a water-
table — that is, a board or strip projecting from
the face of a wall to turn the water from the
side of the building away from the foundation.
This corresponds to the base or plinth of the
column. Above the water-table, the part of the
house extending to above the top story windows
coiTesponds to the shaft of the column. Very
often this coliunn effect is emphasized by means

318

AKCHITECTUKAL DKAFl^lNG

zic _

lO'-lf f io'- <f

IZ-G W-J-J-^

KlTCHtn

in V.

■jp^^v^erip ;^ »,

-*f^II25T fLOOR PlAM—

Fig. 9. First-Floor Plan of a Residence at Champaign, 111.
The scale reproduced is valid only as referring to the original-sized

drawing.

ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 219

of corner boards at the corners of the building.
At the head of the top windows, or in that vicin-
ity, we see a horizontal board or moulding, mark-
ing the division between the coliunn and the en-
tablature. Sometimes this entablature is divided
by another moulded course, indicating the
frieze and the architrave. There is always a cor-
nice of some sort, very often corresponding to
the cornice of the Order; this may vary from the
true profile to a small i)i'ojection, such as a few
projecting courses of brick.

In the modern office building we see the lower
stories marked by a projecting stone course;
below this, the walls are of stone, and usually
present a solid, substantial base upon which rests
the upper part of the building. The column is in-
dicated either by pilasters or column-like projec-
tions from the main face of the building, or by a
three-quarter column fastened to the building.
The upper stories, depending upon the height of
the building, are placed in the entablature.

It is worth while to study this feature in all
classes of building, in order to design intelli-
gently.

Thus we see that the Orders of Architecture
are really the basis for all our designs. This same
applies to any type of building, being more
marked in some classes of buildings than others.
The Colonial residence or Colonial Architecture
adheres strictly to this basis of ornament. If de-
tached or free columns are used for porch con-
struction, then we see the component parts oi

220 ARCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING

the Order carried out exactly. Therefore, in any
building, use the Order to start the general ele-
vations, and elaborate or suit the elevation to the
class of building.

Characteristics of Types of Buildings

Let us now consider the general types of
buildings for different purposes. The residence,
for instance, usually has the appearance of a
quiet, restful place. The types of doors, win-
dows, and roof lines are in general similar, there
being large windows and plenty of them. Resi-
dences thus constitute a class marked by well-
known and easily distinguishable general char-
acteristics.

Consider a library. We see here a closer ad-
herence to the Orders than in many other types
of structure. Usually there is a pillared entrance
of some form or other; the windows are all large
and dignified. The roof is covered with tile or
some other more expensive covering. In general,
libraries are a dignified class of buildings, easily
distinguished as such, and usually quite costly.

In schoolhouses we see a class of buildings
with large areas devoted to windows, not usually
of very great height, and with a tower of some
outline. There may be large, blank walls, which
make this class of buildings all the more distinct.

The office building general!}^ has numerous
windows, not usually grouped but placed one
above the other, and is rather plain in treatment
except at the cornice.

AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

221

The warehouse forms another excellent ex-
ample of the exterior indicating the purpose of
the building. In this type, we see small windows,
some barred, with heavy doors, showing it to be
a building of great strength and fire-resistance.

Thus endeavor, in designing any building, to
make it indicative of the pm'pose for which it is
designed. Study carefully from examples or
from pictures these characteristics, and apply
these principles to designs you may submit.

General Composition of a Building or Treat-
ment of Elevations. A few words about the gen-
eral composition or elevation of a building might
be said. There are a few principles involved
that will be an aid in deciding upon the charac-
ter of the elevation.

Fig. 10. Illustrating Method of Treating Elevations.

In A, vertical lines are emphasized, adding to the appearance of

height; in B, emphasis is laid on the horizontal lines,

adding to breadth and length of structure.

The adjoining buildings will sometimes have
a certain influence upon the treatment of the
elevation. Should the new building be placed
between two buildings taller and larger in every
way, then some means to increase the general
height must be used. Should there be plenty of
room and the buildings on either side be far

222

AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING

enough away so that they will not be seen or in-
eluded in the general view of the new building,
then the design may be an}i;hing in keeping with
good design. If the present buildings are large
and massive, covering a good deal of ground,
then we shall treat the new elevation correspond-
ingl}^ In Fig. 10 are shown the results, on the
same building, of different treatments of eleva-
tion. In A we see vertical lines emphasized, as
they tend to increase the height. Such a treat-
ment of the elevation should be used if the loca-
tion were between two taller buildings. In B on
the other hand, the horizontal lines are empha-
sized. There is the sill course or water-table at

A B

Fig. 11. Two Typical Methods of Treating Windows.

the first-floor line; then a belt course about the
second-floor line, and a coiu*se at the attic line.
These tend to lengthen the general appearance,
and would be in keeping as mentioned above for
the third condition. In A, we see that the cor-
nice is made smaller; while in B, the eaves are

AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTIXG 223

given a greater projection, thereby giving an-
other horizontal line. A and B are exactly the
same size in plan and also in height to the eave
line ; yet there is no mistaking which appears the
taller.

This is the fundamental principle in the de-
sign of an elevation. Having then this start for
the elevation, carry out the same principle in the
windows, either grouping them and keeping
them low, for the design B; or else use single
windows with a pier or wall space between. Very
often, if the ceilings are high enough, windows
may have a transom bar and transom, thereby
increasing the height. In the treatment around
the windows, for B, we shall use merely a cap of
some kind with no vertical lines ; while for A we
shall make use of an outside trim with a cap.
See Fig. 11.

In all our designs, it has been attempted to
emphasize either the vertical lines or the hori-
zontal lines. This is but one — the most impor-
tant one, however — of the points to consider as
to the general character of the elevation. The
purpose of the elevation is to give an effect that
will be pleasing to the eye, and at the same time
fulfil the requirements of the plan as to the ar-
rangement of windows and story heights; and
very often it ^^ill make the property more valu-
able. For, consider two residences offered for
sale at the same price, with the same sm-round-
ings. One has been built with no idea as to design
or relation to the surroiTnding buildings; the

224: AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

other has been treated to correspond with the
existing conditions, has been made attractive by
the arrangement and style of windows, and the
cornice has been designed to give a certain ef-
fect to the other parts of the design. There is no
question which would be the best investment.
Work, then, with this end in view, as if it were
your own builidng, and you wanted it to be the
very best for the money.

In drawing the elevations, usually each side
of the house is shown on the drawings. The front
elevation is made the most complete. The owner
wants to see how his building will look when
completed; therefore show the materials. If the
walls are shingled, indicate by lines that there
are to be shingles — not by covering the entire
front with perfectlj^ regular, mechanical lines
representing the shingles, but with patches here
and there over the entire front. Indicate by ar-
rows and lines, similar to dimension lines, where
the shingles are to be used. Indicate the brick
of the foundation above grade the same way.
Show the type of windows you expect to use;
show the correct profile or outline of the cornice ;
the general design of the front door and the
porch and steps; indicate the glass in the door,
whether double strength, plate, or beveled-plate
glass. In short, make this front elevation com-
plete, so that an owner can see just the materials
used, where used, and just how the building will
look from the front. Very often the stairs are
dotted on this elevation to show just how they go

AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTIXG

225

up to the next floor above; but this is not to be
recommended, as it detracts from the general ap-
pearance of the elevation, and there are other
and better methods of indicating staii's, as ex-
plained later.

Very often there will be a small section of the
house on the same sheet with the front elevation.

Fig. 12. Front Elevation of a Residence at Champaign, HI.
Outline emphasized.

This is used to give the heights of the floor-lines,
the window lines, and the cornice lines, and not
for showing of details. This is not objectionable,
as the section is a se^Darate drawing entirely from
the elevation, and will give a means of showing

226 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

the above data without marking them directly on
the elevation.

Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the
method of finishing the front elevation. A little
time and careful work spent on this drawing will
very often confirm a favorable impression on the
owner. The style of letter used and the arrange-
ment on the sheet should all tend to make the
drawing attractive.

As a final touch, it will be found very desir-
able, after the elevation is complete, to outline
the building with a heavy line, thus emphasizing
the general outline of the building, while the
other lines are all uniform but lighter (see Fig.
12).

The side and rear elevations should also be
complete in that they should show the exact ma-
terials used and the exact size and spacing of the
openings; but they need not be so carefully
drawn nor so carefully lettered as the front ele-
vation, since they are more or less a secondary
consideration.

The location of openings should be studied
with the idea of the general effect on the eleva-
tion, as well as on the necessary arrangement for
the rooms. In other words, do not locate all open-
ings on the plans definitely without studying the
elevations also. Be sure that the openings are
correctly located on the elevations so that the
plans and elevations will agree, and not merely
put on the elevations where they look the best
without any reference to the plans.

AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 237

To sum up, make the elevations true pictures
of the building when completed ; indicate the ex-
tent of all materials ; study the design, making it
typical of the class of building in hand, and make
it complete in every respect.

Scale Details

The Section. Having completed the plans
and elevations, it will be necessary to make large-
scale sections through different parts of the
building. A section should be sho^^Ti through
every portion of the building that is of different
construction from others. These sections are
usually of a larger scale than the plans and ele-
vations.

In Fig. 13 we see the method of drawing and
fkiishing these details. A scale very convenient
for use is three-quarters of an inch equals one
foot (or, as it is often called, a "three-quarter-
inch" scale). The purpose of these sections is to
show exactly how the building is to be put up —
the method of supporting the cornice on the
plate; the roof sheathing and covering; the con-
struction of the gutter, with all materials named;
the ceiling joists and method of support on the
outside wall; the lath and plaster; the wall
sheathing and siding or shingles; the picture
mould; the detail of the inside window trim; the
base around the room; the second-floor construc-
tion, showing size of joists and method of sup-
port on the wall; the composition of the floor,
whether double or single, or any paper between

228

t- i:

lU o

iifH^^Kwit:

230 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING

the floors ; the lath and plaster of the ceiling be-
low; the details of the window construction, trim
and stool or inside sill; the base around the room;
the method of supporting the frame wall upon
the basement wall; the water-table; the thick-
ness of the basement wall; the level of the ground
on the outside; the basement floor inside; and
the footing.

Use plenty of dimension lines and explana-
tory notes. In dimensioning story heights, al-
waj^s give from finished floor-line to finished
floor-line, or from floor to ceiling; never dimen-
sion the thickness of the floor construction. In
other words, referring to Fig. 13, we shall get
into trouble by trying to specify exactly the
thickness over all. This should be left without
a dimension, by showing the plaster, noting the
size of joists, and showing the floor, whether one
or two thicknesses, let it come what it will. The
thickness of the plaster will vary slightly; a 2-
inch by 10-inch joist is not 10 inches deep;
neither is a floor of two thicknesses 2 inches
thick. Thus we see it is rather an uncertain di-
mension.

A sheet is usually devoted to these details.
Sometimes as many as half a dozen different sec-
tions are drawn for a residence, each showing
differences in construction.

Be very careful to note on the plans just
where each section is taken, and put correspond-
ing letters on the title for the section. The use
of notes and plenty of them cannot be urged too

T ,t ^

<■ v5 C-

AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 231

strongly. The small working drawings are very
unreliable as to details; and consequently the
more details, the better the contractor will un-
derstand just exactly what he is to furnish, and
will therefore be able to figure the more closely.
These details, well executed, will prevent many
disputes between contractor and architect, and
between architect and owner, as well as save the
''extra" bills from the contractor which are sure
to arise from incomplete drawings.

Cross-hatch or cross-section all sections or
materials that are cut in two, using some stand-
ard symbol, as elsewhere indicated, on the draw-
ings. This makes a much better looking draw-
ing, and makes it much easier to interpret.

To indicate further the general treatment of
the interior finish, the rooms having anything in
the way of a paneled wainscot, beamed ceiling,
or finish around a fireplace, also the sideboard,
cupboards, and pantry fittings, should all be
shown. The best and perhaps the most com-
mon method is to draw at one-quarter-inch scale
the different elevations of the rooms, showing
exactly the height, width, and any features of
unusual arrangement. Should opposite sides
of a room or any sides be similar, after putting
the title on one drawing, note under it: "Oppo-
site, north, south, etc., sides similar." There
is usually one sheet of just such drawings as
this to accompany the regular set of drawings.
Since plans are usually submitted to competitive
contractors, there is not the chance of one pro-

a
"3

232

It " n n

AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 235

posal or bid being lower than another because
certain things were overlooked or purposely
omitted.

In Fig. 14 we see drawings of elevations and
sections of various portions of a living room and
dining room, giving all necessary information.

Fig. 15 illustrates completely the drawings
necessary to show a pantry and butler's pantry.

Full-Sizing. After the contract has been
awarded, the general working drawings mil
have to be supplemented by drawings of differ-
ent portions of the work at a large scale. Usu-
ally these are drawn at actual or full size. In
order to have your profiles and outlines made
just as you intended, this method of drawing
all parts of construction at the actual size is
imperative.

Take an example. You wish the j^late-rail
in the dining room made just so. Then you will
have to draw this part of the work the actual
size. If you do not do this, the contractor will
put in a plate-rail of a stock pattern; that is.
he will select some pattern that he can buy from
a planing miU, and will use this. It is the
cheapest way to do, for him ; therefore you can-
not blame him for saving anything he can, if
the exact style is not definitely shown.

In full-sizing, it will be well for the drafts-
man to be familiar with the usual method of
doing things, making his details practical as well
as indicating the profile. The cornice should be
shown; the interior finish; the method of mak-

336 AKCHITECTUKAL DEAFIING

ing the window-frames; all unusual woodwork;
the construction of the beams for a beamed ceil-
ing; all sheet-metal work, such as gutters,
cornices, etc.; all stonework, such as water-
tables, window-sills, and door-step; all j)laster
work, such as ornamental cornices, and method
of supporting under unusual conditions. You
will hear it asked: "Why is it necessary to spend
all this time detailing, when the contractor or
the planing mill have their own way of doing
these things'?" There is just the point. They
certainly have a way of doing things; but nat-
urally their way is the cheapest way; therefore,
give them details of how you want this work
done, and see that it is done your way. Dimen-
sions on full-size details are unnecessary.

Fig. 16 is a reproduction of a sheet of full-
size details.

A word might be said as to the method of
getting out these details. The di'awing is first
made on detail paper, a heavy yellow paper. A
soft pencil should be used, as it makes the lines
more distinct and is easily changed or erased.
After the drawing is completed on this paper,
then use a cheap, thin paper, and trace through,
using a broad, heavy line and colored crayon for
cross-sectioning the sections of the work. Yel-
low is generally used for wood, red for brick,
green for stone, blue for iron or steel, and brown
for terra-cotta. A second tracing is also made.
Thus we have three copies of each detail — one
for filing in the office for future reference, and

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

237

PICTUr:c KAIL

BAJ£

CEILIMC BEAN

Fig. 16, A Sheet of Full-Sized Details

238 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

two for the contractor. One of the copies made
on tracing paper is usually kept in the office,
since it can be folded up to a convenient size and
filed, the original and one copy on thin paper
going to the contractor.

REPRODUCING DRAWINGS

The question of the method of reproducing
drawings is an important one as to cost and
time consumed. New methods are being adver-
tised on the market every day.

Blue-Printing. The blue-print process is the
commonest, and generally speaking the cheap-
est. There is a chemically prepared paper which
is sensitive to the light. The paper is treated
with a solution of citrate of iron, ammonia, and
red prussiate of potash, and is placed in a dark
room to dry. The drawing has previously been
prepared on tracing cloth or paper. When the
blue-print paj^er is dry, place the drawing, face
down, on a sheet of glass, usually held in a
wooden frame; over this, lay the blue-print
paper, with the sensitive side down; over this,
place a layer or two of soft cloth similar to
Canton flannel, and over this place a board
backing.

