(FJjp 1. 1. HtU Cibrarg ?Jurth (Earolina ^tatp (TolUgp QHe4*l H33 •aWer. =^«. CHARLES R. SANDERS, JR. Americana-Southeastern States 123 Montgomery Street Raleigh, North Carolina This book is due on the dat e indicate d below and is subject to a fine of •IBPi^ENTS a day thereafter. l!lllll|l«ll|iUlllllllliill|iill!lillia«'"3!lliiilil^^^^^^^^^^^ ■^^^^^^^^^^^ THE POLAE WORLD: A POPULAR DESCRIPTION OP MAN AND NATURE ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC REGIONS OF THE GLOBE. By Dr. G. HARTWIG, .VUTUOR OF 'THE SEA AND ITS LIVING WONDERS," "THE HARMONIES OF NATURE,' AND "THE TROPICAL WORLD." WITH ADDITIOML CHAPTERS AND ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY THREE ILLUSTRATIONS. N E W YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE. 1869. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by HARPER & BROTHERS, In the Clerk's Othce of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. PREFACE 'T^HE object of the following pages is to describe the Polar World in its principal natural features, to point out the influence of its long winter- night and fleeting summer on the development of vegetable and animal ex- istence, and finall|(^to picture man waging the battle of life against the dread- ful climate of the high latitudes of our globe either as the inhabitant of their gloomy solitudes, or as the bold investigator of their mysteries. The table of contents shows the great variety of interesting subjects em- braced within a comparatively narrow compass ; and as my constant aim has been to convey solid instruction under an entertaining form, I venture to hope that the public will grant this new work the favorable reception given to my previous writings. G. Hartwig. NOTE BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR. "T HAVE made no alterations in the text of Dr. Hartwig's book beyond -^ changing the orthography of a few geographical and ethnological terms so that they shall conform to the mode of representation usual in our maps and books of travel. For example, I substitute Mud ZemUa for " Novaya Zemla," and Samdiedes for "Samojedes." Here and there throughout the work I have added a sentence or a paragraph. ' The two chapters on " Alaska " and " The Innuits " have been supplied by me ; and for them Dr. Hartwig is in no way responsible. The Illustrations have been wholly selected and arranged by me. I found at my disposal an immense number of illustrations which seemed to me bet- ter to elucidate the text than those introduced by Dr. Hartwig. In the List of Illustrations the names of the authors to whom I am indebted are sup- vi PREFACE. plied. The following gives the names of the authors, and the titles of the works from which the illustrations have been taken : Atkinson, Thojeas Witla:\i : "Travels in the Regions of the Upper Amoor;" and "Oriental and Western Siberia. " Browne, J. Ross : " The Land of Thor." DuFFERiN, Lord : "Letters from High Latitndes." Hall, Charles Francis : "Arctic Researches, and Life among the Esquimaux."' Harper's Magazine : The Illustrations credited to this periodical have been furnished during many years by more than a score of travellers and voyagers. They are in every case authentic. Lamont, James : " Seasons with the Sea-Horses ; or, Sporting Adventui-es in the Northern Seas." Milton, Viscount : "North-west Passage by Land." WiiYMPER, Frederick : "Alaska, and British America." Wood, Rev. J. G. : "Natm-al History- ;" and "Homes without Hands." I trust that I have throughout wrought in the spirit of the author ; and that my labors will enhance the value of his admirable b^k. A. IT. G. CONTENTS CHAPTER I. THE ARCTIC LANDS. The barren Grounds or Tundri. — Abundance of animal Life on the Tundri in Summer. — Their Silence and Desolation in Winter. — Protection afforded to Vegetation by the Snow* — Flower-growth in the highest Latitudes. — Character of Tundra Vegetation. — Southern Boundar_v-line of the barien Grounds. — Their Extent. — The forest Zone. — Arctic Trees. — Slowness of their Growth. — Monotony of the Northern Forests. — Mosquitoes. — The various Causes which determine the Severity of an Arctic Climate. — Insular and Continental Position. — Currents. — Winds. — Extremes of Cold observed bv Sir E. Belcher and Dr. Kane. — How is Man able to support the Rigors of an Arctic Winter? — Proofs of a milder Climate having once reigned in the Arctic Regions. — Its Cause according to Dr. Oswald Heer.— Peculiar Beauties of the Arctic Regions. — Sunset.^Long lunar Nights.— The Aurora Page 17 CHAPTER IL ARCTIC LAND QUADRUPEDS AND BIRDS. The Reindeer. — Structure of its Foot. — Clattei-ing Noise when walking. — Antlers. — Extraordinary olfactory Powers. — The Icelandic Moss. — Present and Former Range of the Rgindeer. — Its invalu- able Qualities as an Arctic domestic Animal. — Revolts against Oppression. — Enemies of the Rein- deer.— The Wolf.— The Gluiton or Wolverine.— Gad-flies.— The Elk or Moose-deer. — The Musk- ox. — The Wild Sheep of the Rocky Mountains.— The Siberian Argali. — The Arctic Fox.— Its Bur- rows. — The Lemmings. — Their Migrations and Enemies. — Arctic Anatida?. — The Snou-bnnting. — The Lapland Bunting.— The Sea-eagle.— Drowned by a Dolphin • , . .84 CHAPTER III. THE ARCTIC SEAS. Dangers peculiar to the Arctic Sea. — Ice-fields. — Hummocks. — Collision of Ice-fields. — Icebergs. — Their Origin. — Their Size. — The Glaciers which give them Birth.— Their Beauty. — Sometimes useful Auxiliaries to the Mariner. — Dangers of anchoring to a Berg. — A crumbling Berg. — The Ice-blink. —Fogs. — Transparency of the Atmosphere. — Phenomena of Reflection ami Refraction. — Causes which prevent the Accumulation of Polar Ice. — Tides.— Currents. — Ice a bad Conductor of Heat.— Wise Provisions of Nature ■!"> CHAPTER IV. ARCTIC MARINE ANIMALS. Populousness of the Arctic Seas. —The Greenland Whale. —The Fin Whales.— The Narwhal.— The Beluga, or White Dolphin.— The Black Dolphin.— His wholesale Massacre on the Facroe Isl- ands.— The Ore, or Grampus.— The Seals.— The Walrus.— Its acute Smell.— History of a young Walrus.— Parental Affection.- The Polar Bear.— His Sagacity.— Hibernation of the She-bear.— Sea-birds 59 CHAPTER V. ICELAND. Volcanic Origin of the Island.— The Klofa Ji3kul.— Lava-streams.— The Burning Mountains of Krisn- vik.— The Mud-caldrons of Reykjahlid.— The Tungo-hver at Reykholt— The Great Geysi''-— Tlie ^iii CONTENTS. Strokkr.— Crystal Pools.— The Almannagja.— The Surts-hellir.— Beautiful Ice-cave.— The Gotha Foss.— The Detti Foss.— Climate.— Vegetation.— Cattle.— Barbarous Mode of Sheep-sheering.— Reindeer.— Polar Bears.— Birds.— The Eider-duck.— Videy.—Vigr.— The Wild Swan. — The Ra- ven.— The Jerfalcon.— The Giant auk, or Geirfugl.— Fish.— Fishing Season.— The Wliite Shark.— Mineral Kingdom.— Sulphur.— Peat.— Drift-wood " Page 68 CHAPTER VI. HISTORY OF ICELAND. Discovery of the Island by Naddodr in 861.— Gardar.— Floki of the Ravens.— Ingolfr and Leif.— Ulfliot the Lawgiver.— The Althing.— Thingvalla.— Introduction of Christianity into the Island.— Fred- erick the Saxon and Thorwold the Traveller.— Thangbrand.— Golden Age of Icelandic Literature. — Snorri Sturleson. — The Island submits to Ilakon, King of Norway, in 1254.— Long Series of Ca- lamities.— Great Eruption of the Skapta Jokul in 1783.— Commercial Monopoly.— Better Times in Prospect 89 CHAPTER VII. THE ICELANDERS. Skalholt.— Reykjavik.— The Fair.— The Peasant and the Merchant.— A Clergyman in his Cups.— Hay- making.— The Icelander's Hut.— Churches.— Poverty of the Clergy.— Jon Thorlaksen.— The Semi- nary of Reykjavik.— Beneficial Influence of the Clergy.— Home Education.— The Icelander's Winter's Evening.— Taste for Literature.— The Language.— The Public Library at Reykjavik.— The Icelandic Literary Society.— Icelandic Newspapers.— Longevity.— Leprosy. — Travelling in Iceland.— Fording the Rivers.— Crossing of the Skeidara by Mr. Holland.— A Night's Bivouac 98 CHAPTER VIII. THE WESTMAN ISLANDS. The W^estmans.— Their extreme Difficulty of Access.— How they became peopled.— Heimaey. — Kaufstathir and Ofanleyte.— Sheep-hoisting.— Egg-gathering.— Dreadful Mortality among the Children. —The pinklofi.— Gentleman John.— The Algerine Pirates.— Dreadful Sufferings of the Islanders .* '. 114 ♦ CHAPTER IX. C FROM DRONTHEIM TO THE NORTH CAPE. Mild Climate of the Norwegian Coast.— Its Causes.— The Norwegian Peasant.— Norwegian Constitution.— Romantic coast Scenery.— Drontheim.—Greiffenfeld Holme and Viire. —The Sea-eagle.— The Herring- fisheries.— The Lofoten Islands.— The Cod-fisheries.— W' retched Condition of the Fishermen.— Tromso. — Altenfiord.— The Copper Mines.— Hammerfest the most northern Town ip the World.— The North Cape : 120 CPIAPTER X. SPITZBERGEN— BEAR ISLAND— .TAN MEYEN. The west Coast of Spitzbergen.— Ascension of a Mountain by Dr. Scoresby.— His Excursion along tiie Coast.— A stranded Whale.— Magdalena Bay.— Multitudes of Sea-birds.— Animal Life.— Midnight Silence.— Glaciers.— A dangerous Neighborhood.— Interior Plateau.— Flora of Spitzbergen. —Its Similarity with that of the Alps above the Snow-line.— Reindeer.— The hyperborean Ptarmigan.— Fishes.— Coal.— Drift-wood.— Discovery of Spitzbergen by Barentz, Heemskerk, and Ry p.— Brilliant Period of the Whale-fishery.— Coffins.— Eight English Sailors winter in Spitzbergen, 1630.— Melan- choly Death of some Dutch Volunteers.