it'«.|)';. \ 1 - NATURAL HISTORY LIBRARY OF !885_I056 Knowledge Library NATURAL HISTORY Edited by Alfred H. Miles The Gorilla. The UJ /? Concise Knowledge Natural History R. LYDEKKER, B.A., F.R.S., V.P.G.S. ; R. BOWDLER SHARPE, LL.D.; W. F. KIRBY, F.L.S., F.E.S. ; W. GARSTANG, M.A., F.Z.S. ; B. B. WOODWARD, F.L.S., F.G.S. ; F. A. BATHER, M.A., F.G.S. ; R. KIRKPATRICK; R. I. POCOCK ; AND H. M. BERNARD, M.A., F.L.S. With 530 Original IHustrations by I. KEULEMANS, F. H. MICHAEL, ERNALD W. MILES, FRANK C. ALDWORTH, AND OTHER artists LONDON Hutchinson & Co. 34 Paternoster Row, E.G. 1897 PREFACE >>ifioo This work aims to be a concise and popular Natural History, at once accurate in statement, handy in form, and ready of reference. The several departments of Zoological science are treated by specialists, all of whom are distinguished as authorities and as original investigators ; and the text is illustrated by upwards of five hundred original draw- ings made and reproduced expressly for the work. A concise systematic index precedes the work, and a full alphabetical index which contains about ten thousand references is given at the end. Great pains have been taken to render these both accurate and complete. As a whole the volume contains nearly eight hundred pages and is issued at a price which makes it pheno- menal. In the result it is hoped that much time may be saved to busy people and much help afforded to students. A. H. M. CORRIGENDA— MAMMALS. Page 56, Fig". 32, for Felidcr, read Felts. „ 102, line 45, for Tri/ophoinys, read Lophiomys. ,, 112, line 23, for Trianlacodus, read Thrynoniys. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. SUB-KINGDOM I.— VERTEBRATA. CLASS I.— MAMMALIA. Characteristics of Vertebrates Distinctive Features of Mammals Ge gtaphical Distribution Order L — Primates. Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs Order IL — Ciiiroptera. The Hats ... Order IlL — Insectivora. Lisect-eatinij Mammals... Order IV. — Carnivora. Fle^h-eating M.immals ... Order V.— Rodcntia. Mammals that Gnaw . ... MAMMALS. Page I Page 1 Order VI. — Un^ulata. 2 ! The Hoofed Mammals Ii8 7 j Order VII. — Sirenia. I The Manatis and Dugongs ... 165 10 : Order VIII. — Cetacea. ; Whale-, Porpoises, and Dolphins 169 33 , Order IX. — Edentata. j Sloihs, Ant-eaters, and Armadillos iSi 42 j Or ler X. — Effodientia. j Aard-varks and Pangolins ... 188 50 1 Order XI. — Marsupialia. j Pouched Mammals ... ... 190 88 I Order XII.— Monotremata. I Lgg-laying Mammals ... ... 214 Bird Structure and Development SuB-Ci-ASS Saurur^. Order Archoeopteryges. The Archisopteryx StJB-Cl.ASS RaTIT/E. Order Rhei formes. The Rh.as Order Struihioniformes, The Ostiiches Order Casuariiformes. The Emus and Cassowaries Order Dinornithiformes, Etc. The Extinct Moas Order Apterygifonnes. The Apteryges ... CLASS IL— AVES. BIRDS. 218 Carinate Birds. Order Tinamiformes. The Tiiiamous ... ... 225 Order Gall 1 formes. 220 The Game-liirds .. Order Pterocletes. ... 226 The Sand-grouse ... 241 Order Columblformes. ... 221 Pigeons ... Sub-order Didi. 242 ... 222 The Dodo, Etc Order Opisthocomiformes. •■ 245 ... 223 The Hoatzini Order Ralliformes. ., 247 ... 224 The Rails Urder Podicipedidiformes. .. 248 ... 224 The Grebes ■• 253 IX SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Page Birds — continued. Order Colymbiformes. The Divers . 254 Order Spheniscifonnes. The Penguins • 255 Order Procellariiformes. The Petrels 256 Order Alciformes. The Auks • 259 Order Larifornies. The Gulls 261 Order Charadriiformes. The Plovers and Bustards . 264 Sub-order Attagides. The Seed-snipes ... . 266 Sub-order Charadrii. The Plovers . 266 Sub-order Glareolcc. The Pratincoles ... . 272 Sub-order Cursorii. The Coursers . 272 Sub-order CEdicnenii. The Stone- ploN'ers • 273 Sub-order Otides. The Bustards ■ 273 Order Gruiformes. The Cranes . 274 Sub-order Grues. The True Cranes • 274 Sub-order Arami. The Limpkins • 275 Sub-order Khinochetide.s. The Kagus . 276 Sub-order Mesitides. The Madagascar Kagus . 276 Sub-order Etirypygse. The Sun-bitterns . 276 Sub-order Psophiae. The Trumpeters ... • 277 Sub-order Dicholophi. The Seriamas • 277 Order Stereornithes. The Extinct Birds of Patagonia 278 Order Ardeiformes. The Herons, Etc . 278 Sub-Older Ciconii. The Storks . 278 Sub-order Scopi. Hammer-headed Storks . 281 Sub-order Bala;nicipitides. Shoe-billed Storks . 2S2 Sub-order Herodiones. The Herons . 282 Sub-order Plataleiv;. The Spoon-bills, Etc .. 286 Page Order Phoenicopteriformes. The Flamingoes ... Sub-order Palamedeje. The Screamers ... Order Anseriformes. Geese, Etc. Sub-order Anseres. Ducks, Etc. Order Pelecaniformes. The Pelicans, Etc. .Sub-order Sula\ The Gannets Sub-order Phalacrocoraces. The Cormorants ... Sub-order Pelecani. The Pelicans Sub-order Fregati. The Frigate Birds Order Cathartidiformes. The Turkey Vultures Order Accipitriformes. Birds of Prey Sub-order Serpentarii. The Secretary Birds Sub-order Accipitres. The True Birds of Prey.. Sub-order Pandiones. The Ospreys Sub-order Striges. The Owls Order Psittaciformes. The Parrots Order Coracii formes. 'ihe Picarian Birds Sub-order Meatornithes. The Oil-birds ... Sub-order Podargi. The Frog-mouths Sub-order Leptosomati. The Kiroumijos ... Sub-order Coracias. The Rollers Sub-order lialcyones. The King-fishers Sub-order Bucerotes. The Hornbills ... Sub-order Upupse. '1 he Hoopoes Sub-order Meropes. The Bee-eaters ... Sub-order Momoti. The Motmots Sub-order Todi. The Todies MAMMALS. B I KT>s-^coniinned. Sub-order Caprimulgi. The Nightjars Sub-order Cypseli. The Swifts Sub-order Trochili. The Humming-birds Sub-order Colii. Tlie Colies Order Trogones. The Trogons Order Coccyges. Cuckoo-like Birds Sub-order Cuculi. The Cuckoos Sub-order Musophagi. The Touvacoes ... Order Scansores. The Climhinsr Birds Page tied. Sub-order Rhamphastides. Page 342 The Toucans Sub-order Capitones. •• 352 345 The Barbets Sub-order Indicatores. •• 352 347 The Honey-guides Order Piciformes. •• 353 348 Woodpecker-like Birds ... Sub-order Pici. •• 353 349 The Woodpeckers Sub-order Buccones. ■• 353 349 The Puff-birds Order Euryla;mi. •• 355 349 The Broad-bills Order Passeriformes. •• 35^ 351 The Perching Birds •• 357 352 CLASS HI.— REPTILIA. REPTILES. Characteristics of Reptiles Classification of Reptiles .. Order I. — Crocodilia. Crocodiles, Alligators, Garials Order H. — Chelonia. Tortoises and Turtles ... Sub-order i. — Cryptodira. Land Tortoises, Etc. Sub-order ii. — Pleurodira. Fresh -water Tortoises ... Sub-order iii. — Trionychoidea. The Soft Tortoises ••• 377 Order IH. — Squamata. ... 378 Scaled Reptiles ... Sub-order i. — Lacertilia. .. 395 ... 378 The Lizards Sub-order ii. — Rhiptoglossa. -. 396 ... 383 The Chameleons Sub-order iii. — Ophidia. .. 411 -. 385 The Snakes Older IV. — Rhynchocephalia. .. 412 ••• 392 The Tuatera .. 429 ... .394 CLASS IV.— AMPHIBIA. AMPHIBIANS. Characteristics of Amphibians ... 431 Order I. — Ecaudata. Frogs and Toads ... ... 435 Sub-order i. — Firmisternia. Typical Fiogs, Etc. ... ... 436 Sub-order ii. — Arcifera. The Toads, Etc. .. ... ... 440 Sub-order iii. — Aglossa. The Surinam W^ater-toad, Etc. 444 Order II.— Caudata. Newts and Salamanders ... 445 Order III. — Apoda. The Ccecilians .. .. ... 453 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. CLASS v.— PISCES. Characteristics of Fishes The Classification of Fishes Sub-Class I.— Dipnoi. Lung-fishes Sub-Class II.— Holocephali, The ChimKroids Sub-Class III. — Teleostomi, Bony Fishes and Ganoids ... Order I. — Actinopterygii. The Fan-finned Teleostomes .. Sub-order i. — Acamhopterygii. The Spiny-finned Fishes, Etc, ... Section Ferciformes. The Common Perch, Etc. Section Scorpreniformes. The Micropus, Etc. Section LJerychiformes. The Slime-heads Section Curliformes. The Indian Curtis, Etc. Section Polynemiformes. '1 he Polynemus, Etc. Section SciiKniformes. The Meagre, Etc. Section Xijjhiiformes. The Sword-fish Section Trichiuriformes. The Scabbard Fi.->h, Etc. Section Cotto-Sconibriformes, The Surgeons, Etc. Section Gobiiformes. Tlie Lump-siiclhes, Etc. Section Mugiliformes. The B.irracuda-pikes, Etc. Section Scombresociformes. The Flying-fish, Etc. Section Gastr^steiformes. The Sticklebacks, Etc. ... Section Ceiitrisciformes. The Bellows-fish, Etc Section Gobioesociformes. The Sucker-fishes, Etc. ... Section Channiformes. The Serpent-heads, Etc. FISHES. Page 456 45S 459 461 462 463 463 463 467 467 468 468 468 469 470 470 476 477 478 479 480 482 482 482 Page Section Labyrinthici. The Chmhing-perch, Etc. . 483 Section Lophotiformes. The Unicorn-fish . 484 Section Treniiformes. The Riband-fishes .. 484 Section Notacanthiformes. The Thorn-backs .. 485 Section Pharyngognathi. The Coral-fishes, Etc •• 48s Sub-order ii.— Lophobranchii. The Pipe-fishes, Etc. ... .. 487 Sub-order iii. — Plectognathi. The Spine-clad Globe-fishes . .. 488 Sub-order iv. — Anacanihini. The Common Cod, Etc. ■■ 490 Sub-order v.— Phy.sostomi, •• 493 Section A. — Apodes. The Eel-tribe •• 493 Section B. — Nematognathi. The Cat-fishes ... ... .. 496 Section C. — Plectispondyli. The Common Carp, Etc. • • 497 Section D. — Haplopomi. The Common Pike, Etc. .. 501 Section E. — Scyphophori. The Gymnarchus, Etc. ... •• 503 Seciion F. — Isospondyh. Tlie Salmon, Etc. •• S03 Sub-order vi. — /Etheospondyli. The Bony Pikes, Etc .. 509 Sub-order vii. — Protospondyli. The Bow-fin .. 510 Sub-Older viii. — Chondrostei. The Sturgeons ... .. 510 Order II. — Crossopterygii. Fringe-finned Ganoids ... .. 512 Sub-Class IV.— Elasmobranchii. Sharks and Rays •• 513 Order Selachii. Sharks, Dog-fishes, Etc. •■ 515 Sub-order i.— Asterospondyh. The Blue Shark, Etc. ... • ■ 515 Sub-order ii. — Tectospondyli. The Saw-fish • • 519 ARTHKOPODA. CLASS VI.— CYCLOSTOMA. LAMPREYS AND HAG-FISHES. Characteristics of Cyciostoma Page 523 I Lampreys and Hag-fishes ... Page 524 CLASS VIL— PROTOCIIORDA. Sub-Class L— Cephalochorda. I Sub-Ci.ass IL— Urochorda. The Lancelet 526 | The Common Sea-squirt, Etc. ... 527 CLASS VIIL— HEMICHORDA. Hemichorda or Enteropneusta ... 528 | The Balanoglossus 528 SUB-KINGDOM II.— ARTHROPODA. CRUSTACEA, INSECT A, &-r. CLASS L— CRUSTACEA. Characteristics of Arthropoda ... 529 Edible Arthropoda, Etc. ... ... 530 Sub-Ci.ass L — Entomostraca. The Smaller Crustacea ... ... 531 Order I. — Phyllopoda. The Water-flea, Etc 531 Order II. — Ostracoda. The Ostracoda ... ... ... 532 Order III. — Copepoda. The Cyclops, Carp-lice, Etc. ... 532 Order IV. — Cirripedia. Barnacles, Etc. ... ... ... 533 Sub-Class II. — Malacostraca. The Higher Crustacea ... ... 533 Order I. — Arthrostraca. Sub-order i. — Lopoda. Wood-lice, Etc 534 Sub-order ii. — Amphipoda. The whale-louse, Etc 534 Order II. — Thoracostraca. Sub-order i. — Cumacea. Marine Parasites, Etc. ... .. 535 Sub-order ii. — Stomatopoda, Squilla Mantis, Etc. ... ... 535 Sub-order iii. — Schizopoda. Shrimp-like Crustacea ... ... 536 Order III. — Decapoda. Sub-order i. — Macrura. Shrimps, Lobsters, Crayfish, Etc. 536 Sub-order ii. — Anomura. Robber Crabs, Hermit Crabs, Etc. 537 Sub-order iii. — Brachyura. The Spider Crab, Etc. ... ... 537 Sub-Class III. — Gigantostraca. Order Xiphosura. The King-crabs .. ... ... 538 Sub-Class IV. — Pycnogonida. Order Pycnogonida ... ... 539 CLASS IL— ARACHNIDA. SPIDERS, SCORPIONS, AND MITES. Order I. — Scorpionidea. The Scorpions, Etc. I Order II. — Solpugidea. 540 I Galeodes Arabs, Etc. 541 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Arachnida — continued. Order III. — Pseudoscorpionulea. Book-scorpions ... Order IV. — Pedipalpi. False Scorpions ... Order V.— Plialangiida. Harvest-men. Etc. Order VI. — Araneida. Spiders ... Page 541 541 541 542 Order VII. — Acarina. Mites and Ticks ... Order VIII. — Tardigrada. Moss Mites, Etc. Order IX. — Linguatulida. Worm-like Parasites Order Chilopoda. Centipedes Order Peripatidce CLASS III.— MYRIOPODA. CENTIPEDES AND MILLEPEDES. I Order Chilognatha. 548 I Millepedes CLASS IV.— PROTRACIIEATA. 550 I Peripatus luliformis CLASS v.— INSECTA. Classification of Insects Order Coleoptera. Beetles Order Orthoptera. Crickets, Locusts, Etc.... Order Neuroptera. Lace-wingfd Insects Order Trichoptera. Caddis Flies, Etc. Order Hymenoptera. Bees, Wasps, Ants, Etc. Page 545 547 548 551 [ Order Lepidoptera. Butterflies and Motlis ... 553 I Order Hemiptera. Bugs and Frog-hoppers... 562 I Sub-order Heteroptera. Bugs, Etc. 568 Sub-order Homoptera. Frog-hoppers, Plant-lice, Etc. 572 I Order Anophira, The True Lice ... 573 Order Dipiera. 1 The Flies 549 551 581 594 595 59^ 602 602 SUB-KINGDOM III.— MOLLUSCA. WHELKS, OYSTERS, SNAILS, &^c. Characteristics of MoUusca Classification of Mollusca Order I. — Polyplacophora, Chitons, Etc CLASS L— AMPIIINEURA. ... 610 ... 615 615 Order II. — Aplacophora. (Worm-like Mollusca) ... ... 616 Sub-order i. — Neomeniina. Neomenians •... ... ... 616 Sub-order ii. — Chcetodermatina. MOLL use A —BRA C HI POD A . CLASS II.— PELECVPODA {BIVALVES). Paqe 6i6 Characteristics of the Pelecypoda . . . Order I. — Pioiobranchiata. Nut-hells, Eic 620 Order II. — Filihranchiata. Sub-order i. — AnoniiaccK. Tiie Saddle Oyster, Etc. . . 621 Sul)-order li. — Arcacea. Noah'> Atk Shells, Etc. ... 621 Sub-order iii. — Trigoniacea. The Trigouia ... ... ... 621 Sub-order iv. — Mytilacea. The Marine Mussel, Etc. ... 621 Older \\\. — Pseudolamellibranchiata. The Oyster, Etc. .~ 622 Sub-order i. — Aviculacea. Swailuvv Shells, Etc. ... ... 622 Sub-order ii. — Ostreacea. Oysters 622 Page Sub-order iii. — Pectinacea. Scallops, Etc. ... ... ... 622 Order IV. — Eulamellibranchiata. Sub-order i. — Submytilacea. Fre.ih-wnter Mussels ... ... 623 Sub-order ii. — Teliinacea. Sunset Shells, Etc. ... ... 624 Sub-order iii. — Veneiacea. The Venus Shells, Etc. ... ... 625 Sub-order iv.-Cardiacea. The Cockles, Etc. 625 Sub-order v. — Myacea. The Mya or (iaper. Etc. ... 626 Sub-Older vi. — Pholadacea. The Piddock and Ship-worm, Etc. 627 Sub-order vii. — Anatinacea. Pandora, Etc 627 Order V, — Septibranchiata. Poromyidte, Etc. ... ... 628 CLASS III.— SCAPHOPODA. Scaphopoda or Solenoconciia ... 628 | The Elephant's-tooth Shells CLASS IV.— ( Sub-Class A.— Streptoneura. Order I. — Scutibranchiata. The Limpets, Etc. Sub-order i. — Docoglossa. The Common Limpet, Etc. Sub-order ii. — Rhipidoglossa. The Keyhole Limpet, Etc. Order II. — Pectinibranchiata. (The Marine Gastropuds) Sub-Older i. — Gymnoglossa. (Parasitic Molusca) Sub-ordi-r ii. — Ptenoi,'!o<;sa. The Purple Sei-snails, Etc. Sub-order iii. — Tsnioglossa. The Cowries, Etc. Sub-order iv. — Rachiglossa. The Dcig-periwinkle, Etc. 631 631 631 632 633 633 633 637 GASTROPODA. Sub-order v. — Toxoglossa. The Cone Shells, Etc Sub-Class B. — Euthyneura. Order I. — Opisthobranchiata. Sub-order i. — Tectibranchiata. Group A. — Bulloidea. The Hulla, Etc Group B. — Aplysioidea. The Sea-hares, Etc. Group C. — Pleurobranchoidea. Sub-on 'er ii. — .\udibranchiata. The Sej-slugs .. OrcAer II. — Pulmonata. Land Moliusca ... Sub-order i. — Basommatophora. Pond-snails, Etc. Sub-order ii. — Stylommatophora. Land-snails, Etc. Order I. — Tetrabranchiata. Ti,e Nautilus Order II. — Dibranchiata. CLASS v.— CEPHALOPODA. 645 Sub-order i. — Decapoda. The Cuttle-fish, Etc. Sub-order ii. — Octopoda. The Argonaut, Etc. SUB-KINGDOM IV.— BRACHIOPODA. LAMPSHELLS, &^c. Characteristics of Brachiopods ... 649 | Lampshells, Etc. ... 628 638 640 640 640 641 641 642 646 647 649 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. SUB-KINGDOM V.— ECHINODERMA. STAR-FISH, SEA-URCHINS, b^c. Page Characteristics of Echinodernia . • 653 Class Echinoidea. Class Asteroidea. Sea-urchins Star-fish 656 Class Holothuroidea Class Opliiuroidea. Sea-cucumbers Brittle-stars, Etc. . 658 Class Crinoidea. Sea-lilies Page 659 660 662 SUB-KINGDOM VI.— BRYOZOA [POLYZOA]. MOSS ANIMALS. Sub-Class I. — Infundibui.ata. Order Chilostomata. Lip-mouthed Bryozoa ... ... 665 Order Cyclostomata. Circular-mouthed Bryozoa ... 668 Order Ctenostomata. Comb-mouthed Bryozoa SUB-KINGDOM VII.— VERMES THE WORMS. Class Gephyrea. The Gephyrean Worms Class Nematohelminthes. The Thread-worms Class Rotifera. The Wheel-animalcules Class Nemtrtinea. Nemeitinc Worms Class Platyhelminthes. The Flat-worms ... Sub-class Turheliaria. The Plmarian Worms Sub-class Cestoda. The Ta)ie-worms Sub-class Tremaioda. The Fluke-worms Characteristics of Worms 670 Class Annelida. The Ringed Worms, Etc. 671 Sub-class Chjetopoda. Bristle-footed Worms 671 Order Polychseta. Marine Worms 671 Sub-order Ssdentaria. Tube-making Worms 672 Sul)-order Errantia. The Predacious Sea-worms, Etc. 672 Order Oligochoeta. The Earth-worms, Etc. ... 674 Sub-class Hirudinea. The Leeches 675 SUB-KINGDOM VIII.— COELENTERA. SPONGES, CORALS, &c. Characteristics of Coelentera ... 690 ] Section i.— The Hydrozoa. Group I. — Porifera. I The Zoophytes, Etc. The Sponges ... ... ... 690 1 Seciion ii. — The Scyphozoa; Group II. — The Cnidaria. Sea-anemones ami Corals The Stinging Coelenterates ... 694 Section iii. — Ctenophora. The Comb-bearers SUB-KINGDOM IX.— PROTOZOA. ANIMALCULE. 713 ' Section iii. — The Ileliozoa Characteristics of Protozoa Group I. — The Monera Group II. — The Rhizopoda Section i. — The Amoeba ... Section ii. — The Foraminifera 713 1 Section iv. — The Radiolaria 714 j Group III. — The Flagellata 714 Group IV. — The Gregarin^ 715 I Group V. — The Infusoria 668 Sub-Class II.— Lophopoda. Fresh-water Bryozoa, Etc. ... 668 ... 677 ... 678 ... 682 ... 683 ... 685 ... 685 ... 686 ... 688 694 700 711 716 716 718 720 720 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. SUB-KINGDOM I.— VERTEBRATA. CLASS L— MAMMALIA. By R. Lydekker, B.A., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., &c. It is a somewhat curious deficiency in the English language that it has no word of its own that will include all the animals forming the class known to zoologists as the Mammalia. It is true that the term Beasts properly belongs to the great majority of the members of the class, but it has also acquired another meaning, and expressly excludes man. Even more objectionable is the term Quadrupeds, since not only does this exclude man and the higher apes, but etymologicaily includes crocodiles, lizards, and turtles. Accord- ingly, as neither of these two words are suitable to designate the class as a whole, naturalists have long been in the habit of using an Anglicised version of its scientific designation, and at the present day the term " Mammals " has come so widely intu use that no apology for its employment here is called for. Mammals, then, are the highest of the Vertebrata, and thus of all animals, and take their name from the general presence of prominent udders, furnished with teats, in the female, for the secretion of the milk, by which the young are invariably fed during the earlier stages of their existence, such udders being situated in the higher types on the breast, although in many cf the lower forms they are abdominal in position. In the very lowest members of the class there are, however, no distinct teats, the milk-glands discharging by means of a number of small apertures in the skin of the lower surface of the body. It is thus the presence of these milk-glands, and the suckling of the mo-re or less helpless young, that are the i)rime essential features of the class. Before glancing at certain others of their distinctive features, a few words may be said in regard to the Vertebrata, which form a sub-kingdom, including the five classes of ]\Iammals (Mammalia), Birds (Aves), Rep- x - +• tiles (Reptilia), Amphibians (Amphibia), and Fishes (Pisces). Cliaracueristics And here it may be noticed that certain low forms, such as ^^' the lampreys and lancelet {Ampliloxus), commonly classed among Fishes, are now regarded as forming a portion of a lower group known as the Protochor- data. Vertebrates take their name from the general presence of the struc- ture termed the vertebral column, or backbone, although in Fome of the lower forms this is represented merely hj a cartilaginous rod. Whether this struc- A THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. ture bo merely such a rod, or whether it be divided into the numerous bony segments known as vertebree, it is invariably situated on the dorsal aspect of the body, or that from which the limbs arc turned away. On that side of the primitive backbone lying nearest to the back, there runs a tube or canal, formed by arches of bone or cartilage arising from the bodies of the vertebraj, and containing the great nervous cord commonly spoken of as the spinal marrow or cord. This cord in the adult state of the higher forms being thus included within v/hat are called the arches of the vertebrie. On the side of the primitive backbone opposite to that occupied by the spinal marrow is a much larger chamber, containing the heart and digestive organs ; so that, in cross-section, the body of a Vertebrate consists of a smaller nerve-tube lying above the primitive backbone, and of a much larger tube, containing the heart and digestive organs below the latter. Throughout the Vertebrates the limbs never exceed two pairs, and are always turned away from that aspect of the body containing the nerve-tube ; and the two jaws are upper and lower, and work against one another in a vertical plane. In addition to the presence of milk-glands, and the suckling by the young of the fluid tliey secrete, the following structural features may be noticed as distinctive of the Mammalian class. A highly important Distmc ive feature is the mode of articulation of the lower jaw to the Mammals skull proper, or cranium ; this being effected by means of a prominence, or condyle, at the higher portion of the hinder ex- tremity of the lower jaw, articulating with a special cavity — the glenoid cavity — in the cranium. On the other hand, in the lower Vertebrates this articulation is effected by means of a special separate bone — the quadrate — articulating above with the cranium, and below with the lower jaw ; this quadrate, as such, being absent in the Mammalia. Another peculiarity connected with the lower jaw is that it consists of a right and left branch — connected at the chin by a bony or cartilaginous union — each of which :s formed of but a single bone; whereas in the inferior Vertebrates several distinct bones enter into the com- position of the two branches. Externally, Mammals are further characterised by the possession of hair on the skin, although this may be represented merely by a few bristles in the neighbom-hood of the mouth during the earlier stages of existence. Internally, that portion of the great body-cavity con- taining the heart and lungs is completely shut off from the chamber in which are placed the digestive organs by means of a transverse partition, known as the midriff or diaphragm. Existing Mammals, at any rate, have also a higher type of brain than the inferior classes, an especial feature being the presence of a transverse band of tissue on its lower surface,, connecting together the main lateral halves or hemispheres. Such are some of tlie leading characters by which the Mammalia may be distinguished from the whole of the other Vertebrates. From both Birds and Reptiles tlie class differs by the circumstance that the skull is movably articulated to the first vertebra of the neck by means of two knobs, or con- dyles, situated one on each side of the lower part of the aperture, or foramen, through which the spinal cord passes into the skull to join the brain. Two condyles are, however, present in the Amj^hibians (frogs and salamanders), which differ from Mammals in their cold blood. A second distinction from Birds and Reptiles is to be found in the structure of the ankle joint; the movable joint in Mammals being situated above the ankle, whereas in the other groups it is placed in the middle of the same. In common with Birds, Mammals differ fx'om the three lower classes of the Vertebrata in havinj; MAMMALIA. warm blood, driven by a four- chambered heart through a double circulatory system ; one portion of the blood being propelled through the lungs for the purpose of re-oxygenation, while a second pt)rtion is sent through the body by means of the general circulation. Whereas, however, in Mammals, the aorta, or great vessel, by which the blood passes from the heart to the body, crosses the left branch oi the windpipe, in Birds it crosses the right. At no stage of their existence do Mammals ever breathe by means of gills ; lungs, even in the aquatic forms, being the sole respiratory agents. Neither do they ever pass through any kind of metamorphosis, such as takes place in the Amphibia. As a general rule, the young are born in a living, and frequently in a more or less helpless condition ; but in the very lowest members of the class the female lays eggs. With but very few exceptions. Mammals have seven vertebrfe in the neck, and thereby present a remarkable contrast to Birds and Reptiles, in which the number is exceedingly variable. In all the terrestrial forms the two pairs of limbs are fully developed; but in the marine Cetaceans and Sirenians the front