Turn the frame over now, and expose to the
sunlight for a few minutes, depending upon the
intensit}^ of the sunlight. After exposure,
remove the blue-print paper, which has turned
to a dark bronze color, and place it in a tank of
water. Gradually the print comes out in white

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 239

lines, leaving the background blue. These white
lines were directly under the ink lines of your
drawing, and the sun therefore could not attack
that portion of the paper. Hence the water
washed off the blue-print solution, leaving the
white paper.

A little experience will soon teach how long
to expose in different kinds of weather. Prints
may be made on cloudy days, and have some-
times been made even during a mist. The expos-
ure, of course, must be much longer on such
days. The prints from such exposures are not
so clear, distinct, and "sharp-cut" as those made
on bright days. When possible, avoid making
blue-prints on dark days, if you expect the best
results.

Paper for blue-printing can be procured
ready to use, from dealers all over the country,
at a nominal cost. This is machine-prepared,
and is more satisfactory than home-made.

Blue-prints are hard on the eyes, and, having
a blue background, cannot be dimensioned,
noted, or to any great extent changed. Should
small alterations be necessar}^ on the blue-print,
use a solution of common soda and water with
a pen. This is not very satisfactory, but in cases
where changes are necessary it will do.

White -Printing. From working drawings,
white prints can be made. This kind of print
is just the reverse of the blue-print. Here we
have blue lines on a white background. In order
to make white prints, a negative first has to be

240 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

made from the drawing. The paper used for the
negatives is specially prepared and exposed and
washed in the same way as blue-prints. When
washed and dry, it is a real negative, on which
all pencil lines are white and the background is
black so as to exclude the sun — all the reverse
of the drawing. This negative is then used by
placing it over regular blue-print paper. The
sun passes through the white lines, and is
excluded from the rest by the black background.
Upon washing the blue-print paper, the lines
having been exposed to the sun are changed to
blue; and the background, not having the sun on
it, is washed off, leaving the white paper.

This process makes a much better looking
drawing than a blue-print, and is not so hard on
the eyes. The cost is a little higher, on account
of the negative ; but after the negative is made,
the cost is the same as for blue-prints.

Aligraphy. Another process, known as
Aligraphy, has been patented. By it, drawings
can be reproduced on linen or paper, and the
lines are practically as black as the original.
They closely resemble etchings. For very fine
work, this process makes splendid reproduc-
tions; but it is more expensive than any of the
processes above mentioned.

Hectograph Process. Another common
method of reproducing drawings is the hecto-
graph process. This consists in making the
dramngs with suitable aniline inks, and then
jl^cing them face-down, oxx a gelatine pad. After

AECHITECTUEAL DEAFllNG 241

being in contact for about two minutes, they are
removed, and blank paper is brought in contact
with the pad, being in tm-n removed. It will be
found to give a complete drawing similar to the
original in scale, color, etc. Upwards of thirty-
five copies may be taken off, depending upon
the intensity of the original.

The pad may be made as follows : 1 part of
white glue to 5 parts by weight of glycerine.
Soak the glue over night, in just enough water
to cover it. Bring to the boiling point slowly,
without burning; then add the glycerine, and
thoroughly mix. Pour into a shallow pan;
remove all air-bubbles from the surface with a
stiff card; and allow to cool. Before using each
time, wash thoroughly with a sponge and allow
to dry partially before applying the drawing;
also wash well immediately after using, to
remove all traces of ink.

The proportions may be varied slightly for
different climates. A cold climate will require
more glycerine, and a warm climate more glue.
The pad should be stiff enough to resist pressure
from the fingers when firmly pressed upon it.

Other additional ingredients are sometimes
used. Perhaps they have their advantages; but
the mixture as described has been used very suc-
cessfully. Often, in very hot weather, after a
pad is made, it may seem too soft to work well.
In such a case, placing the pan on a cake of ice
will harden the mixture and make it satisfac-
tory.

242 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

A cheaper pad may be made by using a mix-
ture of a special claj^ and glycerine. While not
giving so many prints as the glue pad, it can
be used more economically for large drawings.
Hectograph x^encils may be had in many colors,
which are used for making full-size details.
These drawings are copied in the same way as
the regular pen-and-ink drawings.

The hectograph process is gradually gaining
in favor, 'and in some localities it is used exten-
sively. It has several features to commend it :

(1) All materials can be represented in appropriate
colors.

(2) Copies are very cheap, and can be made on paper
or prepared cloth.

(3) The draftsman finds it convenient when making
revisions, as parts of the drawing can be cut out and a
correct portion inserted. No matter how badly the
drawing is cut and patched, the prints are perfect.

(4) In assembling different drawings on a sheet, they
may be shifted at will, and a better arrangement secured.

(5) When a sheet is composed of small drawings, the
draftsman may work over the small drawings more com-
fortably than if compelled to work on a large sheet.

The hectograph process, however, has some
drawbacks, which may be indicated as follows:

(1) Small details cannot be shown so clearly, as the
lines must be quite heavy if a number of prints are
required.

(2) The drawings fade more or less if exposed to a
bright light, but they are permanent enough for most
•\vork.

(3) Some draftfsmen do not like to use the inks, ag

AECHITECTURAL DEAFTING 243

they are sticky and soil the fingers. This, however, should
apply only to the inexperienced.

Hectograph inks may be purchased of dealers
everywhere, in all colors. Below are suggested
colors for various sections of materials :

Purple — For lines in general, outlines, profiles, etc.;
also for sections of plaster, and concrete.

Red — For dimension lines, and for sections of brick-
work.

Blue — For iron, steel, flashing, etc., in section.

Brown — For sections of terra-cotta.

Green — For sections of stone or marble.

Yellow — For wood.

For the blue-print process, the drawing to be
reproduced is preferably done on tracing cloth,
on the rough side, in black ink. Erasures may
be made on this, and the work corrected; but
the finished drawing has to be complete in every
respect, as every line is reproduced just as
drawn.

For the hectograph process-, we shall need to
make the lines much heavier, and may use
colored inks. Mistakes cannot be erased, but
are cut out, and a new piece of paper placed over
the hole, and the drawing continued.

Tracing cloth makes the most satisfactory
material all around for the original drawing. It
is translucent or semi-transparent, will make
good prints by almost any process, and is much
more desirable than paper for filing away and
for constant use in the drafting room.

The use of colored inks is not to be recom-

244 AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

mended. They make the tracing look very
pretty, but they print very poorly, some shades
of green being hardly visible on the blue-print.
Red reproduces very faintly, and when this color
is used for dimension lines they should be heavy.
Black is the most serviceable color to use. In
steel detailing, the entire drawing is done in
black — even dimension lines.

ARCHITECTURAL FORMS

Having considered the general method in the
drawing of architectural plans, we shall now
consider some of the general forms employed to
represent different parts of the work.

Conventional Forms and Symbols. First
there must be some adopted form for represent-
ing materials. It will be found throughout the
country, that each architectui'al firm has its own
architectural forms and symbols. This is rather
confusing, since it requires a draftsman chang-
ing offices, or Building Departments checking
plans, to become familiar with the symbols as
used by each office.

In Plate A are given some general forms for
representing materials.

Fig. 1 represents brick. A section of a brick
wall should be sectioned as shown, by parallel
lines at 45 degrees, slanting down to the left. It
might be well to repeat here what has been said
about the use of colored inks for drawing.
Except for dimension lines, avoid the use of
colors. The materials may be indicated as shown

AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

245

FIG. I.

BQICK

QU3BL£ STONE

FIG.Z.

F/G 5.

^ * * ^ Ji ->

CUT STONE.

CONCQElTEi

TEQRA COTTA

F/a.s

WOOOEN PAfiTlTlON -
LATMEiO AND PLA^TSlREDi

flG. 6.

^diddiddI ^:

Pl-ASTEREiO.

F/G. 7-

F/G. 8.

BQ/CK WALL- Fa/?Q£D,
L-/\THKD AND PLA3TCR£D.

F/G. S.

£>OUD Pi. ASTER PART-
IT/ON - PLASTER£.D.

Plate A. Conventional Sjrtnbols for Bepresenting Materials on Ar<
chitectural Drawings.

246 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

by varying the texture of the line and also by
different forms of dotting.

Fig. 2 — We use alternating lines — solid and
dashes — at 45 degrees to re^Dresent rubble stone
such as is found in most basements.

Fig. 3 — We use solid lines running at 45
degrees to each other and in opposite directions,
to represent cut-stone work such as sills for
windows and doors, chimney caps, and any kind
of finished or dressed stone.

Fig. 4 represents concrete. This sjTnbol is
composed of small, wavy lines, with occasional
triangular shapes to represent the stone. This
symbol may be used to represent the concrete
such as would be used in a solid wall or
reinforced concrete for floors and other similar
constructions.

Fig. 5 illustrates the method of showing
terra-cotta. This is the same as for brick, with
the lines running in the opposite direction.

For representing an interior partition of a
frame building, the method shown in Fig. 6 is
perhaps the most satisfactory. Plaster is repre-
sented by parallel lines to opposite sides of the
wall.

Very often, in fireproof buildings, partitions
are built of hollow tile and plastered on both
sides. Fig. 7 illustrates the method of indicating
such a partition.

Where a brick wall is furred on the inside and
then plastered, we use the ordinary symbol for

,-^-^ -^ri

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTIXG 247

the brick wall, and show the plaster away from
the wall, as in Fig. 8.

Very often, instead of using the partition as
shown in Fig. 7, it will be built up solid of plaster
2 inches thick with a layer of expanded metal
imbedded. This partition is shown in Fig. 9.
It will be found a very satisfactory partition,
requiring less floor space, and equal in every way
to any other fireproof partition.

On the basement plan, various lines of pipe
should be shown. There should be a porous tile
drain, in damp soils, all around the outside of
the basement walls, at the footing Une. Such
drains are constructed of porous farm tile, laid
with butt joints and no cementing of any kind.
The tile being porous, the water in the soil perco-
lates through the walls of the tile, and is carried
away. These drains are indicated as shown in
Plate B.

For the sewer connections inside the build-
ing, and extending at least six feet outside the
basement wall, the pipe should be cast-iron and
have calked joints. Such pipes are shown on
the basement plan as in Plate B. Connected to
this cast-iron pipe outside the basement wall, a
nitrified tile drain should be used, with cemented
joints. Such pipe is also shown in Plate B. All
these pipe lines should be shown in black on the
drawing.

There are certain lines used in a drawing for
reference, such as axis lines — that is, when a
room or building is sjTnmetrically arranged

248 AKCHITECTUKAL DRAINING

P0Q0U3 TILE. DQA/AJ3,

/QO/y P/PE DQA/N3.

V/T/3/rJ^D 3EWEP P/PE.

The Aeov£i Should 3e 3/-fowN With 3j-AC K l/N£5.

AXi3 LfNB3 (R£d).

BUILDING LINES (Q£D).

DOTTED JLIA/E3 /^O/Q GENEQAL U3E.

/S'-o"

DJMEN3/ON L/N^3 (Usually Ped WfTH

BLAC/f AQfSOW^).

Plate B. Conventional Methods of Eepresentmg Drain and Sewer
Pipe, Axis Lines, Building Lines, Dimension Lines, etc.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAmNG 24?

around a center line. In order to make such
axis lines distinct from general lines, they are
usually made as shown in Plate B.

When there are offsets or projections on a
wall, such work is measured from certain lines
established as building lines (see Plate B).
Usually the outside wall line of the first story is
taken as this reference line; and the basement
wall line, the second-story line, the eave line,
etc., are all measured as projecting from this
line.

All dimension lines are to be noted as shown
on this same plate, in which the arrow-heads
are black, the connecting line is red, and the
figures are in black, always above this line. This
is the best practice, though sometimes dimen-
sions are placed in the center of the line, the line
being stopped to allow the figures to be inserted.
This method takes more time and is not so
practical, since the dimension line is broken and
in some cases there might be a dispute as to just
how much the dimension is intended to include.

For lighting, there are standard symbols
adopted by the National Electrical Contractors '
Association of the United States. These are
published on a card convenient for reference, and
copies may be had by applying to the Secretary.
Another form of symbols has been adopted by
the Boston Society of Architects, copies of which
may also be had on application. The latter sym-
bols are shown on Plate C These are given for
convenience in laying out plans, and are not

250

ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

This Specificafion is bosad upon tht. us* of tht. follovvinif aifmboU
Qnd of such ofhtrs as moi^ Be used and eKplaine.d on tht Plan

ELECTRIC

GAS

COMBINATION

CEILING OUTLE.T

■^*

WALL OUTLET

2. L/^Atj

\¥

\^'

FLOOR OUTLET
I Lighir

3A3E OUTLET

ja.

3WITCH

hs-

Go'lTed L/'na. jhotivt Sitvitch
Con'f'r-ol.

PU3H BUTTON

DANK OF BUTTON 5 E£°l

B£:ll

ANNUNCIATOR

CABINET r^

SPEAKING tube: |— ^

MOUSE TELEPHONE, r^

PUBLIC TELEPHONE

HEIGHTS Of= 3TOP/ES - TOP TO TOP

/•»■' FT IN.

5''" F7. IN

Z."" FT IN.

6^" FT- in

IC" FT- IN

3"° FT list.

7"' FT. /A-

^ TM

1/2 r-

FT //v.

FT IN.

FT Hi.

HEIGHTS OF CENTER OF WALL OUTLETS.

Un/tjf or/tar-tv/je .»pae/'//t^.

L/V//VC ASaOMS- 3-&" OFFICES- S"- O"

CHAM BERS- 3-0" COfZQ/DOaS' G'-J"

HEIGHT OF 2WITCHES-Un/ets other ^,se. ^pvcifi*.d - 4-'-0'

Plate C. Standard Symbols for Eepresenting Fixtures, Electric

Outlets, etc.

Adopted by the Boston Society of Architects.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

251

intended to be complete in every respect. It is
essential to show the location of the light outlets
in all rooms; also whether they are to be gas,
or electric, or a combination of both. Push-
buttons, bells, and telephones are also indicated.
If these locations are not shown, the contractor
for this work will naturally place them in a posi-

75 *

Fig. 17. Conventional Symbols for Heating Apparatus.
A— Steam or Hot-Water Radiator; B— Hot-Air Register.

tion requiring the least amount of pipe, wire,
etc. Therefore show all of these fixtures, and
there can then be no dispute as to the true intent
of the plans and specifications.

For the heating, about all that is necessary is
to show the location of the registers or radiators,
marking the number of square feet of radiation
on each radiator. The usual method is shown in
Fig. 17 (A) for steam or hot water, and in Fig.
17 (B) for hot air. The specifications should

E:C2 Puooas

rig. 18.

Conventional Representation of Flues for Air Supply
and Ventilation.

252

ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING

describe the kind of heat, and go into detail
about pipe, fittings, etc.

In hospitals, public buildings, and school-
houses, where there are a number of occupants
in each room, it will be necessary to furnish a
fresh-air supply, also a vent flue. These are all
figured, and should be located conveniently.

Pig. 19. Sketch Plan Showing Arrangement of Pumiture.

The method of figuring the correct location for
such work will be considered under "Heating
and Ventilating." The conventional method of
showing flues for air supply and ventilation is
shown in Fig. 18.

For furniture, certain conventional forms are
used, and shown on all plans. The furniture of
the bedrooms and bathrooms is usually laid out
on the plans, since these are usually made as

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTIXG 253

small as practicable; therefore the furniture
and fittings are laid out to make sure that there
will be room to get them all in. This applies to
the cheaper classes of houses, for in the larger
and more expensive residences the rooms are
always amply large to accommodate all the fur-
niture and fittings desirable. In Fig. 19, a bath-
room and bedrooms are laid out, the fm-niture
being indicated by numbers, (1) representing
the lavatory or wash-bowl, (2) the closet,
(3) the bathtub, (4) the bed, (5) the chiffonier,
(6) the di-esser, and (7) a table or writing desk.
See also Fig. 20.