— Russian Hunters.— Their Mode of wintering in Spitzber- gen.— Scharostin.— Walrus-ships from Hammerfest and Tromso.— Bear or Cherie Island.— Bennet. —Enormous Slaughter of Walruses.— Mildness of itsClimate.— Mount Misery.— Adventurous Boat- voyage of some Norwegian Sailors.— Jan Meyen. — Beerenberg 131 CHAPTER XI. NOVA ZEMBLA. The Sea of Kara. — Loschkin. — Rosmysslow.— Ltitke.- Krotow. — Pachtussow. — Sails along the east- ern Coast of the Southern Island to Matoschkin Schar.— His second Voyage and Death. — Meteoro- CONTENTS. ix logical Observations of Ziwolka. — The cold Summer of Nova Zembla. — VonBaer's scientific Voyage to Nova Zembla. — His Adventures in Matoschkin Schar. — Storm in Kostin Schar. — Sea Batii and votive Cross. — Botanical Observations. — A natural Garden. — Solitude and Silence. — A Bird Ba- zar. — Hunting Expeditions of the Russians to Nova Zembla Page 147 CHAPTER- XII. THE LAPPS. Tlieir ancient History and Conversion to Christianity. — Self-denial and Poverty of the Lapland Clergy. — Their, singular Mode of Preaching. — Gross Superstition of the Lapps. — The Evil Spirit of the Woods. — The Lapland Witches.— Physical Constitution of the Lapps. — Their Dress. — The FjalUap- pars. — Their Dwellings. — Store-houses. — Reindeer Pens. — Milking the Reindeer.— Migration.— The Lapland Dog. — Skiders, or Skates. — The Sledge, or Pulka.— Natural Beauties of Lapland.— Attachment of the Lapps to their Country.— Bear-hunting.— Wolf-hunting.— Mode of Living of the wealthy Lapps.— How they kill the Reindeer.— Visiting the Fair.— Manmion Worship.— Treasure- hiding. — " Tabak, or Braende."— Affectionate Disposition of the Lapps.— Tlie Skogslapp.— The Fisherlapp 156 CHAPTER XIIL MATTHIAS ALEXANDER CASTEEN. His Birthplace and first Studies.— Journey in Lapland, 1838.— The Iwalojoki.— The Lake of Enara.— The Pastor of Utzjoki. — From Rowaniemi to Kemi. — Second Voyage, 1841-44. — Storm on the White Sea. — Return to Archangel. — The Tundras of the European Samoiedes. — Mesen. — Universal • Drunkenness.— Sledge Journey to Pustosersk. — A Samoiede Teacher. — Tundra Storms.— Abandon- ed and alone in the Wilderness.— Pustosersk. — Our Traveller's Persecutions at Ustsylmsk and Ish- emsk. — The Uusa.— Crossing the Ural.— Obdorsk.— Second Siberian Journey, 1845-48.— Overflow- ing of the Obi.— Surgut. — Krasnojarsk. — Agreeable Surprise.— Turuchansk.—Voj-age down the Jenissei.— Castren's Study at Plachina. — From Dudinka to Tolstoi Noss.— Frozen Feet.— Returii Voyage to the South.— Frozen fast on the Jenissei. — Wonderful Preservation.— Journey across the Chinese Frontiers, and to Transbaikalia.— Return to Finland.— Professorship at Ilelsingfors.— Death of Castren, 1855 168 * CHAPTER XIV. THE SAMOIEDES. Their Barbarism. — Nuni, or Jilibeambaertje. — Shamanism. — Samoiede Idols. — Sjadtci. — Hahe. — The Ta- debtsios, or Spirits. — The Tadibes, or Sorcerers. — Their Dress. — Their Invocations. — Their conjuring Tricks. — Reverence paid to the Dead. — A Samoiede Oath. — Appearance of the Samoiedes. — Their Dress. — A Samoiede Belle. — Character of the Samoiedes. — Their decreasing Numbers.— Traditions of ancient Heroes 1"9 CHAPTER XV. THEOSTIAKS. WTiat is the Obi.? — Inundations. — An Ostiak summer Yourt.— Povert}'- of the Ostiak Fishermen.— A winter Yourt. — Attachment of the Ostiaks to their ancient Customs.— An Ostiak Prince. — Archeiy. — Appearance and Character of the Ostiaks.— The Fair of Obdorsk 185 CHAPTER XVI. CONQUEST OF SIBERIA BY THE EDSSIANS— THEIR VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY ALONG THE SHORES OF THE POLAR SEA. Ivan the Terrible.— StrogonofF.—Yermak, the Robber and Conqueror.— His Expeditions to Siberia.— Battle of Tobolsk.— Yermak's Death.— Progress of the Russians to Ochotsk.— Semen Deshnew.— Condition of the Siberian Natives under the Russian Yoke. — Voyages of Disccn'ery in the Reign of the Empress Anna. — Prontschischtschew. — Chariton and Demetrius Laptew. — An Arctic Heroine. — Schalaurow. — Discoveries in the Sea of Bering and in the Pacific Ocean. — The Liichow Islands. — Fossil Ivory.— New Siberia.— The wooden Mountains.— The past Ages of Siberia 191 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVII. SIBERIA— FUR-TRADE AND GOLD-DIGGfiSGS. Siberia.— Its imiiieiise Extent and Capabilities.— The Exiles.— Mentschikoflf.-Dolgorouky.— Munich.— The Criminals.— The free Siberian Peasant.— Extremes of Heat and Cold.— Fur-bearint,^ Animals.— The Sable.— The Ermine.— The Siberian Weasel.— The Sea-otter.— The black Fox.— The Lynx.— The Squirrel.— The varying Hare.— The Suslik.— Importance of the Fur-trade for the Northern Provinces of the Russian Empire.— The Gold-diggings of Eastern Siberia.— The Taiga.— Expenses and Difficulties of searching Expeditions.— Costs of Produce, and enormous Profits of successful Speculators.— Their senseless Extravagance.— First Discovery of Gold in the Ural Mountains.— Jakowlew and Demidow. — Nishne-Tagilsk Pa„g 904 CHAPTER XVIII. middendorff's adventures in taimurland. For what Purpose was Middendorffs Voyage to Taimurland undertaken?— Difficulties and Obstacles.— Expedition down the Taimur River to the Polar Sea.— Storm on Taimur Lake.— Loss of the Boat.— Jliddendorff ill and ulone in 75° N. Lat.— Saved by a grateful Samoiede.— Climate and Vegetation of Taimurland 220 CHAPTER XIX. the jakuts. Their energetic Nationality.— Their Descent.— Their gloomy Character.— Summer and Winter Dwell- ings.— The Jakut Horse.— Incredible Powers of Endurance of the Jakuts.— Tlieir Sharpness of Vis- ion.— Surprising local Memory.— Their manual Dexterity.— Leather, Poniards, Carpets. —Jakut Gluttons. — Superstitious Fear of the Mountain-spirit Ljeschei.— Offerings of Horse-hair.— Improvised Songs.— The River Jakut 228 CHAPTER XX. wrangell. His distinguished Services as an Arctic Explorer. — From Petersburg to Jakutsk in 1820. — Trade of Jakutsk.— From Jakutsk to Nishne-Kolymsk.— The Badarlny.— Dreadful Climate of Nishne-Ko- lymsk.—SummerPlagues.— Vegetation.— Animal Life. —Reindeer-hunting.— Famine.— Inundations. —The Siberian Dog.— First Journeys over the Ice of the Polar Sea, and Ex pi oration -of the Coast beyond Cape Shelagskoi in 1821.— Dreadful Dangers and Hardships.— Matiuschkin's Sledge-journey over the Polar Sea in 1822.— Last Adventures on the Polar Sea. — A Run for Life.— Return to St. Petersburg 233 CHAPTER XXI. THE TUNGUSI. Their Relationship to the Mantchou. — Dreadful Condition of the outcast Nomads. — Character of the Tungusi. — Their Outfit for the Chase. — Bear-hunting. — Dwellings. — Diet. — A Night's Halt with Tungusi in the Forest. — Ochotsk 244 CHAPTER XXII. GEORGE WILLIAM STELLER. His Birth. — Enters the Russian Service.— Scientific Journey to Kamchatka.— Accompanies Bering on his second Voyage of Discovery.— Lands on the Island of Kaiak.— Shameful Conduct of Bering.— Ship- wreck on Bering Island.— Bering's Death.— Return to Kamchatka.— Loss of Property.— Persecutions of the Siberian Authorities.— Frozen to Death at Tjumen '. 248 CHAPTER XXIII. KAMCHATKA. Climate.— Fertility.— Luxuriant Vegetation. —Fish.— Sea-birds.— Kamchatkan Bird-catchers.— The Bay of Avatscha.— Petropaylosk.— The Kamchatkans.— Their phj'sical and moral Qualities.— The Fri- tillaria Sarrana.— The Muchamor. — Bears.— Dogs 254 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXIV. THE TCHUKTCHI. The Land of the Tchuktchi.— Their independent Spirit and eommei-cial Entei-prise.— Perpetual Migra- tions. — The Fair of Ostrownoje. — Visit in a Tchuktch Polog. — Races. — Tchuktch Bayaderes.— The Tennygk, or Reindeer Tchuktchi. — The Onkilon, or Sedentary Tchuktchi. — Their Mode of Life Page 262 CHAPTER XXV. BERING SEA — THE RUSSIAN FUR COMPANY — ^THE ALEUTS. BeringSea.— Unalaska.— The Pribilow Islands.— St. Matthew.— St. Laurence.— Bering's Straits.— The Russian Fur Company.— The Aleuts. — Their Character. — Their Skill and Intrepidity in hunting the Sea-otter,— The Sea-bear.— Whale-chasing.— Walrus-slaughter.— The Sea-lion 268 CHAPTER XXVI. ALASKA. Purchase of Alaska by the United States. — The Russian American Telegraph Scheme.— Whymper's Trip up the Yukon.— Dogs. — The Start.— Extempore Water-filter.— Snow-shoes.— The Frozen Yu- kon.— Under-ground Houses. — Life at Nulato.— Cold Weather.— Auroras.— Approach of Summer. — Breaking-up of the Ice. — Fort Yukon. — Furs.— Descent of the Yukon.— Value of Goods.— Arctic and Tropical Life. — Moose-hunting.— Deer-corrals.— Lip Ornaments.— Canoes.— Four-post Coffin. —The Kenaian Jndians.— The Aleuts.— Value of Alaska 277 CHAPTER XXVn. THE ESQUIMAUX. Their wide Extension. — Climate of the Regions they inhabit.— Their physical Appearance.— Their Dress.— Snow Huts.— The Kayak, or the Baidar.— Hunting Apparatus and Weapons.— Enmity be- tween the Esquimaux and the Red Indian. — The "Bloody Falls."— Chase of the Reindeer.— Bird- catching. — Whale-hunting. — Various Stratagems employed to catch the Seal. — The " Keep-kuttuk." — Bear-hunting. — Walrus-hunting. — Awaklok and Myouk.— The Esquimaux Dog.— Games and Sports.— Angekoks.— Moral Character.— Self-reliance.— Intelligence.— Iligliuk. — Commercial Ea- gerness of the Esquimaux.— Their Voracity.— Seasons of Distress 290 CHAPTER XXVin. THE FUR-TRADE OF THE HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORIES. The Coureur des Bois. — The Voj'ageur. — The Birch-bark Canoe. — The Canadian Fur-trade in the last ' Century. — The Hudson's Bay Company.