pair are modified into paddles, and all external traces of the hinder ones completely lost, while the body has assumed a fish-like form. In the Bats alone are the fore limbs structurally modified to subserve the purpose of true flight, like that of Birds. As in the following pages reference is often made to various bones of the skeleton, this part of the subject cannot be passed over without brief mention. The fully developed skeleton, as shown by the accompany- ing diagram, comj^rises a skull (1), a jointed breast-bone, or eieton. sternum (h), a still more numerously jointed backbone, the ribs (2), the limb- bones, and the girdles by which they are susi^ended to the backbone and its neighbourhood, and a pair of collar-bones, or clavicles (c). As already men- tioned, the skull jjroper, or the skull without the lower jaw, is termed the cranium ; this consisting of a number of (mostly paired) bones, articulated im- movably together at their edges. The hinder portion of the cranium encloses the brain ; while the front part, or facial region, contains the mouth and organs of smell. Of especial importance are the bones forming the upper jaw, which comi:)rise in front a pair of premaxilliie, containing the front or incisor teeth ; behind which are the maxillae, containing the tusks and cheek-teeth. The lower jaw has been already mentioned sufficiently. In the backbone the cervical, or neck-vertebrpe are recognised by having no ribs attached to them ; behind these follow the dorsal vertebrfe, each carrying a pair of movable ribs, of which the more anterior are connected with the breast-bone ; and these in turn are succeeded by the lumbar, or loin-vertebra?, to which no movable ribs are articulated. Behind the luml)ars comes the solid niass of several united vertebrje, known as the sacrum, to which are firmly articulated the haunch-bones, or ilia (a), forming the upper part of the pelvis (3). Behind the pelvis are the bones of the tail, or caudal vertebme, which may be either very few or very numerous. In the higher Mammals the shoulder-girdle proper is formed only by the two blade-bones, or scapulae, which overlie the anterior ribs without any attachment to the backbone, and have at their lower end a shallow cavity for the reception of the head of the uppermost bone of the arm or fore-limb. W^hen fully developed, the collar-bones are articulated by one extremity to the blade-bones, and by the other to the upper segment of the breast-bone. Certain other bones entering into the composition of the shoulder-girdle of the lowest representatives of the class, will be noticed under that group. In the skeleton of the fore-limb, or arm, we have the upper THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. Fiij. I. — IfiMAx Skeletom. arm- bone, or humerus (4), articu-' lating to the blade-bone. The fora- arm (/) comprises two bones, the radius (5) anteriorly, and ulna (/)) posteriori}', botli articulating with the lower end of the humerus, and the upper end of the latter form- ing the prominence of the elbow. At the lower end of the radius and ulna comes the wrist joint, or car- pus (7), consisting of an upper and lower row of small massive bones, frequently having a central bone between them. To the upper row of bones, counting from the side of the thumb to the little finger, the names of scaphoid, lunar, and cuneiform are applied. When these three bones directly overlie the bones of the lower row, the carpus is said co be of the linear type ; but when they overlap, it is said to be an alternating carpus. The wrist is followed by the metacarpal bones (8), which never exceed live in number, and these again by the phalanges, or bones of the digits ; such digits (D) being likewise never more than live in Jiumber. Where- as in the first digit, or thumb, there are but two jjhalanges, in the other digits there are normally three. The pelvic-girdle (3), or that by which the hind-limb is sup- ported, differs essentially from the shoulder-girdle, in that it is immovably fixed to the backbone at the .sacrum. The pelvis, as the whole structure is called, is .di- vided into a right and left inno- minate bone. In the higher Mam- mals, each innominate consists of a single bone, although it primar- ily consists of three distinct ele- ments. The uppermost of these, and the one by means of which the attachment to the sacrum is made, is called the haunch-bone, or ilium ('(), and corresponds to the scapula in the fore-limb. In- fcriorly there are two elements, of M'hich the first is the pubis, and MAMMALIA. the second the ischium. Each innominate bone on its outer side contains a cup-shaped cavity (into the composition of which enter alike the ilium, pubis, and ischium) known as the aceUibuhnn ; and with this articulates the femur, or thigh-bone (10), representing the humerus of the fore-limb. Toward the middle of the liinder surface of its shaft this bone frequently bears a bold i)rojecting crest termed the tiiird trochanter. As the humerus articulates with the two bones of the fore-arm, so the thigh-bone articulates with the two bones of tlie lower leg, of which the larger is known as the tibia (12), and the smaller as the fibula (13). Following these comes the ankle-joint, or tarsus (14), which, like the carpus, is formed of an upper and a lower row of small massive bones ; the two upi^ermost bones being respectively known as the huckle-bone, or astragalus ; and the heel-bone, or calcaneum. Interiorly the tarsus is succeeded by the metatarsal bones (15), corresponding to the metacarpals in the fore-limb, these being followed by the phalanges of the toes (16), which are similar to those of tlie fi'ont limb. To the first toe of the hind foot the name hallux is often applied. It may be added that when (as in the ruminants) there are only two metacarpals, or metatarsals, which are completely joined together so as to form a single bone, or when (as in the horses) tliere is originally but a single metacarpal or metatarsal, such l^one, whether of dual origin or primarily single, is called a cannon-bone. The knee-cap, or patella (11), is a bone in the tendon of the great muscle of the thigh. With regard to the teeth, it has been already stated that in the upper jaw Tiij. 2.— Side View of Upper and Lower Human Dentition, with the sides of tlie jaw removed to show the rests of the teeth. The three lower teeth with branched roots are the molars ; in front of these are the two premolars, then comes the canine, and, finally, the pair of incisors. THE ANIMAL KINGDOnr. the teeth implanted iu the premaxillary bones, which are always of a com- paratively simple type, with single roots, are termed incisors. In the great Firj. 3. — Upper Jatt of the Gokilla. majority of Mammals, there are ¥i(j. 5. — Palatk of the Gorilla. In tlie palate the three liindmost teeth are tliG molars, in advance of which are the two iiremolars ; the single large tooth on each side is the tusk, or canine, in front of wliich are the two mirs of incisors. F\(]. 4. — Lower Jaw of the Gorilla. not more than three pairs of these teeth, although there may be four or five pairs in the Pouched INIammals. The first tooth in the upper jaw, which is implanted in the maxillary bono, and is very generally long and tusk-like, is termed the canine ; this tooth being also of simjale type, and generally with a single undivided root. Behind this come a series of, at most, four pairs of cheek-teeth, which have gener- ally, except the first, two roots each, and, in ordinary Placental Mammals, are j^re- ceded (as are tlie incisors and canine) by milk-teeth in the young. To these teeth, which may be reduced to a single pair, is applied the term, premolars. Behind these come the true molars, which have generally broad complex crowns and branching roots, and are not preceded by milk-teeth. In Placental Mammals there are but seldom more than three pairs of molars, but in Marsupials the ordinary number is four. In the lower jaw the tooth biting in front of the upper canine is the lower canine, in front of which are the incisors. In the Placental INIammals these do not exceed three pairs, and are MAMMALIA. generally numerically the same as the upper incisors ; but in the Marsupials, where there may be four pairs, they are generally less numerous tlian the upper. Behind the lower canine come the jiremolars, ■which are followed by the molars, the latter being distinguished from the last premolar by having no deciduous predecessors. A very important subject connected with the study of Mammals is their geographical distribution on the surface of the globe, but to understand this thoroughly, it is essential to have a knowledge of the extinct forms, and to be acquainted with the changes in the form of Bistribut^o the continents and islands which have taken place during earlier epochs of the earth's history. Every traveller is aware that the Mammals of different regions of the globe differ more or less markedly, but this difference is by no means co-extensive Avith the distance of the various regions from one another. Thus, whereas the Mammals of Japan are very similar to those of Europe, while there is a marked resemblance between the former and those of North America, when w^e pass from the Malayan Islands to Australia, there is a very sudden and remarkable change. As a whole. Mammals are a comparatively modern group, which have only attained their present great development during the Tertiary, or latest epoch, of the earth's history. It is true that they existed during the preceding Secondary Epoch, or the one in which the chalk, oolites, lias, etc., w^ere de- posited ; but all the forms Avere then small, and occupied a subordinate posi- tion in the fauna of the world, the continents being tlien peopled by various strange, and frequently gigantic, kinds of Reptiles, while, in the oceans, the place of the modern Avhales, porpoises, and Sirenians was taken by the Reptilian Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs, It is in consequence of this com- paratively late development that the geographical distribution of Mammals differs widely from that of Reptiles and Amphibians, although it coincides to a certain degree with that of Birds, which are likewise a relatively modern group. From the evidence of Mammals alone, the globe may be divided into three main zoo-geographical realms, two of which may be further sub-divided into regions. These three primary divisions are res])ectively named the Notogajic, Neogseic, and Arctogseic realms, or Notogaja, Neogrea, and Arctogaia. The tirst of these includes Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, and the islands as far east as New Ireland and New Caledonia, together with Celebes, Lombok, and the islands between these and Australia. From Borneo and Java, Celebes and Lombok are separated by a deep channel, and whereas all the islands to the west of this channel, which is known as Wallace's line, have their Mammalian fauna of an Oriental or Indian type, and are without any Marsupials, those on the west of the same show a more or less marked Australian type. Marsupials making their first appearance in Celebes, and becoming more numerous as we ai:)proach Australia and Papua, where that group is the dominant one. The Austro-Malayan islands, as Celebes and the adjacent islands may bo called, form, indeed, a transition, so far as Mammals are concerned, between the regions to the west and Australia and New Guinea, althougli it is on the whole most convenient to include them in the Notogeeic realm. The typical part of that realm, as represented by Australia, New Guinea, and the adjacent islands, is characterised by the great preponderance of Pouched Mannnals, or ]\Iarsupials, while it is here only that the Egg-Laying Mammals, or Monotremes, are met with. In Australia itself, in addition to Bats, which THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. here and elsewhere need not claim our attention, the only Mammals except Marsupials and Monotremes are a certain number of Rodents belonging to the family 3Iurid(e, and the Australian wild dog, or dingo. New Guinea, on the other hand, possesses a pig, Avhich may possibly, however, have been inti'oduced. When Celebes and the other Austro-Malayan islands are reached, Mono- tremes are absent, and Marsupials form only a small moiety in the fauna. This realm is the sole home, not only of the Monotremes, but likewise of the typical Diprotodont Marsupials,^ while the only other part of the world whei'e Marsupials are now found is America, where they are rej^resented among other forms by the opossums, which are quite unknown in Australia. As Marsuj^ials of extinct types inhabited the Northern Hemisphere during earlier epochs, it is evident that the Notogteic realm received its INIarsupial and Monotremes fauna at a date when such creatures were the dominant ffjrms in South-Eastern Asia, which was then populated by but few other types of Mammalian life. When these ancestral Marsupials and Monotremes had effected an entrance into Australia and New Guinea, with the adjacent islands, they became more or less completely cut off from the rest of the world, and were enabled to develop apart from the competition of the higher forms of life. It is note- worthy that some of the Australian Rodents present a marked similarity to these of the Philipjjines, showing that the immigration has been from the northward. Notogrea may be divided into several regions. One of these is the New Zealand region, characterised by the absence of all terrestrial Mammals, and the abundance of flightless birds, neai'ly all of which are now extinct. Under the title of the Australian region may be included Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, the Aru Islands, New Caledonia, New Britain, etc. ; this region being characterised by the i:)reponderance of Marsupials and the presence of Monotremes. The Austro-Malayan region, which includes the islands mentioned above, has, on the other hand, only a small number of Marsupials among a preponderance of Placentals, so that this region forms a transition between Notogaea and Arctoga^a. Nearly as distinct from the rest of the world as the last, is the Neogajic realm, comprising South and Central America, together with the West Indian Islands. Now, however, the distinction of this realm, as a primary region, is much obscured by the union of South with North America, which has allowed many essentially Northern types to migrate into South America, while a certain number of Southern forms have penetrated into the Northern half of the continent. There is evidence that during the Cretaceous Period, or latest division of the Secondary Epoch, what is now Mexico was a sea, while in the Middle, ar Miocene division of the Tertiary Epoch, the same was the case with Central America. It is thus evident that at two distinct periods. North and South America were disconnected ; although it is quite possible that during some other part of the Tertiary Period antecedent to the Miocene, there may have been a temporary connection either by way of the Isthmus of Darien, or by Florida and the West Indies. At the present day the Neogssic realm is practically the sole home of the Edentates,- of the New World monkeys (Cehidce) and marmosets {Hapalidcc), as well as of many peculiar types of Hystricomorphous Rodents, such as the viscacha (Lngostomiis), coypu {Alyopotamus), carpincho {Hijdroclioerus), cavies (Cavia), agutis {Daryprocta)., 1 This and other terms are fully explained in the sequel. — * A few of these and other groups range into Texas. MAMMAL/A. pacas {Ccdogcnys), etc , etc., several of them belonging to families which are confined to this realm. Here also the Marsupial oj)ossums {JJiildpli.ijkla') attain their maximum development, only a couple of species ranging into North America ; while the camel-like llamas (Lama) are restricted to thi.s realm. Thepeccaries(Z)/t'o^;/Zcs), again, are mainly South andCentral American while among the Carnivora the coatis (iVosHo) are exclusively so. In addi- tion to the llamas and peccaries, the only other Ungulates are deer, mostly belonging to the American genus Cariacus. True deer {C'ervus) are totally wanting, as are all Insectivora. Here, it must be mentioned, that during the Pleistocene Period, or latest division of the Tertiary Epoch, South America was populated by a much more wonderful fauna. Among these were horses and mastodons (allies of the elephants), together with a giant Ungulate {Toxodon) typifying a distinct sub-order (Toxodontia) by itself, together with a second, known as the Macrauchoiia, which is likewise tlie type of a sub-order (Litopterna.) Here also flourished the gigantic Glyptodonts, which are extinct allies of the armadillos of the present day. Deer, llamas, peccaries, coatis, and various cats were also present at the period in question. When, however, we go back to a still earlier era — the Lower Miocene — horses, peccaries, deer, llamas, coatis, and cats were entirely absent ; and the fauna consisted solely of monkeys, marmosets, various peculiar extinct groups of Ungulates, and Hystricomorphous Rodents, together with certain peculiar extinct Mar- supials, and some other groups which need not be mentioned. When this fauna flourished, Neogala must have been quite isolated from the rest of the world. It is, however, clear that (although the Edentates may have originated there) the Ungulates and Hystricomorphous Rodents must have en- tered from other regions, although how they got there is at present a mystery, seeing that none of the latter occur in the earlier Tertiary strata of North America. At the close of the Miocene Period, Soutli America became con- nected with North America, from whence it received its extinct horses, to- gether with its existing deer, llamas, peccaries, mice, coatis, cats, dogs, etc.; Avhile, at the same time, a certain number of essentially Neog^eic types obtained a footing in North America. Although fuller details would be necessary to make this very complicated subject clear, it is thus evident that previous to its latest and existing union with North America, Notogtea possessed a very peculiar and characteristic fauna which entitles it to foi'm a primary realm by itself ; but that this original distinction has been greatly obscured by later emigrations and immigrations. Of this primitive fauna the Edentates, monkeys, marmosets, Hystricomorphous Rodents, and certain Marsujjials, are now remnants ; while the coatis and llamas, which are at the present day confined to the realm, do not properly belong to it at all. ArctogiBa includes the whole of the rest of the world, and may be char- acterised by the absence of Monotremes, Diprotodont Marsupials, and Edentates, 1 and the pi-esence of Insectivora ; Marsupials occurring only in North America. This vast tract may be divided into a number of regions. First and most distinct comes the Malagasy region, including Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, which is specially characterised l)y the abundance of its lemursj civet-like Carnivores, and Insectivora, cou])led with the absence of ^ The pangolins and aard-varks are here separated as a distinct order (Effodientia), The few Edentates straggling into North America may be disregarded. 10 MAMMALIA— ORDER L— PRIMATES. all Ungulates except an African type of pig, and the paucity of Rodents, which are represented only by the rat tribe {Muricke). Next in imponance is the Ethiopian region, comprising Africa south of the Tropic of Cancer and Southern Arabia. Here one of the most distinctive features are the number of laro-e Ungulates, among which the zebras, a host of antelopes, hippopotami, wart-hogs, and Hie giraffe are now peculiar ; while deer are absent, and sheep and goa?s very scarce, --ind only represented in the northern portion of the region. Gorillas and cliimpanzees are now solely Ethiopian, as are practically the dog-headed baboons (Fdjno), while certain other genera of monkeys are confined to the region. Elephants and rhinoceroses also occur, although these are markedly distinct froui their Oriental cousins. Aard-varks are now solely Ethiopian ; while pangolins are common to this and the Oriental regions. Bears are practically wanting. Although in many ways nearly related to the Ethiopian, the Oriental region, which comprises India, Southern China and the Malayan countries as far as Wallace's line, is markedly distinct, having no hipi^opotami, giraffes, or wart-hogs, while its antelopes are far less numerous, and also generically dis- tinct from those of Africa south of the Tropic. Instead of chimpanzees and gorillas, there are orangs and gibbons ; dog-faced baboons are wanting, and there are several peculiar genera of monkeys, while the lemurs are quite distinct from those of Africa. True pigs, as distinct from bush-pigs, are abundant, as are also bears and deer, the latter mostly of a peculiar sub- generic type. There are no aard-varks, although pangolins are common : and the rhinoceroses and elephant are widely different from those of Africa. The region may be sub-divided into several sub-regions, which need not be mentioned here. With the exception of Southern North America, the whole of the remainder of the Arctogieic realm may be included in the Holarctic region, which is characterised by the absence of man-like apes, lemurs, elephants, and rhino- ceroses, the paucity of monkeys, the abundance of goats and sheep, and the presence of the two sj^ecies of bison ; marmots and beavers being also char- acteristic of this region, while pangolins are practically wanting. Finally, we have the Sonoran region, including Southern Nortli America, to about as far north as latitude 45 deg. , and especially characterised by being the home of the prong-buck {Antilocapra) and the family of pocket-gophers {Geomijidoi.) MAMMALIA. ORDER I.— PRIMATES, Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs. The first ordinal group of Mammals is the one named by the great Swedish naturalist LinnjBus, Primates, and includes not only apes, )aonkeys, baboons, and marmosets, but likewise man himself, as well as the infinitely lower creatures commonly designated lemurs, which differ from all the others in APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. their expressionless, fox-like faces. Were the latter animals (as they not unfrequently are) separated as a distinct ordinal group, the Primates would be much easier of definition than is the case when they are included ; but as there is little doubt that the latter arrangement is the proper one, it is essen- tial that it should be followed. In the great majority of the members of the order, the hand, which is always a grasping organ, is furnished with five fingers, generally provided with more or less flattened nails, but in certain cases the thumb is wanting. The thumb itself iu tlie higher forms is completely opposable to the other digits, but in certain of tlie lower rei)resentatives of the order its power of opposition is bub very limited. In the five-toed hind-foot, except in man, the great-toe is similarly opposable to the other digits. Witii the exception of the second, or index finger of the lemurs, the terminal joints of the fingers and toes are expanded to form a support for the broad and flattened nails. In both the fore and hind-limbs all the component bones are separate ixowx one another ; and perfect collar-bones or cavicles are invariably present. All the Primates are further characterised by the sockets, or orbits, of the eyes being surrounded by a complete bony rim. As regards the teeth, the molars have broad, flattened crowns, surmounted either by tubercles or a pair of transverse ridges, and are thus admirably adapted for the mastication of the fruits, leaves, or other vegetable substances on which the majority of these animals subsist. In number, the molar teeth form three pairs in each jaw, save only in the marmosets ; these teeth being always more complex and larger than the premolars. The latter are reduced to two pairs in each jaw in all the higher forms, with the exception of one family of American monkeys ; and even among the lemurs no existing species has more than three pairs of these teeth. More- over, in all the apes and monkeys the incisor teeth, which in many other animals form three pairs, are reduced to two pairs in both jaws; but among the lemurs the number of these teeth is subject to a considerable amount of variation. Save in the aberrant lemur known as the aj^e-aye, there are at least two teats on the breast of the females. As a rule, the members of the order are forest-dwelling animals, inhabiting tropical and sub-tropical countries, althougli a few^ range into regions where in winter the boughs of the trees are enveloped in snow; but it is only in the hottest and dampest tropical forests that the largest members of the order are met with. Although many apes and monkeys are able to assume the upright position, it is very few that habitually use it ; and even when they do, the aid of the arms is necessary to maintain the balance in walking. The Primates may be divided into two great subordinal groups ; the first (Anthrojwidca) including man, apes, baboons, monkeys, and marmosets, whilst the second (Lemuroidea) embraces only the lemurs. The first and highest group of the Primates includes the so-called man-like apes, such as the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, and gibbons, collectively con- stituting the family 8imiida\ That these apes are our nearest cousins is well known ; but the degree and extent Man-like of this relationship, as well as the characters by which it is Apes. — Family displayed, are probably less familiar. In the first place, it Simiidie. will bo noticed that we speak of this relationship as one of cousinship, and not of ancestry ; and it is well that the reader should free himself from any idea that there is any vestige of direct ancestral kinship between these, for the most part, hideous creatures and himself. Such MAMMALIA— ORDER I.