Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from NCSU Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/cottonpickerscotOOscra INTERNATIONAL LIBRARY OF TECHNOLOGY A SERIES OF TEXTBOOKS FOR PERSONS ENGAGED IN THE ENGINEERING PROFESSIONS AND TRADES OR FOR THOSE WHO DESIRE INFORMATION CONCERNING THEM. FULLY ILLUSTRATED AND CONTAINING NUMEROUS PRACTICAL EXAMPLES AND THEIR SOLUTIONS COTTOIN PICKERS COTTON CARDS DRAWING ROLLS RAILWAY HEADS AND DRAWING FRAMES COMBERS FLY FRAMES SCRANTON: INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY TO Copyrigrht, 1906, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. Cotton: Copyright, 1901. by Christopher Parkinson Brook-S. Copyright, 1905. by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. Pickers, Part 1: Copyright, 1898, 1899, by Christopher Parkinson Brooks. Copy- right, 1905, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. Pickers, Part 2: Copyright, 1899, by Christopher Parkinson Brooks. Copyright, 190.5, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. Cotton Cards: Copyright, 1899, by Christopher Parkinson Brooks. Copyright, 1905, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. Drawing Rolls: Copyright, 1899, by Christopher Parkinson Brooks- Copyright, 1903, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. Railway Heads and Drawing Frames: Copyright, 1899. by Christopher Parkinson Brooks. Copyright, 1905, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. Combers: Copyright, 1899, by Christopher Parkinson Brooks. Copyright, 1905, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. Fly Frames: Copyright. 1899, by Christopher Parkinson Brooks. Copyright, 1905, by International Textbook Company. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. All rights reserved. PrintkI) in the United States. PREFACE. The International Library of Technology is the outgrowth of a large and increasing demand that has arisen for the Reference Libraries of the International Correspondence Schools on the part of those who are not students of the Schools. As the volumes composing this Library are all printed from the same plates used in printing the Reference Libraries above mentioned, a few words are necessary regarding the scope and purpose of the instruction imparted to the students of — and the class of students taught by — these Schools, in order to afford a clear understanding of their salient and unique features. The only requirement for admission to any of the courses offered by the International Correspondence Schools, is that the applicant shall be able to read the English language and to write it sufficiently well to make his written answers to the questions asked him intelligible. Each course is com- plete in itself, and no textbooks are required other than those prepared by the Schools for the particular course selected. The students themselves are from every class, trade, and profession and from every country; they are, almost without exception, busily engaged in some vocation, and can spare but little time for study, and that usually outside of their regular working hours. The information desired is such as can be immediately applied in practice, so that the student may be enabled to exchange his present vocation for a more congenial one, or to rise to a higher level in the one he now pursues. Furthermore, he wishes to obtain a good Avorking knowledge of the subjects treated in the shortest time and in the most direct manner possible. iii iv PREFACE In meeting these requirements, we have produced a set of books that in many respects, and particularly in the general plan followed, are absolutely unique. In the majority of subjects treated the knowledge of mathematics required is limited to the simplest principles of arithmetic and mensu- ration, and in no case is any greater knowledge of mathe- matics needed than the simplest elementary principles of algebra, geometry, and . trigonometry, with a thorough, practical acquaintance with the use of the logarithmic table. To effect this result, derivations of rules and formulas are omitted, but thorough and complete instructions are given regarding how, when, and under what circumstances any particular rule, formula, or process should be applied; and whenever possible one or more examples, such as would be likely to arise in actual practice — together with their solu- tions — are given to illustrate and explain its application. In preparing these textbooks, it has been our constant endeavor to view the matter from the student's standpoint, and to try and anticipate everything that Avould cause him trouble. The utmost pains have been taken to avoid and correct any and all ambiguous expressions — both those due to faulty rhetoric and those due to insufficiency of statement or explanation. As the best way to make a statement, explanation, or description clear is to give a picture or a diagram in connection with it, illustrations have been used almost without limit. The illustrations have in all cases been adapted to the requirements of the text, and projec- tions and sections or outline, partially shaded, or full-shaded perspectives have been used, according to which will best produce the desired results. Half-tones have been used rather sparingly, except in those cases where the general effect is desired rather than the actual details. It is obvious that books prepared along the lines men- tioned must not only be clear and concise beyond anything heretofore attempted, but they must also possess unequaled value for reference purposes. They not only give the maxi- mum of information in a minimum space, but this infor- mation is so ingeniously arranged and correlated, and the PREFACE V indexes are so full and complete, that it can at once be made available to the reader. The numerous examples and explanatory remarks, together with the absence of long demonstrations and abstruse mathematical calculations, are of great assistance in helping one to select the proper for- mula, method, or process and in teaching him how and when it should be used. Six of the volumes comprising this library are devoted to the subject of textile manufacturing. This volume, the first of the series, considers the cotton fiber and the processes through which cotton fibers have to pass before they can be spun into yarn. After describing the growth, characteristics, and the various classes of cotton, together with the action of the cotton gin, bale breakers, and pickers, consideration is given to the judging and mixing of cotton. Next, the important subject of cotton cards is taken up; a detailed description is given of card clothing and the action of the various parts of a cotton card. Several types of cotton cards are described, also the grinding and setting of these machines. Drawing rolls, which play such important parts in all these processes, are considered in detail, as regards both construc- tion and setting. Then come drawing frames with their various stop-motions, combers, and finally fly frames. Of the latter, English as well as American types are shown and detailed information presented as regards calculations for producing the required hanks and twists. The method of numbering the pages, cuts, articles, etc. is such that each subject or part, when the subject is divided into two or more parts, is complete in itself; hence., in order to make the index intelligible, it was necessary to give each subject or part a number. This number is placed at the top of each page, on the headline, opposite the page number; and to distinguish it from the page number it is preceded by the printer's section mark (§). Consequently, a reference such as § 16, page 26, will be readily found by looking along the inside edges of the headlines until § 16 is found, and then through § 16 until page 26 is found. International Textbook Company CONTENTS Cotton Section Page Cotton Cultivation 14 1 Structure of the Cotton Fiber 14 5 Cottons of the World 14 9 Cotton Used in America 14 12 Tables of Cotton Characteristics .... 14 16 Ginning and Baling 14 16 Marketing Cotton 14 27 Selection and Classification 14 27 Cotton Markets of the United States . . 14 32 Exportation of Cotton 14 34 Pickers Yarn-Preparation Processes 16 1 Processes Employed for the Production of Cotton Yarn 16 2. Cotton Mixing 16 6 Bale Breaker 16 10 Picker Rooms 16 13 Arrangement of Machines 16 14 Feeding and Opening 16 17 Cotton Pickers 17 1 Construction and Operation of the Breaker Picker 17 5 Intermediate and Finisher Picker .... 17 23 Measuring Motion 17 32 Adjustments 17 34 Gearing 17 37 Care of Pickers 17 39 iii iv CONTENTS Cotton Cards Sectioji Page Card Construction 18 3 The Revolving-Top Flat Card 18 3 Gearing 18 33 Speed Calculations '. . 18 39 Former Methods of Card Construction . , 19 1 Stationary-Top Flat Card 19 2 Roller-and-Clearer Card 19 5 Double Carding 19 8 Card Clothing 19 9 Teeth 19 11 Method of Clothing Cards 19 22 Care of Cards 19 29 Stripping 19 32 Grinding 19 36 Setting 19 56 Management of Room 19 70 Drawing Rolls Common Rolls 20 1 Top Rolls 20 4 Covering Top Rolls 20 6 Varnishing 20 13 Metallic Rolls 20 15 Setting and Weighting Rolls 20 18 Rules Governing Setting 20 18 Weight-Relieving Motions ....... 20 32 Clearers and Traverse Motions 20 33 Railway Heads and Drawing Frames Railway Heads 21 1 Principal Parts of the Railway Head ... 21 3 Drawing Frames 21 17 Gearing 21 33 Management of Drawing Frames .... 21 35 Combers Combing Equipment 22 1 Sliver-Lap Machines 22 3 CONTENTS V Combers — Contimied Section Page Ribbon-Lap Machines 22 8 Single-Nip Comber 22 13 Combing Operation by the Half Lap . . 22 22 Piecing-Up Motion 22 25 Combing by the Top Comb 22 34 Delivery of the Stock 22 37 Gearing 22 41 Variations in Construction 22 45 Double-Nip Comber . . , 22 47 Setting and Timing 23 1 Setting 23 2 Timing .'23 17 .Management of the Comber Room ... 23 25 Fly Frames General Construction of Fly Frames ... 24 1 The Slubber 24 4 Passage of the Stock 24 4 Method of Inserting Twist 24 16 Winding the Roving on the Bobbin ... 24 17 Gearing 24 24 Dimensions of Fly Frames 24 27 Principal Motions of Fly Frames .... 25 1 The Combs 25 13 Builder Motions 25 14 American Type of Builder 25 16 English Type of Builder 25 20 Methods of Driving Bobbin Shafts ... 25 22 Stop-Motions 25 26 Creel 25 28 Management of Fly Frames 26 1 Starting Fly Frames 26 9 Care of Fly Frames 26 15 Common Defects 26 21 Sizing 26 23 COTTON COTTON CULTIVATION INTRODUCTION 1. Principal Species. — Cotton is a vegetable fiber — the fruit of a plant belonging to the order of the Malvaceae, to which belong the mallow, the hollyhock, and the okra. The cotton plant belongs to the genus Gossypiiini, and the number of species from a botanical point of view is variously stated as from four to eighty-eight, according to different botanists. The principal species of the cotton plant cultivated for commercial purposes are: Gossypiiim herbaceian, Gossypiiim arboreum, Gossypiuvi hirsutum, and Gossyphun Barbadense. The species known as Gossypiiim lierbaceuin grows from 2 to 6 feet high and is found native or exotic in Northern Africa and in Asia; it is also largely cultivated in the United States of America. The Gossypiiini arboreuni grows to the height of 15 or 20 feet, whence it derives the name of tree cotton. The seeds are covered with a short green fiber. While the plant is found in Asia, it is most largely cultivated in Central and South America. The Gossypiiini liirsiitiini is a shrubby plant, its maxi- mum height being about 6 feet. The young pods are hairy; the seeds numerous, free, and covered with firmly adhering green down under the long white wool. The Gossypiuni Barbadense attains a height of from 5 to 10 feet. The seeds of this plant are black and smooth and the fiber the longest known to commerce. The name is Far notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page HI 2 COTTON § 14 derived from the fact that the plant is a native of the Barbados, or has been cultivated there for a long time. The sea-island cotton plant of the United States belongs to this species. Cotton fiber is known to commerce under the simple name of cotton in English-speaking countries, although by some people it is spoken of as cotton wool. Its German name is baum-wolle; in French, its name is coton; in Spanish, it is called algodoii. 2. Growth aud Development. — In cultivating cotton in the United States, the time of planting the seed varies according to the latitude of the district in question, but occurs in April in the majority of districts. In some of the favored districts of Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, where the season is abnormally long, the seed is planted in the latter part of March. In the heart of the cotton belt, April 1 is accepted as a suitable date; in North and South Carolina and Tennessee it is considered unwise to plant before April 15; while in the extreme northern edge of the belt, as in Virginia, planting is deferred to the last days of April or early in May. Germination occurs rapidly after the sowing of the seed, the first appearance of the plant above the ground being from 4 to 14 days after sowing. From the germination period until the middle of the summer the stalk and foliage of the plant are developed until the plant attains its max- imum size; during this period hot, humid weather with fre- quent showers is favorable. From the middle of summer and onwards the bearing season of the plant occurs, when more heat and less moisture are desirable. Usually about 40 days after the plant shows above the ground there appears the first square, or bud. From the formation of this bud 24 to 30 days elapse before the appear- ance of the flower. The flower on the first day of the open- ing of the bud is yellowish white and has five petals. One peculiarity of the cotton plant is in the change of color of the flower. This, which on the first day is of a shade vary- ing from a dull white to a yellow, is found on the second day to be of a distinctly pink or reddish hue; the flower drops off on the succeeding, or third, day. § 14 COTTON 3 After the petals fall, there remains the small boll envel- oped in the calyx; this develops until it becomes about the shape and size of an egg, and finally bursts from 50 to 60 days after the appearance of the flower. When the boll bursts, it exposes from three to five cells divided by membranous walls; each cell contains seeds, Pig. 1 which are attached by filaments to the membrane of the boll. The filaments ultimately disappear, leaving the seed loose in the cavity and covered with cotton. Each seed is entirely enveloped by the cotton fibers attached to it just as the COTTON §14 human hair is attached to the head. The seeds vary in number from thirty-two to thirty-six in each pod, or boll. The view at a, Fig. 1, shows an empty pod, or capsule; b is the seed cotton out of one cavity of the pod just as it appears after it has been removed by the fingers of the cot- ton picker; c shows the individual seeds and fibers of which the mass b is com- posed. The next view, Fig. 2, is a reproduction of sec- tions of these seeds with the fibers radi- ating in all directions, each attached at one end to the seed. Bot- anists differ as to the exact cause of the bursting of the boll, but it is probably due to the increased space occupied by the fiber as it ripens and dries and the contraction and splitting of the pod from the same cause. Fig. 2 3. The operations of cotton culture on land that has been previously cultivated, and on well-managed farms, may be summarized as follows, varying according to the latitude of the cotton field: Breaking up, burying vegetation, broadcast manuring, and harrowing, December and January; bedding up, February; fertilizing, March; sowing seeds, April; chop- ping out to a stand and throwing soil up to the root. May; (considerably more seeds are sown than plants required; the excess of plants are chopped out with hoes); cultivating by plow and hoe, or cultivator, latter part of May or in June; period of rest, part of July and part of August; picking, August, September, October, November, and if the season is an open one, December and even January. §14 COTTON STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBER 4. The cotton fiber, which to the naked eye appears to be a fine, smooth, and solid filament, exhibits a somewhat com- plicated structure when examined under a microscope. A microscopic view of cotton fibers is shown in Fig. 3. Each fiber appears to be a collapsed tube with corded edges, twisted many times throughout its length and having the ap- pearance of an elongated corkscrew. This semi- spiral construction assists in the formation of a strong thread from such a com- paratively weak fiber as cotton. In the formation of a thread, the convolu- tions interlock with one another and help to resist any tension put on the yarn. These convolutions ^'°- ^ are less and less frequent as the fiber is less matured, and are almost altogether absent in the immature fiber, which has merely the appearance of a flattened ribbon when exam- ined under a microscope. The immature fiber is transparent and has a glossy appearance, so that when it exists in any quantity in a bale of cotton it can readily be detected with the naked eye. It has the feature of not taking dye so readily as ripened cotton. If examined under a more powerful microscope, the cotton fiber is found to consist of four distinct membranes, or layers of matter. Ignoring the removable foreign matter contained in raw cotton, such as sand and other mineral substances, leaf, pieces of boll, or stalk, and considering the fiber as being entirely cleared from this, it is found to be composed of cellulose, permeated by a small amount of mineral mat- ter, and that each fiber is surrounded by soluble substances present to the extent of from 1 to 2 per cent. The small 6 COTTON § 14 amount of mineral matter may be liberated by burning the fiber, the inorganic matter remaining as an ash retaining more or less the formation of the fiber and being about 1 per cent, of the original weight. Cellulose is the largest constituent of the cotton fiber; in fact, it is the chief constituent of almost everything of veg- etable origin, but is found with its most characteristic features in such commercial fibers as cotton, ramie, flax, and so on. It is a carbohydrate, so called because it is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the hydrogen and oxygen being present in the same proportion as in water. It is this cellulose that absorbs and retains moisture, the cellulose in the cotton fiber, when in an air-dry condition, containing about Ti per cent. The soluble substances present in the cotton fiber, princi- pally located on the outside, are waxy or oily substances permeated with other material and amounting in the aggre- gate to from I2 to 2 per cent, of the weight of raw cotton. The nature of these materials is, as yet, more or less obscure; the portion that is removable by scouring with a weak solution of soda ash is commonly spoken of as cotton wax, while others removable by prolonged boiling in dis- tilled water are given the name of zvaier extract. 5. The amount of removable foreign matter in cotton varies greatly with the variety, and even in diliferent growths of the same variety. It is present to the extent of from 1 per cent, in carefully cultivated sea-island to 6 per cent, or more in coarse, negligently cultivated East Indian cotton. Assum- ing 2 per cent, as a fair average, the following data repre- sent the constituent parts of what is commercially known as raw cotton: Cellulose, 87 per cent.; waxy, or other easily soluble substances, 2 per cent.; ash, 1 per cent, (giving 90 per cent, of fiber if absolutely dry); removable foreign matter, 2 per cent.; moisture, 8 per cent. Of course no two analyses give the same result and these figures only repre- sent what would be found in an average of American-grown cotton in an air-drv condition. § i-k COTTON 7 6. The property of containing and retaining moisture, even when in an air-dry condition, or hygroscopicity , is com- mon to most of the commercial textile fibers, although cotton possesses this property to a smaller extent than most other fibrous materials. There is a quantity of water always present in cotton that cannot be driven out by a moderate heat, and which, even after it has been expelled by excessive heat, is replaced by moisture from the atmosphere when the superheated cotton is allowed to stand in the open air. When in an air-dry state, under ordinary atmospheric con- ditions, cotton contains about 8 per cent, of moisture. The expression air d>y is used to describe the condition of cotton after it has been exposed to the atmosphere for such a length of time and under such conditions as will cause it to lose all excessive moisture or regain deficient moisture, so as to be in a normal condition. The expres- sion absolutely dry cotton means cotton that has been heated to such a high temperature and under such conditions that all the moisture has been expelled and the sample being tested will cease to lose weight. Moisture is necessary to the satisfactory manipulation of the fiber in spinning, and if for any reason a portion of this natural moisture is driven out, the spinning of the yarn is rendered more difficult until it is replaced. Frequently, from 1 to la" per cent, of excessive or artificial moisture is found in cotton beyond the amount named. The amount of moisture in raw cotton depends largely on the treatment of cotton after picking and before baling, on the age of the cotton, and where it has been stored. The largest amount of natural moisture in cotton is found immediately after it has been picked from the cotton plant, especially in the case of cotton picked early in the season. In some districts, especially in the sea islands, it is customary to spread the newly picked cotton in the sun, to ripen and dry it, before ginning; but in the main cotton belt no such care is taken, the result being that the cotton is ginned while moist, tend- ing to gin damage; but the planter ignores this in his anxiety to have it baled with as little loss of weight as possible. ^ COTTON §14 The determination of the amount of moisture present is commonh^ spoken of as conditioning. The accurate mean- ing of this expression is the testing- of raw stock, yarn, or fabrics as to what should be their true weight if the normal regain of moisture were added to their absolutely dry weight. From this expression, the name conditioning houses has been derived to indicate those establishments, very com- mon in Europe, where fibrous substances are tested as to their hygroscopic conditions. At all these, the standard of moisture in cotton is what is known as an '^\-per-cent. regain. This does not mean that every 100 pounds, or other units of weight of cotton, when in an air-dry condition contains 8i units of water; the meaning of the term is that if a sample of cotton has been subjected to sufficient heat to render it absolutely dry, each 100 parts by weight when exposed to ordinary atmospheric conditions will regain 8^ parts. Thus, in an absolutely dry condition, such a sample of cotton would contain 7.834 per cent, of water, which is the relation of 82" to IO82. 7. Measurements of the Cotton Fiber. — Cotton fibers even from the same seed vary considerably in length and in diameter, and only approximate measurements can be given. The diameter of a cotton fiber varies from .0004 to .001 inch, and the length of the fiber from \ inch to 2i inches. Doctor Bowman is the authority for stating that there are 140,000,000 fibers in a pound. The general average measure- ments for cottons of the United States are given in the United States Government Tenth Census Reports as follows: Length, 1.10 inches (27.89 millimeters); diameter, .00091 inch (.023 millimeter); strength, 125.6 grains (8.14 grams). The strength of individual cotton fibers varies from 75 to 300 grains, according to the kind of cotton, the distance between the points of suspension in making the test, and the portion of the fiber selected for the test. Usually the long- stapled, fine cottons break with the least strain, and the short coarse cottons stand the greatest strain. The ordinary American cottons have a breaking strain of from 120 to 140 grains. § 14 COTTON 9 8. Testing Yarns and Fabrics Containing? Cotton. It is sometimes necessary to determine whether or not a fabric or a yarn is made of cotton, and while the experienced maniifacturer is usually able to detect this by the appearance of the fabric, there are several tests that can be applied. In the first place, a microscope is useful, as the appearance of the cotton fiber when highly magnified is different from that of silk, linen, or wool, the wool fiber being covered with overlapping scales, silk being smooth like a glass rod, and linen showing the vascular fiber bundles that make up the complete fiber. In addition to the microscopical test, another may be made b}^ burning a small portion of the yarn or fabric. Cotton will be found to burn with a flash, leaving a very light ash, while animal fibers, such as silk and wool, burn more slowly, emitting an offensive odor and leaving a curled bead, or globule, of carbonized matter. Chemical tests may also be made b}^ which the nature of the fiber may be determined without anv doubt. COTTONS OF THE WOKLD 9. Quantity and Quality Produced. — While the cotton crop of the United States is the most important and most useful in the world — being of such importance, in fact, that the price of American cotton practically controls the price of other cottons — there are numerous cotton fields in various parts of the world where extensive crops are raised and the product used for purposes for which American cotton cannot be utilized. The most important cotton-growing countries, other than the United States, are India, Egypt, China, and Brazil. Fig. 4 shows the proportion of cotton raised in sev- eral countries to the world's crop in 1900-1901. Sea-island cotton of the United States represents the highest quality, and is spun into the finest yarn, being used very largely for thread, laces, and fine cambrics. Next in fineness of quality and length of staple is the brown Egyp- tian cotton, so called because of its brownish tinge, which is a distinctive feature of this fiber; this is very largely used 10 COTTON §14 tor fine cotton yarns and goods of all varieties. Among other long-staple cottons that are not important commercially are the Tahiti sea-island, the Peruvian, the white Egyptian, and Egyptian Gallini cottons. The next grade of cotton of any importance is known as Brazilian; it has a staple rather longer than the average American cotton, but is some- what rough in appearance and touch. The American cottons form the next class, as regards quality, varying from the fine Mississippi cottons. Peelers, and benders, to the short, clean uplands cotton. World's Crop 15,127,000 Bales of 500 Pounds United States of America 10,546,000 India 1,981,000 China and Corea 1,100,000 Egypt 1,075,000 ■ South America 225,000 ■ Other Crops 200,000 Fig. 4 Next to the United States, China produces one of the largest crops of cotton, which is almost all consumed in that country. It is a beautiful white cotton, somewhat harsh to the touch, but, unfortunately for its commercial importance, is comparatively short-staple, being about the length of the shortest American uplands cotton. The East India crop is also large, but is regarded as being both the dirtiest and the shortest-staple cotton produced. 10. Productive Regions. — Owing to the long seasons of considerable heat required in order to bring cotton to §14 COTTON 11 maturity, this fiber can only be profitably cultivated in certain regions bordering north and south of the equator. This is usually described as being the regions bounded by the lines of latitude 45° north and 35° south of the equator, but no such arbitrary divisions can be made, as the isother- mal lines must be taken into account. For instance, a line Fig. 5 drawn along 45° north latitude includes such districts as New England and portions of Canada, where it is impossible to grow cotton under natural conditions, while if the lines were drawn about 38° north latitude, Avhich is the northern limit of cotton-growing districts in the United States, it would exclude portions of Turkestan, Southern Italy. Greece, and other 12 COTTON § 14 districts where it is possible to cultivate the cotton plant with success. Thus, an isotherm must be followed along^ the lines of equal temperature in the northern hemisphere, and another isothermal line in the southern hemisphere. This practically embraces in North America all the southern portion of the United States, including all of Georgia, South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas, and parts of Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Indian Territory, California, and Florida; Mexico and Central America; and in South America, Peru, the Argentine Republic, Brazil, Venezuela, and Guiana. In Europe, the islands of Malta, Sicily, southern portions of Spain and Italy, and parts of Greece and Turkey are included, while the Asiatic countries are Arabia, Persia, Turkestan, India, China, Japan, and some of the islands in the Malay Archi- pelago. In Africa, a very large region is suited to the cultivation of cotton, but at present it is cultivated only in Egypt, in some of the countries on the western coast, and to a small extent in South Africa. In Australasia, it can be cultivated in Queensland and the Fiji Islands. Fig. 5 shows the relative length of staples of the following leading growths: (a) American sea-island, (d) Peruvian, (c) Brazilian, (d) brown Egyptian, {e) American, (/) Indian, ig-) Chinese, {h) Japanese. Tables I, II, III, and IV show the relative importance, according to the quality, of cottons raised in various countries. COTTON USED IN AMERICA SEA-ISLAND COTTON 11. Sea-island cotton is the name used commercially to indicate the United States sea-island cotton. This is grown on Edisto, St. Helena, Port Royal, James, and John islands off the coast of South Carolina, St. Simon and Cumberland islands oflf the coast of Georgia, and others. It is recognized as being the best cotton that is grown in any §14 COTTON 13 part of the world. Very careful attention is given to its cultivation and ginning, quality being considered before quantity, and thus sea-island cotton has a long, fine, strong and silky fiber with comparatively regular convolutions, of a diameter from .0004 to .0006 inch, ranging in length from 1 1 to 21 inches. The sea-island cotton crop is about 93,000 bales per annum; Charleston, South Carolina, is the leading market for it. Sea-island cotton is largely used for thread and lace-making purposes, and is regularly spun into from 150s to 400s yarn, and occasionally, even for commercial purposes, as high as 600s. It is said that 2,150s yarn was spun from sea-island cotton at the exhibition of London in 1851. Where great strength is required for heavy goods, sea-island cotton is sometimes used, even for coarse yarns; as, for example, the linings of bicycle tires, sail cloth, and so on. The variety of so-called Florida sea-island cotton is grown on the mainland of Florida from sea-island seed; this is somewhat inferior to the sea-island proper, but is a very useful cotton for making yarns of a little better quality than those made from Egyptian cotton. It has a white, gloss3% strong fiber, a little coarser than the strictly sea-island, and is not quite so carefully cultivated. It is suitable for yarns from 150s to 200s. AMERICAN COTTON 12. While the sea-island cottons just described are American, this name is seldom applied to them, but is used to indicate the typical cotton of the world, which is grown in the Southern States of the United States and used wher- ever cotton-spinning mills exist. The cotton described commercially as American is suited to medium numbers of yarn; is usually clean, fairly regular in length of staple, satisfactorily graded, and consequently is one of the most reliable and useful cottons for a manufacturer's use. The quantity is greater than that produced in all other parts of the world together, and consequently the price of American cotton in Liverpool, which is the greatest market 14 COTTON § 14 for it, greatly influences the price of cotton throughout the world. American cotton may be divided into three important classes; namely, gtdf cotton; upla7ids, or boweds; and Texas cotton. 13. Gulf, or New Orleans, cotton usually consists of cotton raised in the basin of the Mississippi River, inclu- ding the states of Louisiana, Mississippi, parts of Arkansas, and Alabama. The name gulf cotton is generally used in America and originates from the fact that most of this cotton is shipped from states bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. In Europe, the name New Orleans is usually applied, and is derived from the shipping port of that name. Gulf cotton is from 1 inch to li inches in length of staple, from .0004 to .0007 inch in diameter, and is generally used for yarn from 28s to 44s warp and from 50s to 70s filling or ply. This style of cotton may be subdivided into others, known as Memphis, benders, Allan-seed, Peelers, and so on. These names were originally intended to represent certain kinds of cotton, but have been very much misapplied of late years. The benders, or bottom-land, cotton is supposed to be grown at the bends of the Mississippi River, which are occasionally flooded and consequently well fertilized by the silt of the river. It is one of the better grades of gulf cotton, and is used for the higher numbers named above. The best qualities of gulf cotton are known as Allan-seed and Peelers. These are used for fine yarns, often for fine combed yarns, and by some spinners are preferred to Egyptian. The color is bluish-white rather than cream-colored, and somewhat resembles short Florida sea-island. 14. Uplands cotton is grown in the undulating country between the ocean and the mountains in the states of Georgia, North and South Carolina, Virginia, and Alabama. It is generally used for filling yarns below 40s, although it may be spun higher if required. The length of the staple is from f to 1 inch and the fiber is from .0006 to .0007 inch in diameter. This cotton is usually very clean. § 14 COTTON 15 15. The cultivation of Texas cotton is largely on the increase, and for coarse warp yarn it is the most suitable cotton. In dry seasons, it is apt to be somewhat harsh and brittle and cannot be relied on as much as gulf or uplands cotton. The staple is usually from « to 1 inch in length (sometimes exceeding this), and from .0005 to .0007 inch in diameter. Up to 26s and 32s warp yarns and 32s and 40s filling yarns are often made from Texas cotton, although it is eminently useful for warp. Indian Territory and Okla- homa cottons are of the Texas style. Local circumstances often affect the use of cotton in the Southern States. A North Carolina mill may use an uplands cotton both for warp and filling, because of its being grown in the vicinity of the mill, although it is really a filling cotton; while a Mississippi mill may use local cotton for both warp and filling, although it is really too good for the latter, and so on. BROWN EGYPTIAN COTTON 16. The cotton used in American mills is almost entirely grown in the United States, but in the fine-spinning districts a quantity of bro%vn Egyptian cotton is used, and in the woolen mills some long, rough-stapled cotton, such as rough Peruvian, is in demand. The brown Egyptian cotton is generally used for warp yarns from 50s upwards, and filling yarns from 60s upwards intended for use in fine- woven cotton goods. Some of this cotton is also used for hosiery yarns and for the manufacture of Balbriggan under- wear; in this case it is spun into lower numbers than those just mentioned. Almost all the Egyptian cotton used in the United States is combed. The features of brown Egyptian cotton are the length of staple and fineness of the fiber, it being very silky and delicate in structure. The Egyptian cotton now grown is almost entirely of the so-called brown Egyptian type, being of a very light brown color. 16 COTTON § 14 TABLES OF COTTON CHARACTERISTICS 17. Four tables are printed herewith that have been gradually compiled during the last 20 years; they are the result of exhaustive observation and investigation. They give all the known cottons under their trade names and state where the cotton is grown, the length of the staple, the diameter in 10,000ths of an inch, the characteristics and appearance of the cotton, the numbers of yarn into which it is usually spun, and whether these yarns are for warp (twist), filling (weft), or ply yarns (doubling), with other information. These tables are intended to indicate the numbers of yarns usually spun for commercial purposes. For special yarns that must be strong or of a high grade, the cotton may be used for lower numbers; or for special or local reasons, it may possibly be spun into higher numbers, or into warp, filling, or ply yarn, where not so specified, but these are unusual cases, and are not considered in formulating the tables. The cottons are divided into four kinds: long-stapled, medium- to long-stapled, medium-stapled, and short-stapled. GINNING AND BALING 18. Art. 3 gave a summary of the processes necessary for the cultivation of cotton, including cotton picking; but after it is picked, and before shipment to the mill, it must be ginned and baled. Seed cotton as it is picked contains about two-thirds of its weight in seeds; that is, out of 3 pounds of seed cotton, only about 1 pound is fiber. THE SA^V GIX 19. The gin commonly used in America for removing the fiber from the seed, except in the case of sea-island cotton, is the one known as the saw gin. Its construction may be briefly described as a series of revolving circular saws with §14 COTTON 17 1^ o H H O M O fl a 01 ■a x) 3 o -a B B GTS d ca cd tn H u n o taa •T3 -o n 0) J u '^ 0) lU ^ lu'^ u J3 a ^>> ^C SB 01 s 4) — OT3 >-^ >.^ > w ai o ■30-30 a. J3 ij «- •2« ca Si ca !>« O pfoo t- (U >- 0) S a O C> «*"" O OJ Cfl O > > i ° JO r Num Yarn y Used Yarn s M U) ^ N " o O o its, o of erall Ply ■Jl K ■X. CA o d o o >= c 3 S O -h u -^ o B O B bi c o ca c ■a B ca X! ■'?■ >. >>t! ^=a j.( U ^^ ^ :^5 5^ '■Ji CO M u mete In ooths of Inch o >o r^ VO o o C 11.3 °- c : Q 2 « TT •^ TT TT o o Hn -2 ° : J^l ■*^ ■*.^ ■* ns "^ HN nw o c S cs a ^ £ M Ct3 ca 0) 3 C3 c o O E ..5 . ■a o"". .ig«" «5 ^ "2 MT3 ^ ^ a> t« ra o pi C rt c3 B^.2 C.2 |« Is o 1-' ca E (J 0<. >, ca c^ 0^ 2o a o O a, fc ■a •a c ca i> c a "> . . c OS 'j: S 2: ca it rt v 'C o « h ' ■ ■a c X c c at rt o > B C ^ ca s u n o , 4) « £ - N • • a a T3 M TJ ■a b« >, >, feSs^S i-'g. ^ *- Is la Oi-" o o J J J hJ J a ^ ■ I- o — a5 1) o •■a 3 ■S rt £ So 2.2 50- §14 COTTON 19 E o American seed Some very weak and high color Very little grown or used Resembles the cotton from (iuiana Very little grown or used c Is >•. o« u D a> Ul ^< 3 o U B 0! > >> B ■5) B 6« _B & u 0! 32s to SOS 40s to 70s Said to spin 160S Said to spin 1 20s o ii (0 J= U Rougher than Brazilian Smooth and fine White and clean Smooth, glossy, and c!ean; vari- able Reddish Reddish White Diam- eter in io,oooths of an Inch 6 to 8 6 to 8 Length of Staple Inches 2 -So £-2oo Where (irown Brazil Peru British and French Guiana Central America West India Islands Argentine Argentine Argentine Hawaiian Islands Trade Name . - r—-—. ■ -— ' ^— ^ -^^ ■ « (U B v, . . _ Santos . . . Rough Peruvi Surinam, B bice . . . Cayenne, De erara . . . (iuatemala . Santo Domin or Hayti . Puerto Rico Anguilla . . Catamarca Santa Fe . . Salta .... San Luis . . Rioja .... Parand . . . Hawaii . . . 20 COTTON 14 I?; o H H O M « H GC ^2 « o rt 05- c 3 ^ 3 3 3 u 0) C S 3 C ci "■a ^ bil — ".5 " . -x C 3 — 4) m an: p < M 25 < rr _ o c« << > 3 G C O 3 O o g o 3 3 3 ^ « ^ O ■= O >. a> >» o £ u 'C o 'u CD C c« > <> X a J3 a ?.. SS a (4 a Q D £ a m bt J3 s: ^ ^ ^ S ^ > > ca MixifflaaoaDaw a)_>> tH 23 O -a >. K ci! ■* 3 35 n u g ;5 C5 O O JJ tn "T 0-- J^ii 2iJS ^ c jj o .— ^ c o ^ o c - ~ rt ^ ._ jO ra - ^s'a s'a ?^ J C g al ;■■" O a i- 3 M ^ — -i c a! ■2-r?, ^3a-gn =« - 5-- «'< 'S^ 0-S ^ - - 5^.2 c5 aiUO> S S .22.2 « O H 'J; S < a a oj.- 0.9 <« J3 Sf 51 t^ z O ifl u S 3O <0 to i s xas orgia ssissi siana S If vz a <0 lii ■'• — •£ «J —* o o in >. 0J2 h/1 01 £8 J3 rt o ,7, > CJ 4) < a! Zrt «o ^ & •n rri -t; « V, o ^ ^ -V VO & ^ ^ fe ° 5 ° ,« o -o o •2 a •o >- *- a 8c .2 ° "I o 6*2 JM O a uO OX! oQ Or; a O— 0) o 12; u Qe ^ J3 >.■« i >. ra h£ u (U .--. -H o u. 1;, 2." -' a: (1) u. o . 0) >> >> >■ 2daj:iB-E>aaa Si-H O-S X" o oI> o o o M P3 ci) oa oaffiM J3 • u> rt « oQ ^ ?!!^ nf^ a) n rt . 0, o.x ieuMK £ £ • C8 Hi _ M ci! '"' oKO Q w c Z — rt cs O tijoaa H ^oa Q CO Z 22 COTTON §14 c s: O B ^ 1) c B B C a X ,-!! > GJ — O u = o o o o u M E < -■" 0! li S UU b< il c3 S o 5 £■'5; ■a o 4) s> _c; o D 4) o^ B a; X X >> >. >. >, O o X 3 O cd U b. >> tH i. 'X O; XXI O o-° tl a> 9) 4> V < ^ a: Z -M o >> > > a u in «) a o O o 01 ■O a 'S. vO ^ t, u u 4) M a 5 >• > 3.—^ '^J "3 c ol 02 tn M tn ,«•*' a 2 TT VO 20 C« o o O ^ 3 O X so 0) U ■- c 2 S 41 S O j! 1§ oii ■a - B rG C3 ^ >.'0 -o C L -5 *; 2 ^ C B C O >, C S 03 O ■" CS . -S-O^-tJ 3 o — a; o gii| Is a td ^ X xi rt ^^ J3_: .y X O ^13 c a B 5f 3 o ,-3j= > . bs 1* m B B k, - x; o oi B rt 5 s^ St: S a rt CI iiii > 3. O ?i Md 3 B r- O •3 cs « ^- u S £■ >. fel|-n§xSii 3 a Oi 22 n/ 7} U 3C x 33 U'-J iam- er in sooths f an n O G u o '- "^ ■^ ~ ^ o „ tW nw „ ^ nM-«.-5 ,j_, f»* -• ■- l|l o O 5 5 S £2 £ «^ § £S S2B £*• rt» oX ^ HP* H» -2 £ irtlrirttna'*^ ««« ^ H~M. t-lrMr;TW w* " o < < rW < X ^ 3a ° c 5 > o |« X > >i rt a c; a O "^ o"c.2o '3 p O o 1 75 ^ (« u 3 •E b5 o o |g5 ~ .Sc -S S B ?"3 :« ^ X rt ^ .2 rr! ts X o ;i B .I52S 'fis XX 5 3 SO 4J C a.T3 II 1 s z Oi if • o X -.is'sl 5 c X [^ .i B OU o •o B • b' ■ o ■ n T3V— 3 '^ I' B C r- C S " e S" g2-s.5«o 2 a OTJ-J 0. ^ •a a u W so H O B c o a . 1 11 01 3 B cd •X u 3 • B b1. cs-- n a~ > -,04- C B X >. s a ai n z s c S 'x ■-a ^ s o a ■■' 'x; - '-^ B "a 3 a B a §14 COTTON 23 fine teeth, so placed that an arc of their circumference pro- jects through a grid into a receptacle containing the seed cotton. The lint is torn from the seed and carried through the grid by the saws, from which it is removed by a brush and carried to a condenser. Fig. 6 is a section through a gin, one of the saws being marked d. The seed-cotton receptacle, or seed box, is marked a; r is the saw cylinder on which the saws are fixed; e shows the grate through which the saws project, known as Fig. 6 the breast, or grate fall. The chamber a is full of seed and seed cotton. The seed cotton is on the outside of a core of seed and is thus brought within the operation of the saws. The seed cotton, having been fed into the chamber a, passes around on the outside of the mass of seed. The teeth of the saws, projecting through the grid about 2 or 4 inch, tear the fibers from the seeds nearest to them. The quick speed of the saws (about 350 revolutions per minute) sets up a rolling motion of the mass of seed, for which 24 COTTON § 14 reason the chamber a is sometimes called the roll box. New seed cotton is continually being brought under the action of the saws, being fed in at p, while the seed when freed from its fiber drops, at q, to the floor. The fibers are car- ried forwards by the revolution of the saws and are removed by a rotary brush. The circular brush, shown at /, Fig. 6, is an important part of the machine; it should be filled with heavy bristles and the framework and ribs should be strongly constructed and well bound together. The brush makes four or five times as many revolutions per minute as the saws, in the direction indicated by the arrow below it, Fig. 6, and the cotton is either blown into a lint room, on the old system, or, where a condenser is used, the fibers are drawn forwards by the air-current to the surface of wire-covered drums or screens; by passing between these screens they are delivered in the form of a sheet, being deposited on the floor in the case of gins that are not connected to a conveyer. The gins most frequently used have from sixty to eighty saws, which are either 10 or 12 inches in diameter. The highest speed that 12-inch saw cylinders should be driven for good work is 300 revolutions per minute, although they are frequently detrimentally run up to 400 revolutions per minute and above. A suitable production for a 60-saw gin is one bale of 500 pounds per hour. THE ROLLER GIN 20. A type of gin used both for long- and short-stapled cotton in many parts of the world — as exemplified by its almost exclusive use in Egypt, where long-stapled cotton is grown, and in India, where the cotton is almost all short- stapled — is the roller gin. There is not much doubt that the roller gin separates the fiber from the seed with a very much easier action than the saw gin, but it has not been adopted in the United States to so large an extent as it should, being used principally in the sea-island districts, and even there only to a limited extent. The reason for this is § 14 COTTON 25 that the production of the machine is not so great as that of the saw gin. There are at least two distinct types of construction of roller gins in general use, but both of them depend on the same principle for the removal of the fiber from the seed, which is to draw the fiber between a rapidly revolving roll and a sharp knife edge resting against this roll, so that the fibers are cut ofT near the point of attachment to the seed. The usual method is to place the seed cotton on a table or hopper, from which it is gradually fed into a seed box and presented to a roll covered with heavy hide that has a roughened surface. A stout knife extends across the machine near the revolving roll, its edge being parallel with the shaft on which the roll is mounted. The fine fibers adhere to the leather covering of the roll, and are drawn between it and the knife until the seed is pulled against the edge, when the fibers are severed from it. The same seed is continually drawn against this knife edge by different fibers attached to its surface, until it is entirely stripped, when it falls down and another seed takes its place. The cotton is being constantly removed from the surface of the leather roll. In order to agitate the seeds and aid in the removal of the fibers as they pass between the knife and the roll, two methods are adopted, and this difference of construction characterizes the leading types of roller gins. 21. In what is known as the knife-roller gin, a roll with Y-shaped or angularly set knives is rotated in front of the leather roll, and on account of the angle at which the knives are set, pushes the seeds from side to side and agitates them sufficiently to aid in stripping the fibers from them by presenting new surfaces of each to the stripping knife, until it is absolutely stripped of fiber. 22. In another type of gin, known as the Macartliy gin, a vertical knife mounted on a connecting-rod attached to a crank is given a reciprocating motion, and thus effects the same object. In what is known as the double Macarthy 26 COTTON §14 gin there are two of these knives operated by a double crank below the machine. 23. All roller gins require considerable care in opera- tion, especially with regard to maintaining a true surface on the leather rolls and an even pressure of the stripping knife on the roll at all points, as well as a proper adjustment of the blades of the knife roller in the knife-roller gin, or of the vertical knives in the Macarthy gin. The Macarthy gin has a production of about 350 pounds of ginned cotton in a day of 10 hours from the single gin, or 500 pounds in a day of 10 hours from the double gin, and absorbs from 1 to I2 horsepower. The knife-roller gin has a pro- duction of 800 to 1,000 pounds in a day of 10 hours, and requires 2a horsepower to drive it. BALING 24. After ginning, the cotton is baled. This is done by enclosing it in a baling press with an outside wrapper of coarse burlap, in which it is pressed into comparatively small compass and held by iron ties. The bales as they come from the farms or the cotton gins are too large for economical shipment either by railroad or steamship. Consequently, at every inland city and seaport in each cotton state there are compresses. These are power- ful steam baling presses, in which the cotton bale can be reduced to smaller dimensions. Previous to compressing, the exporters affix a tag to each bale by which to identify it, and take from each bale a sam- ple, which is numbered the same as the tag. The samples are then graded and assorted into lots of low middling, mid- dling, good middling, and so on, as will be explained, and then shipped (usually in lots of 100 bales) either to Northern mills or to Europe. § 14 COTTON 27 MARKETING COTTON SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION 25. The selection of cotton from samples, or the judging of cotton, is a matter of considerable importance. In order to become thoroughly proficient, a long- period of practice is required to produce the trained eye and hand necessary to distinguish the gradations and differences in quality that add to, or detract from, the market value of the fiber. This is not of so much importance in the Southern markets, where the bales are usually on hand to be referred to in case of dispute, but in the Northern states, and in any country where cotton is largely purchased from samples, it is of the utmost importance. 26. Samples. — Cotton is seldom, if ever, purchased from the examination of the bale, but from parcels containing small pieces of cotton from each bale, technically known as papers of samples. It is customary in well-managed mills to take samples of each new lot of cotton that arrives at the mill, sometimes a sample from every bale, and at other mills only from a certain number of bales out of each hundred. The samples are then compared with the buying samples to see if the cotton is equal to the quality purchased. 27. Points to Be Considei*ecl in Judffins Cotton. In judging cotton from a sample, or in selecting cotton from a sample with a view to purchasing it, the first thing to do is to investigate the authenticity of the sample. The points then determined are: (1) the grade of the sample, (2) the staple, (3) the color, (-4) the amount of sand, (5) the amount of dampness, (6) whether the cotton is even running or not. These points are arranged in order of their usual importance. This is not necessarily accurate enough for some purposes; 28 COTTON § 14 for instance, in cotton to be used for filling yarns, the color is more important than in cotton for warp j^arns. As the warp yarn has to be sized, the appearance of a good-colored cotton is somewhat spoiled, while on the other hand defects of a dull-colored cotton are hidden. In either case, the length of staple may be the most important point to con- sider where it is desired to produce a strong yarn without regard to its appearance. 28. Grade. — American cotton is usually graded accord- ing to a standard agreed on in all the leading cotton markets of the world, the highest grade being {air, followed by six other grades, the lowest being ordinary; cotton of lower grade is called inferior. The seven full grades of American cotton are fair, middli^ig fair, good middling, middling, low middling, good ordinary, and ordifiary. This gradation is not sufficiently fine for the cotton merchant, and consequently each grade is subdivided into what are known as half grades and quarter grades. By this means a list is made up giving twenty-six different grades of cotton. This list is as follows: Fair, barely fair, strict middling fair, fully mid- dling fair. Middling fair, barely middling fair, strict good middling, fully good middling. Good middling, barely good middling, strict middling, fully middling. Middling, barely middling, strict low middling, fully low middling. IjO'w middling, barely low middling, strict good ordinary, fully good ordinary. Good ordinary, barely good ordinary, strict ordinary. Ordinary, low ordinary, inferior. Those terms having the word strict are the half grades, while those having the words barely and hilly are the quarter grades. The full grades are printed in bold-face type. Grade really means the appearance of the cotton as § 14 COTTON 29 regards cleanliness, and the above system of grading depends on the appearance of the cotton as to its freedom from leaf and other impurities. Some graders take into consideration what is known as bloom, or brighiness, of the cotton, which adds to the grade; also, discoloration, known as off color, or tinges, which detracts from the grade. 29. Staple. — After determining the grade, the next thing to do is to find the staple. The word staple usually means the average length of the bulk of the fibers forming the bale assessed, and is found by taking a small portion of cotton in the way hereafter described, preparing a tuft of fibers from which the very short fibers have been removed, and then measuring the average length of fibers remaining. Cotton is spoken of by the length of staple; thus, 1-inch cotton, li-inch cotton, and so on. There is something more that is usually implied by the word staple — strength of the fiber. This is determined by holding one end of the tuft between the first finger and thumb of each hand and break- ing it. The word staple may therefore be taken to mean the average length of the fibers forming the bale, and may also be understood to include the strength of the fibers; thus, the expressions lengtJi of staple and strength of staple are obtained. An expert cotton sampler or buyer will often judge cotton by simply taking a tuft and giving it one pull, judging it by the amount of drag or cling that must be overcome in pulling it apart. He thus tests both the length and strength of the staple at the same time. This skilfulness comes only with experience, but is the most rapid method of judging cotton. 30. Sand and Dirt. — After the staple has been deter- mined, it is necessary to discover the amount of sand and dirt in the cotton. This is often done by raising the cotton from the paper that holds it and noticing the amount of sand remaining on the paper, this sand having fallen out by the repeated handling of the cotton. It is, perhaps, better to hold the handful of cotton as high as one's head and shake it so that the sand, if there is any, can be seen to fall from it. 30 COTTON § 14 31. Dampness. — Another test is that for dampness. This can only be detected in the sample paper if the samples are newly drawn, in which case it can be felt by the hand. If the samples have been in stock for some time, the water originally contained in them will have evaporated and cannot be ascertained unless it has previously been so great as to cause a slight formation of mildew on the cotton, in which case it is indicated by the smell. 32. The rich, bright, creamy appearance that cotton has, especially in the early part of the year, is called the blooin. This bloom is only found on certain growths of cotton and adds somewhat to its value, especially where it is to be used for making weft, or filling, yarn, or where the goods into which it is to be made are to be sold in their unbleached or undyed state, technically known in Europe as hi the gray ^ and in some parts of America as brotv7i goods. Tinges, high color, or off color, should be looked for. These are caused where the cotton has become tinged while on the plant, through rain stains, or by having fallen on the ground and become mixed with some of the red clay of the cotton field. These bales should be avoided, and in case of purchasing from a sample containing indications of having come from tinged bales, an agreement for a reduction in price on the bales ought to be arranged, or a condition made that these bales be thrown out before shipment of the quantity purchased. 33. The last point, and one that is important, is to see that all bales are somewhat alike. Usually a sample paper is made up of a handful of cotton from each of the lot of bales; by testing first one sample and then another it is dis- covered whether the lot of cotton is even running. Occa- sionally, however, if not graded properly by the cotton factor, a lot of cotton is found to be mixed; some bales may be higher grade than others, some may be longer-stapled than others, and even in the same bale an abnormal variation in length and strength of staple may be found. Cotton of this kind should be avoided altogether, as it is almost impossible to make satis- factory yarn out of cotton mixed in this manner. § 14 COTTON 31 34. As has been stated, constant practice is necessary to become a good judge of cotton. Even experienced cotton graders and cotton buyers improve year by year in their judgment of the fiber, until some of them, by a quick glance or the slightest touch, can determine at once whether the cotton is suitable for their purposes or not. It is not an unusual thing for a cotton buyer in a market like Liverpool to become so expert as to be able to examine in a single day type samples representing tens of thousands of bales. Usually the grade is mentally determined; then a small handful of cotton is grasped by both hands, having the thumbs uppermost, and pulled apart. One-half is thrown away, and the ends of the fibers that project from the other piece are grasped between the thumb and the first finger of the right hand, and the left hand is employed in removing short fibers, or hid, from the tuft. The tuft of cotton, now much lessened in size, is grasped by holding the other ends of the fibers in the left hand, while the right hand removes more short fibers, or fud. By these few quick movements an experienced cotton sampler has arrived at a small tuft of fibers laid parallel, which can first be measured, usually with the eye only, and afterwards grasped firmly between the first finger and the thumb of each hand, the thumbs being upper- most, and broken by a short, strong pull. By always taking the same amount of cotton in the hand at once, and redu- cing it to the same-sized tuft, the cotton sampler fixes a standard of length and strength for himself, by which he can assess the value of almost any kind of cotton. An accurate judgment of the length of staple can only be acquired by experience and practice, and a uniform method should be cultivated. By removing all short fibers and retaining only the longest ones for measurement, too long a measurement is obtained. This is often done by those interested in the sale of the cotton. By throwing out the long fibers and measuring the shortest ones, the length obtained does not fairly represent the staple of the cotton. A cotton sampler who wishes to give an impartial judgment will throw out all the shortest fibers, or the fud and the waste, and also 32 COTTON § 14 the longest fibers, which are evidently unrepresentative of the bulk of the cotton, leaving a bunch of fibers fairly even in length and typical of the majority of the fibers in the bale. These fibers are then measured. 35. After the grade and staple have been determined in the manner just named, a test is made for sand and for uneven running; the appearance as to bloom, color, and evidences of gin damage is then noticed, completing the test of the cotton, by which time a cotton expert should have made a mental estimate of its value. In regard to gin damage, it should be stated that this often occurs when cotton is ginned on the saw gin while damp; it is also caused if the gin is operated at too high a speed. Cotton in this condition can be recognized by being curled and stringy, with the fiber broken or cut. Another point to be noted in this connection is that local circumstances often affect the judgment on a lot of cotton; for instance, a good north light is the best in which to judge cotton, as this light is more regular than any other. Cotton should not be purchased from a sample wrapped in paper with a blue lining, unless it is removed for examination, as this causes the cotton to appear better than it really is. COTTON MARKETS OF THE UNITED STATES 36. The largest crop in any of the states is raised in Texas, and this makes Houston one of the most important interior markets of the United States. In the season of 1899-1900, 550,000 bales of cotton were sold in this market, which amount was excelled only by the gulf port New Orleans, where 1,002,000 bales were sold in the same season. Memphis, on the Mississippi River, is a market of importance and is a great center for long-stapled cotton. In the season referred to, 477,000 bales were handled at Memphis and 267,000 at Augusta, Georgia. Among other important cotton markets are Savannah, Georgia; Charleston, South Carolina; Mobile, Alabama; St. Louis, Missouri; Shreveport, Louisiana; Vicksburg § 14 COTTON 33 and Columbus, Mississippi; Macon, Columbus, and Rome, Georgia; Selma, Montgomery, and Eufaula, Alabama; and Nashville, Tennessee. MILL. PURCHASES OF COTTON 37. The cities of Boston, Providence, New Bedford, and Fall River are important markets for cotton, as many of the Southern factors have agents or branch offices at these points. In the fall, the salesmen of these houses, together with spe- cial agents who are sent from the cotton belt, are very busy in ofifering cotton to the manufacturers, who buy large quan- tities from October until March. The treasurers of the mills are usually the cotton buyers, and they select cotton from the samples that have been sent from the cotton factor,- show- ing the style of cotton that he is offering. Practically the whole of the cotton required for a year is purchased in the period named above, and very frequently it is shipped North immediately after the sale takes place. Arrangements are occasionally made for the shipment of so many bales per month. Money can be borrowed at very much lower rates of interest in New England than in the South, and consequently it is much cheaper to carry or hold cotton in the North, as in most cases the parties hold it on behalf of the banks that have loaned money to enable them to carry it. For this reason most of the large cotton-manufacturing establish- ments of New England have very large storehouses con- nected with their mill buildings, and the winter is usually a very busy time in receiving this cotton, and weighing, sampling, and storing it for future use The terms on which Northern manufacturers buy cotton are very simple. Usually the cotton is sold on cash terms, with no discount being allowed and no allowance being made for bags or ties, the gross weight being invoiced. The cotton is usually purchased delivered in Boston or an equivalen. point, a freight rate allowance being made by the shipper equal to the amount that the manufacturer pays for the freight on arrival of the cotton. It will be seen that the 34 COTTON § 14 above system requires that a very large stock of cotton be kept at the mills for a considerable portion of the year. While the above system is a general one, there are special cases in which the cotton is purchased as needed; in these cases it is not unusual for manufacturers to send mail orders to reliable Southern houses that know what grade of cotton they are accustomed to use, specifying the length of staple, grade, and style of cotton, and leaving it to the Southern merchant to ship the quality of cotton desired. In cases of this kind, cotton is said to be bought on descrip- tion; that is to say, the mill will purchase cotton, simply stating that it is to be of a certain grade and certain length of staple; for instance, 100 or 1,000 bales good middling li inches. EXPORTATION OF COTTON 38. The exports of cotton and its products from the United States in the fiscal year ending 1901 exceeded the export value of any other class of exports, averaging $1,000,000 per day throughout the year. The actual figures are as follows: Cotton, raw $313,673,443 Cotton manufactures . . 2 0,2 7 2,4 1 8 Cottonseed oil 1 6,5 4 1,3 2 1 Cottonseed meal 1 3,1 1 9,9 6 8 Cotton waste 1,4 3 1,6 4 Cottonseed 3 6 6,9 5 3 Total , . . . $3 6 5,4 5,7 7 PICKERS (PART 1) YARN-PREPARATION PROCESSES INTRODUCTION 1. Condition of Stock. — The condition in which the raw cotton reaches the cotton mill is that of a compressed bale. In a few sections in the United States and in some foreign countries where cotton mills are located in close proximity to the cotton fields, the cotton is delivered to the mill in a loosely packed bale that has not been compressed, and in some cases even as loose cotton taken from the cotton gin to the mill without baling. Instances of this kind are very rare, however, compared with the general method of delivering cotton in the form of a compressed bale, which is the condition that will be accepted as a standard. A com- pressed bale of cotton is a matted mass of innumerable fibers lying in all directions, with which are intermixed sand, broken leaf, sticks, broken seed, and other foreign matter. The fibers themselves, although approximately of the same quality, are not, even in the same bale, exactly of the same length, nor are they all ripened to the same point of maturity, while some of them may have been cut by the action of the gin, or rolled into iieps; that is, into small bunches of closely matted and tangled fibers that have the appearance of specks in the cotton and, while varying in size, are generally very minute, rarely being larger than an ordi- nary pin head. For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page I 16 2 PICKERS §16 2. Object of Cotton -Yarn Mills. — From this mate- rial, it is the object of the cotton-yarn mill to produce a clean, smooth, even thread from which all foreign matter has been removed, and which consists only of the perfect, or approximately perfect, fibers, the neps and excessively short fiber having been thrown out. In order to produce a comparatively strong thread, the fibers not only must be cleaned, but must be arranged approximately parallel to each other and assembled by a system in which a loose strand or ribbon of fibers is produced, which is gradually attenuated until it arrives at the correct fineness, when it is twisted to give it strength, and in that condition is spoken of in the cotton manufacturing business as yarn. This, then, in general, is the object of the cotton-yarn mill — to produce from the bale of raw cotton as large a percentage as possible of cotton yarn, which should be smooth, clean, even, and strong. One pound of cotton must be spun into yarn of which there is seldom less than 1 mile to a pound, usually 10 miles or even a greater length than this; and in some cases, for special purposes, there may be 100 miles or more. The problem is not only a mechanical one, but one involving a constant study of economy and also aiming at an excel- lence of production as far as is consistent with the proper economical operation of the yarn mill. PROCESSES EMPIjOYED FOR PRODUCTION OF COTTON YARN 3. In order to produce cotton yarn, the fiber is passed through a number of processes, varying from ten in a mill manufacturing coarse yarns to fifteen in one making fine yarns. These processes may be divided into three classes, as follows: (1) mixing; (2) cleaning; (3) parallelizing and attenuating. In this classification, those processes that follow the spinning are of course ignored, although in a mill making yarn for sale, a fourth class might be made of processes for preparing the yarn for the market. §16 PICKERS 3 4. Yarn is spoken of as being coarse, medium, or fine, according to the thickness of the thread, and this in turn is determined by the number of hanks to the pound. A hank of cotton yarn contains 840 yards, and the size of the yarn is indicated by the number of these hanks required to weigh 1 pound; thus, 10s yarn would contain 10 hanks, or 10 X 840 yards, making 8,400 yards, in a pound; 40s yarn would con- tain 40 hanks, or 33,600 yards, in a pound. The higher the numbers, that is, the greater the number of hanks in a pound, the finer is the yarn. No arbitrary rule can be given for determining which is coarse yarn, which is medium, or which is fine, as a manu- facturer accustomed to making only coarse yarn might consider 30s fine, while another manufacturer engaged princi- pally in the use of fine yarns would consider 30s coarse. A general classification would be to consider yarns below 30s as coarse; from 30s to 60s as medium numbers; and above 60s as fine yarns. The expression lozv munbcrs is sometimes applied to coarse yarns, and high njir,diers, to fine yarns. The number of a given yarn is commonly spoken of as its counts; thus, it is said that the counts of yarns are 10s, 12s, 36s, etc. 5. The processes adopted in different mills vary accord- ing to whether the mills are intended for coarse, medium, or fine yarns. A mill making medium yarns, for instance about 32s, would in most cases use the following machines: auto- matic feeder, opener, breaker picker, intermediate picker, finisher picker, card, first drawing, second drawing, third drawing, slubber, intermediate, roving frame, spinning frame. In cases where the railway head is used, it comes between the card and the first drawing; in this case the third draw- ing is omitted. Where the bale breaker, or cotton puller, is used, it takes a position before the automatic feeder. Where the mule is used, it takes the place of the spinning frame. For coarser numbers, the above list is changed by omitting one or more of the parallelizing and attenuating processes, and sometimes adding a cleaning process. In changing the 4 PICKERS § 16 list to suit finer yarns, the reverse is the case; one clean- ing process, or more, is omitted and attenuating processes are added, but for very fine yarns, a cleaning process, namely, combing, is added. Below will be found combinations of machinery suitable for mills making various numbers. 6. The machinery for yarn mills making 10s and below is as follows: automatic feeder, opener, breaker picker, intermediate picker, finisher picker, card, first drawing, second drawing, slubber, roving frame, spinning frame. The railway head may be used instead of the first drawing process. The machinery used in yarn mills making about 100s is as follows: automatic feeder, opener, breaker picker, finisher picker, card, sliver-lap machine, ribbon-lap machine, comber, first drawing, second drawing, third drawing, fourth drawing (optional), slubber, first intermediate, second intermediate, roving frame, mule. Sometimes a drawing process is used between the card and the sliver-lap machine. Where four processes of drawing are used, the roving frame is not necessary, and where four processes of fly frames (slubber, first intermediate, second intermediate, and roving frame) are used, it is not always necessary to have more than three processes of drawing. The machinery used in yarn mills for making 200s is as follows: automatic feeder, opener, breaker picker, card, sliver-lap machine, ribbon-lap machine, comber, first draw- ing, second drawing, third drawing, fourth drawing, slubber, first intermediate, second intermediate, roving frame, mule. The names given to the fly frames vary in different sec- tions, and in some places they are known as slubber, inter- mediate, roving frame, and jack frame. 