^Bloody Feuds between the North-west Company of Can- ada and the Hudson's Bay Company. — Their Amalgamation into a new Company in 1821. — Recon- struction of the Hudson's Bay Company in 1863. — Forts or Houses. — The Attiha-wmeg. — Influence of the Company on its savage Dependents. — The Black Bear, or Baribal. — The Brown Bear. — The Grizzly Bear. — The Raccoon. — The American Glutton. — The Pine Marten. — The Pekan, or Wood-shock.— The Chinga. — The Mink. — The Canadian Fish-otter. — The Crossed Fox.— The ^ Black or Silvery Fox. — The Canadian Lynx, or Pishu. —The Ice-hare. — The Beaver. — The Musquash 304 CHAPTER XXIX. THE CREE INDIANS, OR EYTHINYUWUK. The various Tribes of the Crees.— Their Conquests and subsequent Defeat.— Their Wars with the Black- feet.— Their Character.— Tattooing.— Their Dress.— Fondness for their Children.— The Cree Cradle.— Vapor Baths.— Games.— Their religious Ideas.— The Cree Tartarus and Elysium 319 CHAPTER XXX, THE TINNE INDIANS. The various Tribes of the Tinne Indians.— The Dog-ribs.- Clothing.— The Hare Indians.— Degraded State of the Women.— Practical Socialists.— Character.— Cruelty to the Aged and Infirm 327 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXXI. THE LOUCHEUX, OR KUTCHIN INDIANS. The Countries thej' inhabit.— Their Appearance and Dress.— Their Love of Finery.— Condition of the Women.— Strange Customs.— Character. — Feuds with the Esquimaux. — Their suspicious and timo- rous Lives. — Pounds for catching Reindeer. — Their Lodges Page 331 CHAPTER XXXn. ARCTIC VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY, FROM THE CABOTS TO BAFFIN. First Scandinavian Discoverer of America.— The Cabots.—Willoughby and Chancellor (1553-1554). — Stephen Burrough (1556). — Frobisher (1576-1578). — Davis (1585-1587). — Barentz, Cornelis, and Brant (1594). — Wintering of the Dutch Navigators in Nova Zembla (1596-1597). — John Knight (1606).— Murdered by the Esfluimaux.— Henry Hudson (1607-1609).— Baffin (161G) 335 CHAPTER XXXIIL ARCTIC VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY', FROM BAFFIN TO m'cLINTOCK. Buchan and Franklin.— Ross and Parry (1818).— Discovery of Melville Island.— Winter Harbor (1819- 1820).— Franklin's first land Journey.— Dreadful Sufferings.— Parry's second Voyage (1821-1823). Iligliuk. — Lyon (1824). — Parry's third Voyage (1824). — Franklin's second land Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea. — Beechey. — PaiTv's sledge Journey towards the Pole. — Sir John Ross's second Journey.— Five Years in the Arctic Ocean.— Back's Discovery of Great Fish River.— Dease and Simpson (1837-1839).— Franklin and Crozier's last Voyage (1845).— Searching Expeditions.— Richardson and Rae.— Sir James Ross.— Austin.— Penny.— De Haven.— Franklin's first Winter- quarters discovered by Ommaney.— Kennedy and Bellot.— Inglefield.— Sir E. Belcher.— Kellett.— M'Clure's Discovery of the North-west Passage.— Collinson.— Bellot 's Death.— Dr. Rae learns tht Death of the Crews of the " Erebus" and " Terror."— Sir Leopold M'Clintock 344 CHAPTER XXXIV. KANE AND HAYES. Kane sails up Smith's Sound in the "Advance " (185.3).— Winters in Rensselaer Bay.— Sledge Journey along the Coast of Greenland. —The Three-brother Turrets.— Tennyson's IMonument.— The Great Humboldt Glacier.— Dr. Hayes crosses Kennedy Channel. — Morton's Discovery of Washington Land.— Mount Parry.— Kane resolves upon a second Wintering in Rensselaer Bay.— Departure and Return of Part of the Crew.— Sufferings of the Winter.— The Ship abandoned.— Boat Journey to Upernavik.— Kane's Death in the Havana (1857).— Dr. Hayes's Voyage in I860.— He winters at Port Foulke. Crosses Kennedy Channel. — Reaches Cape Union, the most northern known Land upon the Globe. — Koldewey.— Plans for future Voyages to the North Pole 365 ' CHAPTER XXXV. NEWFOUNDLAND. Its desolate Aspect.— Forests.— Marshes.— Barrens.— Ponds.— Fur-bearing Animals.— Severity of Cli- *^ mate.— St. John's.— Discovery of Newfoundland by the Scandinavians.— Sir Humphrey Gilbert.— Rivalry of the English and French.— Importance of the Fisheries.— The Banks of Newfoundland.— Mode of Fishing.— Throaters, Headers, Splitters, Suiters, and Packers.— Fogs and Storms.— Seal- catching 376 CHAPTER XXXVI. GREENLAND. A mysterious Region. — Ancient Scandinavian Colonists. — Their Decline and Fall. — Hans Egede.— His Trials and Success.— Foundation of Godthaab.— Herrenhuth Missionaries.— Lindenow,— The Scores- bys.— Clavering.— The Danish Settlements in Greenland.— The Greenland Esquimaux.— Seal-catch- ' ing.— The White Dolphin.— The Narwhal.— Shark-fishery.— Fiskernasset.— Birds.— Reindeer-hunt- ing.— Indigenous Plants.— Drift-wood.— Mineral Kingdom.— Mode of Life of the Greenland Esqui- maux. — The Danes in Greenland.— Beautiful Scenery.— Ice Caves 382 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXXVir. THEANTARCTICOCEAN. Comparative View of tiie Antarctic and Arctic Regions.— Inferiority of Climate of the former.— Its Causes.— Tlie New Shetland Islands.— South Georgia.— The Peruvian Stream.— Sea-birds.— The Gi- ant Petrel.— The Albatross.— The Penguin.— The Austral Whale.— The Hunchback.- The Fin-back. —The Grampus.— Battle with a Whale.— Tlie Sea-elephant.— The Southern Sea-bear.- The Sea- leopard. — Antarctic Fishes Page 391 CHAPTER XXXVIII. ANTARCTIC VOYAGKS OF DISCOVERY. Cook's Discoveries in the Antarctic Ocean.— Bellinghausen.—Weddell — Biscoe.— Balleny.— Dumont d'Urville.— Wilkes.— Sir James Ross crosses the Antarctic Circle on New Year's Dayj 1841.— Dis- covers Victoria Land.— Dangerous Landing on Franklin Island.— An Eruption of Mount Erebus.— The Great Ice Barrier.— Providential Escape.— Dreadful Gale.— Collision.— Hazardous Passage be- tween two Icebergs.— Termination of the Voyage 401 CHAPTER XXXIX. THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN, Description of the. Strait.— Western Entrance.— Point Dungeness.— The Narrows.— Saint Philip's Bay. —Cape Froward.—Grand Scenery.- Port Famine.— The Sedger River.— Darwin's Ascent of Mount Tarn.— The Bachelor River.— English Reach.— Sea Reach.— South Desolation.— Harboi- of Mercy.— Williwijws.— Discovery of the Strait by Magellan (October 20, 1521).— Drake.— Sarmiento.— Cav- endish.— Schouten and Le Maire.— Byron.— Bougainville.— Wallis and Carteret.— King and Fitz- -Settlement at Punta Arenas.— Increasing Passage through the Strait.— A future Highway of 408 roy.- Commcrce , CHAPTER XL. PATAGONIA AND THE PATAGONIANS. Difference of Climate between East and West Patagonia.— Extraordinary Aridily of East Patagonia.— Zoology.— The Guanaco.— The Tucutuco.— The Patagonian Agouti.— -Vultures.— The Turkey-buz- zard.— The Carrancha.— The Chimango.— Darwin's Ostrich. —The Patagonians.— Exaggerated Ac- counts of their Stature.— Their Physiognomy and Dress. — Religious Ideas.— Superstitions.— Astro- nomical Knowledge.— Division into Tribes.— The Tent, or Toldo.— Trading Routes.— The great Cacique.— Introduction of the Horse.— Industry. — Amusements. — Character 417 CHAPTER XLI. THE FDEGI AN S. Their miserable Condition. — Degradation of Body and Mind. — Powers of Mimicry. — Notions of Barter. —Causes of their low State of Cultivation. — Their Food.— Limpets. — Cyttaria Darioini.— Constant Migrations. — The Fuegian Wigwam.— Weapons. — Their probable Origin. — Their Number, and va- rious Tribes.— Constant Feuds. — Cannibalism.— Language.— Adventures of Fuegia Basket, Jemmy Button, and York Minster.— Missionary Labors.— Captain Gardiner.— His lamentable End. . . . 425 CHAPTER XLII. CHARLES FRANCIS HALL AND THE INNUITS. Hall's Expedition.— His early Life.— His reading of Arctic Adventure.— His Resolve.— His Arctic Out- iit.— Sets sail on the "George Henrj^."- The Voyage.— Kudlago.—Holsteinborg, Greenland.— Pop- ulation of Greenland.— Sails for Davis's Strait.— Character of the Innuits.— Wreck of the "Rescue." — Ebierbing and Tookoolito.— Their Visit to England.— Hall's first Exploration.— European and In- nuit Life in the Arctic Regions.— Building an Igloo.— Almost Starved.— Fight for Food with Dogs. —Ebierbing arrives with a Seal.— How he caught it.— A Seal-feast.— The Innuits and Seals.— The Polar Bear.— How he teaches the Innuits to catch Seals.— At a Seal-hole.— Dogs as Seal-iinnters.— Dogs and Bears.— Dogs and Reindeers.— Innuits and Walruses.— More about Igloos.— Innuit Imple- ments.— Uses of the Reindeer. — Innuit Improvidence. — A Deer-feast.— A frozen Delicacy.— Whale- skin as Food.— Whale-gum.— How to eat Whale Ligament. — Raw Meat. —The Dress of the Innuits. V CONTENTS. —A pretty Style.— Religious Ideas of the Inmiits.— Their kindly Character.— Treatment of the Aged and Infirm.— A Woman abandoned to die.— Hall's Attempt to rescue her.— The Inuuit Nomads, ■without any form of Government.— Their Numbers diminishing.— A Sailor wanders away.— Hall's Search for him.— Finds him frozen to death.— The Ship free from Ice.— Preparations to return.— Reset in the Ice-paclj. — Another Arctic Winter.— Breaking up of the Ice.— Departure for Home.— Tookoolito and her Child •' Butterfly."— Death of " Butterfly."— Arrival at Home.— Results of Hall's Expedition.— Innuit Traditions.— Discovery of Frobisher Relics.— Hall undertakes a second Expedi- tion.— His Statement of its Object and Prospects.