— PRIMA TES. relationship as does exist is of a comparatively distant kind ; and the common ancestor must have lived ages before the mammoth roamed ovei England, since at that date man was as distinctly diiferentiated from the apes as he is in the present century. Whether this " missing link " will ever be found, or in what country it is most likely to have lived, are questions impossible to answer ; but from the extreme rarity with which fossil remains of man-like apes are found in countries where they are known to have cT'cisted for- long ages, and from the probability that the distributional area of the aforesaid "link" was extremely limited, there is not much hope that the researches of palaeontologists will ever be rewarded by such a discovery. Trom their large bodily size, coupled with that hideous caricature of the human face and form chaivacterising the more typical representatives of the man-like apes, no one would have any difficulty in distinguishing these crea- tures from their lower relatives. There might, however, be some hesitation with regard to the long-armed gibbons, and it is, therefore, essential to point out how the members of the man-like group may be distinguished as a whole from other monkeys. Among the sub-order Anthropoidea there is an important distinction be- tween the Old and New World forms. The whole of the Old World repre- sentatives of this division of the order are characterised by having teeth agreeing both in number and arrangement with those of man. Thus in all cases in each jaw there are two pairs of incisors, a single pair of tusks;, or canines, and five pairs of cheek-teeth, of which the last, or " wisdom-tooth," is frequently very late in making its appearance (see tig. 5). Of these five cheek- teeth the first two on each side are simpler than the three hinder ones, and are preceded in the infant by milk-teeth, whereas the latter have no such pre- decessors. It is accordingly the custom to call the two simpler teeth premolars or bicuspids, and the three more complex ones molars. If, now, we examine an ordinary American monkey, we shall find six cheek teeth on each side of both the upper and lower jaws, of which half are premolars and half molars ; while in the marmosets, which constitute a second American family, although the total number of cheek-teeth is the same as in the Old World forms, yet the proportion is different, there being rhree premolars and two molars. It may, therefore, be stated that all Amerioc^n monkeys differ from their Old World cousins in having three instead of two pairs of premolar teeth, whence it may be inferred that they belong tc a lower and more generalized type, there being a universal tendency throughout tlie higher Vertebrates to a diminution, or disappearance of the teeth with the advance of specialisation. In the marmosets ^the loss of the last molar is unique in the higher division of the order, and is, indeed, a somewhat re- markable peculiarity to occur in a herbivorous Mammal, among which the reduction is usually confined to the front and premolar teetli. As the teeth serve most readily to differentiate the Old Wt)rld monkeys from their American allies, so the man-like apes are sharply distinguished from their relatives by the conformation of the same organs. Thus the molar teeth of the man-like apes closely resemble those of man, having the angles of their crowns rounded off, and cariying on their grinding-surfaces four very blunt tubercles, placed alternately to one anotlier, as Avell as a somewhat smaller tubercle at the hinder end. On the other hand, in tlie lower monkeys the molar teeth are oblong in form, and carry four very prominent tubercles arranged in pairs at the two extremities of each tooth, and each pair being connected so as to form a couple of more or less well- APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. defined transverse ridges extending right across the crown. Vhen, again, fl'hereas in the man-like apes the last molar, or •' wisdom-tooth," in the lower jaw is similar in form to the two teeth in front of it, in the great majority of the Old World monkeys this tooth lias a large j^rojecting heel at its hinder end. These dental characters afi'ord very inijjortant evidence of the close kinship of the man-like ajies to man himself, and undoubtedly outweigh the difierence in the form of the whole dental series now to be noticed, which is largely due to adaptation. T.n both the upper and lower jaws of man the teeth are arranged in a regular horse- shoe series, with scarcely any interrup- tion to the continuity by tlie tusks, which are but little taller than the other members of the series. On the other hand, in the adults (and especially the males of the larger species) of the man-like apes the cheek-teeth are arranged in a nearly straight line, and form a inore or less angulated junction Avith the line of the incisors ; the large canines, or tusks, occupying the angle between the two series, and thus forming a marked break in continuity. Jn these respects the manlike apes resemble their inferior kindred. If, however, a young individual of the larger man-like apes, and especially the chimpanzee, be examined, it will be found that the teeth, owing partly to the imperfect protrusion of the tusks, form a less interrupted and more regularly curved series. Indeed, with the exception that the whole jaw is longer and narrower, and the partially-protruded tusks are proiDortionately larger, the characters of such specimens make a marked approximation to the human type ; and the jaw of a chimpanzee at this stage maybe regarded as almost intermediate in structure between that of man and that of an adult male gorilla. More- over, in this juvenile state the bony union of the two branches of the lower jaw partakes of the sliort and rounded form characterizing that of man ; whereas in the adult it becomes longer and more deeply channelled, like that of the lower monkeys. In many respects the teeth and jaws of the gibbons, or smallest representatives of the present group, conform to the intermediate type. Not only are the human characteristics most developed in the teeth and jaws of the young of the larger man-like apes and the gibbons at all ages, but tlie same is true Avith regard to the skull of the former. The skull of the young gorilla, inv instance, lacks the beetling crests over the eyes and the ])rominent ridge down the middle of the crown, which give such a foi'- bidding and repulsive aspect to the craniuni of the full-grown male. This loss of human resemblances is due to specialisation taking two difficulty lines in man on the one hand, and in the larger man-like apes on the other ; the development in the one case tending to increased size of brain, coupled with no marked increase in the size of the tusks, while in the other the brain grows at; a less rapid rate, and the skull and tusks (more esjiecially in the male) assume characters approximating them to those of the inferior animals. Both in men and apes the young condition may accordingly be regarded as the most generalised. Among the other features in which the man-like apes differ from the lower monkeys and resemble man, are the absence of dilatable pouches in the cheeks for the storage of food, and the total loss of the tail, as well as the flattened, instead of laterally compressed, form of the breast-bone ; the gibbons alone retaining the naked ])atches on the buttocks so characteristic of the monkeys, but only in a much reduced condition. The gorilla and chimpanzees further differ from the other members of the group, and thereby resemble man alone, in the loss of the so-called central bone of the wrist— a bone occupying a nearly central position between the upper and lower rows 14 MAMMALIA—ORDER I.— PRIMATES. of small bones of which that joint is composed. What may be the object of the disappearance of this bone, it is not easy to say ; but the fact that it is wanting in the two genera of apes just mentioned is very significant of their close structural affinity with man. In one respect the man-like apes stand apart both from the human and the monkey type, namely, in the great relative length of the arms as comiDared with the legs, the disproportion being most strongly marked in the gibbons, which are actually able to walk in the upright posture with their bent knuckles touching the ground. So far, indeed, as their bodily structure is concerned, the man-like apes seem undoubtedly more nearly related to man than they are to the lower monkeys ; and they constitute a family (Simiiihe) by themselves, which may be regarded as intermediate between the one {Cercopithecitkv) including the lower monkeys, and that represented by man himself.- While at present the " missing link " between man and the apes is wanting, extinct forms tend to connect the latter very closely with the monkeys. For instance, a fossil ape (DryopitJiecus) from the Miocene Tertiaiy strata of France has the bony union between the two branches of the lower jaw much longer than in any existing man-like ape, although it is approached in this respect by the goi'illa; while from the corresponding beds of Italy another extinct form (Oreopitliecus) appears to be in great part intermediate between the man-like apes and the lower monkeys. The present distribution of the anthropoid apes clearly points to the exist- ing species being the last survivors of a group wliich was once widely spread over the Old World, when warmer climatic conditions prevailed over what we now call the temperate regions. The gorilla, for instance, is confined to Western Equatorial Africa ; where it is accompanied by the two species of chimpanzee, one of which ranges eastwards across the continent as far as Uganda. The orangs, of which there are probably two species, on the other hand, are confined to the great islands of Sumatra and Borneo ; while the numerous species of gibbons have a wide range in South-Eastern Asia, attain- ing their maximum development in the Malayan Archii^elago and the adjacent regions. This distribution is remarkably discontinuous, but the little known of the past history of the group tends somewhat to consolidate the present scattered distributional areas. For instance, a chimpanzee once inhabited Northern India ; while it is most probable that an orang also was a contem- poraneous dweller in the same country. This suggests that India may have been the original home of the larger man-like apes, from whence the chim- panzees and gorillas migrated south-westwards to Equatorial Africa, while the orangs travelled in an easterly direction to find a last home in the tropical islands to which they are now confined. Of the four existing genera of the man-like apes, the chimpanzees (Anthro- popithecus) are those which come nearest to man, this being especially shown by the shortness of the bony union between the two branches Chimpanzees of thelower jaw, theform and modeof arrangementof the teeth [Aufhropopilhe- (especially in the young), the relatively small development of cms). (she tusks of the male, the absence of the enormous bony crests on the skull so characteristic of the gorilla, and the slight diff'erence in the size of the two lexes. The chimpanzees and tlie gorilla alone resemble man in having seventeen vertebrpe between the neck and the sacrum, and likewise in the absence of the central bone in the wrist, although they differ in the comparatively unimportant feature of possessing an additional pair of ribs. It will be unnecessary to give a full description of APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. IS Fig. 6.~CoMMON Chimpanzep, (Anthropopithecus troglodytes). these animals, and it will suffice to say that the common species {A. troglo- dytes), which ranges across Tropical Africa from the Gabun to Uganda, has the face, ears, hands, and feet, dark reddish flesh-colour, or more rarely blackish bi'own, while the general colour of the hair is wholly black, except on the lips, where it is short and white, and on the buttocks, where it has a dash of red- dish brown. There has been some diflerence of opinion as to whether the so-called bald chimpanzee (.-1, calvus) of the West Coast of Africa is entitled to rank as a distinct species, but recent researches tend to show that it has no such claim. In size chimpanzees are much smaller animals than the gorilla. In walking, the palm of the hand can be applied to the gi'ound, and the same is the case Avith the sole of the foot ; but although chimpanzees can stand or walk erect on the soles of their feet, they much prefer to progress in a stooping posture, supporting themselves on their bent knuckles. In some districts living to a great extent on the ground, chimpanzees are more arboreal in their genei'al liabits than the gorilla, although much less so than the orang. They feed on wild or even cultivated fruits, and generally associate either in family parties or in small communities, although the males and females pair for life. For the protection of the female and young a kind of nest or resting-place is built in some tree, where they pass the night, the male remaining on ground below. In the early morning and evening, and less commonly during the night, chimpanzees give vent to a series of unearthly shrieks and howls ; Dr. Pechuel-Losche observing that "since they are really accomplished in tlie art of bringing forth these unpleasant sounds, which may be heard at a great distance, and are reproduced by the echoes, it is im- possible to estimate the number of indi- viduals who take part in the dreary noise, but often we seemed to hear more than a hundred." The hideous creature forming the sole representative of the genus Gorilla differs from the chimpanzees in the great development of Gorilla. the tusks of the male as well as in the large size of the bony crests on the skull above the eyes, and likewise by the male being very much larger than the female. There are also certain differences in the conformation of the cheek-teeth, and the brain has a more Fig. 7— The Gorilla (Gorilla savagei). 1(3 MAMMALIA-ORDER I. —PRIMATES. oval contour, thereby approximating to the human type. In height the male gorilla ((t. savcujei) may exceed six feet, although the female does not measure more than four and a half feet. Tlie general colour of the animal is black or blackisli, tlie whole skin of the face being glossy black, scattered over with a few hairs. The geographical range of this gigantic ai:>e is exceedingly limited, being confined to that part of the West Coast of Equatorial Africa lying between tha Cameran mountains and the Congo River. Like chimpanzees, gorillas live in family parties, although these do not combine to f(jrm communities ; and they are likewise stated to construct arboreal resting-places for the female and young. They walk in a shuffling manner somewhat similar to that adopted by chimpanzees, but as their arms are longer they are not compelled to stoop so much, and the open hand, in place of the bent knuckle, is stated to be put on the ground in this mode of progression. The yell of the male gorilla is described as a terrific sound ; and these animals ajipear to be not only ferocious, but likewise extremely courag- eous, always advancing boldly to meet a foe, and never running away like a chimpanzee. As in all the man-like apes, the female pro- duces but a single young at a birth, Avhich is nurtured with tender solicitude, and defended to the last extremity. When at rest, the gorilla generally assumes a squatting posture, witli the anus folded across the breast ; and in sleep lies stretched out at full length either on the back or on one side, with an arm under the head. Extremely delicate in con- stitution when removed fi'om its native haunts, this ape rarely survives captivity long even in Africa, while the climate of Europe soon puts an end to its existence. The first skeleton of the gorilla which reached England was presented to th3 Royal College of Surgeons by Captain Harris in 1851. This was followed in 1858 by an entire g(n'illa preserved in spirits, which was sent fr(>m the Gabun to the British Museum. Of the few live specimens which have reached Europe, none seem to have survived more than fifteen or eighteen months. The earliest to reach England appears to have been one which, in 1830, was the property of an itinerant showman, who mistook it for a chiui pan- zee, and did not discover his mistake until after the animal's death. Fifteen years later a young male gorilla was procured from the natives by the German Loango Expedition, and taken to Berlin. This animal was fed on fruits and goat's milk, and under kindly treatment became so tractable that he was allowed to wander about the ship with little or no restraint. He showed some cunning and a tendency to mischief, but no evil propensities. He would pay surreptitious visits to the store-room on occasion, and slyly help himself to the dainties he affected, making ofl:'with unmistakable signs of guilty con- sciousness Avhen disturbed or caught in the act. Arrived at Berlin, he was placed in the Aquarium, where for fifteen months he was the object of much attention. He died of consumption, as did his successor, who arrived at Berlin in 1883, and died the following year. A young gorilla which reached the Zoological Gardens, London, a few years ago, lived but a few mon*-hs. Fig. 8.— The Orang-Utan {yimia satyrus). APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. 17 The reduction of the number of vertebrre between tlie neck and the sacrum to sixteen, togetlier with the retention of the central bone in the wrist, the great length of the arms, which in the upright posture reach to the ankles, and the peculiar upward prolongation of Orang-Utan the vertex of the skull, serve at once to show that the [Siniia.) orang (Simict) stands on a lower evolutionary i)latform than either of the preceding representatives of the family. Externally it is fiuther distinguislied by the rudimentary condition of the great^toe, the peculiarly flattened form of the almost dish-like leaden-hued face of the adidt, and the red tinge of the long and shaggy hair, the latter being in marked contrast to the black hue of the gorilla and chimpanzees. Although in possessing only a dozen pairs of ribs the orang diflers from both the latter and resembles man, yet this resemblance is greatly outweighed by the differ- ence in the number of the vertebrae. It is now generally admitted that there is but a single species of orang- utan (Simla sati/nis), which is confined to the great islands of Sumatra and Borneo, and is known to the Dyak inhabitants of the latter by the nam-e of Mias. A peculiar characteristic of the adult male is the presence of a large, smooth, soft, tumovu'-like, flexible expansion of the skin of the sides of the face, giving the remarkable breadth and flatness so characteristic of the whole countenance. In size, orangs are subject to considerable variation, large males reaching from four feet two inches to four feet six inches ; the females being much smaller. The orang is a much more truly arboreal animal than either of the other large apes, and is likewise a solitary creature, the sexes only coming together at the pairing season. Females are generally to be seen accompanied by their young, sometimes only a single one, but in other instances with those of two birtlis. The young cling with remarkable tenacity to the body of the mother as she climbs from tree to tree. Although most excellent climbers, orangs are exceedingly slow and deliberate in their movements, and are thus quite unlike the gibbons. Mr. Brooke of Sarawak says, "The orangs, so far as I have been able to observe them, are as dull and as slothful as can well be conceived, and on no occasion, when pursuing them, did they move so fast as to preclude my keep- ing pace with them easily through a moderately clear forest ; and even when obstructions below (such as wading up to the neck) allowed them to get away some distance, they were sure to stop and allow us to come up. I never observed the slightest attempt at defence ; and the Avood, which sometimes rattled about our ears, was broken by their weight, and not thrown, as some persons represent. If ])ushed to extremity, however, the pappan could not be otherwise than formidable ; and one unfortunate man, who with a party was trying to catch one alive, lost two of his fingers, besides being severely bitten on the face, whilst the animal finally beat oft' his pursuers and escaped. When hunters wish to catch an adult, they cut down a circle of trees round the one on which he is seated, and then fell that also, and close before he can recover himself, and endeavour to bind him. The rude hut which they are stated to build in the trees would be more properly called a seat, or nest, for it has no roof or cover of any sort. The facility with which they form this seat is curious ; and I had an opportunity of seeing a wounded female weave the branches together, and seat herself in a minute. She afterwards received our fire without moving, and expired in her lofty abode, whence it cost us much trouble to dislodge her. The adult male 1 killed was seated i8 MAMMALIA— ORDER L— PRIMATES. lazily on a tree ; and when approached, only took tlie trouble to interpose the trunk between ns, peei>ing at nie and dodging as I dodged. I hit him on the wrist, and he was afterwards despatched." The list members of the family are the gibbons {Hylohatcs) which are restricted to the warmer parts of South-Eastern Asia, and are esjiecially abundant in the Malay Peninsula and islands. Thty are Gitobons [Hylo- the lowest and smallest representatives of the man-like ajjes, bale-i). and although agreeing with those above described in the absence of a tail and cheek-pouches, and by the circumstance that their grinding-teeth are constructed on precisely tlie same plan as those of ourselves, they apj^roximate to the lower monkeys in possessing small naked callosities on the buttocks. In habitually walking in the iiprighb position, frequently with the assistance of their enormously elongated arms, they are peculiar in the ape world. This peculiaritj^ coupled with their apparently human-like skulls, might lead the uninitiated to suppose that these creatures were the most man-like of all apes. A moment's reflection would, however, show that in such highly-organised animals, a small species, in order to be able to carry on the functions necessary to its exis- tence, must have a proportionately larger brain than its bigger relatives ; and a large brain implies, of course, a large skull. Moreover, in small and purely arboreal animals like the gibbons, there is no reason why the skull should be strengthened by the enormous frontal ridges which give such a repulsive aspect to the physiognomy of the male gorilla. Accordingly, we see that the somewhat human-like form of the skulls of the gibbons does not in any way indicate that they are more nearly related to ourselves than their larger kindred ; while the callosities on their buttocks, and several features in their anatomical structure, show that they are decidedly less so. Although in the confined space of a cage in the " Zoo " the gibbons have but little opportunity of displaying the marvellous activity by which they are characterised in their native woods, yet even there their engaging manners cannot fail to attract attention ; and many show the gentleness and docility so distinctive of these apes in a most marked manner. In the more congenial climate of Calcutta, Avhich admits of gibbons being placed in the open air, their movements are, however, far more like those of the wild state ; and one of these creatures in the local "Zoo"showedits lightning-like activity by actually catching birds while on the Aving. Not only is this bold activity A (iiBr.oN [Hijlobate^). characteristic of the gibbons, but they likewise exhibit a Avonderful delicacy of touch. For instance, many gibbons display a marked ^joic/iajii for spiders, which are captured with the long slender lingers ; but before devouring their prizes these animals will not unf rcquently play with them for hours, allowing them to descend by spinning a thread from one of their captor's lingers, and then suddenly jerking them upwards into their hands. Not less noteworthy than their active movements are the loud, unearthly cries of the gibbons, in imitation of which the hulock (11. hulocJ;) of Assam, Burma, etc., derives A FES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS. 19 its name. These wailing cries, wliich are vittered hour after hour in tho morning, and again, although less continuously, in the evening, may be heard for miles when a whole drove are shouting in concert ; and even those of a solitary individual in the Calcutta Gardens made themselves audible at least a mile otl'. Out of a total of eight species of the genus, the siamang {H. snadadylns) of Sumatra is the largest, measuring more than a yard in length ; and it differs from all the rest by having tho second and tliird toes of the hind f(X)t united by a web as far as their terminal joints. In colour, the siamang is uniformly black throughout, and in this respect it agrees with the Hainan gibbon (H. iKtiuanufi) ; whereas, in all tlie other species there is a white band across the forehead. Aniung these latter, one of the best known is the hulock {H. huluch) h'Oin Assam and the countries immediately to the east. Writing of the cries of another species {II. kucisciis), Mr. H. O. Forbes observes that it " makes its presence known to the traveller in Java, when he reaches its upland forest-districts. In the evening just about sundown, and more especially in the early morning, counnencing before sunrise and finally ceasing wlien the sun is above the tops of the trees, he will be surprised by a sudden outbreak of what appears to be now the plaintive wailings of a crowd of women, now the united howling of a band of castigated children." The whole of the remaining monkeys and baboons of the Old World form a second family, Avhich, while agreeing with the man-like apes in the number of their teeth, differ by the crowns of the molars being surmounted by a pair of transverse ridges, each formed by the coalescence of two sub-conical Old World tubercles. All the members Monkeys. — of the family have naked cal- Family losities on the buttocks, and Cercojnthendo}, cheek-pouches are very gener- ally present. The breast-bone differs from that of the man-like apes in being laterally C(nnpressed and narrow, instead of broad and liattened from back to front. The tail, which may l>e either wanting, short, or very long, is never endowed with tho power of prehension ; and the partition between the two nostrils is narrow. Eight existing genera are included in the family, some of which are Oriental, while others are contined to Africa south of the Sahara. None are known from INlada- gascar, New Guinea, or Australia, the eastern limits of the group being formed by Celebes and the Philippine Islands. The most ludicrous in appearance of all the tribe is the well-known proboscis-monkey (Nasalis lanatus) of Borneo, easily distin- guished from all its kin by the extraordinary length of its nose. Proboscis- This monkey, together with the two following genera, con- Monkey stitutes a sub-family characterised by the absence of cheek- (XasahsJ, pouches for storing food, the complex and sacculated structure of the stomach, the great length of the tail, and also by the front limbs being shorter than the hinder pair. All these monkeys feed largely or Fig. 10.