Sometimes a client has furniture he wishes
to put into a new home. It will be found very
convenient to get the dimensions of such furni-
tuiT, and cut out pieces of cardboard the exact
sizes of this furniture according to the scale of
the plan. Then lay them on the plan as drawn,
and see how they will fit wall spaces, nooks, etc.
By this method, pieces can be arranged, and it
will very soon be shown whether or not the
rooms will accommodate the fm-niture. This
will be found very convenient in all classes of
work (see Fig. 20).

Below are given the dimensions of some of
the common pieces of furniture. These sizes
will vary somewhat, but in general they will
be accurate enough in laying out work.

Dining Tables — 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. wide, and to extend
to 10 ft. to 12 ft. by extra leaves, and 2 ft. 5 in. high.
Writing Tables— 2 ft. 6 in. high.

254

ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

rig. 20. Plan Showing Method of Laying Out Furniture and

Bugs.

Carving Tables— 3 ft. high.

Ordinary Tables — 2 ft. 6 in. high.

Beds, Single — 3 ft. 6 in. wide ;

Beds, Three-quarter — 4 ft. to 4 ft. 6 in. wide;

Beds, Double — 4 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. wide.

All beds should be 6 ft. 8 in. long inside.
Dressers — 1 ft. 6 in. to 2 ft. by 3 ft. 5 in.
Couches — 2 ft. 6 in. by 6 ft. 8 in.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 255

Chiffoniers— 2 ft. by 3 ft., and 4 ft. 6 in. high.

Sideboards vary according to design, 4 ft. to 6 ft. long,
and from 2 ft. to 2 ft. 2 in. deep.

Pianos, Upright, vary, being usually 3 ft. 3 in. by 6 ft.
6 in. long, and 4 ft. to 4 ft. 9 in. high.

Bookcases — 10 in. to 16 in. deep, any length and height.

Chairs and Seats — Usually 17 in. high at front, 16 in. at
back, and the seat is usually 17 in. high by 16 in. inside ; the
back, from 1 ft. 6 in. to 1 ft. 8 in. high, slightly inclined
at the top.

For plumbing fixtures, consult any plumbing cata-
logue. The washstand varies, 18 in. deep by 2 ft. long
being about the minimum. The bathtub varies from 3 ft.
6 in. to 4 ft. 6 in. long, about 1 ft. 11 in. high above the
floor, and 2 ft. wide across the rim. Closets are about
1 ft. 4 in. wide, and about 2 ft. from the wall.

Ranges — 26 in. to 30 in. by 36 in. by 42 in.

Ranges, Gas — 26 in. by 34 in.

Lunch Counters — Height, 3 ft. 3 in.
Stool, 2 ft. 2 in.
Couuter projects 9 in. and is 2 ft.

2 in. wide.
Foot-rest, 7 in. high and 9 in. from
counter.

Urinals — 26 in. to 30 in., center to center.

Rugs— 4 ft. 6 in. by 7 ft. 6 in. up to 11 ft. 3 in. by 15 ft.

The above dimensions are only general, but
will be of assistance in laying out the furnitui'e
of a house.

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

There will be found a great variety of materi-
als for the construction of buildings, now^adays.
In some localities, one material wdll be used
more than others; for instance, in the vicinity

256

ARCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING

Fig. 21. Elevation of a Porch.
See also Figs. 22 and 23.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

357

Slate Roopimg

Fig. 22. Porch of Fig. 21 Fig. 23. Porch of Fig. 21

Detailed for Stone Construction. Detailed for Wood Construction.

258 AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

of a stone quarry, stone will usually be cheaper
than anything else — even in some cases cheaper
than wood. Should your client be interested in
a brick concern, brick would undoubtedly be
used. In a locality where timber is cheap, that
material would be largely employed.

For the cheaper class of work, we find wood
to be the cheapest material, although, within the
past ten years or so, wood has advanced in price
at a great rate. The kind of wood used will
vary with each locality. In some sections — espe-
cially the South — yellow pine will be used; in
our Western States, fir and local varieties will
be selected. An architect in a new locality,
therefore, should become familiar with the local
woods used, and should govern his Avork, such
as spans of beams, interior finish, etc., by these
conditions. The use of terra-cotta for the facing
of masonry walls, for ornamental courses, cor-
nices, and window-sills, is quite common. Since
this is a product made of clay, properly mixed,
moulded, and burned, it can be treated as plainly
or as elaborately as the design of the building
warrants. Terra-cotta, of course, is used only
with masonry, such as brick, stone, or concrete.

Fig. 21 shows the elevation of a porch, and
Fig. 22 shows this porch detailed for stone con-
struction; while Fig. 23 shows the same porch
detailed for wood.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

359

SHADES AND SHADOWS

In order to prepare sketches and make them
attractive, a brief treatment of Shades and
Shadows will be taken up, the main general rules
and principles being explained, which may be
applied to ordinary architectural drawing.

By the use of shades and shadows, very im-
portant effects are produced. The general pro-
portions of the cornice, for example, are empha-
sized by using shadows. The relative amount
of window area to wall area is clearly shown by
the use of shadows.

The Light is always assumed as coming over
the left shoulder of the person looking at the
drawing, and at an angle as explained later.
This assumption is always made, being merely a
conventional or customary way of considering

rig. 24. Fig. 25.

Illustrating Conventional Method of Considering Eays of Light in
Architectural Drafting.

the light. The idea intended is to produce the
same effect on a drawing that the sun in this
one position would produce on the building.
While the sun would actually produce a shadow
on one side of the building at one time, and on
another side at another time, in architectural

260 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

drawing this variation is not shown. No matter
what elevation or side of the building is being
considered, the light is always from the same
direction.

Thus we see that in Figs. 24 and 25 the sun
really would make one side always in shadow,
but we do not so consider it. In Fig. 24 we
see the side A is in sunlight, and the side B is
in shade. Looking now at Fig. 25, we see side
B in sunlight, and C, which was the rear end,
now in shade. This is the conventional method
of considering the rays of light for architectural
drawings. No matter what elevations or draw-
ings are considered, or how many of the same
building on the same sheet, the direction of the
rays of light is fixed.

Perhaps it will make the understanding of
this subject clearer if we define the terms shade
and shadow. That portion of a building or
drawing is said to be in "shade" which is turned
away from the assumed rays of light; or, it
receives no rays of light, in contrast to the sides
which are in light or upon which the light falls.

If a body is placed between the light and a
plane upon which the rays might fall, such a
body will prevent a portion of the rays from
striking the plane, thereby causing a shadow
upon the plane.

All rays of light are assumed as parallel and
considered as straight lines.

The rays of light are assumed as coming over
the left shoulder, or sloping downward and

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

261

backward. This is the diagonal of a cube. The
projections of this diagonal in the vertical plane
and in a horizontal plane ai'e at 45 degrees, while
the true angle of the diagonal with the plane is
slightly less than 35 degrees 16 minutes. If we
assume the side of the cube as 1, then the true
length of this diagonal is nearly one and three-
quarters. In Fig. 26, we see the cube and the
diagonal di'awn as a heavy line with an arrow-

Pt«nc ef5hAdo«v

Tig. 26, Drawing Showing As-
sumed Direction of Liglit.

e» Pbif<t.

Fig. 28. Elevation of Point
and Shadow.

Pizne of

Point-^

Plan of Point in Space
and Plane.

Fig. 29
Shadow of a Point in Space

Pi.AN

Fig. 27. Elevation and Plan of
Cube of Fig. 26.

262

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

head indicating the direction of the light. Fig.
27 shows the elevation and plan of the same
cube.

The shadow of a point is where the ray of
light surrounding the point intersects the plane
upon which the shadow falls. In Fig. 28, we
see the light surrounding the point, and inter-
secting the plane, giving the shadow of the point
upon the plane. The shadow is located as far
down and as far to the right of the point in
space as the point is from the surface or plane
upon which its shadow falls. Fig. 29 shows the
plan of the point, its distance from the plane,
and the plane.

'Line i« Spkace.

PUna of jKa<i<9vv«

Fig. 30, Elevation of Line and
Sbadow.

PJant. of 5Kado»v\

... I X

Line m | ■

Fig. 31. Plan of Line in Space
and Plane.

Shadow of a Line Parallel to Plane of Shadow.

The shadow of a straight line in space is the
intersection of the light surrounding this line
with the plane of shadow. By casting the shad-
ows of the extremities of the line and connecting
these points of shadows, we have the shadow of
the line. All points of the line in space will
cast shadows upon the plane as far down and as
far to the right as the point is from the plane.

\ Jl|l/)li»n,''....,.,,„.i_.^

'^m% . \

. ,'.<^^ J'iS t te£- 1>— =^, *,

M
O
O

Q
W

I— I
H

.„ ,.>P,

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTIXG

263

If the Line is parallel to the plane, the shadow
will be equal in length and parallel to the line
itself. See Fig. 30 for an elevation, and Fig. 31
for the plan of the line and plane.

If the line in space is not a straight line, then
the shadow of the line may be found by casting
the shadows of any number of points on the
line, and connecting these. The greater the
munber of points of shadows cast, the greater
will be the accui'acy of the work. In Fig. 32

Plane of Shadow

'Angle 'n Space.

plan «rf Angle

EutvAxioN Plan

rig. 32. Pig. 33.

Shadow of an Irregular Shape which is Parallel to Plane of

Shadow.

we see the shadow of an angle or L-shape cast
on the iDlane of projection; Fig. 33 shows the
plan of the angle.

The shadow of a straight line perpendicular
to the plane upon which the shadow falls, is a
straight line at 45 degrees, no matter what the
outline of the surface is upon which the shadow
falls (see Figs. 34, 35, and 36).

The shadow of a straight line parallel to the
plane upon which the shadow falls, is an irregu-

264

AECHITECTURAL DEAFTING

lar line giving the true outline of the surface
(see Fig. 37).

The shadow of a perpendicular line on a roof
is therefore a line which gives the true slope of
the roof, since the line is parallel to the plane,
and therefore casts a shadow the true shape of
the surface upon which it falls.

Plan* of s^ado«v p^^^^ ^ shado^^

Line in Spacvc'

P*»ONT Elevatiom .Side.

Fig. 34. Fig. 35.

Shadow of a lane "which is Perpendicular to lane of Shadow.

tNY»\v.\v»v>\;

Fig. 36. Showing Shadow of

a Line Perpendicular to

Plane of Shadow.

Fig. 37. Showing Shadow of a
Line Parallel to Plane of
Shadow on a Moulded
Surface.

The shadow of a straight line inclined to the
plane upon which the shadow falls, is a straight

ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING
• p'/ane. of ShaeJowy

265

RL.A,N

Fig. 38 Shadow of a Line Inclined to Plane of Shadow.

^fanz

of- Sh a cfo w >

F'LAN

£L.S,VATiOAJ

Fig. 39. Shadows of a Square and a Circle Parallel to Plane of

Shadow.

266

AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING

line connecting the shadows of the ends of the
line (see Fig. 38).

As in the case of a line parallel to the plane
upon which the shadow falls, the shadow is equal
in length and parallel to the line, so it is with
surfaces — the square, rectangle, octagon, etc.
If parallel to the plane of shadows, the shadow

Fig. 40.

Shadows of a Square and Circle Perpendicular to Plane of
Shadow.

will be equal in size and shape to the figure (see
Fig. 39).

A square perpendicular to the plane of
shadow will cast a diamond-shaped shadow, for
two of the lines are parallel to the plane, and
two are perpendicular to the plane (see Fig. 40).

ARCHITECTURAL DEAFTIN^G

267

Having stated a few principles of casting
shadows, these will be applied to a few common
examples.

Take an example of a brick projecting from
a wall (Fig. 41). We apply the principles as

£^L^VAT/ON

Pig. 41. Shadows of Projections from Plane of Shadow.

Ilk
K

1--

TTT^ T '

' I 1

GL£VATldN
1

1 '
1 i
1 1

PLAN

Fig. 42. Illustrating Principles of Shadows.

stated, to each edge of the brick. The top, bot-
tom, and side faces of the brick are perpendicu-

268

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

lar to the plane, therefore the shadows will be
rectangular in shape.

Figs. 42 and 43 show a further application
of the foregoing principles.

£L£V/\T/ON 3£CTfOA/

Fig. 43. Illustrating Principles of Shadows.

Plate D shows the shadows as cast upon an
Order of architecture, illustrating also how
much clearer the drawing is when it has the
shadows Avorked out on it.

The above principles will give a general
understanding of the subject.

DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION

It is essential to know the usual method of
detailing different portions of the building. For
the clear understanding of some of the impor-
tant parts of a building, there have been pre-
pared some typical details. The reader, having
become familiar with the details shown, can
adapt them to any sort of building.

Cornice. The cornice is the projection at the
top of the building, made more or less elaborate.
There are several kinds of cornices — the box
cornice, as shown in Fig. 44, and the open cor-
nice, as shown in Fig. 45 (a and b). Referring

AECHITECTUEAL DEAFTING

269

to Fig. 44, there is the crown-mould A, the fascia
B; the planceer or soffit C; the lookout D; the

■2-£lfi

^\0' JOIJTi 16- GC

'LATH I FLAJTeS'*'

Fig. 44. Box Cornice.

brackets E ; the dentil course F. Not all cornices
have all these parts. The plainer ones may be
without the brackets E and the dentils F; or

270

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

more elaborate cornices may have more mem-
bers. The closed cornice always has the gutter
built into the upper members ; the open cornice

Fig. 45a. Open Cornice.

has a hanging gutter, as shown in Fig. 45 (a
or b).

The gutter, in the best work, is made of cop-
per; in ordinary work, of galvanized iron; and
in the cheapest class of work, tin is used. The
durability of these materials is in the order
named, the copper wearing usually the life of
the building. Galvanized and tin gutters have
to be kept well painted; but even with good
care, the life of these two materials is limited.

One important feature of a good gutter is

AECHITECTUEAL DEAFTIXG

271

to have the metal run well up under the roofing
material, and out over the crown-mould. This
keeps any water from overflowing up under the
roof if the gutter becomes choked with ice or
leaves. The gutter should be well pitched or
graded to the outlets. The gutter outlets are
in turn connected to leaders or down-spouts.
These down-spouts are made, usually, of the

CALV IR-ONO^TTE

^--/AC'PLAT^

Fig. 45b. Type of Open Cornice Known as Close-Eave Cornice.

same material as the gutter. The shape of the
down-spouts may be either round or rectangu-
lar; a very common form is made of corrugated
iron, either round or rectangular. The gutter,
especially if a hanging gutter, must be securely
fastened to the roof at intervals of two or three
feet, by means of some sort of hanger. The
down-spouts must be securely fastened to the
wall by some approved method.

Floor Construction. The floor construction
does not vary much (see Fig. 46). In this figure

272

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

we have the usual construction and method of
support at the second or upper floor line. The
joists must be of ample size, not only to carry

^yyyyy^yyyyyyy^.

2Ai2-ie-oc

Fig. 46. Common Floor Construction at Second-Floor Line.

the load safely, but to be stiff enough not to sag
or vibrate under a load, since this would crack
the plastering or the ceiling below. On the
joists is laid an under-floor, usually of boards
% inch thick, laid diagonally at 45 degrees with
the joists, and spiked with two nails on every

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 373

joist. The flooring laid in this manner braces
the building, and resists any tendency to twist.
In the best construction, we use some sort
of deafening material between the upper and
under floor, to deaden sound. The upper floor
is of maple, oak, or yellow pine of matched or
tongued-and-grooved boards, with the boards
parallel to one side of the room. This floor is
blind-nailed; that is, the nails are driven in at
the intersection of the tongue and the vertical
edge, as shown in Fig. 47. This keeps all nail-

Fig. 47. Section Showing Blind-Nailing.

heads hidden from view. The upper floor should
be thoroughly kiln-dried — that is, dried arti-
ficiall}^ to drive out the greater part of the
moisture, so that when it is finally laid, it will
not dry out in the building and open up ugly
cracks. For this reason the finished floor should
not be laid until the plastering is thoroughly
drj^ The under side of the joists is lathed and
plastered.