— Last Tidings of Hall Page 433 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ^ PAGE 1. Esquimaux Doar-team : ...Hai-l. 1 2. The Tundra of "Siberia Atkinson."- 17 3. ludian Summer Encampment, Alaska Whympku. 18 4. Rocks and Ice »Hall. 20 5. Coast of Labrador Harper b Mag. 21 6. Coast of Norway Browne. 22 T. Arctic Forest Lamont. 28 8. Verge of Forest Region Harper s Mag. 24 9. Forest Conflasratiou ^ uymper. 26 10. Arctic Clotliiug. .Harper's Mag. 29 11. Arctic Moonlight ■ ■ ; • H ai-i,. 30 12. Aurora seen in Norway Harper s Mag. 81 13. Aurora seen in Greenland Hall. Al 14. Group of Reindeer Lamont. 35 15. Elks JJ,"""- 39 16. The Musk-ox ■■■■^^ oon. 40 17 Aro-ali Atkinson. 41 is! The Suo\\TOwi---'- •■•■•■■•■••■••■•■■ ••■•••••••• Wood. 43 19. Beruide Goose ^*'°''- If 20. The Sea-eagle - ;^'?°"- ^ 21. Arctic Navfgation Harper s Mag. 45 22. Among Hummocks Harper s Mag. 46 23. Drifting on the Ice Harper s^Iag. 47 24. Forms of Icebergs Iall. 47 5. Gothic Icebergs . .m 26. Pinnacle Icebergs Hall. 48 27. Icebergs aground Hall. 49 28. Icebergs and Glacier, Frobisher Bay • • • • U'^'-t. oi 29. Glacier, Bute Inlet ^V uymper. 52 30. Scaling an Iceberg. : hall, sd 31. An Arctic Channel g'^i-^- ^^ 32. Open Water JIall. 57 33. Glacier Discharging .Hall. 5b 34. The Whale S.**""" f. 35. The Narwhal ; • Wood. 61 36. Walruses on the Ice Lamont. 6d 37. Home of the Polar Bear Wood. 66 38. The Gull Wood. 67 39. Lava-flelds Browne. 68 40. Efflgy in Lava Browne. 70 41. The Strokkr Browne. 72 42. Entrance to the Almannagja Browne. 7d 43. The Almannagja Browne. 74 44. The Hrafuagia Browne. ii5 45. The Tintrou Rock Browne. ^5 46. Fall of the Oxeraa Browne. .6 47. Icelandic Horses Browne. 81 4S. Shooting Reindeer Lajiont. 82 49. The Eider-duck Wood. 83 50. The Jyrfalcon Wood. 85 51. The Giant Auk Wood. 86 52. Cathedral at Reykjavik Browne. 89 53. Thingvalla, Logberi; and Almauuatrja Browne. 9a 54. Reykjavik, the^CaiVital of Iceland .: Browne. 98 55. Governor's Residence, Reykjavik Browne. 99 56. Icelandic Houses Browne. 103 57. Church at Thingvalla Browne. 105 5S. The Pastor's House, Thingvalla Browne. 106 59. The Pastor of Thingvalla Browne. 107 60. Bridge River, Iceland '. Browne. Ill 61. Icelandic Bog Browne. 113 62. Coast of Iceland Browne. 114 63. Westman Isles Browne. 115 64. Home of Sea-birds Browne. 117 65. Fishing in Norway Browne. 120 66. Norweliaii Farm Browne. 122 67. Steaming along the Coast Browne, lid 68. The Puflin Wood. 124 69. The Dovrefjeld .Browne. 12. 70. Midnight Sun off Spitzbergen Ddfferin. Ui 71. Magdilena Bay, Spitzbergen Dufferin. 134 72. Bunal in Spitzbergen Dufferin. 139 73.' Arctic Pox... '....!"... '.■.■.".■.■.■.■-..■ Dufferin. 140 Lamont. 143 74. Chase of tl^ Walrus ^ 75. A glimpse of Jau Meyen's Island Dufferin. 145 xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE 76. A Samoiede Priest : Atkinson. 179 77. Banks of the Inysch Atkinson. 185 78. Group of Kirghis Atkinson. 188 79. View of Tagilsk Atkinson. 191 80. The Beach at Nicolayevsk Harper's Mao. 196 81. On the Amoor Haepek's Mag. 197 82. Village ou the Amoor Harper's Mag. 198 83. Koriak Yourt Haupee's Mag. 199 84. Kamchatka Sables Haepee's Mag. 201 85. Tartar Eocampmeut Atkinson. 204 86. Siberian Peasant Atkinson. 207 87. View of Irkutsk Harper's Mag. 209 83. A Jakut Village Harper's Mag. 2'29 89. Bering's Monument at Petropavlosk Whympek. 248 90. Church at Petropavlosk Wuympeb. 254 91. View of Petropavlosk ^ ]] .'harper's Mag.' 257 92. Dogs Fishing Harper's Mag. 259 93.^og-team M'uy jiper. 259 94. Dogs Towiug Boat .Harper's Mag. 260 95. Frame-work of Tchuktchi House. Wuymper. 262 96. Tchuktchi Cauoe Harper's Mag. 203 97. Tchuktchi Pipe Wuymper. 264 98. An Aleut Whympee. 268 99. View of Sitka Whymper. 270 100. A Baidar Harper's Mag. 272 101. Fort St. Michael Wuymper. 277 102. The Frozen Yukon ....Whymper. 279 103. Under-ground House Why-mper. 280 104. Fish-traps on the Yukon Wuymper. 281 105. Aurora atNuIato .' ...... ..Wu\mve-r. 282 106. Breaking up of the Ice Whymper. 283 107. Fort Yukon Wuymper. 285 lOS. A Deer Corral Wuymper. 286 109. Lip Ornaments Harper's Mag. 287 110. A Baidar Harper's Mag. 288 111. Four-post Coffin Whymper. 288 112. Tanana Indian Wii ympee. 289 113. Winter Hut of Hunters Mieton. 309 114. Fort Edmonton, North Saskatchewan Milton 311 115. Trader's Camp .' Haepee's Mag." 312 110. Swamp formed by deserted Beaver Dam Milton. 314 117. Hunting Bison in the Snow Harper's Mag. 319 118. Herd of Bison Harper's Mag. 320 119. Driving Bison over a Precipice Harper's Mag. 321 120. Watching for Crees Milton. 322 121. A Cree Village Harper's Mag. 324 122. The Albatross Wood. 396 123. Strait of Magellan Harper's Mag. 408 124. A Highway of Commerce -. Harper's Mag. 416 125. Patagonians Harper's Mag. 417 126. Coast of Fuegia Harper's Maq. 425 127. Fuegian Traders Harper's Mag. 427 128. A Fnegian and his Food Harper's Mag. 429 129. Starvation Beach Harper's Mag. 432 130. Surveying iu Greenland Hall. 433 131. Hall and Companions, in lunuit Costume Hall. 434 132. Kudlago Hall. 436 133. Greenland Currency Hall. 437 134. Woman and Child. (Drawn and Engraved by an Innuit.) Hall. 438 135. Festival of the Birthday of the King'of Denmark Hall. 439 136. Preparing Boot-soles Hall. 440 137. Wreck of the Rescue Hall. 441 138. The George Henry laid up for the Winter Hall. 442 139. Storm-bound Hall. 443 140. lunuit Stone Lamp Hall. 444 141. Fighting for Food Hall. 445 142. Through the Snow Hall. 446 143. Waiting by a Seal-hole Hall. 447 144. Looking for Seals Hall. 448 145. lunuit Strategy to Capture a Seal Hall. 449 146. Seal-hole and Igloo Hall. 450 147. Waiting for a Blow Hall. 460 148. Dog and Seal Hall. 451 149. Spearing through the Snow Hall. 452 150. Dogs and Bear Hall. 463 151. Barbekark and the Reindeer «. Hall. 454 152. Head of Reindeer Hall. 454 153. Spearing the Walrus Hall. 455 154. Innuit Igloos Hall. 456 155. Walrus Skull and Tusks .'Hall. 457 156. The Woman's Knife Hall. 457 157. Innuit Implements Hall. 4.58 158. Finding the Dead Hall. 461 159. Innuit Summer Villaire Hall. 462 160. Returniug to the Ship Hall. 463 161. Over the Ice : Hall. 404 162. The Frozen Sailor Hall. 405 163. Farewell of the Innuits Hall. 4G7 THE POLAR WORLD TUE TUNDKA OF SIBERIA. CHAPTER I. THE ARCTIC LANDS. The barren Grounds or Tundri. — Abundance of animal Life on the Tundri in Summer.— Their Silence and Desolation in Winter. — Protection afforded to Vegetation by the Snow. — Flower-growth in the higliest Latitudes. — Character of Tundra Vegetation. — Southern Boundary-line of the barren Grounds. — Their Extent. — The forest Zone. — Arctic Trees. — Slowness of their Growth. — Monotonj' of the Northern Forests. — Mosquitoes. — The various Causes which determine the Severity of an Arctic Climate. — Insular and Continental Position. — Currents. — Winds. — Extremes of Cold observed by Sir E. Belcher and Dr. Kane.— How is Man able to support the Rigors of an Arctic Winter?— Proofs of a milder Climate having once reigned in the Arctic Regions. — Its Cause according to Dr. Oswald Heer. — Peculiar Beauties of the Arctic Regions. — Sunset.— Long lunar Nights.— The Aurora. A GLANCE at a map of the Arctic regions shows us that many of the -^-*- rivers belonging to the three continents — Europe, Asia, America— dis- charge their Avaters into the Polar Ocean or its tributary bays. The terri- tories drained by these streams, some of which (such as the Mackenzie, the Yukon, the Lena, the Yenisei, and the Obi) rank among the giant rivers of the earth, form, along with the islands within or near the Arctic circle, the vast region over which the frost-king reigns supreme. Man styles himself the lord of the earth, and may with some justice lay claim to the title in more genial lands where, armed with the plough, he com- pels the soil to yield him a variety of fruits ; but in those desolate tracts 2 18 THE POLAR WORLD. which are winter-bound during the greater part of the year, lie is generally a mere w^anderer over its surface — a hunter, a fisherman, or a herdsman — and but few small settlements, separated from each other by immense deserts give proof of his having made some weak attempts to establish a footing. It is difficult to determine with precision the limits of the Arctic lands since many countries situated as low as latitude 60° or even 50°, such as South Greenland, Labrador, Alaska, Kamchatka, or the country about Lake Baikal, have hi their climate and productions a decidedly Arctic character, while others of a far more northern position, such as the coast of Norway, enjoy even in winter a remarkably mild temperature. But they are naturally divided into two principal and well-marked zones — that of the forests, and tliat of the tree- less wastes. The latter, comprising the islands within the Arctic Circle, form a belt, more or less broad, bounded by the continental shores of the North Polar seas, and gradually merging toward the south into the forest-region, which encircles them with a garland of evergreen conifer^.' This treeless zone bears the name of the " barren grounds," or the " barrens," in North America, and of " tundri " in Siberia and European Russia. Its want of trees is caused not so much by its high northern latitude as by the cold sea-winds which sweep unchecked over the islands or the flat coast-lands of the Polar Ocean, and for miles and miles compel even the hardiest plant to crouch before the blast and creep along the ground. Nothing can be more melancholy than the aspect of the boundless morasses or arid wastes of the tundri. Dingy mosses and gray lichens form the chief THE ARCTIC LANDS. 