— Proboscis-Monkey (Nasalis larvatus). MAMMALIA— ORDER I.— PRIMA TES. chiefly on young shoots or leaves ; and it is in adaptation to this diet that their stomach is specially modified and cheek-pouches are wanting. The constitution of all tlie tribe is very delicate, so that these monkeys are ill- adapted to stand captivity. The peculiar structure of the nose is suflicient to difierentiate the proboscis- monkey from all its allies ; but to this may be added the circumstance that the tail is shorter than the head and body. The numerous species of langurs, which are nearly thirty in number, are conhned to the Oriental countries, where one species ranges as far north as Kashmir, while a second is peculiar to the highlands of Langiirs Eastern Tibet. All these monkeys have thin and slender {Semnopithecus). bodies, elongated limbs, and a very long and whip-like tail ; the head being rounded, and the muzzle short and thick. The thumb is rather short, but the great-toe well developed ; and the cal- losities on the buttocks are relatively small. The hair is abundant, and generally long, soft, and frequently glossj' ; while there is usually a fringe of long, stiff hairs projecting over the eyes. Grey is the predominant hue in the pellage ; but the face, hands, and feet are perfectly black. The best known of all the group is the Hanimian, or sacred langur ( Stmnopithecns cntelhis) of India, which ranges from the Deccan northwards to the south bank of the Ganges, and is held sacred by the Hindus. Of this monkey a writer in the Graphic gives tlie following interesting account : "Among the thousand or more temples and shrines with which the holy Hindu city of Benares is endowed, visitors generally find the great temple dedicated to the worship of the goddess Durga one of the most interesting. It is known to Eur(jpeans as the monkey-temple, because in and around its j)recincts many hundreds of sacred monkeys roam about without interference. The temple was erected during the last century by the Rani Bhawani of Natre in honour of Shiva's wife, the goddess who is sujjposed to delight in death and slaughter, and of whom the believers in the various attributes of the deities, comprising the Hindu Pantheon, stand in the greatest dread. The Diirga Kund is conspicuous in this city of temples for the grace and simplicity oi its architecture. It adjoins a tank which is the finest in Benares, and occupies the central portion of a quadrangle, the walls being stained red with ochre. The sacred portion of the temple consists of twelve finely-carved pillars standing on a marble platform, and supporting a heavy roof. This platform is about 4 ft. from the ground, and is ascended by a flight of low steps on each side of the square. The temple is well provided with the necessary instruments for creating the frightful noises which emanate from these abodes of idolatry all over India. Drums of huge dimensions, gongs, bells, and tom-toms are all at the service of the priests in performing the rites required of them. But the antics of the monkeys which make this temple their home are, next to its architecture, the most attractive feature of the place. The goat's blood with which the walls are sprinkled, and the sacrifices that are known to take place here to appease the wrath of Shiva and his terrifying spouse, are rather revolting to a Christian ; but the grotesque play of the monkeys, their imjiortunate begging, the pranks they enact on one another, and the graceful agility they are constantly displaying, supply a perpetual source of amusement which one is aj^t to think must prove rather distracting to the devout Hindus who come here to worship. A. few yeai's ago, as no one dared molest these animals, they not only increased rapidly in numbers, but, growing to be extraordinarily bold, developed alarming thiev- APES, MOiVA'EYS, AND LEMURS. 21 ing propensities. The .annoyance tliey caused amounted to a j^uIdHc nuisance, for no house in the place was safe from their depredations. At hist the trouble grew so serious that some reduction in the number of these adept tliieves became a necessity, although the prejudices of the people were against any such steps being taken. In the end the Government was requested to interfere, and, waving aside all other considerations but that of luiblic i^olity, the authorities liad many hundreds — report says thousands — captured and sent away. Nevertheless there are plenty of thenr left, and they certainly constitute one of the sights of a city that is probably in many lespects the most interesting in the world.' In Africa south <.)f the Sahara the place of the langurs is taken by the guerezas, of whicli there are nine species, easily distinguished by the total absence of the thumb. In the true guereza (Colobus ;/i(e;r:.v(), ranging from Somaliland to tlie Niam-Niam country and Guerezas Mount Kilima-Njaro, the hair of the back is developed into a (Colubus^, beautiful, long silky mantle hanging down on the sides of the bod}', and likewise by the extremely bushy tail ; the mantle and tail, as well as a ring round the face, being pure white, while the rest of the fur is jetty black. The pellage of this species is extensively used by the natives of Africa ; while that of all the long-haired kinds is largely imported into Europe for manufacture into mufts and other articles of dress. The guenons, or typical representatives of the family, which include con- siderably over thirty species, are likewise exclusively confined to Africa south of the Sahara desert. In common with the remaining members of the family, they constitute a sub-family dis- Guenons tinguished from the last by the presence of cheek-jiouches (Ccrcajnthccus). and the simple structure of the stomach. Their food is more varied than that of the langurs and their allies, and consequently these monkeys are much better adapted for captivity than are the latter. The guenons are specially characterised by the relative slenderness of their build, the more or less shortened muzzle, the moderate size of the callosities on the buttocks, and the long tail. From the two following genera they may be readily distinguished by the circumstance that the last molar tooth in the lower jaw has no projecting heel at its hinder end, but consists simply of two transverse ridges, like the teeth immediately in advance of it. Among the better known species may be mentioned the green monkey (Ccrco2}ithec}is callitrichus), the Diana monkey (C. diaiia), so named from the white fillet above the eyes, and the mona monkey (C. mona) ; all these being from West Africa. DiSering from the guenons solel}^ in the presence of the aforesaid heel to the last lower molar, the mangabeys, or white-eyelid monkeys, „ . likewise form a genus confined to Africa, where they are ,^i_ ., , ] , .\ represented by only half-a-dozen species. They form a group ^ '' intermediate between the jjreceding and the following one. In the Oriental countries this group of monkeys is represented by the macaques, of which there are rather less than a score of species. The macaques resemble the mangabeys in the struc- Macaques ture of the last molar tooth, but are readily distinguished {Macaciis). by the considerable i^roduction of the muzzle, in which the nostrils are not terminal. While the cheek-pouches and the callosities on tlie buttocks are always well developed, the tail may be either long, short, or absent. Although these monkeys are mainly Oriental, one species, the 22 MAMMALIA— ORDER I.— PRIMA TES, Barbary ape {Macacns inu\(s), is found in North Africa and on the rock of Gibraltar ; and one of the Asiatic; species ranr,fes as far north as Eastern Tibet, while a third is found in Jaj^an. In the Barbary ape the tail is want- ing, in the common Bengal monkey (M. rhesus) it is about half the length of the head and body, and in the crab-eating macaque (M. cynomohjns) it is con- sidei'ably longer. The well-known Indian lion-tailed monkey {M. sileaus) takes its name from the presence of a large terminal tuft to the tail ; the head and neck being also furnished with a mane. IMany of these monkeys arc of comparatively large size, and are very savage in disposition, biting tiercely when annoyed. The black ape (Cipiojntliecus nigcr) oi the island of Celebes is the sole re- presentative of a genus forming a connecting link between the preceding and the following, the muzzle bei)ig mure pro- duced than in the macaques, and tlie ioro part of the skull bearing longitudinal ridges, as in some of the dog-faced baboons. This monkey, which takes its name from the dark colour of the hair, has the tail reduced to a mere fleshy tubercle concealed among the fur. It is also fy the ]ioih(lJ noticed by the great elevation of the crown of the head above the face ; the same feature also characterises the South American and West Indian bats forming the genus Natalus. Two very curious bats belonging to this family, and each forming a genus by itself, are remarkable for having the feet furnished with adhesive discs, by which they are enabled to climb smooth, polished surfaces. One of these is the tricolor bat (Tlniroptera tricolor) of Brazil, in which the suckers form circular discs on tlie lower surface of the thumb and the sole of the hind-fo(jt ; the second Ijeing the golden bat (Mifxapoda aurita) of Madagascar, in which the sucker on the thumb is in the form of a horse-shoe, while those (n\ the feet are of smaller size. Both these bats are distinguished from all the other members of the family by having three joints to the '^.liird or middle finger of the wing, thereby resembling the undermentioned family Ph>iHosto)natida\ In the preceding families of the Microchiroptera tlie tail is enclosed in the membrane connecting the two hind-legs, but in the two families of tliis group still remaining for consideration, this appendage, Avlien pre- Free-tailed Bats, sent, generally either perforates the membrane in such a — Family manner that its free extremity api)ears on the upper extrem- Emhallonuridii'. ity of the latter, or is produced considerably beyond the free hinder margin of the same. Another fe;iture is that the inner, and frequently the only, pair of upper incisor teeth, are of large size and placed close together in the middle line ; and a third characteristic is to be found in the circumstance that when the wing is at rest, the first joint of the third finger is folded back upon the supporting metacarpal bone instead of being extended forwards in the same line. In two species, each repre- senting a genus by itself, the last-named characteristic is, however, wanting. Only a single species of these two families is met with in Europe, the second family being exclusively American. In the members of tlie family Em- hallonnriild' there are but two joints in the tliird finger of the wing, and there is no distinct nose-leaf ; but, as a rule, the ear is furnished with a small inner tragus, and there is but a single pair of upper incisor teeth. riJE BATS. 39 which are inclined towards one another. An obli([ue truncation of the extremity of the snout causes the nostrils to project more or less in advance of the extremity of the lower jaw. These b:its are most abundant in the zone lying thirty degrees on each side of the E(|uator ; and among them are the only two indigenous Mammals found in New Zealand. Both in this and the next family oidy a small proportion of the more interesting types out of a very large number of genera will be noticed in this place. The typical representatives of the family are the sheath-tailed bats (Emhxllonnyd), ranging from the Malayan countries to the Philippine Islands, and also found from Madagascar to the Navigator grouiJ. They belong to a group of several genera in which the free extremity of the slender tail perforates the membrane between the legs, while the legs are relatively long, and the upper incisor teeth are weak ; twt) pairs of these teeth being present in tliis particular genus. Further distinctive characteristics of EmbnUonura are that there are 34 teeth, that the muzzle is more or less distinctly pro- duced, the top of the head Hat, the ears completely separate from each other, and their tragus somewhat oblong and expanded above. Tropical America is the home of the allied pouch-winged bats {Saccuptcryx), all of which are small-sized creatures, with only a single pair of upper incisor teeth, and a peculiar glandular pouch on the under side of the wing in the neighbourhood of the elbow-joint. These pouches, which are rudimental in the females, appear to have a sexual function, and in one species a white frill of skin protrudes from the aperture of each. The tomb-bats {Taphozous) form another large genus, with representatives in Africa, the Oriental countries, and Australia, and diflfer from other members of the group in having only two pairs of lower incisor teeth, and also in the shedding of the single upper pair in the adult condition. The males, and in some cases also the females, of many species have glandular pouches beneath tlie chin ; and some forms which hibernate for a long period accumulate large deposits of fat about the root of the tail before retiring for their torpor. The typical representative of the genus is found in large numbers in the ancient tombs t)f Egypt. The two species of white bats {Dididnrus) from Tropical America are worthy of notice, on account of the yellowish or creamy-white colour of the tips of the fur. Closely allied to the tomb-bats, they difter in having three pairs of lower incisor teeth, while they are distinguished from all other bats by the presence of a pouch on the under surface of the membrane between the hind-legs. Two other bats from the same region, known as the hare-lipped bats (Noctilio), take their name from the curious resemblance of their folded upper lips to those of the Rodents, while one species is remarkable on account of its diet, which consists mainly, if not exclusively, of small fish. Another peculiar member of the same sub-family is the long-tailed bat {lihinopoma micropliyl- htm), ranging from North-Eastern Africa through India to Burma, and is easily recognised by the very long, whip-like tail, which projects far beyond the hinder margin of the extremely short membrane joining the hind-legs. The mastiff-bats (AIulossus), so named on account of their very broad and wide-mt)uthed muzzles, are the first representatives of a second sub-family of the Emhallonurkhii characterised by the thickness of the tail, which, save iri one species, is produced a considerable distance beyond the free margin of the membrane joining the legs. All have short, strong legs, very broad feet, and callosities at the base of the thumbs, while there is only a single jiair of incisor teeth in the upper jaw. The hind-feet have no attachment to the wings, the 40 MAMMALIA— ORDER II. — CHIROPTERA. membranes of which can be folded away between the arms and legs, while the membrane joining the hind-legs can be drawn upwards along the tail ; and it apj^ears that all the members of the sub-family are better adapted for crawling than are any otlier bats. The mastiff-bats are confined to Trojiical and Sub- Tropical America, and generally have 26 or 28 teeth, with two pairs of lower incisors. The large ears, in which there is generally a small tragus, are united at their bases ; the lips, in common with those of two allied genera, are very large, and often thrown into pouches ; while the wings are remark- ably long and narrow. The large Malayan naked bat (Chiromeles torquatd) takes its name from the thick and puckered skin being almost entirely naked ; and is further peculiar in that the large first hind-toe can be opposed to the other digits. But the most curious feature about the animal is the presence of a large pouch on the under surface of the body below the armpits, in which the young are carried during the period of suckling. The object of this special development is sufficiently apparent, since, owing to the absence of fax-, tlie young would be quite unable to cling to the body of the parent in the usual bat fashion. The muzzle of this curious bat is remarkably long and pig-like ; and the rather large ears are widely separated from one another. Although most abundant in Africa south of the Sahara, the wrinkled - lipped bats, constituting the genus Nyctinomvs, are the most widely spread, and, at the same time, the most numerously rej^resented group of the present sub-family, being found in India and Burma, China, Australia, New Guinea, Troi:)ical America, and Madagascar ; while a single species {N, cestoni) is found in Southern and Central Europe, where it is the sole representative of the entire family. Closely allied to the mastiff-bats, the members of the present genus may be dis- tinguished by the gap dividing the upper incisor teeth in the middle line, and likewise by the greater development of the wrinkles on the full, fleshy lips. The last member of the family that will be mentioned is the New Zealand bat {Miistacops tubercitlatas), distinguished by liaving three joints to the third finger of the wing, the first of which, when at rest, is folded back beneath the metacarpal bone, instead of above it, as in the other members of the family. Owing to a peculiarity in the structure of the wings, this species is better suited for crawling than any other bat. The other species of bat inhabiting New Zealand (ChaUnoJvbvs tnherculahis) belongs to a genus nearly allied to Vcspernrjo, and is also found in Australia. The great family of vampire-bats is exclusively confined to Tropical America and the West Indies, and bears nearly the same relation to tlie preceding family as is presented by the horse-shoe bats Vampire-Bats. — to the typical bats. In addition to the features common to Family Phyllo- the Emballonuridce, all have three joints to the middle titomaticke. or third finger of the wing, while there is either a well- developed jiose-leaf, or folds and warts are i^resent on the chin. A distinct tragus in the moderately-sized ears will always serve to distinguish the numerous representatives of this family which have a nose- leaf from the horse-shoe bats, without the necessity of counting the number of joints in the middle finger of the wing. Vampire-bats are exceedingly numerous, both as regards genera and species, so that only a few of the former can be referred to here. All are strong flyers; but the various groups pi-esent great differences in the nature of their food, some devouring insects and fruits alike, while others are wholly frugivorous, and others again have taken to a blood sucking habit. THE BA TS. 41 Fig. 21.