7. What are known as do2ible-cnrdiiis; processes were for- merly very often employed, but are now going out of use both for coarse and fine yarns. Any of the preceding com- binations can be converted into double-carding combinations by adding after the card the names of derby doubler and finisher card. § 16 PICKERS 5 8. It is advisable to carefully study the combinations just given, noticing the difference between one combination and another, and becoming thoroughly familiar with the order in which the machines are mentioned, so that a knowledge of the accurate sequence of processes may be obtained. While the foregoing combinations of machinery are reliable and may be considered as the standards for the class of w^ork to which they refer, it occasionally happens that mills are found using different layouts. This may be because the mill is intended to make a lower or a higher grade of yarn than is customary for the numbers referred to, or because it is a mill that has been changed over from other numbers and the old machinery has been retained; or there may be many other reasons. Different opinions are held among millmen and mill engi- neers as to the proper equipment for mills. In this connec- tion, as \vell as in regard to all other statements concerning cotton-mill machinery — especially as to its construction and operation — it may be said that there is perhaps no industry in which so much variety of opinion will be found regarding the best methods of arriving at certain objects as in the cotton- mill business. Not only do differences of opinion arise among manufacturers, but a machine builder frequently looks at a problem from a point of view differing from that of a manufacturer. He looks on a machine or a process as a mechanical problem to be solved, while a manufacturer looks at it as a problem to obtain certain results effectively and economically. Again, American practice differs considerably in some respects from European methods. For these reasons it is almost impossible to give definite statements of the cus- tomary use and practice accepted by all millmen, and there- fore the statements made are in every case, as far as possible, either what has been found from experience to be correct, or what the majority of manufacturers would accept as being accurate, according to American practice. 9. A thorough comprehension of the principles of cotton- yarn preparation can best be obtained by a careful study of 6 PICKERS §16 each machine or process in its proper sequence, including the objects of the machine, the principle on which it is con- structed, and the mechanism employed to arrive at its objects; and by considering the operation and management of the machine not only theoretically, but from actual obser- vation. In doing this, the desired knowledge will be obtained sooner if the combined objects of all cotton-yarn-preparation machines are borne in mind: (1) the separation of the matted mass of fiber into loose flakes and the removal of the heavier and more bulky impurities, which objects are principally attained in the opening and picking processes; (2) the further cleansing of the stock from light and minute particles of foreign matter by such means as are adopted in the carding and combing processes; (3) the parallelizing, evening, and attenuation of the fibers, as performed in the carding and drawing processes, in the fly frames, and in the spinning process; (4) the strengthening of the product by twisting, as exemplified in ring or mule spinning. COTTON MIXING 10. Receipt of Cotton at the Mill. — If cotton is received at the mill in large quantities, as is usually the case, it must necessarily be stored until it is required for use. Before storing, however, it should be carefully ascer- tained whether the quality of the cotton in each bale is equal to the quality of the sample from which it was bought. After this has been accomplished, all the bales of one kind, grade, and staple (approximately) should be placed together in the storehouse, irrespective of their original marks. 11. Objects. — When a new lot of cotton is to be used, as many bales as it is desired to mix at one time are taken from the storehouse to the mixing: room, where the cotton is mixed. The objects of mixing the cotton from a number of bales are: (1) to allow the cotton to assume its normal condition; (2) to establish an average quality of grade in the lot. As regards the first object it should be understood that cotton when compressed is subjected to great pressure — §16 PICKERS 7 so much so that the space occupied by seventy uncom- pressed bales is often equal to that occupied by one hundred that are compressed. Cotton, when in this compressed state, cannot be worked so advantageously as when in its normal condition, and for this reason should be allowed to stand for some time after being opened before it is used. As regards the second object of mixing, it may be stated that, theoretically, to make a perfect product, all the fibers should be of the same length, diameter, strength, cleanli- ness, and color; in other words, they should be equally matured and grown under the same conditions. It is impossible, however, to obtain a large quantity of cot- ton that will not vary in quality, because the lot is made up of cotton collected from various plantations, which are probably some distance from each other and subject to different cli- matic conditions, different methods of cultivation, different seed and soil. The result is that the cotton from the planta- tion where the conditions were most favorable is in a higher state of maturity than that raised on the other plantations. Even in bales from the same plantation a variation is found. An experienced cotton sampler can find points of difference — slight in many cases, but still variations — in almost every bale of each lot of cotton. In order to neutralize this varia- tion as much as possible and insure a continuance of a supply of even-running stock over as long a period as possible in the mill, mixing the bales is resorted to. 12. Size of tlie Mixinj?. — The quantity of cotton used in a mixing should be as large as possible; for the larger the mixing, the easier it is to keep the work regular for a consider- able length of time. The reason for this is that no two mix- ings are alike, this being due not only to the variation found in different bales of the same kind, but also to atmospheric changes that affect the cotton, especially in regard to mois- ture. In addition to securing regularity, another reason for having large mixings is to give cotton from compressed bales an opportunity to expand. By making a large mixing and allowing it to stand for some days in a room, the temperature 8 PICKERS §16 and humidity of which are about the same as those of the room in which the cotton is to be worked, it will be found that the stock will run much more evenly, make less waste, and pro- duce a stronger yarn than when used directly from the bale. 13. Metliod of Mixing. — Mixings when made by hand should occupy a considerable amount of floor space. The first bale should be spread over all this space, the second bale spread to cover the first, the third to cover the second, and so on. By this means the mixing is built up of layers from each bale of cotton. When a mixing is used, the cotton should be pulled away in small sections from the top to the bottom of the mixing so as to obtain portions of each bale. It is a good plan when using bales of different marks, to average the mixing so that no two bales of the same mark shall come in contact with each other. The following rule is used to find the number of sections that should be made in order to obtain the correct proportion of each mark in a section. 14, Rule. — To find the mimber of sections of which a mixirig should consist, find the largest -number that zvill exactly divide the miniber of bales of each mark. Thoi, to find the number of bales of each mark that there should be in each section, divide the num- ber of bales of each mark by the member of sections in the mixing. Example. — Find a suitable order for mixing 100 bales, the mixing to consist of 40 bales marked ABC; 20, G H I; 10, J K L; and 30, D E F. Solution. — 10 is the largest number that will exactly divide 40, 20, 10, and 30; therefore, the mixing should be made up of 10 sections, and in order to prevent any two bales of the same mark coming in contact with each other, they could be arranged as follows: • 10 times. Ans. GH I DEF A BC J KL DE F A BC GH I A BC DEF A BC §16 PICKERS 9 15. It is the practice in some mills to go over the covers of the bales after the cotton has been removed and pick off the loose pieces of cotton adhering to them. This is a prac- tice that should only be encouraged to a small degree, as the amount of cotton obtained is hardly suflficient to pay for the time occupied in its removal, and there is also a liability of jute fibers from the burlap becoming mixed with the cotton and causing poor work in the subsequent processes. 16. Mixing Different Varieties of Cotton. — The sub- ject as it has been treated refers only to mixings where the cotton of different marks is all approximately of the same grade. Where it is desired to blend cotton of different vari- eties for special purposes, it is not necessary that it should be done in the mixing. For example, where it is desired to mix exact proportions of different varieties, as American with Egyptian, or where dyed stock of one color, or more, is to be blended with white, the cotton may be blended to better advantage at some of the subsequent processes. Different growths of cotton are sometimes mixed together for special purposes. Thus, American cotton is mixed with Egyptian in order to cheapen the mixture, Egyptian cotton usually being higher priced than American. By this means a yarn is produced that practically has the qualities of a pure Egyptian yarn; and yet the cost is less than that of pure Egyptian. Brazilian cotton is sometimes mixed with Amer- ican in order to increase the strength of the yarn, as Brazilian has a strong, wiry staple; while rough Peruvian cotton is mi^ed with Egyptian in order to give the latter woolly qualities, the Peruvian being of a harsh, crisp nature. Although cotton is often mixed in this way, it must be understood that there is a certain limit to the mixing of harsh and soft cottons, as they do not give the same results under the same treatment in the subsequent processes; nor is it practical to mix long- and short-stapled cotton, as the machines of the later processes are set according to the length of the staple, and if set for one length of staple will either damage cotton of a different length or cause an imperfect product. 10 PICKERS §16 BALE BREAKER 1 7. Description. — A machine known as a bale breaker is sometimes used in mixing cotton. Its object is to sepa- rate the matted masses of cotton as they come from the bale and to deliver the cotton in an open state to the mixing bins. This machine, consequently, does the work that is performed by hand in hand mixings. When using a bale breaker for mixing cotton, a good method is to have about six bales open around the feed-end of the machine and to take a layer of cotton in rotation from the top of each bale. The principle employed to attain the object of the bale breaker is to have three or four pair of rolls, each pair revolving at a higher rate of speed than the preceding pair. The cotton fed to the pair that is revolving at a slow speed, is pulled apart when it comes under the action of the pair revolving at a faster speed. Fig. 1 shows a view of a bale breaker with conveying aprons attached, while Fig. 2 gives an illus- tration of the different sets of rolls that act on the cotton and constitute the principal mechanism of this machine. Refer- ring to these two figures, the cotton is taken from the bales and placed on the horizontal apron a, which is moving in the direction shown by the arrow. As the cotton reaches the first set of rolls, it is gripped and carried forwards to the next set, each pair of rolls having a greater circumferential velocity than the preceding pair, the circumferential velocity of the second pair being about twice that of the first pair, while the circumferential velocity of the third pair is about four times that of the second, and the last pair about five times that of the third. The first set of rolls usually makes between 5 and 6 revolutions per minute. The space between the different sets of rolls will be found to vary with different makes, but usually from the center of one pair to the center of the next is about 9 inches. The upper roll of each set rotates in bearings having a vertical movement, but held down by means of strong springs /' connected with the upper rolls by means of the rods c. By this means the upper rolls are allowed to give when an §16 PICKERS 11 12 PICKERS §16 excess of cotton passes between' the rolls. In the bale breaker shown in these illustrations, the pair of rolls far- thest from the feed-end of the machine is the largest, being nearly 9 inches in outside diameter, while all the other rolls are Ti inches in outside diameter. These rolls will be found to vary in construction, in some cases being solid with flutes their whole length, while in other cases they are made up of rings having projecting spikes and placed side by side on a core in such a manner that when a spike breaks it is simply necessary to replace the ring containing the broken spike. Fig. 2 A somewhat different arrangement of the rolls is shown in Fig. 3, in which a series of nosed levers d are made to take the place of the lower roll of the first set. The cotton as it leaves the last set of rolls drops to the lower apron , are positively driven by b. These rolls are not exactly alike in every respect, as the one nearer the lifting apron carries pins that project through elongated holes in the apron, as shown in this figure. At the point // the pins strike the excess cotton from the lifting apron back into the hopper, §16 PICKERS 21 while that which adheres to the pins is removed as the roll revolves and the pins are drawn throu^jh the apron. In {fi) are shown the adjustments provided for regulating the dis- tance from the pins of the stripper comb to the lifting apron, and thus regulating the amount of excess cotton removed; the adjustment for regulating the tension of the apron is also shown. In order to regulate the distance between the roll b and the lifting apron, the casting that supports the bearings Fig. 8 of this roll is made so that it may be moved on the frame- work by loosening the bolts at k and turning the screw p. The tensionof the stripping apron is regulated by the screw/, wfiich holds the bearing of the roll d, in position. A stripping device that differs in construction from that shown in Fig. 8 is shown in the two sectional views, Fig. 9 (a) and (d). It consists of a metal shell that contains two shafts a, (I,, which have bearings in the circular ends of the shell and are capable of being moved in these bearings. These shafts carrj'^ castings d,d,, known as trailitig levers. On the end of each trailing lever are studs c, ener is not used in all mills, as the auto- matic feeder is sometimes connected directly to the breaker picker, but in mills where this machine is used it generally forms a combination machine with the automatic feeder, as shown in Fig. 10. Technically, the automatic feeder ends with the doffer beater, or, as it is sometimes called, the pin beater. Fig. 11. The opener has for its objects the cleaning of the heavy impurities from the cotton and the separating of the cotton into small tufts that are light enough in weight to be influ- enced by an air-current generated by a fan in the succeeding machine. It attains these objects by presenting a fringe of cotton to a beater that makes from 1,200 to 1,800 revolu- tions per minute. This beater usually has two blades, and consequently for every revolution delivers two blows to the 28 PICKERS §16 fringe of cotton. By this means anj^ foreign substance will be struck from the fringe of cotton as it is held by the feed-rolls, and knocked through the grid bars shown in Fig. 11. The tufts of cotton will also be removed from the fringe as soon as they are released from the bite of the feed-rolls, and thus they will be sufficiently light to be acted on by the air-current that conveys the cotton to the next machine. The cotton after being acted on by the doffer beater of the automatic feeder falls on a feed-apron, and being separated into small tufts, occupies so much space that the wooden roll and feed-rolls, shown in Fig. 11. are used to condense its bulk before being presented to the beater of the opener. The opener alone occupies a floor space of about 5 feet by 6 feet 6 inches, and when connected with a feeder occupies a space of 11 feet 4 inches by 6 feet 6 inches. It requires about 3 horsepower to drive it. Openers are rarely run at their full capacity, the amount of cotton they are made to deliver depend- ing on the amount required to supply the breaker picker. TRUXKIXG 31. The cotton from the opener is carried along a ti-unk to the next machine by means of an air-current that is gen- erated by a fan. This fan exhausts the air in the trunk, and thus the air in the room containing the feeder enters through the openings between the grate bars in the opener, and carries the cotton with it as it passes through the trunk to the fan. The various forms' of trunks are as follows: (1) plain conducti7ig triaiks, (2) horizo7ital cleaning trunks, (3) inclined cleaning trunks. 32. A plain condiictinja: trunk consists of a circular tube of sheet metal from 10 to 13 inches in diameter. It should have easy curves wherever the tube bends, and should contain sufficient doors for cleaning purposes. The inner surface should be smooth, so as to cause as little friction as possible in the transit of the cotton. These trunks are used simply to conduct cotton from one point to another. Horizontal cleaning: trunks are constructed of wood and contain doors for the removal of the dirt, also grids 30 PICKERS §16 through which the dirt falls. They may be built either shallow and wide, or narrow and deep. Inclined cleaning ti'unks are of the same construction as horizontal cleaning trunks, but have an inclined position. 33. Fig. 12 {a), (d), and (c) shows a horizontal cleaning trunk supported by rods / placed about 10 feet apart on each side of the trunk. In the center of the trunk are connec- tions for sprinklers ?-. A section of this trunk is shown in Fig. 12 (d). The upper part is a clear passage, along which the cotton is carried over a grating a. During this passage of the cotton, any foreign matter that is too heavy to be carried along with the cotton by the force of the air- current, will drop through the grating a into, the pockets d. Fig. 13 The portion of the trunk containing the grating is called a cleaning trunk and does not extend the entire length of the trunk, the remainder being simply a conducting trunk. Forming the bottom of each pocket d are doors c hinged at d, below which is another passage e, which has a door at each end. Connecting with this passage ^ is a trunk /, which extends to the dust room and contains a fan ^. When it is desired to remove the dirt that has fallen through the grating, the breaker picker is first stopped; the springs that hold the doors are released; and the doors fall, delivering the dirt into the passage e. The doors c are then closed by means of the handles 7, and the doors at each §16 PICKERS 31 32 PICKERS §16 end of the passage e opened. The fan g creates a current of air in the passage ', Figs. 2 and 4, and which is on the shaft c. Fig. 15 {a). 17. Gearing. — Above the machine in Fig. 5 is shown a framework carrying a countershaft x. The speed of the beater is so high that it cannot be driven directly from the main shaft of the room without using very large pulleys; for this reason, the countershaft is used and the beater driven from it as shown in Fig. 5. In some cases instead of being on the machine the countershaft is attached to the ceiling. A plan of gearing for a picker in single section having a cage section is shown in Fig. 16. On one end of the beater shaft a are two pulleys «,, a.\ a^ drives the fan that pro- duces the air-current for the cages nearest the lap head, while a^ drives the fan that produces the air-current neces- sary to draw the cotton from the trunking to the cage section. These pulleys are 6 inches in diameter and drive pulleys on the fan shaft 8 inches in diameter; therefore, when the beater shaft a is making 1,450 revolutions per minute, the speed of each fan is — ^-^ — — — = 1,087.5 revolutions per minute. 8 On the other end of the beater shaft is a 4-inch feed- pulley a., driving an 18-inch pulley compounded with a 15-tooth gear, which, through two gears connected, or 20 PICKERS § 17 compounded, by a clutch arrangement, drives a cross-shaft b, from which the fluted calender rolls receive motion. At the other end of the cross-shaft from the 12-tooth gear driving the fluted calender rolls is a gear of 14 teeth, driving a gear of 50 teeth, which is compounded with a gear of 27 teeth. The method by which the calender rolls, stripping rolls, and top cage are driven from this gear of 27 teeth may be readily traced. The bottom cage is driven from the top cage. The 14-tooth gear on the cross-shaft b drives a 30-tooth gear on the end of another cross-shaft c through the 50-tooth gear. The shaft c, by means of bevel gears, drives a shaft extending along the side of the picker. The feed-rolls receive motion from this shaft, and the stripping rolls, together with the cages of the first cage section, are driven from the bottom feed-roll. 18. The cross-shaft /' that carries the gear of 14 teeth is driven through the 18-inch pulley by a 35-tooth gear, a clutch gear, and a 17-tooth gear meshing with one of 90 teeth on the cross-shaft. When the clutch is disconnected, the lap head and the feed-rolls will stop, but the beater and fans will continue to run. When it is desired to remove a lap, this clutch is disconnected. The reason for this construction is that the beater and fans, owing to their high speed, could not be stopped imme- diately when it was desired to remove a lap without putting an excessive strain on the beater; neither would it be advis- able to start the beater and fans from a standstill each time the feed was started, since too much time would be required for these parts to acquire their maximum speed. By this construction, however, the cotton may be stopped or started through the picker almost instantly. 19. Draft of a Breaker Picker. — The draft of a breaker picker is usually a little less than 2. and is figured from the fluted calender rolls to the feed-rolls. The draft of the picker shown in Fig. 16 is 9 X 24 X 12 X 30 X 24 X 28 X 33 ^ j g^r, 24 X 53 X 14 X 24 X 28 X 37 X 2 §17 PICKERS 21 20. Floor Space of a Breaker. — The floor space of a breaker varies according to the style and make of the machine. One type of a single-beater breaker with a cage section occu- pies a floor space of 13 feet 9 inches by 6 feet 8^ inches, allowing for trunk connections. A double-beater machine, other particulars as above, occupies 19 feet 10 inches by Fig. 17 6 feet 82 inches. Where a condenser and gauge box are used instead of a cage section, from 7 to 9 inches may be deducted from the length given above. These measurements are for pickers that make laps 40 inches wide. When in single section, breaker pickers require about 4i horsepower; when in double section, about 7 horsepower. §17 PICKERS 23 The production depends on the speed, width of lap, and weight of lap pei" yard. A common production is about 500 pounds per hour, or 25,000 pounds for a week of 50 hours actual running time, as about 8 hours is allowed for stoppages. INTERMEDIATE AND FINISHER PICKERS 21. Intermediate and finisher pickers are prac- tically alike in construction and differ very little from a breaker picker in single section. Their objects are the same as those of the breaker picker; the lap that they produce, however, is of a more uniform weight per yard. Fig. 17 shows a perspective view of a finisher picker, while Fig. 18 shows a section through the same machine. Four Fig. 19 laps taken from the previous picker are placed on the apron a, and thus the advantage gained by doubling is secured. 22. Fig. 19 shows how the laps pass under each other on the apron that conducts them to the feed-rolls. Rods passing through the centers of these laps and being in contact with the brackets a^, a„., a^, a^, Fig. 18, hold the laps in position. The laps, shown in Fig. 19, vary in diameter. This is necessary in order to keep four layers of cotton supplied to the feed-rolls at all times. If all the laps were of the same diameter, they would run out at the same time, and thus there would be a liability of the cotton running through the machine before all the new laps were supplied, as well as a tendency to irregularity through four piecings coming near together. 24 PICKERS 17 §17 PICKERS 25 EVENER MOTIONS 23. After it is delivered by the feed-rolls, the cotton is treated in the same manner as in the breaker picker, but the manner in which it is fed into the intermediate and the finisher pickers is somewhat different from that in a breaker picker, as indicated by the curved section plate d above the roll r, Fig. 18. This section plate is a portion of a motion known as the evener motion, the object of which is to regu- late the speed of the feed-roll in accord- ance with the weight of cotton fed so that a uniform weight will be presented to the beater. Fig. 20 is a com- plete view of all the attachments of an evener, while Figs. 21 and 22 are portions of side elevations. A shaft b. Fig. 20, carries rolls b^, which give motion to and support the feed- apron a. Fig. 18, while c, Fig. 20, is a feed-roll, or evener roll, extending across the machine. Fig. 21 24. Scale Box. — Fig. 20 shows eight sectional plates d, each of which is about 5 inches in width, and carries a pro- jection d^ that passes inside a box known as the scale box e. The plates are connected in pairs by four short saddles ^,. Each pair of these saddles e^ is, in turn, connected by a larger saddle e.,, while the centers of e.. are connected by a still larger saddle ^^. Extending from the center of the saddle e^ is a pin <"., which projects out of the scale box and forms a bearing for 26 PICKERS §17 a lever / at A. The fulcrum of the lever is at /^ and is formed by a bracket fastened to the scale box. At the other end of the lever, fastened at /a, is a vertical rod ^ that is connected to a short shaft ,^i at the side of the picker. At the opposite end of this shaft is fastened a segment //, the teeth of which engage with a gear /i^. This Fig. 22 gear is on a sleeve with a gear /i^, the sleeve being sup- ported by a stud that projects from a bracket bolted to the framework under the apron. Supported from this same part of the machine are bearings /, /, that hold a rack k in position. The teeth of this rack engage with the teeth of the gear /i^. §17 PICKERS 27 25. Connected to the rack k is a belt guide k, that controls the position of the belt on the cones and thus regu- lates the speed of the driven cone. A rod /, that extends downwards from the bearing j\ and then horizontally through a projection on the belt guide serves to steady the guide. 26. Feed-Roll. — The manner in which the feed-roll is driven through the cones may be seen by reference to Figs. 21 and 22 in connection with Fig. 20. On the beater shaft m is a pulley w, driving a pulley w^ on a shaft w that extends across the picker. The lower-cone shaft is driven from the shaft 7i by the gears w,, w„ while motion is imparted to the top-cone shaft by a belt that passes around both cones. On one end of the top-cone shaft is a spiral gear/, Figs. 20 and 22, that drives a spiral gear p^ on a short shaft g. At the other end of this shaft is a double worm r that drives a worm-gear r, of 78 teeth. Compounded with the gear r, is a gear r^, which is of extra width so that it drives a gear 7\ on the feed-roll and also a gear )\ on the apron shaft h. 27. Opei'ation. — The manner in which this evener regu- lates the speed of the feed-roll in accordance with the weight of cotton fed is as follows: The sectional plates d, Fig. 20, are pressed dow^n on the roll c by the weight /., shown on the lever /, through the connection made by e^ and the saddles. The distance that these plates are raised from the roll c is governed by the amount of cotton that passes between them and the roll; and, by following the connections, it will be seen that the distance these plates are raised will govern the position of the belt on the cones, and, consequently, the speed of the roll c that feeds the cotton. When the proper weight of cotton is being fed uniformly throughout the length of the feed-roll r, the plates are raised the same distance from the roll c and the belt should be exactly in the center of the cones. If, however, a portion of cotton 1 inch thicker than the average thickness comes under the section plate at the extreme left, this section plate will be raised 1 inch from its normal position. The result of this will be that the end of the lever Ci resting on this plate will 28 PICKERS §17 be raised 1 inch, which in turn will raise the end of the lever e. connected to e^ \ inch. The end of the lever e^ that is connected to this lever e^ will therefore be raised \ inch, which, by causing the pin e^ to be raised & inch, will result in the lever / being raised h inch at the point /,. As the lever / cannot rise at A, its other end must rise and, through the rod g, turn the shaft g^. The segment h Fig. 23 wall therefore be moved, and through the gears //,, lu and the rack k, the belt will be guided on to the smaller part of the lower, or driving, cone, thus decreasing the speed of the feed-roll and reducing the weight of cotton fed. As soon as this heavier portion of cotton has passed and the correct weight is fed, the parts will be brought to their normal positions by means of the weight on the lever /. SI- PICKERS 29 In this illustration, an extreme case has been taken, as it is seldom that an extra portion of cotton 1 inch thicker than the average comes under one of the section plates; but the belt would be moved the same distance if a portion of cotton H inch thicker than the average should come under all the section plates. If four of the plates are raised i inch from Fig. 24 their normal position, it will have the same effect as raising each plate i inch. It is therefore obvious that the arrange- ment is designed to insure an average weight of cotton being fed regardless of the number of plates that are affected. 28. Another type of evener is shown in Figs. 28 and 24. Extending across the machine between the apron roll and §17 PICKERS 31 the feed-rolls is a plate a, Fig. 23, that has a sharp edge on the top. Bearing on this are eight sectional plates a. that are in a position to be affected by the cotton just before it passes to the feed-rolls b, /$>,. The lower feed-roll is smaller than the upper one, and thus the plates are allowed to lie under the upper one and so come very close to the bite of the rolls. Arms a^ extend from these plates under the feed, or lap, apron, as shown in Figs. 23 and 24, and are connected in pairs by means of bridges c, c, which, in turn, are connected to a large bridge c, by means of two other bridges <:,,<:,. Fulcrumed at ^ is a lever d^ that contains a screw d^ having a bearing on the large bridge c^. Extending from this lever d^ is a rod e that connects with shaft / having bearings at A and A. At the end of the shaft / nearest the bearing f, is attached a segment ^, the teeth of which engage with a rack gy that governs the position of the belt h^ on the cones //,//,. The bottom cone h is driven by gearing from the side shaft j, which receives motion from the lap head. The top cone hi, driven by the bottom cone, drives the feed-rolls by means of a worm-drive; consequently, any movement of the belt on the cones will alter the speed of the feed-rolls and thus affect the weight of the cotton fed. When the proper weight of cotton is being fed, the plates are all depressed the same distance; but, if a portion of cotton heavier than the average weight passes over a plate, this plate will be further depressed. As the plate is ful- crumed on a, this will cause the outer end of the arm a^ to rise, which will result in the lever d^ being raised through the connections made by the bridges c,c-,,c^. The raising of the lever d^ will impart motion to the shaft / by means of the connecting-rod e, which will cause the segment g to move the rack g^ in such a manner that the belt h. will be moved to the small end of the driving cone. When the heavy portion of cotton has passed, the plate will be returned to its normal position by the weight of the arm a,, together with the weight of the bridges, lever, and connecting-rod. If less than the average weight of cotton is presented to the 32 PICKERS §17 plates, the arm a., and the lever ^/,, together with the bridges, will fall, because of their weight, and the result will be that the belt will be moved to the larger end of the driving cone, thus increasing the speed of the feed-rolls. 29. A picker with another type of evener motion attached is shown in Fig. 25. The scale box and its connections with the segment resemble those in Fig. 20. The rolls of this evener, however, instead of being driven merely through cones, are driven by a combination of two cones, a drum, and a roll. The manner in which this method of driving is arranged can be readily traced. A side shaft /, Fig. 25, that carries a drum k at one end receives motion from the lap head. A belt / from the drum k passes first over a roll ni and then around the cones «,,«. The feed-rolls receive their motion through a worm-drive from the top cone n. It is possible to attach eveners to automatic feeders, although this is not commonly done, since the effect of the evener on the uniform weight of cotton is destroyed to some extent during its passage from the feeder to the breaker picker, especially if an opener is used and the cotton is con- veyed from it to the breaker picker by trunking. MEASURING MOTION 30. The measuring motion is used to a greater extent on intermediate and finisher pickers than on breaker pickers. Its object is, when a definite length has been wound on the lap roll, automatically to stop the feed-rolls, the smooth calender rolls, and in some cases the fluted calender rolls, while the beater shaft and fans continue to revolve. A view of a measuring motion, the value of the gearing of which is given later in this Section, under Gearing, is shown in Fig. 26; a represents the end of the bottom calender roll, carrying a worm b, which through a worm-gear c drives a shaft <:, carrying a bevel gear d, which drives a bevel gear e. The gear e, together with a dog /, is loose on a stud g and carries a projection e^, the dog / also carrying a projection /,. §17 PICKERS 33 The dog, if allowed to do so, would fall because of its own weight so that its point would be down, but as the gear e receives motion from the bottom calender roll, the projec- tion e^ on the gear e comes in contact with the projection /, on the dog / and thus continually forces the dog around ahead of it; consequently, when the projection e^ is at its highest position, the parts mentioned occupy the position shown in Fig. 26. As the gear e continues to revolve, the dog / will be brought in contact wath a projection on a lever h that is Fig. 26 connected to the starting levei h^ fulcrumed at h._. Con- nected to //i is a rod j. Figs. 22 and 26, that runs along the side of the picker and connects with a double worm r, Fig. 22. A bracket k, Fig. 26, is also attached to the rod h^, while attached to this bracket is a rod k^ that connects with the clutch /, Fig. 27, through which the lap head is driven. 31. When the picker is running, the cut-out, shown in dotted lines, in the lever h. Fig. 26, has a bearing on a cast- ing, and thus the starting lever /^, is held in such a position that the worm r, Fig. 22, is in contact with the worm-gear r,, 34 PICKERS § 17 the clutch /, Fig. 27, being closed. When, however, the gear c. Fig. 26, has made one revolution and has brought the dog / into contact with the lever h, any further movement causes the dog / to force the cut-out on // from its bearing. This causes the starting lever h^ to drop, disconnecting the clutch /; the worm ;' is also thrown out of gear, causing the calender rolls and the feed-rolls to stop. In some cases, the gearing is so arranged that only the smooth calender rolls and the feed-rolls stop, while the fluted calender rolls continue to run, thereby resulting in the lap of cotton being broken away from the sheet of cotton held by the rolls that have been stopped. In other cases the fluted calender rolls stop and the lap is broken from the cotton in the machine by giving it a partial revolution with the hands. After the lap has been thus separated, the racks described in connection with Fig. 15 are raised, the roll v withdrawn, and the lap is removed from the machine. The starting lever //,, Fig. 26, is then raised until the cut-out rests on the casting, thereby throwing the clutch /, Fig. 27, and the worm r. Fig. 22, into gear, and starting the cotton through the machine. The lap roll is then placed in position and the layer of cotton started around it by hand, after which the foot is placed on the lever /, Fig. 15, allowing the racks to descend by their own weight and hold the lap roll in posi- tion. This operal;ion is repeated each time the gear ^ makes one revolution and releases the lever //, Fig. 26. ADJUSTMENTS 32, The distance between the blade of the beater and the feed-rolls when in closest proximity is an important point in a picker. If this distance is too great, the fringe of cotton will not receive the full benefit of the beating process, and thus the impurities will not be properly removed or the cotton separated into sufficiently fine pieces. On the other hand, if the beater blade is set too close, the fibers of the cotton will be injured. §17 PICKERS 35 An adjustment is therefore provided for moving the feed- rolls nearer to, or farther from, the beater. The reason for moving the feed-rolls instead of the beater is that, as the feed- rolls revolve much more slowly than the beater, they would not be injured as much if, after changing their position, their bearings were not exactly in line. The distance between the blade of the beater and the feed-rolls is depend- ent principally on the length of the staple being run, the diameter of the feed-rolls, and the thickness of the cotton being delivered to the beater. The longer the staple, the smaller the diameter of the feed-rolls, and the thicker the cotton being delivered, the far- ther the feed-rolls should be set from the beater. With 3-inch feed-rolls, and using 1-inch American cotton, the dis- tance between the blade of the beater and the feed-rolls should be from ttb to t^ inch. 33. Evener Adjusting Screw. — Near the top of the rod g, Fig. 20, is shown an adjusting screw ^2. Sometimes, owing to atmospheric changes and other conditions, the weight of the cotton will vary; that is, it may feed a little heavier or a little lighter one day than another. This causes the weight of the lap per yard to vary also. As the same weight of lap per yard is usually required each day, an adjustment must be provided by means of which the variation may be reduced to a minimum. If the lap is delivered too heavy or too light per yard, a change, of course, can be made in the draft change gear, but in case the variation is very slight, a change of 1 tooth in the draft gear will probably cause too great an alteration. For this reason, therefore, the adjustment is provided on the rod g and, by turning the screwy, up or down on this rod, the belt may be moved on the cones, thus making a very slight change in the speed of the feed-rolls. All evener motions are provided with some- what similar adjustments. Draft dears V\ m tr^^=Jt=^ Beaipr 1450 R.RM. S Car/c czzf Top Top CulencIerRoU 5'/2"Dia. 2 "J/ 1= 3':^ Bottom Cross Shaft O'Din.Lap CalpnderRotl C 9" cd Bottom StrippinffRotI 27 Fig. 27 17 PICKERS 37 GEARING 34. The gearing of a picker equipped with the evener motion illustrated in Fig. 20 is shown in Fig. 27. The beater shaft m is driven from a countershaft, as explained in con- nection with the breaker picker, and carries the usual pulleys for driving the fan and feed-rolls. The feed-pulley Wi drives a pulley i?i^ on a shaft ?/ extend- ing across the picker. From this shaft, the cones and the feed-rolls, together with the feed-apron, are driven. As the feed-apron is driven through the cones, its speed will always be in accordance with that of the feed-rolls. The lap head, cages, and stripping rolls are driven through a side shaft p, which receives its motion from the shaft ?i. The driving plan of the picker shown in Fig. 25 is given in Fig. 28. The measuring motion is provided with change gears, by means of which different lengths of laps can be procured. When finding the length of lap, the number of revolutions made by the bottom calender roll while the knock-off gear is revolving once should first be determined; this result multi- plied by the circumference of the roll will give the length of lap. Referring to Fig. 26, the bottom calender roll a is 7 inches in diameter, b is a. single worm, and the worm-gear c is the change gear; the gear d has 21 teeth, while the knock- off gear e contains 30 teeth. The length of lap delivered when using a 45-tooth change 30 X 45 gear is as follows: = 64.285 revolutions of roll to 21 X 1 one revolution of gear e. 64.285 X 7 X 3.1416 = 1,413.704 inches. 1,413.704 inches ^ 36 = 39.269 yards, length of lap. This example could also be expressed as follows: 30_Xi.3_X 7 X 3.1416 ^ 3^ ^e yards 21 X 1 X 36 A constant for the measuring motion may be obtained by omitting the change gear or considering it a 1-tooth gear. This constant, multiplied by the number of teeth in any change gear, will give the length of lap delivered when using that gear, and consequently the gear for producing a certain 38 PICKERS 17 16 -4'e" 6S 1 ■ \ Apron Roll EvenerRoll Feed Roll 2V8"Dia. Beater 1300 R.RM. Cage Stripping Roll \:z^i CalenderRoll 1 76^ S 73 ^ =13? 9"Fluled/CalenderRoll m Draft Gear 37 Fig. 28 §17 PICKERS 39 length may be found by dividing the length of lap required by the constant. The constant is obtained as follows: 30x (1) X 7 X 3.1416 21 X 1 X 36 = .8726, constant 35. Draft of Intermediate and Flnislier Pickers. The draft change gears are shown on both plans, Figs. 27 and 28. In the machine shown in Fig. 27, there are two change gears Wi, //, so that if the proper draft cannot be obtained by changing one gear, the other may be changed. The draft of an intermediate picker is usually about 4.25 and that of a fin- isher picker about 4.50, when there are 4 laps up at the back. The total draft of the machine shown in Fig. 27, with a gear of 55 teeth on the lower-cone shaft meshing with a gear of 35 teeth, and wath the belt in the center of the cones, is as follows: 9 X 24 X 12 X.17 X 18 X 27 X 55 X 9 X 78 X 24 ^ ^ ^^^ ^^^^^ 24 X 53 X 96 X 60 X 27 X 35 X 9 X 2 X 12 X 3 The total draft of the machine shown in Fig. 28, with a 20-draft gear and the belt in the center of the cones, is as follows: 9 X 18 X 14 X 14 X 30 X 54 X 3.25 X 85 X 28 X 12 37 X 73 X 76 X 20 X 40 X 10 X 1 X 20 X 16 X 2i draft = 4.275, CARE OF PICKERS 36. Regulation of Air-Current. — The air-current that draws the cotton to the cages should be regulated to draw the cotton to them in such proportions that the upper cage w^ill receive an amount slightly in excess of that which the bottom one receives, since, if the stock is drawn to the cages in equal amounts, the sheet delivered at the front of the picker will be formed of two layers of practically the same thickness, and when run through the next machine, will be liable to split. Pickers are constructed with dampers in the flue so that the required adjustments may be made. The making of a good lap is an important point. It should be perfectly cylindrical when removed from the machine, 40 PICKERS §17 and should feel as firm at one point as at another. It should be built so that the layers will unroll easily at the next proc- ess without sticking- together. This defect, which is known as splitting, or licking:, is due to various causes; such as excessive fan speed, improper division of the air-currents, oil dropping on the cotton, etc. If the air-current is stronger on one side than on the other, the side having the weaker current is usually soft. The velocity of the air-current is also responsible for the amount of waste removed. If the air-current is too strong, it prevents good cotton from being struck through the bars, but at the same time prevents all the dirt from being removed, since the current is strong enough to carry it forwards. On the other hand, if the current is so weak that the dirt drops readily, good cotton may also drop with it, causing excessive waste. A medium air-current must therefore be found that will allow the removal of the greatest amount of dirt with the least amount of cotton. The setting of the grid bars also aids in this, and the matter of keeping all the parts clean cannot receive too much attention. In some cases it is found necessary, in order to avoid an excessive amount of air entering through the grid bars and preventing the removal of the dirt, to admit air through the ends of the beater cover or through the casing that extends over the passage between the beater and the cages. The laps delivered should be as near a uniform weight as possible. Each lap from the finisher picker is usually weighed, and a variation of i pound in either direction is allowed; that is, if laps weighing 35 pounds are delivered when they are the correct weight per yard, any laps weigh- ing between 341 and 352 pounds are allowed to pass. Laps weighing outside this range should be put back and run over again, and if too many of these laps are uniformly heavy or light, the regulating screw on the evener should be adjusted. 37. Causes of Uneven Tjaps. — When laps are found to be weighing unevenly, the fault may be at several places. The feeder may be feeding unevenly; the evener, either on §17 PICKERS 41 the intermediate or finisher lapper, may be out of order, possibly through not being cleaned and oiled properly or through using a stiflE evener driving belt. This should be perfectly pliable and have good piecings. Cotton may also remain in the trunks or over the inclined cleaning bars because these are not kept clean. Another cause for uneven laps is often found in the posi- tion of the cone belt on the cones of the evener motion. If, when the proper amount of cotton is passing through the picker, the cone belt is running at one end of the cones, it will not allow the belt to be shifted far enough toward the nearest end of the cones to correct any considerable varia- tion requiring a movement of the belt in that direction. The different parts of the evener motion should be so adjusted that the belt will run at the center of the cones when the correct amount of cotton is passing through the machine. This will give the cone belt one-half of the cones to work on for regulating either light or heavy laps. Below is given a table showing for what numbers of yarn certain weights of lap are generally used: Numbers -)f Yarn Weight of Lap per Yard From Finisher Picker Ounces IS to lOS 14.0 IDS to 20s 13-5 20S to 30s 13.0 30s to 40s 12.0 40s to 50S II-5 50s to 60s I i.o 60s to 70s 1 1.0 70s to 80s 1 1.0 80s to 90s 10. 90s to lOOS 10. lOOS to I20S 9-5 I20S to I5OS 9.0 42 PICKERS §17 A good production for an intermediate or finisher picker is about 12,500 pounds per week, allowing from 6 to 10 hours for stoppages. A finisher picker for making 40-inch laps occupies a floor space of about 16 feet by 6 feet 82 inches and requires about 4 horsepower to drive it. 38. Cleaning and Oiling:. — Pickers should be kept well cleaned and oiled. All oil holes, wherever possible, should be covered in order to keep grit and sand from the bearings. In oiling, care should be taken not to allow the oil to get on the inside of the casings where the cotton passes. The beater, grid bars, inclined cleaning bars, and cages should be picked clean of cotton daily and kept free from dirt and oil. All air passages and pipes from fans should be kept clean, but the covers of the doors of these air passages or pipes should not be removed while the machine is running. COTTON CARDS (PART 1) INTRODUCTION 1. The lap of cotton as it leaves the picker consists of cotton fibers crossed in all directions, together with a small amount of foreign matter, consisting more especially of lighter impurities such as pieces of leaf, seed, or stalk, and thin membranes from the cotton boll. Such material is of too light a nature to be removed by the action of the beaters or to drop through between the grid or inclined cleaning bars of the pickers, so that it is carried forwards with the cotton and into the lap. In order to remove this foreign matter, machinery of an entirely diiTerent character from the cleaning machinery previously used must be adopted, and for this purpose the cotton card is employed, the process being known as carding:- .Carding is regarded by many manufacturers as one of the most important processes in cotton-yarn preparation. In addition to cleaning the cotton, it is also the first step in the series of attenuating processes, which gradually reduce the weight of cotton per unit of length sufficiently to form a thread. The lap from the picker is comparatively heavy, and must be reduced consid- erably in weight at various machines in order to give the weight per unit of length required in the j^arn. The carding process is the one that follows the picking operations in all cotton mills, whether coarse or fine, and whether making carded or combed yarns. 2. Objects of CardinjT. — The objects of carding are: (1) The disentangling of the cotton fibers, or the separation For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page 2 COTTON CARDS §18 of the bunches, or tufts, of fiber into individual fibers, and the commencement of their parallelization; (2) the removal of the smaller and lighter impurities; (3) changing the forma- tion of cotton from a lap to a sliver, accompanied by the reduction of the weight per yard of the material. A sliver is a round, loose strand of cotton without, or almost without, twist, and usually from 40 to 80 grains per yard in weight. It is generally coiled in a can, and is made at the carding, drawing, and combing processes. 3. Principles of Carding. — In order to arrive at the previously mentioned objects, the principle of combing the fibers between sets of closely arranged wire teeth is adopted; one set may be fixed and the other moving, or each set may be moving in the opposite direction to the other, or both may be moving in the same direction but at different speeds. In any case, the sets of wire teeth are in close proximity to one another. The first and second objects — the disentan- gling of the cotton fibers and the removal of the impuri- ties — are attained by this means, as the fibers forming the small tufts are drawn apart and the lighter impurities are caught between the wires, where they remain until removed by special means. Use is also made of the cen- trifugal force of a cylinder covered with wire teeth and revolving at a high speed in attaining the first and second objects of carding; the ends of the fibers are thrown against stationary or moving points of wire and the fibers thus combed out, while heavier impurities such as sand, dirt, and dust are thrown out, owing to the high speed of the cylinder. Another method of arriving at the second object is that of arranging knives or bars partly around the revolving portions of the card, to clean and throw off the dirt, sand, and dust from the fibers as they are drawn past such obstructions. The third object is attained by adopting the principle of drafting, the attenuation of the material being produced by revolving cylinders covered with wire teeth, instead of by the usual method of rolls, which are used in this machine only at the feed and delivery. §18 COTTON CARDS 3 Carding is really a combing or brushing action, the fibers being operated on by a series of wire teeth, which has the same effect as loosely holding a few fibers at a time and striking them with a comb; the process, however, must not be confused with that technically known as combing, which is an entirely separate process and used only in the manufac- ture of fine yarns. The machine employed in carding is usually spoken of as a card, or sometimes as a cardi?ig engine; this latter name, however, is used more commonly in' England than in the United States. CARD CONSTRUCTION THE REVOLVING-TOP FLAT CARD PRINCIPAL PARTS 4. The card that is most commonly used and now almost universally adopted for new cotton mills is known as the i-evolving-top flat card, sometimes spoken of as the revolving Hat card, or the English card. Views of it are shown in Figs. 1 and 2, Fig. 1 showing one side of the card, with the machine in condition for operation, while Fig. 2 shows the other side as it is seen when stopped and without any stock passing through. A section through the same card from back to front is shown in Fig. 3. The various parts of the card are lettered the same in all three figures, and reference letters should be referred to on Fig. 3 espe- cially; but it is also advisable to refer to Figs. 1 and 2 for the same parts, in order to identify them and ascertain their relations to one another. The same letters are used in other figures throughout this Section in accordance with the follow- ing list. All parts of a single motion or section of the card are designated by the same letter, which in some instances is followed by a figure, known as the subscript, to distinguish the particular part for which it is used from related parts having the same reference letter. COTTON CARDS §18 IS COTTON CARDS MJ §18 COTTON CARDS 5. The principal parts 6f the machine are as follows: a, Lap roll. rto, Lap that is being carded. a«, vSpare lap. rte, Lap plates. b, Feed-plate. ^,, Feed-roll. ^3, Weights for feed-roll. c, Licker. r,, Licker screen. d, di, Mote knives. e, Cylinder. c^, Back knife plate. ^s, Cylinder screen. Cn, Lower front plate. fg, Door at front of cylinder. f,,, Front knife plate. r,j, Tight pulley on cylinder. ^,3, Loose pulley on cylinder. /, Flats. g. Arches of card. h. Flexible bend on which a //,, //s, //s, Pulleys for support- ing flats. y, Flat-stripping comb. k, Flat-stripping brush. /(",, Hackle comb for cleaning flat stripping brush. /, Card sides. /,, Cross-girts. /-, Doors in frame of card. ni, Doffer. ;;z4, Doffer bonnet. jUa, Barrow gear. wzjs, Side shaft. n, Doffer comb. o, Trumpet. <7,, Top calender roll. ^2, Bottom calender roll. 0^, Can in which sliver is coiled. p. Cover of coiler. />i, Coiler calender rolls. portion of the flats rests. Figs. 4 and 5 show a revolving flat card of another style of construction, but all essential parts are the same and are lettered as in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. 6. Feed-Roll and Feed-Plate. — At the back of the card in Fig. 1 is shown the lap «,, which has a rod a^ passed through its center and rests on the lap roll a, shown in Fig. 3. The lap a^ is the one being carded, a spare lap «< being shown above it in Fig. 1, resting in a s.and a^,. The lap roll a is constructed of wood and is either fluted or has a rough sur- face, sometimes produced by covering it with a coat of paint mixed with sand, in order to cause the lap to unroll by friction with the lap roll and without any slippage. The cotton is drawn over the feed-plate b. Fig. 3, by the feed-roll b^, the single layer, or sheet, leaving the lap at the COTTON CARDS §18 §18 COTTON CARDS 9 point rts. As it passes from the lap to the feed-roll, each outer edge of the sheet comes in contact with a lap guide — a wedge-shaped piece of metal bolted on the inside of the plate ae. This guide turns up the edges of the sheet to a small extent, making it slightly narrower as it approaches the feed-roll. This tends to prevent the outer edge of the 10 COTTON CARDS 18 cotton from spreading and producing a ragged edge. The feed-plate b extends under the feed-roll b^, with its nose pro- jecting upwards in front of the feed-roll almost to the teeth shown on the circumference of the licker c. The feed-roll b^, which revolves in the direction indicated by the arrow, is fluted longitudinally and is sufficiently large in diameter to resist any tendency to spring or bend when a thick piece of cotton passes beneath it. Its ends rest in slides and it is weighted at each end by means of a weight b:,. Figs. 1 and 2, on a lever that has, as a fulcrum, a lug on the feed-plate. The lever has a bearing on a bushing on the feed-roll and thus produces the pressure of the feed-roll on the sheet of cotton on the feed-plate, the extent qf which may be regulated by moving the weight b^ along the lever. If the pressure is too light, the action of the licker will pull the cotton from the feed- roll before it should be delivered. This is known as plucking, and results in cotton being taken by the licker in large and tangled flakes that have not been Fig. 6 , , . opened, thus causmg un- even work and requiring the finer parts of the card to perform the heavy work, which should be done by the licker. Above the feed-roll rests a small iron rod b. that is revolved by frictional contact with this roll and, since it is covered with flannel, collects any fiber or dirt that may be carried upwards over the surface of the feed-roll and thus acts as a clearer. It also serves to prevent any air-current from pass- ing between the feed-roll and the licker cover. The lap roll a is positively geared with the feed-roll /', in such a manner that the feed-roll takes up exactly the amount §18 COTTON CARDS 11 of cotton delivered by the lap roll, without any strain or sagging, and as it revolves, carries this cotton over the nose of the feed-plate so that a fringe is brought under the action of the licker c in the man- ner shown in Fig. 3, and on a larger scale in Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 12. The upper end of the nose of the feed-plate is rounded so as not to damage the cotton resting on it and pressed against it by the action of the licker. 7. The important dif- ference in various feed- plates is in the distance from the bite of the feed- FlG. roll to the lower end of the face, indicated by the arrow in Figs. 6, 7, and 8. By regulating this distance in accordance with the length of staple being worked, the entire length of staple is so supported that it receives the full benefit of the cleaning and dis- entangling action of the licker, which reduces the work on the finer parts of the card. The distance between the bite of the feed-roll and the lower edge of the face of the feed-plate should be from -\t to i inch longer than the average length of the cotton being worked, as it is necessary that the fibers should be free from the bite of the feed-roll before the action of the teeth of the licker exerts its greatest pull, which Fig. 8 12 COTTON CARDS §18 Fig. 9 is at the lower edge of the plate; otherwise, the fibers would be broken. The fringe of cotton is shown in Fig. 9. The feed-plate shown in Fig. 6 is suitable for sea-island cotton, as it has a face that makes it possible for the long fibers to hang down; the feed- plate shown in Fig. 7 is the style common- ly used in America, being adapted for the various grades of American and Egyptian cottons. A feed-plate with a shorter face, as shown in Fig. 8, is sometimes made for very short-stapled cottons, such as those grown in India and China. 8. Two-Roll Method of Feeding. — Some cards, in- stead of having the feed- roll and feed-plate, are con- structed so as to feed the licker by means of two feed- rolls, as shown in Fig. 10. This is an older form of feeding and is not so desir- able. The disadvantage of this method is that a fourth of the diameter of the lower feed-roll is covered with loose cotton before it reaches the point where it comes under the action of the teeth of the licker, thus tending to increase the possibility Fig. 10 §18 COTTON CARDS 13 of the licker plucking large tufts of cotton before the cotton ought to be delivered. This system is also inferior on account of the brief opportunity given for the licker to operate on the fringe of cotton, as compared with the roll and feed-plate system, where a long fringe of cotton is presented to the licker, thus giving a much better oppor- tunity for combing and removing the dirt. In fact, the combed fringe of cotton in a card using the feed-plate can be arranged to be about three times the length of that in a card using the two-roll method of feeding. 9. Licker. — The object of either of these feeds is to feed a regular supply of cotton to the licker c, shown in =ls '//. 'i (c) Fig. 11 Fig. 3, sometimes called the leader, taker-i7i, or licker-in. The licker consists of a hollow metal roll about 9 inches in diameter. On the outside of the shell, or curved part, of the roll, and extending from one end to the other, are spiral grooves into which rows of teeth are inserted. Fig. 11 {a) is a view of the teeth of the licker as they appear when looked at from above, and also shows the fibers being carried by them from the feed-roll, thus indicating the manner in which the lap of cotton is separated almost into individual fibers by the operation of the licker, which revolves so rapidly, compared with the amount of cotton delivered, that about 2,000,000 teeth pass the nose of the feed- plate while 1 inch of cotton is being delivered. It will be 14 COTTON CARDS §18 seen from Fig. 11 (a) that the teeth are scattered, or staggered, over the shell of the roll in consequence of the spiral arrang-ement, and thus one tooth does not strike the fringe of cotton exactly where the previous one struck. Fig. 11 (r) is a section of a portion of a licker showing .the construction of the wire from which the teeth are formed, and also the method of fastening it securely in the roll. The teeth are punched out of a narrow, fiat, strip of steel, or wire, carrying a thickened rib along one edge. This rib is forced into the grooves prepared in the shell of the licker, and the teeth project, as shown in Fig. 11 {b) , the dotted line indicating the depth to which the rib is sunk into the shell of the licker. Several separate spirals are laid side by side, the distance between two rounds of any one spiral being 1 inch, and there are either five, six, seven, eight, nine, or ten spirals side by side, according to the class of work for which the card is intended. This results in the distance between the centers of two consecutive spirals being either i, i, t, i, i, or -iV inch apart, while the points of the teeth are usually \ inch apart lengthwise of the wire. The shell of the licker c is shown in section in Figs. 3 and 12, which also show the relative position of the licker to the contiguous portions of the card. Below the feed-roll b^, clearer b.,, and feed-plate b are seen the sections of two knives d,dy, which are known as mote knives. These knives extend across the card in the position shown, with the blade of the knife near the teeth of the licker; their object is to remove such impurities as hulls, husks, bearded motes, etc., or in other words, all portions of matter other than cotton. At the nose of the feed-plate, the licker is moving in a downward direction and the teeth are pointing in the direc- tion of its revolution. Since the fringe of cotton is held by the roll, it will be disentangled as the teeth pass through it. When the cotton is released from the bite of the feed-roll, it will be taken by the teeth of the licker. Any short fibers, however, that are not sufficiently long to be secured by the licker, will fall through the space between the mote knives. §18 COTTON CARDS 15 The cotton that drops in this manner is known as fly, and its loss is beneficial since it leaves the cotton that passes forwards in a more uniform condition as regards its length of staple. The licker has a surface speed of about 1,000 feet per minute, and thus, as it revolves with the cotton, the portions of the fibers that are not in contact with the teeth will be thrown out by centrifugal force, so that the impurities that project from the fibers on the surface of the licker will come in contact with the blades of the mote knives and be removed, dropping into the cavity below the knives. In the usual construction of cards there are two of these mote knives, although one may be used. The knives are rigidly held in suitable supports, and in the style under consideration their correct angle is decided by the machine builder, the arrangement being such that this angle cannot be changed. They are sometimes, however, made adjustable, either by being placed in a swinging frame or, as in Fig. 12, by being provided with setscrews iL, and locknuts ^Z,, by 16 COTTON CARDS §18 means of which either knife may be moved closer to or farther from the Hcker and then locked in position; or the entire bracket d^ that carries both knives, may be moved farther from or closer to the feed-plate by loosening the screw d^, sliding the entire bracket d^ on the frame of the licker screen, and then relocking it. 10. Licker Screen and Licker Cover. — Underneath the licker is a casing Cx known as the licker screen. This casing, which is shown in Figs. 3 and 12, is made of tin and extends across the card. The portion of the screen directly under the licker is composed of transverse bars r,, triangular in shape with rounded corners and set with their bases inverted, the remainder of the screen being plain metal. As the licker revolves, whatever heavy impurities were not previously taken out will be thrown through the openings in the screen, due to the action of centrifugal force. The cotton will also come in contact with the screen as it did with the mote knives, and thus additional impurities will be removed. The top of the licker is protected by a metal cover c^ known as the licker cover", or bonnet, which is curved to correspond to the curved surface of the licker. This cover is held in position by two disks, one at each end, through which the shaft of the licker projects. These disks are held in position by flanges attached to them, which rest in the licker bearings attached to the framework of the card. The licker cover is screwed to these disks, and thus the licker is completely enclosed. The points where the shaft passes through the disks should be kept clean and well oiled; other- wise, the points of contact will become heated and tend to bind the shaft. 11. Card Cylinders. — Situated about midway between the back and front of the card, and a prominent feature in its construction, is the cylinders, mounted on the shafts,. This cylinder is usually 50 inches in diameter, while its width depends on the width of the card, being usually 36, 40, or 45 inches. Formerly card cylinders were made of wood, but it is now the universal practice to construct them of cast iron, §18 COTTON CARDS 17 as metal resists the changes of temperature and humidity- better than wood, which is Hable to warp and twist and thus prevent accurate setting of the card. When metal cylinders were first used, the shell ^,, Fig. 3, was constructed in two pieces, which were bolted together, but the best and most modern method is to make the shell in one casting, with a sufficient number of longitudinal and sectional ribs on the interior of the shell to make it strong and rigid. This shell is mounted at each end on a spider e^, which consists of a heavy rim cast in one piece with a series of strong supporting arms. The hubs of the spiders are accurately bored for the reception of the shaft of the cylinder, while the rims are turned to a true shape and size and accurately fitted to the ends of the shell. The cylinder should be mounted on its shaft as rigidly as possible, to avoid the possibility of its becoming loose. The method adopted in the card under consideration is as follows: A shaft long enough to pass through the shell and project sufficiently beyond to rest in the bearings and also carry the necessary pulleys for driving the cylinder and various parts of the card is forced into its position through the hub of each of the spiders by means of a powerful screw press. It is then secured to the spiders by means of two large taper dowels, one at each end of the cylinder. These dowels are driven into holes drilled through the hubs of the spiders and through the shaft. The complete cylinder should be turned and afterwards ground while resting on its own bearing, not on a mandrel, so as to produce an absolutely true surface when in opera- tion. As these cylinders are intended to run at a high speed, they are also balanced so as to insure even running, and when their construction is complete the ends are cased in with sheet iron to prevent dust or fiber from entering the cylinder and to avoid accidents that would be liable to result if they were rotated at a high speed with uncovered arms. In Figs. 1 and 2, the letter e applies more directly to these end casings, although it is used to indicate the cylinder as a whole. 18 COTTON CARDS §18 THe surface of this cylinder is covered with card clothing, which is a fabric with teeth embedded in it and projecting through it at an angle. The addition of the clothing to the cylinder increases its diameter to about 50f inches. Refer- ence to Fig. 3 shows the teeth on the surface of this cylinder pointing in the direction of its motion, as indicated by the arrow shown on the shell of the cylinder. A point on the surface of the cylinder travels about 2,150 feet per minute. The teeth of the wire are set very closely in the fabric, there being about 72,000 points to the square foot and more than 3,000,000 points on the entire cylinder. A fuller description of this clothing, together with the manner in which it is applied, is given later. 12. The description of the licker and its operation on the cotton has been carried far enough to explain how the heavier impurities are removed from the fringe of cotton projecting over the feed-plate and driven downwards into 'the space beneath the card, and also how the fibers are removed from this fringe when they project downwards sufficiently to be released and are carried along on the ends of the teeth of the licker at a speed of about 1,000 feet per minute. These fibers are now transferred to the surface of the cylinder, which is rendered possible by the respective directions of motion of the cylinder and licker and by the direction in which their teeth are pointing. At the point where the licker and the cylinder almost come in contact, both are moving in the same direction and have their teeth pointing upwards. The teeth on the licker are comparatively coarsely set, while those on the cylinder are finely set and have a much greater tendency to hold and to retain the minute fibers than the teeth of the licker. The cylinder is also revolving at more than double the surface speed of the licker, and con- sequently the fibers are swept off the surface of the licker where the surfaces of the licker and cylinder are in closest proximity and carried upwards on the surface of the cylinder. Fig. 13 shows the relative positions and the respective styles of construction of the licker and the cylinder at the 18 COTTON CARDS 19 point where they approach each other, while Fig. 14 shows an enlarged view of the teeth. In Figs. 3 and 18, a metal plate designated as a cover is shown in connection with the licker cover. This cover e^, which is known as the back knife plate, protects the cylinder at this point and prevents an air-current from being formed by the motion of the cylinder. A wedge-shaped piece of wood Ct covered with flannel is usually placed in the receptacle formed by the junction of the licker cover with the back knife plate, in order to prevent any possible chance of an air-current. 