19 vegetation, and a few scanty grasses or dwarfish flowers that may have found a refuge in some more sheltered spot are unable to relieve the dull monotony of the scene. In winter, when animal life has mostly retreated to the south or sought a refuge in burrows or in caves, an awful silence, interrupted only by the hooting of a snow-owl or the yelping of a fox, reigns over their vast expanse; but in spring, when the brown earth reappears from imder the melted snow and the swamps begin to thaw, enormous flights of wild birds appear upon the scene and enliven it for a few months. An admirable instinct leads their winged legions from distant climes to the Arctic wildernesses, where in the morasses or lakes, on the banks of the rivers, on the flat strands, or along the fish-teem- ing coasts, they find an abundance of food, and where at the same time they can with greater security build their nests and rear their young. Some re- main on the skirts of the forest-region ; others, flying farther northward, lay their eggs upon the naked tundra. Eagles and hawks follow the traces of the natatorial and strand birds; troops of ptarmigans roam among the stunted bushes ; and when the sun shines, the finch or tlie snow-bunting warbles his merry note. While thus the Avarmth of summer attracts hosts of migratory birds to tlie Arctic wildernesses, shoals of salmon and sturgeons enter the rivers in obe- dience to the instinct that forces them to quit the seas and to swim stream upward, for the purpose of depositing their spawn in the tranquil sweet wa- ters of the stream or Jake. About this time also the reindeer leaves the forests to feed on the herbs and lichens of the tundra, and to seek along the shores fanned by the cooled sea-breeze some protection against the attacks of the stinging flies that rise in myriads from the swamps. Thus during several months the tundra presents an animated scene, in which man also plays his part. The birds of the air, the fishes of the water, the beasts of the earth, are all obliged to pay their tribute to his various wants, to appease his hunger, to clothe his body, or to gratify his greed of gain. But as soon as the first frosts of September announce the approach of win- ter, all animals, with but few exceptions, hasten to leave a region Avhere the sources of life must soon fail. The geese, ducks, and swans return in dense flocks to the south ; the strand-birds seek in sorne lower latit^jde a softer soil which allows their sharp beak to seize a burrowing prey; the water-fowl for- sake the bays and channels that will soon be blocked up with ice; the reindeer once more return to the forest, and in a short time nothing is left that can in- duce man to prolong his stay in the treeless plain. Soon a thick mantle of snow covers the hardened earth, the frozen lake, the ice-boiind river, and con- ceals them all — seven, eight, nine months long — under its monotonous pall, except where the furious north-east wind sweeps it away and lays bare the naked rock. This snow, which "after it has once fallen persists until the long summer's day has effectually thawed it, protects in an admirable manner the vegetation of the higher latitudes against the cold of the long winter season. For snow is so bad a conductor of heat, tliat in mid-winter in the higli latitude of 78° 20 THE POLAR WORLD. ROCKS AND ICE. 50' (Rensselaer Bay), while the surface temperature was as low as —30°, Kane found at two feet deep a temperature of - 8°, at four feet +2°, and at eight feet +26°, or no more than six degrees below the freezing-point of water. Thus covered by a warm crystal snow-mantle, the northern plants pass the long Avinter in a comparatively mild temperature, high enough to maintain their life, while, without, icy blasts — capable of converting mercury into a solid body — howl over the naked wilderness ; and as the first snow-falls are more cellular and less condensed than the nearly impalpable powder of winter, Kane justly observes that no " eider-down in the cradle of an infant is tucked in more kindly than the sleeping-dress of winter about the feeble plant-life of the Arc- tic zone." Thanks to this protection, and to the influence of a sun which for months circles above the horizon, and in favorable localities calls forth the pow- ers of vegetatioi* in an incredibly short time, even Washington, Grinnell Land, and Spitzbergen are able to boast of flowers. Morton plucked a crucifer at Cape Constitution (80° 45' N. lat.), and, on the banks of Mary Minturn River (78° 52'), Kane came across a flower-growth which, though drearily Arctic in its type, was rich in variety and coloring. Amid festuca and other tufted grasses twinkled the purple lychnis and the white star of the chickweed ; and, not without its pleasing associations, he recognized a solitary hesperis — the Arctic representative of the wall-flowers of home. Next to the lichens and mosses, which form the chief vegetation of the treeless zone, the cruciferre, the grasses, the saxifragas, the caryophyllte, and the compositae are the families of plants most largely represented in the barren grounds or tundri. Though vegetation becomes more and more uniform on advancing to the north, yet the number of individual plants does not decrease. THE ARCTIC LANDS. 21 When the soil is moderately dry, the surface is covered by a dense carpet of lichens {Cormcularice), mixed in damper spots with Icelandic moss. In more tenacious soils, other plants flourish, not however to the exclusion of lichens, ex- cept in tracts of meadow ground, which occur in sheltered situations, or in the C*^^ lAST OF LABKADUK. alluvial inundated flats where tall reed-grasses or dwarf willows frequently grow as closely as they can stand. It may easily be supposed that the boundary-Une which separates the tun- dri from the forest zone is both indistinct and irregular. In some parts where the cold sea-winds have a Avider range, the barren grounds encroach consider- 22 THE POLAR WORLD. ably upon the limits of the forests ; in others, where the configuration of the laud jM-events their action, the woods advance farther to the north. Thus the barren grounds ahain their most southerly limit in Labrador, where they descend to latitude 57°, and this is sufticiently explained by the position of tliat bleak peninsula, bounded on three sides by icy seas, and washed 'by cold currents from the north. On the opposite coasts of Hudson's Bay they begin about 60°, and thence gradually rise toward the mouth of the Mackenzie, where the forests advance as high as 68°, or even still farther to the north along the low banks of that river. From the Mackenzie the barrens again descend until they reach Bering's Sea in 65° N". On the opposite or Asiatic shore, in the land of the Tchuktchi, they begin again more to the south, in 63°, thence continually rise as far as the Lena, where Anjou found trees in 71° N,, and then fall again toward the Obi, where the forests do not even reach the Arctic circle. From the Obi the tundri retreat farther and farther to the north, until finally, on the coasts of Norway, in latitude 70°, they terminate with the land itself. Hence we see that the treeless zone of Europe, Asia, and America occupies a space larger than the whole of Europe. Even the African Sahara, or the Pampas of South America, are inferior in extent to the Siberian tundri. But the possession of a few hundred square miles of fruitful territory on the south- western frontiers of his vast empire would be of greater value to the Czar than that of those boundless wastes, which are tenanted only by a few Avretched pastoral tribes, or some equally wretched fishermen. The Arctic forest-regions are of a still greater extent than the vast treeless plains wliich they encircle. When we consider that they form an almost con- COAST OF NORWAY THE ARCTIC LANDS. w tiniious belt, stretching through three parts of the world, in a breadth of from 15° to 20°, even the woods of the Amazon, wliich cover a snrface fifteen times greater than that of the United Kingdom, shrink into comparative insignifi- cance. Unlike the tropical forests, which are characterized by an immense variety of trees, these northern woods are almost entii'ely composed of conif- eraa, and one single kind of fir or pine often covers an immense extent of 24 THE POLAR WORLD. (ground. The European and Asiatic species differ, however, from those whicli grow in America. Thus in the Russian empire and Scandinavia we find the Scotch fir {Pinus sylvestris), the Siberian fir and larch {Abies sihlrica, Larix sibirica), the Picea obovata, and the Pimis cembra ; while in the Hudson's Bay territories the woods principally consist of the white and black spruce {Abies alba and nigra), the Canadian larch {Zarix canadensis, and the gray pine {Pinus banksiana). In both continents birch-trees grow farther to the north than the conifer^e, and the dwarf willows form dense thickets on the shores of every river and lake. Various species of the service-tree, the ash, and the elder are also met with in the Arctic forests ; and both under the shelter of the woods and beyond their limits, nature, as if to compensate for the want of fruit-trees, produces in favorable locaUties an abundance of bilberries, bogberries, cran- berries, etc. {Empetrum, Vaccinium), whose fruit is a great boon to man and beast. When congealed by the autumnal frosts, the berries frequently remain hanging on the bushes until the snow melts in the following June, and are then a considerable resource to the flocks of water-fowl migrating to their northern breeding-places, or to the bear awakening from his winter sleep. ^m VEKGE OF FOREST REGION. THE ARCTIC LANDS. 