Around openings, chimneys, or stair-wells,
the joists are supported at the ends by means
of a header, or a joist running at right
angles to them, to which they are securely

274 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

spiked; or they may rest on top of a ribbon or
%-inch board let into the studding, the con-
struction being similar to the support for the
ceiling joists as shown in Fig. 44.

At the first-floor line, we have to build a sill
upon the basement wall; this sill forms a sup-
port for the joist, and also gives a nailing for
the studding. The method is clearly shown in
Fig. 48.

Lath and Plaster. The interior finish of
almost all residence work is lath and plaster.
The walls, if of wood, and the ceiling, are lathed
with good, sound lath, free from blue sap or
bark, and of white pine or spruce. They should
be spaced at least 1/4 i^^h apart, and the plaster
pressed firmly onto them so as to make sure
that there will be a good key for holding the
plaster. All lath on vertical walls should be
put on horizontally, and there should not be a
vertical joint of more than 18 inches between
any series of laths. Under no consideration
should lath be put on a vertical wall other than
horizontally. In hot weather, it will be well
to wet the lath before applying the plaster, as
then they will not absorb so much water from
the plaster.

Plaster is usually put on in three coats for
woodwork, and in two coats for brickwork. The
first coat consists of slaked lime, sand, and long,
clean cattle hair or fiber, this hair or fiber being
used to make the plaster hold together better.

The first or scratch coat is applied and

ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

275

^^^/^^//yyyyyyyy

P^TTC:.pi_INt.3->HOW

FSjiT-iofM Of-<Jo/j>t

^X?"

Fig. 48. Floor Construction at First-Floor Line.

pressed well into the spaces between the lath.
It is this plaster getting in between the lath and
falling over onto the lath, which forms the key
or clinch for the plaster. This coat is then
scratched with the trowel all over, in all direc-
tions. This scratching roughens up the surface,
and makes a better surface for the second coat
to adhere to.

The second or brown coat is a mixture of lime

2116 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

putty, sand, and a little hair or fiber, and is
applied after the scratch coat has partially
dried. This brown coat is brought out to a true
line for all walls and ceilings, and corners are
made true and sharp. There are placed around
all openings and back of all chair rails, base-
boards, etc., small strips % inch thick for three-
coat work, and % inch thick for two-coat work,
by 1% inches wide. These are called grounds,
and serve as a guide for the plaster (see Figs.
71 and 72). The third coat, sometimes called
the white or skim coat, is a mixture of lime putty
and white sand, with a little plaster of Paris.
This is a thin, white coat, put on and rubbed
down until hard, giving a hard white sm^face.
Sometimes marble dust is added, which makes
it harder and gives a little more polish to the
sui'face. If a sand finish is desired, instead of
the white coat as above described, the third coat
is mixed with lime putty and coarse sand.

Flashing and Counter- Flashing. By flashing
and counter-flashing is meant metal protection
for the intersection of surfaces, to keep out the
weather. Take an example of a chimney going
through a roof. Some means must be provided
to prevent snow and water from coming in
through the space between the vertical side of
the chimney and the roof. This is accomplished
by using sheet metal — either copper, galvanized
iron, or tin — and fastening it under the roof
covering, turning it up against the chimney, as
shown in Figs. 49 and 50, the piece marked A.

AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING

277

To prevent the water running down the side of
the chimney, a cover-piece, called the counter-
flashing, is fastened into a mortar joint of the
brickwork, and turned down over the flashing.
The counter-flashing should extend to within
two inches of the bottom of the flashing. This
same method of protection applies to joining a
roof to a vertical wall, the protection at the
outside of a window-frame, or any other place
needing similar protection.

^-u^ B- Counter Flashing
A - Plash I Nq

rSH/NJGLES

Pig. 49. Section Showing Flashing and Coanter-Flashing.

Shrinkage. A word might be said about
shrinkage. All lumber, when exposed to heat,
will shrink, owing to the moistm-e drying out.
In all wooden construction, all parts should be
carefully framed together to reduce the shrink-
age to a minimum. One conunon error in
framing is shoT\Ti in Fig. 51. The gii'der rests
upon the post below, and the post from above
rests upon the girder. We can see at a glance

378

AECHITECTUEAL DEAFTING

Fig. 50. Flashing and Counter-Flashing around a Chimney.

what happens when the girder commences to
dry out. It will shrink, causing the post above
to settle, which will affect the part of the build-
ing carried in this way. Fig. 52 shows a much
better way of framing these posts. The post
above rests directly on the post below; and the

Tig. 51. Erroneous Method. Fig. 52. Correct Method.
Framing of Posts and Girders to Counteract Effects of Shrinkage.

u CO

w[ 17/

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

279

girder is carried by the steel plate as shown, or
by means of a cast-iron post-cap. By this means
the shrinkage in the gu'der does not affect the

Fig. 53. Section of Solid Door.

construction above. Carry out this same idea
in all framing. When one partition comes over
another, carry it on the cap of the partition
below, and not on top of the floor construction.
Doors. Doors are of two kinds — the stock
door and the built-up door. The stock door is
made solid, with a simple bevel called an 0. Gr.
(or Ogee). The stock doors are usually V/g
inches, 1% inches, and 1% inches thick (see Fig.
53). The built-up door has a core of %-inch
pieces of pine glued together; this is covered
with thin sheets of wood % inch thick, called

Fig. 54. Typical Section of a Built-Up Door.

veneer, which is firmly glued to the core. The
veneer is made of wood to match the interior
finish of a residence.

Fig. 54 shows a typical section of a built-up
door; and Fig. 55 shows elevations of different

280

AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING

doors, with the names of the various parts of a
door.

All openings, either door or window, should
have the rough framing doubled around them.

At the bottom of the door we have the
threshold, which is a raised piece, usually of oak
or some other hard wood. This gives a chance
for the door to swing clear of the carpet or
rugs. For different details of door trim, etc.,
see Fig. 56.

TOP RAIL 1

J
u

ill

Ill
J

UJ
J

' —

ODLE. RA

-J

r— ^

BOTTOM R/

\\\.

rig. 55. Types of Paneled Doors.

The door is hung in a wooden frame which
is securely fastened to the framing of the house.
The inside and outside casing covers the space
between the door frame and the rough framing.
See Fig. 56 for a section through a door.

Porch Construction. In Fig. 57 (also Fig.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

281

Fig. 56, Sections of Front Door and Side Lights.

282

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

Fig. 57. Part Elevation and Section Showing Method of Porch
Construction.

ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

283

\mF^ ■

ISM ■1>U'^» ^

■S-.VX.V.,--..N ^\.N^

-2.-O5.-Jf-

3I5ICK HE^XOTM

P^t:i concrete.

«N\\N COMMON BftlCK
^S FACE BCICK

PLAN

Fig. 58. A Typical Fireplace Construction.

284 ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFIIXG

23), we see a part elevation and a section show-
ing the method of porch construction. The floor
construction will be the same as for ordinary
floor construction, except that only one thick-
ness of flooring is used, and the boards must run
at right angles to the house, and have a slight
pitch away from the building. This allows the
water to drain away from the building. In the
best construction, the flooring is put together
with white lead, thus insuring a perfectly tight
joint to keep the water from soaking in at the
joints, and thus causing the floor to rot.

Fireplaces. Fig. 58 shows a typical fireplace
construction. The flues are all dotted on the

FOR 9-6-
FOB 3'-0'

STftAIGHT
STAIE FOB
6-6"CEILING
HEIGHT

IIHA

— ~ -ntiuri I urvu^m

-f- JOB 6 -a- 0000

HrtGHTUNOEa

rig. 59. A Simple, Straight Stair.

elevation. There should be an ash- chute from
each fireplace connected to an ash-pit in the
basement. There should be a damper in the
throat of the fireplace to regulate the draft. All
fireplaces should be lined with firebrick.

Stairs. For stair construction, see Figs. 59
to 65 inclusive. The simplest stairway is the
one that has no turns in it, or the one shown in
Fig. 59. As laid out, this stair is for an 8 ft. 6

ABCHITECTU-RAL DRAFTUSTG

285

m. ceiling. Should the ceiling be higher, other
risers may be added.

In Fig. 65 are shown the customary details.
The riser is known as the vertical portion, and
the tread as the horizontal portion. The main
supports are usually 2 by 10-inch or 2 by i^-inch,
notched to fit the treads and risers, and are

.stairs with
'one landing,
dbawn f-or

lO'O" CEILING.

TAIC \A/ILL filVt
MEAD R.OOn FOR PASS-
AGE UNOEB LANDING.

Fig 60. Fig. 61.

Types of Stairs with One Landing.

!■!■■ r'

OPCM

m5T FLOOR PLAN 5K0N0 FLOOR PLAN^

rig. 62. Pig. 63.

Combination Front and Back Stairs.

caUed carriages. The balusters are the upright
spindles or ornamental pieces supporting the
hand-rail.

^ Various heights of riser to tread have been
tried, but the one found most satisfactory is to
make the riser from 7 inches to 7% inches. The
usual rule for figuring the treads and risers is

286

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

Fig. 64, Elevation of Stairway, Giving Necessary Information.

AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

287

to make the simi of a tread and riser equal to
17 inches or 171/2 inches. From this we see that
the higher the riser, the narrower will be the
tread. If we make the riser ly^ inches, then the
tread should not exceed 10 inches. The width
of tread is exclusive of the nosing, which is
usually 11/2 inches.

Fig. 65. Section through Stairs, Showing Customary Details.

Stone stairs, or stairs without a nosing, will
have to be wider.

For figimng the number of risers, divide the
height from floor line to floor line (in inches),
by the height of one riser; the result will be the
number of risers.

Fig. 60 shows a stairway with a landing
Fig. 61 is another foiTQ of stair with a landing.

Fig. 62 is a combination front and back

288

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

stairs. There are separate stairs up to the land-
ing; then the back stair joins the main staii'.
Fig. 62 is the first-floor plan, and Fig. 63 the
second-floor plan, of the same stairs.

Fig. 66. Single-Light Window. Fig. 67. Two-Light Window.

Where possible, put a coat closet under the
stairs. This space cannot be utilized for any-
thing but a basement stair or a closet. Usually
there is a basement stair in the rear of the house.

Fig. 64 shows an elevation of the stairway,
giving all necessary information.

Fig. 68. Fig. 69.

Types of Window Construction.

Windows. There are various types of win-
dows used in the construction of buildings. The
plainest is the single-light window shown in Fig.
66. This is either pivoted, hinged, or fixed to
slide.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 289

The windows are usually designated accord-
ing to the number of panes of glass they contain,
Fig. 67, for example, being a two-light window.
Very often a large glass space is divided into
smaller areas by means of horizontal and verti-
cal strips called muntins, as shown in Fig. 68.
The lower sash slides up, while the upper one
is usually fixed in place; this upper sash is
called a transom.

When windows are grouped in twos or
threes, they are separated by means of vertical
divisions. These divisions are called mullions.
The weights of the sash usually travel in these
(see Fig. 69).

The sash is usually the movable frame that
contains the glass. A double-hung window is
one in which the sash are counterbalanced by
iron weights so that the sash will slide easily
up and down in grooves in the frame. The sash
of a window may be hinged to open Hke doors,
in which case the window is called a casement
window. If the sash are hung on pivots, either
vertically or horizontally, we speak of the win-
dow as a pivoted window.

Referring to Fig. 68, A is the lower rail of
the sash, usually from 2i/2 to 3 inches wide; B
is the meeting rail, from 1 to 2 inches wide;
C is the stile, usually 2 inches wide; D is the
upper rail, of the same width as the stile; E
indicates the muntins, which divide the sash
into small areas; F is the transom bar, or the

290 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

Fig. 70. Typical Detail of Plank-Framed Basement Window.

fixed bar between the transom G and the double-
hung sash below.

The usual thicknesses of sash are li/s inches
for small windows, to 1%, l')4, and sometimes
2^ inches, depending upon the size of sash.
The larger the window, the heavier the sash
must necessarily be.

In Fig. 70 we have a plank-framed window.
This is the same kind of frame required for the

AECHITECTUEAL DEAFTIXG

291

casement window as shown in Fig. 76. Fig. 70
is the t^-pical detail for cellar window construc-
tion. The windows usually have a single sash
which may be divided by muntins into smaller

HETAU F-UKRlNd-;^*-

CfcMtNT FLA3TtR
MtTAL LATH

JHEr-ATHlNQ-

^»^?^M

'^///y/// :

^^w# - ^

v/ZiMS

^
U

Fig. 71. Double-Hung Window, Outside of Building Plastered.

lights. Notice the projection on the bottom
rail, which serves as a di'ip for all water coming
fi'om the glass. Such windows are usually hung
at the side or top. Fig. 70 is detailed for a

892

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

ME-ETINC KAIL

•ICtNTtTeLlNt-

MuLLiori

mim

JbiLL
Fig. 72. Double-Hung Window for a Brick Wall.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

293

JOUTH tLtVATfON

SOUTH ELEVATION

Fig. 73. Part Section Showing Details of Bay Window Con-
struction.

Malp- Elevation

JtCTIOM

Fig. 74. Details for a Dormer or Roof Window.

294

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING

293

CEMENT

•PXA5TEjr
nriTAL t-ATH

Fig. 76. Details of Casement Window.

298 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

brick wall, although the same detail will apply
to a frame wall.

In Fig. 71 we have the details and dimen-
sions for a double-hung window in a frame wall,
the exterior of the wall being plastered. In Fig.
72 we have the details for a double-hung win-
dow in a brick wall. Notice that there is very-
little difference in construction. The parts of
the construction are named for the sake of
clearness, A being the sash, B the inside stop,
C the pulley stile, D the parting strip, E the
outside casing, F the brick mould or staff-head,
G the back lining, H the sub-jamb, J the inside
casing, K the stool, L the apron, M the ground,
and N the sill.

In Fig. 73 we have the construction for a
bay window, showing the boxes, sash, etc.

Fig. 74 shows the details for a dormer or
roof window.

Fig. 75 shows the construction for a pro-
jecting bay window, the sash being hung to
swing out. We have shown a half exterior
view, a half interior view, and a section.

Fig. 76 shows the details of a casement win-
dow in which the head, muUion, and sill, with
all adjoining construction, are shown. Notice
the grounds or guide for the plaster work, as
spoken of under "Lath and Plaster.''

Fig. 77 shows the interior elevation of the
door and window trim, with a large-scale draw-
ing of the exact profiles of this trim. The trim,
and in fact all interior woodwork, are fastened

ARCniTECTURAL DRAFTING

397

BAit

Fig. 77. Details of Window and Door Trim.

298 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING

to the grounds, which are set to serve as guides
for the plasterer, and which should be placed
back of all interior finish. The base shown is
the finish at the floor-line. The base is nailed
to grounds ; and the quarter-round mould at the
floor is nailed to the floor, to cover the crack at
the joining of the base and floor-line.

SKETCHING

In all architectural work, the art of sketch-
ing is important. To be able to show one 's ideas
clearly and artistically, or to reproduce some
form or object in a pleasing manner, is indeed
an essential qualification for the draftsman as
well as the architect. Some have a natural
ability to sketch, which lacks but the pencil and
paj)er to give a true expression of the idea of
the mind; while others acquire the art of
sketching only by diligent study and persistent
practice. Many instances have proven the fact
that one may have ability, but that it needs
developing, just as in the case of the mathema-
tician, who becomes an expert in the higher
mathematics by a gradual training from the
simpler problems on up through more complex
ones. Because one has not ability that is appar-
ent at the outset, is no criterion whereby we
may judge of his ability along any particular
line. Learn to sketch, as it is a valuable asset
for the architect.