13. Flats. — Above the cylin- der and partly surrounding its upper portion is a chain of flats /, Fig. 13 as shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. These are the parts that give the name renolvhig- top flat card to the card. They are made of cast iron, approxi- mately T-shaped in section, and are part- ly covered with card clothing about \f, inch wide. They are usually li inches wide and slightly longer than the width of the cylinder, but are covered with clothing only over the portion of their length that corresponds to the width of the cylinder. This clothing is of a finer wire, with the teeth more 20 COTTON CARDS §18 closely set, than that on the cylinder, and is usually fastened to the flat by clips on each side of the flat. There are from 104 to 110 flats on a card, but as they are in proximity to the cylinder for only about one-third of its circumference, only from 39 to 43 flats are presented to the cylinder at one time. Fig. 15 (a) gives an end view of a flat, while (d) shows a section. Each end is drilled and tapped to receive a set- screw, which passes through a hollow stud carrying links, and as each link extends from one flat to the next and each end of each link encircles one of these hollow studs, the flats are connected in an endless chain. The screw that is inserted is of special construction, right- hand screws being used on one side of the card and left-hand screws on the other, so that the motion of the flats will tend to tighten rather than to loosen the screws and thus avoid the possibility of their becoming loose and allowing a flat to come in contact with the cylinder, which would cause con- siderable damage. The flats must be so ar- ranged that they will be supported immediately above the cylinder without coming in contact with it or without their supports interfering with its rotation. This is done by means of two arches ^, Figs. 1 and 2, which are strongly constructed castings resting on the framework of the card, one on each side, and securely bolted to it. Each arch carries five brackets //,, which are composed of several pieces. One portion of each bracket projects upwards suf- ficiently to carry a pulley that serves as a support for those §18 COTTON CARDS 21 flats that are not performing any carding action and that are passing backwards over the cj^linder, while another portion of each bracket serves as a support for the flexible bend // and provides a ready means of adjusting it in order to move the wire teeth of the flats that are at work nearer to or farther from the wire teeth on the surface of the cylinder. A fuller description of the arrangements for adjusting the flexible bends will be given in the description of setting cards; it is sufficient to state here that the flexible bends can be moved farther from, or nearer to, the cylinder shaft at any one of five setting points on either side of the card, and by this means the upper edges of the bends can be adjusted so as to be practically concentric with the circumference, or wire surface, of the cylinder. About forty of the flats rest on the flexible bend at each side of the card; the portions that are in contact with the Dends are the two surfaces ^ and f^, Figs. 15 and 16. The chains are placed as near the flexible bends as possible, since if they are too far away, the pull and weight of the chains will cause a deflection in the flat. It is absolutely necessary that the chains on each side shall be exactly alike and work with the same tension, as the smallest variation will pull the flats out of their proper positions over the cylinder, and their accurac}^ will thus be destroyed. Chains are now so made that the whole variation from the standard is not more than sV inch. The flats are, of course, linked together on each side of the card by an exactly similar arrangement, except that, as has been previously stated, left-hand screws are used on one side and right-hand screws on the other. 14. Another representation of flats at work is given in Fig. 16, which shows them resting on the flexible bend, and held so that the points of the wire on their surfaces are almost touching the points of the ware on the cylinder. The exact distance between the wire on the flats and that on the cylinder is adjustable, and is usually about i i n o inch. The dis- tance between the wires, however, is not the same at each point in the width of the flat, as will be seen by referring 22 COTTON CARDS §18 Fig. 16 to Fig. 16. The wire of the flat at the point /= is closer to the cylinder than at the point /« in each case. The end view of the flat in Fig. 15 (a) shows that the metal compos- ing the flat end is cut away more on the side f, than on the side /j; consequently, when this flat is turned over and rests on the flexible bend, the side /, will drop closer to the cylin- der than the side /j, and the wires on the side /s will drop lower than the wires on the side /s, thus making a slightly wedge-shaped space between the wires of the flat and the wires of the cylin- der. The side /s of the flat, which is nearer to the cylinder, is known as the heel, while the side that is farther from the cylinder, namely, /«, is known as the toe. Flats are always constructed with this heel-and-toe formation, and it should be preserved throughout the life of the card. The chain of flats is not stationary, but moves at a very slow speed, those flats nearest the cylinder moving toward the front of the card, while of course, the flats that are not working are carried backwards over the top of those that are at work. The means of imparting motion to the flats, which will be described in connection with the gearing of the card, results in a steady, smooth movement usually at the rate of about 3 inches per minute, although this may be changed to either a faster or slower speed, according to whether it is desired to remove more or less waste, respectively, from the cotton. The object of giving a movement to the flats is to carry toward the front of the card those flats that have become filled with impurities, so that they may be stripped and brushed out before they become too full of leaf and other foreign matter to perform the duty of carding the cotton. 15. The method of supporting the flats that are not at work is shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. They are supported at §18 COTTON CARDS 23 the front by two pulleys /,, one at each end of a shaft that has its bearings in two brackets, one on each side of the card. On the same shaft with these two pulleys are two sprocket gears, the one shown being marked /«, the teeth of which mesh with the ribs on the back of the flats, and as this shaft is driven by means of worms and worm-gears, the sprocket gears drive the flats. The portion of the chain of flats directly above the cylinder and resting on the flexible bends revolves in the same direction as the cylinder, namely, toward the front. The flats that are not at work move back- wards, in the opposite direction to the cylinder, and rest on pulleys //j, //s, //g supported by brackets h^ attached to the arch of the card and duplicated on each side. The ends of the flats rest on these pulleys and impart motion to them by frictional contact. Two of these pulleys //« at about the center of the card are connected by a shaft //,o that extends across the card. The pulleys lu, which are directly over the licker, form the turning point of the flats. Those that have been cleaned and carried along over the top turn and pass over the cylin- der to perform their work, while those that have just finished their work, being charged with impurities, pass around the pulleys at the front and are cleaned. The bracket //,, which supports the pulley //», is so constructed that the pulley may be raised or lowered to take out the sag, or slack, in the chain of flats or to allow sufiflcient slack for the flats to revolve freely. 16. As previously explained, the cotton is transferred to the face of the cylinder from the licker at the point where the two surfaces nearly touch each other, and is carried upwards and forwards by it until brought to the point where the flats and cylinder are brought into close proximity. When the cylinder reaches the first flat, the cotton on its surface has a tendency to project from it on account of the centrifugal force of the cylinder, and comes in contact with the teeth at the toe of the first flat. The stock is gradually drawn through the teeth of the flat, receiving more and more of a combing or carding action, until the heel of the flat is 24 COTTON CARDS §18 reached, where the teeth of the flat and the cylinder are in the closest proximity, and where the cotton consequently receives the greatest carding action. Some of the fibers that have not projected sufficiently may not have received any carding action, and the cylinder carries them forwards to the next flat. Those fibers that have been carded once may be carded again, with such additional fibers as are brought under the action of the succeeding flat, and so on throughout the entire series. The flats are set a little closer to the cylinder at the front, or delivery end, than at the back, or feed, end, of the card, and this method combined with the heel-and-toe arrangement of the flat insures a gradual and effective carding of all the fibers before they have passed under the last flat. The small impurities are left behind, since they are forced between the teeth of the wire on the flats or cylinder and remain there until the wire is cleaned, or stripped, as will be explained later. Thus the short fibers and impurities are retained, while the long, clean fibers are passed forwards. 17. Flat-Stripping Combs. — At the front of the card in Figs. 1, 2, and 3 is shown a comb j supported by two arms /d/s. This comb consists of a thin sheet of steel attached to a shaft and having its lower edge made up of fine teeth. It is capable of adjustment so as to be moved closer to, or farther from, the wire on the flats. The comb is given an oscillating motion by means of a cam acting on the arm /a, Fig. 2, and at each stroke strips from a flat a portion of the short fiber, leaf, and other impurities that adhere to its face. With the arrangement shown in Figs. 1 and 2, a close setting between the comb and flats is not possible owing to the difficulty in giving a backward movement to the comb with- out damaging the clothing of the flats. Fig. 17 {a) represents a method of actuating the comb / that differs somewhat from that adopted on the card shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Fig. 17 {b) is a front view of the comby with bearing jr. and actuating lever /,. This comb has two motions; namely, an oscillating motion, which it receives §18 COTTON CARDS 25 through the arm j^ from the cam j^, by letting the arm j^ swing around the point j-, as a fulcrum, and a turning motion in its bearings 75, received through the lever /« from the cam y'e. The teeth of the flats / are stripped while they are pointing downwards by a downward stroke of the comb, governed by the cam j^. As the comb lifts, it is traveling in a direction opposite to that in which the teeth are pointing, and to prevent injury to the wire the comb is turned away from the flats by means of the cam j^. By the use of this arrangement, a closer stripping action is obtained without damaging the wire. 18. Briisli. — After the waste, known as Hat strippings, has been removed by the comb y, the flats are brushed out by means of the brush k, shown in Fig. 17 {a) and also in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. This brush consists of a wooden barrel around the surface of which bristles are inserted in four spiral coils, the bristles being long, for a short distance at each end 26 COTTON CARDS §18 in order to brush the ends of the flats, and shorter in the middle so as to just reach into the wire of the flat clothing. It is possible to adjust the position of this revolving brush so as to remove from the flats any impurities that were not taken out by the comb. The brush after it has operated on the flats is cleaned by means of a hackle comb /^,, Figs. 1, 2, and 3, the teeth of which project into the bristles of the brush and remove impurities. The hackle comb is periodically cleaned by hand. The flat strippings are either allowed to fall from the stripping comb on the steel covers m^,e^ or are collected on a round rod /^,, Fig. 1, which is suspended directly below the comb and rotated by frictional contact with the flats, thus collecting the strippings as they fall from the flats. These strippings, whether allowed to drop on the steel cover or wound on the surface of the rod, are removed periodically by hand. 19. Cylinder Screen. — Beneath the cylinder is placed a screen e^. Fig. 3, known as the cylinder screen. This con- sists of circular frames on each side of the card, practically corresponding to the curvature of the cylinder and connected by triangular cross-bars e^. As shown, the cylinder screen is constructed in halves, which are held together at e-,. It is so supported that it may be set closer to, or farther from, the cylinder, while at the same time it retains practically the same curvature as the cylinder. As the cylinder revolves, the fibers that project come in contact with the screens, and thus the dirt and other foreign substances will be struck off or thrown through the openings in the screens, and cannot be drawn back. The screens also aid in preventing the good cotton from leaving the cylinder. A screen of a similar character was mentioned as being placed below the licker; the licker screens and cylinder screens are usually connected so as to form one complete adjustable undercasing beneath both licker and cylinder. 20. Card Frame. — The entire mechanism thus far described is supported on the framework of the card. This consists of two strong and solid card sides /, which are §18 . COTTON CARDS 27 connected by cross-girts K with the ends accurately milled and securely bolted to the card sides, thus forming- a large rectangular frame. To this is attached a partition /,, Fig. 3, that separates the dirt and fly produced by the mote knives from the licker and cylinder fly. In the card under descrip- tion, this partition only projects downwards for half the distance between the licker screen and the floor. In some styles, however, the partition extends down to the floor and has a door in the center so that access can be obtained to the rear of the cylinder screen and space below. Around the framework of the card are doors h that can be removed for the purpose of removing fly, setting undercasings, or exam- ining the under parts of the card. There are four of these doors on each side of the card in addition to one at the front and one at the back. 21. Doffer. — Directly in front of the cylinder, in Figs. 1, 2, and 3, is seen the dofifer m, which is supported by the doflfer shaft w, and is constructed on the same principle as the cylinder. It consists of a perfectly rigid cylindrical shell w, carried at each end on a spider Wa with six arms, to which it is firmly secured, the whole being rigidly attached to the doffer shaft. The doffer is covered with card clothing in a similar manner to the cylinder, except that the wire on the doffer is more closely set and somewhat finer. The doffer is the same width as the cylinder, but is of a much smaller diameter usually about 24 inches, but sometimes 27 inches. A large doffer is to be preferred, since it gives the same pro- duction with a lower speed or a larger surface speed with the same number of revolutions, and also gives the cylinder a better chance to deliver the fibers on account of its presenting a larger wire surface, although the advantage is not very great in either case. The doffer revolves in the opposite direction to that of the cylinder, the respective direction of motion at the place where they most nearly approach one another being shown by arrows in Fig. 3. At this place also the teeth of the cylinder and doffer point in opposite direc- tions. As the teeth of the cylinder point in the direction in 28 COTTON CARDS §18 which it moves and were pointing upwards at the place where they took the cotton from the licker, they consequently point downwards at the front of the card, while the teeth of the dofifer at this place point upwards. The surface speed of the dofifer, which varies from 44 to 107 feet per minute, is much less than that of the cylinder. As the cylinder approaches the doffer its surface is covered with separated fibers of cotton. Since it is set within about .005 inch from the doifer and the dofifer is revolving so much more slowly, the fibers of cotton are deposited by the cylinder on the face of the doffer. They are condensed considerably from their arrangement on the surface of the cylinder because while spread over from 20 to 40 inches on the surface of the cylinder, they are laid in the space of about 1 inch on the surface of the doffer. The amount of this condensation varies according to the relative speed of the cylinder and dofifer. It does not necessarily follow that all the fibers are taken from the cylinder by the dofifer the first time the cotton passes the point where the transfer is made, as they may not be in the proper position to become attached to the dofifer. In this case, they may be carried around by the cylinder a second time and be more efifectively carded. The doffer may be considered as merely a convenient means of removing the fiber from the cylinder. It is not intended to have any cleaning action, as the cleaning on the card is practically completed when the cotton has passed the fiats, but as a matter of fact, it does remove some short fiber and light impurities that adhere within the interstices of the wire. There is no screen beneath the dofifer, as it is unnecessary, but placed above it is a protection consisting of a metal cover m^ known as the doffer bonnet and shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3, while another view is given in Fig. 18. This metal cover extends over the upper surface of the dofifer, protects it from injury, and forms a portion of a receptacle to hold flat strippings in case no other method of gathering them is provided. At the point vi^ it extends to, and is almost in contact with, a plate of steel e^ placed over the front part of the cylinder that performs the same duty §18 COTTON CARDS 29 for the cylinder; namely, protecting* it from damage and forming a part of the receptacle for the fiat strippings. This plate e^ extends upwards until a loose portion e^ is reached, which forms a door, the position of which, when closed, is shown in Fig. 18 in dotted lines. This door swings on arms r,o so constructed that it can be thrown forwards and rest on the doffer bonnet; it is shown in this position in Fig. 18. Immediately above the space formed by the open- ing of this door is another plate e^, which extends from the Fig. 18 door up into the space between the flats and the cylinder, almost in contact with both of them. This platen,, is known as the front knife plate. It is also the object of these covers, or plates, mentioned in connection with the cylinder, doffer, and licker, to guard against accidents to the opera- tives, the licker being especially dangerous. A draft strip, or making-up piece, Wg is usually placed in the recess formed by the doffer bonnet and the plate c», so as to fit the angle between the doffer and the cylinder and thus prevent dirt from entering the space between these two 30 COTTON CARDS 18 parts. It also prevents draft and thus does away with fly, which would otherwise gather and come through in lumps. 22. Doffer Comb. — The cotton is carried around by the doffer on its under side until it reaches the doffer comb ;/, Fig. 3, which is directly in front of the doffer and has an oscillating motion of about 1,800 or 2,000 strokes per minute. One of the bearings of the comb is an ordinary bearing, 2 ma. P, Pjf. q- FiG. 19 while the other is in a box known as the eonib box, which contains the eccentric that gives the motion to the comb. The position of these bearings can be altered by adjusting screws in order to obtain the proper distance between the comb and the surface of the doffer. The comb, as shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3, consists of a thin sheet of steel attached to a shaft by a number of small arms; its lower edge is com- posed of fine teeth resembling somewhat the teeth of a fine §18 COTTON CARDS 31 saw. The teeth of the doffer, which were pointing upwards when in position to receive the cotton from the cylinder, are pointing downwards at the point nearest the comb. The downward strokes of the comb are in the same direction that the teeth of the doiTer are pointing and in close proximity to them, thus making the operation of removing the cotton very easy. The cotton, when it leaves the doffer, is in the form of a transparent web of the same width as the doffer. The next work required of the card is that of reducing the web to a sliver. This is attained by passing the cotton through a guide and then through a trumpet o, on the other side of which are two calender rolls o,, o„ Figs. 1, 3, and 19. The bottom roll is 4i inches wide and 3 inches in diameter, and by means of a gear drives the top calender roll, which is self- weighted, being 4 inches in diameter. The object of these rolls is to compress the sliver so that it will occupy a com- paratively small space. 23. Coiler.— From the calender rolls o„o, the cotton passes through a hole in the cover p of the upright frame- work, known as the coiler liead, the connections of which are shown in Fig. 19. It is drawn through the hole in the cover by two coiler calender rolls, the one shown being marked/),, which further condense it, and is then delivered into an inclined tube A on a revolving plate A- The end of the tube that receives the cotton is in the center of the plate, directly under the calender rolls />,, while the end of the tube from which the cotton is delivered is at the outer edge of the plate p:,. At the bottom of the coiler head is a plate g on which rests the can that receives the sliver. In consequence of the sliver being delivered down the rotating tube A, it will describe a circle and be laid in the can in the form of coils. The circle described by the bottom of the tube p, is little more than half the diameter of the can. If the top of the tube p, were directly over the center of the plate g on which the can rests and if the can did not turn, causing the laying of the sliver to depend entirely on the rotation of the coiler 32 COTTON CARDS §18 tube, the sliver would be placed in a series of ascending coils, which would have as a center the center of the can, while the outside edges of the coils would be placed some distance from the side of the can. The result of this would be that only a very short length of sliver could be laid in the can and the coils would become entangled, causing the sliver to be broken as it was drawn out. In order to overcome this difficulty the top of the tube p^ is slightly beyond the center of the plate q, while q is revolving in the opposite direction to that of the tube p^, but very slowly as compared with the speed of this tube, p^ making about 26 revolutions to 1 of q. As a result of this arrangement each coil of sliver that is placed in the can is in contact with the side of the can and no one coil comes directly above the preceding coil. A top view of the sliver as it appears when placed in the can in this manner is shown in Fig. 20. The cover for the coiler head is now constructed so as to be held in position by a hinge, on which it can be raised and held open, without breaking the sliver. This gives an opportunity for inspection and oiling. Formerly coiler' heads were so constructed that it was necessary to remove the sliver from the coiler or break the end of sliver in order to oil the bearings, which necessarily caused additional waste and loss of production. Occasionally the sliver breaks and collects within the coiler, causing what is called a biing-iip. One feature of the coiler head for the card under descrip- tion is the use of the swinging calender roll in place of the §18 COTTON CARDS 33 old-style calender roll, which revolved in fixed bearings and caused considerable trouble in case of a bung-up in the coiler head. The calender roll that receives motion from the upright shaft revolves in fixed bearings, while the other one is mounted on a swing, or hinge, bearing. The weight of the roll and bearing is sufficient to keep it in contact with the fixed roll. It receives motion from the other roll by means of two spur gears, one on the shaft of the roll revolving in fixed bearings and the other on the shaft of the swinging roll. When the coiler tube chokes, the sliver collects around the top of it and forces the swinging roll up, thus throwing it out of gear with the fixed roll and preventing any more cotton from entering the coiler. When a lap forms on either roll, the increasing diameter of the roll forces up the swing- ing roll and thus prevents the cotton from winding so firmly around the roll. This arrangement is also very convenient because of the fact that the swinging roll can be moved out of the way in removing the cotton that has lapped around one of the rolls, thus making it very easy to remove the lap, whether it has formed on the swinging roll or on the stationary roll. It also does away with the strain on the bearings and the necessity of using a knife to cut the lap from the roll, and thus prevents the surface of the roll from being damaged by the careless use of a knife. GEARING 24. In describing the method of driving the different parts of the card reference will be made to Figs. 21 and 22, but in order to more fully identify the parts, the plan of the gearing, Fig. 23, and also those figures that show the parts of the card assembled, such as Figs. 1 and 2, should be con- sulted, especially for those parts that cannot well be indicated on Figs. 21 and 22. Referring first to Fig. 21, which shows the main driving side of the card, the tight pulley ^„ on the end of the cylinder shaft receives motion from the driving belt ^,4, which is driven from the pulley either on the main shaft or a countershaft of the room. On the other side of the cylinder, as shown in Fig. 22, is placed a pulley with four 34 COTTON CARDS §18 separate faces, the face ^,5 carrying- the crossed belt that drives the pulley c^ on the licker c. Referring again to Fig. 21, on the other end of the licker is a pulley <:« that drives the barrow pulley ?;^ by means of a crossed belt. Compounded vith this pulley is the barrow gear ;;;«, which drives the doffer gear m^ on the end of the doffer shaft. Reference should now be made to Fig. 22, which shows the other side of the doffer. On this side is a bevel gear w,o §18 COTTON CARDS 35 driving a bevel gear w,. on the side shaft w.^, which carries at its other end a bevel gear b^ driving a gear l\ on the end of the feed-roll. On the other end of the feed-roll, as shown in Fig. 21, is a gear l\ that drives by means of two carrier gears the lap roll a. Referring again to Fig. 22, the pulley e^s, by means of the band ;/=, drives the pulley n^, that is com- pounded with another pulley n^\ this, by means of the band ?^3, drives a pulley n^ on a short shaft carrying the eccentric that gives motion to the dofifer comb. A third pulley e^, on the end of the cylinder shaft, as shown in Fig. 22, drives by Fig. 22 means of the belt /« the pulley /,„, which is on the same shaft as the worm /,, gearing into the worm-gear /,2. On the short shaft with the worm-gear /.^ is a worm /„ driving the worm- gear /i4, which is mounted on a shaft carrying two sprockets that gear directly into the ribs on the back of the flats. The coiler connections are driven as follows, reference being made to Figs. 19 and 28: The large gear vi^. Fig. 23, that is on the end of the dol?er and receives motion from the barrow gear, drives by means of two carrier gears a gear ^^ on one end of the calender-roll shaft o^. On the other end of this shaft is a bevel gear o^. Fig. 19, that drives 13 ^ I — ni-f- 6 Dill 2i''Dia. 9 Dia r,0 Dhi 24 Dill. Fig. 23 120 I t! 16 D y- m,3 ^Q o □ Lmii 40 m„ 2 Dia. §18 COTTON CARDS 37 the bevel gear o^ on an upright shaft. At the upper end of this upright shaft are two gears, the gear/>5 driving the gear;!'^ on the coiler plate, while the bevel gear p^ drives the bevel gear p., on the coiler calender-roll shaft. The can table g is driven by means of a number of gears at the bottom of the upright shaft and in a rather circuitous manner, which is rendered necessary in order to obtain the slow motion at which the can table should travel. The gear g^ is fast to the upright shaft ^,, while the gears g^, g^ are loose on the same shaft but compounded by means of a sleeve. The gear g^ drives the gear g^, which is compounded with the gear g^, both gears working loosely on a short upright stud. The gear g^ drives the gear g^, and since g^ and g^ are compounded, the gear g^ on the can table will receive motion through the carrier g,. 25. When it is desired to stop the card from delivering the cotton and yet not break down the end at the coiler, the catch h, Fig. 24, is released. This figure shows one method of driving a doflfer; it will be seen that as the feed-roll, calen- der roll, and all coiler connections are driven from the dof- fer, they will stop when the catch U is released, throwing the gear w, out of contact with the doffer gear w^. By this method it is a simple matter to stop the delivery of the cot- ton very suddenly if necessary and at the same time allow the swiftly revolving parts, such as the cylinder and licker, to remain in motion. Another advantage of this arrangement is that no waste results when the delivery is stopped. When the gear vu is again meshed with the gear m^, the portion of the doflfer that was presented to the cylinder when the dof- fer was stopped will contain an excessive amount of cotton. This excess will cause a thick or uneven place in the sliver, which should be removed. This arrangement is sometimes called the barrow motion, and the gear We the barrow gear. The gear w, is usually a change gear, so that the doflfer may be driven at any required speed, as the production of the card depends on the speed of the doflfer. In decreasing or increasing the speed of the doflfer by changing the 38 COTTON CARDS §18 ^18 COTTON CARDS 39 gear m^, the draft of the card and, consequently, the weight of the sliver delivered, are not affected, since the feed-rolls, lap roll, and all coiler connections receive motion from the dofTer and therefore have the same relative speed, whether Ws is a large or a small gear. Another method of stopping the delivery of the cotton without breaking down the end at the coiler is to break the connection at the doffer by moving the side shaft w,„ Figs. 22 and 23, and also break the connection between the doffer and calender rolls by turning the handle on the carrier gear w,3, Fig. 24. The shaft w.. carries a gear at each end, the gear b, driving the gear b, that is on the end of the feed- roll, while the gear w„ receives motion from the gear w,„ on the end of the doflfer shaft. By means of the movable bear- ing ?;/,^, it is possible to move the shaft w,, outwards at its front end and thereby disconnect the gears w,„, w„ and thus stop the feed, while by throwing out the gear m,^ the calender rolls are stopped, thus allowing the cotton that is on the dofifer to fall between the doffer and the calender rolls. This method of stopping the delivery of cotton by the card allows the doflfer to run without making an uneven and cut sliver when restarting. SPEED CALCULATIONS 26. If the driving shaft makes 340 revolutions per min- ute and carries a 10-inch pulley, the pulley ,, Figs. 19 and 23, to the lap roll a, Figs. 21 and 23, and using a 16 change gear at d^. „ 2X24X18X27X190X40X120X48 ,^,,00^ r. Solution.- -6^ x24X18X17x21X40X16x17 = 101-433. draft. Ans. Proof. — To prove that intermediate drafts equal total draft, 1.176 X 72 X 1.130 X 1.059 = 101.325. 31. Waste. — In the passage of the cotton through the card there are several places where waste is made. There is a certain amount under the licker and the cylinder, and also between the wires of the clothing on the flats, cylinder, and doffer. This amount of waste should not as a rule exceed 5 per cent., and the work of the card should be closely watched, especially with regard to the waste under the 42 COTTON CARDS 18 cylinder, which should be examined at frequent intervals to see if it contains too much good cotton. 32. Prodviction. — The production of the card varies according to the class of work, a good production on low numbers being from 700 to 1,000 pounds per week, while for fine yarns it is much lower. The weights of delivered sliver suitable for certain classes of work are as follows: Variety of Cotton 1 Numbers Weight per Yard Grains IS to IDS 70 IDS to 15s 65 Average American ... 15s to 20s 60 20s to 30s 55 30s to 40s 50 1 40s to 60s 50 Allan-seed and Peelers . ■ 60s to 70s 45 70s to IOCS 40 40s to 60s 55 Egyptian " 60s to 70s 50 70s to lOOS 45 Sea-Island 70s to IOCS loos upwards 35 30 33. Wei§:ht and Horsepower. — The weight of a single revolving flat card is about 5,000 pounds. It requires from I to 1 horsepower to drive it after the initial strain of start- ing, which requires much greater power. 34. Uimensions. — A 40-inch revolving flat card with a 24-inch doffer occupies a space about 9 feet Hi inches by 5 feet 4 inches. Extra allowance must be made for the diam- eter of the lap. When the doffer is 45 inches wide, 5 inches must be added to the width in the above dimensions, while 3 inches must be added to the length when the doffer is 27 inches in diameter. COTTON CARDS (PART 2) FORMER METHODS OF CARD CONSTRUCTION 1. While the machine described in Cotto7i Cards, Part 1, is the one that is now almost universally adopted for cotton carding, it does not by any means adequately represent the different methods of carding that are, or have been, used. The method of carding cotton before the era of machinery was by means of hand cards, which consisted merely of pieces of wood about 12 inches long and 5 inches wide to which a handle was attached. A piece of leather through which a number of iron wires had been driven was attached to the surface of the board and two of these hand cards were used, the operator holding one in each hand. The cotton, after being picked and cleaned, was spread on one of these cards, and the other was used to brush, scrape, or comb it until the fibers of cotton lay comparatively parallel to one another. From this were obtained soft fleecy rolls about 12 inches long and f inch in diameter, called cardings. These cardings were pieced together and spun on the hand spinning wheel. Later developments resulted in the introduction of the principle of carding by means of a cylinder carrying wire teeth operating against a stationary framework carrying wire teeth, this being the first style of mechanical card. From this was ultimately developed a card used very largely in America under the name of stationary-top flat card, and to a limited extent in Europe, under the name of the Wellman card. This stationary-top flat card was used in almost every For notice of copyri^hl. see page immediately following the title page 219 2 COTTON CARDS §19 American cotton mill until within the last 10 years, and is still used occasionally. The most popular style of card in Europe prior to the development of the revolving-top flat card was that known as the roller-and-clearer card, sometimes called the worker-and- stripper card. This roller-and-clearer card was constructed with either one or two cylinders, being known respectively as a single or a double card. Sometimes a combination card was built with rollers and clearers on the back cylinder and flats on the front; combination cards have also been built with single cylinders having flats at the front and rollers and clearers behind. For special purposes cards have been built with three cylinders. The system of carding cotton by rollers and clearers, or workers and strippers, somewhat resembles the methods now in use for carding purposes in the woolen industry. Owing to the world-wide tendency now to adopt the revolv- ing-top flat card in the cotton industry, considerable space has been devoted to thoroughly describing that style of construction, but as there are still in use a number of station- ary-top flat cards and also a number of the roller-and-clearer cards, a brief description of each of these styles of construc- tion will be given. STATIONARY-TOP FliAT CARD 2. The stationary-top flat card, shown in Fig. 1, is a smaller and less substantial machine than the revolving-top flat card, but is very similar to it in the principle of carding the cotton, differing mainly in the method of stripping the flats. The machine consists of the usual framework sup- porting the cylinder and doffer together with the various parts common to all cards, while above the cylinder are placed a number of flats. In the older cards these are con- structed of wood, as shown in Fig. 1, but in the newer cards they are made of iron. Iron flats are usually made If inches wide with a strip of clothing \\ inch wide, and it is possible to have 40 of them extending over an arc equal to about two- fifths of the circumference of the cylinder. When wooden flats 19 COTTON CARDS are used it is not possible to have so many. The functions of these flats are the same as of those in the revolving flat card previously described. The flats rest on the arch of the card and are so constructed as to preserve the proper angle with the card wire on the cylinder. Each flat is set inde- pendently of any other by means of threaded pins secured by nuts. The peculiarity of this card consists in the method of stripping the fiats. An arrangement is shown above the machine in Fig. 1 by which any one flat may be raised from its seat suflficiently to allow a stripping card to be passed beneath it and drawn across its face, removing the impurities, which are retained in a wire framework; immediately after the stripping is completed the mechanism lowers the flat to its position. As this one piece of stripping mechanism has to clean each flat, it is necessary to have it so constructed that it may be moved from one flat to another; this is 4 COTTON CARDS §19 provided for, as shown in Fig-. 1, by means of a small gear, which is a part of the stripping mechanism, meshing with a semicircular rack arranged on the arch of one side of the card; as this gear revolves the mechanism is moved from flat to flat. This can be arranged either to strip the flats consecutively, thus the first, second, third, fourth, and so on, or to strip them alternately, thus stripping the first, third, fifth, seventh and returning to strip the second, fourth, sixth, eighth, etc.; or in the improved quick stripper it may be made variable in its action, in order to strip the flats nearest to the feed-rolls oftener than those nearest to the doffer. This stripper lifts, strips, and replaces a flat in less than 4 seconds. The stationary-top flat cards are usually made with all parts smaller than either the revolving-top flat cards or the roller-and-clearer cards. The main cylinder is not usually more than 42 inches in diameter and the dofEer not more than 18 inches, while the width of the card is not generally more than 37 inches. The construction of the stationary-top flat card made it especially suitable to be used in sections of a number of cards that delivered the slivers to a traveling lattice. The latter conveyed them to a railway head, a machine that combines all the slivers into one sliver which it deposits into a can in suitable form for the next process. This method was, and is still to some extent, used where double carding is resorted to; however, owing- to the comparatively small amount of the production for the floor space occupied and the difflculty of arriving at accurate set- tings and adjustment, especially where wooden flats are used, it is now largely replaced by the revolving-top flat card. A modern construction of a stationary-top flat card occupies 9 feet 6 inches by 5 feet 6 inches with a coiler, and 8 feet 2 inches by 5 feet 2 inches without a coiler. When making a 60-grain sliver with the doffer making 10 revolutions it cards about 60 pounds per day; it of course produces more than this on coarse work with a heavier sliver and the doffer running more quickly, and less for fine work with a slower doffer speed and lighter sliver. §19 COTTON CARDS ROLL.ER-AND-CLEARER CARD 3. The I'oller-and-clearer card, a section of which is shown in Fig. 2, although rarely used in America, is employed to some extent in certain parts of Europe. The machine consists primarily of a cylinder d, 45 inches in diameter, which is covered with fillet card clothing and rotates at a surface velocity of about 1,600 feet per minute. Placed over this cylinder are a number of rollers e about 6 inches in diameter, sometimes known as workers, and also a num- ber of clearers / about 3i inches in diameter, some- times called stri Pliers. Both the workers and clearers are covered with fillet card clothing, the former rotating at a surface velocity of about 20 feet per minute and the latter at a circumferential speed of about 400 feet per minute. The clearers are set in close proximity to the cylinder, and the workers are adjusted both to the cylinder and to the clearers. These settings are obtained by means of screws and setting nuts with which the poppet heads g that support the shafts of the workers and clearers can be adjusted. The clearers are driven from a pulley d^ on the cylinder shaft by means of a belt, or band, d., passing over pulleys on the clearer shafts and also around a binder pulley //. The workers are usually driven by a pulley on the doffer shaft that drives a belt, band, or in some cases a chain passing around pulleys or sprockets on the shafts of all the workers. The card is equipped with an S-inch licker r, which is covered with fillet and rotates at a surface velocity of about 700 feet per minute; a doffer j of the ordinary construction is also employed. In operation, a lap «, is placed in stands at the back of the card and, resting on a rotating wooden roll a, is fed to the card by means of a fluted feed-roll l\ and a feed-plate b. As the licker c rotates downwards past the feed-plate, its teeth take the cotton that is fed to it and carry it to the cylinder d. The points of the teeth on the cylinder moving rapidly past the backs of the teeth on the licker results in the former taking the cotton from the latter and conveying it to the doffer. In its passage from the licker to the doffer, §19 COTTON CARDS 7 however, the cotton is subjected to the action of each of the workers. The stock is held loosely and projects somewhat from the teeth of the cylinder, which rapidly pass the workers and operate point against point with the teeth of the latter. The result of this is that the cotton is carded and opened out and deposited on the workers, where it remains until the rotation of the worker brings it under the action of the clearer. Since the teeth of the clearer work with their points against the backs of the teeth on the worker, they take the cotton from the latter and convey it back to the main cylin- der, which by virtue of its speed and the direction of inclina- tion of its teeth, strips the cotton from the clearer. The expressions point against point and point against back, when referring to the card teeth of the various rolls, should not be construed to mean that the teeth of any two rolls are in actual contact, as these expressions refer only to the rela- tive inclination of the card teeth. It will be noticed that the first eight workers are arranged in pairs, each pair being stripped by a single clearer, but that the last two workers are each stripped by a separate clearer. Sometimes the entire complement of workers and clearers are arranged as are the last two in the illustration. The cotton is taken from the cylinder by the doffer j in the ordinary manner and passed to the coiler m through the trumpet k and calender rolls /, /,. This form of card is apt to make a considerable amount of flyings on account of the speed of the various parts, and in order to prevent these from flying from the card the latter is enclosed with a wooden cover n. This method of carding results in the stock being thor- oughly opened and cleaned, and it is claimed that it does less damage to the fibers and that a yarn 5 per cent, stronger can be produced than by the methods in more common use at the present time. As this card, however, requires more help to operate it and does not produce as much work as the more recent card, its use is not considered profitable. COTTON CARDS §19 DOUBLE CARDING 4. Formerly in order to obtain a high-grade yarn it was considered necessary to adopt the principle of double card- ing; viz., that of carding cotton first on a breaker card and then, after having taken a number of the slivers and by means of a lap head formed them into a lap, putting this lap through a finisher card. Since the revolving flat card has been improved so greatly that it does almost as good work as was done with the old system of double carding, and since the introduction of the comber, which produces work superior to either double carding or revolving flat card products, double carding is going out of practice. 5. Forniatioii of the Lap. — The cards employed in double carding are similar to those already described and need no further mention. The formation of the lap for the second process of carding may be accomplished in several ways: (1) Where the breaker cards deposit slivers in cans, the lap is usually formed by means of a Derby doubler. (2) Where the first carding is arranged in sections of six, eight, ten, or twelve cards connected by a railway trough, the slivers may be passed through a railway head, in which they are deposited in a can, and afterwards passed through a lap head. (3) The slivers from the section of a railway trough may be guided directly into a lap head and the lap formed in this manner. The first method, that of using a Derby doubler, is an arrangement by which a number of cans from the breaker cards, varying from twenty to sixty, are placed behind a long Y-shaped table and the sHvers from them passed through rolls, forming at the front one wide sheet, which may be any width from 10 to 40 inches. The lap is wound on a roll in somewhat the same manner as a lap is formed in the picker room. This lap is then placed on the lap roll at the finisher card and recarded. When it is desired to form a lap for the finisher cards without the intervention of the railway head or can system §19 COTTON CARDS 9 for each card, the slivers from the railway trough are guided around rolls at such an angle as to arrange for slivers from two or more lines of breaker cards to be guided into a lap head and there wound into a lap usually half the width necessary to supply the finisher card. CARD CLOTHING CONSTRUCTION FOUNDATION 6. Card clothing: is the material with which the cylin- der, doflfer, and flats of the card are covered and by means of which the cotton is opened and the fibers straightened and laid parallel to each other. It consists of wire teeth bent in the form of a staple and inserted in a suitable foundation material. The teeth in addition to being bent in the form of a staple, also have a forward bend, or inclination, from a point known as the knee of the tooth. Fig. 3 is an en- larged view showing the shape of a single card tooth and the method of inserting it in the foundation y. The knee of the tooth is shown aty^, while y^ indicates the portion of the tooth, known as the crown, that is on the back of the foundation after the tooth has been inserted in it; y, are the points of the tooth, each tooth of course having two points. 7. Although the teeth of the clothing do the actual card- ing, much depends on the character of the foundation, since if the former are not held with considerable firmness and yet allovv^ed a certain freedom of motion, the best results in carding Fig. 3 10 COTTON CARDS §19 cannot be obtained. The foundation material must also be such that it will not stretch after it is applied to the card, for if the clothing becomes loose it will rise in places, or as is commonly said, will blister. When this happens not only is the thoroughness of the carding deteriorated, but there is also great liability of the clothing itself being damaged by coming in contact with the clothing on other parts of the card. In addition, if the clothing is slack, the teeth will not be held up to their work properly but will be forced backwards by the strain in carding the cotton; this will result in neutralizing to a certain extent the effect of the forward bend of the tooth, making the clothing act more like a brush and allow- ing the cotton to pass without being properly carded. The foundation material generally used is a fabric woven from cotton and woolen yarns, although sometimes cotton and linen are employed, the linen being used on account of its strength and freedom from stretching. The woolen yarn, however, is well adapted for this purpose, as it possesses a certain elasticity that, while holding the tooth in place with sufficient security, allows a certain freedom of movement; this is very desirable, since if the card teeth are held too rigidly, there is some liability of their becoming bent or broken. The foundation is generally woven three- or four- ply, in order to obtain the required strength and the thick- ness that is necessary to secure the teeth. A very good foundation consists of a two-ply woolen fabric inserted between two cotton fabrics, the latter imparting the requisite strength and the former giving a firm but elastic grip on the teeth. Sometimes the surface of the foundation is coated with a veneer of india-rubber, but in this there are disad- vantages as well as advantages. The rubber has a yielding grip on the tooth that allows it enough freedom to move when the strain of carding is on it, and at the same time it is of a tough nature so that the movement of the tooth does not work a large hole in the foundation, which would render the teeth loosely secured so that the full benefit of the elasticity of the wire could not be obtained. The india- rubber-covered clothing is also much easier to strip, but on §19 COTTON CARDS 11 the other hand is not so durable as clothing made with the ordinary foundation. The rubber deteriorates with age, becoming hard and stiff and cracking between the points where the teeth pass through it. This deterioration is much more rapid if the clothing is in a hot room or subjected to the direct rays of the sun, and many times it has been found that the foundation of rubber clothing was totally spoiled before the wire was appreciably worn. TEETH 8. The wire teeth actually do the carding, separating the cotton, fiber from fiber, and rearranging it in a homo- geneous mass in which the fibers lie more or less parallel; they are therefore of even more importance than the founda- tion in which they are inserted. The material from which the wire is made, the number (diameter) of the wire, the angle at which the wire passes through the foundation, the angle at the knee of the tooth, the relative height of the knee and point, and the method of insertion in the founda- tion are all important considerations when card clothing is to be purchased for general or special uses. Clothing is set with many different kinds of wire, such as iron, brass, mild steel, tempered steel, tinned steel, etc., but for cotton carding hardened and tempered steel, which makes a springy, elastic tooth that will not easily be bent out of place or broken, is the best material. Mild-steel wire wears too easily, losing its point and requiring frequent grinding to keep the card in good working condition. On the other hand it is easily ground, while tempered steel, although necessitating less frequent grinding, is harder to grind and requires a longer time to secure the required point, since if the grinding operation is forced the wire is liable to become heated and the temper drawn. The strength, elas- ticity, and durability of the tempered steel, however, make it much more desirable than any other material. The wire generally employed is round in section, but various other shapes have been used at different times; one 12 COTTON CARDS §19 of these was the elliptical form obtained by slightly flatten- ing the round wire by passing it through heavy rolls. While this form gave great strength to the tooth, it was objection- able because the teeth had a tendency to work holes in the foundation. After round wire has been set in the foundation it is ground to a point, and this alters the form of the section of the tooth at the point, or in some cases as far down as the knee, although the part of the tooth that passes through the foundation is always round in section. There are three methods of grinding the clothing, which give to it the following names: (1) top-ground; (2) 7ieedle-, or side-, ground; (3) plozv-ground. 9. Top-ground wire is obtained by an emery grinding roll having a very slight traverse motion, so that the point of the tooth is ground down only on the top, producing what is known as a flat, or eliisel, point. In the needle-, or side-, ground \vire the thickness of the tooth is reduced at the sides for a short distance from the point, and the wire is also ground down at the top. This form of point is known as the needle point and is produced by a comparatively narrow emery grinding wheel that, in addition to having a rotary motion, is rapidly traversed back and forth across the clothing. Both top and needle grinding are practiced in the mill, the former being accomplished with the so-called dead-roll and the latter with the traverse grinding roll, but plow grinding is usually done by the manufacturers of the clothing. With this method of grinding, the thickness of the wire is reduced by grinding down each side from the point of the tooth to the knee. This is accomplished by means of emery disks that project into the clothing to the knee of the tooth. To aid in this method of grinding, the teeth are separated by means of plows, or guides, so that the emery disk will pass between the wires and not knock down the teeth, hence the name plow-ground. A plow-ground tooth is the best, since it is not only strong, elastic, and easily kept in good condition, but also gives a wedge-shaped space §19 COTTON CARDS 13 between the teeth, which can more readily engage with the cotton, and at the same time does not reduce the number of points per square foot. It should be understood that plow grinding alone does not give the necessary keen point to the tooth, as it simply reduces the section of the tooth from the knee up by grinding the sides fiat; consequently, after the wire has been plow-ground it must be either top-ground or needle-ground, in order to bevel the tooth and bring it to a point. 10. Diameter of Wire. — The diameter of the wire varies according to the class of cotton to be carded, since fine cotton requires clothing with a large number of points per square foot, while coarse work requires fewer points; and in the former case fine wire must be used, while in the latter case wire of a large diameter is more suitable. As will be explained later, it is customary to set the clothing with a certain number of points per square foot for a certain diam- eter of wire. There are two gauges employed for number- ing wire; namely, the Birmingham, or Stubbs, which is the English standard, and the Brown & Sharpe, which is the American standard. The following table shows the com- parative diameters, expressed in decimal parts of an inch, of. different numbers of wire of each system: TABLE I Birmingham Diameter in Inches Number of Wire American Diameter in Inches .014 28 .012641 .013 29 •01 1257 .012 30 .010025 ,010 31 .008928 .009 32 ■ .007950 .008 33 .007080 .007 34 .006305 .005 35 .005615 .004 36 .005000 14 COTTON CARDS §19 For an average grade of cotton, No. 33 wire (American gauge) for the doffer and flats and No. 32 for the cylinder will give good results; for coarse work the wire is propor- tionally increased in diameter, and for finer work proportion- ally decreased. The cylinder should always be covered with wire one number coarser than the doffer and fiats, which should have wire of the same diameter. 11. In regard to the shape of the tooth and the angle at which it is inserted in the foundation, several important points should be noted. The knee of the tooth should be located about four-sevenths of the length of the tooth from the crown and three-sevenths from the point. If the knee is placed higher the tooth will be stronger and have a harsher action on the cotton, while if the knee is lower the clothing will be more flexible and have a more brush-like action. The tooth should penetrate the foundation at an angle of about 75°, to offset the bend at the knee, so that the point of the tooth will not be too far forwards. The angle of insertion in the foundation and the bend of the knee should be such that the point of the tooth will just touch or very slightly pass a per- pendicular line drawn from the point where the tooth emerges from the foundation. Should the' forward inclination be such that the tooth passes the perpendicular to any great extent, the point of the tooth will rise when it is moved back by the strain of carding. This is more clearly shown by reference to Fig. 4. Suppose that the shape of the tooth is such that its point is inclined forwards past the per- pendicular y^, I's, as shown at .r^; then when the strain comes on the tooth, the point will be moved back to ye, owing to the flexibility of the tooth and the freedom of motion allowed by the foundation. The point, therefore, in swinging through the arc ^3^6 will rise through the distance x, which in the case of Fig. 4 §19 COTTON CARDS 15 a close setting might be sufficient to make the wire strike the clothing on other parts of the card. This action of the tooth is also aggravated by the tendency to straighten at the knee, so that even if no contact results, the setting will be made much closer and many fibers will be broken. On the other hand, if the inclination of the tooth does not carry its point past the perpendicular, the tendency of the tooth in moving backwards under the strain of carding will be to depress the point, making the setting more open and reducing the strain. Four Crowns Per Inch Fig. 5 CALCULATIONS 12. Card clothing for cotton cards is made in long con- tinuous strips 1, li. li, II, and 2 inches in width known as fillet, or filleting, and in narrow sheets known as tops; the former is used for covering the cylinder and doffer, while the latter is used for the flats. Fillet clothing is made in what is known as rib set; that is, with the crowns of the teeth. 16 COTTON CARDS §19 which are on the back of the clothing, running in ribs, or rows, lengthwise of the fillet. Fig. 5 shows the appearance of the back of a piece of li-inch rib-set fillet, the horizontal lines indicating the crowns of the teeth and showing the method in which they are inserted. The teeth are set into tops so that the crowns of the teeth on the back side of the founda- tion are twilled; that is, they are set in diagonal lines like a piece of twilled cloth. Fig. 6 shows the appearance of the back of a top, the horizontal lines showing the method of twilling the crowns. Four Crowns Per Inr.'' Fig. 6 All card clothing in America, unless especially ordered, is made with 4 crowns in 1 inch on the back of the clothing, or 8 points in 1 inch on the face, and is known as 8-crown cloth- ing. From this it will be seen that a 2-inch fillet will have 8 ribs on the back and a li-inch fillet, 6 ribs, etc. It should be noted that the actual width of the foundation of fillet clothing is about -?w inch greater than the width of the wire- covered space; thus, a 2-inch fillet is actually 2tV inches in width. Sometimes in special cases where a large number of points per square foot are desired, the clothing is made §19 COTTON CARDS 17 10-crown; that is, with 10 points per inch in width on the face of the clothing, or 5 crowns per inch on the back of the clothing. The term iiogg, which is used in connection with card clothing, refers to the distance between the first tooth of one line of twill and the next line. It will be noticed in Fig. 6 that there are 6 teeth to a nogg and 8 noggs per inch, while in Fig. 5 there are half as many teeth per nogg and 16 noggs per inch. Owing to the manner in which the teeth are set in fillet clothing, there are always one-half the number of teeth per nogg and twice the number of noggs per inch as in cloth- ing for tops with the same number of points per square foot. The number of noggs per inch always governs the number of points per square foot in the clothing. If more points per square foot are wanted, the noggs per inch are increased, while if fewer points are wanted, the noggs per inch are decreased, the crowns always remaining the same. 13. To find the points per square foot in card clothing: Rule. — Muliiply the crowns per hich by the points per tooth (2), by the teeth per nogg, by the noggs per inch, aiid by the number of square inches in a square foot (144). Example 1. — Find the points per square foot in the sample of card clothing shown in Fig. 5, the crowns per inch being 4, the teeth per nogg 3, and the noggs per inch 16. Solution.— 4 crowns per in. 2 points per tooth 8 points per in. 3 teeth per nogg 24 1 6 noggs per in. 24 3 8 4 points per sq. in. 1 4 4 in. per sq. ft. 153 6 1536 3^4 5 5 2 9 6 points per sq. ft. Ans. 18 COTTON CARDS §19 Dividing the points per square foot by the noggs per inch, thus, 55,296 -=- 16 = 3,456, it will be noticed that with 8-crown fillet (4 crowns per inch) each nogg increases the points per square foot by 3,456. From this it will be seen that in order to find the points per square foot in 8-crown fillet clothing, it is only necessary to multiply the noggs per inch by 3,456. Example 2. — Find the points per square foot in the sample of card clothing shown in Fig. 6, the crowns per inch being 4, teeth per nogg 6, noggs per inch 8. J Solution. — 4 crowns per in. 2 points per tooth 8 points per in. 6 teeth per nogg 4 8 8 noggs per in. 3 8 4 points per sq. in. 144 153 6 1536 384 5 5 2 9 6 points per sq. ft. Ans. Dividing the points per square foot by the noggs per inch, thus, 55,296 ^ 8 = 6,912, it will be noticed that with 8-crown twill-set clothing each nogg increases the points per square foot by 6,912. From this it will be seen that in order to find the points per square foot in twill-set clothing it is only necessary to multiply the noggs per inch by 6,912. In Table II is given the number of points per square foot of 8-crown, rib-set fillet (4 crowns per inch) with 3 teeth per nogg and with from 10 to 27 noggs per inch, and also shows the numbers of wire (American gauge) generally used in each case. In Table III is given the number of points per square foot of 8-crown, twill-set clothing with 6 teeth per nogg and with from 5 to 13 noggs per inch and also shows the numbers of wire (American gauge) generally used in each case. For an average grade of cotton the doffer should have 20 or 21 noggs per inch and the flats 10 or lOl^ noggs per 19 COTTON CARDS TABLE II 19 Noggs per Inch Points per Square Foot American Number of Wire 10 34,560 28 1 1 38,016 28 12 41,472 29 13 44,928 29 M 48,384 30 15 51,840 30 i6 55,296 31 17 58,752 31 i8 62,208 32 19 65,664 32 20 69,120 33 21 72,576 33 22 76,032 34 23 79,488 34 24 82,944 35 25 26 86,400 89,856 35 36 27 93,312 36 TABLE III ^ Noggs per Inch Points per Square Foot American Number of Wire 5 34,560 28 6 41,472 29 7 48,384 30 8 55,296 31 9 62,208 32 lO n 12 69,120 76,032 82,944 33 34 35 13 89,856 36 20 COTTON CARDS §19 inch, which in each case would give 69,120 or 72,576 points per square foot. For the main cyUnder 18 or 19 noggs per inch are suitable, which would give 62,208 or 65,664 points per square foot. The number of points may of course be varied to suit the class of work, but it is generally desirable to have the same number of points in the dolifer and flats, Fig. 7 while the main cylinder should have a slightly smaller num- ber than either. 14. English Method of Nmiibering Card Clothing:. English card clothing was formerly made with the teeth inserted according to a method known as the plain-, or open-, set, in which the crowns, or backs, of the teeth over- lapped each other exactly as bricks in a wall, as shown in Fig. 7. The teeth were inserted in sheets 4 inches in width, §19 COTTON CARDS 21 and the clothing- was made with 5 crowns on the back, or 10 points on the face, in 1 inch lengthwise of the sheet, or crosswise of the card after the sheet had been applied to the same; that is, it was 10-crown clothing. Plain-set clothing is not often used in America, and although rarely used in England today, it forms the basis of the whole English system of numbering clothing. The English system desig- nates card clothing by the counts, a term that indicates the number of points per square foot on the face of the clothing absolutely, but which gives no clue to the method of inserting the teeth, whether plain-, rib-, or twill-set; that is, lOOs-count card clothing indicates a definite number of points per square foot and nothing else. As stated, the English system of numbering card clothing is based on the 10-crown, plain-set clothing, the term counts indicating the number of noggs in 4 inches, which was the original width of the sheets. Thus, if a sheet of plain-set, 10-crown clothing had 60 noggs in its width, it was 60s-count, or if it had 100 noggs in the width of the sheet, it was lOOs-count clothing, etc. As plain-set clothing was invari- ably made on the 10-crown basis, the number of noggs in the width of the sheet, or the counts, always indicated a definite number of points per square foot. For example, in lOOs-count clothing, as there are 100 noggs in 4 inches, then in 12 inches, or 1 foot, there are 300 noggs, and as in plain-set clothing there are 2 teeth per nogg, there are 300 X 2 = 600 points crosswise of the sheets. Since 10-crown clothing has 10 points per inch, there are 10 X 12 = 120 points in 1 foot lengthwise of the sheet, which multiplied by 600 points per foot crosswise of the sheet equals 72,000 points per square foot. From this it will be seen that as lOOs-count clothing contains 72,000 points per square foot, each count increases the points per square foot 72,000 -^ 100 = 720 points. Therefore, to find the points per square foot in card clothing of any counts, it is only necessary to multiply the counts by 720; and inversely, to find the counts of any card clothing, divide the points per square foot by 720. 22 COTTON CARDS §19 Although plain-set, 10-crown clothing has been largely- superseded in both England and America by 8-crown, twilled- set clothing for the flats and 8-crown, rib-set clothing for the cylinder and doffer, the English system of numbering cloth- ing is still based on the plain-set clothing, in which each count is equal to 720 points per square foot. Table IV shows the points per square foot in card clothing of various counts and also the number of wire (American gauge) that is usually used. TABLE IV English Counts Points per Square Foot American Number of Wire 60s 43,200 28 70s 50,400 30 80s 57,600 31 90s 64,800 32 IOCS 72,000 33 lies 79,200 34 I20S 86,400 35 130s 93,600 36 METHOD OF CEOTHING CARDS CLOTHING FLATS 15. The clothing for the flats is made in sheets with a 1-inch space between the sections of wire; these are after- wards cut up to form the tops. Formerly one of the most difRcult probleins for cotton-card builders and manufacturers of card clothing was to attach satisfactorily the top to the flat. The first method employed was to drill holes in each edge of the flat and secure the clothing by rivets. This method, while it held the clothing securely, had a tendency to weaken the flats, causing them to deflect; and in addition, the cotton occasionally caught on the rivets until a bunch was formed, which would pass into the card again and form §19 COTTON CARDS 23 a nep in the web. Another method was to sew the top to the flat, but this was not entirely satisfactory. The present method is to employ a steel clamp of the same length as the clothing and bent in a U-shape. One edge of this clamp in some cases is serrated, so as to grip the foundation, while the other edge engages the edge of the flat, holding the clothing and flat securely together. The foundation of the card clothing is pulled toward the edges of the flat and clamps applied simultaneously to both edges, so that the clothing is fastened while under tension. After- wards end pieces are usually fastened on in order to make the clothing absolutely secure. The flats should be ground after the clothing is applied, so as to make them perfectly true. CLOTHING CYLINDER AND DOFFER 16. Both the cylinder and doffer, which are covered with filleting, have parallel rows of holes drilled across them, which are plugged with hardwood. The fillet is wound spirally and secured by means of tacks driven in the hard- wood plugs. Cylinders are usually covered with 2-inch, and doffers with li-inch, filleting. Formerly it was customary to give the surface of the cylinder a thin coat of paint or cover it with calico before applying the clothing, buf the present practice is to wind the fillet on the bare cylinder. The plugs should be flush with the surface of the cylinder, which should be smooth, free from rust, and perfectly dry before the cloth- ing is applied. Since the fillet is wound spirally, it must be tapered at each end of the cylinder or doflfer, so that it will not overlap. 17. There are several methods of shaping the tail-ends, as they are called, but the best is that known as the inside taper, since it is stronger and neater than any other. Fig. 8 (rt) shows the method of cutting the fillet for an inside taper. Three lengths ;*:, ;c,, x., each equal to one-half the circumference of the cylinder or dofTer, as the case may be, are first miarked out on the end of the fillet; in the case of a 50-inch cylinder these distances x, x,, x^ would be 24 COTTON CARDS §19 'j~m'\ §19 COTTON CARDS 25 6.545 feet each. For the first distance x, the fillet is cut exactly through the middle; for the second distance ,v,, it is tapered from half the width of the fillet to the full width; for the distance .v,, a cut is made on the opposite side of the fillet exactly half way through it and the fillet tapered out to its full width again. The dotted lines in Fig. 8 (a) indicate the original width and shape of the fillet, while the full lines show the shape of the tail-end when cut. Fig. 8 (d) shows the method of winding the fillet on the cylinder and the way the tail-ends are fastened. After one tail-end is cut, the end of the fillet is tacked to the plugs in the cylinder and the fillet wound around the cylinder spirally, as shown in Fig. 8 (b) and (c); the other tail-end is then cut and fastened to the cylinder in the same manner as the first tail-end. Care should be taken in cutting each tail-end to have the straight, or uncut, edge of the fillet x, x, coincide with the edge of the cylinder. Fig. 8 {c) shows the opposite side of the cylinder shown in Fig. 8 (<^). 