25 Another distinctive character of the forests of the high latitudes is their apparent youth, so that generally the traveller would hardly suppose them to be more than fifty years, or at most a ceiftury old. Their juvenile appearance increases on advancing northward, until suddenly their decrepit age is re- vealed by the thick bushes of lichens which clothe or hang down from their shrivelled boughs. Farther to the south, large trees are found scattered here and there, but not so numerous as to modify the general appearance of the forest, and even these are mere dwarfs when compared with the gigantic firs of more temperate climates. This phenomenon is sufficiently explained by the shortness of the summer, which, though able to bring forth new shoots, does not last long enough for the formation of wood. Hence the growth of trees becomes slower and slower on advancing to the north ; so that on the banks of the Great Bear Lake, for instance, 400 years are necessary for the formation of a trunk not thicker than a man's w^aist. Toward the confines of the tundra, the woods are reduced to stunted stems, covered with blighted buds that have been unable to develop themselves into branches, and which prove by their numbers how frequently and how vainly they have striven against the wind, until finally the last remnants of arboreal vegetation, vanquished by the blasts of winter, seek refuge under a carpet of lichens and mosses, from which their annual shoots hardly venture to peep forth. A third peculiarity which distinguishes the forests of the north from those of the tropical world is what may be called their harmless character. There the traveller finds none of those noxious plants whose juices contain a deadly poison, and even thorns and prickles are of rare occurrence. No venomous snake glides through the thicket ; no crocodile lurks in the swamp ; and the northern beasts of prey — the bear, the lynx, the wolf — are far less dangerous and blood-thirsty than the large felidse of the torrid zone. The comparatively small number of animals living in the Arctic forests corresponds with the monotony of their vegetation. Here we should seek in vain for that immense variety of insects, or those troops of gaudy birds which in the Brazilian woods excite the admiration, and not unfrequently cause the despair of the wanderer ; here we should in vain expect to hear the clamorous voices that resound in the tropical thickets. No noisy monkeys or quarrel- some parrots settle on the branches of the trees ; no shrill cicadse or melan- choly goat-suckers interrupt the solemn stillness of the night ; the howl of the hungry wolf, or the hoarse screech of some solitary bird of prey, are almost the only sounds that ever disturb the repose of these awful solitudes. "When the tropical hurricane sweeps over the virgin forests, it awakens a thousand voices of alai-m ; but the Arctic storm, however furiously it may blow, scarce- ly calls forth an echo from the dismal shades of the pine-woods of the north. In one respect only the forests and swamps of the northern regions vie in abundance of animal life with those of the equatorial zone, for the legions of gnats. which the short polar summer calls forth from the Arctic morasses are a no less intolerable phgue than the mosquitoes of the tropical marshes. Though agriculture encroaches but little upon the Arctic woods, yet the agency of man is gradually working a change in their aspect. Large tracts ol 26 THE POLAR WORLD. forest are eontiiinally wasted by extensive fires, kindled accidentally or inten- tionally, which spread with rapidity over a wide extent of country, and con- tinue to burn until they are extinguished by a heavy rain. Sooner or later a new growth of timber springs up, but the soil, being generally enriched and saturated with alkali, now no longer brings forth its aboriginal firs, but gives birth to a thicket of beeches {Betula alba) in Asia, or of aspens in America. THE ARCTIC LANDS. 27 The line of perpetual snow may naturally be expected to descend lower and lower on advancing,to the pole, and hence many mountainous regions or ele- vated plateaux, such as the interior of Spitzbergen, of Greenland,^ of Nova Zembla, etc., which in a more temperate clime would be verdant with woods or meadows, are here covered with vast fields of ice, from which frequently glaciers- descend down to the verge of the sea. But even in the highest north- ern latitudes, no land has yet been found covered as far as the water's edge with eternal snow, or where winter has entirely subdued the powers of vegeta- tion. The reindeer of Spitzbergen find near 80° N. lichens or grasses to feed upon ; in favorable seasons the snow melts by the end of June on the plains of Melville Island, and numerous lemmings, requiring vegetable food for their sub- sistence, inhabit the deserts of New Siberia. As far as man has reached to the north, vegetation, when fostered by a sheltered situation and the refraction of solar heat from the rocks, has everywhere been found to rise to a considerable altitude above the level of the sea ; and should there be land at the North Pole, th'ere is every reason to believe that it is destitute neither of animal nor vege- table life. It would be equally erroneous to suppose that the cold of winter in- variably increases as we near the pole, as the temperature of a land is influ- enced by many other causes besides its latitude. Even in the most northern regions hitherto visited by man, the influence of the sea, particularly when fa- vored by warm currents, is found, to mitigate the severity of the winter, while at the same time it diminishes the warmth of summer. Ontthe other hand, the large continental tracts of Asia or America that shelve toward the pole have a more intense winter cold and a far greater summer's heat than many coast-lands or islands situated far nearer to the pole. Thus, to cite but a few examples, the western shores of Nova Zembla, fronting a wide expanse of sea, have an average winter temperature of only —4°, and a mean summer temper- ature but little above the freezing-point of water (+36i°), while Jakutsk, sit- uated in the heart of Siberia, and 20° nearer to the Equator, has a winter of —36° 6', and a summer of +66° 6'. * The influence of the winds is likewise of considerable importance in de- termining the greater or lesser severity of an Arctic climate. Thus the north- erly winds which prevail in Baflin's Bay and Davis's Straits during the sum- mer months, and fill the straits of the American north-eastern Archipelago with ice, are probably the main cause of the abnormal depression of temperature in that quarter ; while, on the contrary, the sou,therly winds that prevail during summer in the valley of the Mackenzie tend greatly to extend the forest of that favored region nearly down to the shores of the Arctic Sea. Even in the depth of a Siberian winter, a sudden change of wind is able to raise the ther- mometer from a mercury-congealing cold to a temperature above the freezing- point of water, and a warm wind has been known to cause rain to fall in Spitz- bergen in the month of January. The voyages of Kane and Belcher have made us acquainted with the low- est temperatures ever felt by man. On Feb. 5, 1854, while the former Avas wintering in Smith's Sound (78° 37' N: lat.), the mean of his best spirit-ther- mometer showed the unexampled temperature of —68° or 100° below the 28 THE POLAR WORLD. freezing-point of Avater. Then chloric ether became solid, and carefully pre- pared chloroform exhibited a granular pellicle on its surface. The exhalations from the skin invested the exposed or partially clad parts with a wreath of vapor. The air had a perceptible pungency upon inspiration, and every one, as it were involuntarily, breathed guardedly with compressed lips. About the same time (February 9 and 10, 1854), Sir E. Belcher experienced a cold of —55° in Wellington Channel (75° 31' N.), and the still lower temperature of — 62° on January 13, 1853, in Northumberland Sound (76° 52' N.). Whym- per, on December 6, 1866, experienced —58 at Nulatto, Alaska (64° 42' N.). Whether the temperature of the air descends still lower on advancing to- ward the pole, or whether these extreme degrees of cold are not sometimes surpassed in those mountainous regions of the north which, though seen, have never yet been explored, is of course an undecided question : so much is cer- tain, that the observations hitherto made during the winter of the Arctic re- gions have been limited to too short a time, and are too few in number, to en- able us to determine with any degree of certainty those points where the greatest cold prevails. All we know is, that beyond the Arctic Circle, and eight or ten degrees farther to the south in the interior of the continents of Asia and America, the average temperature