— Vajh'iue-Bat (Desniodiis rufus). In two small genera of the family (Chilonyctcris and Munuopti) the nose- leaf is wanting, and its place supplied by two or moi'e lappets of skin hanging from beneath the skin. One of these chin-leafed bats {M. hJidiiviJIci) is remark- able for its bright orange fur, and like- wise for tlie extremely fragile structure ui Iho ^vhole head and body. The harm- less vampires {Va))ij)ir>is) belong to a group oi genera in Avliich the tail, when present, jierforates the membrane between the legs, Avhile tlie nose-leaf is spear- shaped. The largest is the great vampire (V. spcdnnn), from Brazil, in wliich the exjianse of wing is upwards vi 28 inches ; the tail iDeing wanting. Apparently these bats feed exclusively on fruits. Nearly allied ai-e the three species of javelin-Vtats [PlillUo^tonia), Avhich may be distinguished fi"om the harmless vampires by the shorter and broader form of the muzzle, as well as by the i-eduction in the number of the lower premolar teeth from tliree to two jjairs. There is some degree of doubt whether any of the javelin-bats are addicted to blood-sucking propensities. More remarkable than any of tlie family are the long-tongued vampires, which are referred to several genera, such as GIossopIia(in, (liarintyderh, Phyllonycteris, etc., easily recognised by the narrow muzzle and the long, slender, extensile tongue, tipj^ed at the extremity with sensile papilhij, and capable of being protruded a long distance in advance of the tongue. Like the javelin-bats, these vampires liave a small spear-shaj)ed nose-leaf rising vertically from the muzzle immediately between the nostrils. The tongue appears to be used both to scoop out the soft interior of fruits, and likewise to extract small insects from tubular flowers. Another Avell-marked assemblage is formed by the short-nosed A'ampires, of which there are no less than nine genera, and among which Artibciis and Stenodeiina may be mentioned by name. All these bat.s, which are for the most part frugivorous in their diet, are distinguished by the extreme short- ness of their muzzles, which are generally very wide, and are i)rovided with a short nose-leaf ; the fore-part of the latter being in the form of a horse-shoe, and the hinder moiety sj^ear-shaped. One of these species (Aiiibevs pcr- spkillatns) is veiy connnon in the plantations of Jamaica, where it feeds on mangoes, bread-fruit, etc. The last representatives of this extensive family are the blood-sucking vampires, of which one species alone constitutes the genus Ihsmodus, while the latter represents another genus named DipJiylla. Both these bats are characterised by the short and conical form of the muzzle, which carries a small nose-leaf, the shortness of the membrane be- tween the hind-legs, the absence of a tail, and the small number and peculiar structure of the teeth. In the first-named genus tlie total number f»f teeth is 20, molars being wanting ; but in the second it is 22, owing to the presence of a pair of rudimentary molars in the upper jaw. Both hiive a single pair of broad chisel-like incisor teeth in the uj)per jaw, which fill up the whole space between the tusks ; and the two pairs of ujiper, and three pairs (if lower premolars have sliarp cutting edges. In MAMMALIA-OkDEK J 11. —INSECT! I OKA. correlation with the nature of their diet, tlie stomach of these bats is narrowed and elongated into a tube-like organ. The common vampire (Desmudus rufx.s), ranging from Central America to the south of Brazil, measures about three inches in length, and has reddisli-brown fur on the upper parts. Tlic second species {DipliijUa eaimlata) is rather smaller, and contined to Brazil. These bats attack animals by shaving away the upper layer of the skin from some bare part with their incisor teeth, and then suck up the blood as it oozes from the capillary vessels. ORDER III. -TNSECTIVORA. Insect- Eatixc; Mammals. The third order of Mammals comj)rises a large number of mostly small-sized insectivorous species, structurally nearly allied to the bats, but with tlie f(n-e- limbs of normal structure. With the exception of the tree-shrews and a few aquatic species, they are all more or less comi)letely nocturnal in their habits ; but tlie group as a whole is one by no means easy of detinition. As a rule, tliey have live toes to each fo(jt, all of which are furnislied with claws, and neitlier the thumb nor the g.eat toe is capable of being opposed to the other digits. In walking the whole sole of the foot is applied to tlie ground, in what is termed the plantigrade manner. The crowns of their short upper molar teeth are surmounted by a number of minute, sharp cusps, Avliich may be arranged either in the form of a W or a V ; and the incisor teeth, of which there are not less than two jiairs in the lower jaw, are never chisel-like, but the tirst pair is often larger than the others. The canines, or tusks, are very generally not distinctly larger than the other teeth ; and there is never a pair of scissor-like cheek-teeth like those charactei'ising the terrestrial Carnivora. Except in one or two species, perfect collar-bones are developed ; and the lobes of the brain are nearly smooth, thus indicating very low mental powers. Externally, Insectivores very generally have long slender and narrow snouts, with the muzzle projecting considerably beyond the ex- tremity of the lower jaw ; and while many of them are coated with fur, which may be harsh and rough, others have a covering of spines, or spines mingled with fur. As regards their geographical distribution, these Mammals present some very curious features. In the tirst place, they are totally wanting in South America, where their place is taken by the Marsujjial opossums ; but they are represented by a peculiar family, with one genus, in the West Indian Islands. A more or less closely allied family occurs in Madagascar, where there are also other peculiar types ; and the order is distributed over North America and all the great continents of the Old World, although absent from Australia and Papua. From geological evidence, coupled with its abundance in Madagascar, tlie order is evidently an ancient one ; and its existing members have probably been enabled to survive either by their small size and nocturna] habits, their protective armour of spines, or from dwelling in countries where the larger Carnivora are either absent or but few in number, or by having taken to a subterranean mode of life. Whereas the majority of the Insectivora are terrestrial, the flying-lemurs are arboreal, and able to take flying leaps INSECT-KA TING MAMMALS. 43 The Flying-Lemurs. — Family italtvpilhtciditi . from tree tu tree ; the tree-shrews are also arboreal ; the moles and some of the shrews, on the other liand, are burrowers ; and the desmans, certain shrews, and the African I otaniogale are a(]uatic in tlieir lial)its. From all other members of the order the so-called tlying-lemius, or cobegos, are at once distinguished l)y the presence of an expansion of the skin of the sides of the body connectinL; the fore and hind-limbs, and also by the t(jes of bt)th feet being webbed right up to the sharp and curved claws. The hind-legs are likewise con- nected together in a similar manner ; the connecting skin involving the whole of tlie long tail. Another remarkable feature is to be found in the conformation of the incisor teeth, which in both jaws are flattened from back to front, tlio upper ones being cusped, while the lower ones differ from those of all other Mannnals in being of a comb-like structure. The cobegos, of which there are two si)ccies belonging to the single genus GaleopitJurna, range from Tenasserim through the Malayan Peninsula and Islands to the Philippines and Siam. Unlike the ordinary members of the order to whicli they are assignetl, they subsist mainly on leaves and fruits. During the day- time they hang head-downwards in a bat-like manner from the boughs or stems of tiees ; but at dusk and during the night ])ass from tree to tree in long Hying leaps, supported by the parachute, such leaps being at times as much as seventy yards in length. In size, the common Malayan species may be com- pared to an ordinary cat. Owing to their great structural diti'erences from the other members of the order, the cobegos are regarded as forming a sub-order by tliemselves, luider the name of Dermoptera; all the other forms con- stituting a second subordinal group knt)wn as the Insectivora Vera. The tree-shrews, or tupaias, of the Oriental countries, are the first of a group of five families characterised by having br in ajipearance the tree- shrews, except as regards their long, pointed muzzles, are so like small squirrels, that they might easily be mistaken for those animals ; and this resemblance, together with their arboreal habits, is one of the features by which they are most easily recognised. From the next family they may be distinguished by the socket of the eye being comjdetely surrounded by bone in the skull, and likewise by the metatarsus, or upper portion of tlie hind-foot, being of normal proj^or- They are all animals of small size, with thick fur, short ears, and Fly. 22. The Flying-Lemur C Galerqiitliecums vulaiis). Fig. 23.— Tree-Shrew (Tupaia tana). tions. the long tail either bushy throughout or with a pen-like exijansion near the end. Tree-shrews subsist on both insects and fruit, taking the latter in 44 MAJLMALIA—OKDEK JII.—INSECriVORA. their fore-paws and sitting up to devour it in a squirrel-like manner. Although chieflj' arboreal, they at times seek their food on the ground. Tlie typical tree-shrews (2';yjfK'«), whicli range from India to the Philippines, and are represented by a large number of species, have the long tail bushy throughout, although the longer hairs are arranged on the upper and lateral surfaces, the under side being short-haired. Two species, of which one is from Borneo and the other from 8iam, have been separated as L)e)i(lroeiug inserted by one instead t>f two roots. In habits, all hedgehogs are nocturnal and omnivorous, their diet comprising insects, nu)lluscs, eggs, voles, fruits, and roots. In cold countries they hiber- nate in a nest made of leaves and grass, and well concealed among bushes. The shrew-hedgehogs, which may be compared to large, coarsely-haired shrews, replace the hedgehogs in Burma and the Mala>' countries. They difl'er from the latter by being co\ ered with coarse hair instead of sj)ines, as well as in having 44 teeth. There are two species, of which Rafftes's shrew-hedgehog {Gijmmira r((_/f/('.s/) is by far the commoner, and con- siderably the larger, measuring 12 or 14 inches to the root of the tail, which is long and rat-like. The smaller shrew-hedgehog {Hiil<»)i}js suilh(s), on the other hand, measures less than 5 inches, with a tail of only an inch in length, and has the third upper premolar r- «= c- v ,■, ° , ,, ,, ■ ,1 ^ i- '^ ■ Fif/. 25.— Shrew-Hedgehog tooth much smaller than m the first species. " {Oymmtra raffiesi). The range of both is nearly co-extensive. The numerous representatives of this extensive family are mouse-like or rat-like creatures, with soft, short fur, long and pointed snouts, rounded ears, closely pressed to the sides of the head, and a very peculiar type of dentition. From ordinary rats and mice The Shrews. — they may be distinguished by their typically insectivorous Family snouts ; but it is remarkable that a peculiar rat recently dis- Soriciche. covered in the Philippines is curiously like a shrew in this respect, although it retains the characteiistic rodent incisor teeth, which are, however, reduced to an exceedingly small size. As regards their dentition, shrews are specially characterised by the first pair of upper incisor teeth being long and generally sickle-shaped, with a more or less distinct projecting basal cusp on the hinder border, while those of the lower jaw are long, and projecting forwards, in some cases with an upward curve at the tip. With the excep- tion of one African species, there are only six pairs of lower teeth. A pecu- liarity of the skull of the shrews is the absence of the bony zygomatic arch running beneath the socket of the eye, although the same deficiency is found in one species of hedgehog. The upper UKjlars of the shrews lack the fifth cusp found in the first two of these teeth in the hedgehogs. The shrews are not only more numerous in genera and species than any other family of the order to which they belong, but have likewise a much wider geographical distribution, being found over the greater part of Europe. 46 MAMMALIA— ORDER III.—INSECTIVORA, as well as in the temperate and tropical portions f)f Asia and North America, and also in Africa, althoiigli they are represented in Madagascar only by a single species, Avliich is not improbably introduced. Although the majority of the shrews are terrestrial and nocturnal in their habits, a few have taken to an aquatic mode of, life. They are all very shy and retii-ing, which is prob- ably their chief protection ; and their food is entirely composed of insects, wt)rms, molluscs, and such like. Many shrews exhale a strong, muskj' odour ; and at certain times of the year many of these animals are found lying dead in the open, the cause of this mortality not being at present clearly ascer- tained. Although it may seem a trivial character, the circumstance of the teeth being stained reddish-brown, or simply white, serves to divide the shrews into two groups. The typical shrews, or those forming the genus Sorcx, belong to the group ■with reddish teeth, and are specially characterised by having 32 teeth, the ear well-developed, and tlie long tail covered with haii's of equal or nearl}' equal length. The range of the genus includes North America, Europe, and Asia north of the Himalaya ; its British representatives being the connnon slirew {S. araueits) and the lesser shrew (.S'. pyijitueus). Although shrews hibernate, specimens have been occasionally seen running over the snow in mid-winter. The Oriental shrews {Soriciilus), which are the only rej^resentatives of the red-toothed grcnip in that region, are nearly allied ; but they have generally only 30 teeth, and the first upper incisor has an inner cusp. Nearly allied are two Mexican species constituting the genus Notiosorex, and characterised by having only 28 teeth and no inner cusp to the first upper incisor, the tail being also shorter. A larger American genus is-Blaritia, which is mainly confined to the northern part of that continent, although a few forms descend into Central America. Here the number of teeth varies from 30 to 32, while the ear is truncated above and the tail short, the other characters being the same as in tSoriculus. The water-shrews (Crnssojytis), which are tlie last repre- sentatives of the red-toothed secti(m, have 30 teeth, small, non-truncated ears, the long tail fringed on its lower surface witli elongated hairs, and the feet also fringed. The single species (('. focUcns) is thoroughly aquatic, and ranges from England to the Altai Mountains. Cei'tain shrews from Africa constituting the genus Myosovex are the first representatives of the white-toothed section, and are specially characterised by having well-developed cars, a long tail clothed with nearly or quite equal hairs, and either 30 or 32 teeth, one minute species being unique in having seven pairs of lower teeth. More numerous are the well-known musk-shrews (Crnriiluv((), difiering from the last in having 28 or 30 teeth, and the long tail covered with a mixture of long and short hairs. These shrews range from South and Central Europe to Africa and Asia, reaching as far east as Amurland, and being represented by one species in Madagascar. Out of some 80 species one of the best known is the Indian musk-shrew (('. ro'vitJea), commonlj'^ known as the musk-rat, of which the odour is so strong that every article of food is rendered uneatable by the mere passage over it of the animal. The Kirghiz shrew (hiplomemdmi pulc]iell)(s) alone represents a genus iffering from the last by the shorter tail, the hairj' soles of the feet, and the presence of only 2i> teeth. Tlie two mole-shrews (Annroaorex), of which one is from Assam and the other from Tibet and China, are peculiar in being r>f fossorial habits, and may be distinguished by the absence of the external conch of the ear, the short tail, the naked soles of the scale-covered feet, and the velvety fur. The two remaining genera are aquatic, and thus occupy in this JXSECT-EATIA'G MA.VMAfS. 47 section a position similai- to that held by the water-shrew in the red-toothed division of the family. Of these, the swimming sln-ews {Cliimarro'REc(C.HWe.ecaMf^«te). (Hemiccntctcti), distinguished by having three iii place of two pairs of upper incisor teeth, and probably only three of upper molars, as well as by the smaller dimensions of the canines, which scarcely exceed the incisors in size. In these animals, which may be compared in size to a mole, the rows of spines on the back are permanently retained. The small animals known as hedgehog-tenrecs (Ericuhis) take their title from their resemblance to minia- ture hedgehogs, although it is probable that they are incapable of rolling themselves into such a complete ball-like form as are the latter. The whole of the back and sides are protected by a coat of parti-coloured shoi t spines ; and these animals are further distinguished by the jxissession of a short tail. While in one species (E. setusus) the number of teeth is 30, in the second (E. trlfidri) it is reduced to 34. By some the latter is mado the type of a distinct genus, under the name of Echinops. The two mouse- like long-tailed tenrecs, forming the genus Mkrogale, difler from all the foregoing in the absence of spines in the fur at all ages, and likewise by the extraordinary length of the tail, which in one of the two is double that of the head and body. The number of teeth is 40. Lastlj^, the two mole- like rice-tenrecs {Ov\i~.orides), while agreeing with the preceding genus in the absence of spines among the fur, difi'er by the shortness of the tail and their burrowing habits. Whereas in one species ((>. hova) the fore-foot has the usual five toes, in the other (0. tetmdactyhis) the number is reduced to four, of which the three inner ones are armed with strong These animals do much harni \o the rice crops in Mada- 50 MAMMALIA—ORDER IV.—CARNIVORA. gascar by burrowing beneath the roots of the phxnts in search of insects and grubs. . , , , u r^ The last family of the Insecfcivora is represented by the golden or Cape moles {Chriisochloris), which take their name from the iridescent golden, green, and purple metallic tints adorning the fur ; and all of Golden Moles, which are restricted to South and East Africa. From the —Family preceding families of the present section of the order the ChrysocMorida'. golden moles are distinguished by the possession of a bony zygomatic arch and auditory bulla in the skull ; and their triangular molar teeth are remarkable for the height of their crowns. In form°these animals are shorter and thicker than ordinary moles, with the head deeper, and the muzzle much more blunt. The eyes are covered with skin, and the ears completely buried in the fur. The fore-feet are modified into special digging instruments, and have but four toes, oi which the middle pair are provided with large and powerful triangular claws. Usually there are 40 teeth, although in some species the number is reduced to „. „„ ^ „ ,, 3G, owing to the loss of the anterior Fig. 29. — Cape Golden Mole ' , °. . . rm u i (Chrysochloris). premolars in each jaw. ine golden moles burrow in much the same manner as the European mole, but their runs are made so little below the surface that the earth is raised as a continuous ridge, and no hillocks are thrown up. Like the common mole, they feed almost exclusively on earthworms. ORDER IV.—CARNIVORA. Flesh-Eating Mammals. This great and important order of Mammals includes all the terrestrial beasts of prey, together with the aquatic seals and walruses. Although their car- nivorous propensities form one of the most distinctive features of the majority of the members of the order, it must not be assumed that by any means all the Carnivora are exclusively Hesh-eaters, many of the bears feeding largely on fruits and roots, while some of the smaller forms subsist largely on insects. Whether the typical Carnivora are more highly organised animals than the Primates, is a matter regarding which diiferent views may be entertained ; but it is certain that for their jiarticular mode of life these animals have attained the highest development of which the Mammalian type is capable, and the beauty of form and coloration of the larger cats, as well as their extreme agility, cannot but draw forth the admiration of all. A striking feature of Carnivora in general is the wide geographical range of families, genera and species, and the large number of specific types by which the former are represented ; the order presenting in this respect a most marked contrast to the Insectivora, in which, as shown above, most of the families and genera have an exceedingly limited distribution, while the number of species contained in a genus is usually very small. The reason of this is obvious, Carnivora are enabled to obtain suitable prey in every FLESH- EAThW: .^FAMMALS. ^ f C2 ^ 5' ^^-iP part vi the globe, and there is, in consequence, practically no limit to tJio range over which a species may extend itself ; while being dominant forms, the number of species in a genus has naturally multi2)lied to a great extent. As might be expected in such a case, the different species of many large genera display a maikcd tendency to variation, so that tliere is frequently much difficulty in deciding as ti^ what constitutes a species, and what a mere variety ; tliis being remarkably exem])litied among the great groups of the cats and foxes. Although certain extinct forms, of which no further mention will be made in this Volume, tend to connect them with t!ie Insectivora, the modern Car- nivora form a tolerably well-detined group, which would, however, be easier of definition were the seals and walruses leferred to a separate order. Throughout the group the number of toes is very generally live, and iievev falls below four on each foot ; and in all cases these toes are armed with claws, which are usually curved and sharp, and bear no resemblance to nails. Neither the eipiivalent of the thumb or the great toe of the Primates can be in any way opposed to the other digits. Very frecpiently collar-bones are wanting, and in no instance are they complete ; that is to say, they never Connect the blade-bime, or scapula, with tlie breast-bone, as they do in the Primates and Insectivora (except the rotamogalidd). The teeth, which are divisible into the ordinary four series, are generally well-develoi)ed ; the number of incisors being usually tiiree on each side of both jaws, and the outer pair, especially in the upper jaw, is considerably longer than either of the other two. The canines almost invariably form large tusks ; and tlie more anterior, or the whole of the cheek-teeth have compressed and pointed crowns, frequently consisting of one large central cone, supported by a smaller cusp in front and behind. In the terrestrial Carnivora the last premolar in the upper, and the first molar in the lower jaw, are specially modified to bite against one another with a scissor-like action, and are accordingly spoken of as the carnassial, or sectorial teeth. These teeth attain their maximum specialisation and perfeotion among the cats ; wheieas in the bears and some of the raccoon family their sectorial character is much less marked, although it is still noticeable. On the other hand, in the seals and walruses all the cheek-teeth are nearly alike, and are generally cusped and sharp pointed throughout the series, although blunt in the latter family. The modification of the limbs into flippers affords, however, an easy method of distinguishing the whole of the seal group from other Mammals. As a rule, when the number of cheek-teeth is reduced below the normal, the reduction takes j^lace at the hinder, or molar end of the series, whereas in must other Mammals it is the anterior premolars that tend to di.sappcar. In the skull of all Carnivores the lower jaw is articulated by a transversely- extended sub-cylindrical condyle, clasped in front and behind by two over- lapping processes from the skull itself, which are sometimes so prominent as (ia the badger) to prevent the dislocation of the lower jaw without fracturing the bone. Very generally, the socket of the eye is freely open behind, al- though iu certain cats and the mungooses it is surrounded by a complete bony ring. The zygomatic arch, so frequently absent in the Insectivora, is almost invariably well developed in the jjresent order. A peculiarity in the wrist- joint of all the Carnivora is that the two bones known as the scaphoid and lunar, forming the inner and upper elements of the upper row of this part of the skeleton in other JMammals. are here fused together to form but a 52 MAMMALIA— ORDER IV.—CARNIVORA. single bone. Moreover, the central bone of the wrist, which is jiresent in all the Primates, save man and some of the man-like apes in the Carnivora, is invariably lacking. From the Insectivora the Carnivora are further tlistin- guished by the numerous convolutions on the surface of the large hemispheres of the bi'ain. In common with the three following families of the terrestrial Carnivora, the cats are distinguished from the other members of the order by certain very im- portant structural features connected with the hinder ]iart of The Cat Tribe.^ the base of the skull. In all these families that chamber of Family Felidn'. the inner ear known as the auditory bulla forms a thin blad- der-like expansion, divided (except in the hj'tenas) into two compartments by a vortical bony partitricni ; while the bony auditory meatu."