18. To find the length of filleting to cover a cylinder, doffer, or other roll: Rule. — Mtdtiply the diameter of the roll by its width {both expressed i?i inches) ayid by 3.1416 and divide the product thus obtained by the width of the fillet midtiplied by 12. The result thtis obtaijied will be the required munber of feet of filleting. Note. — An allowance must be made for tapering the tail-ends, g:en- erally a length equal to the circumference of the roll being sufficient. ExAMPLK. — What length of 2-inch filleting is required to clothe a cylinder 50 inches in diameter and 40 inches wide? „ 50 X 40 X 3.1416 _, ^ ^^ Solution. — ^^ = 261.8 ft. Adding a length equal to the circumference of the cylinder, which is 13.09 ft., the length required will be 274.89 ft. Ans. 19. Filler-Winding Macliine. — Before applying the fillet, it should remain for several days in the room in which it is to be used; otherwise, it will have a tendency to expand after being fixed on the cylinder, which causes it to rise in 26 COTTON CARDS 19 places. The fillet is applied to cylinders or doffers by means of special winding machines; formerly it was wound by hand. Fig. 9 shows a good type of fillet-winding machine, which consists primarily of a carriage a that slides on a bed b. Sufficient motion is imparted to the carriage, by means of a rotating screw c that engages with a gear r, on a shaft, to guide the spirals of fillet close to each other. The gear r, is prevented from turning, after the position of the machine Fig. 9 is once adjusted with the crank c^, by a lever r,, which operates a screw that secures its shaft. The fillet when being wound is usually placed in a basket, or other receptacle, from which the end is taken and passed through the trough d to what is known as the cone drum e, around which it is wrapped three times. The fillet emerges over the roll / and is guided on the cjilinder to be clothed by the rod g. The fillet must always be passed through the trough d so that the teeth will §19 COTTON CARDS 27 point in the opposite direction to its motion; otherwise, they will be injured. The tension is obtained in the following manner: The drum e, which revolves as the fillet passes over it, is made in three sections — the first 6^ inches, the second 7 inches, and the third 1\ inches in diameter. The section with the largest diameter is covered with leather, so that this portion of the drum and the fillet revolve together; and as it requires a greater length of fillet to cover this surface than it does to cover either of the smaller sections, the fillet is drawn over these at a speed greater than that of their surfaces, which will have the same effect as if the smaller sections were working in a direction opposite to that of the larger section. The friction between the fillet and the drum produces the tension on the former, the amount of which may be regulated by the brake // on the drum shaft and also by a thumbscrew/ that presses the die k down on the fillet, which is drawn over a spring cushion in the trough d. About 200 pounds ten- sion may be obtained by means of the brake h alone, the rest being obtained by means of the thumbscrew j. For main cylinders wound with 2-inch fillet, a tension of 270 to 300 pounds is about right; narrower fillet requires less ten- sion. Dofifers may have fillet applied with about 175 pounds tension. The amount of tension with which the fillet is being wound in this machine is indicated by a finger / on the dial f^. This is accomplished by arranging the roll / to press against a strong coil spring Z^, connection being made with a rack A and pinion A, so that the motion of the roll when acted on by the tension of the fillet is communicated to the finger and indicated on the dial. In using this machine, it is essential that for each revolu- tion of the cylinder being covered the carriage shall move along the bed a distance corresponding to the width of the fillet. This is accomplished by gearing the screw that imparts the traverse motion to the carriage from the cyl- inder being covered, the train of gears being so arranged that one tooth of the change gear moves the carriage isV inch to each revolution of the cylinder being covered. From this 28 COTTON CARDS §19 it will be seen that 1^-inch fillet will require a 48-tooth gear and 2-inch fillet a 64-tooth gear. In actual practice, however, a 49-tooth gear is used for H-inch and a 66-tooth gear for 2-inch fillet, since the fillet is wider than the nominal width and measures I32 inches and 2tV inches, respectively. A crank arrangement is usually applied to the cylinder and dofiEer so that they can be turned by hand while the clothing is being applied. After cylinders are covered with fillet they should be allowed to stand for 8 or 4 hours in order that the fillet may become adjusted, when it should be tacked crosswise of the cylinder. COTTON CARDS (PART 3) CARE OF CARDS INTRODUCTION 1. The method of managing a card room very materially affects the quality of the product of a cotton mill, as in order to insure satisfactory results it is very essential that the card- ing process shall have careful attention. Care should espe- cially be given to several important operations that must be performed at intervals. Those parts of the card that are clothed — the flats, the cylinder, and the doffer — are constantly collecting waste from the cotton that is being operated on. This waste, consisting of short fiber and foreign matter that fills up the interstices of the card wire and prevents the card from doing its best work, must be removed at intervals from the clothing, the process being known z.s stripphig. Fig. 1 is a view of a card showing arrangements applied for stripping the doffer and fiats. As the points of the card wire become dull, on account of the constant friction, and consequently do not card the cotton as satisfactorily as when sharp, they must be sharpened by means of emery rolls; this is accomplished by the process known as grinding. A view of a card, w'ith arrangements applied for grinding the doffer and cylinder, is shown in Fig. 2. When two wire surfaces are presented to each other, there For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page 30 COTTON CARDS §19 19 COTTON CARDS 31 32 COTTON CARDS §19 is sometimes too much space between them, caused by parts of the card moving slightly out of position or by the shorten- ing of the wire by the grinding process. The operation of regulating the distance between the two wire surfaces is known as setting. In common with all machinery, the oiling of the parts must be periodically attended to, as well as the cleaning of the machine and the removal of fly from below^ the card. Very little more attention is necessary in connection with carding cotton with the revolving-top flat card other than keeping the machine supplied with laps and removing the cans when full. STRIPPING 2. Methods of Stripping. — Various methods of strip- ping cards have been adopted. One of the earliest methods used in cotton carding, and one that is now in use in connec- tion with w^oolen carding, was by means of a flat board from 4 to 6 inches wide and as long as half the width of the card, on the upper part of which a handle was attached, while a piece of card clothing was nailed on the lower part with the safe' Fig. 3 points projecting toward the operator. The cylinder was slowly turned by hand, after it had been partly uncovered at the front, and the stripping card pressed into the wire of the cylinder and alternately pushed backwards and drawn forwards, the latter movement removing the waste from the cylinder. A similar operation cleaned the waste from the doffer. §19 COTTON CARDS 33 A much better method of stripping the card and the one now commonly adopted is by means of a stripping roll, such as is shown in Fig. 8. This roll consists of a wooden cylin- der mounted on an iron shaft and having wire clothing wound around it so as entirely to cover its surface, although on some rolls a narrow space without teeth is left from one end to the other. The clothing used for the stripping roll carries a very much longer tooth than that used to cover the cylinder or doflPer, and the wire teeth are not set so closely together. 3. Frequency of Strii^ping. — The number of times that a card should be stripped within a stated period will be found to vary, but it may be said to depend on two factors. One is that the greater the weight of cotton that is put through the card per day, the more frequently it should be stripped; the other is that in fine work the clothing should be kept as free as possible from short fiber and particles of foreign matter, so that when running fine work the card should receive more frequent stripping, notwithstanding the fact that a lighter weight of cotton is being put through the card than in coarse work. It may be stated as a common practice that for fine work the card should be stripped three times a day unless a very large production is being obtained, when it is advisable to strip four or even five times per day, while with a medium production and where a very high grade of work is not called for, it is not necessary to strip the cylinder and dof?er more than twice a day. To stop a card for stripping purposes necessarily means a reduction in the amount of product, but by carefully planning so that the card will not be stopped any longer than neces- sary before it is stripped, and by getting it in operation again immediately after stripping, the loss can be reduced to a very small amount. In stripping cards two men are usually employed, since one cannot readily handle the long stripping roll; and time can also be saved by having one man preparing the next card for stripping while the other man is performing the operation of restarting the card pre- viously stripped and removing the strippings from the 34 COTTON CARDS §19 stripping roll. Since it is the usual practice to strip the cylinder before stripping the dofifer, time may also be saved by starting the feed while the dofiEer is being stripped. In this manner the cylinder will be filled and the sliver will be ready to be pieced up as soon as the stripping action is completed. In order to economize in the amount of strip- pings removed from the card, the feed-roll and calender rolls should be stopped a short time before the card is stopped, thus allowing the good cotton to run through the card and drop on the floor in front of the doffer; it is then removed and returned to the mixing room. 4. Operation of Stripping. — The operation of stripping is as follows: The card is first stopped by shipping the driving belt from the tight to the loose pulley. The feed- roll should have been previously stopped by disengaging the side shaft Wi,, Fig. 2, at the dofifer, and the gear ;;;,3, Fig. 1, should also have previously been thrown out of gear by means of the handle, thus stopping the calender rolls and coiler and allowing the good cotton to run through the card until exhausted, as previously stated. As the cylinder is the first to be stripped, the cover, or door e^, that protects the cylinder at the front and is hinged on the arms r,o, is lowered so as to leave the cylinder bare at that point. The stripping roll is now placed in the upper set of bearings 7\ and a band run from the outer groove of the loose pulley of the card to the grooved pulley on the end of the stripping roll. This band should be crossed in order to give the correct direction of motion to the stripping roll. With the stripping roll in this position its teeth should project a slight distance into the wire of the cylinder, usually about i inch, and should point in the direction of revolution of the roll. At the point where the roll is in contact with the cylinder, the teeth of both are pointing in the same direction and the surface speed of the roll is greater than that of the cylinder, thus making the stripping possible. The driving belt of the card is now moved suflficiently on to the tight pulley to turn the cylinder slightly and at the same time leave §19 COTTON CARDS 35 enough of the belt on the loose pulley to give the necessary power to drive the stripping roll. It is advisable for the operator to be able to control the speed of the stripping roll at all times and to stop it sud- denly if necessary. On this account the band that runs from the loose pulley to the stripping roll is not usually tight, the stripper creating sufficient tension to drive the stripping roll by pressing his hand on the band. By this means the wire teeth on the rapidly revolving stripping roll remove the waste from the spaces between the teeth of the card wire on the cylinder, thi's waste adhering to the surface of the stripping roll. In performing this operation, care should be taken that the cylinder does not attain a greater surface speed than the roll, since in this case the excess surface speed of the cylinder will cause the waste to be taken from the roll by the cylinder. After the cylinder has made one complete revolution, the band that drives the stripping roll is removed and the strip- ping roll taken from the stands j\ and cleaned and then placed in lower stands at the doffer, as shown in Fig. 1. A band somewhat longer than the one previously used is then run from the loose pulley of the card to the grooved pulley on the stripping roll r. This band is also crossed, and the operation of stripping the doffer is performed in the same way as that of stripping the cylinder. It is the practice in some mills, especially those making coarse counts, to run the card while stripping the doffer. This, however, is not good practice, since the stripping roll throws out considerable dirt, a good part of which is liable to drop into the web and be carried through into the finished sliver. 5. Cleaning the Stripping Roll. — After stripping the cylinder of each card, and also the doffer, the strippings retained by the stripping roll should be removed from the stripping roll. These strippings may be removed by a hand card or by placing a finger in the narrow space that is without wire teeth, when one is left in the stripping roll, breaking the circular web at this point, and unrolling it from 86 COTTON CARDS §19 the roll. Another method of removing the strippings from the stripping roll and one that is used in a large number of mills is to employ a box that is placed on wheels. This box is usiially about 18 inches wide, 3 feet deep, and long enough to allow the clothed part of the stripping roll to rest between its ends, while the ends of the shaft rest in V-shaped grooves in the ends of the box. A strip of wood about 4 inches wide covered with card sheets is fixed between the ends of the box in such a position below the stripping roll that the wire teeth of the roll will just enter the wire of the sheets when the shaft of the roll is set in the grooves in the ends of the box. When cleaning the roll, it is turned by hand with a backward and forward movement, which causes the strip- pings to be removed and dropped into the box. This method is quicker and better than the hand card and provides a place for keeping the roll. The box also serves as a receptacle for the strippings. It will be noticed that a card immediately after being stripped produces a sliver slightly lighter in weight, w^hich is due to the spaces between the teeth of the clothing filling up again with fiber. In mills where it is desired to make exceptionally even yarns it is not advisable to strip at one time all the cards supplying one subsequent machine, but to take them in sections of either two or four supplying dififerent machines. GRINDING GRINDING ROLLS 6. Grinding is the process of sharpening the teeth of the card wire on the cylinder, dofifer, or flats by means of rolls called grindinjj: rolls, and is of great importance in connection with carding. Formerly when mild-steel wire was used grinding had to be performed frequently. The clothing, however, that is almost universally used at the present time is made of hardened-and-tempered-steel wire that is ground on the sides after having been inserted §19 COTTON CARDS 37 through the foundation; consequently, the tooth is almost wedge-shaped, so that even when the extreme point is worn away there still remains a comparatively sharp tooth. Grind- ing is therefore required less frequently than formerly, not only because the hard- ened -and -tempered -wire retains its point longer, but also on account of the shape of the tooth. 7. Dead Kolls. — Grinding rolls are of two kinds — the dead foil and the traverse grinder. The dead roll is shown in Fig. 4. It consists principally of a hollow shell s mounted on a shaft s^. This shell is cov- ered with emery fillet wound spirally on its surface. At the ends of the shell, where the fillet tapers to a point it is passed through slots, one of which is shown at s-^, • and is firmly fastened by means of a steel ■ clip setscrewed to the inner side of the shell. A dead roll suitable for grinding purposes on a 40-inch card is about 42 inches long and 6f inches in diameter. When grinding, the dead roll is given a slight traversing motion and grinds the back of the teeth with a slight tendency toward grinding the sides. The traversing motion is obtained in the following manner: The shaft that carries the shell s projects beyond both ends of the shell sufificiently to carry at one end the worm ^4 and at the other end the pulley ^,, through which the roll receives its rotary motion; this pulley is driven by a band that passes around the grooved pulley on the end of the cylinder shaft of the card. The worm s^, which is fast to the shaft s,, drives a worm-gear ^5 that carries a pin s^ set away from the center of s^ and loosely connected to the rod s-,, the other end ^ 38 COTTON CARDS . §19 of the rod being connected to the bracket ^e, which is loose on the shaft s^. Connected to the bracket Ss by means of a short rod is another bracket s^, that is loose on the shaft 5.. The two brackets Ss, s^ enclose a brass bushing- 5,„ that rests in one of the bearings for the grinding roll when the roll is in position, while a similar bushing on the other end of the shaft rests in the other bearing. Pins on these bushings project into holes provided in the bearings and thus hold the bushings firmly in one position. These bushings are loose on the shaft s,; consequently, the shaft is free to revolve and also to move laterally. With this construction, it will be seen that as the worm s^ drives the worm-gear s^, the latter, acting as an eccentric because of the position of the pin s^, will tend to impart a reciprocating motion to the brackets Ss,s^ through the connecting arm j-,, but will be prevented from doing so on account of these brackets being held in one position by means of the bushing Sio- Since the brackets are stationary, the rod s, and the pin Se that connects it with the gear s, can have no lateral move- ment; consequently ^5, by its eccentric movement around Se, will, through its bearing in the gear-cover, a portion of which is shown broken away in Fig. 4, and through the collars on the shaft at each side of the cover, impart a traversing movement to the shaft s, and the roll .?. Dead rolls are used for grinding the flats of the card, but seldom for grinding the cylinder or doffer, it being the custom to grind these two parts with the dead roll only when they have been newly clothed or when their surfaces become very uneven. 8. The Traverse Grinder. — The second type of roll, known as the traverse grinder, or sometimes as the Horsfall grinder, is shown in Fig. 5. It consists of a roll t about 4 inches wide covered with emery fillet and mounted so as to slide on a hollow barrel, or shell, of large diameter. Inside the barrel is a shaft containing right- and left-hand threads connected at the ends. A fork /, fits into these threads, and a pin that projects from it passes into 40 COTTON CARDS §19 another pin /« that projects into a straight slot in the outer barrel and enters the roll. There are two pulleys, one of which /o is on the inner shaft, while the other t^ is on an extended portion of the barrel. With this construction the barrel is rotated when t^ is driven; the pressure of the edge of the slot against the pin t^ when the barrel is revolved causes the grinding roll also to revolve. A traverse motion is also imparted to the roll / by driving the pulley /;,, which causes the fork /, to be moved from side to side, changing from one thread to the other at each side of the card. Since the grinding roll presses against the clothing, the result of its traverse motion is to cause the teeth that are in contact with it to be bent, or inclined, toward the side of the card to which the roll is moving. The result of this is that the sides of the points of the teeth are ground down slightly, as well as the top of the points. In consequence of the roll being so narrow, it requires a longer time to grind the card with this mechanism than with the dead roll, other conditions being the same, but the results are so much better that it is very largely used. There is an unavoidable dwell on each side, which tends to grind down the sides rather more than the center; this is the only other important disadvantage in the use of this grinder. Grinding rolls, whether traverse grinders or dead rolls, are usually covered with emery fillet; this is a tape 1 inch wide covered on one side with emery, and is supplied in lengths of about 300 feet. It can be obtained with emery of different degrees of coarseness or fineness, the kind generally used for card grinding being known as No. 40. PREPARATION FOR GRINDING 9. All grinding is usually performed by a man known as a grinder, who in large mills has from twenty to sixty revolving-top flat cards under his charge. The cards are usually ground in turn, unless some accident or defect neces- sitates some card to be ground out of the regular order. Before the grinding takes place, however, the card must be §19 COTTON CARDS 41 prepared for this purpose, and the operation is somewhat as follows: The lap is either broken off at the back and the end allowed to run through, or more usually the side shaft ;;/,2, Fig. 2, is disengaged and the feed-roll turned backwards by turning the plate bevel gear b^ in the opposite direction from that in which it usually revolves. This rolls up the sheet and takes the fringe of cotton away from the licker. Any cotton in the card is allowed to run through and the cylinder and doffer are then stripped clean of short fibers, care being taken that no cotton remains on the part stripped. The card is then started and the flats allowed to run bare of all strippings; this takes from 25 to 40 minutes, according to the speed of the flats and nature of the cotton being carded. The card is then stopped and the fly taken out from under the card and from between the sides of the cylinder and frame- work and between the sides of the doffer and framework, where it collects. Card makers have in late years greatly lessened this space and in so doing partly reduced the amount of fly at these points. This waste is sometimes called cylincler-eiid >vaste, and is removed from these parts by means of a long, thin hook usually made from a bale tie. Fly also collects around the shaft that connects the sprocket gears that drive the flats. Care should be taken to remove all loose fly from around and under the card before grinding is commenced. If any remains there is great danger of fire, as sometimes the grinding roll strikes sparks. After making certain that the gear ;«,3, Fig. 1, and the side shaft, w,,. Fig. 2, which where thrown out of gear before stripping, are well out of contact, disengage the doffer and barrow gears by throwing up the front end of the catch /«, Fig. 1, which will drop the lever L that supports the barrow gear. The licker belt, flat belt, and comb bands may then be removed. In some cases, when grinding, it is necessary to remove the pulley on the shaft with the worm that drives the flats, in order to accommodate the bands that are placed on the card for grinding, but where this is not necessary the flats should always be run with their driving belt reversed, so that when the direction of rotation of the 42 COTTON CARDS §19 cylinder is changed for grinding, as described later, the flats will move in the same direction and at the same speed as when carding. If the flats are stationary during the grinding process they will be filled with dirt by the cylinder, and the first cotton that is put through the card after grinding will have to be considered as waste on account of the unclean condition of the flats. During grinding, the cylinder is driven at the usual speed but in the opposite direction to that in which it is driven for carding purposes. It is necessary to reverse its direction in order that the back of the tooth may be presented to the grinding roll when grinding. If the front of the tooth were presented to the grinding roll, the tooth would be beveled off at the front, which is directly the reverse of what is desired; in addition to this, the grinding roll acting on the front of the tooth would tend to raise it from its foundation and cause it to stand higher than it should. In order to reverse the direction of the cylinder it is necessary to cross the driving belt, if it was previously open; but if the belt for driving the cylinder when carding was crossed, it is simply necessary to have the belt open when grinding. If it is necessary to cross the belt when grinding it will be somewhat tight; to avoid this it is sometimes the custom to use an extra belt of the right length, which is carried from card to card by the grinder, although the same belt is more often used for both grinding and carding. In this case, if the belt was crossed when carding it must be taken up when used for grinding. This is accomplished by punching two holes in a line cross- wise of the belt and two holes similarly placed but a short distance from the first holes and inserting a lacing of horse- hide, thus forming a loop in the belt. The distance between these two pairs of holes depends on the amount of slack that it is necessary to take up in order to drive the cylinder with an open belt. The dofifer when being ground is driven in the same direction as for carding purposes, but at a higher speed, by a special belt u, Fig. 2, from a pulley on the cyHnder shaft. By these arrangements both the cylinder and doffer revolve §19 COTTON CARDS 43 with the wire pointing in the opposite direction to the direc- tion of motion. 10. After making sure that everything is clear of the cylinder and doflfer and that the belts for driving them are properly adjusted, the card is started. The cylinder and doffer are then brushed by means of a brush about 2 feet long and 3 inches wide, which is held in contact with the cylinder and doffer wire by the operative and moved from side to side of the card, thus removing all dust from the interstices of the wire. The card is then allowed to run a few minutes to remove from the fiats the dust that has lodged there when brushing the cylinder and doffer. Next the card is stopped and the grinder removes such covers and bonnets as are necessary to be removed. The grinding roll for the cylinder is then placed in the stands v, Fig. 2, with the pulley that gives the traversing motion to the roll on the same side as the main driving belt of the card. A band for giving the rotary motion is put on the pulley /a, Fig. 5, of the grinding roll and around one of the grooves of the pulley e^^, Fig. 2, on the cylinder shaft. The grinding roll for the doffer is now placed in position in the stands Vt in the same manner as the cylinder grinding roll. A band is passed around the pulley /a, Fig. 5, and around the other groove of the pulley e,e on the cylinder shaft. The pulley Z^, Fig. 5, on the opposite end of the grinding roll imparts the traversing motion to the roll /. A band that passes around the grooved pulley compounded with the tight pulley on the cylinder shaft passes around the pulley /, on the doffer-grinding-roll shaft and also over the pulley /, on the cylinder-grinding-roll shaft, thus imparting motion to the latter by slight friction only. In some cases an extra pulley is placed on the shaft of the doffer grinding roll and a band passed from this pulley around one of similar size on the shaft of the cylinder grinding roll, thus giving a more positive traversing motion. The former method of impart- mg the traversing motion to both rolls is not very satisfac- tory, as the cylinder roll does not receive as positive a 44 COTTON CARDS §19 motion as it should, owing to the small portion of the pulley that comes in contact with the band. It is possible to use one bracket for carrying both the stripping and the grinding rolls, but it is very inconvenient, as the wire of the stripping roll should project a short dis- tance into the wire of the cylinder or doffer, while the surface of the grinding roll should only lightly touch the points of the wire on the cylinder or doflEer; consequently, the distance from the center of the shaft to the surface of the roll will be different in each case. Even if the two rolls are arranged at first so that the necessary distances are obtained, the wire on the stripping roll will wear down more quickly than the emery on the grinding roll, and thus it will be necessary to adjust the brackets when changing from one roll to the other. Consequently, it should be ascertained which bracket must be used for each purpose, and in operating the card this fact should be remembered. OPERATION OF GRINDING 11. Grinding the Cylinder and Doffer. — After having placed the grinding rolls in their stands, and usually before the proper bands are adjusted, the grinder proceeds to set the grinding roll to the wire on the cylinder and doffer. In performing this operation it is generally first necessary to use a card gauge, in order to make sure that neither grinding roll is pressing too heavily on any part of the cylinder or doffer. After this the proper bands are adjusted, the card is started and the grinder determines the actual setting of the grinding rolls to the wire by placing his ear as close as possible to the point at which the grinding roll comes in contact with the wire and judging by the amount of sound that is made whether either grinding roll is in its correct position. In light grinding, which is preferable, only a light buzzing sound should be distin- guished, and care should be taken that this is the same at all points on the cylinder or doffer. When setting the grinding rolls, the brackets that support them are adjusted by means of nuts and setscrews provided for that purpose. §19 COTTON CARDS 45 During- the grinding operation, the grinding roll of both the cylinder and the doffer is rotated at a speed of from 800 to 900 feet per minute; the cylinder is making about 2,150 feet per minute, while a point on the surface of the doffer will move about 1,866 feet per minute in the card under consideration. The direction of the rotation of the cylinder and the doffer, and the inclination of the teeth are such that the grinding roll grinds the back of the teeth. At the same time, because of its traversing motion, it also grinds the sides as has been explained. The grinding roll does not merely touch the wire but produces a slight pres- sure on it, which tends to force the point of the wire forwards toward the foundation of the clothing; conse- quently, if the roll grinds on one portion longer than the other, the wire will be lower in this place. This is more liable to occur with the traverse rolls at the edges of the cylinder and doffer, where the rolls have a slight dwell during the reversing of the traverse. If possible this reversing should take place almost beyond the edges of the cylinder and doffer, and grinding stands are now set wide enough to allow a longer roll to be used, which permits the disk to traverse almost off the wire while reversing. After the card is ground, the grinder removes the grinding rolls and brushes out the cylinder and doffer clothing, for the purpose of removing all small pieces of steel or emery caused by the grinding. After stopping the card, the grinder removes the belt driving the doffer, makes the necessary settings, changes the driving belt, and replaces all belts, bands, and parts that were either removed or changed in position to prepare the card jEor grinding; he then puts on a lap and starts up the card. The length of time required for grinding depends to a great extent on the condition of the wire, since if the points of the teeth are dulled considerably, a longer time will be required than if the clothing is in comparatively good condi- tion. The degree of coarseness of the emery on the grinding roll also governs to some extent the time required for grinding, since coarse emery cuts much faster than fine 46 COTTON CARDS §19 emery. The time required for grinding is also governed by the amount of pressure exerted by the grinding roll on the clothing. If the grinding roll is set so that it presses heavily on the wire, the grinding will be accomplished in less time, although there is more danger of injuring the wire; such grinding is known as heavy grinding. If the grinding roll presses only lightly against the clothing, a greater time will be required to secure the proper point on the teeth, but there is less danger of injuring the wire; this method of grinding is spoken of as light gririding. The temper of the wire with which the card clothing is set also affects the length of time required for proper grinding, since hardened and tempered wire grinds more slowly than soft wire. As a general rule it may be stated that from one-half to one working day, or from 5 to 10 hours, is the usual time required for properly grinding the cylinder and dofTer of a card. The interval between the times of grinding depends some- what on the product of the card, the condition of the wire, and the opinion of the person in charge. Generally speaking, it is advisable to grind frequently and lightly for a long time rather than at more remote intervals and heavily for a short time, as the former method is not so liable to heat the wire and to take out the temper. If the cards are turning off an average production for medium counts, grinding the cylinder and doffer once in every 20 or 30 days will be found suffi- cient. In many mills they are not ground so frequently. 12. Grinding a New Card. — A card that has been newly clothed requires grinding before being used for card- ing purposes, and this first grinding operation will be found to differ somewhat from the usual method of grinding, the object being to render the surface of the cylinder and doffer perfectly level at all points. If the fillet is not put on with a regular tension it is liable to rise, or blister, at places, and if the tacks that hold it have not been driven with care the wires around them will be high. Sometimes the edges of §19 COTTON CARDS 47 the fillet are allowed to overlap slightly or the fillet is crowded too closely, thereby causing the wire to be higher in some places than in others. If the card is carefully clothed these faults should not occur to any extent, but when they do those wires that are higher than the others must be ground level with the rest of the surface. A newly clothed card is first ground with dead rolls, which are left on until the surface of the wire on the cylinder and doffer is perfectly smooth; this takes from 3 to 10 days. After the wire has been ground level by means of the dead rolls, the traverse rolls are used for the purpose of putting a point on the wire and are left on about a similar period, the length of time depending on the temper of the wire and also on the length of time that the wire has been ground by the dead rolls. 13. Grinding tlie Flats. — The card wire on the flats requires grinc|ing periodically, and while some portions of the preceding description and remarks apply to grinding in general and can be applied to the grinding of the flats, .there are special features in connection with this process that make it differ somewhat from the grinding of the cylinder and doffer. The fact that the flats are arranged in an endless chain and slide for a portion of their movement on a smooth, circular arc, while at another portion of their circuit they are carried over rolls on which they are suspended, prevents their being driven past the grinding roll at the same speed as the card wire on the cylinder or doffer. On this account and also because there are, during the running of the card, a number of the flats that are performing no actual work for a considerable length of time, it is customary to grind the flats while the card is in operation and with the flats moving at their working speed, which saves a loss of time and pro- duction. This slow movement of the flats, since only one flat is ground at a time, causes considerable time to elapse before all the flats can be brought under the action of the grinding roll. The dead roll is almost always used for grinding the flats and is placed in brackets on each side of the card. These brackets are so adjusted that the roll, 48 COTTON CARDS §19 when resting in them, will lightly touch the wire of the flats as they pass from the front to the back of the card; that is, it grinds the flats while they are suspended by the bracket over which they move. An arrangement is adopted to firmly support the flat while it is being ground, and at the same time hold it in such a position with relation to the grinding roll that the heel of the flat will not be ground off. When the flats are at work the heel is closer to the card wire on the cylinder than is the toe, and if this relative position Fig. 6 were preserved with regard to the grinding roll, the wire at the heel would be ground off before the wire at the toe was touched by the grinding roll. 14. One type of grinding apparatus is illustrated in Figs. 6 and 7; Fig. 6 shows the grinding apparatus in posi- tion, while Fig. 7 is a perspective view of some of the essential parts. The bra'cket a that supports the different parts is firmly attached to the side of the card, there being a bracket on each side. Resting against the inclined sur- face a, of the bracket a is a casting b that carries the 19 COTTON CARDS 49 Fig. bearings b^ for the grinding roll c. Attached to this casting is a finger b^ that serves to lock the grinding roll firmly in position. The casting b is firmly secured to the piece d and can be adjusted by loosening the nut b^ and turning the set nut b^, thus moving the grinding roll nearer to or farther from the teeth of the flats, as may be de- sired. A pin di that is carried by d may be set in either of the slots «2, «3 cast in the bracket a. At its lower part the piece d carries the former d^, which is so shaped that if it is pressed firmly against the end of the flat, the wire surface of the flat will be presented in such a position to the grinding roll that the flat will be ground evenly across its width. These parts are, of course, dupli- cated on the other side of the card, and rods that serve to connect the two sides at the points d^, d^ extend across the card, the entire mechanism being known as the cradle. The parts mentioned form the principal parts of this mechanism and its operation is as follows: When the cradle is in position for grinding, the pin d^ on d projects through the slot as of the bracket a, but it should be clearly under- stood that during grinding, d is not supported by the bracket, since the weight of all the parts is made to bear on the ends of the flats, which during this time are supported by the bracket ia^, attached to the bracket a. In this manner, each flat during its movement from the front to the back of the card is brought between the bracket a^ and the former d^, against which it will be rigidly held; the former d^ is milled in such a manner as to cause the flat to assume its correct position in relation to the grinding roll and to be held in this position until it has passed entirely from under the action of 50 COTTON CARDS 19 the grinding roll. When this grinding arrangement is not in use it may be raised and the pin d^ inserted in the slot a^, thus bringing all the parts out of contact with the flats; or when it is desired, all the parts may be removed to another card for the purpose of grinding. 15. Another device for holding the flats in the correct position for grinding is shown in Figs. 8 and 9; Fig. 8 shows the mechanism as it appears when looking at the side of the card, while Fig. 9 shows certain of the parts as viewed from Fig. 8 the inside; coasequently, one view is the exact reverse of the other. These parts are duplicated on each side of the card, but as they both work exactly alike only one will need a description. The grinding roll c is placed directly over the center of the cylinder and rests in the bearing b,, supported by the stand a, which is firmly attached to the framework of the card. In the illustrations, the bearing b^ and stand a are indicated by dotted lines in order to leave an unobstructed view of the interior parts. Pivoted to the stand a at the point a, is a casting d., the upper part of which projects §19 COTTON CARDS 51 sufficiently to come directly over the outer ends of the flat, and constitutes the former d,. If the flat is forced against this projecting piece, or former, the teeth will assume the correct position for grinding. Pivoted to the casting d at the point d, IS a lever e^ that carries at its outer end a weight ^,, while the inner arm e of this lever bears against the under side of the flat. Pivoted to the bracket a at the point d^ is a lever / that carries a shoulder A that bears against a projection on the casting d. At its other end, the lever / has a projecting finger /, that bears against the cam g. Compounded with Fig. 9 the cam^ is a sprocket gear^,, the teeth of which engage with the ribs on the backs of the flats. The operation of this mechanism is as follows: The flats move continuously, the upper line being face up and moving in the direction indicated by the arrow. The movement of the flats causes the sprocket gear g, to revolve on its stud, and since the cam g is compounded with the sprocket gear, it will revolve also. The projection /, of the lever / is held in contact with the face of the cam by the pressure of the casting of on the shoulder/.; consequently, as the cam revolves 52 COTTON CARDS §19 and one of the high portions of its face comes in contact with the projection /,, it will force the projection /^ downwards, and allow it to rise again when one of the low portions of the face of the cam approaches. This movement of the lever / causes the casting d and former d^ to be alternately raised and lowered to a slight extent. As the flats move in the direction indicated by the arrow, a portion of the rib of each comes in contact with the upper surface of the arm e, which tends to raise each flat but is prevented from doing so by the former d^, consequently, the flat is practically locked between these two parts, although its movement in the direction indicated by the arrow is not prevented. As the former d^ is raised the flat that is thus locked is carried upwards until it assumes its proper posi- tion for grinding, which is controlled by the cam g and the former ^Z^. After the flat has moved suflficiently to be free from the action of the grinding roll r, the former d^ and arm e are lowered to allow another flat to be brought into position to be raised and ground. This operation is continued through- out the grinding of each flat in the entire set. The lowering of the former and arm allows each flat to be brought into position before being raised in contact with the grinding roll, thus insuring that each flat will occupy its proper posi- tion before coming under the action of the grinding roll. 16. Owing to the fact that the flat when performing its carding action is supported at each end only, and also on account of its length being so much in excess of its width, there is a tendency for the flats to bend downwards, or deflect, in the center. The rib forming the back of the flat is so shaped as to reduce the amount of deflection to a minimum, but it cannot be altogether overcome. It will thus be seen that if the flats are ground perfectly level when the wire is upwards, the surface when reversed, that is with the wire downwards in position for carding, will be slightly convex and consequently the ends of the flats cannot be set so close to the cylinder as their centers. To overcome this difficulty and also to avoid dirt and pieces of emery dropping on the §19 COTTON CARDS 53 cylinder, which sometimes occurs when the grinding takes place above the cylinder, the flats are sometimes ground in their working position. Such a method is shown in Fig. 10. In this case, the grinding apparatus is placed at the back of the card and the flats are ground with their faces downwards ""O^ "=o" Trrr Tnr while in the same relative positions as they occupy when carding. The face of the flat being underneath partly^ prevents broken wires, pieces of steel, and emery from lodging in the wire and thus being carried around into the carded cotton and incurring the risk of injuring the clothing. The grinding roll c is supported by bearings lu that form a 54 COTTON CARDS §19 part of the bracket b, which is fastened to the lower part of the former d by means of a setscrew b^. The bracket that sup- ports the bearings is adjustable and may be altered to bring the grinding roll into its correct position by loosening the setscrew b, and turning the adjusting nuts on the setscrew b^. The upper part of the shoe, or former, d, is so shaped as to give the correct position to the fiat, and at its lower end is pivoted on the stud «,. Pivoted on this same stud and connected with the former, is a lever e that is connected to another lever e^, by means of the link e^; the lever e^ is pivoted at e^ and carries at its outer end the weight e^. When the weight is thrown back in the position shown by the full lines in Fig, 10, it raises the former together with the bearings for the grinding roll, causing the former to bear against the end of the flats and thus give each flat the correct position for grinding as it is brought around by the sprocket g. When the grinding apparatus is not in oper- ation, the weight is thrown forwards. By this means the former, together with the bearings for the grinding roll, is lowered, and no part is in contact with the flats. The posi- tions assumed by the different parts when the weight is thrown forwards are shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 10. The length of time given to grinding the flats varies for the same reasons as those given in connection with grinding the cylinder and doffer, but the intervals between grindings are longer. It is considered sufficient to grind the fiats every 4 or 6 weeks. It is advisable, but seldom the practice, for a mill to own a machine for grinding the fiats of the revolving- top flat cards. When a mill is in possession of such a machine, it is customary at least once a year to remove the fiats from each card and to grind them all to exactly the same gauge, thus insuring that no fiat differs from any other in the same card owing to the unequal wear either of the wire or of the ends that rest on the bends. 17. Grinding the Liicker. — The licker seldom requires grinding, generally only after an accident has happened to it. When it is necessary to grind the licker, the solid emery §19 COTTON CARDS 55 or carborundum Trlieel should be used. The licker and wheel are revolved in such a way as to cause the wheel to run against the points of the teeth of the licker. After grinding, the motion of the licker is reversed and the end of a board moistened with oil and sprinkled with powdered emery is pressed against the teeth. By this means the teeth are made smooth. Other methods are sometimes used, such as applying a soft brick or a piece of sandstone to the back of the teeth while the licker is revolving in an opposite direc- tion to its working one. 18. Bnrnisliing. — The card-wire manufacturers supply what is known as a burnishing brvisli, which is now used in some mills. The action of plow grinding or side grind- ing in the manufacture of wire tends to leave the wire rough at the side, and it is always burnished very carefully before leaving the factory. As it wears down, parts of the wire are reached that have either become rough or were not acted on by the burnishing brush in the manufacturing of the wire. The burnishing brush is therefore used in the mill to burnish the wire on the cylinder, doflEer, and flats. It is somewhat the same as the stripping roll, but has absolutely straight wire about f inch in length set loosely in the foundation. The brush rests in the stands usually occupied by the grind- ing roll. It is set into the card wire about i inch and makes about 600 revolutions per minute; its outside diameter is 7 inches. It is usually left in operation for a whole day or even longer. When burnishing the wire on both the cylinder and the doflfer it is customary to run them at a very slow speed. This is accomplished in the card under description as follows: A band pulley 14^ inches in diameter having three grooves on its face is compounded with a 20-tooth barrow gear by means of a sleeve. The regular barrow pulley and barrow gear are removed from the barrow stud and the band pulley and gear substituted. The main driving belt runs on the loose pulley, on the edge of which is a groove 20 inches in diameter. In this groove a band is 56 COTTON CARDS §19 placed that drives the band pulley on the barrow stud at about 220 revolutions per minute. The additional grooves in this pulley, by means of bands, drive the burnishing brushes. The speed of the doffer by this method is about 23 revolutions per minute, and as it carries a pulley 11 inches in diameter that drives an 18-inch pulley on the cylinder shaft, the cylinder will rotate at about 14 revolutions per minute. The circumferential speed of the burnishing brushes is about six times that of the cylinder. SETTING 19. The setting of the different parts of the card requires careful attention and is one of the most important points in the management of the card room. Owing to the wear of the wire in grinding and the wearing of the journals of the shafts carrying the cylinder, doffer, and licker, there is a constant tendency for the wire teeth of the different parts of the card to separate and thus increase the distance between their surfaces. This calls for a readjustment of the various parts, which is known as setting. The principal places where setting is required are as fol- lows: between the cylinder and the flats, between the licker and the cylinder, and between the doffer and the cylinder. Other places for setting are between the mote knives and the licker, between the feed-plate and the licker, between the cylinder screen and cylinder, between the licker screen and the licker, between the back knife plate and the cylinder, between the front knife plate and the cylinder, between the fiat-strip- ping comb and the flats, and between the doffer comb and the doffer. In order to determine when these parts require set- ting, it is sometimes necessary to remove certain covers or bonnets and insert gauges, while in other cases the proper time for setting is determined by examining the work delivered by the card, a method requiring an experienced eye. The intervals at which cards are set vary in different mills, but the parts that contain the clothing are usually set directly after grinding, while the time for setting the other parts is §19 COTTON CARDS 57 governed largelj'^ by the amount of work done by the card and the stock being used or to be used. 20. Gauges. — The exact setting, or distance between certain parts, of the card is determined by the use of gauges; two, and in some cases three, kinds are used. The first one is about 9 inches long and If inches wide and contains four leaves pivoted together. These leaves are made of thin sheet steel and are usually tt^, tijW, to oir, and liwo inch thick, respectively. The second gauge, which is used exclu- sively for flat setting, consists of a strip of sheet steel about 2i inches long and li inches in width bent at right angles about 2 inch from one end, with a handle attached to this end. The other end is the part used for setting and is usually Tofo", 1000, or io*oo inch thick. The third gauge consists of a quadrant or semicircle mounted on a shaft and is used for setting the top of the cylinder screen to the cylin- der and licker, and also in some cases to set the licker screen to the licker. The curvature of this gauge corresponds to the curvature of the licker. Card gauges are spoken of in the mill as being of a certain number, thus a gauge toVo inch thick is termed a No. 7 gauge, while a gauge looo inch thick is termed a No. 10 gauge. Since the leaf and fiat gauges are very thin, they are easily damaged, and in this condition are of little use, pro- ducing faulty settings; consequently, great care should be used to prevent the faces becoming dented, bent, or injured in any way. As the efficiency of the card depends on the proper settings, it will be seen that any defect in the gauge will injure the quality of the production of the card. In many cases poor work results from faulty settings or poor gauges. 21. Setting the Flats. — In order to make it possible to set the teeth of the flats the required distance from the teeth of the cylinder it is necessary that some means be adopted by which the flats may be raised or lowered as desired. The manner of accomplishing this will be found to differ on different makes of cards; one method is shown in 58 COTTON CARDS §19 Fig. 11. In this figure a portion of the cylinders of the card, the arch g, and the fiats / supported by the flexible bend h are shown. It should be understood that there is a flexible bend similar to h on the other side of the card and that the ends of the flats rest on this bend in a similar manner to that shown in Fig. 11. The bend h is supported by brackets, which in some cases are composed of two parts h^Ji^. In Fig. 11 Fig. 11, the outer portion h^ is shown in dotted lines. The inner portion //, is so made that a projecting lug h^ fits into a hole in the bend and securely holds it in position. The part h^ is supported by a screw that passes through the rib^i of the arch and carries two set nuts h^Ju, one above and one below the rib. The bracket is also further held in position by means of the screw //,, which passes through a slot in the bracket and enters the arch of the card. It is by §19 COTTON CARDS 59 raising or lowering the bend // by means of the bracket //, that the flats are raised or lowered as desired. There are five of these brackets on each side of the card, and when setting the flats care should be taken that all the brackets are properly adjusted. When setting the flats, the screw /^ and nut Ju are loosened and the flats raised or lowered by turning the nut Ju either down or up, respectively. After the flat has been set in the desired position, the screw h^ and the nuts //s, h^ are firmly secured, thus holding the bracket and bend securely in their proper positions. 22. Another arrangement for setting, or adjusting, the flats is shown in Fig. 12 {a) and {b) , of which {a) is a plan view, partly in section, and {b) a sectional elevation. The flats are supported by the flexible bend in the usual manner, but the method of supporting the flexible bend is a radical departure from the one just described, the only resemblance being that both have five setting points on each side of the card. The shell of the cylinder covered with fillet is shown at w, while w^ represents the flat, which is supported by the flexible conical bend w^, and this in turn is supported by the rigid conical bend W:, instead of brackets. The bend w^ rests on the arch w^ of the card. It can be seen by referring to the figures that the under surface of the flexible bend is beveled and rests on the beveled surface of the rigid bend; consequently, when the bend w^ is forced in toward the cylin- der the bend w^ must rise, while on the other hand if w^ is forced outwards the bend w^ must fall, thus raising or lower- ing the flats as may be desired. The bend w^ is operated by a screw w^ that projects through this bend into the arch of the card and is held in place by the binding nut w^. On the inner side of the bend W:, is a toothed nut w, that serves as a binding nut and also as a device for forcing the rigid bend away from the cylinder. On the outer side of the bend is a nut w^ that serves as an index nut, a binding nut, and also as a device for forcing the rigid bend in toward the cylinder. The toothed nut w., is operated by a key w^ that has a fluted, or toothed, portion to fit the teeth of the nut w,. 60 COTTON CARDS §19 §19 COTTON CARDS 61 When it is desired to lower the flats, or set them closer to the cylinder, the key w» is inserted in a hole in the rigid bend and engages with the teeth of the nut w,. The index nut is moved out on the screw and then the toothed nut is tightened by means of the key, thus forcing out the rigid bend and binding it firmly in position. When it is desired to raise the flats, the toothed nut is loosened and the index nut moved in, thus forcing the rigid bend in until the desired position is reached, after which the toothed nut is again tightened. The index nut is provided in order that the person making the adjustment may tell at a glance just how far the flats are moved. 23. The flats are set by means of the flat gauges described, while the card is stopped, and preferably when other machinery in the room is also stopped, so as to pre- vent any vibration of the floor. In order to provide a blank space in which to insert these gauges, it is necessary to remove certain flats from the chain of flats above the cylin- der. Two methods of removing these flats are followed, depending on the method of setting that it is intended to adopt. In those cards constructed with five setting points on each side of the card, it is common to use five flats for setting purposes, a flat being selected that stands almost immediately above each setting point. The flats on each side of the setting flats, as they are called, are removed, making it possible to slip in a gauge on either side of the setting flat; thus, there are ten flats in all removed. A short shaft carries the worm-gear /,2 and the worm /,3, Fig. 2, through which the flats are driven; on this shaft a crank is placed and used to turn the flats while setting. By means of this crank the flats are turned until each of the five setting flats comes directly above a setting point, and they remain in that position until the setting of the flats is completed. Another method is to remove a flat on each side of one setting flat only, or sometimes two setting flats. This gives but one or two flats that are used for setting purposes, and as there are five setting points on the flexible bend, the chain 62 COTTON CARDS §19 of flats must be turned several times in order to bring these setting flats directly over the places where the gauges are inserted. Advantages are claimed for each system, but on the whole there is less work and quicker setting when using five setting flats. The side of the flat used for setting purposes is the heel, which is the side nearest the wire on the cylinder, being about ToT inch nearer than the toe. Having brought the setting flats into the correct position over the setting points, the gauge is inserted first between the flat and the cylinder above the central setting point, and the proper adjustment made, as has been described. In setting a flat it is only possible to set one end at a time. The end that is being set, however, should be held firmly in position on its bearings with one hand while the gauge is moved back and forth across the card between the flat and the cylinder with the other hand. Owing to the width of the card it is impossible to move the gauge the entire length of the flat; consequently, one side is set temporarily and then the other side is set in a similar manner, after which the first side set should be tested and also the second side set to make sure that the flat is in the proper position. When both ends of the central flat have been set, the flat at the extreme front of the card is usually set next, at both ends; then both ends of the flat nearest the rear of the card are set, and then the two intervening flats. In setting flats there should be a certain amount of friction, or resistance, felt when moving the gauge along between the flat and the cylinder. The settings mentioned are only temporary settings, and after the adjustment of the flats the brackets should be seciired and the settings again tested, in order to make sure that the proper spaces exist between the cylinder and the flats. The cylinder should now be slowly revolved, the flats at the same time being moved, and if any rustling sound is heard it is an indication that the wire surface of the flats is coming in contact with the wire surface of the cylinder at some point, in which case the flats should be set farther from the cylinder at that point. §19 COTTON CARDS 63 64 COTTON CARDS §19 The flats are usually set about il uu inch from the cylinder at the heel of the flat. The flats at the front of the card should be set the closest to the cylinder, while the space between the flats and the cylinder should gradually increase toward the back. If a No. 10 gauge is used, the flats at the back are set loosely to the gauge; those at the top and center, a little closer; while those at the front are set still closer. 24. Setting the Liicker. — The licker is mounted on movable bearings ti'.o resting on and secured to the frame- work, or base, of the card as shown in Fig. 13. There is a lug zc\t on the arch of the card, through which an adjusting screw Z£'i2 for adjusting the licker to the cylinder is passed. By loosening the nuts ze'.s, z^'ie, which securely hold the bearing to the framework, and by operating the adjusting nuts tt',3, tt',4 on the adjusting screw 7i\2, the licker may be moved nearer to or farther from the cylinder, as desired. The leaf gauge is used for this setting and the licker is generally set to the cylinder with a No. 10 gauge. 25. Setting tlie Doffer. — The doffer is also mounted in movable bearings Wi,, Fig. 14, which rest on the frame- work of the card and are securely fastened to it by the bolts and nuts u\s, u\^. An adjusting screw u\_o connects the bearing of the doffer with a lug ti'^, on the arch of the card. When it is desired to set the doffer, the nuts u\s, u\^ are loosened, and the doffer can then be set to the desired position by means of the adjusting screw zc^c and the nuts a'22, zfas. The doffer is usually set to the cylinder with a No. 5 or No. 7 leaf gauge by inserting the gauge between the doffer and the cylinder where they are in closest proximity. When a No. 7 gauge is used, the doffer is usually set tight to the gauge. After attaining the proper distance between the doffer and the cylinder, the nuts zi\^, u\^ are tightened, as well as the adjusting nuts w^., ^',3. The position of the doffer with relation to the cylinder is an important matter and should receive careful attention. If the doffer is set too far away from the cylinder, a patchy or cloudy web will result, owing to the doffer not taking 19 COTTON CARDS 65 Fig. 14 66 COTTON CARDS §19 the fiber from the cylinder regularly and thus allowing the wire of the cylinder to fill up. The mote knives are carried by two brackets, one at either end, and can be adjusted in regard to the relative distance between their blades and the surface of the licker as described in connection with the construction and operation of the various parts of the card. These knives are set to the licker by means of the leaf gauge and the number of the gauge varies from 12 to 17. 26. Setting the Feed-Plate.— The feed-plate b rests on the frame of the card, as shown in Fig. 13, and is fastened to it by means of the bolts and nut x. When it is desired to set the feed-plate b to the licker c, the nut x is loosened and the plate moved nearer to or farther from it by means of the adjusting screw x^ and the nuts x^, x^. The screw x^ passes through a lug x^ on the framework of the card and into the feed-plate. The leaf gauge is also used to make this setting and is inserted between the licker and the face of the feed-plate. The number of the gauge varies from 12 to 20. 27. Setting the Cylinder Screen. — The cylinder screen is made in two sections in the card under description and these sections are fastened together by two staple-shaped bolts, one on each side of the card. These bolts pass through the framework of the card near the floor. Inside the frame- work of the card on each side is a thin metal arch adjusted so as to be in close proximity to the end of the cylinder. When the screen is in position, it is between, and attached to, these arches, thus forming a casing for the lower portion of the cylinder. The screen is held in position by a number of bolts passing through the side arches of the screen. There are a number of slots in the circular arches of the screen through which the gauge can be inserted in order to obtain the proper distance between the cylinder and the screen. The nuts on the bolts that hold the screen in position are on the outside of the arches. When it is deemed necessary to set the screens, the doors on the sides of the card are removed to give access to the nuts on the bolts and to allow §19 COTTON CARDS 67 a gauge of the proper thickness to be inserted in any of the slots of the screen arch. The screen is raised or lowered to the proper position as determined by the gauge and the nuts are then tightened, thus holding the screen in position. The screen is set farther from the cylinder at the front than at any other point, the distance being about .25 inch, while the screen at the center and back is set about .032 inch from the cylinder. This arrangement prevents the ends of the fibers that have been thrown out by centrifugal force from coming in contact with the front edge of the screen and thus being removed from the cylinder as fly. 28. Setting the Thicker Screen. — As the licker and cylinder screens are very close to each other at their nearest point, and as the front end of the licker screen must be set only a short distance below this point, it is nearly impossible to make an accurate setting with the licker in position. The best method is to remove the licker and use a quadrant gauge, the curvature of the outside surface of which should correspond exactly to the curvature of the surface of the licker. This gauge is mounted loosely on a shaft of exactly the same bore as the licker shaft. The ends of the shaft rest in the licker bearings and the screens are set to the proper distance from the quadrant gauge by sliding the quadrant along the shaft. The front edge of the licker screen at the point where it is hinged to the cylinder screen is usu- ally set about .011 inch from the licker. The nose, or por- tion of the licker screen with which the fibers first come in contact, is set iV to i inch from the teeth of the licker, according to the amount of cleaning action desired at this point and the staple of the cotton being used. Setting the screen farther from the licker at the nose than at the front allows the fibers to be drawn gradually into a more compact space and presents a more even layer of fibers to the action of the wire on the cylinder. 29. Setting: the Back Knife Plate. — The back knife plate ^«, Fig. 13, extends from the licker cover, or bonnet, upwards to the fiats and corresponds in curvature to the 68 COTTON CARDS §19 curvature of the cylinder. This plate is fastened to a circu- lar bend x^ by means of two screws at each end, and the bend is attached to the adjustable bracket of the licker by means of two setscrews Xo, x-,; consequently, when the licker is adjusted the back knife plate is adjusted, or it can be adjusted independently by means of the setscrews x^, x-,. The plate is set to the cylinder to about a No. 17 leaf gauge at the lower edge and a No. 32 at the upper edge. This allows the fibers to free themselves and stand out a little from the cylinder before coming in contact with the flats. 30. Setting the Front Knife Plate. — The front knife plate ^11, Fig. 14, extends from the cylinder door above the dofier to the point where the flats first leave the cylinder. The amount of flat strippings depends to a great extent on the setting of this plate. The plate is fastened to a circular bend x^ by means of two screws at each end, and can be adjusted by means of the bracket ^-9, the adjusting screw jt',o, and nuts ;f„, x^^; or it can be adjusted to a certain extent by the setscrews jr,,, x^^. The screw x^^ passes through an arm x,^ of the circular bend x^, while both screws ;i:,3, x^,. come in contact with the arm x^^ of the bracket x^; thus by loosening one screw and tightening the other the plate can be adjusted. The front knife plate is also set with the leaf gauge, its distance from the cylinder at the lower edge being about .017 inch. The space between the upper edge of the plate and the cylinder depends on the amount of waste that it is desired to remove as fiat strippings, but the usual setting is about .032 inch. If the plate is set farther from the cylinder, more and heavier strippings will be made, and if moved too far away, the strips will form one continuous web instead of being connected by merely a few fibers. If the plate is set too close, some of the short fibers and dirt removed from the cotton by the flats will in turn be taken from the flats by the knife and carried around by the cylin- der, thus producing bad work. 31. Setting the Stripping Comb. — The flat stripping comb is mounted on two arms, as described in connection §19 COTTON CARDS 69 with the construction and operation of the various parts of the card. There is one nut on each side of the comb at each end. The comb is set by adjusting the nuts on the arms when it is at the lowest part of its swing, with its teeth opposite the toe of the flat. Sometimes it will be necessary to try two or three flats before the comb is set in its proper position. The distance between the toe of the flat and the comb is determined with the leaf gauge and is usually about .007 inch; although this setting should be close enough to allow the comb to remove the strippings from the flats, it should not be so close that the comb will strike the wire and damage it. 32. Setting tlie Brusli and Hackle Comb. — The brush for stripping or brushing out the dust, etc., from between the interstices of the flats is set so that the ends of the bristles do not quite reach the foundation of the fillet on the flats. The brush has longer bristles near its ends, in order to brush the ends of the flats where they rest on the flexible bends, so as to keep them clean and preserve the accuracy of the settings. The hackle comb is set so that the needles, or teeth, of the comb project for a short distance into the bristles of the brush, in order that all the waste may be removed from the brush. 