of the winter generally ranges from — 20° to —30°, or even lower, and for a great part of the year is able to con- vert mercury into a solid body. It may well h^ asked how man is able to bear the excessively low tempera- ture of an Arctic winter, which must appear truly appalling to an inhabitant of the temperate zone. A thick fur clothing ; a hut small and low, where the warmth of a fire, or simply of a train-oil lamp, is husbanded in a narrow space, and, above all, the wonderful power of the human constitution to accommodate itself to every change of climate, go far to counteract the rigor of the cold. After a very few days the body develops an increasing warmth as the ther- mometer descends ; for the air being condensed by the cold, the lungs inhale at every breath a greater quantity of oxygen, which of course accelerates the internal process of combustion, while at the same time an increasing appetite, gratified with a copious supply of animal food, of flesh and fat, enriches the blood and enables it to circulate more vigorously. Thus not only the hardy native of the north, but even the healthy traveller soon gets accustomed to bear without injury the rigors of an Arctic Avinter. " The mysterious compensations," says Kane, " by which we adapt our- selves to climate are more striking here than in the tropics. In the Polar zone the assault is immediate and sudden, and, unlike the insidious fatality of hot countries, produces its results rapidly. • It requires lordly a single winter to tell who are to be the heat-making and acclimatized men. Petersen, for in- stance, who has resided for two years at Upernavik, seldom enters a room with a fire. Another of our party, George Riley, with a vigorous constitution, es- tablished habits of free exposure, and active cheerful temperament, has so inured himself to the cold, that he sleeps on our sledge journeys without a blanket or any other covering than his walking suit, while the outside tem- perature is —30°." THE ARCTIC LANDS. 29 There are many proofs that a milder climate once reigned in the northern regions of the globe. Fossil pieces of wood, petrified acorns and fir-cones ARCTIC CLOTHING. liave been found in the interior of Banks's Land by M'Clure's sledging-parties. At Anakerdluk, in North Greenland (70° N.), a large forest lies buried on a mountain surrounded by glaciers, 1080 feet above the level of the sea. Not only the trunks and branches, but even the leaves, fruit-cones, and seeds have been preserved in the soil, and enable the botanist to determine the species of the plants to which they belong. They show that, besides firs and sequoias, oaks, plantains, elms, magnolias, and even laurels,.indicating a climate such as that of Lausanne or Geneva, flourished during the miocene period in a coun- try where now even the willow is compelled to creep along the ground. Dur- ing the same epoch of the earth's history Spitzbergen was likewise covered with stately forests. The same poplars and the same swamp-cypress ( Taxo- dium duhium) which then flourished in North Greenland have been found in a fossilized state at Bell Sound (76° N.) by the Swedish naturalists; who also tliscovered a plantain and a linden as high as 78° and 79° in King's Bay — a proof that in those times the climate of Spitzbergen can not have been colder 30 THE POLAR WORLD. than that which now reigns in Southern Sweden and Norway, eighteen degrees nearer to the Une. We know that at present the fir, the poplar, and the beech grow fifteen de- grees farther to the north than the phintain — and the miocene period no doubt exhibited the same proportion. Tlius tlie poplars anjd firs which then grew in Spitzbergen along with plantains and lindens juust have ranged as far as the pole itself, supposing that point to be dry land. In the miocene times the Arctic zone evidently presented a very different aspect from that Avhich it wears at present. Now, during the greater part of the year, an immense glacial desert, which through its floating bergs and drift- ice depresses the temperature of countries situated far to the south, it then consisted of verdant lands covered with luxuriant forests and bathed by an open sea. What may have been the cause of these amazing changes of climate ? The readiest answer seems to be — a different distribution of sea and land ; but there is no reason to believe that in the miocene times there was less land in the Arctic zone than at present, nor can any possible combination of water and dry land be imagined sufficient to account for the growth of laurels in Green- land or of plantains in Spitzbergen. Dr. Oswald Ileer is inclined to seek for an explanation of the phenomenon, not in mere local terrestrial changes, but in a difference of the earth's position in the heavens. We now know that our sun, with his attendant planets and satellites, per- forms a vast circle, embracing perhaps hundreds of tliousands of years, round another star, and tliat we are constantly entering new regions of spnce untrav- THE ARCTIC LANDS. 31 elled by our earth before. We come from the unknown, and plunge into the unknown ; but so much is certain, that our solar system rolls at present through a space but thinly peopled with stars, and there is no reason to doubt that it may once have wandered through one of those celestial provinces where, as the telescope shows us, constellations are far more densely clustered. But, as every star is a blazing sun, the greater or lesser number of these heavenly bodies must evidently have a proportionate influence upon the temperature of space; and thus we may suppose that during the miocene period our earth, being at that time in a populous sidereal region, enjoyed the benefit of a higher temperature, which clothed even its poles with verdure. In the course of ages the sun conducted his herd of planets into more solitary and colder regions, which caused the warm miocene times to be followed by the glacial period, during which the Swiss flat lands bore an Arctic character, and finally the sun emerged into a space of an intermediate character, which determines the present condition of the climates of our globe. Though Nature generally wears a more stern and forbidding nspcct on ad- vancing toward the pole, yet the liigh latitudes have many beauties of their THE POLAR WORLD. ^mm own. Xothing can exceed the magnificence of an Arctic sunset, clotliing tlit snow-clad mountains and the skies with all the glories of color, or be more serenely beautiful than the clear star-light night, illumined by the brilliant inoon, which for days continually circles around the horizon, never setting until THE ARCTIC LAITOS. 33 she has run her long course of brightness. The uniform Avhiteness of the land- scape and the general transparency of the atmosphere add to the lustre of her beams, which serve the natives to guide their nomadic life, and to lead them to their hunting-grounds. But of all the magnificent spectacles that relieve the monotonous gloom of the Arctic winter, there is none to equal the magical beauty of the Aurora. Night covers the snow-clad earth ; the stars glimmer feebly thi-ough the haze which so frequently dims their brilliancy in the high latitudes, when suddenly a broad and clear bow of light spans the horizon in the direction where it is traversed by the magnetic meridian. This bow sometimes remains for several hours, heaving or waving to and fro, before it sends forth streams of light ascending to the zenith. Sometimes these flashes proceed from the bow of light alone; at others they simultaneously shoot forth from many opposite parts of the horizon, and form a vast sea of fire whose brilliant waves are con- tinually changing their positit)n. Finally they all unite in a magnificent crown or copula of light, with the appearance of which the phenomenon attains its highest degree of splendor. The brilliancy of the streams, which are com- monly red at their base, green in the middle, and light yellow toward the /enith, increases, while at the same time they dart with greater vivacity through the skies. The colors are wonderfully transparent, the red approaching to a clear blood-red, the green to a pale emerald tint. On turning from the flaming firmament to the earth, this also is seen to glow with a magical light. The dark sea, black as jet, forms a striking contrast to the white snow-plain or the distant ice-mountain ; all the outlines tremble as if they belonged to the unreal world of dreams. The imposing silence of the night heightens the charms of the magnificent spectacle. But gradually the crown fades, the bow of light dissolves, the streams be- come shorter, less frequent, and less vivid ; and finally the gloom of winter once more descends upon the northern desert. 3 34 THE POLAR WORLD. CHx\PTER II. ARCTIC LAND QUADRUPEDS AND BIRDS. The Reindeer. — Strticture of ita Foot. — Clattering Noise when walking. — Antlers. — Extraordinary olfactory Powers. — The Icelandic jNIoss. — Present and Former Range of the Reindeer. — Its invalu- able Qualities as an Arctic domestic Animal. — Revolts against Oppression. — Enemies of the Rein- deer.— The Wolf.— The Glutton or Wolverine.— Gad-flies.— The Elk or Moose-deer. — The Musk- ox.— The Wild Sheep of the Rocky Mountains.— The Siberian Argali.— The Arctic Fox.