Fundamental Principle. To the beginner,

AECHITECTUEAL DRAFIING 299

the object usually presents itself as made up
of small portions, and ordinarily he will make
an attempt to show all the small details, over-
looking the main mass or body of the object.
The first thing is to be able to see the object
as it really is, as it would really appear to the
best advantage when sketched roughly and
quickly. Learn to look at the general grouping
of the different portions, and their relation to
one another. The beginner attempts to draw
the object as he sees it at close range, while the
experienced person draws it as it appears at
a distance. The tendency of the beginner is to
represent everj^hing with hard, sharp, and
exact lines which are known from actual knowl-
edge of the object to exist, although they do
not really appear so. Learn to study the gen-
eral proportions as expressed by the shadows,
rather than by the exact outlines bounding each
surface. Studying an object for sketching is
really a study of the shadows. In all sketching,
the proportion is the fundamental principle.
Having correctly represented the proportions,
then represent the object by means of the shad-
ows as cast upon the object, and let the details
be merely an after consideration. Learn to see
the object correctly, and the representation by
lines will come by practice.

Pencils and Paper. The pencil is present on
all occasions; therefore it is used a great deal
in sketching. Pencils may be obtained in all
degrees of hardness and softness. Drawing

300 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

pencils are usually denoted by H, HH, etc., for
hard pencils, up to 8H, which is a very hard
lead; the soft pencils are denoted b}^ B, BB,
etc., up to 4B for very soft pencils. An inter-
mediate grade known as an HB is between the
hard leads commencing with H and the soft
leads commencing with B. This is a very con-
venient grade to use for all kinds of work. A
good drawing pencil should contain no grit.

As a general rule, the larger the drawing,
the softer the pencil, since the lead in the soft
pencils is larger than that in the hard pencils.
Therefore, it is rather difficult to make a small
drawing with a really soft pencil. As stated
above, the most satisfactory pencil for all-
around work is the medium grade or the HB
pencil.

The pencil should never be sharpened to a
point. Cut away the wood, leaving the lead its
full size; and by a few strokes on a piece of
scratch paper, wear off the sharp edge, until
you have a line the full thickness of the lead.

Hold the pencil comfortably between the
fingers, not in a cramped position, but free and
easy. The length of line, the position on the
paper, and the width and intensity of the lines
will determine just which movements of the
fingers, wrist, or ami are the best suited to the
work. In all work, avoid bending over the
drawing; sit upright so that the drawing may
be all seen at a glance, The paper should

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 801

always be at right angles to the line of sight,
to insure the best work.

The paper should have a somewhat rough
texture for the best work, although some very
pleasing sketches have been made upon smooth
paper. Never use a glazed paper. The smooth
paper requires greater care in its use, it being
harder to erase anything successfully. A good
grade of tracing paper makes a very good paper
for sketches with a medium-soft pencil.

Method. Begin sketching by drawing paral-
lel lines horizontally; then make them vertical;
then slanting lines— endeavoring all the time
to make them all of the same width and
intensity. After exercises in the drawing of
straight lines, try circles and ellipses. Then
sketch familiar household articles. From these,
let the student take up more difficult work,
learning to see objects as they actually appear
to the eye, and not as they are really known to
exist.

Referring to Plates E and F, notice the
method used for indicating surfaces. Instead
of covering the side of the building with long,
mechanical, parallel lines, the lines are made
short, and broad, and break joint so as to give
an uneven surface. The eaves are all repre-
sented by the shadow they produce, there being
no definite line for the edge of the roof. For
the corners of the buHding, there is not a hard,
sharp line, but a broken, irregular line. The

302

AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING

doors and windows are all represented by the
shadows they cast.

It will be noticed that the shadow is the
thing to reproduce. If the shadows are shown
in their true relative proportions, in intensity
and size, we are reasonably sure of a satisfac-
tory sketch. For such work, the object is

Iff^

Fig. 78. A Quickly-Made Preliminary Sketch.

usually outlined with a light line, to get the
proper lines and proportions; in other words,
just enough lines are given to show the proper
relation of dimensions.

Having outlined the object, then commence
with the soft, broad pencil, and indicate the
texture and shadows by varying intensities of
lines.

AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 303

Practice will give you the best training for
developing the art of sketching. It is not
enough to study work already done, analyzing
lines and surfaces. Actual work and practice
in drawing and sketching will do more for you
than any mere study of sketches.

Learn to make preliminary sketches quickly,
and yet indicate general proportions and out-
lines (see Fig. 78). This sketch was made in
about five minutes' time, while the architect
was talking to his client. Some of the finer
points of the original pencil sketch are neces-
sarily lost in the pen-and-ink reproduction from
which the cut was engraved. The figure repre-
sents a possible treatment for a boiler house.
This is a good example of a preliminary sketch,
there being no particular time spent in the
drawing and very few straight lines used, yet,
when the sketch is studied, we can see the gen-
eral effect that such a building would produce
in sunlight.

Make your sketches have some ''snap" to
them. Let each line be firm, starting and stop-
ping in a way that shows it to be there for a
definite purpose. Use plenty of free and easy
lines, and also black lines. Do away with sharp
lines, and never use hard pencils for this work.

For the purpose of laying out drawing, either
for pencil, pen and ink, or pen-and-ink render-
ing, a sketch will be shown to illustrate clearly
the quickest and most satisfactory method.
See Fig. 79, where the sketches are all rather

304

AKCHITECTUKAL DEAFTING

/v-

-J

Jig. 79. Sheet of Drawings Laid Out with a Sense of Proportioa

ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 305

rough or uneven, but the general drawing shows
the effect of proportions. The lines, instead of
being long and continuous, are made up of
short lines almost joining.

PEN-AND-INK RENDERING

Finished drawings may be colored or ren-
dered in a number of ways. The method of
pen-and-ink rendering is very often used. It
is indeed an accomplishment to be able to render
in pen and ink successfully. This usually comes
only from long and patient work in practicing.
A drawing may also be rendered in pencil, or
colored by means of water- colors.

For pen-and-ink rendering, any black ink
will do. A good grade of India ink is very
satisfactory and convenient. There was a time
when all drawing inks were made by grinding
a stick of India ink in water on a stone bed;
but now prepared inks are used almost entirely.
The pens should be fairly large, and have a
medium point; the tendency of beginners is to
use too fine a point. Any good-quality tracing
paper may be used.

The outline of the work may be made upon
scratch paper; and, by placing the tracing
paper over it, the ink rendering can be made
directly over the outline. Papers with soft sur-
faces should be avoided, since the ink will have
a tendency to spread, the points of the pen will
often catch and spatter ink, and erasing is

306

AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

ORDER

SHADOWS CAST TPOX AX OKDEK OF AKCHITECTURE.
PLATE D — Architectural Drafting.

ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 307

almost impossible. Good bristol board makes
a satisfactory surface to work upon.

All liues should be fii^m and uniform, and
series of parallel lines should give an even
textiu-e or appearance to a surface. Avoid the
stiff, hail' lines, which are too fine to give any
character to the work. In making ink lines,
while the general dii^ection of the line may be
straight, yet a line slightly wavy, or a line such
as would be made by the trembling of the hand,
is not objectionable.

Use care in drawing lines to make them as
unifoim as possible, and exercise care in the
starting and stopping of lines. Lines should
naturally be a little heavier at the ending than
at the beginning.

Eeferring to Fig. 80, we see in this draw-
ing, the general method of rendering a building
in pen and ink. The window-panes, instead
of being hard, sharp lines, are made by a series
of parallel lines representing the shadow.
Notice the treatment of the roof, the shadow
of the cornice, and the general lines of the
building.

Fig. 81 shows the use of parallel lines en-
tirely for the textui'e of the wall, and also for
the shadows.

Fig. 82 shows a very attractive drawing.
Study the foliage around the house; see how
it has been represented by lines, sometimes
straight and sometimes curved. The distance
to the background is obtained by the quality

309

310 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

of the line; the further away the background,
the lighter the line. Study the lines represent-
ing the wall and roof surfaces. Notice that
the lines in general are not straight, but are
more or less irregular. The shadows in Figs.
81 and 82 are composed of entirely different
kinds of lines. Probably the best and easiest
method is by the use of vertical lines. Notice,
generally speaking, that there are no long lines.
If it is necessary to make such a line, let it
be represented by a series of short lines, with
their ends almost touching. The tendency of
the beginner is to make the rendering all too
light. Put in some black, somewhere, as it
makes the drawing more in contrast, and
emphasizes other portions of the work.

Plate G is a good example of a sketch ren-
dered in pen and ink.

WASH DRAWINGS

Water- colors or India ink for coloring draw-
ings, are used for the best work, almost entirely.
By means of color or by the use of India ink
for a monotone, the shades and shadows can
be emphasized and the drawing made much
more attractive. The usual method of proce-
dure is to have the paper upon which the draw-
ing is to be made, stretched tight upon a board;
then cast the shadows, marking the outlines
faintly Avith a hard pencil; then clean the
drawing with a soft eraser; finally, have all

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ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTIXG 311

materials ready for appljdng the washes, and
then start the color work.

Materials. The usual materials for wash
drawings are: the colors or the India ink; a
number of brushes (one a bristle brush and the
others soft camel-hair or Japanese brushes);
plenty of receptacles for holding the color in its
various shades, also one large receptacle for
clean water. Porcelain or china dishes made
especially for this work may be purchased from
any dealer in artists' materials. In addition to
the above, a soft sponge and a number of blotters
will be necessary. The paper should have a
rough finish, as this takes the color or wash much
better than paper with a smooth or glazed sur-
face. Hot-pressed and cold-pressed papers of
good quahty are largely used for this work. The
cold-pressed is a little rougher than the hot-
pressed and is perhaps more frequently used. A
good tracing paper may be used if the color is
applied thick and in spots, or where no attempt
at a true wash drawing is made. Care will have
to be exercised in the use of tracing paper, as
too much water will spoil the work.

As mentioned above, the paper upon which
the drawing is made has to be stretched tight on
the drawing board. This may be done after the
drawing has been made, although it will be
found much more convenient to stretch the
paper first, and then make the drawing. To
stretch the paper, it should be thoroughly
wetted aU over, and kept wet until it is firmly

312 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

fastened in place; this wetting causes the paper
to expand. On the four edges of the paper, for
about an inch back from the edge all around,
place glue or drawing-board paste. The paper,
being expanded by the water, should now be
fastened or pressed down onto the board, work-
ing opposite edges at the same time. Do not
attempt to stretch the paper perfectly tight.
Be careful to see that the edges of the paper are
in contact with the board, and run the back edge
of a pocket-knife all around, to insure the glue
or paste on the edge of the paper coming into
contact with the board.

After the paper is thus stretched, take all sur-
plus water off by means of a sponge, and dry the
paper as much as possible with the sponge.
Allow the paper to stand until thoroughly dry,
when it will be found that the paper has
shrunken tight and smooth, giving a good sur-
face for the drawing, and the rendering will be
much easier because the paper is held firmly in
place. Be very careful to see that the paper is
stuck to the board all along each of the four
edges, before allowing the paper to dry.

After the drawing has been made, the
shadows are cast with light pencil lines. Clean
the drawing with a soft eraser, either of
kneaded rubber or of ''sponge" rubber. These
erasers remove the general surface dirt without
affecting the lines materially.

The use of an India ink wash will be
described, although the same treatment will be

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTmG 313

true of colors. The drawing should, of course,
be inked very carefully before any tinting is
started. The erasing of lines should be done
very carefully as the surface of the paper, if
rubbed too hard, will be abraded— so that when
colors are applied they will soak in instead of
remaining on the surface. The drawing may be
very carefully washed after the inking is com-
pleted, with a soft sponge; this removes surplus
ink and leaves the lines more subdued.

Method of Applying Wash. Having the
drawing all ready to render, a few principles
must be followed to insm-e the best results.
Have your water, color, brushes, blotters, and
sponge, all handy; have plenty of clean water
convenient; for heavy or dark shades, apply sev-
eral washes of a lighter value, instead of putting
the heavy color on all at once.

Having once started the wash, carry it on
continuously, without allowing it to dry; any
mistakes can be remedied after the wash is com-
pleted, but the wash should never be interrupted
to rectify mistakes. Lighten the wash by the
gradual addition of clean water; be careful to
take the color from the top of the dish, to avoid
getting the sediment. Always take about the
same amount on the brush, and do not allow the
brush to become too dry before adding more, as
this will dry much quicker on the paper, and the
addition of more will cause a streaked or
mottled effect.

Having reached the bottom of the drawing,

314 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

take up any standing water or color with a
blotter, as it will make a bad appearance if this
is all allowed to stand and dry. The board
should be tilted slightly, so that the wash will
have a tendency to move do^vnward; and it
should be left in this position until the color is
diy. Do not attempt to patch or add color to
any portion of the drawing that has commenced
to dry.

Having put into a saucer enough of the ink
for the drawing, apply the brush to the sm^face
of the ink, soaking up a brushful. If the draw-
ing is of any considerable size, a wide, flat brush
of camel's hair can be used to better advantage
than a pointed brush. The pointed brush, how-
ever, will be the one most used on ordinarj^-sized
drawings.

With the brush filled with the ink, apply to
the upper edge of the drawing, carrying it
across the top and gradually working it down-
ward, adding more ink as the brush becomes
drier. Since all work is darker at the top and
gradually shades lighter, as the wash is carried
down the sheet, add a little clean w^atcr each
time, until, at the bottom or last application of
the brush, it should contain almost clear water.
This shading from darker at the top to lighter
at the bottom is a conventional w^ay of rendering
plans.

Plate H (lower figure), shows a plan
rendered in this way, the darker effect being

ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 315

obtained by a series of light washes and not by
a single wash.

The brush is held in much the same way as
a pencil, the hand being entii-ely free from' the
paper, or perhaps at times resting on the little
finger.

In case of any blotches or other objection-
able portions, these can be remedied with a little
care. Take the sponge and dip it into clear
water. Sop the portion thoroughly, allowing
enough time for the water to soak into the color;
then apply a clean blotter, and soak up the
water. Be very cai-eful not to rub the blotter
over the sm^face. If very carefully done, the
trouble can be remedied, and the di'awing will
scarcely show the spot.

Be careful, in aU work, not to aUow dust or
hairs from the brushes to remain on the di-aw-
ing. These may be removed with a toothpick,
by slightly moistening the end of the toothpick
in the mouth and cai^efuQy lifting the objects off
the di-awing. For Lines that have overrun after
the wash has become dry, take the bristle brush,
moisten it in clean water, and rub gently over
the color outside the line. When the water has
soaked into the color, use the blotter. The
trouble can be remedied by one or two such
treatments.

The methods of procedm-e described above
concern the application of flat washes.

It will take considerable practice to render
well. The beginner is advised to make several

316 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

sheets of such work as described above, before
attempting a plan or elevation. Use the washes
on the elevations to show shadows, or the por-
tions in shade. See Plate H (upper figure),
which shows an elevation rendered in the
conventional way.

Water-colors are applied or "floated on" in
the same manner as the India ink washes. Re-
member that in the use of colors you will have
to be very careful to have a dish and a brush
for each color, as the least particle of color in the
clear water Avill sometimes change the color of
some other dish if the two are used. Clean color
boxes, brushes, and water are the first requisites
of good rendering in color.

Colors may be obtained either in tubes, sim-
ilar to oil paints, or in pans, which are small
dishes of color. These should all be kept in a
water-color box. There are usually two palettes
or lids to this box, on which the colors may be
mixed. If there is to be any quantity of color
used, these palettes will not be large enough,
and the dishes should be used.

In the use of either color or India ink, apply
enough color to give the drawing some char-
acter; make it "snap;" do not commit the oft-
repeated offense of having your drawing look
"sickly" or have a washed-out appearance.
Attack the problem of rendering, with determi-
nation; put on the colors as colors, and not as if
you were afraid of spoiling something.

ReH, blue, and yellow are commonly called

ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 317

the three primary colors, and in combination
will give the intervening tints or colors of the
prism. Thus blue and yellow will give green;
red and yellow will give orange, and red and
blue will give violet or purple, the tints varying
according as one or the other color predominates
in the combination.

ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE

In the study of architectural history, we turn
to the Greeks and Romans for a great many
fundamental principles of design. We see that
they had proportions for everything. Adopting
some unit, the building Avas designed and
erected with this as a imit. They had certain
arrangements of a cornice, a column, and a
base which have been handed down for ages.
All of the parts had certain relations to one an-
other in size. This combination we have called
an Order.