33. Setting the Doffer Comb. — The doffer comb is set in a manner similar to that in which the doffer and licker are set. The comb is mounted on sliding bearings fastened to the framework, or base, of the card by means of bolts. A setting screw is fastened to the bearing of the comb at each side and passes through a lug that is fastened to the frame- work of the card. When it is desired to set the comb, the nuts on the bolts that attach the bearings to the framework are loosened and the comb drawn nearer to or farther from the doffer by means of the adjusting nuts on the setting screws, as described in connection with the setting of the doffer and feed-plate. When the proper distance is obtained, all the nuts are tightened. The comb is usually set to the 70 COTTON CARDS §19 doffer at the point where they are in closest proximity with a No. 7 leaf gauge. The doffer comb, in addition to being adjustable as to its distance from the doffer, is adjustable as to the position of its stroke, which is changed by altering the relative positions of the comb and the eccentric from which it receives its motion. If the web should follow the doffer instead of being removed by the comb, the position of the stroke should be lowered; while if the web sags between the doffer and the trumpet, as it sometimes does, owing to atmospheric changes, etc., the position of the stroke should be raised. The settings given are used only as a basis. The settings of the various parts of the card vary according to the stock being used, the quality and kind of finished work, and the opinion and judgment of the superintendent or overseer in charge. It is sometimes desirable to make a setting for which there is no gauge of the proper thickness at hand. In such cases it is customary to use in combination two or more of the leaves of the leaf gauge; for instance, if it is desired to set the mote knives to the licker with a 17 gauge and no such gauge is available, the 10 and 7 leaves of the leaf gauge can be used together. MANAGEMENT OF ROOM 34. In the management of cards many points should be watched, but more especially those that have for their objects: (1) the production of good work; (2) turning off as large a production as is consistent with the quality of the work required; (3) economy by avoiding unnecessary waste and keeping down the expenses of wages, power, supplies, etc.; (4) maintaining the machinery in good condition. 35. Quality of Production. — With reference to the first requirement, it may be said that good work is usually judged by examining the web from the front of the doffer. By withdrawing a portion of it as the card is running and §19 COTTON CARDS 71 holding it to the light, the foreign matter and also the neps remaining in the cotton can be observed. If it is the opinion of the overseer that from the grade of stock being used and from the speed of the card such work is not suilficiently good, the card should be examined to ascertain whether it requires grinding or setting. An allowance should be made if the card is examined just before the time for stripping, as at that time the card wire is usually so full of dirt that more or less necessarily passes through, although this is to some extent an indication that stripping should be performed more frequently. In order to test whether wire requires grinding, or in other words whether it is sufficiently sharp to do its work, it is customary to rest the fingers of one hand on the face of the wire when the card is stopped and by drawing the thumb against the points judge of their sharpness by the amount of resistance that is felt. Dull wire allows the thumb to pass with the least resistance. Should the wire show a glistening surface or appear bright on the end of each point, it may generally be considered dull, although this is not an infallible test, owing to the direction in which the light strikes the wire. The cotton should leave the doffer in a level sheet, free from cloudiness and having good sides. The intermittent clouded effects and flock sides formerly so common are not met with so frequently in revolving flat cards. Sometimes these defects are caused by cotton lodging in some part of the card, more especially in connection with the screens or at the point where the cylinder and the doffer meet, until there is sufficient to be pulled through in one lump by the wire. Another test is to examine the fly underneath the card and if it is found to contain an appreciable amount of good fiber, it indicates that the screens need adjusting. In case of the feed-plate, and more especially where two feed-rolls are used instead of a feed-plate and a feed-roll, plucking some- times occurs and causes a cloudy effect. Cotton lapping on the doffer instead of being stripped off by the comb is trouble- some, more especially when the rooms are allowed to get cold during frosty weather. 72 COTTON CARDS §19 36. Quantity of Prodiiction. — The second point of management is that of obtaining as large a production as possible. This can be obtained by reducing to a minimum the time when the card is stopped for stripping, grinding, or setting, also by the attendants putting on the new lap as soon as the old one has run off and by not allowing the card to remain stopped on account of the end having broken down in front. When these economies of time have had attention, the only other method of increasing the produc- tion is to speed up the card, which is usually done by increasing the size of the barrow gear. The increase in the speed of the doff er is in direct proportion to the increase in the size of the gear. There are many cards at work pro- ducing 1,000 pounds per week of 60 hours, and the produc- tion of a card varies from this down to 200 or 300 pounds per week. A good speed for American cotton when intended for 32s yarn, carding 800 pounds per week, is about 122 revolutions per minute of a 24-inch doffer for a 60-grain sliver. When carding Egyptian cotton intended for 60s to 90s yarn and carding about 500 pounds in a week of 60 hours, a good speed for a 50-grain sliver is about 10 revolu- tions per minute. With sea-island cotton intended for yarn finer than 100s, carding 250 to 300 pounds per week and pro- ducing a 35-grain sliver, a good speed for the doffer would be about 6i to 8 revolutions per minute. With a 27-inch doffer the number of revolutions would be proportionally smaller. The maximum average stoppages during a week for stripping, grinding, cleaning, and all sundry repairs around the card ought not to exceed 10 per cent., and with care this might be reduced to li per cent. 37. Economy. — The third point in the management of card rooms is that of economy; this is most important in respect to the amount of waste produced. The largest per- centage of waste in any part of a card is in flat strippings and amounts to about li per cent. The next is the amount of fly from beneath the licker and cylinder, amounting to an average of 1 per cent. The cylinder and doffer strippings §19 COTTON CARDS 73 together amount to about I per cent., making a total loss at the card of about Si per cent., or somewhat over Si per cent.* if the card sweepings are taken into account. No allowance is here made for the unavoidable loss in the weight of the cotton due to its drying in the hot card room. For fine yarns or particular work these figures may be increased, and for coarse yarns and inferior product, decreased. In order to secure economy in the flat strippings the front plate should be set in such a manner that the flats will not take out any good cotton. When it is set otherwise, the strippings from the flats seem to be connected by a thick film of good cotton that is generally sold together with the strippings as waste. As previously described, this film can be reduced until the strippings cling together by means of a few fibers only. Beyond this point the only method of reducing the amount of flat strips is to lessen the speed at which the flats move, although this is not advisable, as it deteriorates the quality of the work by not removing so much foreign matter from the cotton. The flats will also be connected by a thick strip of cotton if the heel and toe are not preserved in grinding. The principal method of reducing the percentage of the cylinder and doffer strippings is to reduce the number of strip- pings, which is undesirable unless it is desired to lower the quality of the work. The fly beneath the card can either be increased or decreased according to the style and setting of the screens under the card and the setting of the mote knives. Tests have been made with cards without screens and it is found that they make about ten times as much fly as cards with screens. Both the knives and the triangular bars that form the screens should be so arranged that they will give free passage for any dirt that tends to lodge there and also to allow the ends of the fibers to be combed or brushed over the edges of the knives, but the spaces between the bars of the screens should not be so large as to allow the fibers themselves to be driven through. 38. Proper Care of Macliinery. — The fourth point in the management of cards, namely, keeping the machinery in 74 COTTON CARDS §19 good condition, necessitates first of all proper oiling. All parts of the card that are in contact with swiftly moving parts, such as the mechanism in the comb box, the cylinder- shaft bearings, and licker-shaft bearings, should be oiled twice daily; certain other parts that do not revolve so rapidly, for instance the doffer, calender-roll shaft, side shaft, coiler, and all idler pulleys and gears, should be oiled daily; while once a week, generally Monday morning, every moving part of the card should be oiled. Cylinder, licker, and doffer bearings should be filled with tallow, having a small hole in the center so that it will allow the oil to run directly on the shafts and provide a reserve of lubrication that will melt in case of a hot bearing. In oiling the bearings of the doffer and cylinder, care should be taken not to allow the oil to get on the heads of the cylinder or doffer, since in this case it is apt to come in contact with and spoil the clothing. Care should also be used in oiling the traverse grinder that the oil does not fly on to the clothing. The cards should be kept free from fly and dust and it is usually the custom to clean them after the stripping process. An opportunity should be given at least once a week, usually on Saturday morning, for the cards to be stopped 2 hours for cleaning purposes, at which time a more thorough cleaning is given to all parts than can be given while the cards are running. About once a month the coiler should be taken apart and cleaned, the feed-roll taken out and cleaned, the licker picked free of all foreign substances, and all belts carefully looked over. The belts should be cleaned and dressed as often as it is necessary. Fly from under the card is generally removed twice a week, and any cotton or fly attached to the screens should be picked or brushed off at the same time. The roll on which the lap rests should not be allowed to wear too smooth, but should be painted with some rough composition, such as paint mixed with sand, that will give it a rough surface and prevent the slipping of the lap. The cylinder and licker screens should be taken out periodically and cleaned, a good practice being to polish them well with black lead, which makes them dry and smooth. §19 COTTON CARDS 75 The inside faces of the front and back knife plates and the bonnets of the doffer and licker should also be polished with black lead. After disturbing the settings of a card in any way, the cylinder and licker should be turned around by hand to make sure that there are no parts rubbing. After setting or grind- ing, and whenever there has been occasion to loosen screws, nuts, or other parts of the card, these parts should all be gone over to make sure that they are tight before starting the card. 39. The speeds of the different parts of the machine are taken by a speed indicator. The doffer, however, has so few revolutions per minute that its speed can be ascertained by watching a point on its circumference and counting the number of revolutions it makes. There should be only sufficient draft between the lap roll and feed-roll, the doffer and the bottom calender roll, the bottom calender roll and the calender roll in the coiler to take up any slack that may occur between these parts. Any excessive draft causes the sliver to be unevenly drawn, thus making thick and thin places in the yarn. DRAWING ROLLS COMMON ROLLS BOTTOM ROI.I.S 1. Introduction. — The principle of roll drafting is the most important feature of parallelizing and attenuating machinery and in the production of good yarn. Therefore, the construction of drazving rolls and various points pertaining to them justify a detailed description. Dl•a\^^ing rolls, of which there are two kinds — common and metallic — are placed in pairs one above the other, the lower ones being driven positively by means of gears; the upper ones, when common, are driven by frictional contact from the bottom rolls, while those that are metallic are driven positively, as will be described later. 2. Construction. — Fig. 1 shows a set of common rolls consisting of three pairs, a being a bottom roll and a, a top roll. The bearings of the bottom rolls rest on stands b that are bolted to the roll beam c. The construction of the bearings for the rolls and the method of adjusting them in order to obtain the desired distance between any two pairs is fully explained in later pages. Fig. 2 shows a cross-section of the bottom roll a. Fig. 1. These rolls are almost always constructed of steel, and are fluted; that is, grooves are cut lengthwise in the surface of the rolls at certain intervals. These flutes aid the bottom rolls in obtaining a better grip on the cotton as it passes between them and the top rolls. The grooves, as shown in Fig. 2, are not perfectly For notice of copyright, see pa£e immediately following the title page §20 DRAWING ROLLS §20 wedge-shaped, nor do they end in a knife edge, although the face of the roll carries almost a square corner on each side of a flute. A groove is a little less in width at the bottom xu'*^v-i Fig. 1 than at the top, while the number of flutes for the various rolls increases with the diameter of the rolls and with the fineness of the work for which the machine is intended. For example, a roll li inches in diameter will contain more flutes than a roll 1 inch in diam- eter, while a roll intended to be run on a machine that deals with the stock in the later processes will contain more flutes than a roll of the same diameter that is intended to be run on a machine dealing with the stock in the earlier processes, since the cotton in the former case is not in as bulky a condition. Rolls are often made with the flutes unevenly spaced; that is, the distance between two flutes in one place is different Fig. 2 §20 DRAWING ROLLS 3 from the distance between two flutes in another part of the same roll. This is done in order to prevent the cutting of flutes in the top leather roll that would correspond with those of the bottom roll, which would be detrimental to good work. It is also necessary to have these rolls refluted at times, since the constant action of the cotton on the flutes will wear them very smooth on the edges and thus prevent their gripping the fibers. It is important not to have the roll stands for the bottom rolls too far apart, since in this case the roll, due to the weight of the top rolls and other weight placed on it, will be deflected out of a straight line, causing the roll to run untrue and resulting in poor work. The bottom rolls are almost always case-hardened in the necks, or bearings, and in some cases throughout. They are thus rendered stiffer and stronger, which makes them more capable of resisting torsion, the necks wear longer, and the flutes are not so liable to become damaged by an accident or by carelessness. The preservation of the necks is also assisted by inserting brass bearings into the roll stands. 3. Method of Connecting Sections. — The bottom rolls are built in sections varying from 13 to 24 inches in length, each section being joined to the next by means of a squared end of one section fitting into a squared recess in another section. It is of the utmost importance that these ends shall fit into their sockets accurately, and if they become worn, as is sometimes the case with the older makes of rolls composed of soft metal, they should be resquared. It will easily be seen that in a frame 20 or 30 feet long having a number of these joints in each roll, a minute fraction of play at each socket will become an important item in the whole length of the frame and tends to produce what is technically called ad yarn. When the rolls are removed in sections, care should be taken that each section is replaced in the position from which it was taken. In order to make this convenient, the end of each section is numbered, the num- bers generally running consecutively from the driving end of the machine. DRAWING ROLLS 20 TOP ROI.LS 4. Construction. — Top rolls are constructed of iron and are made in short lengths, a portion of their circumfer- ence being afterwards covered with cloth and leather. That part of the roll that is used for drawing the cotton, which in common top rolls is the leather-covered portion, is known as the doss and is always of a larger diameter than the remainder of the roll. Top rolls may be made with one or two bosses, being known as si?igle-boss and dotcble-boss, respectively; the boss in both single- and double-boss rolls may be detachable. When the boss of a roll is detachable, the roll is known as a loose-boss, or shell, roll; when the boss is not detachable, the roll is known as a solid roll. In loose- boss rolls the part that is detachable is known as the shell of the roll, while the part on which the shell rests is known as the arbor. §20 DRAWING ROLLS 5 Fig. 3 shows the different styles of top rolls. A solid roll having a single boss is shown at (a), a longitudinal section of this same roll being shown at (d); a solid roll with a double boss and a longitudinal section of the same roll are shown at (c). A loose-boss roll having only one boss and a longitudinal section of the same roll are shown at (d) and ((?), while a loose-boss roll with a double boss and its longitudinal section are shown at (/) and {£-). 5. Single- and Double - Boss Rolls. — In certain machines that utilize drawing rolls there is one roll to every delivery; that is, all the fibers passing one roll are gathered together into one sliver at the front; therefore, for these machines the single boss is preferred. In certain other machines there are always two or more ends coming from each roll, so that the tloxible-boss construction is preferable. Sometimes one end comes from one boss; in other cases two ends come from one boss; while in still other cases three ends are found coming from each boss of a double-boss roll, making six from the roll. The advantage of double-boss over single-boss rolls is due to the fact that there are less weights, hooks, and wires on a machine equipped with double-boss rolls and, therefore, the machine can be better and more easily cleaned. The cost of construction is also less with double-boss rolls, and the weighting is simpler. It also requires less oil, thus reducing the probability of staining the cotton. Another advantage that is claimed for double-boss rolls with the loose boss is that any slight variation in the diameter of either boss, as compared with the other, is offset to a certain extent, on account of the independent motion of each boss. One great advantage that the single-boss roll has over the double-boss roll is that more even yarn is produced with the former, as each end or group of ends is treated inde- pendently of the others. 6. Solid- and Loose-Boss Rolls. — Solid-boss rolls are gradually passing into disuse except for the back rolls of frames, being replaced by rolls with loose bosses. With 6 DRAWING ROLLS §20 a loose-boss roll only the shell revolves, consequently the neck and ends do not need oiling. When it is desired to oil the roll, the shell is removed and a few drops of oil placed on the arbor. With such a construction, especially when such thorough lubrication can be obtained, it is very easy for the shell to revolve and there is also little danger of oil get- ting on the cotton. The portion of the arbor enclosed by the boss is barrel- shaped, being large at the center and tapering off toward each end. This construction reduces the friction by reducing the bearing surface of the shell on the arbor, and the oil tends to run toward the thickest portion of the arbor, thus insuring proper lubrication and preventing the leakage of oil. Rolls are also constructed on this principle with the shell having ball bearings on the arbor. COVERING TOP ROLLS 7. As two metal rolls revolving in contact would tend to crush the delicate cotton fibers, a leather covering is pro- vided for the top rolls of the common type. The iron sur- face of the roll is first covered with a specially woven woolen cloth, which is cemented to the roll, giving a good, elastic foundation. When a thin leather covering that fits very tightly is drawn over this foundation, the roll is capable of gripping the fibers and, owing to the yielding quality of the leather and cloth, does not damage them. In order to secure the best results, the greatest care should be exercised in covering the roll, and the best stock should be used. The production of an even thread depends more on the quality of the cloth and the leather, the manner in which it is applied, and the care of the rolls in the machine than on any other factor in the process of manufacture, with the exception of the grade of cotton used. Various substitutes for woolen cloth and lambskin or sheepskin have been tried from time to time, but none have been adopted to any great extent. Woolen cloth and lambskin have been used for over 100 years for covering rolls. In fact, the first frame built §20 DRAWING ROLLS 7 for spinning had top rolls that were covered, the skin being used without any cloth. The uncovered roll known as the metallic roll is the only one that has displaced these materials to any great extent. 8, Roller Clotli. — The cloth that lies underneath the leather should be made of the finest and best wool. The wool should be carefully carded, so that every piece of for- eign matter will be removed, and the weaving and the finishing of the cloth should also receive very close atten- tion. It should not be possible to detect by the hand the slightest variation of thickness in any portion of the cloth. American and English roll cloths are used in covering rolls. They vary considerably in weight; the American cloth is figured on a width of 54 inches, while English cloths are figured 27 inches in width. It should be remembered, there- fore, in ordering roll cloth that an American 32-ounce, for example, is the same as an English 16-ounce. In mills covering their own rolls, the old leather should be removed and the cloth carefully examined. If it shows any evidence of disintegration, or wear, or an uneven surface, it should be condemned and removed. The old cloth may be removed by soaking it in water, after which the roll should be cleaned thoroughly. When rolls are sent out to be covered, it is considered advisable to cut the cloth with a knife in order to prevent the same cloth being used again, thus avoiding the danger of having old cloth covered with new leather. 9. Metliod of Putting on Clotli Covering:. — In cover- ing rolls, the cloth is cut into strips slightly narrower than the boss of the roll. A strip of this cloth is then laid fiat on a table and a clean roll, the boss of which is covered with glue, is placed on the end of the strip and the cloth wound on the roll. The roll during this operation should be neither hot nor cold — simply warm. The cloth is cut with a sharp knife at the point where it begins to pass around the roll the second time, and the seam is then pressed into place. Another method of covering rolls with cloth is to lay a number of strips of cloth of the required width in a miter box 8 DRAWING ROLLS §20 and cut them to a gauge of the required length, thus giving 15 or 20 pieces of the exact size required to cover one roll. In this way the cloth ma}' be put on the rolls much faster than when cutting each piece on the roll. After the cloth is put on and the seam pressed together with the fingers, the roll should be put into evening, or smoothing, rolls for the purpose of smoothing out any lumps or foreign matter that may have been in the glue, thereby producing a perfectly true and even surface. 10. Lieatlier Covering for Rolls. — In yarn-prepara- tion machinery it is the duty of a pair of rolls to maintain a firm grip on the fibers of cotton as they are passing between them, and yet the fibers must not be damaged in any degree. The rolls at the time are revolving in some cases at a high rate of speed, and therefore the material with which they are covered should be of such a nature that it will resist a certain amount of wear. The substance that has been found most suitable to meet these requirements is the skin of the lamb or the sheep, or the skin of the goat, which, like the skins of most animals, consists of more than one layer. The outside layer is very thin and tough, and, while horny, is very elastic. Fig. 4 is a section of sheepskin very much enlarged; c represents sweat ducts and d the epidermis. This is the part that withstands the wear when at work. It consists of a horny layer above the Malpighian nets, or inside layer, and is commonly called the grain. A fibrous tissue e binds the true skin / to the epidermis d. This fibrous tissue is formed of multitudinous fibers bound together by a soft, milky, gela- tinous substance. Hollow, loose skins result if this sub- stance is improperly treated during manufacture. On the character of the fibrous tissue, which is directly beneath the grain, depends the strength of the skin; the larger the size of the skin, the coarser and weaker it will be. The explanation of this is that there are a certain number of fibers in the tissue at the birth of the lamb that increase in thickness but do not increase in numbers with the growth of 5 20 DRAWING ROLLS the animal. The spaces between these fibers are filled in with a quantity of the gelatinous substance mentioned, much of which is dissolved in the process of manufacture. There- fore, as the strength of the skin depends on the number of fibers, and since in 1 square inch of lambskin there are more fibers than in 1 square inch of sheepskin, the younger skin will be the stronger. Beneath the mass of muscular fibers is the layer / that is next to the flesh of the animal. This layer is composed of Fig. 4 cellular matter and varies in thickness in different parts of the skin. If a roll were therefore covered with a skin of natural thickness, some rolls or parts of the same roll would vary in thickness. In order to make the skin the same thickness throughout, a process known as shaving: is employed. As skins are usually thicker over the spine from the tail to the neck, a test can be made after the shaving process to determine whether they are the same thickness throughout by making a pile consisting of 50 or 60 skins. If the pile is 10 DRAWING ROLLS ^20 higher in the center than at any other portion, the shaving process has not been performed properly. 11, The color should also be taken into consideration when selecting a skin. English skins usually have a color known as the natural oak-bark color, which is a light brown, while others are given a reddish color by means of dye. American skins are usually of a dark-cream color. The red color is preferred by some spinners, who claim that because of the color they can more readily see when the cotton is absent from the rolls, but as the rolls get to be somewhat of the same color after being used a few days, the red does not possess an advantage in this respect for any length of time. The darker the shades, however, the more the grain defects are hidden from view. The size and color of skins depend on the size and age of the animal from which they are obtained. Lambskin is used for the more delicate work, as it is finer than sheepskin, while sheepskin (especially that which is old, being thick and coarse) is used for the coarser work. A top roll is really a cushion that will only yield enough to prevent crushing the fibers and yet maintain a pressure against the steel roll. As the covering for rolls on coarse work must yield to a greater extent than that of rolls on fine work, it is evident that the thicker skin and the heavier cloth should be used on rolls for coarse work. 12. Selection of Skins. — The skin from which the largest number of roll coverings can be obtained is the most economical to use, and the number of coverings that can be obtained from a skin should be estimated when purchasing. A cot is the piece of leather intended to cover one boss of a roll, cut to a rectangular shape with two of its edges after- wards joined together so that the leather will form a tube. The skin should be purchased by the minimum measurement; that is, it should be measured at its shortest parts. The diagram shown in Fig. 5 will serve to illustrate this point. A parallelogram aaaa, which indicates the area of the number of leather tubes, or cots, that may be cut, is placed 20 DRAWING ROLLS 11 on the skin and, if the skin is shorter than the distance b b or narrower than the distance cc, the skin is below the minimum measurement. The neck should not be measured, as it is not suitable for roll covering. The shape of the skin shown in Fig. 5 is the best for roll skins. If there are any defects, such as knife cuts, or any evidence of overshaving on the flesh side, the skin is not of the first quality and can only be used on coarse work. Fig. 5 Another serious defect is the presence of fine hairs, and if such are detected the skin should be condemned. A hard-grained skin, in which the firmness is introduced by the method of finishing the skin, will not act successfully as a cushion. The grain side of the skin should feel smooth and firm, yet be pliable and capable of expansion and com- pression, while the flesh side should have a nap as fine as cloth. The effect of handling the whole skin should be the 12 DRAWING ROLLS §20 same as handling a kid glove, allowing for the difference in substance. The skin when placed under tension and examined by a magnifying glass should show an unbroken surface with no cracks on it. 13. Method of Putting on Leatlier Covering. When placing the leather covering on rolls, the skins are cut up into strips rather wider than the boss of the roll so as to allow for burning off the ends. The strips are next cut into small pieces just sufficient to fold around the boss of the roll, and their ends are beveled so as to make a joint that will not be perceptible to the touch. Beveling machines are used for cutting the bevel, the skin being placed in the machine so that the knife enters at the flesh side. The beveled ends are next joined together with cement, great care being taken in performing this operation. The leather tube, or cot, is placed in a press for a short time in order to insure a perfect joint. Hand or power presses are now constructed in which cots may be made and pressed. The next operation is to draw the cot over the boss of the roll — an operation somewhat similar to drawing the finger of a glove on the finger. The roll is then revolved at a high rate of speed and any part of the leather that projects over the boss is burned off by friction with a hard piece of wood. The charred portion of the skin forms a collar at the ends of each boss. With long rolls it is diiScult to make a cot of exactly the same diameter throughout and draw it on the roll with the same tension in every part. This difficulty is overcome by some roll coverers by taking a long strip of leather and winding it around the roll spirally, attaching it with cement as they wind it on. The skins in this case are cut into strips from 1 inch to H inches wide. The extra cost of covering and the extreme care that is necessary in order to keep the roll true are the disadvantages of this method. It is also claimed by some that the cushion effect of the leather is destroyed by this method of covering, as a hard piecing extends completely around the roll §20 DRAWING ROLLS 13 throughout its entire length; while on the roll covered with a cot, there is one hard piecing straight across. Among the precautions that should be observed is the manner in which the roll is placed in the machine. It should be placed so that it will not run against the joint, and in some cases the way the lap runs is marked by a dot of ink on the grain side of the skin. In putting cots on double- boss rolls care should be taken that the bevels run the same way and that the cots are of the same thickness. VARNISHING 14. It is the general practice in almost all mills to varnish the rolls that perform the heaviest work; namely, the rolls of the railway head, drawing frame, comber, sliver lap, ribbon lap, and in some cases the slubber. The reason for this is that the grain of the leather wears away and becomes broken, on account of the high speed at which the rolls revolve and the heavy work that they have to do compared with rolls in other frames. It is therefore necessary that something should be used as a substitute for the natural grain of the leather, which gives the roll its drawing properties, and a varnished surface has been adopted as the most practical. Varnished rolls should present a smooth, hard surface that has dried without cracking and that does not cause fiber or dust to adhere to it. Too much glue in the varnish gives the rolls the appearance of a highly polished surface, which has a tendency to crack when dry, while too little allows the varnish to wear away very quickly. Almost every mill has its own system of preparing varnish, while roll coverers have for sale various compositions for this purpose. 15. Recipes for Roll Varnisli.— Three recipes for pre- paring varnish are given: 1. 9 ounces of fish glue; 2 quarts of acetic acid; 2 tea- spoonfuls of oil of Origanum. This mixture should stand for about 2 days in order that the glue may be thoroughly dis- solved, after which it may be thickened with fine powdered paint of any color that may be desired. 14 DRAWING ROLLS §20 2. lo" pounds of fish glue; i pound of gum arable; i pound of powdered alum; 2 pounds of acetic acid; 4 pounds of water. This mixture should be thoroughly dissolved over a slow fire, after which it may be thickened with paint in the same manner as in the first recipe. 3. 1 ounce of ordinary glue; i ounce of fish glue; i ounce of gum arable. This mixture should be dissolved in 22 gills of water and allowed to simmer for 1 hour over a slow fire, after which 6 ounces of thoroughly ground paint of any color may be added to thicken it. In mixing any varnish it should be done in a regular melting pot In order that It may not be burned. After the varnish is made it may be kept in stock for any length of time, but should be put away in a covered receptacle; it is advisable to have this cover air-tight, although it is not absolutely necessary. If when it is desired to use the varnish it is found to be too thick to spread properly on the rolls, it may be thinned by adding a little vinegar, or acetic acid; while on the other hand if it is found to be too thin, a little paint may be added to thicken it. 16. Method of Apjilying the Tarnish. — The methods of putting the varnish on the rolls differ. One method is to apply it with a brush the same as in painting a round stick, taking care to spread the varnish evenly over the surface of the leather so that when it is dry it will have a true, smooth surface. Another method is to have a board made a little longer than the roll and about as wide as the roll is long. The upper part of the board is covered with woolen cloth, the cloth being pulled tightly and tacked at the edges. The varnish is put on the cloth with a brush and the roll moved over the surface of the cloth by placing the palm of each hand on the bushing of the roll and moving it backwards and forwards until the varnish is spread over the whole surface. In some cases before the roll is varnished it is ground. In order to insure its being the sam.e diameter throughout its length. This is a practice that should not be encouraged, as it shortens the life of the leather. §20 DRAWING ROLLS 15 The rolls are generally given one coat of varnish, although sometimes where fine numbers are required they are given two coats. New, or newly covered, rolls are given two or even three coats before they are put into the frame, one coat being allowed to dry before another coat is put on. Care should be taken that the rolls are perfectly dry before they are put back into the frame, since if this is not done the cotton wall stick to them, making it almost impossible to run the frame. The rolls, if not dry, will also become fluted. METALLIC ROLLS 17. For many years inventors have endeavored to substitute something for the common, leather-covered top rolls, principally because the covering of these rolls is an item of considerable expense in the production of yarn, and also because they are troublesome in certain conditions of the atmosphere or for certain kinds of stock, especially colored or bleached stock, on account of their licking and causing bad work. The most practical of the substitutes that have been tried is to have flutes in the top steel roll corresponding to those in the bottom roll. The flutes of the rolls mesh together, but in order to prevent the teeth of one roll from reaching to the bottom of the spaces between the teeth of the other roll, the rolls are held somewhat apart by collars. There is a wider space between the flutes of metallic rolls than there is between the flutes of the common bottom steel rolls, the spacing being the same for both top and bottom rolls of the same pair. There are, however, different spa- cings in different pairs of rolls and, as now applied, wider spacings are used for back than for front rolls. 18. Construction. — A mounted section of a set of metallic rolls is given in Fig, 6, while Fig. 7 represents a portion of a pair of these rolls. Fig. 8 is a cross-section of the same pair, b, b, are the fluted portions of the rolls and a, a, the collars, which prevent the rolls from coming into 16 DRAWING ROLLS §20 too close contact. The flutes of the back rolls are always of a coarser pitch than those of the front rolls, owing to the greater bulk of cotton that comes under the action of the back Fig. 6 rolls. The back rolls for drawing frames as now constructed have 16 flutes on their circumference for each inch of diame- ter. The third roll has 24 flutes, while the front and second Fig. 7 have 32 flutes. They are therefore known as rolls with a 16 pitch, 24 pitch, and o2 pitch, respectively. On a 16-pitch roll the diameter of the collars is .07 inch §20 DRAWING ROLLS 17 less than the diameter of the fluted section, and as both rolls are the same, the amount of overlap is .07 inch. With a 24-pitch roll the collars are .06 inch less in diameter than the fluted section, and on a o2-pitch roll they are .044 inch less. Thus, the amount of overlap with 24-pitch rolls is .06 inch and with 32-pitch rolls, .044 inch. This amount of overlap is sufficient to grip the sliver as shown in Fig. 8. m„„„„„.,.„„„ ,,,,,,,,/^ Fig. 8 It will be seen that the cotton does not follow a straight line, as it does with common rolls, but is crimped to some extent, and if the collar did not keep the rolls partly sepa- rated, the fibers would be damaged by the contact of the flutes. The amount of the overlap is so small that it merely grips the fibers enough to attain a draft and does not dam- age them to any appreciable extent. 19. Advantage of Metallic Rolls. — The top rolls of a metallic set are positively driven by the flutes of the lower roll meshing with the flutes of the upper roll, and consequently a more positive draft is obtained than with the 18 DRAWING ROLLS §20 common rolls. The cost of roll covering and subsequent varnishing is saved, and the bad work that arises from imper- fectly varnished rolls is entirely obviated. It is claimed that, as metallic rolls run on collars, friction is greatly reduced; that licking, from the presence of elec- tricity and atmospheric changes, is prevented; that consequent waste is avoided; and that the product of each frame equipped with metallic rolls is greater than a machine equipped with common rolls running under the same conditions, because of the curved path taken by the cotton. It is further stated that metallic rolls produce work that is equal in quality to that produced by common rolls and that there is no necessity of keeping extra rolls in stock. However, metallic rolls at the present time are not used to any large extent except on rail- way heads, drawing frames, sliver-lap machines, and slubbers. SETTING AND WEIGHTING ROLLS ruIjES governing setting 20. One of the most important points in relation to cotton machinery is the relative position of one pair of rolls to another, which position is governed by the length of the staple and bulk of cotton being used. The bad work that will result from the improper setting of rolls can never be remedied. In setting rolls, there is one broad principle that must always be followed: the distance between the centers of each pair of rolls must always exceed the average length of the staple of the cotton being used. If this were not so, the fiber would come under the action of the forward pair of rolls before it was released by the preceding pair, and since the speed of the rolls increases with each pair that is nearer the front of the machine, this would result in the fiber being strained and broken. In addition to the length of staple being run, there are several other principles that should be considered in setting rolls. Rapidly revolving rolls require wider settings than §20 DRAWING ROLLS 19 those having slow speed, since with a slow speed the rolls could be set closer together and still the fibers would be given a sufficient length of time to be drawn away from the mass of cotton without being strained. From this statement the conclusion should not be drawn that, since the front pair of rolls in any frame revolves faster than the back pair, the front rolls should be set farther from the middle rolls than the back rolls; for this is not so, as other circumstances, having to be considered, overbalance that of the speed of the rolls. Since the speed of the rolls increases with each pair that is nearer the front of the machine, the cotton as it passes through the roll is greatly diminished in weight per yard from back to front, and since it is much easier to draw the fibers past each other when there is only a comparatively small number of fibers than when there is a large number, two pair of rolls that are near the front would have a less space between them than two pair of rolls at the back. For this reason the space between each two pair of rolls in a set increases from delivery roll to feed-roll. For example, if the staple of the cotton being used on a drawing frame is 1 inch, the distance between the front and second pairs of rolls might be li inches; between the second and third, If inches; and between the third and^ back, H inches. When the ends put up at the back are heavily twisted, the settings are wider on the same machine than when the ends fed are slightly twisted. This is due to the fact that it is more difficult to draw the fibers past each other in the former case than in the latter. Harsh, wiry cotton requires wider settings than smooth, silky cotton, because it does not draw so easily. As the rolls are set according to the staple of the cotton used, it is therefore evident that the rolls intended to run on coarse counts, which is made from short-staple cotton, must be smaller in diameter than those intended to work long-staple cotton, in order that the centers of the rolls may be brought near enough together. Sometimes the middle roll is made smaller than the front and back, where three pair of rolls are used, so that a close setting may be made. Shorf- 5/-c3p/e Intermediate Rov/na frame 2pirtnin^ Frame Medium SMp/e Rovini^ Trame Spinninif rmme Selfvveighted t>ack and middle Top rolls i Lopi^ Staple Jack Royin^ Frame - Dead Weighted Self iveiahted l>ack and m/dal^_Top rolls , Jack Roving Frame Fig. 9 Fig. 10 Fig. 11 20 DRAWING ROLLS 21 The diagrams that are included in Figs. 9, 10, and 11 show the settings and diameters for different kinds of cotton, with the method of measuring distances from center to center of rolls; they will vary, however, according to condi- tions, as already stated. The following settings for American cotton of about 1-inch staple are taken from actual measurements in a mill making an average of 32s: TABLE I ^ t^^ Distance Between Centers 0) OS 4, t- O o Front and Second Second and Third Third and Back First drawings . 411 68 grains IT^ nches li inches It inches Second drawings 4ir 68 grains lA nches if inches if inches Third drawings . 411 68 grains if nches if inches if inches Stubbing .... I(J2 68 grains li nches if inches Intermediate . . M3 .57-hank II^ nches if inches Roving ii6 i.6i-hank li nches iT% inches Spinning .... 125 5-hank 111; inches if inches Each case of roll setting must be judged by its require- ments. Table I shows ordinary settings on the inter- mediates, roving, and spinning, and excessively wide settings on the drawing and slubber on account of the unusually heavy sliver and high speed; but in the mill in question, after numerous experiments were made, it was found that under the circumstances the best yarn was made with the above settings. A more ordinary setting for a 60-grain sliver, 350 revolutions per minute at the drawings, would be li. If, and 1 2" inches, with the same cotton. 21. Adjustingr Points. — On all the attenuating machines of a cotton-yarn mill, adjustments are provided by which the distance between the rolls may be regulated. In Fig. 12, b is shown as one of the roll stands that support the rolls, this being a stand for three pair of rolls. The bearing b^ of the front roll is cast solid with the main support b, and con- sequently the front-roll bearing cannot be moved. Separate 22 DRAWING ROLLS 20 bearings, which are adjustable, are provided for the other two lines of rolls; b^ is the bearing for the center line of rolls and is capable of sliding on b,, while ^3, which is the bearing for Fig. 12 Fig. 13 the third line, can sHde on b^. Fig. 13 shows a roll stand that differs somewhat from that shown in Fig. 12, although the letters of reference will be found to apply to the same parts. §20 DRAWING ROLLS 23 When it is desired to set the rolls, the set of top rolls that is at the end of the frame is removed, together with other sets of top rolls at frequent intervals, usually at every other stand. The screws b^ that secure the bearings of the bottom rolls are then loosened throughout the length of the frame. The required distance between the bites of the rolls should next be determined, and from this, together with the diameter of the rolls, the distance between the bosses of each pair may be learned, after which gauges of the correct thickness are selected. For example, suppose that the dis- tance between the centers of the front and second bottom rolls is to be 1 inch, and the front roll is 1 inch in diameter ^ r^"' kica D [/ and the second roll i inch. Then the space occupied by the rolls themselves would be the sum of one-half of the diameter of each roll, which is tV -f A, or if. Since the distance from center to center is to be 1 inch, the space between the bosses of the rolls would be 1 — il, or tg inch; therefore, a -iVinch gauge would be selected in setting these rolls. These gauges are inserted between the bosses of the rolls, after which the rolls are drawn up until the gauge sets snugly, when the binding screws b^ are tightened. This operation is repeated at every stand where top rolls have been removed. The gauges used are generally made of wood, brass, or iron and are about 2 inches long, i inch wide, and of various thicknesses, in order to suit the work. 22. Cap Bars. — The top rolls have their bearing on the bottom rolls and are held in position by ap arrangement of cap bars, one of which is shown in Fig. 14. The cap bars are constructed in such a manner that the top rolls may be 24 DRAWING ROLLS §20 removed easily, it also being possible to readily turn the cap bars away from the bottom rolls. The manner of supporting the cap bars is shown in Figs. 12, 13, and 14. A shaft e runs lengthwise of the frame and is supported either by brackets e^. Fig. 12, which are fixed to the roll stand, or by the bearing of the back roll, as shown in Fig. 13. On this shaft, at various intervals, are brackets e.,, Fig. 14, that carry a long finger e^ shaped so as to fit the hole in the casting e^; on this finger are the nebs e^ that keep the top rolls in position. The nebs are secured to the finger, and as the holes are made to fit the peculiar shape of the finger, they are prevented from turning. 23. Setting Top Rolls. — When setting the top rolls, it is usual to have all the rolls in position and by using the correct gauges to set these rolls so that they will come directly over the bottom rolls. In order to move the top rolls so that they will occupy the correct position, it is simply necessary to loosen the screws that hold the nebs, after which the nebs may be moved to any desired position. In some cases it is the practice to insert the gauges between the nebs, although this practice is not to be recommended, since if the nebs are not of the same thickness, the rolls will not be properly in line. In connection with Fig. 13 it should be noted that with the stands constructed in the manner shown in this figure, the bearings for the back top roll are moved together with the bearings for the bottom back roll; consequently, when the bottom back roll is set, the top back roll will always be in its correct position. This is the more modern, and is usually considered the better, arrangement. TOP-ROI.L WEIGHTING 24. In order to maintain a grip on the fibers, the top rolls must have a constant pressure on the bottom rolls. The pressure of the top roll on the bottom roll is maintained by means of weights, light weights being applied to slow- running frames and heavier ones to frames where the rolls §20 DRAWING ROLLS 25 run at high speeds, which cause considerable vibration and tend to jerk the top rolls. The system of weighting is classed as follows: (1) Self-iveighting; (2) dead-weighting, which may be subdivided into {a) direct dead- weighting and {b) weighting with the intervention of springs; (3) lever- weighting, which may again be subdivided into {a) direct weighting and {b) weighting by saddles and bridles. SELF-WEIGHTING 25. The method known as self-weighting consists of having the top roll heavy enough to maintain the necessary pressure on the fiber, and is used on the center and back rolls of fine roving frames, spinning frames, and mules intended for very fine spinning. The middle roll, which is usually \ inch in diameter, weighs from 2 to 4 ounces, while the back roll, which is from 2 to 2i inches in diameter, weighs from \\ to 2i pounds. This method is shown in Fig. 11, where the back and middle rolls of one of the jack- frames, the mule, and the spinning frame are self-weighted. Since in spinning fine numbers the rolls generally have a slow speed, this amount of weighting is sufficient to give the necessary grip on the fibers. The method of self-weighting, however, cannot be applied to all classes of work, since, where the work is coarse and the top rolls require consider- able weight, if they were made large enough to give this weight, they would be too bulky for use. On coarse work the rolls revolve rapidly and the vibration caused would prevent satisfactory use of self-weighting systems. DEA1>-^VEIGIIT1NG 26. The method known as dead-weigliting is shown in Fig. 15. The rolls a, b illustrate direct dead-weighting, one weight serving for one roll; but by using a saddle d., and bridle ^3, as shown in Fig. 16, one weight can be used for two rolls, which reduces the number of weights on a machine. The system of dead-weighting in which a spring inter- venes between the weight hook and weight is shown on the 26 DRAWING ROLLS §20 rolls c, d. Fig. 15. The object of adopting this construction is to have the spring tend to neutralize the effect of any slight shock that the roll may receive 6. Fig. 15 If, in the case of Fig. 15, the rolls are single-boss rolls» then there will be a weight similar to w suspended from each end of each top roll; consequently, if the weight is» §20 DRAWING ROLLS 27 say, 14 pounds, each top roll will exert a pressure of 28 pounds on the bottom roll. If the top rolls are double-boss Fig. 16 rolls, there will be one weight suspended from the center of the roll, each boss having a bearing point on the bottom 28 DRAWING ROLLS 20 roll, and if the weight zv weighs, say, 20 pounds, each boss will exert a pressure of 10 pounds on the bottom roll. In the case of Fig. 16, the weight w will be distributed somewhat differently. If the top rolls are single-boss rolls, there will be weights similar to 7v at each end of the roll, and if these weights weigh, say, 20 pounds, there will be a pres- sure of 10 pounds on the end of each top roll, giving a total Fig. 17 pressure of 20 pounds on each roll. If the top rolls are double-boss rolls and the weight is, say, 30 pounds, then there will be a pressure at the center of each roll of 15 pounds, caus- ing each boss of one top roll to exert a pressure of 7i pounds on the bottom roll. LEVER-WEIGHTING 27. The principle of lever-^v^eigliting is that of exerting pressure by means of a weight acting through a lever. By this means a smaller weight may be used and §20 DRAWING ROLLS 29 the same pressure obtained as when a larger weight is employed in the sj-stem of dead-weighting. The pressure can also be very readily varied by moving the weight on the lever. A method of lever-weighting is shown in Fig. 17. A sad- dle d^ has a bearing at its forward part on the top front roll, and also another bearing on the smaller saddle at g. The small saddle has bearings on the back and center rolls. Suspended from d. is a rod d^ linked to a rod j. This rod passes through a hole in the roll beam and supports the lever //, which is fulcrumed under the roll beam at /. The lever // carries the weight u\ the position of which may be varied and thus different pres- sures obtained on the rolls, as is desired. The method of obtain- ing the amount of pressure exerted at any point by lever- weighting is somewhat more complicated than in the case of dead-weighting, and in order to make this somewhat clearer, reference is made to Fig. 18, together with the following data: The weight of w is 4 pounds; the distance of iv f is Ti inches; p{,\ inch; j k, f inch; /: /, If inches; /w, \ inch; myi, \\ inches; /;/, 1 inch; j I, 2 inches. The total pressure will equal Weight X Ti!' / _ 4 X 7i Fig. 18 P{ 40 pounds, total weight on all rolls. Part of this 40 pounds will be distributed on j and the remainder on the point g. The pressure on j will equal /^/X 40 ^ 11 X 40 jl 2 = 271 pounds The pressure at g equals 40 — 272 = 12i pounds, or the pressure at g will equal y/feX40 ^ f X40 jl 2 = \1\ pounds 30 DRAWING ROLLS §20 The pressure at n will equal / m X 12i i X 12i = 4.166 pounds m n li The pressure at m will equal 12^ — 4.166 = 8.33 pounds, or the pressure at m will equal /^Xm IX 12i „^_ , = — TT — = 8.33 pounds m n \^ 28. In Fig. 19, a system sometimes used for weighting the rolls of a spinning frame is shown. This method differs but slightly from that shown in Figs. 17 and 18. The Fig. 19 weight w is supported by the lever //, which at the point / is inserted in a hook fastened to the roll beam. Connected to the lever h is a hook d^, that is supported by the saddle d^, which has a bearing on the front top roll and on the saddle g. The saddle^ has a bearing on the back and middle top rolls. 29. Metallic rolls do not require so much weight as com- mon rolls; usually a weight of about 14 pounds is used on each end of the four rolls of a drawing frame, although this sometimes differs and a weight of 10 pounds is used for the front, 12 for the second, 14 for the third, and 16 for the fourth. In experimental cases, metallic rolls have been run §20 DRAWING ROLLS 31 with as low a weight as 6 pounds. Some prefer to have the heaviest weight on the front roll, claiming that as this roll revolves at the highest speed it therefore requires more weight to keep it steady. The following list of weights, which was taken from machines running medium counts, will give a general idea of the relative weights on the rolls in different machines, but it should be understood that the weights given here will serve simply as a guide, since the weights that are used are largely dependent on the ideas of the builder, the ideas of the purchaser, the construction of the machine, and the class of work to be run. On the drawing frames using single-boss metallic rolls there was a weight of 18 pounds on each end of the front rolls, giving a total of 36 pounds pressure on the front roll. The second roll carried 16-pound weights, giving a total of 32 pounds. The third and back rolls carried 14-pound weights, giving a pressure of 28 pounds on each roll. All of these were dead-weighted. On the drawing frames using single-boss common rolls the front rolls carried 22-pound weights at each end, the second rolls 20-pound weights, the third rolls 18-pound weights, and the back rolls 16-pound weights, giving a total weight of 44, 40, 36, and 32 pounds on the front, second, third, and back rolls, respectively. On the slubbers using double-boss common rolls the front rolls were dead-weighted and carried a weight of 12 pounds, thus giving a pressure of 6 pounds on each boss. The middle and back rolls supported a saddle from the center of which was suspended a 12-pound weight, giving a pressure of 3 pounds on each boss of both middle and back rolls. On the first intermediates using double-boss common rolls the front rolls were dead-weighted and carried a weight of 16 pounds, giving a pressure of 8 pounds on each boss of the roll. The middle and back rolls carried a saddle from which was suspended an 18-pound weight, thus giving a pressure of 4i pounds on each boss of both rolls. The second intermediates using double-boss common rolls were dead-weighted throughout and carried weights of 18, 32 DRAWING ROLLS §20 14, and 12 pounds on the front, middle, and back rolls, respectively, thus giving a pressure of 9 pounds on each boss of the front rolls, 7 pounds on each boss of the middle rolls, and 6 pounds on each boss of the back rolls. On the roving frames the front rolls were common double- boss rolls, being dead-weighted, and carrying a weight of 8 pounds, thus giving a pressure of 4 pounds on each boss. The middle and back rolls were self-weighted. weight-reijIeving motions 30. It is necessary to use every precaution to keep a leather-covered roll as perfectly round and smooth as possible, in order to insure good work; and, for this reason, weiglit-relieving motions are applied so that there will not be any pressure on the rolls when they are to stand idle for any considerable length of time. If the pressure were maintained on the rolls during the time that they were stopped, a depression would be formed at the point where the steel roll was in contact with the leather of the top roll, because of the yielding properties of the leather, and when the machine was again started there would be a slightly eccentric running of the roll, which would produce irregu- larity in the work. In some cases where there is not a weight-relieving motion, it is necessary to remove the hooks from each weight by hand. An arrangement that makes this operation easier and more simple is shown in Fig. 15. The weights w are suspended from the rolls, as shown, each weight having a hole in it through which an eccentric ^ passes. By turning the handle s^ until that part of the eccentric which is farthest from the center of the shaft that supports it is at the top, the weights will rest on the eccentric, and thus the pressure on the rolls is relieved. With this method an eccentric must be provided for each set of weights. An arrangement by which two eccentrics serve for a number of sets of weights is shown in Fig. 16, and consists of bars e, d that run lengthwise of the machine and pass ^20 DRAWING ROLLS 33 through holes ih the hooks /, /, supporting the weights w. These bars have a bearing at each end on an eccentric 5 and thus, by turning the eccentric by means of the handle s,, the bars, and consequently all of the weights supported by the hooks through which the bars pass, are raised. CLEARERS AND TRAVERSE MOTIONS CLEARERS 31. In order to prevent the accumulation of dirt and fibers on the rolls, what are known as eleai-crs are utilized. The construction of a clearer used on railway heads, drawing A:, Fig. 20 frames, and fly frames is shown in Fig. 20. It consists of a piece of flannel a supported from a piece of wood /; by means of rods r, and spikes c; b is held in position by means of screws, similar to h, which pass through a slot in a 34 DRAWING ROLLS § 2C5 bracket £- attached to the roll cover k. By this means the wood b may have a vertical movement. As the flannel is pressed against the rolls by the weight of the wood, the rolls are effectively cleaned. If clearers of this type are not cleaned as often as necessary, the clearer waste will gather at the points 3 to release the casting g,. 18. Drawing frames equipped with the mechanical stop-motions automatically stop when the sliver breaks or runs out at the back, when the sliver breaks in front, and when the cans at the front become full. The manner in which the machine is stopped when a sliver at the back breaks or runs out is described with reference to Figs. 11, 12, and 13. Referring to Fig. 11, it will be noted that each sliver passes over a guide d, known as a spoon^ that is supported at the point d.. but is free to swing up and down, its lower end being slightly heavier than its upper end. The weight and tension of the sliver in passing over the spoon is sufficient to lower the upper end of the spoon. Should the sliver break or run out, however, the spoon will be released, its lower end will drop, and the projection di will engage with a projection on the arm k, which being set- screwed to the shaft /(.', oscillates with that shaft. As the 26 RAILWAY HEADS §21 projection ,, back plate >^3, connecting piece X%, roll w, rod k^, and springs /, 5. It is of importance that the positively charged parts shall be electrically insulated from those negatively charged. This is attained by interposing plates or disks of insulating mate- rial between them. The presence of these insulating parts at any place is indicated in the drawings by means of full black surfaces. The action of the stop-motion depends on devices by means of which connections are made between the insulated parts, in order that an electric current may pass from one to the other. The path of the electric current through the machine is as follows: From the rod a through the electromagnet b, bi, then through the parts /, /, k, and the rod ki that extends across the frame. Electrically connected with this rod are two springs s, t, these springs being duplicated at each 30 RAILWAY HEADS §21 delivery. From the rod k^, the current passes through the connecting piece k^ that extends to the back of the frame and forms a connection with the back plate k^. From here the current passes to the cover /», and roll yn. It should be noticed that as long as the various parts are kept insulated from each other no electric current will pass through. It is only in case any one of the insulating plates is, as it were, bridged over that a current will flow. The current in all cases makes its start through the electromag- net b, bi', this will therefore always be set in action first and will attract the small finger c. As this finger is pivoted at c, its lower part swings over, coming in contact with a dog d that is a portion of /, which, although loose on the coiler shaft d^, ordinarily revolves with it, being driven by frictional contact with the part g, which revolves with the shaft rt'i, since the surfaces of. these parts that are in contact are at an angle with the shaft. The part .^ is on a keyway on the shaft d^; consequently, it must revolve with the shaft, but is capable, however, of being pushed lengthwise of the shaft. As d and / are stopped by the finger c, the part g, con- tinuing to revolve, will be pushed lengthwise of the shaft because of the shape of the parts f,g. This action of g throws the lever e to the right, which, since e is fastened to the shaft e^, gives the latter a partial revolution. Setscrewed to the shaft e^ is a casting e., an arm of which works in a slot in the upright rod ^3, which controls the shipper rod e^ to which the belt shipper is attached. As the shaft e^ is turned by the lever e, it throws the casting e^ over to one side, moving the rod <^3 and, consequently, the shipper rod e^ in such a direction that the belt will be shipped from the tight to the loose pulley. The action of the rod // should be noted in this connec- tion. As the lever e, to which it is fastened, is forced over by^, it brings with it the rod h, which is so shaped that it forces the finger c out of contact with the revolving dog d, thus placing these parts in their initial positions. Drawing frames equipped with the electric stop-motion shown in Figs. 14 and 15 stop when the sliver breaks or 32 RAILWAY HEADS §21 runs out at the back, when laps form on the top or bottom front drawing rolls, when the sliver breaks in front, and when the cans at the front become full. 23. The rolls m,n are known as the top and bottom pre- venter rolls, respectively; they are also sometimes called detector rolls. They are frequently found applied to both railway heads and drawi-ng frames, and are considered an advantage both in working the stop-motion when an end breaks or runs out at the back and in making a piecing at the back. With these rolls, the tension on the sliver is more even, thus keeping the spoons in their correct position and causing the stop-motion to act more quickly. A piecing at this place is desirable since, as it does not require tall help to run the frames, small boys, girls, or women may be employed, whereas when the piecing must be made close to the back rolls taller help is required. As shown in Fig. 14, the roll m is positive, while n is negative; consequently, if these rolls are allowed to come in contact, a circuit will be formed and the machine stopped. The lower roll n extends the entire length of the machine, while the top roll vi is made in shorter lengths, there being one of these rolls for every two slivers at the back. As long as the slivers are passing between these two rolls they are prevented from coming in contact. Should either sliver break or run out, however, the end of the roll under which it passes will drop and, coming in contact with the lower roll 11, will form a circuit and stop the machine. By referring to Figs. 14 and 15, it will be seen that the drawing rolls are negative and the covers positive. The front top roll rests in bearings and is capable of being raised if any obstruction comes between it and the bottom roll. Fastened to each cover of the drawing frame are two adjustable screws, similar to p, that are so set that they will not come in contact with any part of the rolls so long as the cotton is running through the machine properly. If the cotton laps around either the top or bottom roll, the increased size of the bulk of cotton between the two rolls will cause the top ^21 AND DRAWING FRAMES 33 roll to be raised in its bearings until it comes in contact with one of the screws p, when a circuit will be formed and the machine stopped. The back calender roll r, extends the entire length of the frame, while the front calender roll r is made in sections, each of which is only long enough to serve for two deliveries and rests in inclined bearings. As long as the cotton is passing between the rolls, the thickness of the sliver will push the roll r up slightly in its bearings. However, should either sliver that passes between any one of the front calender rolls and the back calender rolls break, the end of the front calender roll that was supported by that sliver will drop and come in contact with the spring s. As one of these parts is negative and the other positive, a circuit will be formed and the machine stopped. As the can at the front of the machine becomes full, the pressure of the sliver in the can raises the top of the coiler until it comes in contact w'ith the spring /, when the machine will be stopped, owing to a circuit being formed by the contact of these two parts, one of which is positive and the other negative. GEARING 24. Each head in a drawing frame is driven separately from any other head in regard to its individual gearing, but all the heads are driven by what is called the lower or main shaft, which runs underneath the frame; this shaft is shown in Fig. 10, and also in Fig. 16, which is a plan of the gearing of the machine similar to that shown in Fig. 10. At each head is a pulley that is connected with a tight-and- loose pulley on the front roll of that particular head by means of an open belt. The lower or main shaft is driven from the main shaft or countershaft of the room. Referring to Fig. 16, a gear of 24 teeth on the front roll drives, by means of suitable gearing, the calender rolls and the coiler connections. Another gear of 24 teeth, situated on the front roll, drives the back roll. The gear of 26 teeth on this back roll drives the third roll. Thus, the draft 34 RAILWAY HEADS §21 between these two rolls is constant, provided that the gears connecting the rolls are not changed. The wide-faced gear of 60 teeth on the back roll drives, by means of a carrier, the gear m, shown in Fig. 13 but not in Fig. 16, The gear 100 33 MaJTh Shaft Fig. 16 of 20 teeth on the front roll drives the second roll, and con- sequently the draft between these two rolls is constant, pro- vided that the gears connecting them are not changed. Thus it will be seen that the break draft of this machine comes between the second and third rolls. §21 AND DRAWING FRAMES 35 The draft of a drawing frame with common rolls, and geared as shown in Fig. 16, would be as follows, the draft being figured from the calender roll to the back roll: 2 X 30 X 24 X 100 X 60 24 X 45 X 24 X 44 X It = 5.509 MANAGEMENT OF DRAWING FRAMES 25. The arrangement of the cans at the back of the frame is an important point to be considered. The usual practice is to place full cans of sliver behind the breaker drawing frame. This is all right for the breaker, as there is never the same amount of sliver in the different cans, due to the cards or combers being separate; therefore, the cans will be emptied at different intervals, thus insuring that no two piecings will come together and that the frame will not remain stopped for any length of time waiting for the attendant to piece more than one end. This, however, is not the case wath the first and second intermediates and finisher, since in this case if a sliver breaks the whole head is stopped, and consequently when one can is full they are all full, if empty cans were inserted at the front at the same time; and if they are all taken out at once and fed immediately to the next machine at the same time, it is evident that they wnll all be emptied at about the same time, necessitating several piecings in a short length of sliver. To remedy this defect, it is better to feed the frames in sections so that some of the cans at the back of any drawing frame wall be full, others three-fourths full, still others half full, and so on. 26. The relative weight per yard of the sliver delivered to the weight per yard of each sliver fed, depends on the relation of the number of ends fed, or doubled, at the back of one delivery to the total draft of the machine. It is the general plan in the drawing frame not to have the draft exceed the doubling. That is, if 6 ends are put up at the back of each delivery, the draft is not generally more than 6. 