— Its Bur- rows. — The Lemmings. — Their Migrations and Enemies. — Arctic Anatidaa. — The Suow-bunting. — The Lapland Bunting. — The Sea-eagle. — Drowned by a Dolphin. THE reindeer may Avell be called the camel of the northern wastes, for it is a no less valuable companion to the Laplander or to the Samojede than the " ship of the desert" to the wandering Bedouin. It is the only member of the numerous deer family that has been domesticated by man ; but though un- doubtedly the most useful, it is by no means the most comely of its race. It^ clear, dark eye has, indeed, a beautiful expression, but it has neither the noble proportions of the stag nor the grace of the roebuck, and its thick square-form- ed body is far from being a model of elegance. Its legs are short and thick, its feet broad, but extremely well adapted for walking over the snow or on a swampy ground. The front hoofs, which are capable of great lateral expansion, curve upward, while the two secondary ones behind (which are but sUghtly developed in the fallow deer and other members of the family) are considera- bly prolonged : a structure which, by giving the animal a broader base to stand upon, prevents it from sinking too deeply into the snow or the morass. Had the foot of the reindeer been formed like that of our stag, it would have been as unable to drag the Laplander's sledge with such velocity over the yielding snow-fields as the camel would be to perform his long marches through the desert without the broad elastic sole-pad on which he firmly paces the unsta- ble sands. The short legs and broad feet of the reindeer likewise enable it to swim with greater ease — a power of no small importance in countries abounding in rivers and lakes, and where the scarcity of food renders perpetual migrations necessa- ry. When the reindeer walks or merely moves, a remarkable clattering sound is heard to some distance, about the cause of which naturalists and travellers by no means agree. Most probably it results from the great length of the two digits of the cloven hoof, which when the animal sets its foot upon the ground separate widely, and when it again raises its hoof suddenly clap against each other. A lopg mane of a dirty Avhite color hangs from the neck of the reindeer. In summer the body is brown above and white beneath ; in winter, long-haired and white. Its antlers are very different from those of the stag, having broad palmated summits, and branching back to the length of three or four feet. QUADRUPEDS AND BIRDS. 35 1:1 Mtaiyiiiiii Their weight is frequently very considerable— twenty or twenty-five pounds ; and it is remarkable that both sexes have horns, while in all other members of tlie deer race the males alone are in possession of this ornament or weapon. The female brings forth in May a single calf, rarely two. This is small and weak, but after a few days it follows the mother, who suckles her young but a 36 THE POLAR WORLD. short time, as it is soon able to seek and to find its food. The reindeer gives very little milk — at the very utmost, after the young has been Aveaned, a bottle- ful daily ; but the quality is excellent, for it is uncommonly thick and nutritious. It consists almost entirely of cream, so that a great deal of water can be added .before it becomes inferior to the best cow-milk. Its taste is excellent, but the butter made from it is rancid, and hardly to be eaten, while the cheese is very good. The only food of the reindeer during winter consists of moss, and the most surprising circumstance in his history is the instinct, or the extraordinary olfac- tory powers, whereby he is enabled to discover it when hidden beneath the snoAV. However deep the Lichen rangiferinus may be buried, the animal is aware of its presence the moment he comes to the spot, and this kind of food is never so agreeable to him as when he digs for it himself. In his manner of doing this he is remarkably adroit. Having first ascertained, by thrusting his muzzle into the snow, Avhether the moss lies below or not, he begins making a hole with his fore feet, and continues working until at length he uncovers the lichen. No instance has ever occurred of a reindeer making such a cavity with- out discovering the moss he seeks. In summer their food is of a different na- ture ; they are then pastured upon green herbs or the leaves of trees. Judg- ing from the lichen's appearance in the hot months, when it is dry and brittle, one might easily wonder that so large a quadruped as the reindeer should make it his favorite food and fatten upon it ; but toward the month of Septem- ber the lichen becomes soft, tender, and damp, with a taste like wheat-bran. In this state its luxuriant and flowery ramifications somewhat resemble the leaves of endive, and ai'e as white as snow. Though' domesticated since time immemorial, the reindeer has only partly been brought under the yoke of man, and wanders in large wild herds both in the North American wastes, where it has never yet been reduced to servitude, and in the forests and tundras of the Old World. In America, where it is called " caribou," it extends from Labrador to Mel- ville Island and Washington Land ; ?ii Europe and Asia it is found from Lap- land and Norway, and from the mountains of Mongolia and the banks of the , Ufa, as far as Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen. Many centuries ago-— probably during the glacial period— its range was still more extensive, as reindeer bones are frequently found in French and German caves, and bear testimony to the severity of the climate which at that time reigned in Central Europe ; for the reindeer is a cold-loving animal, and will not thrive under a milder sky. All attempts to prolong its life in our zoological gardens have failed, and even iu the royal park at Stockholm Hogguer saw some of these animals, which were quite languid and emaciated during the summer, although care had been taken to provide them Avith a cool grotto to which they could retire during the warmer hours of the day. In summer the reindeer can enjoy health only in the fresh mountain air or along the bracing sea-shore, and has as great a longing for a, low temperature as man for the genial Avarmth of his fireside in Avinter. The reindeer is easily tamed, and soon gets accustomed to its master, Avhose society it loves, attracted as it Avere by a kind of innate sympathy ; for, unlike THE ARCTIC LANDS. 37 all other domestic animals, it is by no means dependent on man for its subsist- ence, but finds its nourishment alone, and wanders about freely in summer and in winter without ever being inclosed in a stable. These* qualities are inesti- mable in countries where it would be utterly impossible to keep any domestic animal requiring shelter and stores of provisions during the long winter months, an# make the reindeer the fit companion of the northei'n nomad, whose simple wants it almost wholly supplies. During his wanderings, it carries his tent and scanty household furniture, or drags his sledge over the snow. On account of the weakness of its back-bone, it is less fit for riding, and requires to be mounted with care, as a violent shock easily dislocates its vertebral column ; the saddle is placed on the haunches. You would hardly suppose the reindeer to be the same animal when languidly creeping along under a rider's weight, as when, unencumbered by a load, it vaults with the lightness of a bird over the obstacles in its way to obey the call of its master. The reindeer can be easily trained to drag a sledge, but great care must be taken not to beat or otherwise ill-treat it, as it then be- comes obstinate, and quite unmanageable. When forced to drag too heavy a load, or taxed in any way above its sti-ength, it not seldom turns round upon its tyrant, and attacks him with its horns and fore feet. To save himself from its fury, he is then obliged to overtm-n his sledge, and to seek a refuge under its bottom until the rage of the animal has abated. After the death of the reindeer, it may truly be said that every part of its body is put to some use. The flesh is very good, and the tongue and marrow are considered a great delicacy. The blood, of which not a drop is allowed to be lost, is either drunk warm or made up into a kind of black pudding. The skin furnishes not only clothing impervious to the cold, but tents and bedding ; and spoons, knife-handles, and other household utensils are made out of the bones and horns ; the latter serve also, like the claws, for the preparation of an excellent glue, which the Chinese, who buy them for this purpose of the Rus- sians, use as a nutritious jelly. In Tornea the skins of new-born reindeer are prepared and sent to St. Petersburg to be manufactured into gloves, which are extremely soft, but very dear. Thus the cocoa-nut palm, the tree of a hundred uses, hardly renders a greater variety of services to the islanders of the Indian Ocean than the rein- deer to the Laplander or the Samojede ; and, to the honor of these barbarians be it mentioned, they treat their invaluable friend and com^yanion with a grate- ful affection which might serve as an example to far more civilized nations. The reindeer attains an age of from twenty to twenty-five years, but in its domesticated state it is generally killed when from six to ten years old. Its most dangerous enemies are the wolf, and the glutton or wolverine ( Gulo ho- realis or «rc«ici2:)0wzci