We have four Orders which are used in archi-
tecture — the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, and Cor-
inthian. (See Figs. 83 to 86.) A fifth Order—
the so-called Composite Order — combines fea-
tures of the others.

It will be noticed that all the ornamentation
on the mouldings has been omitted for the sake
of clearness in revealing the important propor-
tions. Each Order has the three main divisions
— the entablature, column, and pedestal. In our
architectural design, the base or pedestal is

318

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

t, -CORNICC

^ ■ ARCMITI^AVe

5 • CAP-
Z ■ BASE.
I - PUINTH

Pig. 83. The Tuscan Order.

AECHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 318

usually omitted. As will be seen from the
drawings, the entablature has three divisions —
the cornice, frieze, and architrave; the column
is divided into the cap, shaft, and base; the
pedestal, into the cap, die, and base.

The entablature varies from 1% to 2i/4 times
the diameter of the column. The cornice pro-
jects from the face of the column a distance
equal to the height of the cornice in all cases
except in the Doric Order. The frieze is a flat
band or surface, sometimes ornamented. The
architrave may be made of a single band, or it
may be divided into a number of bands.

The column has a capital or top, varying
from a plain cushion to the elaborate cap of the
Corinthian and Composite Orders. The shaft,
in some Orders, is perfectly plain, while in
others it is fluted. All columns have a taper at
the top. The shaft is carried up straight for
one-third the height; and from this point it
tapers. This tapering is called entasis. The
shaft rests on a base which consists of a torus
and a plinth, or a series of toruses called an
Attic base.

The diameter of the column at the straight
portion is used as the unit of measurement for
all other parts.

Fig. 83 shows the Tuscan Order, with the
principal proportions. This is the simplest
Order, being perfectly plain. It is used a great
deal for porches, or for lower stories where there
are a series of Orders above.

320

AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING

Fig. 84. The Doric Order.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

331

Fig. 85. The Ionic Order.

322 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

Fig. 84 shows the Doric Order. This has
a great deal of oriiament, both on the soffit of
the corona (the projecting, crowning member of
the cornice), and on the mouldings. In most
modern designs, we see this Order modified
more or less.

There are two types of cornices used with
the Doric Order — one with the mutules (project-
ing flat blocks ornamented on the under sur-
face) ; and the other with the dentils (a course of
small cubes in the bed-moulding). The general
profile of the cornice is different in the two
types. The shaft is very often fluted.

Fig. 85 shows the Ionic Order, with the prin-
cipal proportions. The cornice may have
brackets called modillions, or it may have the
dentils. The capital for the column varies, the
left-hand half showing the cushion capital, and
the right half shows the volute turned at 45
degrees, thus giving all faces alike. The shaft
is fluted, and the mouldings are usually
ornamented.

Fig. 86 shows the Corinthian Order. The
main difference from the other Orders is the
capital, which is highly ornamented by means
of acanthus leaves. This Order is probably the
most dignified, and is also the most expensive.
Sometimes the shaft is fluted. The mouldings
are all greatly ornamented.

There is a variation of the Corinthian
Order, called the Composite Order, already re-
ferred to. The chief difference is in the volutes

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

323

Fig. 86. The Corinthian Order.

Ov/OLO OBSOWTEL 'elliptical OVOLO CAVtTTO

ToauS OB BEAD FILLET OR UISTEL CONfit

3/4- ROUND BtAK MOULDING 5PLAV-FACE, BEVEL OP CMAMPeO

SUNK <«NO RAlJB0^il.<-6T 5COTIA THUMB MOULOINCi

CYMA EECTA CVMA REVfRSA QUIRKED CYMA

Fig. 87. Common Torms of Classic Mouldings.
324

ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 325

of the capital, they being much larger and
tui'ned out the same way as in the true
Corinthian.

All of these Orders are modified to a greater
or less degree in all applications of them, each
architect making changes to conform to general
styles he is using on the building. The propor-
tions, however, cannot be varied much without
spoiling the general effect of the Order.

Fig. 87 gives some of the common forms of
mouldings, with the corresponding names.

ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING

Good lettering is an essential requisite of a
good set of plans. A di^awing poorly executed
but lettered attractively and well, will look a
great deal better than one which is well drawn
but which is poorly lettered. Therefore, at the
start, let it be said that a draftsman needs to be
a good letterer as well as a good draftsman.

We find lettering used with the earliest art
of the Egyptians. These ancient people ex-
pressed their thoughts by means of s^Tobols,
more or less geometrical in outline. These in-
scriptions we find in the oldest of our Bibhcal
writings ; they were worked in stone and wi'itten
on their papyrus. The forms used are called
hieroglyphics, and students of ancient languages
have been able to translate these strange
characters.

The Greeks and Romans had characters very

326 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

similar to ours. We have copied their forms,
and use them to-day for, our letters. Some of
the inscriptions on the ancient Greek and
Roman temples are splendid examples of letter-
ing, as to both form and spacing.

The first principle to remember is that good
lettering comes from freehand work, and not a
mechanical product. The tendency of the begin-
ner, especially, is to make all letters by means
of straight edges and drawing instruments.
The difference in the two methods is evident
when we compare work of the two kinds. The
printed letter such as is used for newspaper
headlines, and the title as executed on a set of
drawings, show very clearly that the former is
too mechanical and stiff, while the latter, if well
executed, is much the more attractive. Then
again, freehand lettering can be adjusted to the
general type of the drawing.

After the graceful ease and ready adapta-
bility of freehand work, the next requisite in
good achitectural lettering is simplicity. The
simpler the letter, the easier made, and the
better the general effect. Examples illustrating
this can be seen in the effect of highly orna-
mental letters in newspaper advertising.

Learn to make the titles the same as a free-
hand sketch. Make plenty of strokes of the
pencil; get the general shape of the letters, and
the spacing. Do not attempt to make each letter
with one stroke of the pencil.

After having made the title with several out-

■A.-w

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z >

^ ^x

=3 J

*^*^

AECHITECTUIUL DKAFPIXG 327

lines, then go over this, and the final lettering
can be done from this sketch of the letters. Get
the general proportions and shapes first, to-
gether with the spacing, before trying to get a
finished title. Develop the title as a whole, and
let the small details of each letter be the last
thing attempted.

The effect of the spacing of letters upon the
general appearance of the title, will be seen
from the accompanying illustrations of ex-
amples. Study the available space for the title;

■■BEER

Fig. 88. Forms and Proportions of Letters.

and make the size, style, and spacing of the
letters to suit the conditions. The guide lines,
with perhaps a few lines limiting the edges of
the letters, are the only mechanical lines that
should be used.

It will be well to consider some of the letter
forms, in order to understand just how they are
made to look the best. See Fig. 88. The A is
made wide enough at the bottom to give the
appearance of stability. The cross-line should
always be below the center, for, if exactly on
the center, the upper portion appears too small
for the base. The B should have the upper half

328 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

smaller than the lower, both as to the width and
the cross-line. It appears over-balanced if the
upper half is made exactly like the lower half.
The C should have the upper projection of the
curve a little less than the lower. E should be
smaller above the center line than below. The
cross-line of F, H, and R should be the same.
G should be similar to C in the greater projec-
tion of the lower part of the curve. P, because
it has no lower portion, should be made a little
larger than one-half the height. S should have
the upper half the smaller. X and Y usually
have their intersection on the center line.

By keeping these facts in mind, the appear-
ance of the letters will be much improved.

For different styles of titles, where certain
types of letters are used, the above rules will
be modified; but for general work they should
be followed.

Single-line letters are used almost entirely in
lettering plans and drawings.

Spacing of Letters. As to the spacing, there
is no set rule for standard dimensions ; but a few
rules may be given as a guide. Letters which
have vertical and parallel sides coming together,
are spaced the greatest distance apart. Take H
and B, for example; these require the largest
space. In. case of a curve, as an O or a C, with
an N or an H, the spacing will be about two-
thirds of that for the H and the N. This same
rule will hold for the curve of a D with an N or
M or any letter with a vertical line.

AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 329

If two curves come together — as, for ex-
ample, a C and a G, or a B and a C — the space
is slightly less than for N and 0.

If A and V come together, make the lower
point of the A come directly under the upper
point of the V ; there should be no vertical space
between these letters. A or V, with O or B,
will have about the same spacing as two curves,
such as B and C or C and 0.

While the above rules are only general, yet
they will serve as a guide.

When marks of punctuation are used, the
spacing will have to be increased over that of
the regular arrangement. The spacing between
words depends upon the style of letter used and
the available space. Increasing the spacing will
make the words more prominent.

In doing all letter work, it should first be
penciled completely, before any inking is done.
It is much easier to erase and make changes
while the title is still in pencil than after it is
inked. The ink will emphasize all irregularities.

The tendency of the beginner is to use too
fine a pen. A new pen is always hard to work
with, since it makes a thin hair line. Sometimes
a new pen can be made to work more easily, by
heating the point with a match. This will
render it more flexible, although the pen will
not last so long. Be very careful to make the
same thickness of line for all parts of the letters,
and for all letters of the title. It will require
practice to be able to use the pen satisfactorily.

330 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

The inks can be any of the ready-mixed
India inks. These are very satisfactory, and are
much more convenient than giinding the ink
from an India ink stick. Since the prepared
inks evaporate and therefore thicken when ex-
posed to the air, the cork of the bottle should
always be at once replaced after filling the pen.
Some grades of black writing ink may be
used, although the India ink is much more
satisfactory.

Almost all of the drawing papers will take
ink. Tracing paper and tracing cloth are used
a great deal. Bristol board is used where letter-
ing is employed, as for an inscription, or
where it is not a part of a drawing.

In lettering, first rule the guide-lines in
pencil; then pencil the letters, and then ink.
There is no rule for holding the pen; be sure to
learn to have a free and easy stroke. By
practice, learn to have a uniform line ; and have
confidence in your ability before you start.
Usually the beginner is a little backward when
starting the lettering on a sheet. By practicing
vertical lines, inclined lines, and curves, one
gradually learns the use of the pen. It should be
noted that the strokes are all downward; and
a curve, as for O, is made up of a series of
strokes. There will be difficulty in getting
straight lines and curves of the same size.

In penciling, always use a soft pencil, one
free from grit. Make the lines as light as pos-
sible, so that thev can be erased with as little

AECHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 331

pressure as possible. Keep the paper as free
from erased lines as possible, as the erasing
tends to destroj^ the general sui'face of the
paper, and makes it much more difficult to ink
properly upon it. Should a mistake be made,
after the ink has become thoroughly dry, use
an ordinary pencil eraser, and rub gently in all
directions. Stop at short intervals to allow the
eraser to cool, as it will smear the ink if it
becomes too hot from rubbing. After the eras-
ing, take some smooth, hard surface — be sure it
is clean — and rub gently over the erased surface
to give a smooth finish to the paper. Some
think that a regular ink eraser is necessary to
remove the ink; but the pencil eraser will do the
work better and leave the surface of the paper
in much better condition. The work of erasing
will be slow and tedious, but it should be care-
fully done.

The size of letter will depend upon the space,
if the space is limited. Otherwise the letter
should be made to correspond to the size of the
drawing, a large, full-size drawing requiring a
large letter, while a quarter-inch scale drawing
will require a small letter. By a careful study of
proportions, one can make a drawing look the
best. Poor judgment in this respect will often
spoil a well-drawn plan.

Titles are put on every sheet of a set of draw-
ings. Each drawing on the sheet must have a
single-line title; and each sheet must have a title
complete, giving th€ nsbme of the work, the

332 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING

client's name, the location, the scale, and some-
tunes the date. For the convenience of the
architect, he usually places in one corner his
name, the number of the sheet, the job number,
the initials of the different men who made the
drawing, and the date. This gives him his
record for filing the set of drawings.

Choose a style of letter that will be clear and
simple. Wliile the architect has more liberty in
the choice and spacing of letters than the
engineer, yet the fundamental principle is clear-
ness. Capitals are used almost entirely for
titles, and small letters for notes of all kinds.

TnE'^ADfOKD A -rLh \TECTURAV_ Cc

i Z 3 4' 5 6 7 8 8 lO II 12 13 w- lis l« 17 IS 19 20 £• 22 23 £<» 2S iC eT 2»

CHICAGO IlLLlMOlS

I 2 3 4. t>' 6 •/ 8) 9 10 II 12 13 I* (VI*

T |CH)TKTU]^ALC(p'

\\ LLIN0I5'

tt Z-i ZZ 21 20 19 18 17 tfc !

T DrORD A2tniTCCTURALC0-

o • Illimois-

rig. 89. Method of Centering a Title.

In laying out a title, there is usually a cer-
tain space it will have to occupy; therefore the
title must be centered about a vertical center
line through this space. The method of center-
ing a title is showna in Fig. 89. Decide upon the
wording, and write out each line as it is to be
copied. Upon a piece of scratch-paper, spell out

ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 333

the letters in each line, numbering each letter in
order, and also the spaces between the letters.
The center of each line is then evident.

Lay out the center line of the space to be
occupied on the drawing, and, after drawing the
guide-lines, start at the center line, and com-
mence sketching in the letters, first to the right,
as shown in the third line. Fig. 89. Thus the
right half of the title is sketched first. Now
take a piece of paper, and lay off to the left the
same distance as the right half extends to the
right. This gives us a starting point for the
left half. This part may be worked either from
the left to the right, or, as shown in the fifth
line, the letters may be placed in the order as

•Interior Deltails-

•Rlsidlnce: • ^oI^ Hom - A- 5-P5Zaplr-

- AUDAMV - - - yVELW YOJZK-

•Ja^.M-WhITE. S. 5tTH JTe-mpll-

• ASiOCI ATEID AtSCHITELCTS •
-VyEBANA - luHNOlS*

Fig. 90. Airangement of a Title Showing Symmetry but not
Mechanical Stiffness.

numbered. A little experience will enable one
to lay out a title quickly and accurately in this
manner.

Having the general arrangement in pencil,
go over it carefully, and make the letters,
properly spaced and in good outline. The title
is then ready for inking. In all titles, let the
composition or spacing be such that while the
title as a whole shall be symmetrical, its general

3g4 ARCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING

/j^cniTCcrucAL

■ LXlTTLR^

TlTLn^°-OHLn.T5-

a bode f^ hi i klron
• oparsi'uww^Yz:-
<Zor)'^cri\en{ fordll nofct>

ADCDnrGhij

KLMN0PQR5T
-UVWXYZ-

'-Scale 7 incK^ 1 foof-

Fig. 91. Easily-Made Letters for General Drawingi

ARCHITECTURAL DRAFPIXG 335

AKHlTtCTDLM
LLTTLRJ

abcdcf^hijklran
opcjn/luvwxyz

A §00 d Icticr for
Inv/criptioDi' and
General nolcj-. A
Di^nifio4 letter-

khCDLYGWK
LMNOPQUTV
VWXYZ —
•FRONT ILLVATION-

Fig. 92. A Dignified Type of Letter for Inscriptions. General

Notes, etc.

336 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING

AECHITCCTURAL
LETTERS

A3 CD^raHIJKLMNO

ABCBEF^GHIJKL

MMOPaRSTVV
— WXYZ -
- EIURVATION -

Pig. 93. Showing Double-Line Letters Used Largely for General

Titles.

ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTOTG 337

A P /^ T— I I T*?* r T'l TO A 1

LLTTLR^

APCDnrq/-\!jK.

V V/XYZ ' ACJ^^^'P
LrTTLK r^'-^K

Fig. 91 Letters Suitabl* for Large-Scale and Full-Sized Dfttails.

1 .,

(j
z

h
h
u
~i

J
u

U o

E O

L -J

n <

J QJ

1- ^

o
o
J

^ ^ 'O 5^

- -^ ) bo

^ ^ s

6^^

o
CQ

338

DE>ieTX uF A COUET HuUst FOR A SMALL CITY

ELETATIOX AXD PLAX EEXDEEED IX WASH.
PLATE H — Akchitectural Dkattixg.

AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 339

ARCHITECTURAL
LLTTZRJ

A CrOODJTYLL or
LLTTZR^'- rULL
51ZL DLTAILJ-

<^hc4e/^hfjk.fmr)opejrs{-
u V vjxyz. - /Z2>45C7&eO-

DLTAIU or£,00K

CASZ - NOTL- M.U

all aoor^ to slide. — =-*

Fig. 96. A Good Form of Slanting Letter for Large Work and
Full-Sized Details.

340 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING

outline shall not be inclosed by straight lines.
A line, for example, connecting the ends of the
different lines of a title should not be straight,
but irregular, as shown in Fig. 90. Try to avoid
making the lines exactly the same length.
Where the same general title is to be used on a
number of drawings of a set, it is very con-
venient to make the title in pencil on a piece of
paper, and trace it through the tracing cloth
for the finished drawing. This saves a great
deal of time, and gives a uniform title for every
sheet.

The styles of letters mostly in use by archi-
tects are shown in Figs. 91 to 96.

Fig. 91 presents an easy substantial title,
quickly made, and very clear. This form of
letter will be found very satisfactory for general
di^awings.

Fig. 92 shows a type of letter largely used.
It has a dignified appearance, is suitable espe-
cially for inscriptions on tablets or buildings,
and is quickly and easily made.

Fig. 93 shows a form of double-line letter,
very quickly made ; this letter is used largely for
general titles.

Fig. 94 shows a good style of letter to use on
full-sized details and large-scale details. It is
made by several strokes of the pen. Long lines
are hard to make; therefore the long lines are
made up of a series of short lines. Wlien well
done, it makes a very attractive form of letter
to use. The figure is small, and the true values

ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 341

of the broken lines do not show up as they do
on large work.

Fig. 95 is a sheet showing the relative sizes
of letters to use on a drawing. The small letters
may be made either slanting or vertical.

It is much easier to make a slanting line than
a vertical line. Irregularities show less in slant-
ing letters than in vertical letters, and for
this reason some architects use a slanting letter
entirely. The vertical letter, however, is much
more dignified, and, when well done, is more
satisfactory.

Fig. 96 is a good form of slanting letter for
full-size detailing and large work.

It is as true of drafting as it is of every other
branch of worthy human endeavor. Experience
is the one great and indispensable teacher. Just
as we learn to sing by singing, and to build
houses by building them, so we learn to draw
by drawing; and it is only by persistent
practice on the part of the draftsman that the
highest proficiency can be acquired.

INDEX

Architectural Drafting

PAGE

Aligraphy 240

Apron 296

Architecture, Colonial 2l9

Architectural Drafting 187

Architectural Drawings 194

Architectural Forms 244

Architectural Lettering 325

Architrave 217

Back -Lining 296

Balusters 285

Base 217

Bay Window 296

Blue-Printing 238

Box Cornice 268

Brackets 269

Brick Moulds 296

Buildings, Types of 220

Building Lines 249

Built-Up Doors 279

Cap 217

Capital 217

Carriages 285

Casing

Inside 296

Outside 296

Casement Windows 289

Colonial Architecture 219

Colors, Primary 317

Column 217

Competition Drawings 203

Composite Order 317

Composition of a Building
Construction

Details of 268

Floor 271

Materials of 25&

Corinthian Order 317

Cornice 217, 268

Box 268

Open 268

PAGE

Counter-Flashing 276

Crown-Mould 269

Deadening Material 273

Dentil Course 269

Details of Construction 268

Die 217

Dimension Lines 249

Doric Order 317

Dormer Windows 296

Doors 279

Built-Up 279

Stock 279

Double-Hung Windows 289

Drawings

Architectural 194

Competition 203

Eeproducing 238

Wash 310

Working 206

Elevation, The 216

Elevations, Treatment of... 221
Entablature 217

Fascia 269

Fireplaces 284

Flashing and Counter-
Flashing 276

Floor Construction 271

Deadening Material 273

Under-Floor 272

Flue, Vent 252

Forms, Architectural 244

Fresh- Air Supply 252

Frieze 217

Ground, The 296

Gutter 270

IXDEX

34:i

PAGE

Header 273

Hectograph Process 240

India-Ink 310

Ionic Order 317

Joists 272

Lath and Plaster 274

Lettering

Architectural 325

Spacing 328

Library 220

Lines

Building 249

Dimension 249

Lining, Back 296

Lookout 269

Materials of Construction. . . 255
Muntins 289

Office Building 220

Open Cornice 268

Openings, Location of 226

Orders, Use of the 216

Orders of Architecture 317

Parting Strip 296

Pedestal 217

Pen and Ink Rendering 305

Perspective Sketches 203

Pivoted Windows 289

Plan, The 206

Planceer 269

Plank-Framed Windows 290

Plaster 274

Plinth 217

Porch Construction 280

Preliminary Sketches 194

Primary Colors 3i 7

I'AGE

Pulley Stile 296

Rendering, Pen and Ink. . . . 305

Reproducing Drawings 238

Riser 285

Roof Windows 296

Sash 289

Scale Details 227

Sehoolhouse 220

Section, The 22'i

Shades and Shadows 259

Shadows, Shades and 259

Shaft 217

Shrinkage 277

Sill ...\ 296

Single-Light Windows 28?

Sketches

Perspective 203

Preliminary 194

Sketching . .' 298

Fundamental Principles... 298

Method 301

Soffit '^69

Staff-Head 296

Stairs 284

Stile, Pulley 296

Stock Doors 279

Stool 296

Strip, Parting 296

Sub-Jamb 296

Symbols, Architectural 244

Threshold 280

Tracing Cloth 243

Transom 289

Tread 285

Treatment of Elevations. . . . 221

Tuscan Order 317

Types of Buildings 220

Under- Floor , 272

Use of the Orders 216

Veneer 279

:>A4 IxNDEX

W PAGE

PACK Bay 296

Warehouse 221 Casement 289

Wash Drawings 310 Dduble-Hunj; 2S9

Metliod 310 Pivoted 289

Water-Tahle 217 Plank- Franit'd 290

Watei-Colors iU);!, 310 Kouf 296

White-Priiitiii- 2:S9 Single-Lioht 288

Windows 288, -^ii Working Drawings 20(j

MODEL HOUSE DESIGNS

SUPPLEMENT— PART 11

A Collection of Forty-one Well-planned, Modern, and Distinc-
tive Residence Designs Prepared by a Corps of
Skilled Licensed Architects

Any one of these designs may be adopted with the certainty
that it is in the best architectural style, and will make
an attractive, convenient, successful dwelling

Model House Designs Supplement — Part I, Containing Forty-two

Well-planned Residences, will be found in

•Radford's Drafting," Vol. I

THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL COMPAJNY

1827-33 Prairie Ave., Chicago

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Index to House Plan Supplement — Part II

— Estimated Cost —

Price of Plans

Design.

Page.

From About

To About

and Specifications

LM105-D

$2,500

$2,800

$12.00

2544-D

3,500

4,000

15.00

5127

2,275

2,425

10.00

6501

2,825

3,225

18.00

6502

3,800

4,200

24.00

6503

6,500

6,900

30.00

6504

3,000

3,400

22.00

6505

4,900

5,200

26.00

6506

2,800

3,200

20.00

6507

6,000

6,200

28.00

()508

3,125

3,325

22.00

6509

2,800

3,200

16.00

6510

3,800

4,200

18.00

6511

5,200

5,600

26.00

6512

3,150

3,550

16.00

6513

2,200

2,400

16.00

6514

5,600

5,800

28.00

6515

4,675

4,975

18.00

6516

2,875

3,275

20.00

6517

4,800

5,200

26.00

6518

3,800

4,200

22.00

6519

2,625

3,025

16.00

6520

4,100

4,500

24.00

6521

4,400

4,800

24.00

6522

6,000

6,200

28.00

6523

2,700

3,100

16.00

6524

6,000

6,400

28.00

6525

6,400

6,800

30.00

6526

2,475

2,875

18.00

6527

7,500

8,000

24.00

6528

4,200

4,600

24.00

6529

4,250

4,650

26.00

6530

5,000

5,500

20.00

6531

6,600

7,000

30.00

6532

3,200

3,600

20.00

6533

3,200

3,475

22.00

6534

6,200

6,600

30.00

9507

3,200

3,800

IS.OO

9509

3.200

3,800

18.00

9510

2,800

3,400

18.00

9520

3,075

3,475

22.00

Plans and Specifications at Low Cost

WE ILLUSTRATE IN THIS BOOK the

perspective view and floor plans ot 41 Mod-
ern Residences. In drawing tiese plans
special effort has been made to provide for
the most economical construction, thereby
giving the home builder and contractor the
benefit of the saving of many dollars.

$200.00 PLANS FOE ONLY $20.00— This
department has for its foundation the best
equipped architectural establishment ever
maintained for the purpose of furnishing the
public with complete working jjlans and
specifications at the remarkable low price of
only $10.00 to $30.00 per set. Every plan we
illustrate has been designed by a licensed
architect, who stands at the head of his pro-
fession in this particular class of work.

WHAT WE GIVE YOU— The first ques-
tion you will ask is, ' ' What do we get in
these complete working plans and specifica-
tions? Of what do they consist? Are they
the cheap printed plans on tissue paper with-
out details or specifications?" We do not
blame you for wishing to know what you
will get for your money.

BLUE PRINTED WORKING PLANS—
The plans we send out are the regular blue
printed plans, drawn one-quarter inch scale
to the foot, showing all the elevations, floor
plans and necessary interior details. We use
the very best grade of blue-printing paper;
every line and figure showing perfect and
distinct.

FOUNDATION AND CELLAR PLANS—
This sheet shows the shape and size of all
the walls, piers, footings, posts, etc., and of
what materials they are constructed; shows
the location of all windows, doors, chimneys,
ash-pits, partitions, and the like. The differ-
ent wall sections are given, showing their
construction and measurements from all the
different pjoints.

FLOOR PLANS— These plans show the
shape and size of all rooms, halls and closets;
the location and size of all doors and win-

dows; the position of all plumbing fixtures,
gas lights, registers, pantry work, etc., and
all the measurements that are necessary are

given.

ELEVATIONS— A front, right, left and
rear elevation are furnished with all the
plans. These drawings are complete and ac-
curate in every respect. They show the
shape, size and location of all doors, windows,
porches, cornices, towers, bays, and the like;
in fact, give you an exact scale picture of
the house as it should be at completion. Full
wall sections are given, showing the construc-
tion from foundation to roof, the height of
stories between the joists, height of plates,
pitch of roof, etc.

ROOF PLAN— This plan is furnished
where the roof construction is at all in-
tricate. It shows the location of all hips,
valleys, ridges, decks, etc. All the above
drawings are made to scale one-quarter inch
to the foot.

DETAILS— All necessary details of the
interior work, such as door and window cas-
ings and trim, base, stools, picture moulding,
doors, newel posts, balusters, rails, etc., ac-
company each set of plans. Part is shown
in full size, while some of the larger work,
such as stair construction, is drawn to a
scale of one and one-half inch to the foot.

SPECIFICATIONS— The specifications are
tyjiewritten on Lakeside Bond Linen paper.
They consist of twenty-two pages of closely
typewritten matter, giving full instructions
for carrying out the work. All necessary di-
rections are given in the clearest and most
explicit manner, so that there can be no
possibility of a misunderstanding.

BASIS OF CONTRACT— The working
plans and specifications we furnish can be
made the basis of contract between the home
builder and the contractor. This will pre-
vent mistakes, whieh cost money, and they
will prevent disputes which are unforeseen
and never settled satisfactorily to both par-

jes. When no plans are used the contractor
is often obliged to do some work he did not
figure on, and the home builder does not get
as much for his money as he expected, simply
because there was no basis on which to work
and upon which to base the contract.

NO MISUNDERSTANDING CAN ARISE
when a set of our plans and specifications is
before the contractor and the home builder,
showing the interior and exterior construc-
tion of the house as agreed upon in the con-
tract. Many advantages may be claimed for
the complete plans and specifications. They
are time savers, and, therefore, money savers.
Workmen will not have to wait for instruc-
tions when a set of plans is left on the job.
They will prevent mistakes in cutting lum
ber, in placing door and window frames, and
in many other places where the contractor is
not on the work and the men have received
onl}' partial or indefinite instructions. Thej'
also give instructions for the working of all
material to the best advantage.

OUR LIBERAL PRICES— Many have
marveled at our ability to furnish such ex-
cellent and complete working plans and
specifications at such low prices. We do not
wonder at this, because we charge but .$10.00
to .$.30.00 for a more complete set of work-
ing plans and specifications than you would
receive if ordered in the ordinary manner,
and when drawn especially for you, at a cost
of from $75.00 to $200.00. On account of
our large business and unusual equipment,
and owing to the fact that we divide the
cost of these plans among so many, it is pos
sihle for us to sell them at these low prices.
The margin of profit is very small, but it
enables us to sell thousands of sets of plans,
which save many times their cost to both
the owner and the contractor in erecting
even the smallest dwelling.

OUR GUARANTEE— Perhaps there are
many who feel that they are running some

risk in ordering plans at a distance. We
wish to assure our customers that there is no
risk whatever. If, upon receipt of these
plans, you do not find them exactly as rep-
resented, if you do not find them complete
and accurate in every respect, if you do not
find them as well prepared as those furnished
by any architect in the country, or any that
you have ever seen, we will refund your
money upon the return of the plans from
you in perfect condition. All of our plans
are prepared by architects standing at the
head of their profession, and the standard
of their work is the very highest. We could
not afford to make this guarantee if we were
not positive that we were furnishing the
best plans put out in this country, even
though our price is not more than one-sev-
enth to one-tenth of the price usually
charged.

ESTIMATED COST— It is impossible for
anyone to estimate the cost of a building
and have the figures hold good in all sec-
tions of the country. We do not claim to
be able to do it. The estimated cost of the
houses we illustrate is based on the most
favorable conditions in all respects, and in-
cludes everything but the plumbing and
heating. We are not familiar with your
local conditions, and, should we claim to
know the exact cost of a building in your
locality, a child would know that our state-
ment was false. We leave this matter in the
hands of the reliable contractors, for they,
and they alone, know your local conditions.

IMMEDIATE DELIVERY GUARAN-
TEED — Our equipment and facilities arc
such that we can send out the same day wo
receive order the complete plans and speci-
fications for any house we illustrate. De-
livery is made by express whenever possi-
ble, otherwise plans and specifications are
forwarded by mail.

THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO.

IT SHOWS YOU HOW

To Accomplish More — How to Make More — How to Save
Money, Time and Labor — How You Can Equip Yourself For

Better Building and Bigger Contracts

A year's subscription to the AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER,
"the World's Greatest Building Paper," is a wise investment for any Contractor,
Builder, Carpenter or Woodworker — an investment _ that will return remarkable
dividends of reliable, practical informa'ion — that will give full value in every number.

American Carpenter and Builder

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By Nearly ^WjWVr Subscribers

The AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER covers the building industry
thoroughly, its many departments being complete in descriptions and illustrations.
Not only are the time-tried and approved methods of construction shown, but also
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glass, painting, builders' hardware, water supply, lighting, decoration, etc.

Original and Up-to-Date Plans for Builders

Every issue of the AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER contains per-
spective views, floor plans and details of modern and moderate-cost residences,
schoolhouses, farm buildings, bungalows, cement houses, f^ats and other public and
private structures. These house plans are all original, complete and absolutely correct.
They are reproduced so clearly that they can be used to work from "on the job" if
desired.

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The AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER contains more pages of read-
ing matter each month than any other building publication. Its contents are better
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There are from 148 to 172 pages in every number of the AMERICAN CARPEN-
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AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER is a valuable, indispensable, correct

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THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO.

1827-33 Prairie Avenue Chicago, 111.