27. Both top and bottom metallic rolls should receive careful attention to prevent licking, which is frequently 36 RAILWAY HEADS §21 caused by the flutes collecting and holding the dirt. On this account metallic rolls require cleaning oftener than common rolls. Where common top rolls are used, they should be relieved of the weights if a stoppage occurs for more than 48 hours. This helps to prevent the leather top rolls from becoming fluted. 28. Before the leather top rolls are put into the drawing frame, they must be varnished, the frequency of subsequent varnishing depending on the varnish used, the weight of sliver produced, and the speed at which the rolls are run. Any roughness on the surface of these rolls causes licking, and careful attention should therefore be given to them, as licking produces waste, light sliver, and loss in production •through stopping the head to remove roller laps. Any top roll that shows impressions of the flutes of the bottom steel rolls on the leather, or becomes fluted, as it is called, should be immediately recovered. 29. Sometimes in changing from coarse to fine work, or, in other words, from a heavy to a light sliver, the trumpet must be changed. This is on account of the sliver being so light and the small end of the trumpet so large that the friction and weight of the sliver will not be sufficient to keep the trumpet in its proper position, thus causing the frame to be stopped continually. 30. There should be very little waste made at the drawing frame, so that if a large amount is made it may be taken as an indication that some part of the frame is not properly adjusted, or that the operators are not attending to their work as they should. The drawing frames should be kept free from dirt, dust, and short fiber. Oil should not be allowed in places where it is not required. In order to insure clean work the tenders should wipe or brush the frames about every two hours; this takes very little of their time but greatly helps to improve the quality of the yarn. A thorough cleaning of all parts of the frame should take place twice a week. §21 AND DRAWING FRAMES 37 All bolts, nuts, screws, etc. should be looked after and kept tight. Stop-motions should be kept in working order, as otherwise a great deal of bad work will result. All quickly moving parts, such as the top and bottom rolls, lower shaft, etc., should be oiled twice a day, and every moving part of the frame should be oiled once a week, care being taken not to get the oil on any surrounding parts that do not require oiling. The boxes of the lower shaft should be partially filled with tallow. 31. Weighing the sliver at the finisher drawing frame is a very important matter and should be done at least twice a day, while in fine work three, and sometimes four, times a day is advisable. If the weight of the sliver is properly adjusted at this point, there w'ill be fewer changes in the subsequent processes. It is also best to have the stock running evenly as early as possible. The sliver is generally prepared for weighing by what is known as the measuring board, which usually consists of two boards 6 inches wide and 36 inches long hinged together on one of the side edges. One head of the frame is stopped and the cans at the front taken out. After it has been ascertained that all the ends are up at the back, the head is again started and run until about li or 2 yards has been delivered. The machine is then stopped and the ends of the slivers gathered together with one hand, while with the other hand they are broken ofif at the top. The slivers are now placed on one of the measuring boards, care being taken to have each sliver straight; the boards are then closed and the ends of the slivers projecting over the two ends of the board cut with a pair of shears or a sharp knife. The slivers are now taken from the board and weighed on a pair of scales. This weight is divided by the number of deliveries in a head, the result being the average weight of a sliver for that head. A variation of more than 2 grains over or under the standard for each sliver should not be allowed, and if this amount of variation is on the same side of the standard for two weighings, the draft gear should be changed. Sometimes the sliver from each delivery is 38 RAILWAY HEADS §21 weighed separately instead of being taken as in the method previously described. 32. In connection with drawing frames equipped with an electric stop-motion care should be taken that all the metallic connections are screwed tightly together, in order that a circuit may be made and the machine stopped under any of the conditions previously mentioned. The preventer rolls should be kept free from oil, since if sufficient oil at any time collects on either of these rolls, it will form a film over the surface of the roll, and if under these conditions an end should break, thus allowing the top roll to come in contact with the bottom roll, the frame would not stop, as oil is a non-conductor and prevents the flow of the current. The contact springs between the calender rolls and coiler top should be kept clean and free from oil, in order that the current may not be prevented from flowing from one part to another when they come in contact. Care should be taken that posi- tive and negative parts of the frame do not come in contact with each other when the cotton is passing properly through the machine, since the current will then return to the dynamo without passing through the proper channels, in which case the current is said to be short-circuited. Under this condition the stop-motion will not accomplish its purpose, and one of the two following things will happen: If the frame becomes short-circuited before the current reaches the magnet box, the stop-motion will not operate when an end breaks, since the current will be returned through the frame to the dynamo without passing through the magnet box. If the frame becomes short-circuited after the current has left the magnet box, the machine will be stopped, although the sliver may be running through the machine correctly. In order that the stop-motion shall operate quickly, which is very desirable, the finger that comes in contact with the revolving dog should be within iV inch of the dog when the machine is running. 33, Care of Drawing Frame. — The steel rolls should be carefully scoured at least once a month. Leather top rolls should be examined periodically so that the frames will not §21 AND DRAWING FRAMES 39 continue to run with rolls that are fluted, channeled, or other- wise defective. Steel rolls that are not running true may occasionally be found by raising the top clearers and noticing- whether any of the top rolls are jumping. The top rolls should be examined frequently to see that the varnishing is not neglected. The back of each frame requires watchful- ness on the part of the one in charge to see that the right number of ends are being fed. Spoons should be examined periodically to see that they are well balanced and that the lower end drops immediately when the end of the sliver breaks or even when it comes through very light; the spoons should always work easily. Bad piecings should be looked out for, more especially those that are too long. If the drawing frame piecing is made 6 inches too long at the back, that amount of extra material will extend through many yards of the finished yarn. The guides at the back of the drawing frame should always be arranged so that the ends at the back will be separated as widely as the rolls will allow; bad drawing results if the ends are not spaced suffi- ciently far apart and one end rides on another. Occasionally, drawing-frame tenders have been known to pass cans of material forwards without putting it through the frame. Where the frame that is skipped has a draft equal to the number of doublings, this does not make much difference to the ultimate weight of the yarn, but if the frame is one where a considerable alteration is made in the weight of the sliver, the omission becomes serious and causes irregular work. In any case, the practice should not be allowed. The covers over the rolls should be examined daily by the one in charge— or even several times a day— in order to make sure that the tenders are picking off the clearer waste; this should be done every hour, for if the waste is left on the clearer, it is apt to be drawn forwards with the sliver and cause dirty slubs in the roving and unsatisfactory work at the future processes. The tenders should not be allowed to run the cans too full. It should be remarked in connection with the drawing frame, as in connection with almost every other machine in 40 RAILWAY HEADS §21 the mill, that high speeds do not always pay. There is a limit to the capacity of every machine, beyond which the work done deteriorates, or the excessive number of stoppages, through breakages and stock running out, prevents any advantage being gained by an excessively high speed. In some cases, experiments have been made in connection with drawing frames in the direction of using fewer processes of drawing, in order to save labor cost. Drawing is not an expensive process as regards labor cost, and for this reason it is not advisable to use less than two drawing frames for numbers lower than 16s, unless the railway head is also used; not less than three drawing frames, or one railway head and two drawing frames, for numbers 16s to 70s; and not less than four processes of drawing for numbers finer than 70s, unless the sliver-lap and ribbon-lap machines are used in connection with the comber. These arrangements are not absolute and depend on the quality of the yarn desired. In other cases, experiments have been made with a view to using extra processes of drawing so as to reduce the number of processes of fly frames where the labor cost is higher, but satisfactory results have not always been obtained. 34. The floor space occupied by a drawing frame simi- lar to the one described and consisting of one head of six deliveries, is about 10 feet 6 inches by 5 feet 8 inches, allow- ing sufficient space for six cans at the back of each delivery. Drawing frames weigh, approximately, 700 pounds per delivery and, although the horsepower required to drive a frame varies somewhat with the class of work being run, it may be stated as a fair estimate that between four and five deliveries require 1 horsepower. The speed of the front roll of a drawing frame may be from 250 to 700 revolutions per minute for a If-inch roll. The production at 350 revolutions per minute with a 50-grain sliver, making an allowance of 10 per cent, for stoppages, is about 168 pounds in a day of 10 hours; with a 70-grain sliver, about 235 pounds; and with an 85-grain sliver, about 285 pounds. §21 AND DRAWING FRAMES 41 35. It should be understood that the machines that have been described do not cover all the makes of railway heads and drawing- frames, nor do the stop-motions and evener motions described in connection with the machines illus- trated include all the different methods adopted to accom- plish the same objects. However, it may be stated that the general principles of the different motions will be found to be similar, and if the descriptions given are fully understood, there should be no difficulty in tracing the action of any part of these machines that may be met with under different circumstances. COMBERS (PART 1) COMBING EQUIPMENT INTRODUCTION 1. When a cotton yarn is to be manufactured, it is first essential to select the grade of cotton that is suitable for the quality of yarn desired, after which it is necessary to determine the different processes that the cotton must pass through in order to obtain the required product. This usually means deciding whether or not the cotton shall be combed. A lot of cotton, even if of the same grade, will never be found to contain an absolutely uniform staple, and the fibers that are below the average length will weaken the yarns spun from this lot. For very fine yarns, or for a high grade of yarn even when of coarse numbers, it is customary to adopt the processes of coinbiiij>: and those incidental to it; while for coarse or medium yarns, or yarns that are not required to be of superior quality, the picking and carding processes are usually considered sufficient for cleaning pur- poses. In these processes a large portion of the short fibers remain, but their presence in coarse and medium warp and filling yarns does not injure the quality to any great extent so long as the cotton selected is suitable; that is, generally speaking, in warp yarns that are not finer than 45s and filling yarns not finer than 90s. 2. Object of CoinbiiipT. — For fine yarns it is essential that the short fibers should be removed, and to accomplish J^or notice of cofiyright. see paee immediately followine the title page i22 2 COMBERS §22 this the process known as combing is introduced. There- fore, for warp yarns finer than 45s and filling yarns finer than 90s, or even for coarser numbers than these when a high grade of yarn is required, it is customary, in addition to the selection of the proper stock, to remove by the process of combing all fibers that are not of the required length. Combing, however, is an expensive operation, as consider- able waste results from this process, and it is only profitable to comb when high-grade work is required. 3. In order to distinguish the different processes through which the cotton has passed, yarns are termed carded yarns and combed yarns. When yarns are spoken of as being carded, it may mean that they have been subjected to one process of carding or that they have been double-carded. Combed yarns may be single-combed or double-combed, and in either case they may have been carded once or twice, but double carding and double combing are not practiced to any considerable extent. The process of combing is usually performed immediately after carding and before the drawing process, although in some cases one drawing process is used between the carding and the combing process. With the combing process a higher grade of yarn than that obtained with the carding process alone can be made from the same stock, or the same grade of yarn can be produced from a lower quality of stock. 4. A combing equipment usually includes three kinds of machines: (1) the sliver-lap machine, which has for its object the making of a lap from a number of card slivers; (2) the ribbon-lap machine, the object of which is to combine several of the laps from the sliver-lap machine into a firm and even lap; (3) the comber, the object of which is to remove all fibers that are under a length suitable for the yarn required. When the drawing frame is introduced, the combing equipment generally consists of drawing frames, sliver- lap machines, and combers. §22 COMBERS SLIVER-LAP MACHINE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 5. Before the cotton can be combed, it must be placed in a suitable form for the combing machine, and for this pur- pose it is taken in cans, either from the card or drawing frame, to the sliver-lap niacliine, an illustration of which is given in Fig. 1. Fig. 1 From fourteen to eighteen cans of sliver are placed at the back of this machine, the number being governed by the width of lap required, which is usually Ih 84, or IO2 inches. The slivers pass from the can, through a guide plate, over COMBERS §22 spoons that operate a stop-motion, and then through a suit- able conductor to the drawing rolls. In Figs. 1 and 2, a is the guide plate, b the spoons, and <: the conductor. The drawing rolls d consist of three pairs of rolls, and are similar in con- struction to those of drawing frames. From the drawing rolls, the sheet of slivers passes between two pair of smooth calender, or presser, rolls e, where it is pressed into a uni- form sheet. These rolls are solid and are usually 5 inches in diameter; the top rolls are weighted by means of weights Fig. 2 and levers. The bearings of the top rolls are in vertical slots, thus allowing them to rise if an excessive amount of cotton comes between them and the bottom rolls. From the smooth calender rolls the cotton passes over a polished guide plate / with adjustable sides, and is then wound on a wooden roll, or spool, //., which rests on the fluted calender rolls g, and between the two plates h. The wooden spool is made the width of the lap required, with a diameter of about 4 inches, and is held in position by a spindle passing through the hubs of the plates. On one §22 COMBERS 5 end of this spindle is a double thread, which screws into a similar thread on the hub of one of the plates. On the other end of the spindle is a collar and hand wheel, the distance from the collar to the thread being such that when the spindle is passed through the plates and spool and screwed up tight, the spool will be held firmly between the plates. The plates are supported by racks /, /,, Fig. 1, the teeth of which engage with gears on the shaft j. The gear on the shaft / that engages with the rack /, is fastened to the shaft, while the gear engaging with the rack / is mounted on a sleeve that carries the disk /,, This disk is secured to the casting j^ in such a manner that it is adjustable, while the casting j^ is keyed to the shaft j. This method of con- necting the different parts provides a means of adjusting the rack / with relation to the rack z,. When the racks are down in position, the spool rests between the upper parts of the calender rolls g and is in contact with both of them. The spool is usually made tV inch longer than the rolls, so that the plates will not bind on the edges of the rolls. As the fluted calender rolls revolve, the spool and plates revolve with them; by this means the sheet of sliver is wound on the spool and the lap formed. The diameter of the plates is greater than that of the full lap required, and, being in contact with the ends of the spool, the lap is built up the same width as the spool, with perfect sides. A full lap should be from 12 to 14 inches in diameter, should have straight, smooth sides, and be hard and firm. To remove a full lap the friction is released by pressing down on the friction lever j^ and the racks slightly raised by the hand wheel 7, on the shaft j. The spindle is then removed by unscrewing it from the plate and withdrawing it from the spool, allowing the lap to be rolled on to the table r. The firmness of the lap is governed by the amount of friction placed on the friction motion of the racks; the smoothness of the sides, by the position of the conductor c and the adjustable sides of the guide plate /. The sides of the con- ductor c should be so adjusted that the sheet delivered to 6 COMBERS §22 the calender rolls will be somewhat wider than the lap required. A selvage is formed on each side of the lap by the guide plate / and the circular plates //. 6. Stop-Motions. — There are two stop-motions, one to stop the machine when an end of sliver breaks at the back and the other to stop the machine when the lap is full. 7. The sliver stop-motion consists of unevenly bal- anced spoons b, the bottom ends of which are heavier than the top. Each spoon is so adjusted that the weight of the sliver holds down the upper part. When an end breaks and passes over a spoon, the spoon is released and the lower end comes in contact with a tumbler, or rocker. The shaft is stopped, and a catch on a shipper rod being released, a spring forces the rod outwards, causing the belt to be shipped to the loose pulley. 8. The full-lap stop-motion is operated as follows: As the rack is raised by means of the increased diameter of the lap, a dog on one of the racks comes in contact with a rod that extends back and connects with the catch on the shipper rod. As the dog passes the rod, it causes it to be moved backwards and releases the catch on the shipper rod. The dog is adjustable on the rack, so that different sizes of laps may be made. 9. Settings. — The setting points and adjustments on a sliver-lap machine are as follows: The proper adjustment of the stop-motion spoons, so that the spoon will act immedi- ately when an end breaks; the regulation of the distances between the centers of the drawing rolls; the proper adjust- ments of the sliver conductor and guide plates so that a good selvage will be made; and the proper adjustment of the racks so that they will be perfectly plumb and level, since, if the racks are out of level, it will cause the plates to bind on the edges of the fluted calender rolls and will make an imperfect lap. The brake shoe on the friction motion also needs attention, and care should be taken not to allow oil to get on it. ^ BackRolf /h'Dia. 22% SecoHfl 4" Front 33 41B P 26 21 21 21 r,o 3 "Dia. S/noof/i Calender Roll 5 'Dia. Smooth CalenderRoll 12% /2"Dia. Fluted CalenderRoll 12"Dia. riided CaleruferRoll Fig. 3 8 COMBERS §22 10. Fig. 3 is the plan of gearing for a sliver-lap machine; the draft, figured from the front fluted calender roll to the back drawing roll, is as follows: 12 X 21 X 12 X 72 X 21 X 26 X 24 X 64 21 X 72 X 29 X 21 X 50 X 41 X 33 X H = 1.954 The amount of draft is usually from 1.75 to 2.5. The weight per yard for a 72-inch lap for medium numbers is from 230 to 300 grains if it is to be used on the ribbon-lap machine, and from 200 to 250 grains if for use on the comber. The 5-inch calender rolls of the sliver-lap machine make from 50 to 100 revolutions per minute, and the machine pro- duces from 400 to 950 pounds per day, allowing 10 per cent, for stoppages. The weight of a sliver-lap machine is about 2,200 pounds, while the floor space occupied is about 5 feet 32 inches by 3 feet 1 inch. About 1 horsepower is required to drive it. RIBBON-LAP MACHINE CONSTRUCTIOM AND OPERATION 11. Object. — It is not absolutely necessary to use a ribbon-lap macliine in the combing process, as the laps from the sliver-lap machine may be taken directly to the comber. If, however, the lap from the sliver-lap machine is unrolled for about a yard and held to the light, it will be seen that the slivers merely lie side by side, and that the lap is uneven, showing both thick and thin places. Therefore, to have a more even lap, the ribbon-lap machine is used. The usual doubling on the ribbon-lap machine is 6 into 1, and the laps fed are generally 1 inch narrower than the laps to be made for the comber. 12. A view of a ribbon-lap machine is shown in Fig. 4; Fig. 5 (a) and (b) shows sections through the machine. The laps from the sliver-lap machine are placed on the wooden rolls a, a,, Fig. 5 (a), and the sheet passes over the plate d, which acts both as a guide and stop-motion. On the under 10 COMBERS §22 side of this plate is a hook that acts similarly to the bottom part of the spoon described in connection with the sliver-lap machine. There is a slight draft between the wooden lap rolls and the back drawing rolls, and as the sheet of cotton passes over the plate by the tension serves to hold it down. If the lap breaks or the spool runs empty, the plate rises and stops the machine. The sheet passes from the plate b through the guides c to the drawing rolls d, m''>itK) lion ^ japuJiUQ §M ¥ §22 - COMBERS 13 sheets of the desired width; and the racks and friction motion of the lap head should be set correctly, as mentioned in connection with the sliver-lap machine. 14. The speed of the 5-inch calender rolls of the ribbon- lap machine is from 80 to 110 revolutions per minute. The production varies from 600 to 1,100 pounds per day of 10 hours with 10 per cent, allowed for stoppages. This machine weighs about 4,500 pounds with all w&ights attached, and requires 1 horsepower to drive it. The floor space required is about 14 feet 2 inches by 4 feet. 15. Fig. 6 is the plan of gearing for a ribbon-lap machine; the draft, figured from the front fluted calender roll to the back drawing roll, with a 50-tooth draft gear, is as follows: 12 X 30 X 21 X 14 X 20 X 68 X 100 X 70 30 X 50 X 21 X 40 X 72 X 25 X 50 X I2- = 5.923 SINGLE-NIP COMBER CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 16. The comber is employed to select, from cotton that has been carded, the fibers suitable for the class of yarn required. In addition to removing the fibers that are below the standard length, it combs the fibers to be used and makes them lie in parallel positions. It also takes out neps, dirt, and foreign matter that were not removed in the previous processes. The combing machine commonly used, which depends on a combination of somewhat intricate movements for the attainment of its objects, was invented by M. Heil- mann, of Mulhouse, in Alsace, German}^ Although numer- ous improvements have been added by other inventors, it is still spoken of as the Heilmann comber. A comber is divided into several sections, called heads; and as now constructed usually contains six or eight heads, although it may be constructed with a larger or smaller num- ber, as required. Each head is complete in itself and receives 14 COMBERS §22 one of the laps deliv^ered by the ribbon-lap machine, but the motions for all the heads derive their power from the same source. While each head is complete in itself, correspond- ing parts of each head must act at the same time, the results obtained depending on the accuracy with which the corre- sponding parts of each head work together. 17. Passage of the Stock. — Briefly stated, the laps from the ribbon-lap machine are placed on lap rolls and are fed intermittently by a pair of feed-rolls. When the laps from the ribbon-lap machine are used, they should not weigh more than 300 grains per yard, and when laps are used that come directly from the sliver-lap machine, they should not be heavier than 260 grains per yard. The fringe of cotton is gripped by a pair of nippers, which holds it in such a posi- tion that it will be acted on by a cylinder having a portion of its circumference covered with steel points. These points, or needles as they are called, remove short fibers, neps, and foreign substances that were not removed in the previous processes; this waste is then taken from the needles by a revolving brush and ultimately arrives at the waste can. During this operation, the fringe of cotton that is being combed is entirely separate from the fringe of cotton previ- ously combed, and therefore, in order to have the product delivered in a continuous sliver, it is necessary to detach the newly combed fibers from those not combed, and also to bring back a portion of the cotton previously combed so that it may be pieced up with the fibers that have just undergone the combing operation. After piecing-up has been effected, the cotton just combed is carried forwards and the rear ends of the fibers receive a combing action by means of a top comb, which tends to remove still more short fibers. This cycle of operations is then repeated with a new group of fibers, resulting in the production of a continuous web of combed fibers, which is drawn through a trumpet that con- denses it into a sliver and is then delivered on a table, together with similar slivers from the other heads of the comber. From the table the cotton passes through a I JL Fi I "I i — t §22 COMBERS 15 draw-box and then through a trumpet that condenses all the slivers into one, which is placed in a can by a coiler similar to that used on the card. 18. Principal Motions of the Comber. — The several actions of a comber must necessarily work intermittently, as it would be impossible to run a lap of cotton continuously and to draw a comb through it. For this reason the tuft of cotton being combed must be held firmly at the time of the combing, first at one end and then at the other, and in order to do this, the feed must be stopped. The various motions may be summarized as follows: (1) The feed-motion, by which the lap is fed to the machine; (2) the nipper motion, which holds the cotton during the combing operation; (3) the combing operation by the half lap; (4) the backward and forward motion of the delivery roll, or the piecing-up motion; (5) combing by the top comb; (6) the delivery of the stock to the calender rolls, draw-box, and coiler. FEED-MOTION 19. Views of a comber are given in Figs. 7 and 8, and a sectional view is shown in Fig. 9. It will also be of advan- tage in studying the different parts of the comber to make frequent reference to Fig. 27, which shows a plan of the gear- ing of this machine. In describing the comber it will only be necessary to deal with one head, as each head performs the same work. The lap b, Fig. 9, is placed on the lap rolls a, a,, and, as it unrolls, the sheet passes over the apron a^ to a pair of feed-rolls r. r,. The apron a^ rests at an angle of about 45° and terminates a little above the nip of the two feed-rolls c, c,. The apron may be so adjusted that it will assume a greater or less angle, and it is also possible to regulate its dis- tance from the feed-rolls. This apron is usually made of sheet iron, its upper surface being polished or tinned so that there will be as little friction as possible on the cotton. The lower edge of the apron carries a brush, the ends of the bristles of which just touch the bottom feed-roll and keep it clean. This brush is adjustable in such a manner that the 16 COMBERS 22 correct contact of the ends of the bristles and the bottom feed-roll may be maintained as the brush wears. 20. Feed-Rolls. — The lower feed-roll c is constructed in one piece and is long enough to serve for all the heads. It is fluted in sections corresponding in number to the number of heads of the comber. Each section, or head, has a top roll f,, which is slightly longer than the width of each lap. This top roll is made of steel and is fluted to corre- spond with the flutes of the lower roll. It resembles a metallic roll, with the exception that it has no collars; its flutes also have a little finer pitch. It is held in direct contact with the bottom roll by means of an arm r^ and a spring ^3, as shown in Fig. 9, and receives motion from the lower roll. The lower feed-roll is usually about f inch in diameter. The objects of these feed-rolls are: (1) To revolve and deliver a certain length of cotton to the combing mechanism; (2) to stop revolving after the desired length has been delivered and to remain stationary while the combing action takes place. ^22 COMBERS 17 The method by which the feed-roll receives an intermittent motion is shown in Fig. 10. The feed-roll receives its motion from the cylinder shaft o^y in the following manner. The gear b is fast to the cylinder shaft and carries a disk plate To from which a pin <-« projects. A short distance from the center of the cylinder shaft is a stud carrying a star gear c^. The pin d engaging with the teeth of this star gear turns it during a part of a revolution of the cylinder shaft. The star gear is so constructed that after the pin has engaged with one tooth and turned it, the next tooth will be in position to engage with the pin at the next revolution of 0^. Compounded with the star gear c^ is a gear c^ that meshes with a gear c on the lower feed-roll c. Thus, it will be seen that for every revolution of the shaft Os the feed-roll is turned a portion of a revolution and the cotton fed to that extent. This intermittent action of the feed-rolls is trans- mitted to the lap rolls, as the lap rolls are driven from the lower feed-roll. NIPPERS 21. The fringe of cotton that is fed by this intermittent action of the feed-rolls passes forwards to the mechanism that holds it during the combing process, which is known as the nippei's. By a combination of levers, the nippers are made to act in such a manner that they open to receive the cotton delivered from the feed-rolls and then close and grip the cotton after it has been passed to them. They again open and release the cotton after it has been combed by the half lap and remain in this position until the next portion of cotton has been delivered to them. The nippers and their attached levers are shown in Fig. 11, reference being made to this figure and also to Fig. 12 in the following description. 22, Cusliion Plate. — The nippers are composed of two separate parts, both capable of being moved. The lower part // consists of what is known as the cushion plate, Fig. 11. It consists of a flat metal plate slightly longer than the width of the lap. The round nose //, of the plate. Fig. 11, is usually covered with a strip of leather 18 COMBERS §22 similar to that used for covering rolls, and is fastened by metal strips h^, h,. This leather acts as a cushion and prevents the fibers from being injured when pressed against f^ww the plate. The cushion plate is made fast to the frame i by means of three screws, which are inserted on the under side of the plate; one of these screws //^ is shown in Figs. 11, 12, and 13. In some cases the cushion is applied to the nipper ^22 COMBERS 19 knife in place of the plate. When this is done a strip of leather about -A inch thick and f inch wide is used, and is fastened to the nipper knife by a strip of steel and small ^i! ^ ^ 1 1^; cg^ screws, the lower part of the steel strip acting as the over- hanging lip of the nipper knife. 23. Nipper Knife.— The upper part dd., of the nippers in Fig. 11, is known as the nipper knife. It consists of a 20 COMBERS §22 flat bar of steel; the lower edge is usually fluted and has an overhanging lip di. The nipper knife is supported by two arms e, Fig. 11, which are connected to the frame / by the shaft Ci. Two stands and brackets /, /,, Fig. 11, support the Jrame i by means of studs i^. As the cotton must be gripped between the nipper knife d and the cushion plate h, it is evident that these parts must have a movement that will change their position from that shown in Fig. 11. This is accomplished by the movement of the nipper knife. As shown in Fig. 11, the arms e extend beyond e^ in the direction opposite to that of the nipper knife. This forms a connection for the rod g, Fig. 12, that is connected to the lever g^, while this lever is connected to the shaft g^. Extending from the shaft g. is an arm g^, the end of which carries a cam-bowl that works in the cam-course of the cam g^ on the shaft/, known as the cam-shaft. The shaft g^ runs the entire length of the heads, and the nipper rods g for each head are connected to it by the method shown. The shaft g^ receives an oscillating motion from the cam and, in turn, imparts a similar motion to the shaft (?, of each head. The arms e being connected to this shaft, the nipper knife will rise and fall, its lowest and highest positions being indicated by the full and dotted lines in Fig. 12. When the nippers receive the cotton, they are in the posi- tion shown in Fig. 11, but as soon as the proper amount has been fed, the nipper knife descends, through the action of the cam, and firmly grips the fringe of cotton between itself and the cushion plate, the cushion plate at this point being in the position shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 12. When the knife has securely gripped the fringe of cotton, however, the cushion plate is not in the proper position to allow the cotton to be combed, and it must be lowered so that it will assume the position shown by the full lines in Fig. 12. In order to accomplish this, the knife, which has not reached the full extent of its travel when it comes in contact with the cushion plate, is forced farther down by the cam and carries the cushion plate with it. The cushion plate is capable of being forced down, since it is suspended by the studs z^, I 22 COMBERS 21 Fi3, Fig. 9, which is of a special shape, made in one piece and called the brush tin. Another cover, known as the waste chute, covers the cylinder and brush on the other side, and is shown at />«. These covers prevent the escape of waste and also act as a protection against any foreign substance coming in contact with the moving parts. PIECING-UP MOTION 27. After the cotton has been combed and the nippers opened, the fringe of cotton comes under the action of the pieciiig-up uiotion. It should be understood that the fringe of cotton being combed is not connected to the cotton previously combed, and in order to have a continuous sliver, each fringe of cotton is pieced up to the cotton immediately in front of it. In order to accomplish this, a portion of the previously combed cotton must be returned, while the fringe must be in a position to be attached to it and carried forwards. It is the object of the fluted segment, which is a part of the cylinder, to support the fringe of cotton that has just undergone the combing action. The finely fluted surface of the segment is at such a distance from the center of the cylinder shaft that it can come in contact with the under side of the combed fringe and thus support it until it is detached. A view of the segment supporting the fringe is 26 COMBERS §22 shown in Fig. 16. When the fringe is held in the position shown, the operation of piecing-up and detaching is per- formed by three rolls q, s, t; g is sometimes termed the leather detaching ?vll; s, the steet detaching jvll; and t, the brass roll. In other instances t is called the piecing roll. In this Section, however, g will be known as the leather detach- ing roll; s, the delivery roll; and /, the top roll. These names are strictly in accordance with the duties and positions of the rolls, as g de- taches the cotton, and, although 5 assists in this operation, its chief function is to deliver the cotton after it has been de- tached. The roll / also aids in delivering the cotton, and as it is directly above the delivery roll, it may be termed the top roll. 28. The delivery roll ^ is made in one piece long enough to serve for all the heads. Opposite each head is a fluted section, the flutes usually being spaced differently from those of the feed-roll. When a lap 82 inches in width is used, the fluted section is generally 11 inches wide and contains about fifty flutes for each inch of diameter. The diameter of the roll is usually f inch. The roll revolves in bearings on the framework and is in such a position that it is just clear of the needles of the half lap and the segment. The parts of the bearings in contact with the roll are usually made of brass. Fig. 16 §22 COMBERS 27 29. The leather detaching: roll q. Fig, 17, is in con- tact with the delivery roll. The leather portion of the detaching roll is slightly wider than the fluted segment of the Fig. 17 cylinder and resembles a top roll of the common type, being shown in Fig. 18. The boss of the roll is generally about r-Htnrto ' Fig. ]8 10^^ inches in length and It inch in diameter. The skins used for covering should be of the finest quality, as so few 28 COMBERS 22 fibers are dealt with that any irregularity of the roll produces bad work. This roll has brass bushings q,. Fig. 18, for bearings, which are supported by the blocks Z^, Fig. 17. is shown in this figure. The bushings are held in place against the blocks by means of weight hooks q., connected to the weights, as shown in Fig. 19, the hooks having a direct pressure on the brass bushings of the leather detaching roll. This keeps the leather portion of the detaching roll pressed against the delivery roll, and when the comber is to be stopped for any length of time, the pressure should be relieved by placing the arms q^, Fig. 19, of the hooks ^2 on a rod that extends the length of the heads. This prevents the leather from becoming injured during the time that the machine is not in action. The blocks h, Fig. 17, with which the bushings are in contact, are supported by means of brackets /j, one of which Each head requires two of these brackets, which are fast to the shaft /,, which is long enough I §22 COMBERS 29 to serve for two heads and consequently to support four brackets. The shafts have bearings on the framing of the comber and are capable of being moved. The brackets, with their connections, are known as the horschcad, or lifter. 30. The top roll /, Fig. 17, is generally constructed of brass and contains flutes that correspond to the flutes of the delivery roll. The fluted section, however, is usually a little shorter than the fluted section of the delivery roll. This roll is supported by brackets /,, fast to the shaft A, and, as the bearings of the roll are pivoted at /a, the top roll is always in contact with the delivery roll. 31. Operation of the Kolls.— In order that these rolls may detach the combed cotton from the remainder of the lap, they must be close enough to the fluted segment to secure the cotton at the time of detaching. The position of the rolls when detaching is shown in Fig. 16. By a compari- son of this figure with Fig. 15, it is obvious that if, during the combing operation, the detaching roll were in the position that it occupies when detaching, the needles of the half lap would come in contact with the detaching roll." It is there- fore necessary that the position of the detaching roll should be alternately changed so that the roll will be near enough to the segment to secure the fibers when detaching and also be out of the path of the needles during the combing action. In order to effect this change in the position of the detaching roll, it is necessary to give the shaft /,, Fig. 17, which is primarily the support for the roll, a partial revolution. As shown in Fig. 17, there extends from the short shaft /, an arm k^, which, with other connections, serves to connect /, with the shaft k. The connection between /, and k is jointed at k^ and k,,; consequently, if /■ revolves it will turn /, without tending to lift it in its bearings. There are three of these connections for a comber of six heads, there being one for each shaft /,. The shaft k is similar to the shaft g^ shown in Fig. 12 and extends the entire length of the heads. Fig. 9 shows the relative positions of these shafts. 30 COMBERS §22 Extending from the shaft k is an arm X%, Fig. 17, which carries at its other end a cam-bowl that runs in the course of the lifter, or horsehead, camyi. This cam is on the shaft with, and very close to, the nipper cam g^ shown in Fig. 12. As the cam-shaft/ revolves, the shaft k receives an oscillating motion that is transmitted to the shaft h by means of the connections previously described. This motion of /, swings the horse- head with /, as a center and thus brings the leather detaching roll q in contact with the fluted segment, as shown in Fig. 16. The range of movement of the horsehead is shown by the full and dotted lines in Fig. 17. The full lines show the posi- tion of the horsehead and rolls during the combing process, or when the roll is out of the path of the half lap, while the dotted lines show the position of the horsehead and rolls when the detaching roll is in the position it assumes when in operation. As previously stated, the detaching roll q is supported and its motion governed through being held firmly against the blocks L of the brackets /„ Fig. 17, by the weights q^. Fig. 19. When, however, the horsehead is moved back to the limit of its motion, shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 17, the blocks h are so far back that they are not in contact with the brass bushings of the detaching roll. The leather por- tion of the roll, however, has a bearing directly on the fluted segment, as shown in Fig, 16. As the weights q^, shown in Fig. 19, are holding the detaching roll against the fluted segment, it is obvious that the fringe of cotton will be effect- ively gripped between them. The detaching roll is at all times in contact with the delivery roll, around which it moves with the action of the horsehead. As the top roll is connected to the shaft /,, it also has a movement similar to the detach- ing roll, and consequently moves around the delivery roll and assumes the position shown in Fig. 16. A clearer t^. Fig. 17, which is above the top roll and serves to keep it clean, is also supported by the bearings that support the top roll and has a motion similar to this roll. 32. In addition to the rolls being placed in the required positions, they must also have a rotary motion in both §22 COMBERS 31 directions in order to carry back a portion of the cotton pre- viously combed, to which the detached portion must be con- nected in order to deliver the cotton in a continuous line. The mechanism by means of which the delivery roll derives a motion in both directions is shown in Figs. 20,21, and 22. This motion is also imparted, by means of frictional contact, to the detaching- roll and top roll. The mechanism shown in these figures consists of a cam s, situated on the cam-shaft J, which also supports the nipper cam and the cam for placing Fig. 20 the detaching roll in position. Running in the cam-course of Si is a bowl s^ fastened at one end of a lever v, the lever being pivoted on a shaft z', borne by the frame of the machine. The other end of the lever has a pawl v^ hinged to it at zu, which is connected to an auxiliary lever v^,; z-n also carries a bowl V, in contact with a cam s^, which is in a position adjoin- ing 5,. It wall be seen, therefore, that the action of the pawl z\ will be governed by the two cams Si, s^, through the levers v, v^. The pawl v., is shown as being over the gear v^. It is held in this position by an arm similar to v situated on the other 32 COMBERS §22 side of the gear z\. This second arm does not have any cam-bowl but, being connected to the other, forms a good support for the pawl v^ that engages with the teeth of the gear z\. The construction of the gear v^ is shown in Fig. 20. This gear is fixed to the shaft 7',, on which z' is pivoted. On the same shaft with the gear i\ is an annular gear lu enga- ging with a gear on the delivery roll s, the relative position of which with the cylinder o is shown in Fig. 20. The back- ward and forward motions required of the delivery roll must be imparted by the pawl v. through the gears z\, zu and the gear on the delivery roll, the extent of the movement of the delivery roll being governed by the movement of the gear z\ and the relative number of teeth in the gears by which the delivery roll is driven. 33. The manner in which the pawl acts on the gear v^ may be seen by reference to Figs. 20, 21, and 22. The pawl z'j is always tending to be drawn toward the gear zu by two springs Vs, only one of which is shown. These springs, however, cannot bring the pawl into connection with the §22 COMBERS 33 gear until they are allowed to do so by the cam 5,. As the cam-shaft revolves and the portion of the edge of the cam that is nearest its center comes in contact with the bowl z',, the pawl hinged at v^ will be drawn down by the springs until it is in contact with one of the teeth of the gear v^. The cam 5, will also be moving during this time in the direction indicated by the arrow, and the bowl will come in contact with that part of the cam nearest the center. This position is shown in Fig. 21. Changing the position of the Fig. -ll cam from that shown in Fig. 20 to that shown in Fig. 21 results in moving the gear v^ in the direction shown by the arrow. The delivery roll j- will receive a similar motion and carry back a portion of the cotton previously combed. The further rotation of the cam 5, will cause the cam- bowl ^4 to be forced from the center j and this will cause the pawl z'j, and consequently the gear zu, to move in an opposite direction to that first described. The positions that these parts assume during this motion are shown in Fig. 22. It is therefore evident that the delivery roll v.'illhave two motions, 34 COMBERS §22 one of which returns a portion of cotton previously combed while the other delivers the cotton that is detached. After the latter movement has taken place, the cam s^ having moved sufficiently far will remove the pawl from the gear zu. When the pawl is next allowed to engage with the gear zu, it will be in such a position that it will drop into the next tooth beyond the one with which it previously engaged. The delivering movement of the delivery roll is about double its movement in the opposite direction, and the length of cotton actually delivered is dependent on the amount that the former exceeds the latter. 34. The operation of piecing-up may therefore be briefly stated as follows: It is necessary to detach a combed fringe of cotton from a lap and connect it to cotton already combed. The combed fringe of cotton is supported by the fluted seg- ment O3, as shown in Fig. 16. In order to connect this fringe the cotton immediately in front of it is brought back, by turning the delivery roll in the desired direction, and falls in a space between the half lap and the fluted segment. After the required amount of cotton has been returned, the detach- ing roll is brought in contact with the fluted segment so that it will grip the cotton to be detached. The delivery roll is then revolved in the opposite direction to that by which it returned the cotton previously combed, and at the same time the detaching roll and the segment detach the cotton from the layer brought forwards by the feed-rolls. During these motions the forward ends of the fibers detached are placed above and upon the rear ends of the fibers that were returned, and thus they are joined together between the detaching roll q and the delivery roll s, after which the detaching roll is moved out of the path of the half lap so that it will not interfere with the operation of combing the next tuft of cotton held by the nippers. COMBING BY THE TOP COMB 35. Another operation performed in connection with that of detaching is the combing of that portion of the fibers held by the nippers when the half lap is in action and 22 COMBERS 35 which, consequently, cannot be combed by the half lap. This portion of cotton is combed by the action of the top comb shown at the lower end of the plate ii. Fig. 23. This comb is constructed with one or two rows of needles soldered to the plate, it being claimed on the one hand that two rows of needles give a more effective combing, while on the other hand it is stated that dirt collects between the two rows of needles and afterwards drops back into the cotton. Another disadvantage of two rows of needles is that they are more liable to come in contact with some of the moving parts during the oper- ation of piecing-up be- cause of the small space between the nippers and the detaching roll. It is also more difficult to straighten the needles if they become bent or hooked than when a single row is used. When made with two rows, there is usually a coarse row with 30 teeth per inch and a finer row with 60 teeth per inch. The plate, or blade, to which the needles are soldered is supported by brackets z/,. Fig. 23, there being two for each comb, or head. These brackets are connected to the shaft u^, which extends the length of the heads and supports the brackets for each head. At one end of this shaft is a lever ti^ carrying a cam-bowl Ut, which is in contact with the cam u« on the cylinder shaft o». As the cylinder shaft revolves, the top comb will be alternately raised and lowered by the action of the cam. The comb is given this movement because when the half lap is combing, as shown in Fig. 15, the top comb must be up out of the way so that it will not Fig. 23 36 COMBERS §22 interfere with the action of the half lap. The top comb is lowered immediately after the half lap has passed and before the operation of detaching takes place. It is shown almost in position in Fig. 24, where the half lap has just passed; while in Fig. 16 it is shown in its combing position. As the fibers are detached by the detaching roll and segment the top comb is in its lowest position and the fibers that were held by the nippers are drawn through the comb by the detaching roll and segment; in this manner dirt and any fibers too short to be held by the segment and detaching roll are removed, after which the comb is raised so that it will not interfere with the action of the half lap. The matter combed out by the top comb that is not retained by the fringe projecting from the feed-rolls drops into the space on the cylinder between the fluted segment and the half lap. The matter retained by the fringe is removed by the half lap during its next combing operation. 22 COMBERS 37 DELIVERY OF THE STOCK 36. Calender Rolls. — The cotton when freed from the action of the top roll and delivery roll is delivered into a pan made of tin and shaped somewhat like a right triangle with its base adjoining the delivery roll. A side 'view of one of these pans is shown at w, Fig. 9. Each pan is from about Ih inches to 2 inches deep, its bottom being perforated so that any foreign substances that fall from the cotton will pass out of the pan and thus be prevented from entering the cotton again. At the end of the pan farthest from the deliv- ery roll is a trumpet, as shown in Fig. 9, which has its larger end in the pan. The cotton when delivered in the pan is in the form of a transparent web nearly as wide as the leather portion of the detaching roll. It is drawn through the trumpet by the table calender rolls, which are shown at n and «,, Fig. 9. By this means the web is condensed into the form of a sliver and delivered on a table, as shown in Fig. 25. 37. The table and the table calender rolls for a comber of six heads are shown in Fig. 25. The lower calender rolls are on a shaft that extends the length of the heads, while the upper ones, which are self-weighted, receive motion by frictional contact with the lower rolls. These rolls revolve continually at the required speed to take up the excess amount of cotton delivered by the delivery roll over that carried back for piecing-up, or in other words, the net amount delivered by the delivery roll. As these rolls are revolving continually in one direction, and as the delivery roll some- times moves in the same direction and at other times in an opposite direction, the web of cotton in the pan is alternately slack and tight, which gives a wavy motion to the web. The web at any time should not be so slack that it will fall to the bot- tom of the pan, nor should it be so tight that it will be strained. The table on which the slivers are delivered is about 7 inches wide. Its surface is polished in order to present the least possible resistance to the slivers as they pass over it. Guides are placed on this table at various distances from ^22 COMBERS 39 the calender rolls so that the different slivers will be guided on the table and lie in a position side by side instead of crowding on one another. In this manner, the slivers are drawn along the table by the back rolls of a set situated in tlie draw-box shown in Fig. 25. 38. The Dra^v-Box, — Up to this point each lap and the sliver formed from each lap is treated individually. All the slivers are, however, drawn into the clra\v-box together. The draw-box has three pair of rolls, which may be either of the common or metallic types, and these rolls give to the sliver a slight draft, although the principal draft of a comber is between the feed-rolls and the table calender rolls. Fig. 26 39. The slivers after being subjected to the draft of the drawing rolls are drawn through a trumpet by a pair of cal- ender rolls and are thus condensed into one sliver. The calender rolls that draw the slivers through the trumpet are different in construction from most calender rolls; they are shown in Fig. 26. The bottom roll ec has a groove into which the small end of the trumpet projects, while the top roll ?£',, which is driven by frictional contact, has a collar that fits into the groove of the bottom roll. As the sliver runs in the groove of the lower roll it will be effectively con- densed by the top roll, which is self-weighted. From these calender rolls the sliver passes to a coiler, which is similar to the coilers described in connection with other machines. 40 COMBERS §22' SUMMARY 40. As the operation of a comber is somewhat compli- cated, which is due to the many different mechanisms that are brought into action, a short summary will be given here, as an aid to the understanding of the operations as a w^hole. In order to bring the cotton into a position to be combed, it is first necessary that a certain length should be delivered by the feed-rolls. After the cotton has been fed by these rolls, the nipper knife descends and not only grips it firmly but also, by depressing the cushion plate, brings the fringe of cotton into a suitable position to be acted on by the needles of the half lap. The cylinder is in such a position that, when the nipper knife has completed its downward motion, the first row of needles on the half lap enters the end of the fringe of cotton, and, as the cylinder revolves, the successive rows of needles remove all the fibers that are too short to be retained by the nippers, as well as the neps that have been left in the cotton. After the needles on the half lap have passed the fringe of cotton, the ends of the fibers fall into the gap left between the needles and the segment, and the nipper knife, together with the cushion plate, begins to rise. When the cushion plate has reached its uppermost position, the further lifting of the nipper knife releases the fibers at this point. During this operation the portion of the cotton previously combed has been brought back and is now ready to be pieced up with the cotton that has just undergone the combing operation by the half lap. The cylinder having revolved until the fluted segment is in the desired position, the detaching roll descends and grips the cotton firmly between itself and the fluted segment. The further revolving of the fluted segment, together with the detaching roll, draws away the fibers that are not held by the grip of the feed-rolls, and since the top comb has by this time dropped into such a position that it protrudes into the end of the lap just in advance of the portion that has not been cleaned by the needles of the half lap, it efficiently combs this portion of the fibers. At the beginning of this §22 COMBERS 41 operation the forward ends of the fibers being combed are car- ried forwards sufficiently to overlap the r^ar ends of the fibers that were returned; consequently, the forward rotation of the delivery roll, which occurs while the detaching roll is in contact with the segment, assists in piecing up the fibers just detached to those previously combed, and delivers them into the pan. It should be clearly understood at this point that all the fibers do not project from the feed-rolls to the same extent at one time. For example, some of the fibers may not be gripped by the feed-rolls at all, while other fibers may pro- ject beyond the feed-rolls a quarter of their length, some half of their length, and some three-quarters of their length; consequently, when the detaching action takes place, only those fibers that project entirely beyond the feed-rolls are gripped and drawn forwards by the action of the detaching roll and fluted segment, while those fibers that project only partly beyond and are still gripped by the feed-rolls form a fringe of cotton that is always present in front of the feed-rolls. At the next delivery of the feed-rolls those fibers that previously projected only partly beyond the rolls may now project entirely beyond the rolls, and consequently at the next detaching operation these fibers will be drawn forwards in a manner similar to those previously detached. From the delivery roll, the cotton passes into the pan, through the trumpet, between the table calender rolls, and is delivered on to the table, along which it is drawn together with the other slivers that have been delivered by the various heads. From the table the slivers pass to the draw-box, where they are given a slight draft, after which they pass through a trumpet and between a pair of calender rolls, where they are condensed into one sliver. From the calen- der rolls the sliver passes to the coiler and then to the can. GEARING 41. A plan of the gearing of a comber is shown in Fig. 27. and from this figure the manner in which the vari- ous mechanisms receive their motions may be seen. The 42 COMBERS §22 pulley 5-, is driven from the shafting of the room. This pulley is firmly keyed to the short shaft z, which is carried by the framing and steadied in its motion by the balance wheel z„ in order to prevent a variation of speed, which might be caused by the intermittent actions of some of the parts of the comber. On the shaft z is fixed a pinion of 21 teeth, which drives a gear of 80 teeth on the cylinder shaft o^. Meshing with the gear of 80 teeth on the cylinder shaft is a gear of 80 teeth on the cam-shaft j; consequently, the cam-shaft and cylinder shaft revolve at the same speed. On the cam-shaft, the positions of the various cams are shown, these being the nipper cam g^, the cam 7, for placing the detaching roll in its required position, and the cams ^i, s^, Fig. 20, these two latter cams being situated at the extreme right of the cam- shaft in Fig. 27. The shaft supporting the lower table cal- ender rolls is driven from the cam-shaft as shown. Combers were first constructed with a short cam-shaft, and the cams were placed nearer the driving end of the machine. The connections to the shafts from which the nippers receive motion and from which the detaching roll is placed in posi- tion were at one end of these shafts. When constructed in this manner, the torsion on the shafts was such that the parts for each head that received motion from these shafts did not work simultaneously. The first remedy was to make the shafts larger, but later the combers were constructed with the nipper and lifter cams in the center of the comber, so that the connection was made to the centers of the shafts that they operated. The disk containing the pin from which the feed-roll receives motion, as shown in Fig. 10, is attached to the gear of 80 teeth on the cylinder shaft. The star gear c^ of 5 teeth, shown in Fig. 27, is on a short shaft, the other end of which carries the draft change gear fe, which drives a gear c-, on the feed-roll. At the other end of the feed-roll is a gear that, by means of the shaft x, drives the lap rolls a,a^. The brush p, which cleans the needles of the half lap used in the combing process, is driven from the shaft z through 44 COMBERS §22 a carrier gear, change gears being provided for driving the brush shaft at different speeds. The cylinder shaft at its end opposite to that of the gear of 80 teeth has a gear that drives the doffer by means of the shaft ra, and also the drawing rolls of the draw-box and the calender rolls by means of the shaft u\. From this end of the cylinder shaft, the coiler is driven by the gear of 60 teeth, change gears being provided so that the speed of the coiler may be altered in order to have the coiler properly take up the sliver. The comb for removing the waste from the doffer is not shown in the figure, but it is driven by a simple crank-motion, the stud that turns the crank being at the extreme inner end of the shaft 2. 42. The draft for the gearing shown in Fig. 27, with an 18-tooth draft change gear, figuring from the 2-inch coiler calender roll to the 2f-inch lap roll at the back of the comber, is as follows: 2 X 16 X 16 X 60 X 5 X 38 X 22 X 55 X 47 _ 23 579 16 X 16 X 69 X 1 X 18 X 23 X 20 X 35 X 21 As the comber removes a very large percentage of waste from the cotton that passes through it, it is not possible to figure accurately the weight of the sliver produced by simply taking into consideration the weight per yard of the lap fed in, the number of doublings, and the draft of the machine. An example will make this point clearer. Example. — Suppose that a comber with a draft of 23.579 has six laps up at the back, each lap weighing 260 grains per yard, and it is desired to find the weight per yard of the sliver delivered. Solution. — Multiplying the weight per yard of the laps fed in by the number of laps, and dividing by the draft gives 66.1605 grains as the weight per yard of the sliver delivered; " ,^ = 66.1605. If 20 per cent, of the cotton that passes through the machine is taken out as waste, the result obtained above must be diminished by 20 per cent., in order to obtain the actual weight per yard of the sliver delivered; 20 per cent, of 66.1605 is 13.2321, which deducted from 66.1605 gives 52.9284 as the grains per yard of the sliver produced. Ans. J §22 COMBERS 45 VARIATIONS IN CONSTRUCTION 43. Quadrant Motion. — A different mechanism for imparting the rotary motions to the delivery roll is shown in Figs. 28, 29, and 30, and is applied to combers that have their other parts constructed in a manner similar to those described. This mechanism consists of a cam s, known as the giiadra7it cam, which is fast on the cam-shaft/. Working in 46 COMBERS §22 Fig. 29 lever v^ that is centered at v-. the cam-course is a bowl s^ that is supported by the lever s, centered at s^. The other end of this lever contains teeth, and it is from the shape of the lever that the name quadrant is derived. The toothed por- tion St, Fig. 30, of the lever ^, connects with a gear 5e loose on the delivery roll s. At one end of the gear ^e is one part of a clutch that, when brought in contact with the other part s^ that is fast to the delivery roll s, will impart any motion of the gear s^ to the delivery roll. The cam Vi, Fig. 30, which is also on the cam-shaft, by means of the moves the part of the clutch that is loose on the delivery roll into, and out of, contact with the other part. It will be seen that with this construction the delivery roll will receive motion from the cam s^ during the time that the parts of the clutch are held in contact by the cam i',. When in action, the clutch is first connected by means of the cam z-', acting on the lever v.,, Fig. 30, the clutch corresponding to the pawl Vi in the mechanism pre- viously described. The delivery roll then begins to turn back as the bowl of the cam 5, leaves the line o, Fig. 29, and approaches the line o^. At the line o^, the cam-bowl com- mences to move from the center of the cam-shaft, thus reversing the motion of the delivery roll. This reverse motion ceases when the clutch is disconnected by means of Fig. 30 §22 COMBERS 47 the cam i\, Fig. 30, which occurs at the time that the cam- bowl Js is about to enter that part of the cam-course that is nearly concentric with the cam-shaft. The points at which the clutch is connected and disconnected will govern the character of the piecing in the same manner as the action of the pawl described in connection with Figs. 20, 21, and 22, 44. Another method of lifting the leather detaching roll is shown in Fig. 28. On the lifter shaft k is an arm k^ that carries a stud on which works loosely a square block k„; on the shaft / is an arm X^, on the lower end of which is a cut- out into which the square block k. fits. As the arm k^ is moved by the action of the lifter cam, it, in turn, moves the arm k:, and shaft / and so lifts and lowers the leather detach- ing rolls. One point of improvement claimed for this method is that there is less lost motion^ and therefore a more accurate setting of the leather detaching roll is obtained. Another method of lifting the leather detaching roll is to connect the shafts / directly to the lifter cams, using a sepa- rate cam for each shaft, w^hich usually operates the rolls for two heads. DOUBLE-NIP COMBER 45. Purpose. — In order to obtain a greater production than is obtained with a comber constructed as previously described, machines known as double-nip combers are built. These combers act on two portions of cotton during each revolution of the cylinder, whereas in a single-nip comber only one portion of cotton is treated for every revo- lution of the cylinder. 46. Construction. — The cylinder of a double-nip comber contains two half laps and two fluted segments, but the half laps have only thirteen rows of needles in place of the seventeen of the single-nip comber, since two half laps of seventeen rows each would occupy too much space. The segments are also made correspondingly narrower. The seg- ments and the half laps are arranged alternately on the cylin- der with shght spaces between them, in order that the cotton 48 COMBERS §22 may assume the positions shown in Fig. 16 and thus be properly pieced up. A sectional view of a double-nip comber equipped with a clutch and quadrant is shown in Fig. 28. In order that a portion of cotton shall be presented to each half lap, or that the feed-rolls shall receive motion twice for every revolution of the cylinder, another pin is placed on the disk plate, shown in Fig. 10, in such a position that the two pins will be exactly opposite each other. The other inter- mittent motions of the machine must therefore have two movements for each revolution of the cylinder shaft; this is provided for by having the gearing arranged in such a manner that the cam-shaft receives two revolutions for every revolu- tion of the cylinder shaft, thus causing the parts that receive their movement from the cams on the cam-shaft to perform their work twice during this time. 47. A comber with a double nip gives a greater produc- tion than a comber with a single nip, but does not, however, clean the cotton so well, because of the smaller number of needles acting on the fringe. Another disadvantage of the double-nip comber as compared with the single-nip comber is due to some of the parts running at such a high speed that they not only wear out more quickly but easily get away from their proper settings and timings, thus producing bad work. COMBERS (PART 2) SETTING AND TIMING INTRODUCTION 1. Aside from the general construction of a comber, two subjects closely related to the machine and very important to the success of the combing process that should be considered in this connection are setting and timi7ig. The setting of a comber implies regulating the distance between its working parts by gauges. Timing is a process that has arisen from the fact that a comber is intermittent in its action and that it is therefore necessary to time the motions of its various parts so that they will be performing their work when some working part that is taken as a basis for timing is perform- ing a certain operation. Although the range within which these settings and timings can be regulated and worked successfully is very limited, it is very seldom that two persons in charge of combers will agree on these questions. The principal points to be taken into consideration, however, are the length of the staple of the cotton to be used, the weight of the lap fed, the kind of cotton used, the quality of the work required, and, as a consequence of the last, the amount of waste to be combed out. It is obvious that a different combination of settings and timings will be required when cotton with li-inch staple is being used than when the cotton has a If-inch staple. This is also true in connection with medium or low grades of combed yarn as compared with fine yarns, since it is not nec- essary to take out so much waste in the former case. For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page ?23 COMBERS §23 SETTING 2. Gauges. — The several kinds of gauges used in setting a comber are shown in Fig. 1, and include the regular comber gauge (a), the step gauge {d), the finger gauge (c) , the quadrant gauge (d) , the cradle gauge {e) , and brush gauge (/) . 