?, or tube, leading into this bulla, is remarkable for its shortness. From their allies, existing cats are distinguished l)y the strong development of the canine teeth, by the molar teeth never exceeding one pair in both the upper and lower jaws, and also by the three pairs of incisors occupying tlie same trans- verse line, instead of tlie middle pair being puslied up above tlie level of the other two. The single upper molar is a flat functionless tooth, with its crown considerably wider than long, and placed on the inner side of the upper carnassial, which consists of three distinct lobes. The lower molar, or carnassial, is a highly specialised tooth, usually consisting solely of a two-lobed cutting blade, although in a few species a small lodge on its hinder surface represents the large heel cliaractorising the same tooth in mcTSt other members of the order. There are three upper and two lower premolars; the last in the upper jaw being the carnassial, and the first small and functionless. The skull, in conformity with the shape of the head, is characterised by the short- ness of its facial ])ortion and the great widtli of the zygomatic arclies. The general form of the cats is too well known to need description ; but it may be mentioned that the fur is generally thick and close, and tliat its markings usually take the fornr either of dark transverse stripes, spots, rosettes, or dark-margined cloudings on a lighter ground. As a rule, the tail is long, cylindrical, aTid tapering ; while it is very fi'equently marked with dark and light rings. In the extreme elongati(m of the body, a few cats, like the South American eyra, approximate to the civet-tribe ; but, in most cases, the body is of moderate length, and the limbs by no means remarkably short. All cats have five front and four hind toes, the fii'st front toe being raised above the others. They walk on the tips of their toes, in the digitigrade maimer ; and in the great majority the claws are capable of comi)lete retraction within hollow horny slieaths, by specially arranged muscles, and are thus alwaj'S kept sharp and tit for use. In the hunting-leopard this, however, is not tlie case, and that animal is accordingly referred to a genus apart from the one con- taining the whole of the other spucies. The tongue of cats is remarkable for the rough rasping impilh^ with which its up])er surface is coated ; and in the eye the pupil, when contracted, frequently assumes the form of a vertical slit. With the exception of New Guinea, Australia and New Zealand, cats have n, world-wide distribution, and inhabit all climates and stations, save the ex- treme north. The typical cats {Felis), which include about forty-six different species, and have a distribution co-extensive with that of the family, are characterised by the claws being capable of withdrawal into the aforesaid protecting slieaths, and likewise by the presence of a distinct tubercle on the inner side of the upper carnassial tooth. Tiio largest and most poAverf ul members of the genus LlOX AND GlBAFFE. PLESH-EA TING MAMMALS. ^l Hiu Iho li(»x {F. Ifo), coininoii to Africa, Persia, and India, although rapidly disappearing fvuni the Litter country ; the tiger {F. llgrlfi), ranging from India to China and Siberia, although unknown in Ceyhin ; the leopard or panther (i*^. ^kuv/h.s), also connnon to Asia and Africa ; the snow-leopard, or i)U)ice {F. ■uucia) of Central Asia ; the jaguar {F. uiica) of 8(nith and Central America ; and tlio puma {F. conrolor), which has the widest range in latitude of any animal, extending from the south of Patagonia to tlie (Jreat Slave Lake. Of these, the lion and puma are uniforudy tawny coloured species, although showing traces of spots in the young state and sometimes in certain lights even in the adult ; tlie male lion being distinguished from all other members of the genus by the large mane (which may be dark coloured), co\ ering the head, neck, and shoulders, and the tuft at the lip of the tail, in which is a small horny claw of unknown function. The tiger has double transverse black stripes on an orange or tawny ground ; while all the other species named are marked l)y dark rosettes or rings on a light ground. In both the leopard and jaguar tlie central ])ortion of the rosette IS darker than the general ground colour of the fur ; but whereas in the former the rosettes form simple rings, in the latter there is one or more solid black spots in the centre. On the head and limbs the spots are solid, and the tail is ornamented with rings. In the ounce the fur is much longer tliau that of the ordinary leopard, and the Siberian variety of the tiger ditiers in the same manner from Indian examples. Although the licni is a much noisier animal than the tiger, in power, size, and habits, the two are very similar. It would be out of place to enter into any detailed discussion as to the dimensions of either lions or tigers, as this has been fully investigated in other works. In regard to tigers, it may, however, be mentioned, that it is now generally adnutted that males do occasionally reach, or even slightly exceed 12 feet in total length, measured along the curves of the body in what is termed sportsman's style ; one shot by Colonel Boileau in 18(31 being slightly over 12 feet, Avhile General Sir C. Reid's tiger, exhibited in Linidon stutled in 1862, is recorded to have measured 12 feet 2 inches as it lay on the ground. Further in- formation is requii-ed as to the maximum weights at- tained by male tigers. Sander- son gives the weight of a well- grown male shot by him- self as 350 pounds ; while Elliot has recorded examples respectively weighing 362 and 380 paunds. '''he late Captain J. Forsyth^ has, however, estimated the weights of tigers killed by himself at from 450 to 500 pounds, and these large weights have been contirmed of late years by Mr. Hornaday, who, in his work, "Two Years in the Jungle," records a tiger of 9 feet llh inches in length, which weighed upwards of 495 pounds ; while the Maharajah of Cuch Behar has given weights varying from 540 to 481 pounds, and a tiger killed by Mr. F. A. Shillingford, measuring 9 feet 10 inches, weighed 528 pounds. One killed by Sir Samuel Baker weighed 437 Fin. 30.— The T.ion. 54 MAMMALIA— ORDER IV. — CARNIVORA. pouncb after losing al)out a gallon of blood, so that its whole weight was probably about 447 pounds. Of course, much depends upon hc^w fat the animal is at the time of its death. Sir S. Baker estimating that, Avhile a very- fine tiger in average condition will weigh some 440 pounds, the same animal, when unusually fat, will scale 500 pounds. If, however, a tiger just under 10 feet in length will weigh about 500 pounds, it may be safely assumed that an 11 or 12 feet example in similar condition will considerably exceed this weight, and it is, therefore, probable that the maximum weight attained by the tiger has yet to be recorded. It is accordingly earnestly to be desired that sportsmen will not only measure, but will likewise weigh any unusually large tigers they may have the good fortune to kill. Those who have the opportunity of seeing an attack by a tiger on largo animals like buffalo f)r gaur, which he is unable to overthrow, Avill do good service if they can throw any light on the mode of attack in those instances where the prey is hamstrung. Mr. Blanford considers that in this occasional mode of attack the hamstringing is probably efi'ected by a blow from the claws, and states that he has known two instances where buffaloes were left hamstrung by tigers. This mode of attack being apparentlj^ very rare, will of c(.)ur3C be sekhr.n seen by European eyes, so that should it come under notice a record will be of extreme value. As a rule, however, it is believed that a tiger seizes large animals by the fore-quarters, throwing one paw over the shoulder, and attacking the tliroat with the jaws ; a sudden upward wrench, during Avhich the destroyer often springs to the opposite side of his victim, serving to dislocate the neck. On the other hand, some writers are of ojiinion that the tiger first seizes the animal by the back of the neck. Thus Sir S. Baker writes that " the attack of a large tiger is terrific, and the effect may well be imagined of an animal of such vast muscular proportions, weighing between 400 and 500 pounds, spring- ing with groat velocity and exerting its momentum at the instant that it seizes a bullock by the neck. It is supposed by the natives that the tiger, when well fastened upon the crest, by fixing its teeth in the back of the neck at the first onset, continues its spring, so as to pass over the animal attacked. This Avrenches the neck suddenly round, and as the animal struggles, the dis- location is easily effected ; the tiger then changes the hold to underneath the throat, and drags the body to some con- venient retreat, where the meal may be connnenced in security. With very few exceptions, the tiger breaks the neck of every animal it kills." Another observer, Mr. Mervyn Smith, who had the good fortune to see two buffaloes killed by a tiger, writes as follows : — " The animals, when first seen by me, were about a hundred yards off', and a little to my left front. There was a distance of perhaps ten yards between thorn. I noticed the farthest buffalo suddenly stumble and fall, as I thought, but it did net rise again ; its Fig. 31.— The Tigek. FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 55 mate looked up and gazed in the direction of its companion, and then turned its head as if to flee, but before it could do so a dark object rose out of the ground, as it were, and seized it by the throat, and flung it on its side. My horse had also caught sight of the dark f»bject, and instinct told him at once Avliat it was, fur he galloi^ed like mad, and never stopped till he got to the bungalow. It was fully an hour before I could assemble the villagers and return to the spot, where we found both buftaloes stone dead. In both cases the bite was on the under part of the throat, so as to close the windpipe and prevent the animal making any cry. The necks also appeared to have been broken by a sudden wrench of the head to one side, by the tremendously jiowerful fore-arm of the tiger. Tliere appeared to have been very little struggle, and death nuist have been almost instantaneous. Now, what I would particularly like to draw attention to, is the stealthy method of attack. There was absolutely no noise — no roar, scarcely a rustling of the bushes when the second animal was struck down — and very little of tlie tiger to be seen. Had not my ej'es been on the buflaloes at the time, I hardly think I should have been tlisturbed at all. In fact, I should not have known that the buflaloes had been killed by a tiger within a few yards of me. I scarcely saw the tiger at all — only his head, which appeared to rise up out of the ground and seize the second buflalo by the throat.'' A tiger almost invariably commences his meal on the hind-quarters ; and neither this animal nor the lion are by any means averse to carrion. Both have a very similar roar, although that of the tiger is but rarely uttered ; and both differ from the majority of cats in their inability to climb trees. In common with cats in general, lions and tigers go about either singly, in pairs, or in small family parties, and although a few may, it is said, combine to drive their prey to one another, they never hunt in packs after the manner of dogs. The stealthy manner in which cats stalk, with their body elongated to its utmost extent and almost touching the ground, and the rigid tail occasionally twisting nervously, is well known to all. Among the smaller species of the genus, the clouded leopard {F. nehdosa) and the marbled cat {F. marmorata), of the Oi'iental countries, may be cited as excellent examples of the clouded type of coloration. The Bornean Bay cat (F. hadii() is one of the few uniformly-coloured species; a second being the South American eyi-a {F. eyra), which is more remarkable on account of its elongated and weasel-lilce form. One of the most variable of all is the Oriental leopard-cat {F. hoigdlcnsis). The African serval (F. served) is a long- legged and short-tailed species, in which the dark spots are solid ; while the cafFer cat {F. cajfra) of the same country is generally regarded as tlie ancestral stock of the domestic cats of Europe, although there has probably been a considerable amount of crossing with the wild cat {F. catua), which has led to the prevalence of the tabby type of coloration. In South America the very variable ocelot {F. i^nydalia) exliibits a modification of the clouded type of coloration, while the tiger-cat {F. tigrina) is more distinctly spotted; the pampas cat showing a striped pattern. The jungle-cat {F. clians\ which is common to India and Africa, together with certain allied Asiatic species, forms a transition from the more typical cats to the lynxes, the latter being characterised by the long poicils of hairs terminating the ears and the moderately long or short tail. In the caracal (F. caracal), which is a uniformly- coloured species common to India and Africa, and connecting the jungle-cat with the true lynxes, the tail is of considerable length ; but in the latter group, all the members of which are confined to the Northern Hemisphere, it is very short, and the pellage is always spotted, at least during some 56 MAMMALIA— ORDER IV. — CARNI FOR J. P'O 32 — Spamsh l.wx (Fda^cc 2>"r(hnti) Civet Tribe. — Family Vicerrida:. portion of the year. Whether the Canadian lynx (P. cawidevs'ni) is distinct from the common lynx {F. ?//».'■) ui Euroj^^ie and Northern Asia is a moot point ; but the Si)anish lynx {F. j>ardiiu() is a well-marked form. The slendei'-bodied and lung-limbed cat, known as the hunting-leopard {Cymelurus jubatns), is referred to a genus apart from the other members of the family on accovnit of the claws be- ing only partially retractile, although their extremities are protected by sheaths ; Avhile a further point of dis- tinction is to be found in tlie rudi- mental condition of the tubercle on the inner side of the ujjper carnassial tooth. The hunting-leopard, which is found both in India and Africa, has the fur mai-ked with solid black s2)ots. In habits it diUers somewliat from the true cats — two individuals hunting together, and making a simultaneous sudden rush when their prey comes within striking distance. These animals are ke^jt for hunting in India. Tlie nearest allies of the cats are the great tribe of civets, jjalm-civets, mungooses, etc., all of which differ from the Felida' in that the auditory bulla of the skull is marked by a transverse external con- striction, indicating the position of the internal bony septum, while the middle pair of lower teeth are raised above the level of the other two, as in all other land Carniv- ora. From the living Felida- the Viverrida' are further dis- tinguished by the more numerous series of teeth, the number of jn^emolars varying from three to four on each side of the jaws ; while there are generally two pairs of jnolars in each jaw, although occasionally these may be reduced to a single jiair in the upper, and very rarely also in tlie lower jaw. The toes, which may be either digitigrade or plantigrade, are generally five in number on each foot, although they may be reduced to four in either the front or hind pair, or even in both. Considerable diflerence (obtains in legard to the retractibility of the claws, and likewise as to the extent to which the sole of the hind-foot is clothed with hair. From ordinary cats civets differ externally in the more elongated form of the body, the longer head and sharper muzzle, and the shorter legs ; although in these respects they are approached by the eyra. In coloration tliey are generally striped, spotted, or blotched ; some of them having distinct longitudinal stripes, which are never seen in the cats. The family is strictly confined to the Old NN'orld, exclusive of Australia and Papua, and attains its maximum development in Africa and the Oriental countries — Europe having only a coui)le of species in its southern districts. Madagascar is the home of several jjeculiar genera. Upwards of twenty-three distinct generic types are now recognised. The most aberrant of all is the fossa {Cniptnprocta fewx) of Madagascar, Avhich in the number and structure of its teeth approaches the cats, and is regarded by many authorities as entitled to constitute a Fossa (Crypto- family by itself. In the form of the auditory bulla of the procta). skull this animal is somewhat intermediate between the civets and tlie mungooses ; and each foot has five toes, with completely retractile claws. There arc four pairs of i)reinolar teeth, of J'LESH-EAJ'JXC JAI.UJLILS. 57 of molars, small })os- which the lirst is shed at an early period, and a siui^le luur wliich are eat-like in furui, the lower one having only terior ledge, as in the lynxes, and no inner eusi). The nose and upper , . lip have a median groove ; and the feet are sub-plantigrade, the tarsus and metatarsus being naked. The fossa measures about live feet in total length, and is nearly uniform sandy brown iu colour. Together with several allied genera, tlie true civets {Viverru) are character- ised by the conical form of the auditory bulla of the skull, in which the hinder border is broad, truncated, and not everted, while in front it is narrow and compressed, with the anterior chamber small. Usually there are highly odoriferous glands in front of the scrotum ; and the curved claws are generally more or less retractile. In form and number the teeth come very close to those of the dt^)gs, there being always four pairs of premolars in each jaw. Fig 33.— The Foshx (Cryptoprodaferox). Civet Group. The blade of the upper caniassial tooth differs from that of the cats in consisting of only two lobes, and there is a well-developed tubercle on the iiuier side of the same tooth ; while the lower carnassial is ccmiposed of an anterior cutting blade, and a long posterior tuberculated heel. In shape, the upper molars are triangular ; the first of the two being placed behind the carnassial tooth, and )iot on its inner side. From the allied genera the true civets are distinguished by the foUov/ing cliaracters. A vertical groove divides the middle of tlie u])per lip : the rather long tail is ringed dark and light ; the feet are completely digitigrade, with the tarsus and metatarsus fully haired ; and there are no tufts of hair on the ears. The upper molar teeth are two in number on each side ; a black gorget ornaments the throat ; an elongated crest of erectile hairs usually runs down the back ; and tlie whole hair is loose and long. The rather short and blunt claws can be only partially retracted ; and the pupil of the eye contracts to a circular form. There are five species of civet, one of which (K/ct')T« civetta) is African, while the other four are Oriental. Four are of nearly equal size, and may be compared in this respect to a large cat ; but the rasse {Vivern^ iindacccusis), which differs somewhat in the structure of the skull from the four others, and is referred by many writers to a distinct genus, under the name of J'inirioiJa, is a much smaller animal. An inhabitant of India, China, and the Malayan countries, it has been introduced into Madagascar. All civets have comparatively shtirt, stout, and rather compressed bodies, with the limbs proportionately longer than in the allied genera. Their coloration takes the form of black or blackish-brown streaks and blotches on a greyish ground. Most of them are non-arboreal ; and all are strong- smelling creatures, one of their secretions being used in perfumery. For the purpose of collecting the perfume, tame civets are kept in cages by the Malays, and tlieir secretion periodically scraped from the pouch with a Wooden spoon. Daubentou's civet {Fossa ihuiboitvui) of Madagascar closely resembles the above-mentioned rasse in general characters, but differs from all the species of Vivcrra in the presence of two small bare spots on the 58 iSrAMM ALIA—ORDER IV.—CARNIX^ORA. under surface of the metatarsus ; and the scent-pouch is apparently wanting Tlie limbs are slender ; and there is neither a dark line down the back, nor a black gorget on the throat. Nearly allied to the civets are the six species of genets (Genetta), five of which are exclusively African, while the ordinary genet is common to Northern Africa, Southern Er.rojie, and Syria. From both Viverra and Fossa they may be distinguished by the presence of a bare, loHgitudinal strip along the lower surface oi the metatarsus ; a hairy space dividing this naked strip from the foot-pads. The absence oi a scent-pouch forms a further distinction from Vircrra, while the presence of a dark stripe down the back constitutes another difference from Fossa. All the genets are comparatively small animals, which live chiefly on the ground, where tiiey prey up(m small rodents, birds, and eggs. None have a black gorget on the throat, although there may be a short crest of erectile hairs down the back. The beautifully-coloured Oriental viverroids known as linsangs (Linsanga) have the under surface of the tarsus and metatai'sus as fully clothed with hair as in the true civets, but differ in jjossessing only a single pair of upper molar teeth. All the three species are very long-bodied and short-limbed animals, with the claws of thetive-toed feet almost as retractile as in the cats; and the fur remarkably short, close, and erect, resembling, in fact, velvet- pile. There are no scent-glands corresponding to those which yield the per- fume in the civets. Upon a Avhite or greyish-white ground-colour the fuv is beautifully marked with black or dark brown patches, such patches form- ing either a small number of large, dark areas extending transversely across the body, or being broken up into smaller quadrangle spots. Dark longi- tudinal streaks, some of which may break up into spots, traverse the neck and shoulders, v/hile there are smaller ones on the head ; and the long cylindrical is marked with alternate dark and light rings of considerable length. When contracted, the pupil of the eye is circular. The skull and teeth are very similar to tliose of the genets, but the heel of the lower carnassial tooth is relatively smaller. Tn West Africa the linsangs are re- presented by the closely allied t oiana jmensis, distinguished by having a naked strip on the under surface of the metatarsus, as in the genets. Lin- sangs are good climbers, feeding chiefly on small birds. They produce two litters in a year, giving birtli to a pair of young at a time. The two Malayan species of Hemirjale differ from all the preceding mem- bers of the group except Fossa in the absence of distinct rings on the tail, except, at most, near the root ; while they are further distinguished by the front of the auditory bulla of the skull being pointed instead of blunt. The carnassials are also relatively smaller and of a less trenchant type. A dis- tinctive feature of the genus is the concentration of the pads of the hind-foot to form a naked space on the metatarsus, ending in a sharp point behind ; the tarsus being fully haired. The hair on the back of the neck is peculiar in being directed forwards ; and when there are any dark markings on the back they take the form of uninterrupted transverse bands. The claws on the five-toed feet are strongly curved ; and the nose and upper lip, as in all the preceding genera, are grooved. Numerically, the teeth are the same as in Vii-erra. Hardwicke's hemigale»(/Z. hardwkkei), from the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo, measures about 15^ inches to the root of the tail, and has dark transverse bands on the back ; whereas H. hosei, from the mountains of North Borneo, is uniformly dusky. The palm-civets form three nearly allied genera, one of which is African, FL ESH-EA TING MA MM A LS. 59 Tig. 24.— Pai.m-Civet (Paradoxurus). wliile the other two are Oriental. The two species of African pahn-civets (Nandinia), one of which is from the west, and the other from the east side of the continent, acjree with Hcmiijalc in the form of the naked area on tlie metatarsus, but differ in the incomplete ossilication of the auditory bulla of the skull. Otherwise the genus is very similar to the true i)aim-civets, the inarkin;^' taking the form of s[)ots, and the tail being ringed, The two species of small-toothed pdm-civets (Ardogidc), from Burma and the Malayan countries, ditter from the preceding genus in tlie unifoimly-c(»loured tail ; and are further distinguished by the relatively small size ()f the teeth, the narrt)W j)al;ite, which is produced far behind tlie last molar, and the ossifica- tion of the bulla of the skull. The dark markings take the form of longi- tudinal rows of stri)ie3 or spots on the back. Represented by ten species, tho true jvvlm-civets (Pdnidoxxrxs) range throughout the Oriental countries from India to the Philipi)ines and Celebes, and are distinguished from the last by their larger teeth, the less prolonga- tion of the palate backwards, and the presence of a naked glandular area in front of the scrotum of the males, and in a similar position in the females. Like Arctixjale, they have the whole of the metatarsus and a considerable por- tion of the tarsus bare, the hair ex- tending in an evenly curved line aci'oss the hinder part of the heel. The claws of the five-toed feet ai'e as curved and retractile as in the genets ; the tail is long and generally not ringed ; the markings are usually in the form of elongated streaks, although more rarely spots, but some species arc uniformly coloured ; and the pupil of the eye contracts to a vertical slit. The teeth ire numerically the same as in Vivcrra, but the carnassials relatively shorter and less trenchant. In size these anim ds may be compared U) an ordinary cat. Palm-civets are essentially nocturnal and arboreal creatures, feed- ing upon small birds, mammals, eggs, and lizards , and frequently t:iking up their abode among the leaves of palm- trees. From their habit of drinking the palm- juice, or toddy, from the vessels suspended from the trees for its recep- tion, they are termed toddy-cats. From all other members of the family, the binturong(^-l)Ti!'c^/s hinturonrj), rang- ing from the Eastern Himalaya to the l\rilayan countries and Siam, differs by its prehensile tail and tufted ears, as well as by the tarsus and meta- tarsus of the plantigrade hind-feet being completely naked. The ears are short, the short claws only partially retractile, the hair very long, coarse, and loose, and the long tail very bushy ; the general colour being black. The binturong, which may be compared in size to a cat, is a thoroughly nocturnal and arboreal creature. Fig. S.'i.