DETAILS

of Building Construction

Radford's Portfolio of "Details of Build
ing Construction" is a complete manual ol
buildins practice, as applied to carpentry,
construction and the use of millwork. It
is a remarkable collection of full-page
plates, accurately drawn and reproduced
to exact scale, showing clearly every detail
of modern building construction and finisli.
These plates make plain the framing and
construction of residences of every type.
The drawings show both the arranfgement
of the room and all the interior trim, includ-
ing built-in features, fully detailed.

General Synopsis of Contents

PART I. Details of Construction and Finish

38 Full Page Plates, showing complete details
of iiiterioi- trim with sjn-cial "built-in" features
for every room and part of a modern residence.

PART II. Details of Frame and Masonry
Construction

44 Full Page Plates, presenting a graded series
of 197 figures detailing completely every point in
irame, brick and stone construction. ! 200 Pages — 9x12 inchei

PART III. Details of Miscellaneous Building PART IV. "The Handy Man's Friend"

57 Full Page Plates— A veritable Treasure How to Make a Thousand and One Useful

Tlouse of jiractical and reliable information Things

for carpenters and builders— especially those gt Pages, packed full of practical helps for

workmg m the country— working drawuigs and fioine all the virions nieces of work that the

details which solve completely every building carpfnter and thl '•^4ndy-.T;^ln-about-tl Ye-

pioblem. house" is called upon to do. Details and work-
ing drawings with brief explanatory text.

A Big, Brand-New Up-to-the-Minute Book

Every part of a building and every kind of a building is shown in Radford's
Portfolio of "Details of Building Construction." All dimensions, angles, curves,
measurements and joints are made so plain and are so well illustrated that the "man
on the job" will have no troul:)le or difficulty in doing the work. It has all been
figured out for him by men who have made a lifelong study and success of architecture
and building. This is tlie day of "built in"' space- and labor-saving features in the home.
Carpenters are called upon to plan and Ijuild buffets and sideboards for the dining
room, kitchen cal)inets, cases and cupboards for the kitchen and pantry, bookcases
for the living room and library, wardrobes and linen closets for the chambers, fire-
places with wood mantels, window seats, etc. Radford's Portfolio of "Details of Build-
ing Construction" is a regular gold mine of new and attractive designs and practical
ideas from which the carpenter or the architect or the builder can draw for all or
anv of these. In every case complete details are presented — all accurately drawn to
scale — so that the work can 1)e gotten out directly from the Portfolio, if need be,
without redrawing.

Two Hundred Pages of Illustrations

F.acli plate and drawing is accompanied 1))' descri])ti\o text, pointing out the special
features and making every part perfectly clear and easily understood.

Bound in cloth with handsome illuminated cover. Price, postpaid, $i.oo.

THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO,

1827-33 Prairie Avenue Chicago, III.

BUNGALOW^ BOOK

208 Brand-New Designs

This handsomely bound book,
size 8x11 inches, 224 pages, con-
tains perspective views and floor
plans of 208 Buno^alows suitable for
anv climate and for every material.
The illustrations show the Bunga-
lows exactly as they will appear
when built and the floor plans show
the size and arrangement of the
rooms, windows, closets, plumbing
and interior details. The estimated
cost of construction of the Bunga-
lows shown ranges from $500.00 to
$5,000.00 each.

Best Ideas in Bungalow Archi-
tecture

In this big book is condensed the
best thought on Bungalow construc-
tion. The home builder and con-
tractor will find here every style of
Bungalow that has proved itself
worthy of being classed with that
form of architecture. Freak ideas
that serve no good purpose, but are
an item of large expense, have been carefully excluded from this collection.

Largest Bungalow Book Ever Published

"Artistic Bungalows" is the largest and most complete work of its kind
ever published. In its 208 Bungalow designs are many that will appeal to
every taste. Economy of construction, as Avell as beauty and harmony of
design, has been carefully kept in mind. Convenience of interior arrange-
ment, light, and closet room have all been considered.

Plans Are Guaranteed to Be Correct

The plans for every Bungalow shown in this book were drawn by
licensed architects, men who have made a life study of home construction
and who know the economy of planning buildings that allow of the use of
the standard sizes of lumber and material.

Wide Range of Style and Materials

Every floor plan shown in this large collection is guaranteed to be abso-
lutely correct from an architectural standpoint. "Pet ideas" that involve
needless expense, waste, or possibility of mistake have not been considered.

Bound in cloth, with handsome illuminated cover. Price, postpaid, $i.oo.

THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO

1827-33 Prairie Avenue Chicago, 111.

FRAMING

House Framing, Barn
Framing, Roof Framing

"Framing" is the largest book of
its kind ever published. It consists
of 356 pages, size 6x9 inches, and
printed from large, clear type on a
high-grade book paper. More than
100 pages of illustrated details make
it most valuable.

This large new book, "Framing,"
is written so that any reader can
understand every page, every term
used and every detail shown. It is
entirely free from technicalities, and
yet its pages are meaty with instruc-
tions to all classes of builders, from
the youngest apprentice to the
journeyman, as well as the practical
builder and the largest contractor.

Practical information is the key-
note of "Framing." By practical, wc
mean information that can be suc-
cessfully applied to the everyday
work of the average carpenter,
builder and contractor, as well as the
more intricate forms of framing that
come less often, but about which it
is necessary to be fully posted. The
book presents problems as they have
been worked out by well-known
aroliitccts and the man on the job.

General Synopsis of Contents

Part I. Framing for all Types of Houses

Chapter 1. Ordinary Frame Houses — Fram-
ing complete, from foundation to roof

Chapter 2. Roof Framing Simplified

Chai)ter 3. Stair Building Simjilificd

Chapter 4. Cement Plastered and English
Half-Timber Hou.so.s

Chapter 5. Wood Framing for brick veneer
houses

Chapter 6. Wood Framing for stone and
brick houses
Part II. Barn Framing Complete

Chapter 1. Heavy Timber Barns

Chapter 2. Plank Framing

Chapter 3. Balloon or Self-Supporting Con-
struction

Part III. Framing of Factories, Stores and
Public Buildings
Chapter 1. Mill Construction
Chapter 2. ^Vood Trusses of all kinds
Chapter 3. Architectural Framing as in
churches, gymnasiums, halls, etc.
Part !V. Miscellaneous Framing

Cliaplei- I. ScatToliling and Shoring
Chapter L'. Wooden Biiilgos
Chapter .'). False Work for Concrete
Part V. Useful Tables and Data
Part VI. Dictionary of Terms and Index

All terms used in framing, building con-
struction and arcliitectui"e defined and
e.xplained, with cross reference to full
discussion in body of book

A Big, Practical, Up-to-the-Minute Book for the Architect, Drafts-
man, Construction Man, Contractor, Builder and Carpenter

Bound in cloth, with handsome illuminated cover. Price, postpaid, $1.00.

THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO.

1827-33 Prairie Avenue Chicago, IlL

BRICK HOUSES

And How to Build Them

This book is a complete and
clear maiuril of brick construction,
designs and details. It tells what
every builder should know of the
classification and measurements of
brickwork, together with archi-
tects' drawings of framing for brick
houses and the use of brick veneer.

Up-to-Date and Approved
Methods

This book also tells of the mis-
cellaneous uses of brick, including
ornamental brick and tile work,
chimney and flue construction,
brick fireplaces, brick sewers, cis-
terns and flush tanks, etc. It tells
the carpenter and builder every-
thing he should know to undertake
brickwork and how to make a suc-
cess of every job in which brick is
used. It is so clearly illustrated
by details that there can be no un-
certainty in any builder's mind as
to each successive step to be taken.

Money-Maker and Business-Getter for Builders

This book will be a money-maker and business-p-etter for builders. Brick houses
are in demand. Many thousands of dollars are being spent by brick manufacturers
in advertising so as to create a demand for their product. This has stimulated a
desire on the part of those intending to build to insist upon brick instead of other
materials. Every builder should learn all he can about the many varieties of brick
and the multitude of ways it can be used in order to meet this demand. In addition
to designs of many beautiful, attractive, medium priced houses this book also contains
fully worked-out detail drawings, as well as prices and estimating data.

Beautiful Designs Shown

Over sixty designs of the very best modern architectural work are presented in
this book. These designs are of attractive, substantial, homelike brick houses of
many types — designs that will appeal to home lovers and the man or woman who is
investing the savings of a lifetime in a home. This book will give any builder all
the information he needs to figure on a job and then carry it out in the most ap-
proved manner. In all sections of the country the demand for brick houses is grow-
ing. Builders are finding out they must post up on brick construction. They are
being asked its cost, durability, economy and hundreds of similar questions. They
can find the answers by studying the pages of this book.

Size 8xir inches, 236 pages. Bound in cloth with handsome art cover. Price,
postpaid, $1.00.

THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO.

1827-33 Prairie Avenue Chicago, 111.

EiA[5)F(o)lAl§)'

AND HOW TO BUILD THEM

STEEL SQUARE And Its Uses

"Steel Square and Its Uses,"
by Win. A. Radford, consists
of two volumes and are brand
new books. They are written
in plain, everyday lany^uage
and the text and illustrations
can be easily understood and
followed. Information of value
tliat has appeared in former
works appears in these books,
together with a vast amount of
absolutely new, practical, every-
day information, such as is nec-
essary for every progressive
and successful carpenter to
know.

Vast Amount of Prac-
tical Information

This up-to-date and practical
work on the application of the
steel square treats of the laying
'of the rafters, finding the
length of jacks, securing bevels,
laying' out hopper bevels, show-
ing how to use the steel square
as a calculating macliine, and
liow to measure solids, surfaces
and distances. While the text
and descriptive matter are so
accurate and easy of compre-
hension that they could be
understood witliout even the assistance of the illustrations, nevertheless the book has
been thoroughly and profusely illustrated with diagrams and drawings.

Over 300 Illustrations

Practical and instructive illustrations to the number of more than 300 are shown
in these books. The illustrations are not technical, mathematical designs nor
geometrical problems, but are the thoroughly practical illustrations of a thoroughly
practical text.

Special Chapters on Stair Building

Special chapters are devoted to that part of stair building to which the steel
square can be applied. Other chapters discuss tlie adjustal)le fence, roof framing,
hip roof framing, hoppers and hopper bevels, combination squares, key to the steel
square, possibilities of the steel square, polygons and miters, pitches and roof framing
aud miscellaneous rules and examples.

A Department of Questions and Answers

Incorporated in Volump 2 is one of the most
useful. Interesting and instructive deiiai tnients
ever iirosented in a worl< of tliis cliaraoter. It
consists of numerous (luestions wiiicli liave
l)een sent tlie editors by practical carjienteis
all over the country, together with clear and

easily understood answers. These questions
come up in every carpenter's work freiiuently
and the solutions of the problems given will
prove a valuable aid to tlie readers of "Steel
Square and Its Uses."

Books Are Absolutely Up-to-Date

These books are absolutely new and up-to-
date. Each volume measures 6x9 inclies and
contains over 300 pages, being the largest

books on the steel square ever published.
They are bound in cloth, with attractive cover
designs, handsomely stamped.

Price per volume, postage prepaid, $1.00.

THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO«

1827-33 Prairie Avenue

Chicago, 111.

CEMENT HOUSES

And How to Build Them

In "Cement Houses ai-d How to
Build Them," a book of 160 pages,
all types and designs of houses are
shown, ranging in price from $750
to $4,000. The plans were all drawn
by licensed architects and are guar-
anteed to be absolutely correct in
every detail.

This Large Book Contains

Illustrated Details of Cement Construc-
tion; Standard Specifications for Ce-
ment; Standard Specifications for Con-
crete Blocks; X'aluable Information Con-
cerning Waterproofing, Coloring. Ag-
gregates. Proportioning, Mixing, Paving,
Reinforcing and Monolithic Work,
Foundations, Walls, Partitions, Steps,
Stairs, Floors, Sidewalks, .Sewer Pipe,
Tile. Cement Shingles, Chimneys,
Porches, Tanks and Cisterns, Expanded
Metal Meshing, Metal Lath, Establish-
ing a Concrete Block Business, Cement,
Plaster and Stucco Work; Concrete on
the Farm; Cement Brick: How to Over-
com.e Concrete Troubles; Causes of
Cement Failures; Freezing; How to
Select Proper Aggregates; Applying Stucco to Old Walls; Examples of Strength;
Tension and Compression; Placing Reinforcing Rods; Adhesion; Dimensions " for
Beams; \'ibrations; Miscellaneous Information of Every Kind.

176 pages, size 8x11, Over 200 illustrations, with perspective views and floor

plans of eighty-seven cement plaster and concrete block houses,

finest ever designed

All houses illustrated with fine half-tone cuts, printed on enameled paper. The
illustrations show the houses exactly as they will look when built, and give a very
clear idea of their appearance. All the floor plans are shown, giving the location and
dimensions of all rooms, closets, porches, etc., with detailed information as to both
interior and exterior. The houses illustrated range from the small to the medium
large in size, such as will appeal to the average man or woman who intends to build
a home.

Keep Posted on New Developments

In these days of timber and cement houses, brick and cement houses, and other
combinations of materials, the builder and contractor who wants to be ready to do
work on all kinds of residence construction should study the latest methods and most
practical and economical ways of doing his work. He should be prepared to accept
contracts on any type of construction, be able to estimate accurately and understand
all details. New and odd ways of combining frame, stucco, concrete blocks and
veneered brick are constantly being employed, and the builder who does not have
the advantage of practical experience on this unusual work is under a serious handicap,

Bound in cloth, with handsome illuminated cover. Price, postpaid, $i.oo,

THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO.

1827-33 Prairie Avenue

Chicago, 111.

Stores and Flat Buildings

RADFORirs
SIORES C HAT
BUILDINGS

This book is entirely diflferent from
any hook of Architectural Plans ever
published, as it is composed of perspec-
tive views and plans desifrned both for
city and country buildings. Nothing like
it has ever before been within the reach
of any one desiring to build for himself
or others.

Only Book of Its Kind
"Stores and Flat Buildings" is actually
the first and only book of its kind ever
published. In other plan books designs
are shown for single residences to be
constructed on separate lots, but in this
book are given ideas for the man who
wants to have his store on the first floor
and live above it, or rent the upper flooi"
or floors. These designs combine busi-
ness and residence structures, and also
give the

Latest Ideas and Designs

in Flat Buildings of two, four, six ana
nine apartments. In nearly all good
sized towns and villages small flat build-
ings, combined with stores or entirely
for residence purposes, are becoming
more and more popular, and are prov-
ing very popular. In the suburbs of
large cities small flats or apartments
are being built more than any other type
of construction.

The owner usually lives in one of the apartments and rents the others, thus
helping him to take care of his investment.

For Country and City

In addition to the designs for stores, comlMned stores and flat buildings and
separate flat buildings, this book also illustrates small bank buildings, lodge halls
and double houses suitable for the small towns and villages as well as the larger
cities. In many small towns there is a demand for suitable places of gathering for
societies and lodges, and in numerous cases the contractor and builder, having had
no experience in this line of work, believes it necessary to apply to an architect in a
larger place to get correct plans drawn especially to order. The contractor and
builder, with this book on hand, can take care of this work himself and secure
correct and guaranteed plans at a trifling cost, plans that have been built from and
found satisfactory in every particular. The same is true of bank buildings, of which
a good selection is shown.

An Up-to-Date Book for Builders

This book shows many popular designs of the kind of building shown by its
title, suitable for diflferent building materials, such as frame, brick, stone, cement,
plaster and stucco, and cement block. An estimate of cost, based on favorable con-
ditions, is shown under each design. .An expert knowledge of the material thai goes
into buildings of this character is back of every design shown.

"Radford's Stores and Flat Buildings" is printed on high-grade super-calendered
paper from artistic half-tones and etchings. It is bound in silk cloth, with an illumi-
nated cover. Price, postpaid, $i.oo per copv.

THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO.

1827-33 Prairie Avenue Chicago, 111.