1. Cofuber Gauge. — There are several gauges similar to a, the blades of which vary from No. 12 to No. 28 in thick- ness. They are numbered according to a wire gauge and decrease in thickness as the numbers increase, a No. 20 X 1^ (^) (a) X i^ :a ^ (f) Fig. 1 meaning that the gauge is equal in thickness to a No. 20 wire. These gauges are about f inch wide, and usually about 4^ inches long. Each really consists of two gauges, one at each end; for example, the one shown in Fig. 1 {a) has a No. 20 gauge at one end and a No. 21 gauge at the other end. For settings finer than a No. 23 gauge, strips of paper are sometimes used, although this method is not as reliable as the use of the regular gauges. 2. The step gauge {b) is composed of one piece with steps, each step being iV inch thicker than the preceding one. The i 23 COMBERS first step is generally i inch in thickness. The width of this gauge is about i inch. 3. The finger gauge (c) is measured from the arrowhead on the curved portion to the arrowhead on the straight end and varies from Is inches to 2 inches in length; it is about -1% inch in thickness. 4. The quadrant (d) is used for determining the angles of top combs. 5. The cradle gauge {e) is used to hold the top comb in position while it is being fastened to the comb arms. 6. The brush gauge (/) is used for setting the brush shaft parallel to, and at the required distance from, the cylinder shaft. Assuming that a comber has merely been set up and that the cylinders are loose on the cylinder shaft, the parts that require setting with gauges and the gauges used for making each setting are given in Table I. TABLE I Parts to be Set Delivery roll from segment Front flute of segment from delivery roll Feed-roll from delivery roll Cushion plate to nipper knife .... Distance of setscrew /a from stand when d is down, Fig. 3 Cushion plate from delivery roll . . Distance of nipper from half lap when nipper is in its lowest position Brush to half lap Top comb set at angle of from 25° to 30° Top comb from fluted segment . . . Distance of blocks A, Fig. 8, from bearings of detaching roll when resting on segment Top roll from leather detaching roll . Gauge Comber Finger Finger With paper Step Finger Comber Brush Quadrant Comber Size of Gauge No. 23 \\ inches According to staple i to f inch According to staple No. 20 No. 20 or 21 Comber I No. 23 Comber I No. 21 4 COMBERS §23 3. Setting the Various Parts. — 1. In making any set- ting in any machine, some one point, usually a shaft, is taken as a basis. In the comber, the cylinder shaft is primarily the base of all settings, from the fact that the cylinder, which is used to set from for certain settings, is centered on that shaft; but as the delivery roll is a more convenient point from which to work when making certain of the settings, it is given a true and accurate setting with a certain definite relation to the cylinder, and after being certain that it will revolve freely in its bearings, these bearings are secured, and the delivery roll becomes the base of certain of the set- tings of the comber. The cylinder shaft and delivery roll of the comber revolve in bearings that do not have any motion during the various operations of the comber, and which after the first setting have a definite relation to each other as to distance. The fact that the cylinder can be moved on the cylinder shaft does not affect the distance between the faces of the segment, or the half lap of the cylinder, and the face of the delivery roll. In order to have the cylinder and delivery roll in their proper relative positions, it is first necessary to line up the delivery roll, which is done by presenting each fluted segment of the comber to the delivery roll and moving the bearings of the delivery roll until the space between the surface of this roll and the surface of each fluted segment is equal to a No. 23 comber gauge. The distance should be tested at both ends of each segment. When this has been done, the cylinder shaft and all parts carried on the cylinder shaft have a definite relation as to distance from the delivery roll, and although certain settings are made from either base, they do not conflict with one another. 2. Front Flnte of Segment From Delivery Roll. — After setting the delivery roll and being positive that it revolves very freely in its bearings, the index gear (which will be described later) should be placed at 5, after which the cylin- ders are fastened on the cylinder shaft. One cylinder is first secured so that the front edge of its fluted segment §23 COMBERS 5 approaches within a certain distance of the face of the delivery roll, after which each of the other cylinders of the comber is set with its fluted segment the same distance away. When this has been done, the first flutes of all the seg- ments across the comber will be in one straight line. A finger gauge li inches long may be used, but care should be taken in making this setting that the position of each segment is accurate, since the perfect alinement of these parts is vital to the quality of the product. When making this setting, the curved face of the finger gauge is placed on the flutes of the delivery roll and the cylinder turned on its shaft until the front part of the seg- ment comes in contact with the opposite face of the gauge. The space between these two parts should first be tested at one end of the segment, and when this end is in its correct position the cylinder is secured by means of a setscrew to the shaft at this end, after which the gauge is passed along the length of the segment to make sure that it is the correct distance at all points from the delivery roll; the cylinder is then fastened at its other end by means of a setscrew. The same method is adopted with each of the other cylinders, care also being taken to have all the cylinders exactly in the centers of the heads. 3. Feed-Roll Fro^n Delivery Roll. — Setting the feed-roll from the delivery roll is accomplished by moving the bear- ings of the feed-roll. This is a very important setting, since if these rolls are not exactly parallel, there will be a strain on the fibers at one side and only a partial detachment of the fibers on the other side during the operation of detaching. The feed-roll must also be parallel to the cylinder, otherwise one side of the lap will be combed more than the other. If any of these faults exist, a cloudy and uneven web will be produced. The finger gauge is used for this setting; its curved face should be on the flutes of the delivery roll, while the opposite face should be in contact with the flutes of the feed-roll, but these rolls should not be set so close that the gauge cannot have an easy upward movement. The distance should be tested at both ends of each fluted section. COMBERS §23 This setting of the feed-roll varies according to the staple and nature of the stock, as shown in Table II. TABLE II Cotton Length of Staple Inches Size of Gauge Inches American Egyptian ....... Egyptian and sea-island About IT Up to li 1 2 and longer IT6 to IT6^ itI to lH ItI to 2 4. Cushion Plate to Nipper Kiiife. — Before setting the nip- pers, the cushion plate must be adjusted so that the nipper knife, when down, will be in contact with the cushion plate at an even pressure throughout its entire width. If it does not touch along its entire edge, the fibers will be held tightly at one side, while on the other side they will be held loosely. The cotton that is not held securely by the nippers will be pulled out by the half lap and eventually arrive at the waste can, causing a waste of good cotton. The efficiency of the half lap also depends on this setting. Care must also be taken that the nose, or front edge, of the cushion plate is evenly and properly covered, in order that it may present a perfectly even surface along its entire length. In setting the parts, two strips of ordinary writing paper, one at each end of the knife, should be placed between the front part of the cushion plate and the overhanging lip of the nipper knife, and the setting between these parts made as close as possible and yet allow the two strips to be easily drawn from between the lip of the knife and the round nose of the cushion when the knife is in contact with the cushion plate. The same test is then made in the center and between the ends and the center. The fluted edge of the knife should be set so that a narrow strip of paper will be held firmly between the cushion plate and the nipper knife when the knife is pressed down on the cushion plate. Setting the cushion plate to the nipper knife is performed by loosening three screws similar to Jk, Fig. 2, and moving the 23 COMBERS plate to the knife by screws similar to h^. After the proper setting has been secured, the screws //., are screwed as tightly as possible. 5. Distance of Setscrew From Stami. — Before the cushion plates are set to the delivery roll, the setscrew z,. Fig. 3, should be adjusted. In making this setting, it is a good plan to have the screw project through the arm i^ so that when it is resting against the stand /, the arm i^ will be in a perpendicular position. This can be accomplished by holding a level on the front face of the arm i. and turning Lx^ Fig. 2 the screw ?3 until the arm i^ is in the required position. This should be done at each head. The only object of this setting is to have each head set alike and thus have some definite basis to work from when making future settings. 6. Cushiofi Plate From Delivery Roll. — It is now necessary to set the cushion plates the desired distance from the delivery roll. The position of the cushion plates with relation to the portion / and the nipper knife has been determined and must not be disturbed; therefore, in order to adjust any one of the cushion plates to the delivery roll, the whole nipper mecha- nism must be moved. In making the setting between the COMBERS 23 cushion plate and the delivery roll two operations are employed. In the first case a general setting is made by loosening the bolts (not shown in Fig. 3) that attach the ^^rrr] Fig. 3 nipper-mechanism stands / to the framework, and moving this mechanism on the framework nearer to, or farther from, the delivery roll until the cushion plate is exactly the same distance from the delivery roll at each end, which insures §23 COMBERS the delivery roll and the nose of the cushion plate being parallel. Afterwards a more accurate setting is made by means of the setscrews 2\. The entire operation is as follows: After loosening the 'bolts that attach the nipper-mechanism stands / to the frame- work, the finger gauge is placed with its curved face on the delivery roll and the nipper mechanism moved forwards until the round nose of the cushion plate is against the straight face of the gauge. This distance is tested at each end of the cushion plate and at intervals between. When the cushion plate has been set parallel to the delivery roll, the nipper mechanism is tightly secured on its seat by means of the bolts. Next, the gauge is again inserted at each end of the cushion plate and at intervals along the plate, and by means of the setscrew i^ the setting is made so close that the gauge cannot have an easy vertical movement. As the bracket i that carries the arm /^ swings on the center i^, the effect that is produced on the nipper mechanism by moving the setscrew i^ can readily be seen. The settings of the cushion plate are governed by the length of the staple, the class of cotton, and the weight of the lap used. General settings for this part of the comber are given in Table III. TABI.E III Cotton Length of Staple Inches Size of Gauge Inches American .... Egyptian Sea-island .... li li to IT Over li li to lA 11% to IT IT to 11^6 7. Distance of Nipper From Half Lap Wheji Nipper is in Its Loivest Position. — The setting of the nipper to the half lap is performed by the sliding bracket /., Fig. 3, and setscrew /.. The bolt holding the sliding bracket /, should be loosened and a step gauge placed between the end of the setscrew /, and stand /. The object of inserting a step gauge at this 10 COMBERS • §23 place is to swing the nipper mechanism on the center /^ until the nipper knife is in exactly the same position that it assumes when the cotton is being combed by the needles on the half lap. A step gauge must therefore be selected that gives the exact throw to bring the nipper knife into the required position. During this setting, however, the nipper knife is pressed down on the cushion plate and the lip d^ projects beyond this plate. The setting is made by inserting a No. 20 comber gauge, Fig. 1 {a), between the edge of the nipper knife and the needles of the half lap. The cylinder shaft should be turned so that the points of the needles come directly under the edge of the nipper knife. Each end of the nipper is then accurately adjusted by either raising or lowering it by means of the setscrews A. The cylinder shaft should then be turned and the gauge inserted between each row of needles and the nipper knife. When the setting is completed, it should be possible to move the gauge the entire width of the nipper without too much resistance. In passing the gauge between the nipper knife and the needles, it is a good plan to slide the gauge on the edge of the knife, that being a smooth surface. When this setting has been completed, the bolts that hold the sliding brackets A to the stands / should be tightened. The springs z's should next be put on and adjusted to the proper tension. This may be done by the nuts on the spring screw. This method of setting is of course adopted at each head on the comber. 8. Setting the Top Comb. — One of the top combs should next be set at an angle of from 25° to 30°. When making this setting, the detaching roll should be on the fluted seg- ment in position to detach, and particular care taken to have the top comb set so that it will not come in contact with the nippers or leather detaching roll. The brackets ti^. Fig. 4, should be loose on the shaft u^ so that they will allow the adjustment of the comb. The screws holding the comb to the brackets //, should also be loose. The quadrant gauge is used in making this setting, it being so constructed that its lower part fits over the blade of the comb, to which it 23 COMBERS 11 is secured by a thumbscrew. The comb is so set that the plumb-bob on the gauge will fall in a position to give the correct angle, which can be learned from the scale on the gauge. When the top comb is at the correct angle and not in contact with either the nippers or leather detaching roll, the screws that fasten the comb at each end to the brackets id, Fig. 4, should be secured. After one comb has been placed in position with the use of the quadrant gauge, the remaining top combs to be set are in some cases placed in position by what is known as a cradle, Fig. 1 (^), which consists of a casting having two bearing points for the comb to rest on and two set- screws that bear against the blade of the comb. By moving these set- screws, the comb may be held at any desired angle. Having set one comb, the cradle is set on the fluted segment, the base of the cradle being curved to con- form to the curvature of the segment. The top comb, which has been set by the quadrant gauge, is then lowered on to the cradle and the screws of the cradle regulated so that they just bear against the blade of the comb. After having regulated the screws of the cradle, it is merely necessary, when it is desired to set another top comb, to place it in the cradle and then place the cradle on the fluted segment and secure the comb to the brackets ?^, Fig. 4, while the comb is held in position, after which the cradle is removed. The quadrant gauge of course could be used for each head, but it saves time and is sufficiently accurate to use the Fig. 4 12 COMBERS §23 cradle gauge after the top comb of the first head has been set, especially when a large number of combers have to be set. 9. Top Comb From Fluted Segme?it. — When the top comb has been set to the proper angle, the distance between it and the fluted segment is regulated by means of the screws Wa, Fig. 4. A No. 20 gauge may be used and the comb adjusted so that the gauge will pass between it and the fluted segment without too much resistance. In passing the gauge between the top comb and fluted segment, it is a good plan to slide the gauge on the fluted segment and drop the comb so that the points of the needles can be felt as the gauge passes under them. The same method of setting the top comb is then employed at each head of the comber. When the top combs have all been set the proper distance from the fluted segment, the brackets tc^ should be secured to the shaft ii^ and the screws u^ adjusted. To accomplish this, the cam u^ on the cylinder shaft is turned so that the bowl «7 will be on the part of the cam nearest the center. A gauge about the thickness of a No. 18 comber gauge is placed between the bowl and the cam, and the brackets «« secured to the shaft u^ while it is held in this position. The setscrews iis should now be set so that a piece of paper can be drawn between the ends of the screws and the projections on the brackets u^. These screws should be adjusted so that the paper will be drawn out at an even tension at each head. Care should be taken while this is being done that the screws u, are resting on the stands /. After all these brackets have been set, the gauge should be removed and the lever tie raised by hand; by watching carefully, it may then be ascer- tained whether or not the top combs move exactly together. The last two settings mentioned in Table I are more readily made after certain of the timings have been made, and will be described later. MINOR SETTINGS 4. Adjusting the Nipper Rods. — The connections may now be made between the nipper cam and the brackets e, Fig. 3, that operate the nipper knife. To accomplish this, §23 COMBERS 13 disconnect the cam-shaft from the cylinder shaft by sliding the gear on the cam-shaft out of gear with the one on the cylinder shaft with which it meshes. The cam-shaft should then be turned until the cam-bowl operated by the nipper cam ^., Fig. 5, is in the position that it should occupy when the cushion plate is at its lowest position; that is, the cam-bowl will be at the toe of the cam, or the point farthest 14 COMBERS §23 from the center of the cam, as shown in full lines, Fig. 5. When the cam-bowl is in this position, place the step gauge between the end of the setscrews i\ and the stands /, Fig. 3, and connect the rod g, Fig. 5, to the bracket g^ and nipper bracket e, Fig. 3, commencing with the rod nearest the driving end of the machine and setting that rod in each head. These rods should be so adjusted by the nuts at the bottom of the rods that the step gauge may be moved between the stand and the screw /'a with- out a great amount of resistance. When this has been accomplished, the other rods of each head similar to g may be connected and adjusted in like manner. After this is done, the step gauge should pass between the ends of all the screws /a and the stands / with the same resistance. The step on the step gauge to be used between / and /a depends on the distance that the cushion plate has to be depressed in order to bring it in the proper position for combing; a i-inch or f-inch gauge is generally used. The cam-shaft and cylinder shaft may now be connected. Before this is done these two shafts should be placed in their correct relative positions. First, the cam-shaft should be in the same position that it occupied in making the previous setting; that is, the cam-bowl on the nipper cam should be in a position farthest from the center of the cam. Next, the cylinder shaft should be turned so that the pointer will stand at 17 on the index gear. The gear on the cam-shaft may then be placed in gear with the gear on the cylinder shaft and secured by bolting it to the flange of the sleeve on the cam-shaft. 5. The Revolvina: Brush. — The revolving brush p, Fig. 6, that cleans the needles on the half lap should be set so that the ends of the bristles will just touch the brass bars that hold the needles. This setting is governed by the extent to which the brush cleans the needles. If it is noticed that waste remains on the half lap after the needles have been brushed, the brush should be set closer, although no attempt should be made to set the brush so near to the half lap that — , .j — V::«'5r o §23 COxMBERS 15 those small portions of cotton that become wedged in the spaces between the bars holding the needles will be removed, since these small portions are held so firmly that it is usually necessary to pick them out with a piece of sheet metal. The bearings of the brush shaft are held in slides in upright supports, and when it is desired to set the brushes the nuts that hold the bearings of the brush shaft are loosened and the position of this shaft regulated by screws similar to the screw pi, Fig. 6. These screws are connected to the brackets that support the brush shaft and their heads are in contact with projections on the framing. An adjustable gauge some- times used for setting the brush shaft is shown in Fig. 1 (/), and is composed of two parts, one having a slot through which a bolt passes, thus allowing the gauge to be made longer or shorter and held at any desired length by the bolt. One part of the gauge has a curved face similar to the finger gauge, while the other part is brought to a point at one end. When it is desired to set the brush shaft closer, the gauge is set so that the length from the center of the curve to the point is slightly less than the distance between the circumferences of the brush shaft and cylinder shaft. The curved face of the gauge is then placed on the brush shaft and this shaft moved nearer the cylinder shaft until the point of the gauge comes in contact with the latter. The gauge should be tried at both sides of every head. The brushes of the heads are all on one shaft, and consequently in setting them care should be taken not to set one so much out of line with the others that the shaft will bind in its bearings. 6. Tlie Doffer. — The doffer r. Fig. 6, which receives the waste cotton from the brush, should be set about iV inch from the brush. The bearings of the doffer shaft are moved by means of screws similar to the one shown at r,. Fig. 6. The doffers for all of the heads are carried on one shaft, and in setting them care must be taken to see that this shaft can revolve freely in its bearings. The bearings of the doffer-comb shaft are attached to the bearings of the doffer shaft, so that the relative positions of the doffer and doffer 16 COMBERS §23 comb are not changed when the dofifer shaft is set closer to the brush shaft. Adjustments are provided, however, for setting the doffer comb to the doffer by having slots in the brackets that support the comb. The comb should be set about iV inch from the doffer at the lowest point of its stroke and at an angle of about 30° from the perpendicular at the upper part of its stroke. 7. Top Feed-Roll. — The top feed-roll is now placed in position and adjusted so that it will be parallel with the bottom feed-roll and in such a position that the ends of the arms c^. Fig. 6, will not come in contact with the ends of the nipper bracket. The adjustment is made by moving the stud on which the arms c, are pivoted. The springs f, should now be put on and adjusted so that the tension will be equal on both ends of the roller. The tins that cover the brushes and cylinders should be set square and true and in such a position that they will not be in contact with the cylinders, brushes, or doffers. The lap apron should be placed in position and adjusted so that it is level and true and exactly in the center of the head. The brush for cleaning the feed-roll, which is adjustable on the lap apron, should be so set that the ends of the bristles will just touch the flutes of the bottom feed-roll. 8. Sliver Pans. — The sliver pans should be placed in position and adjusted so that they set squarely on the shaft A, Fig. 6, and so that the trumpets are in their proper positions relative to the calender rolls. 9. Draw-Box. — The rolls of the draw-box should be set the proper distances from center to center according to the staple being run. The description of other settings will be better understood after the timing of certain parts has been considered, and therefore will be given kiter. I 23 COMBERS 17 TIMING 10. After all the parts are set, the cams must be adjusted so that they will operate the different motions, or place in posi- tion the different parts that they control, at exactly the right moment when they are required to perform their work. In order to regulate this timing and indicate the time when each operation should be set in motion or each part in position, it is necessary to take some revolving part of the comber as a basis from which to work and to time all parts in relation to it. The cylinder is taken as a basis, as all the intermittent move- ments of the comber are completed within the time occupied by one revolution of the cylinder. It is furthermore neces- sary to have some means of indicating in what position the cylinder should be when each individual motion takes place or each individual part arrives in its proper position. For this purpose, a gear of 80 teeth, on the cylinder shaft, is divided into twenty equal parts, or sections, which are numbered on the rim of the gear from 1 to 20, each section containing 4 teeth. This gear is known as the index gear. A vertical index finger is placed on a station- ary part of the comber directly over the cylinder shaft, pointing upwards, and indicates by its relation to the posi- tion of the index gear the position of the cylinder. The numbers are so placed that as the cylinder revolves, No. 1 is first brought opposite the index finger, then No. 2, No. 3, and so on up to 20. Each section of the index gear is spoken of as a whole number, and each tooth in a section is spoken of as i; that is, if the cylinder has revolved until the comber is said to be at 51, it indicates that the index finger is at the second tooth beyond the section marked 5 on the index gear, or 22 teeth from the section marked 20. It is sometimes the custom in a mill to read as a clock is read, the position of the gear with reference to the index finger; thus, the above timing would be read as half-past five. If the index is at 7, or if it is said to be 7 o'clock, it means that the cylinder has been revolved until seven sections, or 28 teeth, have passed the index finger. 18 COMBERS §23 From this description it will be seen that if the motions of a comber are listed according to their precedence and the timing of each indicated according to the position of the index gear with relation to the index finger, the timing will be indicated by continually increasing numbers, and a com- parison of the timings will show at a glance the relation between the different motions and the relative time that will elapse between them. The actions to be timed are: (1) The motion of the feed- rolls; (2) the motion of the nippers; (3) the placing of the detaching roll and top roll in position for detaching; (4) removal of detaching roll from detaching position; (5) motions of the delivery roll; (6) movement of the top comb. 11. Timing the Feed. — The time when the feeding begins to take place varies from 41 to 6, owing to the fact that more waste is taken out of some cottons than others, and the later the feed the more waste is taken out. When combing Egyptian cotton, the feeding is done comparatively early, as the fibers of this cotton do not vary much from the average length, thus requiring the least waste to be removed; consequently, this cotton is the easiest to comb. The fibers of the sea-island cotton vary from the average length more than the fibers of other cottons that are combed, so that sea- island is fed late; Peelers and other American cottons occupy about a central position between these extremes. When timing tlie feed the cylinder is turned to the desired position and the pin c^, Fig. 7, so placed that it will just enter the star gear. The position of the disk c^ that carries the pin may be changed in relation to the index gear b by means of the slot Cs, so that the time that the pin enters the star gear may be altered. 12. Timing tlie Nippers. — In order to time the nip- pers, set the index gear at 9 and loosen the nipper cam, which is bolted to a sleeve on the cam-shaft. This sleeve carries a disk that has a slot similar to c^, Fig. 7, and the cam is fastened to the sleeve by means of a bolt passing through the cam and entering the slot, thus allowing the §23 COMBERS 19 cam to be moved on the sleeve. This cam should be fixed on the sleeve in such a position that it will cause the screws ?\, Fig. 3, just to leave the stands when the index gear is at 9. By placing a slip of paper between the screw zVand the stand and pulling on it lightly, at the same time turning the driving shaft of the machine, the time when the paper is released will denote the time when the screws Za are leaving the stands. If it is not possible to have the screws z, leave the stands when the index gear is at 9, because of the relative positions Fig. 7 of the cylinder shaft and the cam-shaft, the gear on the cam-shaft may again be moved out of gear and the cam- shaft turned until the nipper cam is in the desired position, when the gear may again be meshed with the index gear. In order to avoid the liability of having to move the cam- shaft when timing the nippers, the gears on the cam-shaft and cylinder shaft may be meshed when the index gear is at 17 and the bowl on the nipper cam is in the position it should be when the rods g, Fig. 5, are set. The relative 20 COMBERS §23 positions of the cylinder shaft and cam-shaft will then be such that the motions received from the cam-shaft may be adjusted by slightly altering the positions of the cams on their respective sleeves, which are keyed to the cam-shaft. The nipper knife should leave the cushion plate at about 42; this can also be set by placing paper in the nippers and noting when it is gripped as the driving shaft of the machine is turned. If, after having set the cam so that the screws z'a. Fig. 3, leave the stand at 9, the knife does not leave the cushion plate at exactly the proper time, a further adjustment of the nippers may be made by means of the screws ^6, g^-, Fig. 5. The lever g^ gives motion to the nipper shaft g^ through the casting^, by means of the screws ^s, ^s. If, therefore, the nipper cam is not placed in position for the screws z'a. Fig. 3, to leave the stands when the index gear is at 9, the screws on the casting g^ may be adjusted, changing the rela- tive positions of the nipper shaft g^ and the cam. These adjustments may be made until the relative position of the nippers with the cam-bowl in the cam-course is correct when the cam-bowl is at any point in the course. 13. Placing the Detaching Roll and Top Roll in Position for Detaching. — The lifter cam/,. Fig. 8, which controls the leather detaching roll q, next requires adjusting. This cam is mounted and fastened in the same manner as the nipper cam and should be placed in position so that the leather detaching roll will come in contact with the fluted segment when the index gear is at 6f. This may be tested by placing strips of paper on the fluted segment and observ- ing when they are held between the segment and the roll. 14. Distance of Blocks From Bearings of Detach- ing Roll When Bearing on Segment. — The two last set- tings mentioned in the list of settings may now be made. The lifter cam should be in such a position that, when the roll touches the segment, the blocks 4, Fig. 8, will not be in their lowest positions, but will continue to move down as the cam revolves. When the blocks L are in their lowest 23 COMBERS 21 positions, there should be a space between them and the brass bushings of the leather detaching roll equal to a No. 23 comber gauge. The blocks may be adjusted by the screws /«, Fig. 8, so that the distance between them and the brass bushings may be regulated when the cam has lowered the Fig. 8 blocks as far as possible. When this setting has been made as described, it is certain that the detaching roll is properly in contact with the fluted segment. 15. Setting the Top Roll From Leather Detaching Roll. — When the detaching roll is properly in contact with 22 COMBERS §23 the fluted segment, the top roll should be set from the detaching roll with a No. 21 comber gauge. This is accom- pHshed by loosening the setscrews that hold the supports for the bearings of the roll to the shaft /,. 16. Removal of Detaching Roll From Detaching Position. — The lifter cam should now be in position so that, in addition to causing the detaching roll to come in contact with the segment at 6f and moving the blocks the required distance from the bushings, it will also remove the detaching roll from the segment at Oi. This can also be tested by paper placed between the segment and the roll, which should release the paper at 9h If the cam is in its proper position when the detaching roll touches the segment, but is not in a position to remove the detaching roll at the proper time, it can be remedied by an adjustment provided on the lever k^, Fig. 8, similar to the one described in con- nection with the lever ^3, Fig. 5. This adjustment is for the purpose of regulating the position of the lifter shaft k in relation to the cam, so that the latter may be in a position to place the roll in the correct positions at the given times. Any adjustment made by the screws k, will change the dis- tance between the blocks /^ and the brass bushings on the leather detaching roll. 17. Timing the Motions of the Delivery Roll. — The cam that gives to the delivery roll the rotary motion, which is transmitted to the detaching roll and the top roll, should be set so that when the index finger is at about I2, the cotton will be started back to be pieced up and, when the index is at about 6, this motion should be reversed and the cotton delivered. The cam that places the pawl of this motion in and out of contact with the gear 2%, Fig. 9, is joined to the cam that imparts the rocking motion to the pawl and, when the latter cam is set, the former is usually very near its correct position. It is capable of being adjusted independently, however, so that it will correctly govern the time that the pawl is placed in, and taken out of, contact with the gear v^. The pawl is allowed to come in 23 COMBERS 23 contact with the gear when the index gear is at about li, the time that this pawl is placed in contact with the gear and taken out of contact governing the amount of overlap in the piecing. The usual amount of overlap is about f inch, or practically halt the length of the fibers. 18. Tlie Toi^ Comb. — The time when the top comb should first be do\\-n varies from 5 to 6. The top comb should always be down when the detaching commences. The timing of the comb may be regulated by moving the '^^-''. Fig. 9 cam Hi, Fig. 4. which is on the cylinder shaft and imparts motion to the top-comb shaft «,. 19. In regard to settings and timings it may be stated that more waste may be removed by feeding at a late period, by nipping later, by closer settings of the nippers and top combs to the cylinders, and by increasing the angle of the top comb. The following are good settings and timings for a comber running a lap of 260 grains of Egyptian cot- ton with a staple of 1| inches and removing about 16 per cent, waste: 24 COMBERS §23 Feed-roll from delivery roll . . iH-inch finger gauge Cushion plate from delivery roll Ins-inch finger gauge Distance of screws /a from stands i-inch step gauge Distance of nipper from half lap No. 20 comber gauge Angle of top comb 28° Top comb from fluted segment . No. 20 comber gauge Distance of blocks h from bear- ings of detaching rolls .... No. 23 comber gauge Top roll from leather detaching roll No. 21 comber gauge Feeds at 5, index gear Nipper knife leaves cushion plate at 42, index gear Nipper knife touches cushion plate at 8f , index gear Leather detaching roll touches segment at 61, index gear Leather detaching roll leaves segment at 91, index gear Delivery roll reverses at .... 2, index gear Delivery roll delivers at ... . 62, index gear Top comb down at 6, . index gear 20. Because of the difference in construction between double- and single-nip combers, there is a slight difference in timing. This is shown by the following comparison of these types when equipped with the quadrant motion. This timing is for sea-island cotton. Single-Nip Double-Nip Feeds at 5 4i and 14i Nippers close 91 91 and 194" Leather detaching roll touches segment 6f 6f and 16f Delivery roll reverses .... 20f 20f and 10| Delivery roll delivers 6 61 and I64 Top comb down Si 42 and 142 Clutch thrown in 20i 20i and lOi 21. In some cases where especially fine yarns are to be produced, the percentage of waste taken out by the combing §23 COMBERS 25 is not considered sufficient and double combinff is per- formed. Where this process is used, the cans of sliver delivered from the combers may be placed at the back of the sliver-lap machine and the entire process repeated, or as is more often done, the cans may be placed at the back of a ribbon-lap machine that, instead of having lap rolls, has a back similar in construction to that of the sliver lap, each delivery, however, being fed only 8 or 10 ends. The laps from this machine are then placed on the lap rolls of the comber. After the combing operation the cotton is sub- jected to the drawing processes, whether it has been combed once or twice. MANAGEMENT OF THE COMBER ROOM 22. Important Points. — As the comber room uses only the best cotton, from which the finest and the special grades of yarn are produced, there are a great many important points to be looked after, especially those in relation to economy. 1. The needles on the half lap should receive careful atten- tion and any that are bent or crooked should be straightened by a pair of special pliers provided for this purpose. If there are too many bent or broken needles, the half lap should be taken out and new needles put in. Extra half laps are usually provided so that the machine will not have to remain idle during the time that a half lap is being repaired. If the several matrices to which the needles are attached are not carefully joined to each other, there will be a large accumulation of waste, which will become so strongly fast- ened that the brush will not be able to remove it. These collections of cotton should be removed by hand at the back of the comber. 2. The brushes that clean the half laps should have the waste removed from their bristles about once a month. When performing this operation, a rake, shown in Fig. 10, is used. When cleaning the brushes, the feed-roll should be thrown out of gear and the ends allowed to run through so 26 COMBERS 23 that the dust will not get into the good cotton. The laps should also be protected by a cloth. As the bristles on these brushes wear down, they should be readjusted so as to be kept in contact with and clean the cylinder needles. As the brushes become smaller by the bristles being worn down, it is sometimes found necessary to change the speed of the brush shaft. Through continued wear and readjustment the bristles become short and soft and the old brushes should then be replaced by new ones. When replacing the old brushes with new ones, a complete new set should be used and care should be taken that they are all of equal diameters, as all the brushes for the heads of a comber are mounted on one shaft. 3. The condition of the leather detaching roll has much to do with the quality of the work. This roll should be per- fectly true and should be varnished about once a week. Fig. 10 Care should also be taken in oiling this roll to see that suffi- cient oil is put on its bearings to give them proper lubrication, and at the same time that the amount is not so large that the oil will run out on the web and cause bad work. Thick and thin places in the web are sometimes an indication that the detaching roll is in poor condition, that is, improperly covered or varnished, or that the bearings of the roll are not properly lubricated. This defect may also be caused by the detaching roll not touching the segment at the proper time. 4. Top combs should be looked after very carefully, since if the needles are bent, hooked, or broken out, the web of cotton will be stringy when it enters the pan, due to the fact that the cotton passing through is not properly combed by the top comb. These should be brushed out twice a day with a §23 COMBERS 27 stiff brush furnished for this purpose. They should also be looked over once a week, when the needles should be straightened and smoothed or, if in the opinion of the one looking them over, their condition is not good enough, the top comb should be taken out and reneedled. If the points of the needles are only slightly damaged, they may be remedied by being rubbed with a piece of fine emery cloth fixed to a board. 5. The table, table calender rolls, and top of the coiler should be cleaned and polished with whiting twice a week and all dirt kept from these parts of the machine. 6. The payis should be wiped out with whiting at least once a week and should always present a bright appearance; all dirt should be kept out of the flutes of the feed-rolls, delivery rolls, and top rolls. 7. While cleaning the front of a comber the machine should be stopped, because all loose fly, dirt, and dust that have been taken out of the cotton and have accumulated on the parts to be brushed are liable to return to the combed cotton. When starting the comber, the end should be broken at the coiler and allowed to run about half a minute before it is pieced up, to insure that no dirty cotton passes through with the good cotton into the can. The ceiling should be brushed and hangers and pulleys cleaned at a time when the combers are not running. When the combers are started again after the ceiling has been cleaned, the ends should be broken at the coiler and all dirt brushed from the front of the comber before the end is pieced up. 8. In the comber, single and double should be looked out for. If an end breaks on the table or in one of the pans and the other five ends continue to run through the draw-box, it makes the resulting sliver too light. Whenever an end is seen to be broken, it should be pieced up and the sliver that has been delivered into the can for the period that the end has been broken should be removed. In the case of double — that is, where one end has broken on the table and after a time has doubled on itsslf and been drawn along by the 28 COMBERS §23 friction of the other slivers — the amount of sliver delivered into the can during that period should also be removed. 23. Oiling and Cleaning. — In the comber, as in every other machine in a mill, certain parts must be oiled; this should be periodically attended to. All the more important parts ought to be, and generally are, oiled by one whose special duty it is to attend to this. These parts consist of all the gearing and motions that need oiling in the headstock of the comber, all the cam-courses and cam-bowls and the loose pulleys. If the cam-courses and cam-bowls are allowed to become dry, the bowls will wear away very quickly and become too small for the course, thus causing bad work. About once or twice a year all the working parts of the comber should be taken down, thoroughly cleaned, and any parts needing repairs should be attended to, such as cushion plates recovered, needles repaired, new brushes put in, or the fillet on doffers replaced. When this has been attended to, the parts should be put together and set as previously described. 24. Waste. — The amount of waste being removed by the various machines combing different kinds of cotton should be ascertained often enough to insure that the proper percent- age of waste is being taken out. This is done as follows: After making certain that the laps are all right and that the comber is working properly, the waste cans at the back are removed and boards placed on supports in such positions that the waste will be delivered from the doffers on the boards. The boards generally used for this purpose are about I inch thick and have their tops varnished in order to obtain a smooth surface. The comber is then operated until the doffer comb is at the lowest part of its swing, after which the waste at the back is all removed and the sliver broken at the point where it is leaving the front calender rolls. The com- ber is next started and allowed to run untiK it has made about 40 nips. The cotton delivered by the front calender rolls is then kept as one portion, while the waste delivered on the boards is taken as another portion. These two portions §23 COMBERS 29 of cotton are placed on a pair of scales, Fig. 11, which, instead of denoting weight, denotes the percentage of waste. Another method for finding the percentage of waste is to weigh each portion and add the weight of waste to the weight of combed cotton and divide this result into the weight of the waste. If the comber is taking out too much or too little waste, any of the settings and timings that have been described as regulating the amount of waste may be changed. The amount of waste will vary under the very best circumstances from 1 to 3 per cent., and due allowance should be made for this. Example. — If 60 grains of sliver is delivered from a certain comber in a given number of nips and the waste amounts to 15 grains, what percentage of waste is being removed? Solution. — 60 gr. weight of sliver 15 gr. weight of waste 75 gr. total weight 15 -f- 75 = .20, or 20 per cent. Ans. 25. Speed of Combei'. — In speaking of the speed of a comber it is said to make so many nips per minute and not revolutions per minute, as in the case of the other machines that have been described. By this is meant that every time 30 COMBERS §23 the nipper jaws close a nip is made, which in the case of a single-nip comber is one for each complete revolution of the cylinder shaft. In the double-nip machine the comber makes two nips to every complete revolution of the cylinder shaft. A good working speed for a single-nip comber is about 85 nips per minute, while a double-nip comber produces good work when running 120 nips per minute. 26. The weight of a comber with six heads is about 3,500 pounds, and with eight heads 4,500 pounds. A single- nip comber with six heads requires f horsepower and with eight heads I horsepower, while a double-nip comber of six heads requires I horsepower and with eight heads 8^ horsepower. The floor space occupied by a single nip 6-head machine for Sf-inch laps, and also for an 8-head machine of the same type is about 13 feet by 3 feet 5 inches and 16 feet by 3 feet 5 inches, respectively. The production of a single-nip comber varies from 225 pounds to 450 pounds per week of 60 hours, while the production of a double-nip varies from 300 pounds to 550 pounds per week of 60 hours. FLY FRAMES (PART 1) GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF FLY FRAMES INTRODUCTION 1. After the sliver has been formed at the card and its structure improved at the drawing frames or perfected by the use of combing machinery, much foreign matter and impuri- ties have been removed from the raw stock, the fibers have been carded, straightened, and laid parallel to one another, and the sliver has been evened throughout its whole length, but it is still in too bulky a form and must be further attenuated before it is sufficiently fine to be run through the machine that completes the operation of making it into yarn. In addition to attenuating the sliver until the required weight per yard is obtained, the opportunity is also taken, in several machines, to multiply the number of doublings, which not only tends to retain the evenness of the sliver produced at the drawing frames, but also to improve on it. The sliver, as it is attenuated by the processes that follow the drawing frames, is known as roving; an idea of the extent to which this roving is drawn out before it is considered suitable to be spun into yarn by the mule or spinning frame may be gained by considering that a common weight for sliver at the drawing frame is 60 grains to the yard, from which roving weighing 1.19 grains to the yard is commonly made before being spun into yarn, the sliver thus having been reduced in weight in about the proportion of 50 to 1. For finer work a sliver of For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page g24 2 FLY FRAMES §24 45 grains to the yard might be made into a roving of .3 grain to the yard or an attenuation in the proportion of 150 to 1. It would be impossible to properly perform this attenuation by one process, and consequently the cotton must pass through three or four machines before going to the mule or spinning frame. The machines used in modern mills to effect this attenua- tion are known collectively as fly frames, although some- times called speeders. The expression fly frames should be applied generally to all these frames as at present con- structed, since the term speeder really refers to a machine that is not now made and is only in use to a very small extent. It is probable, however, that the term has obtained such a hold in some manufacturing districts that it will never pass into disuse. Fly frames are divided into slubbers, hiter- mediates, and roving frames where three frames are used between the drawing and spinning frames. Where four frames are used they are generally known as the slubber, intermediate, roviyig frame, and jack frame; in this case the word jack is used to indicate a fine roving frame, sometimes called a jack roving frame. The frame following the inter- mediates is sometimes called a fine frame. A much better method of naming the machines, which is used in some parts of the United States and should be uniformly adopted, is to speak of the first machine after the drawing as the slubber; the last machine before the spinning as the roving frame; while the intermediates, if more than one in number, are spoken of as the first and second intermediates, respectively. All the machines classed under the head of fly frames are practically of the same type of construction, the only differ- ences being in the details. One point to be noted, however, is that since the roving is gradually drawn finer at each succeeding process, it is necessary that certain parts of the intermediate frame should be smaller than the same parts of the slubber, in order to accommodate themselves to the decreasing size of the roving; the same is also true in regard to the roving frame as compared with the intermediate. J 24 §24 FLY FRAMES 3 2. Fly frames have as their objects: (a) the reduction of the thickness of the sliver, (d) the evening of the product, {c) the twisting of the roving, (d) the winding of the roving on a bobbin. The attenuation of the sliver renders the third object necessary, since, as the sliver is reduced in size, it naturally becomes weaker and must be twisted in order to enable it to hold together in passing to the next process. Twisting the sliver is followed by winding it on a bobbin, since the reduced sliver must be laid in such form as will allow it to be rapidly revolved around a spindle. The last two objects will be found to be far more difficult of attainment than the first. The principles adopted to obtain the objects mentioned are: (a) roll drafting; (d) doubling; (c) securely holding the roving at two points, viz., the bite of the delivery rolls and the bobbin on which the roving is wound, and also passing it through what is known as a f/yer, which revolv- ing rapidly inserts the necessary twist; {d) having either the surface speed of the bobbin exceed the speed of the flyer or the speed of the flyer exceed the surface speed of the bobbin, the excess speed of one part over the other in either case being sufficient to take up the roving delivered by the delivery rolls. Although these are the four main principles, several minor mechanical problems present them- selves in the construction and operation of fly frames and are solved by the adoption of other mechanical principles, as will be observed later. As previously mentioned, slubbers, first and second inter- mediates, and roving frames differ very slightly in construc- tion, the principal point that would be noticed by a person looking at the different machines being in the manner of feeding. With the slubber, the cans from the drawing frames are placed directly behind the machine and the sliver fed from the cans, while with the fly frames that follow the slubber, creels are provided in which to set the bobbins of roving, which is the form in which the cotton is delivered by all of these machines. FLY FRAMES §24 THE SLUBBER PASSAGE OF THE STOCK 3. As the slubbei* may be considered the simplest form of fly frame, and as it is the first machine in the series, it will be referred to in giving a general description of the con- struction of these machines. Fig. 1 shows a front view of a portion of a slubber, while Fig. 2 gives a view of the back of the same machine; Fig. 3 is a cross-section through the essential parts of the machine. Referring to Fig. 3, the cans a that come from the finisher drawing frame are placed behind the slubber and the sliver b passed to the guide board c. In the slubber, which in this respect is unlike any of the other fly frames, no doubling takes place, each end of sliver being treated individually. From the guide board c, the sliver passes over the lifter roll d, through the traverse guide e, and then through three sets of rolls /a, /,,/,, which insert the necessary draft. From the drawing rolls, the sliver passes through the upper part of the flyer g- and then out at its lower part, where it is wound around an arm sup- ported by the flyer. From this arm, the cotton, which having been reduced in size by the drawing rolls of the slubber is now known as roving, passes to the bobbin //, on which it is compactly wound. The flyer g is supported, by the spindle /, while the bobbin h rests on a flange that forms the upper part of the gear //,. The gear //, is known as the bobbin gear and revolves loosely on the bolster k, Fig. 9. In Fig. 3, two ends are shown at the front, although for convenience only one sliver is shown at the back. Each end shown at the front is produced from a separate sliver fed behind the frame. PRINCIPAI^ PARTS 4. The guide board c through which the sliver passes as it comes from the can is simply a long board with guide holes cut in it at suitable intervals, to prevent one sliver from coming in contact with another. The lifter roll d extends 224 ' o o o o o o o i §24 FLY FRAMES 5 the entire length of the frame. At one end it carries a sprocket gear driven by a chain that derives its motion from a sprocket gear on the bottom back drawing roll. The lifter roll revolving in the direction in which the sliver is moving serves to reduce the strain that would be brought on it should it be drawn up by the action of the drawing rolls alone. The traverse guide e, by guiding the sliver first to one part of the drawing rolls and then to another, prevents con- tinual wear on any one part of the rolls. As the objects of traverse motions as well as their different constructions have been dealt with, no further mention of them need be made here. The drawing rolls of a slubber may be either of the metallic or of the common type, although when running very fine work the common rolls are almost universally used. In the fly frames that follow the slubber, which deal with the stock after it has been attenuated considerably, common rolls are almost wholly adopted. There are usually three sets of drawing rolls in fly frames, and whether metallic or com- mon, they are similar in construction to those in a drawing frame. Clearers are also provided for both top and bottom rolls, although it is frequently the custom to run intermediate and roving frames without bottom clearers. 5. The Flyer. — A view of the flyer, to which the cotton passes from the front drawing rolls, is shown in Fig. 4. It consists of a boss g^ that contains a hollow portion g^ into which the spindle projects, two downward projecting arms, or legs,g3,g^, and a presser g^. The upper portion of the boss of the flyer is carefully rounded and smoothed and at its top con- tains a hole that extends downwards and has an opening g^ on each side. The projecting leg g^ is solid and serves simply as a balance for the other leg ^4. The leg g^ is hollow and carries two lugs, or projections, ^7, .^r that act as bearings for the presser. The presser, or as it is sometimes called, the presser {inger, is, as shown in the figure, a round rod hooked at its upper end and bent to a right angle at its lower end. The hollow leg g^ is slightly tapered at its FLY FRAMES §24 lower end, and the presser is so shaped at this point that it forms a circular clamp through which the lower end of the leg g* is passed. The inner part of the presser is flattened out into a palm, or paddle, g^ and is formed with a guide eye. The horizontal part of the presser is of such a length that the guide eye in the palm always comes about opposite the cen- ter of the bobbin when the bobbin is empty. The roving in Fig. 4 coming from the delivery rolls passes into the hole at the top of the boss of the flyer and out through the opening at the point ge, as shown in Fig. 4. It is then wound partly around the boss, passes down the hollow leg g^, and is wrapped around the horizontal part of the presser once or twice. It then passes through the guide eye in the palm to the bobbin, on which it is wound. Wrapping the roving twice §24 FLY FRAMES 7 around the horizontal arm of the presser is the more com- mon practice, although when flyers are new and compara- tively rough once around will be found to be sufficient. If the leg gt of the flyer were made perfectly tubular, it would be difficult to thread the roving through it in case of break- age. Therefore, the hollow leg is not completely closed, but an opening remains from top to bottom, shown slightly curved in Fig. 4, through which the end of roving may be passed. As this slot is curved it prevents the roving flying out when the flyer is revolving at a high speed. Sometimes, especially for coarse work or machines that are not intended to run at a high speed, the slot is straight. The flyers are carefully constructed of such a quality of material as will take and maintain a high polish, as it is necessary that all the parts of the flyer with which the cotton comes in contact shall be perfectly smooth. Otherwise, there is a tendency to develop undesirable friction as the roving passes through the eye and down the leg of the flyer, and in some cases small lumps of cotton are thus formed, which pass forwards at intervals, deteriorating the quality of the yarn. Certain parts of the flyer have an important bearing on the hardness or softness of the bobbin that is made. By this is not meant the hardness or softness of the roving itself, which is determined by the amount of twist inserted, but the feel of the completed bobbin. If the roving were wound on the bobbin without the application of any pressure, the result would be a soft, loosely wound mass of material. To pre- vent this the flyer is so constructed that the palm g^ exerts a slight continuous pressure on the bobbin as the roving is being wound thereon. This is done by making the vertical rod of the presser sufficiently heavy to tend to fly outwards as the flyer revolves, which it does at a high speed. The result of this is to throw the palm g^ inwards, since tlie vertical rod is capable of swinging partially around the leg g*. There is some tendency also for the palm itself to fly outwards due to centrifugal force, but the excess weight of the vertical rod and its greater distance from the spindle 8 FLY FRAMES §24 I are sufficient to overcome the centrifugal force of the palm g^ and bring a slight pressure constantly to bear on the bobbin. By altering the relative weights of the vertical rod and the palm, almost any degree of firmness of the full bobbin can be obtained, but this is a point for the machine builder to experiment with and decide on before building the frame, and should not be changed after the machines are installed in the mill unless so advised by the builders. Bobbins can be made harder by inserting more twist in the roving, as well as by increasing the pressure of the palm on the bobbin. 6. Tlie Spindle. — The spindle, as shown in Figs. 3 and 5, is a long steel rod. Its upper end, which is tapered, extends into the hollow part g^, Fig. 4, of the 3 flyer, where it comes in contact with a wire pin that is fitted into holes bored in the sides of the flyer. This pin fits into the slot in the upper end of the spindle and in this way the two parts are made to act as one. At its lower end the spindle is slightly reduced in diameter, and at its extreme end tapers to a point. This end of the spindle rests in a footstep, which is generally a recess in a bracket, except on English types of frames, where it is a removable piece of metal. Spindles are made of hardened steel and ground to exact dimensions. They vary from f inch to \ inch in diameter according to the frames for which they are intended, being of smaller diameter and shorter on roving frames and of greater diameter and longer on slubbers. The spindles in all fly frames are arranged in two rows, one behind the other. The spindles in the back row do not come directly behind those in the front row, but are generally set in such a manner that a spindle in the back row will come half way between two tof the spindles in the front row, as shown in Fig. 6; this figure gives a view of five spindles, flyers, and bobbins Fig. 5 24 FLY FRAMES 9 as they would appear when looked at from above. It is customary to describe the gauge of the spindles, that is, the distance from the center of one spindle to the center of the next spindle in the same row, as so many inches; for instance, 6 inches, etc. Another method is to state the number of spindles in a certain number of inches; for instance, if the distance from the center of one spindle to the center of the next spindle in the same row is 6 inches, then the frame is spoken of as having 6 spindles in 18 inches, there being two rows of spindles and the spindles in each Fig. 6 row being spaced alike. The total number of spindles in a frame varies and is dependent on the gauge of the spindles and the length of the frame. Fly frames as a rule do not often exceed 36 feet in length, and are seldom built less than 20 feet in length. 7. The Footstep. — The footstep bearing, or foot- step, y» in which the base of the spindle rests is shown in Figs. 3 and 7. These steps are bolted to the step rail /, that extends the entire length of the frame, very near the floor; a cross-section of the step rail is shown in Fig. 8. It 10 FLY FRAMES §24 will be noticed that both sides of the rail are made alike and will thus allow the footsteps to be placed on each side; the two rows of spindles necessitate this arrangement. At frequent intervals along the step rail are set footsteps that carry a bearing for the spindle shafts p. The two spindle shafts, one for each row of spindles, carry gears p^ that drive gears y, setscrewed to the spindles, and thus give the spindles their motion. The spindle shafts, spindle steps, step rails, and the gears both on the spindles and Fig."? Fig. 8 on the spindle shafts are completely enclosed in order to prevent any dirt or loose cotton from collecting on the various parts. 8. Tlie Bolster. — As the spindles are of considerable length, it is absolutely necessary that some bearing be pro- vided for them in addition to the support formed by the step, in order to support them in a vertical position, and so that they may run true. This is accomplished by having a bolster, shown in Fig. 9, through which the upper part of the spindle projects. The bolster consists of a collar k, through which the spindle passes, the upper part being bored to such a diameter as will just fit the outside diameter of the spindle. At the lower part of the bolster is a shoulder k^, that fits a recess in the bolster rail, to which it is firmly bolted. The bolster rail, a cross-section of which is shown in Fig. 10, is made alike on both sides, in order to provide for bolsters for each row of spindles. §24 FLY FRAMES 11 At one time, the collars used to support the spindles verti- cally were rather short, not projecting much above the bolster rail, but it is now the universal custom to use long collars, such as that shown in Fig. 9. The advantage of the short collar was in being able to use a bobbin of less outside diameter and thus have more stock wound on it, as the shortness and small diameter of the collar did not require as great an open- ing, or hole, in the bobbin; consequently, allowing the outside diameter of the bobbin to be less in proportion. The disadvantage of the use of the short collar was due to the fact of its support- ing the spindle at a point a consider- able distance from its upper end, even when the bobbin rail was at its highest position. As the bobbin rail moved downwards this defect was accentuated, Fig. 9 Fig. 10 and since the spindle and flyer ran at high speed and had no support at any point in the upper half of the length of the spindle, this tended to develop vibration and wear. In using such a collar as is shown in Fig. 9, the bearing part that sup- ports the spindles is placed a considerable distance above 12 FLY FRAMES 24 the bolster rail and several inches nearer the top of the spindle, which is conducive to steady running of the spindles. The spindle has a bearing only in the upper part of the collar, for about 2 inches, the lower part being bored out to a larger diameter than that of the spindle. This method of construction reduces the amount of friction that would take place should the spindle bear against the entire length of the collar. 9. The Bobbin. — Fig. 11 shows a cross- section of a long-collar bobbin used on fly frames. Such bobbins are usually constructed of wood, although sometimes made of paper or corrugated metal. The cheapest bobbins are those made of plain wood without any protec- tion whatever, but it has been found an advan- tage to have the lower end of the bobbins protected by a wire placed in a groove, or even by a metal shield surrounding the base of the bobbin and partially embedded in it. The cost of a bobbin constructed in this manner (TTll , ( ^K \ i h, ^^ mi ). !, f Fig. 11 Fig. l:^ is higher, but breakage and wear and tear of the bobbin are very much less. When the bobbin is in position on the frame, the smaller hole at the top of the bobbin receives the spindle and the larger opening encloses the collar, which is thus entirely covered by the bobbin. 14 FLY FRAMES 24 The bobbin gear, shown in Fig. 12, rests on a projection X-,, Figs. 3 and 9, carried by the bolster. It is not fastened in any manner to the bolster and is thus free to revolve loosely around the long collar that furnishes a bearing for the spindle. Motion is imparted to the bobbin gear Zfi by means of a gear h^ setscrewed to the bobbin shaft /;., which is supported by bearings fastened to certain of the bolsters. As shown in Fig. 12, the bobbin gear carries a flange / on which the bobbin rests. A projection l^ on this flange extends into one of several slots in the base of the bobbin, and thus drives the bobbin. In case long collars are used on bolsters, the collar extends for some distance into the bobbin, and it is very essential that the bobbins on any fly frame should be well constructed to exact dimensions, so as to grip the bobbin gear well and fit the spindle and collar as closely as pos- sible without binding. Bobbin gauges are now made by several manufacturers of fly frames to test accurately the inside and outside diameters of a bob- bin, and it is advisable to have a set of these gauges with which to test new bobbins before they are run. The bobbin gears, the gears on the bobbin shafts, the bobbin shafts, the bob- bin rail, and the lower ends of the bol- sters are completely enclosed, in order to prevent as far as possible any fly or dirt from collecting on the various parts. Fig. 13 shows the connection between those parts of a fly frame that have been described, such as the footstep, spindle, bolster, bobbin rail, step rail, flyer, etc. It will be noticed that two rows of spindles are shown, many of the parts in one row being shown in section, while the parts in the other row are shown in full. By comparing this figure with those that show the different parts separate, a good idea will be obtained of the relative position of each part. / l\ N % LZJiZ] Fig. 14 §24 FLY FRAMES 15 The manner in which the roving is built up on the bobbin is shown in Fig. 14. It is wound in close spirals around the empty bobbin until the entire length of the bobbin, with the exception of about i inch at the top and 1 inch at the bottom, is covered; the complete length of roving that extends from the bottom to the top of the bobbin is known as a layer. It is the object to build up the bobbin with cone-shaped ends, as shown in Fig. 14; consequently, each succeeding layer on the bobbin must be a little shorter than the preceding one, this being continued until the distance a b, Fig. 14, is reduced to the distance c d. Fig. 15 10. Hank Clocks. — Fig. 15 shows an instrument known as a hank clock, which is attached to all fly frames. The object of the clock is to register the number of hanks of roving that pass the delivery rolls. This clock is usually situated at the foot end of the frame and has attached to it a worm-gear that is driven by a worm situated on the end of the front roll. By considering the diameter of the front roll and by having a suitable number of teeth in the worm-gear and the gears forming the clock, the exact length that passes the delivery rolls will be indicated on the hank clock, the 16 FLY FRAMES §24 length, however, being expressed in hanks. This clock is read on the same principle as most clocks or indicators. The short hand indicates the number of hanks, while the long one indicates the fractions of a hank in one-hundredth parts. METHOD OF INSERTING TWIST 11. It is necessary to insert a small number of turns per inch in the roving after it leaves the front drawing rolls, in order to enable the fibers to hold together and withstand the strain of being wound on the bobbin and unwound at the next process. In common with all cotton-yarn-preparation machines where twist is inserted in a strand of material, the strand is held at one point while it is revolved at another. Strictly speaking, the strand is also held at this point, but by a revolving mechanism. In fly frames, the roving is gripped between the bottom and top front rolls as it is being delivered, and is also held by the bobbin on which it is being wound, although as the roving passes through the hole in the boss of the flyer and down the hollow leg, the top of the boss of the flyer practically forms the termination of the grip of the roving at this point. Consequently, the roving may be considered as being firmly held here, and since the spindle and flyer are making from 600 to 1,400 revolutions per minute, the roving is being twisted all the time. The rolls of course are constantly delivering roving and the bobbins taking it up as fast as it is delivered, so that while the roving that is being twisted at any one time is in a suitable position to receive the twist, a new supply is constantly being brought under the twisting operation, at a regular and uniform rate of speed, and that portion already twisted is passing from the influence of the twisting mechanism and on to the bobbin. In ascertaining the amount of twist per inch inserted in the roving, it is there- fore necessary to obtain data as to the number of inches of roving delivered by the rolls during a certain period, and the number of turns made by the spindle during the same period. §24 FLY FRAMES 17 If, for example, the flyer makes 25 revolutions while the rolls deliver 12^- inches of roving, then there will be 25 -^ 122 = 2 complete turns put into an inch of the roving delivered. WINDING THE ROVING ON THE BOBBIN 12. The front rolls of a fly frame rotate at a constant rate of speed while the machine is in motion; hence, a uniform length of roving is being constantly delivered. Suitable means must be provided for winding this roving on to the bobbin as fast as it is delivered, but at the same time the mechanism for winding must be such that the roving will not be broken or strained. As shown in Fig. 13, the flyer is supported by the spindle, which also imparts a rotary motion to it, while the bobbin, although placed on the spindle and rotating on the same center as the flyer, is driven by an entirely separate mechanism. The roving is wrapped around the bobbin because of the difference in the velocity of the bobbin and the flyer eye, since if both revolved in the same direction and at the same speed the roving could not be drawn through the eye of the flyer and wound around the bobbin. In considering the action of the flyer and bobbin in winding the roving about the latter, it will be found that there are several possible methods by which this may be accomplished. 