— The Bintueong (Arct'ctis hint%iro)i(j). 6o MAMMALIA— ORDER IV.—CARNIVORA. The last mem})er <)f the sub-fauiily is the peculiar Bennett's civet (Cynogalc hcnnetti) from tlie Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo, Avhich is a grizzled grey animal, readily distinguished from all the foregoing by the absence of a groove on the nose and upper lip, tlie short tail, the partially webbed feet, and by the under surface of the metatarsus and tarsus being somewhat less naked. In size it may be compared to the larger civets, the length of the head and body being about 32 inches. Its habits are believed to be partially aquatic. With the excepti(m of the fossa, which forms a sub-family by itself, the whole of the foregoing members of the familj' constitute the sub-family Viverrintc, characterised by the features noticed above. The Mimgoose Tlie mungooses, cjr ichneumons, are the iirst representatives Group. of a second sub-family (HerpcditKc) presenting the following distinctive characters. The auditory bulla of the ^kuU is pear-shaped, and its hinder margin distinctly averted, Avith tlio so-called paroccipital process not projecting beyond, but spread over it, and in the adult becoming merged in its hinder surface. The claws are long and non- retractile ; and there are no glands in front of the scrotum. As a genus, the mungooses may be distinguished from tlieir allies by the presence of hve toes to each foot, a vertical groove on the nose, and usually four pairs of jiremolar ^eetli ; the molars being, as usual, two in each jaw. The nmzzle is sharply pointed, the body long and weasel-like, the legs very short, the cars short and rounded ; and the tail generally long and tapering, with loose, elongated hair. The feet are plantigrade ; Vut there is much Aariation in the extent of the bare portion of the soles of the liind ones ; in some species this area extending back to the heel, while in others the lower surface t)f the tarsus is hairy. The coarse and loose fur has a j^eculiar speckled ai)[)earance, owing to the presence of dark and light rings on the hairs, and the tail is never ringed. The sharp cusps of the cheek-teeth are in marked contrast to the bluntly-cusped ones of the palm-civets ; and the skull is remarkable for a sliarj) constriction behind the sockets of the eyes, and likewise for the cir- cumstance that the latter generally have a complete bony ring. Mungooses range over Africa and the Oriental countries as far as the Philippines, the Egyptian species {II. ichneumon) entering Southern Europe. All these animals are terrestrial, and very active in their habits, generally living in holes. They are deadly enemies to lats and other Rodents, as they are to snakes. The most venomous serpents are attacked without hesitation, the iunnunity of the mungoose from harm in such encounters being apparently due to its extreme activity and watclifulness. From the majority of species of Hcrpcfitct;, the African small mungoose (Helugule jmrva) ditfeis in having only three pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw ; the first of these lieing approximated to the canine, and thus distinguishing the genus from the few species of Hvrpestts with a similar number of teeth, in all of which there is a gap between the canine and the first tooth of the premolar series. Africa is the home of several peculiar generic tyjjes of mungooses. First, there are the three species of four-toed mungooses {Bdeoyale), distinguished by having but four toes to each foot ; the soles of the hind-feet being hairy. The South African pencilled mungoose {t'linidis penicillata) is the sole member of another genus with five front and four hind toe.° ; but more easily defined by the jnesence of a hole in the centre of the peculiarly-shaped auditory bulla of the skull, the soles of the hir.d-feet being hairy. A third FLESHEA TING ^fA^f^rA/.S. r)T genus is represented by the larsje red Meller's muns;oose {Bhynclwciale melleri)), easily distinguislied from all the preceding members of the sub- family by the absence of a vertical groove on the nose and upper lip. Each foot IS furnished witli five toes, there are four pairs of premolar teeth in each iaw, and the under surface of the tarsus and metatarsus is hairy. The fourth African genus ((V(W^((/(7n(,s-) contains the five species of cusimanses, wliich while resembling tlie last in tlie absence of a groove on the muzzle, differ by having only three pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw, the flat bony palate of the skull, and the naked soles of the hinder portion of the hind-feet. Several of the species, such as ('. fdscidtus, have a number of dark trans- verso bands across the back. Lastlj', the pretty little meerkat (Suric((t(i tetradartijbi) of South Africa differs from all the other smooth-nosed mun- gooses in liaving tmly four toes to each foot, and is further characterised by possessing three pairs of uppci", and four of lower premolars, as well as by the naked under surface of the whole of the tarsus and inetatarsus. Tlie muzzle is sharp, the front claws are very long, and the profile of the face is convex. The general colour of the fur is light grizzled grey, with black bands across the hinder part of the back, and a black ring round each eye. Meerkats measure from 14 to 15 inches to the root of the tail ; and are viva- cious little animals, living in holes in colonies, and coming out to air them- selves in tlie sun, when they survey passers-by with a peculiarly inquisi- tive expression. The Island of Madagascar is inhabited by four peculiar genera of mun- gooses, three of which are more or less closely related to the Herpediua', while the fourth certainly forms a sub-family by itself. From all other members of the Virerridd', the two species of Madaguscar striped mungoose are distinguished by the numerous con- Mungooses. tinuous dark stripes running down the whole length of the back and sides. They have but three pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw, the first of which is placed close to the canine ; and the canines themselves are of lai'ge size. The five-toed feet have longer claws than in the typical mun- gooses ; the muzzle is grooved inferiorly; the tail is covered with elongated hairs; and the under surface of the tarsus is bare. From the last, the elegant mungoose {. It would indeed be far better if w(jlves and jackals were spoken of as "wild dogs," since it is those members of the family which come closest to our domestic dogs, of some of which tliey are probably the parent stock. In such cases, however, it is utterly hopeless for the naturalist to attempt to light against popular usage, and we must accordingly be content to accept the ordinary names for the animals under consideration. All who have ever seen an Indian wild dog, whether in the flesh or stufled, will not be likely to mistake it for any other member of the canine family. In size it is somewhat larger than a jackal of average dimensions, and is charactei'ised by the generally ruddy colour of the hair, and especially by the black tip of the moderately long and bushy tail. Moreover, the muzzle and legs are relatively rather short in comparison with the size of the head and body ; while the profile of the face diflers from that of other canine animals by being slightly convex instead of concave or straight. The reader may ask whether such characteristics as the above offer any justification for the objection to the term wild dog as applied to these ani- mals; and if ifc were these alone on which naturalists rely, he would be perfectly justified in so doing. To obtain, however, any true ideas as to the relationships of an animal, we are compelled not only to study its colour and proportions, but likewise to take into consideration its skeleton and other parts of its organisation. Now, if we take the skull of a wild dog and com- pare the number of teeth in the lower jaw with those of a wolf, jackal, or fox, -Nve shall find an important point of difference. In the lower jaws of all the three animals last mentioned, and also in those of domestic dogs, we shall find that there are 11 teeth on each side ; the eleventh being the smallest of all those situated behind the tusk. If, on the other hand, we examine the lower jaw of any wild dog, we shall find that the small eleventh tooth is w^anting, so that there are only 10 lower teeth. A wild dog has, indeed, only 10 teeth on each side of both the upper and lower jaws, where- as in dogs, wolves, jackals, and foxes there are 10 upper and 11 lower teeth. We have here, therefore, an easily recognised point of distinction between a wild dog and most other members of the family. There are, how- ever, two African and one South American representatives of the family, which, while difiering from the ordinary type as regards the number of their teeth, have no intimate connection with the wild dogs. A difterence of one tooth more or less in the lower jaws of difierent members of the family may not appear a very important one — and to a certain extent it is not so. But it at any rate serves to show that wild dogs cannot possibly be the parents of any of our domestic breeds of dogs, since it is a well ascertained fact that when once a tooth has been lost in any group of animals it never reappears (unless it may be as an occasional abnormality) in their descendants. An- other point of distinction between wild dogs and other members of the family is that there are either 12 or 14 teats in place of the usual 10. Relying on the two points of difference last noticed, many naturalists have considered that wild dogs ought not to be included in the same genus as wolves and jackals, and the former have accordingly been described under a sej)arate generic title, as Cuon, or more correctly Cyon, from the Greek name for a dog. Such a distinction appears, how^ever, unnecessary, and it is pre- ferable to include wolves, jackals, foxes, and wild dogs under the common title of Caiiis. 68 MAMMA LI A— ORDER JJ'. — CA RXI J 'OR A . As regards their distributicni, wild dogs are found in Tndia, Burma, Siam, and the Mahiyan Peninsula and islands ; while in Central Asia they extend as far northwards as the Altai Mountains, which divide Mongolia from Siberia, and as far westwards as Amurland, and the Isle tif Saghalien in tlie Sea of Okhotsk. It is, however, somewhat curious that, so far as our informa- tion goes, tliese animals are quite unknown both in Northern Cliina and Japan. Wild dogs arc, therefore, at the present day exclusively confined to Asia, where they do not appear to extend eastwards of the longitude of the Ural Mountains. This distribution will, however, only hold good for the present epocli, since there have been found in the caves of various parts of* Europe lower jaws of canine animals agreeing with those of living wild dogs in having 10 instead of 11 teeth ; and we shall, therefore, be justified in considering at or about the time when the mammoth fiourished that wild dogs hunted over Europe as they do at the present day in Asia. The circum- stances of the occurrence at a former epoch in Europe oi a group of animals, now confined to Asia is by no means an isolated one, since there is evidence that at still earlier periods of the earth's history deer, like the muntjac and spotted deer of India, and long-snouted crocodiles akin to the garials of the Ganges and Borneo, flourished in various parts of Europe. All these facts in distribution seem, indeed, to point to the conclusion that Asia has served as a kind of refuge for groups of animals which, for some reason or another, were unable to exist any longer in Europe. Naturalists liave long been exercised as to whether the wild dog of the Himalaya was identical with that of the plains of India, and also whether one or both of these could be distinguished from the wild dog of Burma and the Malayan islands. In many works the wild dog of India and the Himalaya will be found alluded to by the name of Cijon rittilaits — a name i>roperly be- longing to the Malayan form. These writers probably derived their informa- tion from the late Dr. Jerdon, who in his " Indian Mammals" included the Malaj'an, Indian, and Himalayan forms under this single name. Colonel Sykes had, however, long befure separated the Indian wild dog under the name of C. ch(k]mne)isiti, while for the Himalayan torm Hodgson proposed the name of C. prtmcevrts. Mr. Blanford, who states that he can find no difference between tlie wild dog of he Himalaya and that of the plains of India, con- siders that these are probably distinct from the kind found in Burma and the Malayan region. The dillerence between the two is, iiowever, very slight ; but the Himalayan and Indian species (C. deccuneiisls) is a rather larger and stouter animal, with longer hair, and a woolly under-fur, and the general colour varying from a ferruginous red to tawny ; while the Burmese and Malayan species (C. rHfi?rn(s) is smaller and slighter,with shorter hair, no under- fur, and a brighter colour. The Indian species extends to the north-west as far as Gilgit and Hunza, from whence it ranges eastwards through Ladak into Tibet. Curiously enough, it is found that this wild dog is quite distinct from the species inhabiting the Altai (C. nlpinvs) which has much larger upper molar teeth. This, as Mr. Blanford well observes, is a most remark- able feature in distribution, for whereas most of the animals of tlie Himalaya, like the ibex and the great Tibetan sheep, are either identical with or closely related to those of the Altai and adjacent regions, here we have a case where the Himalayan form is identical with one inhabiting the plains of India, and perfectly distinct from the one found in the Altai. This may, however, be explained by the greater facility with which the Carnivora can adapt them- selves to different surroundings, owing to the circumstance that wherever FLESH-EATING MAMMALS. 69 they go they are sure to meet with herbivorous animals, on which tliey can prey. Herbivorous animals, on the other hand, are generally more or less completely dependent on one or more particular kinds of plants for susten- ance, and are consequently unable to exist in regions where such plants do not grow. In the same series with the wolves and jackals are included a number of South American species, commonly spoken of as foxes, which they much resemble in external aspect, although having wolf-like skulls. Among these are Azara's dog (C nzuru') and the crab-eating dog {(J. cmicriKoruii). A much larger South American form is the so-called maned wolf (C. jubatus) — a large reddish-coloured animal. The so-called raccoon-dog (C proctjonides), which has been generically separated as Nyctemites, is distinguished by its long lo(Jse fur, short ears, and abbreviated bushy tail, its general colour being dusky. Probably every Englishman thinks he knows a fox when he sees it ; and it is not unlikely tliat he would be disposed to resent the suggestion that he could not distinguish between foxes and certain other members of the canine family, or that there could be any Fox-like Series, liesitation in deciding whether any foxes he might bo shown Avere or were not specifically identical with the connnon English kind. Nevertheless, it is by no means easy to determine from external characters alone whether a given canine animal is or is not a fox ; while the difficulty of deciding whether many of the larger foxes of Asia and America should be re- garded merely as varieties of the common fox, or as distinct species, has long exercised the minds of naturalists. Indeed, the latter question has only recently been decided by the leading zoologists of England in favour of the former view ; and we are by no means sure that their opinions are accepted (;y all American zoologists. Probably most people would say that a fox is sufficiently characterised by his slight build, elongated body, short limbs, long ears, sharp muzzle, and long bushy tail, of which the length always considerably exceeds half that of the head and hody. So far, indeed, as they go, these characteristics are ex- cellent, and they will serve to distinguish a fox from a Avolf or jackal. The whole of them are, however, not applicable to all foxes, the Arctic fox having comparatively short ears, while they will not serve to distinguish foxes from the above-mentioned South American representatives of the family, such as the so-called Azara's dog. The latter animals have, indeed, the general build and appearance of foxe.s, their muzzles being sharp, their ears long, and* their tails of great length and thickly haired. The naturalist says emphati- cally, however, that they are not true foxes, and it is, therefore, evident that he has certain characteristics to rely on which are not included among those just mentioned. A more careful examination of a fox will show that the pupil of the eye forms merely a narrow vertical ellipse when seen in a strong light, whereas that of wolves, jackals, and dogs is circular. Unfortunately, however, even this character will not serve to distinguish foxes from the above-mentioned South American species. Of more importance is the circumstance that vixen foxes have but 6 teats, whereas the females of wolves, jackals, and dogs generally have 10, but occasionally only 8 teats, while in the Indian wild dogs the number is increased to 12 or 14. As usual, how- ever, when he wants to find a feature which shall be absolutely characteristic, the naturalist has recourse to the skull in order to definitely separate foxes from all other members of the family. If, indeed, va examine 70 MAMMALIA— ORDER IV.—CARA^IVORA. the skull of any kind of domestic or wild dog, of a wolf, or a jackal, we shall not fail to observe, as noticed above, that the triangular bony projection from the middle of the skull which forms the hinder border of the upper part of the socket of the eye — hence known as the postorbital process — i^ highly convex, and curves from above downwards. On the other hand, in the skull of any species of fox, the same j^rocess has a very distinct hollow on its upper surface, and it does not curve downwards in the smallest degree. A further examination will also show that in a dog, jackal, or wolf the middle portion of tlie skull is considerably elevated above the level of the extremities of these two processes ; whereas in a f(-)X the whole surface of this part of the skull lies nearly in a horizontal plane. If we were to make a vertical section of the two skulls, we sliould tind that in the skulls of the dog, jackal, and wolf the bone forming the roof w^as honeycombed by a number of cells, whereas in the fox it is solid ; and it is the presence, or absence, of these cells which causes the great difference in the contour of the skulls of a dog and a fox. The above feature absolutely distinguishes the skulls of all species of foxes from those of all other members of the family, and we are accordingly now able to give a much more satisfactory definition of a fox, which will be somewhat as follows, r ('.-;. : A long-bodied, short-limbed member of the canine family, with a long and bushy tail exceeding half the length of the head and body, generally long ears, a sharp muzzle, elliptical pupils to the eyes, G teats, and the forehead of the skull not honeycombed l)y cells, and with the jjostorbital processes holLjwed above. From these important differences some writers are inclined to separate the foxes from tlie genus Cams under the name of Vulfes. There has been much discussion as to whether foxes and dogs will breed together. Tlius, Mr. Bartlett, the superintendent of the Zoological Society's Gardens, whose wide experience entitles him to rank as a high authority on the point, writing in 1890, says that, " So far as my experience goes, I have never met with a well-authenticated instance of a hybrid between a fox and a dog, notwithstanding numerous specimens of supposed hybrids of this sort which from time to time have been brouglit to my notice." Since that date, several writers in Land and Water have, however, asserted the existence of such hybrids, but further evidence is still desirable on the subject. And if ^such a hybrid be pi'oved to exist, it would be very desirable that the form of the pupils of its eyes, and the number of its teats, should be care- fully recorded during life, while after death an examination of its skull by a qualified observer would be of the highest interest. Turning to the numerous varieties of the common fox and their distribu- tion, it is almost needless to observe that in England the fox is of a bright reddish-brown colour on the upper-parts, with the under-parts and the tip of the brush white, and the back of the ears and the lower portions of the limbs black. There are, however, some local or individual variations even in this country, which have given rise to the names of greyhound, mountain, and bush foxes ; but all these are, at the most, of trivial import. Occasionally English foxes are killed witli the tip of the brush grey or black, and there is one instance on record of a white English fox. Of far more im- portance is the circumstance that ome time previous to 1864 an im- mature fox was killed in Warwickshire with all tlie under-parts of a greyish black hue. Now, as a general rule, the foxes of Northern and Central Europe are similar in colour to the ordinary English form, but in Southern 1-LESH-EA TING MAMMALS. 71 Europe they are all paler above, with the under-parts dusky. There can, however, be no question but that these are all of one species, and it is there- fore very interesting to find one instance of the occurrence of the Southern vai-iety — assuming that the Warwickshire specimen was not an imported animal — in this countrJ^ Proceeding eastwards into Asia, we find two large foxes differing very markedly from the ordinary English form. The first of these is the yellow fox of Central Asia, formerly regarded as a distinct sj^ecies under the name of C flavescois, and characterised by its general pale and yellowish colour, and the large size of its magnificent brush. It has, however, still the dark ears and white brush-tip of the English fox, and there can be no doubt that modern writers are right in regarding it merely as a pale variety of the latter. This variety inhabits open country, and lives in burrows, or among rocks or bushes. The handsome animal known as the mountain-fox (the so-called C. )nonfa)iug) of the Himalaya, although nearly allied to the last, is frequently so strikingly different, wlien in its Avinter dress, from the ordinary English fox, that most sportsmen would regard it as a distinct sjjecies. The fur of the back varies in colour from chestnut to iron-grey, and the shoulders are often marked by a conspicuous dark transverse stripe, while the under-parts, and especially the throat, are more or less dusky. The black outer surfaces of the ears and the white tip to the brush proclaim, however, the affinity of this fox to the southern variety of the European fox ; and it appears to be merely another variety of the latter. This Himalayan fox differs from the Central Asian variety in that it does not excavate burrows, but lives in thickets or on cultivated land. When we add that the so-called Nile fox (0. niloticus) is but another variety of the same species, it will be evident that if he can but obtain a pack of hounds and suitable ground, the sportsman may hunt one and the same species of fox, whether he be in England, in the South of Europe, on the banks of the Nile, in the deserts of Central Asia, or in the vale of Kashmir. This is, however, by no means all, for if the fox-hunter cares to cross the Atlantic he may again hunt the common fox in Yirginia and other parts of North America. It is true, in- deed, that these large North American foxes have been con- sidered distinct species, imder the names of the red fox (C. fulvus) and the cross-fox {C. j^ennsylvani- cus). The cross-fox is, however, obviously but a variety of the red fox, di.stinguished by the presence of a more or less distinct dark strij^e across the shoulders ; and since both forms have the black ears and white tail-tip of the European species, there can be little hesitation, in spite of their variation in colour, in regarding them merely as local races of the same widely-spread form. Again the so-called silver or black fox (C. argentattts) from California .and the Western United States, so valued on account of its beautiful fur, is only a melanistic (dark) variety of the red fox, and is therefore merely another race of Caais vulijes. The silver fox, Ave may observe in passing, is a comparatively rare animal, of which perfectly black skins, with only the characteristic white Fig. 41.— The Cojimon Fox. MAMMALIA— ORDER IV.