1. A uniform rotary motion may be imparted to the flyer alone, the bobbin remaining stationary. This method, how- ever, is not practicable, because as the roving is wound around the bobbin the diameter of the latter increases, and therefore a greater length of roving will be required for each successive revolution of the flyer; hence, if a uniform amount of roving is delivered by the drawing rolls the strain on it will quickly increase until sufficient to cause it to break. This difficulty might be remedied by uniformly decreasing the speed of the flyer as the diameter of the bobbin increases, but as the speed of the flyer governs the amount of twist in the roving, a variation in the turns per inch would ensue in this case. 18 FLY FRAMES §24 2. A rotary motion may be given to both the flyer and the bobbin, the speed of the flyer being just sufficiently in excess of that of the bobbin to wind the roving on to the latter as fast as it is deHvered by the drawing rolls of the frame. Since in this case the flyer is moving faster than DO" Fig. 16 TO Fig. 17 the bobbin, or leading it, the arrangement is known as a flyer lead, and a frame thus equipped is called a flyer-lead frame. Fig. 16 illustrates the relative positions of the flyer, bobbin, and roving in a flyer-lead frame. In considering the §24 , FLY FRAMES 19 operation of this arrangement it will be remembered that in a given length of time the front drawing rolls of the frame deliver a definite length of roving. Assume, for the purpose of illustration, that this definite length is 6 inches. Then, in order to wind this length of roving on to the bobbin in a flyer-lead frame, the eye of the presser on the flyer must move just 6 inches farther than a point on the surface of the bobbin during the length of time that it takes for the draw- ing rolls to deliver 6 inches of roving. This gain, or lead, of the flyer over the bobbin is independent of the actual velocities of the flyer and bobbin, both of which are of course rapidly rotating in the same direction. Flyer-lead frames were formerly very popular, but are not used to a great extent at the present time. 3. There is another method of winding the roving on to the bobbin in which the bobbin rotates at a speed just sufficiently in excess of that of the flyer to cause it to wind on the roving as fast as it is delivered by the draw- ing rolls. This is the arrangement that is almost always adopted on modern fly frames, and since in this case the bobbin rotates faster, or leads the flyer, it is known as the bobbin-lead viethod, fly frames thus equipped being known as bobbin-lead {tames. Fig. 17 shows the position assumed by the bobbin, flyer, and roving in a bobbin-lead fly frame. The front rolls always deliver a uniform length of roving in any given length of time, and for the purpose of illus- tration it may also be assumed in this case that the length delivered in a given period of time is 6 inches. Then, in order to wind this length of roving on to the bobbin in a bobbin-lead frame, a point on the surface of the bobbin must move just 6 inches farther than the eye of the flyer presser during the length of time that it takes for the draw- ing rolls to deliver 6 inches of roving. This gain, or lead, of the bobbin over the flyer is independent of the actual velocities of the bobbin and flyer, both of which are of course rotating rapidly in the same direction, as was the case in the flyer-lead frame, only in this case the bobbin has the greater speed. * 20 FLY FRAMES §24 13. In both flyer-lead and bobbin-lead fly frames, the speed of the delivery of the roving and the speed of the flyers are constant. This is necessary, because if the speed of the drawing rolls were made variable the production of the frame would be altered, and also because, in order to produce an even roving, the sliver should be drawn at a regular and uniform speed. A variable speed of the flyers is impracticable, because this would produce a variation in the amount of twist in the roving. In order, therefore, to com- pensate for the constantly increasing diameter of the bobbin, a variation must be made in its speed, so that the tension on the roving during the winding will be the same whether the bobbin is empty or full. If the bobbin did not increase in diameter as it filled with roving, the speeds of the flyer and bobbin could be easily regulated so that the exact amount of roving delivered would be taken up. The conditions are more difficult than this, however, because one revolution of a full bobbin requires a much greater length of roving to make one turn around the bobbin than does one revolution of an empty bobbin; in other words, the circumferential speed of the bobbin must be the same, no matter what its diameter is, whether full, empty, or in any intermediate condition. For example, suppose that the diameter of an empty bobbin is 2 inches and of a full one 4 inches; then in the first case only 2 X 3.1416 = 6.2832 inches of roving will be required to make one turn around the bobbin, while in the latter case 4 X 3.1416 = 12.5664 inches will be required to accomplish the same result. Thus, as the length of roving delivered is a constant quantity, and as the difference in the circumferen- tial speed of the bobbin and of the flyer must also be constant, the speed of the bobbin must be constantly varied as the winding progresses. In a flyer-lead frame, since the flyer rotates at a speed greater than that of the bobbin, the latter must have its slowest speed when empty and its greatest speed when filled, and must constantly and uniformly increase in the number of revolutions per minute between these two extremes. This is the principal objection to a flyer-lead §24 FLY FRAMES 21 frame — the larger and heavier the bobbins become, the faster they must be driven, hence the greater the amount of power required to drive the machine. In a bobbin-lead frame, however, since the speed of the bobbin is greater than that of the flyer the bobbin must rotate at its greatest speed when empty and at its slowest speed when full, and must constantly and uniformly decrease in the number of revolutions per minute between these two points. For this reason the bobbin-lead frame is preferred to the flyer-lead, since in this case as the bobbins grow large and heavy, it is not necessary to drive them so fast, and the consumption of power is therefore more uniform. Although the mechanism for producing this variable speed of the bobbins is described later, it will be of advantage to note that with the introduction of cones it is possible, by making use of suitable gearing, to alter the speed of the bobbins. 14. Traverse of Bobbins. — It will be remembered that the lower end of the bolsters, the bolster rail, the bobbin shafts, and the toothed portion of the bobbin gears are com- pletely enclosed. These parts combined form what is known as the carriage, which is given a vertical reciprocating motion in order to give the necessary traverse to the bobbins. As the bobbins are placed over the bolsters and rest on the bobbin gears, which form a part of the carriage, they receive a vertical reciprocating motion in addition to their rotary axial motion received from the bobbin gears. As the flyer eye continues to revolve in one plane during this traverse of the bobbin, the spindle rail being stationary, the roving is wound on the bobbin in coils, which vary in pitch according to the velocity of the vertical movement of the bobbin. Fig. 3 illustrates one method of imparting the vertical motion to the carriage. The legs r support the various parts of the frame, their number varying according to the length of the frame. These legs are known as sampsons, and have on one face a groove in which a portion of a rack r, slides. As the rack r, has an up-and-down motion, the groove in the 22 FLY FRAMES §24 Sampson serves to steady and guide it in order that it may mesh properly with the gear r^ setscrewed to the shaft ^3, which extends the entire length of the frame. The racks are connected to the carriage by means of arms r* securely bolted to the bolster rail s. As the gear f\ revolves first in one direction and then in the other, the carriage is given a vertical reciprocating motion for a certain distance, which is regulated by the period of rotation of the gear i\ in either direction. In addition to 'the steadying of the carriage by the racks, there is a slide connection between the head and foot Sampsons and the corresponding ends of the bolster rail that helps to steady and guide it, and if properly adjusted insures a free and perfect motion of the carriage. As the carriage has considerable weight, it is balanced by suitable mechanism, the usual method being to hang weights by means of chains at each sampson. Referring to Fig. 3, the weight t is supported by means of a chain /, attached to a bracket, the chain passing around a pulley r\ attached to the rack r, and also over pulleys /a, t^ attached to the sampson; the weight is arranged to balance the rail when the bobbins are half full. Another method of balancing the carriage is shown in Fig. 18. Weights t are suspended from a chain /, that passes around pulleys t^, t^ and is attached to a drum r^ on the shaft re, which carries a gear meshing with teeth in the lever r^. The forward end of this lever bears directly against the under side of a small pulley carried by a bracket 5, that is attached to the bolster rail s. This method prevents any possibility of the racks binding in the slides, which some- times happens with the other method, unless a great deal of care is taken with the racks and slides. The latest method of overcoming the weight of the car- riage and bobbins is by means of a self-balanced carriage. With this motion the carriage is divided at the center of its length into two equal parts, and when one section is descend- ing the other is ascending; consequently, one section counter- balances the other. The carriage is supported and guided by means of racks and pinions, as shown in Fig. 3, with the 24 FLY FRAMES 23 exception of the weights. The racks r. for one section of the carriage face in the direction shown in Fig. 3, while the Fig. 18 racks for the other section face in the opposite direction; consequently, as the back shaft r, revolves, one section of 24 FLY FRAMES §24 the carriage will ascend and the other descend, thereby bal- ancing each other. Since the carriage is divided into two parts, it is necessary to use a second mechanism in order to drive the bobbins of the second section. This mechanism is situated in about the center of the frame and is driven from the first by means of a long shaft that extends from the head of the frame to the second section. This shaft carries a gear at the head end that is driven from a gear placed on the sleeve between the gears h^, h^, Fig. 19. At the opposite end of this shaft is a gear that drives the second mechanism by means of a carrier gear. By adopting this last method, the carriage is accurately balanced at all times during the building of the bobbins, while with the other motions the carriage is only accurately balanced when the bobbins are half full. The description of the method of reversing the direction of motion of the gear t\, Fig. 3, and the different mechanical arrangements that are necessary in order to allow the car- riage to rise and fall and still have the driving arrangement of the bobbin shafts intact, will be given in detail later. GEARING 15. Method of Driving the Dra^wing Rolls. — Fig. 19 gives a diagrammatic view of the gearing for a slubber. The parts are not in all cases shown in the exact position that they occupy in the frame, since the method of gearing could not then be clearly indicated. On the shaft m, which is known as the jack-shaft and is the main driving shaft of the frame, are placed the tight-and-loose pulleys Wi, Wj, respect- ively, which are driven either from the line shaft of the room or from a countershaft belted to the line shaft. On the end of the jack-shaft m is a gear w,, known as the t%vist gear, which through the intermediate gear w* and gear^z, drives the top cone shaft n. This shaft carries at the head, or driving, end a gear n^ that drives a gear / on the bottom front roll /,. The method of driving the two back rolls from the front roll is shown in Fig. 19. tnp 9T 26 FLY FRAMES §24 16. Method of Driving the Spindles. — On the end of the jack-shaft that carries the tight-and-loose pulleys is a gear vi^ that, through an intermediate, or carrier gear, w„ drives a gear p^ that is on the spindle shaft p. Gears on this shaft similar to p.^ drive the gears j^ that are setscrewed to the spindles j. It will be remembered that there are two rows of spindles in all fly frames; consequently, there must be two spindle shafts similar to p. Only one shaft is shown in Fig. 19, as the two shafts are placed one directly behind the other. The one shown is the back spindle shaft, which always receives its motion direct from the jack-shaft of the frame. Gearing with the gear /, is a gear on the end of the front spindle shaft by which this shaft receives its motion. An important point to be noted in this connection is that since the gear on one shaft is driven directly by a gear on the other shaft without the use of any intermediate gear, the two spindle shafts must revolve in opposite directions. If with this arrangement the gears on each spindle shaft were con- nected to the gears on the spindles that they drive in exactly the same manner, the two rows of spindles would revolve in opposite directions. In order to overcome this difficulty the gears on one spindle shaft are placed on one side of the gears on the spindles that they drive, while the gears on the other spindle shaft are placed on the opposite side of the gears on the spindles that they drive, as shown in Fig. 13. 17. Metliod of Driving the Bobbins. — Referring again to Fig. 19, it will be noticed that a gear m-, is set- screwed to the jack-shaft. This gear through the gears h,, h„ drives the gear h^, which is setscrewed to a sleeve that is loose on the jack-shaft. This sleeve carries another gear //s, which through a carrier gear //» drives the gear h^, on the back bobbin shaft L.. The bobbin shaft carries bevel gears //, that drive the bobbin gears /;,. These bobbin gears are illustrated in Fig. 12 and carry a flange, a projection of which engages with a slot in the bottom of the bobbin and thus causes the bobbin to revolve with the bobbin gear. A gear on the front bobbin shaft is driven directly from the §24 FLY FRAMES 27 gear Z/,, Fig. 19, on the back bobbin shaft, and since these shafts revolve in opposite directions, it is necessary, in order to have all the bobbins revolve in the same direction, to place the gears on one bobbin shaft on one side of the bobbin gears that they drive, while the gears on the other bobbin shaft must be placed on the opposite side of the bobbin gears that they drive. This arrangement is also shown in Fig. 13. DIMENSIONS OF FLY FRAMES 18. Fly frames are spoken of not only according to the name of each kind of frame, but also by the number of spindles, the length of the bobbin that the first layer of roving covers (known as the traverse of the bobbin), and the diam- eter of the full bobbin. Thus, a frame spoken of as a 96-spindle 9 in. X ^\ in. indicates that the frame has two rows of spindles, 48 in each row; that the greatest possible traverse on the bobbin is 9 inches in length; and that when the bobbin is full it cannot exceed 41 inches in diameter. The traverse of a bobbin used on slubbers is usually from 10 to 12 inches; on first intermediates, from 8 to 10 inches; on second intermediates, from 7 to 8 inches; and on roving frames, from 5 to 6 inches. The reason for this gradual reduction in the traverse of the bobbin is that as the roving becomes reduced in size it is necessary to wind it on a smaller bobbin, so that the bobbin will not be too large to be pulled around by the roving when placed in the creel of the succeeding machine. The diameter of the full bobbin that can be made depends on the distance between the spindles, which is so arranged as not to make too large a bobbin, for the same reason as that given above. In most cases the diameter of the full bobbin is one-half the length of the traverse; for example, a 12-inch traverse frame makes a 6-inch bobbin, usually written 12 X 6. Other sizes are referred to as 10 X 5, 9 X 4i, 8x4, 7 X Si, 6x3, etc. There are exceptions to this rule in very fine frames, where the bobbin is often made smaller in diameter, as, for example, a 6 X 22 frame. In this connection 28 FLY FRAMES 24 it should be noted that the diameter of a full bobbin made on a fly frame is not equal to the space between two spindles in the same row. For example, on a 12 X 6 frame the space between the spindles in the same row is 10 inches, although the diameter of the full bobbin is only 6 inches. This allows sufficient space for clearance of the flyers while revolving. The following table gives the standard sizes of frames as made by one machine builder: TABLE I Frame Slubber . . Slubber . . Slubber . , Slubber . , Slubber . , First intermediate First intermediate First intermediate First intermediate First intermediate First intermediate First intermediate Second intermediate Second intermediate Second intermediate Second intermediate Second intermediate Second intermediate Roving Roving Roving Size Inches 12 X 12 X II X 10 X 9X 10 X 10 X 9X 9X 8X 8X 8X 8X 7 X 7 X 7 X 7X 6X 6X 5 X 4iX 6 6 5* 5 4* 5 5 4i 4i 4 4 4 3i 3i 3^ 3 3 3 2i 2i 2i Space Between Spindles Inches ID 9i 9 9 7i 8 7i 7 6i 6 si 5i sl 5 4i 4i 4i 4i 4i 4 Number of Spindles 24 to 68 24 to 68 28 to 72 32 to 76 30 to 96 40 to 104 42 to 108 48 to 114 48 to 1 14 48 to 136 48 to 136 66 to 132 56 to 144 64 to 152 64 to 152 72 to 160 72 to 160 80 to 168 88 to 176 96 to 184 I 12 to 200 §24 FLY FRAMES 29 Fly frames are not usually constructed over 36 feet in length, as the torsion on the rolls and shafts would be excessive if this length were increased to any g-reat extent. The modern tendency is to use frames of about this length, and Table I is prepared on this basis. The main driving pulley, or the pulley on the jack-shaft, of the frame is usually about 16 inches in diameter with a 2-inch face, although pulleys are used that range from 12 to 16 inches in diameter, with faces from li to 2i inches in width. The weights of the frames vary considerably according to the make, the number of spindles, and the gauge; a 72-spindle slubber will weigh about 7,800 pounds; a 120-spin- dle first intermediate will weigh about 10,750 pounds; a 144-spindle second intermediate, about 9,250 pounds; and a 200-spindle roving frame, about 9,780 pounds. The horsepower required to drive a frame varies con- siderably; therefore, no table can be given that will be accu- rate under all conditions, as various matters affect the amount of power required. The following table may be used as a guide to determine the amount of horsepower required. TABIiE II Frame Gauge Inch Spindles per Horsepower Slubber First intermediate . Second intermediate Roving 9 7 si 4i 35 6o 75 95 FLY FRAMES (PART 2) PRINCIPAL MOTIONS OF FLY FRAMES MECHANISMS FOR CONTROI^I^ING SPEED OF BOBBINS DIFFERENTIAL, MOTIONS NoTK. — In this Section the bobbin-lead type of fly frames will be dealt with exclusively. 1. Introductoi'y. — In order to wind the roving on the bobbin it is necessary that the excess circumferential speed of the bobbin over the flyer shall be equal to the circumferen- tial speed of the front roll, so as to take up the roving as fast as it is delivered by the front roll. If the bobbin made the same number of revolutions per minute continually, it would gradually strain and break the roving as the bobbin increased in diameter; therefore, some arrangement must be adopted by which the number of revolutions per minute of the bobbin may be gradually reduced as the bobbin grows larger. The speed of the bobbin is regulated and controlled by two mechanisms that act in combination. One is known as the ditferential motioyi, more commonly called the compo^ind in America, while the other consists of two cones and connec- tions. The object is to provide a ready means of automat- ically reducing the number of revolutions per minute of the bobbin in exact proportion to the increase in its diameter. For notice of copyright, see Page immediately following the title page 225 SSI G 15 5% LJ=i Sft ?^§ © Ecmnr §25 FLY FRAMES 3 2. Referring to Fig, 1, the gear in., on the jack-shaft drives the bobbins, its motion being imparted through the gears 7^, h» to the gear //s, which is on a sleeve with h^. The gear h^ drives the bobbin shaft h through the gears lu, h^, the bobbin receiving motion from this shaft by means of the gear //, and bobbin gear h^. The speed of the gear m., is con- stant, but by a peculiar arrangement of the gears //«, h,, //«, //« it is possible to alter the speed of the gear h^ independently of ?«,; this in turn alters the speed of the gear //s and con- sequently that of the bobbins. This alteration in the speed of the gear /;« is obtained by imparting motion to the gear h^ by an entirely independent mechanism. Dealing first with the method of driving the gear h», it will be noticed that the top cone shaft w carries a cone «» that, by means of a belt ii^, drives a bottom cone 7i^. At the beginning of a set, that is, when the first layer of roving is being wound on the bobbins, the cone belt is at the large end of the top cone and at the small end of the bottom cone, but as the bobbins gradually grow larger the belt is moved along the cones, until at the finish of a set, that is, when the bobbins are full, the belt is at the small end of the top cone and the large end of the bottom cone. As the top cone is the driver, any parts receiving motion from the bottom cone will have their highest speed at the beginning of a set and their lowest speed at the finish. The manner in which the cone belt is moved along the cones as the bobbins are built will be fully explained later. Referring again to Fig. 1, it will be noticed that a gear on the end of the bottom-cone shaft drives, through suitable gearing, the gear ««, which meshes with the gear h,; conse- quently, as the belt is moved from the small to the large end of the bottom cone, or, in other words, as the bobbins become full, the speed of the gear We and therefore that of the gear //« will be lessened. The gears //e, //,, //«, h^, vi^ form the coni- pouiid, or differential motion, and in order that the effect of lessening the speed of the gear «« may be fully under- stood, reference will now be made to Fig. 2, which is a view of the compound alone. The large gear //» is known as the Sim gear and supports the two bevel gears //,, hy, by means FLY FRAMES §25 of studs on which these gears work loosely, as shown in Fig. 2 {b). Thus, if the gear h^ re- volves it carries with it the two bevel gears h,, hg, which at the same time are free to revolve on the studs on which they are mounted. The action of these gears is as follows: The gear m, being fixed to the jack- shaft 7?i drives the gear //« through the in- termediate gears //,, h^. The gear h, performs the same work as h^ and for present con- sideration may be imagined as not exist- ing, being used merely to balance h^ and cause the whole arrangement to revolve more uni- formly. The gears m-,, he are of the same size, and consequently if h» were held still, or prevented from revol- ving, 7)1 ^ would drive he at the same speed as the shaft in, but in the opposite direction. If, however, //« is made to revolve in the same di- rection as he, the latter §25 FLY FRAMES 5 makes not only the number of revolutions that it derives through being driven by w,, but an additional number of revolutions caused by the acceleration that h^ gives it. 3. One not acquainted with mechanics may be surprised that h^ causes h^ to be accelerated 2 revolutions for each revolution that //g makes. Since, however, this is a well- known fact, no mathematical proof will be given, but if the privilege of experimenting with a compound in a mill can be obtained it can easily be proved that by holding m^ still and turning h^ around once //« will revolve twice. Another test may be made with an ordinary yarn wrapping reel, in which a similar contrivance is used. It will be found that the reel makes two revolutions when the handle is turned once, although each of the gears that form the compound has the same number of teeth; the handle of the reel acts the same as gear he,. Fig. 2. To take an actual example, suppose that the jack-shaft ni makes 400 revolutions per minute. If lu is held still, Ju will make just 400 revolutions per minute, but in the opposite direction to w,. Supposing that h^ is now caused to revolve 20 times per minute in the same direction as //«, it will be found that h^ makes 440 revolutions per minute, since 400 + (20 X 2) = 440. Suppose that without stopping the frame, the number of revolutions of h^ is automatically reduced to 15; then it will be found that lu makes 430 revolu- tions; thus, 400 -t- (15 X 2) = 430. Suppose, again, that the speed of h^ is decreased to 10 revolutions per minute; then //« will make 420 revolutions, but always in the opposite direc- tion to m,\ thus, 400 + (10 X 2) = 420. If the train of gears between the gear Ju and the bobbins is so arranged that the bobbins make 1\ times as many revolutions as the gear //s, which is on the same sleeve as Ju, then in the first case the bobbins will make 440 x 2^^ = 1,100 revolutions, while in the last case they will make 1,050 revolutions, so that it will be seen that their speed has been automatically reduced from 1,100 to 1,050 revolutions per minute as the bobbin has increased in size. 6 FLY FRAMES §25 It will thus be seen that this arrangement provides the varying conditions necessary for the building of a bobbin. When the roving is being wound on an empty bobbin, the latter must be rotated at its highest speed in order to wind on the roving delivered; this speed is attained by having the cone belt at the large end of the driving cone and the small end of the driven cone. As the roving is wound on the bobbin and the bobbin increases in size, a gradual reduction of the speed of the bobbin is required, so that it may revolve at its slowest speed when the bobbin is full. By this time the cone belt has been moved along the cones until the small end of the driving cone is driving the large end of the driven cone. As the speed of the driven cone gradually diminishes, that of the gear n^ decreases also, since it is driven from the bottom cone. Consequently, the gear h^ will be driven more slowly, as well as the' gear //e and the gears that drive the bobbins, since these are driven from the gear h^, which is on the same sleeve as the gear h^. 4. The compound just described is an old type and is found on most of the older frames. The one great objection to it is the unnecessary strain on the cone belt on account of the friction caused by the sleeve that carries the gears ^e, h^, and also the one that carries the sun gear h^. These sleeves and gears revolve in an opposite direction to that of the jack- shaft m. The compounds shown in Figs. 3, 4, and 5 are built to avoid this fault and are so constructed that all parts revolve in the same direction. Although these styles differ in construc- tion, they all have the same objects in general; that is, they are all constructed to drive the bobbins at a varying speed in order to effect winding, and in the last three types are con- structed to reduce the strain on the cone belt by reducing the amount of friction and thereby reducing the liability of its breaking. The amount of oil consumed is also reduced to a minimum. As far as possible, the parts in Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5 that perform similar work have the same reference letters. Fig. 3 shows a compound that is peculiar in construction but very simple and accurate in its workings. On the main §25 FLY FRAMES shaft in is a boss, or cross-piece, q for the reception of, and to form a bearing for, the small cross-shaft q^ that carries the two bevel gears h-,, h». Loose on the shaft vi is a bell, or, as it is sometimes called, socket, gear //j, which through its con- nections drives the bobbins. Attached to the gear h^ is a bevel gear h^. Beyond the cross-shaft and fast on a sleeve is the gear h^, which is driven from the bottom cone by a train of gears. On the opposite end of this sleeve, which is loose on the shaft vi, is a bevel gear m^ that meshes with the larger bevel gear h^. The shaft m being posi- tively driven at a con- stant speed, imparts motion to the bell gear 7^5, since the cross- shaft q^ and the parts connected with it turn the bevel gear h^ of which hs is a part, and if it were not for the ad- ditional speed imparted through the gear h^. rrrx 8 FLY FRAMES §25 the gear //s would make the same number of revolutions as m; ht, however, is positively driven in the same direction as r?i through the cones, while w,, being on the same sleeve with h^, drives h^ and consequently //, on the other end of the cross- shaft. As h, meshes with //«, the latter and also h^ receive an accelerated motion in addition to that derived through the motion of the shaft 7n. The effect of the combined forces acting on h^ is to cause it to revolve at such an accelerated speed that, when winding is being performed at the beginning of a set of bobbins, the empty bobbins revolve so much faster than the spindles as to wind on the roving delivered by the rolls. As the gear h^ is driven from the bottom cone and the speed of this cone is reduced in the usual manner, the speed of h^ is gradually reduced as the bobbins are built up, resulting in the diminishing of the speed of h^ and /u; the speed of these gears, however, is not reduced at any time so as to be less than the speed of the shaft ?n, thus always insuring that the bobbins revolve faster than the spindles and that winding is constantly taking place. In this compoiind, all the gears that are loose on the shaft m revolve in the same direction as the shaft; thus, the power required to drive them is greatly reduced in compar- ison with the old-style compound, since there is only a very slight amount of friction between the gears and the shaft. An advantage over the older form of compound will be readily seen in the saving of power and the lessening of the strain on the working parts, especially on the cone belt, where the strain is lessened to a very great degree. In this compound, the revolution of the shaft in becomes a help to the cone belt instead of an obstacle, as in the old form of compound. The greatest strain put on the belt is no more than is required to revolve the bobbins at their maximum speed of about 100 revolutions per minute beyond those run by the spindles. The shaft helps to the extent of the num- ber of revolutions that it drives the spindles, and the balance, which varies from 100 revolutions to none, is easily obtained with little strain on the cone belt. It is obvious that with §25 FLY FRAMES the strain thus reduced, the cone belt will almost entirely cease to be a trouble or the cause of bad work. 5. Fig. 4 (a) and (d) shows views of a compound widely different from those described. It uses spur gears instead of bevel gears, thus reducing the amount of friction. The gear ka is on a sleeve that carries at its opposite end a gear m,; this sleeve is loose on the jack-shaft m and revolves in the same direction. The gear /i» is driven by the cones in the usual manner, its speed depending on the position of the belt on the cones, while the gear ;//, causes the gears /i,, //« to revolve on their axes. The annular gear /le, which is fast to the jack-shaft m and revolves with it, gives motion to the disk k,o simply because the gears /i,, /is, which are on studs fastened to the disk, mesh with its teeth. The gears //,, /is have two motions; they revolve on their axes and also around the annular gear k^. Thus, the disk //,o is caused 10 FLY FRAMES §25 to revolve at a greater speed than the jack-shaft, and as it is on the same sleeve as the gear //s, it causes h^ to revolve and give motion to the bobbins. When the speed of the gear h^ is reduced by the cones, it reduces the speed of the gear ;;^,, and consequently that of the gears h.,, hg, as well as that of the gear h^, thus driving the bobbins more slowly. The sleeve that carries the gear hs and the disk //lo is outside of the one that carries the gears h^, m,, but it revolves in the same direction; thus there is a sleeve within a sleeve, form- ing what might be called a double, or compound, sleeve. The gearing in this compound is protected from dust and dirt by a shell or casing, which also forms an oil chamber so that the gears and sleeves are well lubricated at all times. Fig. 4 {a) shows the compound closed and in working posi- tion, while Fig. 4 ((5) shows it open with the internal parts exposed to viev^^. 6. A compound that is novel, compact, and very effective is shown in Fig. 5 ( and turn it until the gear ?i,o on the end of the top-cone shaft engages with the teeth in one of the sections of the gear w^. These two gears continue to engage until a blank section on the gear w^ is presented to Wio, at which point the spring at the foot of the shaft 7v will act on the second lug and further turn the shaft until the arm w^ comes in contact with one of the jaws. The entire motion of the shaft w at any one time is thus equal to half a revolution. It should be noted that although the carriage at the time these actions take place is sufficiently high to allow the arm w^ to pass under the jaw x,, the arm w^, owing to its being situated in a higher plane than zfo, will come in contact with the jaw X3, and as the carriage is lowered, with the jaw x^ also. When the motion of the carriage is down- wards, the arm w^ is bearing against the jaws, and as the jaw Xi is brought low enough to free this arm the shaft w is given a half revolution in the same manner as that described. In making this half revolution, the tumbler shaft accom- plishes a change in three parts of the frame at the same time: (1) The carriage is driven in an opposite direc- tion, that is, if it was going up before, it is going down after the shaft has turned; (2) the belt is moved along the cones for a short distance; (3) the length of the traverse is shortened. Dealing with these points separately and in the order given above, when the tumbler shaft is given a half revolution it turns the cam )u situated at its lower end, a plan view of which is shown in Fig. 1 (c). This action results in giving the rod y, Fig. 1, a longitudinal motion. This rod is jointed to the rod v^ in such a manner that the latter is allowed to revolve without in any way affecting the former, and yet any longitudinal motion of one will affect the other. On the rod zs are shown two gears z\, v., the teeth of which face each other; these are known as the twin sjears. They are so adjusted on the rod that a movement in either direction of the rod y causes one or the other of the two gears to come in contact with the bevel gear v. It will be §25 FLY FRAMES 19 seen that the direction in which the shaft v^ rotates will be periodically reversed; i. e., if it were turning from right to left before the tumbler shaft turned, it will be turning from left to right afterwards. As the carriage is primarily driven by the shaft v^, the direction of movement of the carriage will thus be reversed at every turn of the tumbler shaft. On the tumbler shaft is placed a gear j, that through a suit- able train drives the gear y^ gearing into the rack j^^, which carries at one end a belt guide y^, Fig. 1; consequently, as the tumbler shaft is revolved, the gear y^ will turn j/^, thus giving motion to the rack y^, and through the belt guide y^ moving the belt a short distance toward the small end of the top cone. As the rack is moved, it imparts motion to the gear x^ which through the gear x^ turns the gear x^ and consequently the shaft x^. The movement of the shaft x^ brings the jaws x^, Xs closer together, which allows the arms za^y w, to escape the jaws when the carriage has made a shorter traverse than was previously necessary. 11. Change Gears. — In connection with this builder motion there are the following very important change gears, reference being made to Fig. 1: the lay gear v^, the tension gear y^, the taper gear x^, and the rack gear y^. The lay gear v^ forms part of the train of gears that regulate the speed at which the carriage moves up and down, and con- sequently the distance between any two consecutive coils of roving on the bobbin. In case the correct distance is not maintained between the coils, this gear is the one that is changed. The tension gear y^ regulates the distance that the cone belt moves along the cones at each reversal of the traverse of the carriage, and consequently controls the tension of the roving between the delivery rolls and the flyer, since if the belt is moved a shorter distance along the cones, it causes all the motions controlled by the cone belt to tend toward winding more quickly and thus increase the tension of the roving, while on the other hand if the cone belt is moved a greater distance, the reverse will be true. The taper gear x^ regulates the distance that the jaws of the builder motion will 20 FLY FRAMES §25 be brought toward each other at each reversal of the car- riage, and consequently regulates the taper on the bobbin. The rack gear y^ regulates the distance that the rack moves at any one time, and consequently also regulates both the tension and the taper at the same time. By changing the rack gear to a smaller gear the rack is moved a shorter distance, thus causing the jaws of the builder to come together more slowly and the belt to be moved along the cones more slowly. ENGLISH TYPE OF BUILDER 12. Fig. 8 {a) and {b) shows a style of builder motion that is found on English-built frames. Fig. 8 {a) shows this motion as it appears on the frame, while Fig. 8 {b) shows the motion with certain of the parts removed in order that its action may be more clearly explained. Attached to the carriage of the fly frame is a bracket x that has a slot x^ cast in it. A stud x^ that works in this slot carries a bar x^, known as the poker bar, that passes through a cradle a loose on the shaft b. Attached to the bracket x is an arm y that has connected to it at y^ a cradle c centered at <:,. It should be carefully noted that as the carriage traverses up and down it will carry with it the bracket x and thus cause the poker bar X3 to give a rocking motion to the cradle a. At the same time the cradle c will also receive a rocking motion, due to its being connected to the bracket x by the arm y. A vertical shaft d carries the two gears y., d^. The gear y. engages with the rack y^ that carries the belt guide, while the gear d^ engages with the gear d^, which is fastened to the shaft b. Fastened to the same shaft are the gears e,e^, the gear (?, engaging with teeth on the under side of the poker bar X3 while the gear £> is a ratchet gear and has work- ing in its teeth the stop-pawls ^,,^3. At the top, or head, of the vertical shaft ^ is a drum d^, on which is wound a chain / carrying a weight g; this weight exerts a constant pull on the chain, and were it not for the engagement of the stop- pawls e.,e^ with the teeth of the ratchet gear ) )2S> §25 FLY FRAMES 21 carries at its lower end a stud j, and bracket y, which has two projecting armsy.,/,, while at its upper end the cradle has three projections //,, h^, h^. The projection /;. forms a shoulder against which the two pigeon levers k, k^ are kept in contact by means of the spring k^ that passes under the stud b and is connected to the levers at k^, /C%, respectively, thus exerting a continual pull on the levers k, ^, in a downward direction toward the shaft b. The levers k, k^ are centered on studs k.,, k^ that are secured to the frame. Directly above the points c^, c, of the cradle c are two hooks m^, m^ that form part of the rods ;;/, Wi, respectively. The rod w has the weight 7i attached to its lower end, while at its upper end it passes through the projection h^ of the cradle h. The rod m^ is connected to the cradle h in exactly the same manner and carries the weight ?^,. Consequently, if the weights are not supported at the points c^, c^ by means of the hooks m„ w,, they will be suspended from the projections //j, h^. 13. The operation of the parts is as follows: Assuming that the carriage is ascending, as indicated by the arrow, carrying with it the poker bar x^ and raising the right-hand side of the cradle c, as the rail ascends, the point c^ descends until the rod ;;z with weight n is resting entirely on the end h, of the cradle h; the weight 7i tends to pull h., downwards but is prevented from doing so by the lever k being in contact with the shoulder h^. When the carriage has ascended far enough, the setscrew a^ that is attached to the cradle a forces down the lever k at its outer end, thus releasing the shoulder h^ and allowing the cradle h to be pulled over by the weight n, which as previously stated was hanging from h^, due to the descent of c. Not only does the ascent of r^ allow the rod rn attached to the weight 7i to rest on Ii^, but it simultaneously raises the rod ;«. attached to the weight n^ from the projec- tion //a, by raising the point r, and allowing the weight to be borne by the cradle c at this point, thus avoiding any pull of ?ii on hi and also allowing the cradle // to rock freely. The cradle h carries at its lower extremity the bracket /; there- fore, if the center of motion is at b, any movement of //a will 22 FLY FRAMES §25 cause the shoulder /?, to swing in a similar direction and thus transmit to / a like movement, but in an opposite direction. The downward movement of h^ causes the shoulder //, to swing to the left, and j to swing to the right. In doing so, the arm j-, forces the pawl e^ out of contact with the ratchet e and allows the weight g to rotate the vertical shaft d until the pawl e^ engages with the ratchet e; since e^ and e^ are connected by the spring e^, which has a tendency to draw them together, €., will therefore engage with the ratchet e after it has turned half a tooth. The rotation of the shaft d will communicate motion to the rack y^ by means of the gear y,, thus moving the belt along the cones for a short distance. At the same time, the gear r^ ^ r ,. Solution. — — .. <■ .. or .. -• — = 3.659, draft between front 40 X 44 X 25 X 1 and second rolls. Ans. 6. Cliaiige Gears. — In addition to the calculations given there are several in connection with fly frames that apply- particularly to the gears that should be used to produce satisfactory work. It will readily be understood that if a frame is running on a certain hank roving and it is desired to change to a different hank, certain gears must be changed in order that correct results may be obtained. In changing from one hank to another some or all of the following gears must be altered (the reference letters apply to Fig. 1): (1) the twist gear ;;?3, which alters the speed of the rolls and regulates the t.urns per inch placed in the roving; (2) the tension gear js, which regulates the movement of the belt along the cones; (3) the draft gear /, which alters the hank of the roving delivered; (4) the taper gear x^, which alters the taper of the bobbin; (5) the lay, or traverse, gear zu, which alters the speed of the traverse of the carriage. These are the American names for these gears; the English builder motion is different from the American and the English name for tension gear is rack wheel, for taper gear is taper wheel, and for lay gear is lifter wheel. 6 FLY FRAMES §26 The most important change to make is in the draft change gear, which regulates the size of the roving. It is generally customary at the same time to change the twist gear, because this should vary with every change in the hank of the roving. The tension gear is also frequently changed. It is not custom- ary, however, to change the lay gear unless the change in the hank of the roving is extensive. If the slubber roving is changed .3 hank, the first intermediate roving .5 hank, the second intermediate roving .75 hank, or the finished roving a whole hank, the lay gear will ordinarily be changed. It is seldom that the taper gear is changed in the mill, since the gear that is placed on the frame by the builders usually serves for the range of different hank roving that the frame is intended to make. It is important to bear in mind whether an increase or decrease in the size of a gear must be made to produce certain results. On the usual construction of American-built frames, in making a change to produce finer work the draft gear, the twist gear, the lay gear, and the tension gear would be changed to smaller gears; on the other hand, if the frame must be changed to make coarser work, they would be changed for larger gears, if required to be changed at all. The same statement is correct with regard to English-built frames, or American-built frames having an English type of builder, with the exception of the tension gear, which in case of changing the frame finer, would be changed to a gear having a larger number of teeth, or in case of changing the frame coarser, to a gear having a smaller number of teeth. The following rules apply to the method of figuring the different change gears when the gears that are on the frame and the hank roving being produced are known. From the calculations previously given it is possible to obtain the draft and twist gears without this data, but for the tension and lay gears this data is always necessary, since the correct gear for starting up a frame was obtained by the builders largely by experiment and not by calculation. Even when the gear to use for a certain hank roving is known, the calculated gear for another hank does not always give satisfactory 1 §26 FLY FRAMES 7 results, since the changing of these gears is largely a matter of experience and observation, owing to a number of dif- ferent points affecting the results produced b\^ them, such as the amount of twist put in the roving, the condition of the cone belt, the number of times that the roving is wound around the presser on the flyer, and so forth. 7. To find the draft gear to be used for a certain hank roving when the draft gear that is on and the hank roving that it produces are known: Rule. — Multiply the draft gear being used by the hank roving that it produces^ and divide the result by the hank roving that is to be made. Example. — If 4-hank roving is being produced with a 32-tooth draft gear, what draft gear will a 6-hank roving require? Solution.— 32 X 4 = 128; 128 ^ 6 = 21.333, or practically a 21-tooth draft gear. Ans. 8. To find the twist gear to be used for a certain hank roving when the twist gear that is on and the hank roving that is produced are known: Rule. — Multiply the square root of the hank being made by the twist gear, a7id divide by the square root of the hank required. In examples in which the diameter of the roving affects the size of the gear to be used it is necessary to consider the square roots of the hanks, since the diameters of rovings vary inversely as the square roots of their hanks. Example. — If .36-hank roving is being made with a 54-tooth gear, what twist gear is required for a .64-hank? Solution.— -^m - .6; \C64 = .8;. 6 X 54 = 32.4; 32.4 ^ .8 = 40.5. Either a 41-tooth or a 40-tooth gear may be used. Ans. 9. To find the tension gear to be used for a certain hank roving when the tension gear that is on and the hank roving that is produced are known, the frame having the American type of builder: Rule. — Multiply the sqtiare root of the hank being made by the tension gear, and divide by the sqjiare root of the ha^ik required. 8 FLY FRAMES §26 Example. — If .36-hank roving is being made with a 50-tooth tension gear, what tension gear is required for a .64-hank? Solution.— V^6 = .6; V764 = .8; .6 X 50 = 30; 30 -=- .8 = 37.5. Either a 37-tooth or a 38-tooth gear may be used. Ans. To find the tension gear to be used for a certain hank roving when the tension gear that is on and the hank roving that is produced are known, the frame having the English type of builder: Rule. — Multiply the square root of the hank required by the iensio?i gear, a?id divide by the sqtcare root of the hank being made. Example. — If .36-hank roving is being made with a 20-tooth tension gear, what tension gear is required for a .64-hank? Solution.— V73'6 = .6; 4m = .8; .8 X 20 = 16; 16 -^ .6 = 26.666. A 27-tooth gear would be used. Ans. 10. To find the lay gear to be used for a certain hank roving when the lay gear that is on and the hank roving that is produced are known: Rule. — Multiply the square 7'oot of the hank being made by the lay gear, and divide by the square root of the hank reqtdred. Example. — If .36-hank roving is being made with a 33-tooth gear, what lay gear is required for a .64-hank? Solution.— 3 20 14 30 26 12 24 12 24 17 Sec. Page Bobbins, Mechanisms for control- ling speed of 25 Method of driving the . . 24 " Rule to find the speed of the 26 shafts. Methods of driv- ing 25 Traverse of 24 Bolster, The 24 Bottom rolls 20 Box, Comb 18 Scale 17 Breaker, Bale 16 Floor space of a ... . 17 picker 17 Draft of a ... . 17 pickers 17 Breakers, Care of bale 16 Breaking of ends 26 out 26 British and American wires . ... 19 Brown Egyptian cotton 14 Brush 18 and hackle comb 19 Burnishing 19 tin 22 Builder, American type of .... 25 English type of 25 motions 25 Build of bobbin 26 Burnishing 19 brush 19 Cage sections 17 Calculations, Card cloth 19 Change gear 26 relating to fly frames 26 Speed 18 Calender rolls 22 " Smooth 17 Vll VIU INDEX Cam-shaft Capacity of automatic feeders . . Carborundum wheel Card cloth calculations clothing English method of numbering . . . . Noggs and points in construction cylinders frame gearing Grinding a new Production of the ... Roller-and-clearer . . . room, Management of Setting the Carding beater , Double Cards, Care of Cotton Dimensions of Method of clothing .... Stripping Weight and horsepower of Care of cards drawing frame feeders f^y frames " machinery, Proper . . . . " pickers " rolls Causes of uneven laps Central barrel stock Change gear calculations gears Chisel-point wire Chute, Waste Classification and selection of cotton Cleaning and oiling pickers .... the comber . . bars, Inclined the stripping roll . . . . Clearer-and-roller card Clearers and traverse motions . . Clocks, Hank Cloth covering. Method of putting Sec. 22 16 19 19 19 19 19 18 19 18 18 18 19 18 19 19 19 18 17 19 19 18 19 19 18 19 19 18 19 21 16 26 19 17 26 17 22 22 26 17 25 19 22 on Roller Pase 20 27 55 15 9 20 19 3 1 16 26 33 46 42 5 70 56 1 29 1 1 29 42 22 32 42 29 38 27 15 73 39 19 40 22 22 5 37 19 12 25 27 42 28 14 35 5 33 15 Sec. Page Clothing, Card 19 9 cards. Method of .... 19 22 Cylinder and dofTer ... 19 23 English method of num- bering card 19 20 Noggs and points in card 19 19 flats 19 22 Coiler 18 31 " head 18 31 Comb box 18 30 Combing by the top .... 22 34 Doffer 18 30 22 25 Setting the doffer 19 69 " stripping .... 19 68 "top 23 10 Timing the top 23 23 Comber, Construction of double- nip 22 47 Construction of single- nip 22 13 construction of. Varia- tions in 22 45 Double-nip 22 47 Gearing of a 22 41 Management of the ... 23 25 " Oiling and cleaning the . 23 28 Principal motions of the 22 15 Purpose of double-nip . 22 47 Single-nip 22 13 Speed of 23 29 Combers 22 1 23 1 Setting various parts of 23 4 Size of gauge settings for 23 3 Combing by the top comb 22 34 Double 23 25 equipment 22 1 operation by the half-lap 22 22 Combs, Flat-stripping 18 24 Common rolls 20 1 Compound motion 25 3 Condenser and gauge box 17 1 Conductors, Electric 21 27 Cones, The 25 13 Connecting sections. Method of . . 20 3 Constant for twist. Rule to find . . 26 4 Constants, Twist 26 11 Construction, Card 18 . 3 Former methods of card 19 1 of card clothing . . 19 9 "double-nip comber .... 22 47 " drawing frames 21 IS " fly frames .... 24 1 INDEX IX Sk. Construction of singrle-nip comber 22 sliver-lap ma- chine 22 sliver-lap ma- chine 22 the breaker picker 17 Variations in comber ... .22 Controlling: speed of bobbins ... 25 Cotton 14 American 14 at the mill, Receipt of . . . 16 Baling 14 Bloom of 14 Brown Egyptian 14 cards 18 " 19 " 19 characteristics, Tables of 14 Classification of 14 cultivation 14 Dampness of 14 Dirt and sand in 14 Exportation of 14 Fair 14 fiber, Measurements of . . 14 Structure of the ... 14 Ginning and baling .... 14 Grade of 14 Growth and development of 14 Gulf, or New Orleans ... 14 Judging 14 Long-stapled 14 Low middling 14 Marketing 14 markets of the United States 14 Medium-stapled 14 to long-stapled . . 14 Middling 14 AI ill purchases of 14 mixing 16 Varieties of .... 16 Ordinary 14 pickers 17 Principal species of ... . 14 Quantity and quality of . . 14 regions. Productive .... 14 " samples 14 Sea-island 14 Selection of 14 Short-stapled ........ 14 Staple of 14 stock. Condition of .... 16 Testing yarns and fabrics containing 14 Page 13 45 1 1 13 6 26 30 15 1 1 29 16 27 1 30 29 34 28 8 5 16 28 17 28 27 32 20 18 28 33 6 9 28 1 1 9 10 27 12 27 21' 29 1 Sec. Page Cotton, Texas 14 15 Uplands 14 14 used in America 14 12 yarn mills 16 2 " Production of .... 16 2 Cottons of the world 14 9 Counts 19 21 Cover, Licker 18 16 Covering for rolls. Leather ... 20 8 Method of putting on cloth 20 7 Method ofputtingon leather 20 12 top rolls 20 6 Cradle 23 11 Creel i-s 28 Creeling 26 14 Cultivation, Cotton 14 1 Cushion plate ". . 22 17 settings 2;? 9 Cylinder 22 22 and doffer. Clothing ... 19 23 Grinding the . 19 44 end waste 19 41 screen 18 26 Setting the ... . 19 66 Cylinders, Card is 16 D Dampness of cotton 14 30 Dead rolls 19 37 Deadweighting 20 25 Defects of fly frames 26 21 Delivery of the stock 22 37 roll 22 26 Timing the motions of the 23 22 Detaching, Placing rolls in posi- tion for 23 20 position, Removing de- taching roll from . . 2:? 22 roll. Distance of blocks from bearings of . . 23 20 Development and growth of cotton 14 2 Device, Stripping 16 20 Diameter of wire 19 13 Differential motions 25 1 Dimensions of cards 18 42 tiy frames 24 27 Dirt and sand in cotton 14 29 Doflfer 18 27 18 40 and cylinder. Clothing ... 19 23 Grinding the 19 44 beater 16 23 comb 18 30 INDEX Sec. Doffer comb 22 " Setting the 19 " Setting the 19 23 Doffing 26 Double-bar traverse motions ... 20 boss rolls 20 " carding 19 combing 23 nip comber 22 Draft 18 gear, Rule to find 26 in fly frames 26 of a breaker picker 17 intermediate and finisher pickers 17 Drafts of fly frames 26 Draw box 22 " Setting 23 Drawing frame, Arrangement of . 21 Care of 21 " " gearings 21 Space occupied by a 21 frames 21 and railway heads 21 " " Management of . 21 " processes. Number of . 21 rolls 20 " Method of driving the 24 " " of a slubber .... 24 " Settings of 20 Driving bobbin shaft.s 25 the bobbins 24 " drawing rolls 24 " spindles 24 E Economy of management 19 Egyptian cotton, Brown 14 Electric conductors 21 stop-motion 21 Emery wheel 19 Ends, Breaking of 26 •' Slack 26 English counts 19 " method of numbering card clothing 19 type of builder 25 Equipment, Combing 22 Evener adjusting screw 17 motion 21 motions 17 Exportation of cotton 14 Page 25 69 64 15 17 39 5 8 25 47 41 7 9 20 39 4 39 16 IS 3S 33 40 17 1 35 17 1 24 5 21 22 26 24 26 F Sec. Fabrics and yarns containing cot- ton. Testing 14 Fair cotton 14 Feeder, Automatic 16 16 Feeding and opening machine . . 16 pickers, Methods of . . . 17 Two-roll method of . . . 18 Feed-motion 22 " plate 18 " Setting the 19 " roll 17 " 18 and beater adjustments . 17 Operation of 17 " Setting the top 23 settings 23 rolls 22 " Timing the 23 Fiber, Measurements of the cotton 14 Structure of the cotton . . . 14 Fillet 19 winding machine 19 Filleting 19 Finisher and intermediate pickers 17 and intermediate pickers. Draft of 17 Flat card, Revolving-top 18 Stationary-top .... 19 point wire 19 stripping combs 18 Flats 18 18 " Clothing 19 Grinding the 19 " Setting the 19 Floor space occupied by drawing frame 21 of a breaker 17 Fluted segment 22 Flyer, The 24 Flyers, Imperfect 26 Fly frame. Rule to find production of 26 " frames 24 25 26 Care of 26 Defects of 26 Dimensions of 24 Draft in 26 Drafts of 26 Gearing 24 Horsepower required to drive 24 Management of .... 26 Page 9 28 17 26 17 1 12 15 34 27 16 6 16 18 8 5 15 25 15 23 39 3 2 12 24 19 40 22 47 57 40 21 22 5 22 8 1 1 1 15 21 27 9 4 24 29 1 INDEX XI Ser. Page Fly frames, Oiling 26 19 Principal motions of . 25 1 Speed of 26 12 Starting 26 9 Footstep bearing 24 9 Formation of the lap 19 8 Frame, Arrangement of drawing . 21 18 Card 18 26 Care of drawing 21 38 Frames, Drawing 21 17 Fly 24 1 ^lanagement of drawing . 21 35 Frequency of stripping cards ... 19 33 Front knife plate 18 29 " Setting the ... 19 69 Full-bobbin stop-motion 25 26 " lap stop-motion 22 6 G Gauge box and condenser 17 1 " settings for combers, Size of 23 3 Gauges 19 57 Table of A m e r i c a n and British wire 19 13 used in setting combers . 23 2 Gear calculations. Change .... 26 5 " Index 23 17 " Twist 24 24 (iearing 17 19 Card 18 .33 Fly-frame 24 24 of a comber 22 41 of a picker 17 37 of the automatic feeder . 16 26 Gearings, Drawing-frame 21 33 Gears, Change 17 37 25 19 Twin 25 18 Gin, Knife-roller 14 24 ■■ Macarthy 14 25 " Roller 14 24 •• Saw 14 16 (Winning and baling cotton 14 16 Good middling cotton 14 28 ordinary cotton 14 28 Gossypium arboreum 14 1 barbadense 14 1 herbaceum 14 1 hirsutura 14 1 Grade of cotton 14 28 Grate bars. Inclined 17 14 Grid bars 17 11 Grinder. Horsfall 19 38 Traverse 19 38 Grinding 19 36 Grinding a new card Operation of .... Plow Preparation for . . rolls the flats 19 •' licker 19 Growth and development of cotton 14 Guide, Traverse Gulf, or NewOrleens, cotton H Hackle comb and brush. Setting the 19 Half lap 22 Hank clocks 24 Rule to find average .... 26 Head. Coiler 18 Principal parts of the rail- way 21 Herbaceum, Gossypium 14 Hirsutum, Gossypium 14 Horsehead motion 25 Horsepower and weight of cards . 18 required to draw fly frames 24 Horsfall grinder . 19 Sec. Page 19 46 19 44 19 12 19 40 19 36 19 47 19 54 14 2 24 5 14 14 Imperfect flyers Incorrect traverse Index gear Indicator, Speed Inserting twist. Method of Intermediate and finisher pickers 17 finisher pickers, Draft of ... 17 Jack-shaft 24 24 Judging cotton 14 27 K Knife beater 17 9 " Nipper 22 19 " plate. Back 18 19 Front 18 29 " Setting the 19 67 roller gin 14 25 Knives, Mote 18 14 Lap, Formation of the '■ Half " head " rack " roll Weight of 1' 17 7 17 17 17 16 17 41 Xll INDEX Laps, Causes of uneven Lay gear. Rule to find the Leather covering for rolls Method of put- ting on ... . detaching roll detaching roll. Setting the top roll from Lever-weighting Licker cover Grinding the screen Setting the .... Setting the ^ Licking Lifting apron Long-stapled cotton Medium to Loose-boss rolls Low middling cotton Sec. 17 26 20 M Macarthy gin Machine, Feeding and opening . . Fillet-winding Ribbon-lap Sliver-lap Machinery, Proper care of . . . . Machines, Arrangement of ... . Setting of sliver-lap . . Settings of ribbon-lap . Making-up pieces Management, Economy of .... of card room .... " " drawing frames . " " fly frames .... " the comber room Marketing cotton Markets of the United States, Cot- ton Measurements of cotton fiber . . . Measuring motion Mechanical stop-motions Mechanism for controlling speed of bobbins Medium-stapled cotton to long-stapled cotton . . Metallic rolls Method of driving the bobbins . . the drawing rolls the spindles . . " feeding. Two-roll . . . " " inserting twist Pase 40 Sec. Page Method of mixing 16 8 Methods of driving bobbin shafts . 25 22 stripping cards .... 19 32 Middling cotton 14 28 fair cotton 14 28 Mill purchases of cotton 14 33 " Receipt of cotton at the ... 16 6 Mills, Object of cotton-yarn ... 16 2 Mixing cotton 16 6 Method of 16 S Size of the 16 7 varieties of cotton 16 9 Mote knives 18 14 Motion, Compound 25 3 Double-bar traverse ... 20 39 " Evener 21 7 Horsehead 25 22 Measuring 17 32 Piecing-up 22 '25 Vertical and angle shaft . 25 23 Motions, Builder 25 14 Clearers and traverse . . 20 33 Differential 25 1 Evener 17 25 of fly frames 25 1 " the comber 22 15 " delivery roll. Timing the . . . 23 22 Traverse 20 35 Weight-relieving .... 20 32 N Needle-ground wire 19 12 point wire 19 12 New card, Grinding a 19 46 Orleans, or Gulf, cotton ... 14 14 Nipper knife 22 19 rods. Adjusting the .... 23 12 Nippers 22 17 Nogg 19 17 Noggs and points in card clothing 19 19 Non-conductors 21 27 Numbering card clothing 19 20 Number of drawing processes . . 21 17 O Object of combing 22 1 Objects of carding 18 1 Oiling and cleaning pickers .... 17 42 the comber . . 23 28 fly frames 26 19 Opener 16 27 Opening and feeding machine ... 16 17 Operation of feed roll 17 27 " grinding 19 44 '■ ribbon-lap machine . 22 8 INDEX Xlll Operation of single-nip comber . . 'Ji " sliver-lap machine . . '21 " stripping cards ... 19 " the breaker picker . . 17 " ■' electric stop-mo- tion 21 Operations of the rolls -2 Ordinary cotton 14 P Pans. Setting sliver Passage of the stock Picker. Breaker Draft of a breaker Gearing of a Objects of the breaker . . rooms Pickers " Breaker Care of Cotton Draft of intermediate and finisher Intermediate and finisher . Methods of feeding .... Pieces, Making-up Piecing of roving " up motion Placing detaching and top rolls in position Plate, Back knife Cushion Front knife Setting of the back knife . . Plow-grinding Points, Adjusting and noggs in card clothing Poker bar Porcupine beater Position, Placing detaching and top rolls in Preparation for grinding Principal species of cotton Principles of carding Production of a fly frame " the card Quality of Quantity of Purchases of cotton. Mill Purpose of double-nip comber . . Q Quality and quantity of cotton . . of production Quantity of production and quality of cotton . . Sfc. PaRf K Sec. Page 22 13 Rack, Lap 17 17 22 3 Rail, Stripping 17 13 19 34 Railway head, Pr in c i pal parts of 17 r> the 21 3 heads and drawing frames 21 1 Recipes for roll varnish 20 13 Regulation of air-current 17 39 Revolving brush 23 14 top flat card IS 3 Ribbon-lap machine 22 S machines, Settings of 22 11 Rigid-blade beater 17 9 Rods. Adjusting the nipper .... 23 12 Roll, Cleaning the stripping .... 19 3-5 Delivery 22 2t) " Lap 17 IH Leather detaching 22 27 " Top 22 29 varnish. Recipes for 20 13 Roller-and-clearer card 19 -5 cloth 20 7 " gin 14 24 Rolls, Advantage of metallic . . 20 17 Bottom 20 1 Calender 22 37 Care of 1f> 19 Common 20 1 Covering top 20 6 Dead 19 37 Double-boss 20 .5 Drawing 20 1 Grinding 19 36 Leather covering for .... 20 8 Loose-boss 20 ,5 '■ Metallic 20 15 Method of driving the draw- ing 24 24 of a slubber. Drawing ... 24 .5 Operations of the 22 29 Rules governing setting of . 20 is Scouring 20 39 Setting and weighting ... 20 IS top 20 24 Settings of drawing .... 20 21 Single-boss 20 .t Smooth calender 17 16 Solid-boss 20 5 " Top 20 4 Room, Management of the comber 23 2.5 Rooms, Location of picker .... 16 14 Picker 16 13 Roving on the bobbin. Winding 14 9 the 24 17 19 70 " Piecing of 26 16 19 72 " Running over and under 14 9 of the 26 22 XIV INDEX Sec. Page Roving scales 26 24 Tension of 26 13 Rule to find average hank 26 9 " find production of a fly frame 26 8 " find the constant for twist 26 4 " find the draft gear .... 26 7 " find the lay gear 26 8 find the length of filleting for cylinder dofTer .... 10 2.5 " find the number of sec- tions of a mixing .... 16 8 " find the points per square foot of card clothing . . 19 17 " find the speed of the bob- bins 36 4 " find the tension gear ... 26 7 '■ find the twist gear 26 7 Rules governing setting of rolls . . 20 IS to find the twists or turns per inch 26 3 Running over and under of the roving 26 22 S Samples, Cotton 14 27 Sand and dirt in cotton 14 29 Saw gin 14 16 Scale box 17 2.5 Scales, Roving 26 24 Scouring rolls 20 39 Screen. Cylinder 18 26 Licker 18 16 Setting the cylinder . ... 19 66 " licker 19 67 Screw, Evener adjusting 17 35 Sea-island cotton 14 12 Sections, Method of connecting . . 20 3 Segment, Fluted 22 22 Selection of cotton 14 27 ■■ skins 20 10 Self-weighting 20 25 Setting and timing combers .... 23 1 " weighting rolls .... 20 is combers 23 2 draw box 23 16 of rolls. Rules governing. 20 18 sliver pans 23 16 the back knife plate .... 19 67 " brush and hackle comb 19 69 " card 19 .56 " cylinder screen .... 19 66 " doffer 19 64 23 15 comb 19 69 " feed-plate 19 66 Setting the flats " front knife plate . . . . " grid bars " licker screen " stripping comb . . . . " top comb " top feed-roll "top roll from leather detaching roll .... " various parts of comb- ers Sec. Page 19 57 19 68 17 12 19 64 19 67 19 68 23 10 23 16 23 21 top rolls Settings, Cushion plate Feed-roll for combers. Size of gauge , Minor of drawing rolls " ribbon-lap machines . " sliver-lap machines . Shafts. Methods of driving bobbin Short-stapled cotton Side-ground wire Single-boss rolls nip comber Size of gauge settings for combers " the mixing Sizing Skins, Selection of Slack ends Sliver lap machine " machines, Settings of . . pans. Setting stop-motion Slubber, Drawing rolls of a ... . The Smooth calender rolls Solid-boss rolls Speed of fly frames Spindles, Method of driving the . . Splitting Species of cotton. Principal .... Speed calculations indicator of bobbins. Mechanisms for controlling " comber " the bobbins Speeders Spindle, The Staple of cotton Starting fly frames Stationary-top flat card Stock, Central 23 4 20 24 23 9 23 6 23 3 23 12 20 21 22 11 22 6 25 22 14 21 19 T? 20 5 22 13 23 3 16 7 26 23 20 10 26 21 18 2 22 3 22 6 23 16 22 6 24 5 24 4 17 16 20 5 26 12 24 26 17 40 14 1 18 39 19 75 25 1 23 29 26 4 24 2 24 8 14 29 26 9 19 2 22 22 INDEX XV Sec. Page stock, Condition of cotton .... 16 1 Delivery of the 22 37 Passage of the 22 14 " " 24 4 Stop-motion, Electric 21 26 Full-bobbin 2,'i 26 Full-lap 22 6 " " Operation of the elec- tric 21 28 " motions 21 23 25 26 Sliver 22 6 Stripping cards 19 32 comb. Setting the .... 19 68 device 16 20 rail 17 13 roll. Cleaning the .... 19 35 Structure of the cotton fiber . . . 14 5 T Table of American and British wire gauges 19 13 'i cushion plate settings . 23 9 " dimensions of fly frames 24 28 " English counts 19 22 " feed-roll settings .... 23 6 " " gauge settings for com- 23 3 " " horsepower required to draw fly frames . . 24 29 " long-stapled cotton . . 14 17 " medium-stapled cotton 14 20 " " " to long-stapled cotton . . . 14 18 " " noggs and points in card clothing . . . . 19 19 " " settings of drawing rolls 20 21 " short-stapled cotton . . Xi 21 " twist constants .... 26 11 '" " weights of lap 17 41 Tables of cotton characteristics 14 16 Teeth 19 26 11 Tension gear. Rule to find the . . of roving 26 13 Testing yarns and fabrics contain- ing cotton 14 9 Texas cotton 14 15 o-^ 17 and setting combers . . . 23 1 the feed 23 18 " motions of the delivery roll 0-^ 22 " nippers 23 18 " top comb 23 23 Tin, Brush 22 2P Top comb. Combing by the .... Setting the Timing the ground wire roll " in position, Placing the . . " from leather detaching roll, Setting the " weighting rolls Covering " Setting Traverse grinder guide . Incorrect •. motions ... " " Double-bar . . of bobbins Trunk, Horizontal cleaning .... Plain conducting Trunking Trunks. Inclined cleaning . . Turns or twists per inch. To find Twin gears Twist gear Rule to find Method of inserting .... Ru,le to find the constant for Twists or turns per inch ..... Two-roll method of feeding .... Type of builder, American .... English Types of beaters U Uneven laps. Causes of 17 United States, Cotton markets of the 14 Uplands cotton 14 Variations in comber construction 22 Varieties of cotton, Mi,xing differ- ent 16 Varnishing 20 Vertical and angle shaft motion . . 25 W Waste 18 23 chute 22 Cylinder-end 19 Weight and horsepower of cards 18 relieving motions 20 'Veighting and setting rolls .... 20 Sff. /'age 22 34 23 10 23 23 19 12 22 29 23 20 23 21 20 24 20 4 20 6 20 24 19 38 24 5 26 22 20 35 20 39 24 21 16 28 16 28 16 28 16 30 26 3 25 18 26 10 24 . 24 26 7 24 16 26 4 26 3 18 12 25 16 25 20 17 8 XVI INDEX Weighting:. Top-roll 20 Weights of lap 17 Wheel, Carborundum 19 " Emery 19 Winding the roving on the bobbin 24 Wire, Chisel-point 19 Diameter of 19 Flat-point 19 Needle-ground 19 point 19 Sec. Page Sec. Page 24 Wire, Side-ground 19 12 41 " Top-ground 19 12 55 Wiregauges, British and American 19 13 54 World, Cottons of the 14 9 Y Yarn-preparation processes ... 16 1 Production of cotton ... 16 2 Yarns and fabrics containing cot- ton, Testing 14 9 cyr/^-so