—CARNIVORA. tip of the tail, are so scarce that they fetch from £50 to £70 in the market. It thus appears that an animal may vary in colour from foxy-red above, with ■white under-parts and tail-tip and black limbs and ears, to one in which the whole of the fur is black save the tip of the tail, and yet belong to one and the same species. No account of the distribution of the common fox would be complete with- out some reference to the fact that it is one of the very oldest of our British Mammals, its fossilised remains having been dug up in the topmost beds of the so-called red crag of the Suffolk coast. These deposits far ante-date the river gravels and cavern-mud in which occur the remains of the mammoth and other gigantic extinct Mimmals ; and it will thus be evident that this extreme antiquity of the British fox will readily account for its pi-esent unusually wide geographical distribution. Before taking leave of the common fox and its numerous varieties we may refer to the circumstance that there has been much discussion as to whether badgers are hurtful to young foxes. As the result of these it appears that the charge against the badger has been effectually disproved, more than one writer recounting instances where fox and badger-cubs have been brought up in amity as inhabitants of the same earth. In spite, however, of this, it appears that there is still, at least in some districts, war waged by sportsmen against the unfortunate badger. With regard to North American foxes, it may be observed that in addition to the red and cross-fox, the so-called grey fox or Virginian fox ((7, riryiniamin) is lai'gely hunted with hounds in some parts of the States. This fox is much smaller than the European species, the length of its head and body being only about 19 inches, in place of some 24 inches. It is further distin- guished by its relatively shorter muzzle, and also by the presence of a ridge of long stiff liairs running along the middle of the upper part of the tail. The general colour of this fox, as its common name implies, is some shade of grey ; but there is considerable individual variation in this respect, and some specimens show a more or less marked reddish tinge. If an English hunts- man were to see his quarry suddenly rush straight up the trunk of a tree in the midst of a run, his astonishment would certainly be great, yet we are assured by American writers that tree-climbing is a frequent habit of the grey fox. Thus Dr. EUzey writes in Shields' "Big Game of North America," that " whether the greys ever climb trees in pursuit of prey I am uncertain ; but they take to a tree as readily as a cat, when hard run by hounds. I think it nearly certain that they climb for pei'siunnons, grapes, and berries. Red foxes never climb trees under any circumstances ; when hard run they go to earth." If the above exijlanation of this curious habit is the tru3 one, it would seem that grapes are not sour to the grey fox. Grey foxes a' ford but a poor run in comparison with the common species, their course only holding for a short distance, and that accompanied bj' many doublings ; while the run usually terminates either by the capture of a fox within an hour, or by the animal either climbing a tree or taking refuge in a hole of the same. On the other hand, the American red fox runs as strongly as his European relative ; his course, it is said, generally taking the form of a large parallelogram. The cubs of the grey fox have been compared to small black puppies, and are thus very different in appearance from those of our own species. A second North American species is the kit-fox (C*. velux), which is still smaller than tlie grey, its brush being only about 11 inches in length, against 16 inches in the latter. Above, this fox is light grey, with an admixture of long white I-'LESH-EATING MAMMALS. 'Jl hairs, wliile the flanks are yellowish and the under-parts white, the brush having no white tip. This species lives in burrows, and takes its name from its extreme speed. Whether it is commonly hunted with hounds I am un- aware. More distinct than eitlier of the above is the long-eared fox (C. macrotU), of California, in which the ears are nearly as large as in the under- mentioned fennecs. Its general colour above is grizzled grey. South America has no true foxes. In India the place of the common fox is taken by two small s})ecies — the Indian desert-fox (0. lc>u'opui>) and the Bengal fox {V. bcngdhntsis). Tlie formei', which is somewhat the larger of the two, agrees with the common species in the white tip to the brush, and also in the dark brown or black out- sides to the ears ; while the latter has a black tip to the brush and greyish ears. Tiie desert-fox, as its name implies, inhabits sandy wastes, and has a considerable tui-n of speed ; Jerdon stating that it " gives a capital run sometimes, even wnth English dogs." The Bengal fox, which only measures about 20 inches from the lip of the snout to the root of the tail, is found in more or less open country over the greater part of India, and may not unfre<|uently be seen by residents in Calcutta playing about the Maidan near Fort-William. Jerdon writes that "this fox is much coursed with greyhounds in many pai'ts of India, and with Arab or country dogs, or half-bred English dogs it gives a most excellent course, doubling in a most dexterous manner, and if it is within a short distance of its earth, racing the dogs. Its numerous earths prevent in general much sjiort being had in hunting it with foxhounds, and its scent is poor." Another small Asiatic species, with a dark tip to the brush, is the Corsac fox (('. corsac), whose habitat extends from the shores of the Caspian through the Russian steppes to Mongolia. The skin of this species is an article of con- siderable commercial importance, an average of about 50,000 coming annually into the market. There are several other allied species of foxes inhabiting Asia, such as the Japanese fox ((*. japotdcus) a.nd the Tibetan fox {i'.fcyrilatvs), but as they are mostly but little known in Europe, it is unnecessary to make further allusion to them on this occasion. Mention must, however, be made of the Arctic fox (C. lagop\(s), characterised by its short ears, extremely bushy brush, and the long hair clothing the soles of the feet. As a rule, this fox is bluish-grey in summer (when it is known as the blue fox), but clianges to pure white in winter ; although in some cases, more especially in Iceland, the dark tint is retained throughout the year. Tiiis species is practically circumpolar, and on an average from 25,000 to 00,000 skins annually find their way into the market. The Arctic fox, in order to provide a supply of food for the long and dreary winter of its native habitat, is in the habit of laying up stores of lemmings and other small animals concealed in holes and fissures of the rocks. South and Central Africa is the home of an entirely diff'erent group of small foxes, known as fennecs (('. zcrda, C fatuellciis, and ('. cama), and characterised by the enormous length of their ears. These fennecs are more or less sandy-coloured animals, Avith a dark tip to tlie tail, and differ from the European fox in their social habits, dwelling together in small companies. A skin of an apparently allied species has been obtained from Afghanistan. The Cape hunting-dog {Lycaon picius) is the sole living representative of a genus dift'ering from Canis in having but four toes to each foot. Its skull approximates to that of the wolves, but is somewhat shorter and broader, and there is a slight difference in the form of the teeth. This animal is of large 74 MAMMALIA— ORDER IV.—CARNIVORA. F'uj- 42.— Cape Hrxxixu-Doo {Lycaon pictus). size, and marked with unsymiuetrical blotches of white, yellow, and black, the distribution of which shows considerable individual variation. Numbers combine in packs to hunt their prey. A second well-marked Other Genera, genus of the (Jankhn is formed by tlie bush-dog (Icticijon vouiticus) of British Guiana and Brazil, which is a dark- coloured animal not larger tlian a fox, with a short, sparsely-haired tail, sliort limbs, very small ears, close hair, and a very aberrant dentition. In tlie tirst place, the number of molars is reduced to one pair in the upper and two in the lower jaw, while the lower carnassial has no cusp on the inner side of the blade, and its posterior heel is secant instead of tubercular, so that practically the entire tooth is reduced to a cutting blade. The last member of the dog family is Lalande's fennec {Otocijon mcgtdotis) of South Africa, which, while agreeing in many respects Avith the true fennecs, has very much larger ears, but is specially distinguished by having four pairs of lower molar teeth, and either three or four pairs of the same in the upper jaw, the total number of teeth thus being either 46 or 48. Its habits are like those of the fennecs. In the three remaining families of the terrestrial Carnivora the auditory bulla of the skull possesses a simple undivided septum, and its bony external tube, or meatus, leading to the outer ear, has its lower margin considerably produced, while the triangular paroc- cipital process stands quite apart from the bulla. In the in- testine the blind appendage or coecum is entirely absent. The bears themselves are specially characterised by the broad, flat, tuberculated crowns of the molar teeth, of which there are two upper and three lower i)airs ; and likewise by the rudi- mentary development of the first tliree pairs of premolars in each jaw, which are in many cases entirely lost. The upper carnassial is very short and triangular, and both this tooth and the lower car- nassial have but little resemblance to the true sectorial type, as shown in the cats and dogs. In the skull the auditory bulla is verj' flat, and scarcely at all inflated. The large feet are furnished with five toes each, and are comjiletely jilantigrade ; while their long and slightly compressed claws are non-retractile. The body is very stout, the tail short, the ears moderate, the hair generally long and loose, and the gait clumsy and shambling. Bears go about either in pairs or in small family-parties, and are all excellent climbers. ]\Iost of them eat roots, fruits, and other vegetable substances, although they will also consume the flesh of dead animals and carrion ; and in cold The Bear Tribe. — Family Ursidcv. F!(j. 43.— Busii-DoG (Idiaion venaticus). I'LESll- EA TING MA.UJ/A LS. IS countries all hibernate during the inclement season, their hiding-places being frequently caverns, the clefts of rocks, or 1k)11o\v trees. The typical genus UrsHS, in which there are 42 teeth, and some of the premolars are de- ciduous, includes all the existing members of tlie family except two. Of these the polar bear {U. maritimiis) of the Arctic reginns stands aj^art from the rest on account of its relatively smaller liead, small and narrow molars, more hairy soles, and creamy white colour. Its food consists mainly of flesh. The brown bear {U. ardi(s) is a very widely-spread species, ranging all over Europe and Northern Asia, and represented in Syria l)y one variety {U. «;/rJafi/.s), in the Himalaya by the pale isabelline bear (U. imbcUimis), and in North America by the grizzly bear {U. horribilis) and the American black bear {U. americani(s), botJi of Avhich are now considered merely as varieties of the European species. The Himalayan black bear ( U. torqnutus), with shaggy black fur and a white gorget, is a very distinct species ; as is also the small Malayan bear(Z7. mrt?a!/07U(s), rang- ing from North-Eastern India to the Malayan countries, and dis- tinguished by its long extensile tongue and short black fur, with a light gorget on the throat. Another well-marked form is the spectacled bear (U. ornatuti) of the Chilian Andes. With the exception of U. croidltcr, of the Atlas range, which may be only a variety of the common species, Africa has no bear. The Indian sloth bear {3Icliirstis \trsinus) difl'ers in having only two pairs of upper incisor teeth, small molars, large extensile lips, and a deeply hollowed jjalate ; the black fur being very long, loose, and harsh, and the throat marked by tlie usual light gorget. It feeds cliiefly on ants, other insects, fruit, flowers and honey. More different than all is the parti-coloured bear {^-Eluropus melanolcucusi) of Tibet, with a total of 40 teeth, the premolars large and, except the first, two-rooted, and the first upper molar broader than long, instead of longer than broad, as in other bears. In colour it is black and white, with black rings round the eyes. Mainly American, the raccoon tribe includes small carnivores with two pairs of molars in each jaw, which may be either many-cusped or tuber- culated, a short and broad upper carnassial tooth, planti- grade feet, and the tail ringed. The single Old World form Raccoon Tribe. is the panda or cat-bear (^-Eluriis fnhjens) of the Eastern Family Pro- Himalaya, which is a reddish-coloured animal, of the size of cyonhhv. a cat, with a long, x'inged tail. It has a total of 38 teeth, very broad many-cusped upper molars, and a curiously rounded and vaulted skull. The face is cat-like, the ears are moderate and rounded, and the limbs stout, with large partially retractile claws. The panda is a good climber, and feeds chiefly upon vegetable substances. The American raccoons (Procyon) have 40 teeth, broad and tuberculated molars, and three lobes to the blade of the upper carnassial. The body is stout, the head broad, with a sharj:) muzzle, the whole sole of the foot not applied to the ground in walking, and the toes capable of being widely spread, with sharj) non-reti'actile claws. The tail is rather short and ringed, and the fur thick and soft. Fig. 44.— Parti-coloured Bear (JSluropus mdanolcticiis). 76 MAAfMALfA—ORDER IW — CARNIVORA. Fig. 45.— The Panda (AVimijj yii?;/! Raccoons are almost omnivorous animals, obtaining mucli of their food along the banks of lakes and streams, and swimming well. Much of their time is, however, spent in trees, in hollows of which the J'oung are brought forth ; and in North America they hibernate dar- ing the cold season. The cacomistles {Bas.mrisciis), represented by one species from the Southern United States and Mexico and another from Central America, form a closely allied genus, distinguished by the more slender build, sharper nose, longer tail, and less completely plantigrade feet. Another genus is Bassaririioii, of Central America, which hus racco(m-like teeth, but an external form very like that of the kinkajou. The coatis (jVf(.s»r(), wliich range from Central America to Paraguay, are easily recognised by the prolongation of the muzzle into a long and somewhat upturned mobile snout ; the long and tapering tail being ringed. The dentiti(m is similar to that of the raccoons, witli the exception that the upper canines are longer and more pointed, and the molars smaller. Coatis are arboreal animals, going about the forest in small jaarties, and feeding chiefly on birds, eggs, insects, lizards, and fruits. Lastly, the kinkajou (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus) dift'ers from all the rest in its long and taper tail being prehensile ; the number of teeth being 36. It is a pale yellowish-brown animal, of the size of a cat, entirely nocturnal, and arboreal in its habits. The last family of the land Carnivora is the large and widely-sjiread one of the weasels, which includes the otters, badgers, shunks, etc. Except in the ratels (where there is but a single pair in each jaw), the members of this family may be dis- tinguished from the two preceding ones by having one pair of upper, and tw^o of lower molars, and by the inner portion of the ujiper juolars being longer from back to front than the outer blade. The auditory bulla of the skull is but little inflated. The otters (Lutra) furm an aquatic grou}) cnaracterised by tlie short and rounded feet, the webb- Otters. cd toe?, the small, curv- ed, and blunt claws, and the broad and flattened head. The jaws are short, with large, closely packed teeth ; the upper molar being especially large, quadrangular in form, and its inner tubercular portion much expanded from back to front ; and all the cheek teeth sharply cusped. The body is very elongated, the ears are short and rounded, the limbs short, the tail long, thick, and tajjering rapidly, and the fur very short and close. In certain species the claws Weasel Tribe. — Family MuMe- lida'. Fig. 40. "Ca('().mistle (Bassarisnts antutus). The Grizzly Bear. rr.ESH-EATiXG ^^A^r^rAI.s. 77 may be rudimental ov wanting. With tlie exception of Australia and New (iiiinea, otters are cosmopolitan in tlieir distribution, the largest species being tlie Brazilian otter. They are expert di^'ers and swimmers, feeding entirely on tish, for the capture and retention of which their powerful and sharply-cusped teeth are admirably suited. The total number of teeth is 30. Nearly allied to the otters is the sea-otter (Lcitdx hdris), distinguished by having only 32 teeth, among which the lower incisors are reduced to two pairs, the blunt and rounded tubercles of the molars, and the flipper-like hind-feet, in which the toes are flattened, as in the seals, and the fifth toe is the longest and stoutest. The head is rounded, the ears very small, the tail short and F'li. i^.-CoxTiiXasuamfa). bushy, and the pellage with a beautiful under-fur. The total length of the animal is about f(nir feet. Natur- alists have hitherto believed that the sea-otter when on l.ind has the hind-toes turned forwards, but Mr. Snow, of Yokohama, states that this is incorrect, and that they are really doubled backwards, beneath the soles. The southern range of the sea-otter extends as far as Southern California and Mexico. On the Asiatic side, it occurs at the Komandorski Islands, Kam- schatka, and the Kurile Islands. As a rule, only one is produced at birth, but occasionally two. Mr. Snow has seen two small pups with their mother, and has taken two from the inside of an otter he killed. It is not absolutelj' known at what age the otter arrives at maturity. Mr. Snow believes that it does so in the third year. Crabs and sea-urchins are the usual contents of the stomach, but occasionally small fish and spawn are also found. The crabs are crushed by the strong molar teeth, it being impossible that the crushing is produced by the striking of two shells together, as the form of the fore-feet will not allow of anything being grasped. The otter dives for its food, and returns to the surface with the prey held between its two fore- paws, in which it continues to hold it while eating it. On many occasions Mr. Snow has seen schools of from 10 to 50 or more otters together some 10 or 15 miles from any land, but not of late years. The mode of capture adopted by Europeans is to "run" the sea-otter with three boats, each manned by four or five men, a hunter being in the bow armed with a rifle. When an otter is " raised " (as it is called), the hoats proceed to surround it, lying some 500 to 600 yards apart in the form of a triangle. The boats are so manceuvred that the otter is kept between them. Every time the animal makes its appearance above the water, it is shot at, until it is secured. When the sea-otter is netted, it becomes entangled in the meshes and drowned. The long white hairs of the fur are its chief beauty. They are not removed when it is prepared for use. A skin has sold for upwards of £225. The skunks of America are the first I'epresentatives of a second sub-family in which the feet are elongated, with straight toes, and non-retractile, slightly curved, somewhat compressed, and blunt claws, which are of very large size in the hind-foot ; the form of the upper Skunks, molar being variable. The typical skunks (Mephitis), which are confined to North and Central America, are easily recognised by their 78 MAMMALIA— ORDER IV.—CARNIVORA. black fur, relieved on the back with broad longitudinal stripes of white, and the bushy black and white tail, which is generally carried over the back. Tliey have 34 teeth, and are provided with ^ •^^">'-^*^\ special glands for the secretion of the ^^%v^^^^^^^^^^<^, noisome fluid to which they owe their '^^"'^^"'^^~ ^ "" name. The little skunk (/Si;ji7o{/c(Zej>Hfo- r'lui) of the Southern United States and Central America isainuch smaller animal, and the only member of thegroup that can climb. The South American skunk (C'oji.- cpatns mnjjurito), ranging from Texas to Patagonia, difiers in havingonly32 teeth, and also in its heavier build, and by the nostrils opening do wnwardsandf(jrwards, instead of on the sides of the muzzle. Mr. Aplin, writing of tliis species, ob- serves that " the scent-gland cannot be Fiy. 48. -CoMMox .Smunk ^McphitU '^P^"^'^ ""^^^^^ the tail is at a right angle mej^hitica). or sometlung near it, with the line of the body ; and that therefore when held by the tail the weight of the skunk's body keeps the tail more or less in a line with it, and the skunk is unable to discharge its vile secretion. To perform this o])eration it is of course necessary to catch the skunk asleep, or otherwise deeply occupied (digging roots, for instance), and to run the risk of its waking up or turning round and seeing you. I be- lieve I could have easily done it myself, as 1 have more than once seen a skunk lying curled up asleep in the daytime. Indeed, while looking for a parrot 1 had shot among some bushes, I very nearly stepped upon one which was curled up on the ground ; and there it remained until I put a re- volver bullet through its body. However, I never cared to risk the loss of useful garments, it having been proved, I believe, that clothes once well dosed at close quarters may as well be burnt. The skunk passes the day- time in sleep, when undisturbed. In Soriano I used to find them laid up in holes and under clefts in the granite boulder rocks, in deserted ant-nests, among paja grass, or in the crown of a big hassock of this, and in one or two cases on the ground among bushes. In the latter case it lies on its side curled round. When roused in a hole by a dog, it presents a rather diaboli- cal appearance as it pops its little vicious head out. Notwithstanding demonstrations of this kind, I have only once seen a skunk use its teeth. In this case one fastened on to Jim's flanks, and the old dog walked about with it hanging on for half a minute, looking round at it in much astonishment at this unusual and unseemly behaviour —the fact being that he could not get hold of his enemy, which turned with him. The skunk seems to be an om- nivorous feeder. Its long strong claws are well adapted for digging, and places where they have been scratching are to be seen all about the camp. They probably feed on small mammals, reptiles, and insects, as well as roots, and are always credited with robbing hen-roosts. With regard to the distance at which you can smell a skunk, 1 cannot give an opinion ; but you often smell them when you cannot see them, and just about sundown the smell is a usual and familiar one about the camp ; at night, too, a strong whifFof it as you sit or stroll in the jxiciou3 object, they throw themselves down their burrows, which are often situated at the root of a rhubarb plant, with the well-known shrill scream, at the sound of which any other animal tliat may be in the vicinity immediately takes alarm, Ifc is almost superfluous to observe that, in order to secure them when thus sitting, it is necessary to shoot marmots dead ; for, even witli tlie sliglitest kick left in them, they will often manage to tumble into their holes before they can be seized. When disturbed for tlie first time, tliey will usually reappear after a short interval ; but after fi second fright they generally sidk, and seldom show again. NYishing to secure a number of skins for rugs, the writer and his party, after much toil, once succeeded in turning a small rivulet into a marmot warren on one of the plateaus of Little Tibet, but, to their dismay, were uiiable to " bolt '' a single marmot— the whole coloiiy pre- ferring to perish miserably by drowning in their burrows rather tlian face their foes in the open. In Eurojie there occur two species of marmot — namely, the Alpine )narmot {A. marmotta) and the somewhat smaller bobac (A. bohac). The former is an exclusively European form, only found in the three disconnected mountain chains of the Pyrenees, Alps, and Carpathians, at elevations varying be- tween 5,000 and 1,000 feet, where it meets with a climate suitable to its exist- ence. The second species, in which the head and body measure about 15 inches in length, has its western limit on the German frontier, and thence ranges eastward through Galicia and Poland, right across tlie steppes of Southern Russia, and thence to Amur, Kamschatka, and Siberia — the climate of these regions being suthciently rigorous to admit of the existence of these animals at ordinary elevations. It is noteworthy that marmots do not extend to the north-westward either into Lapland or the Scandinavian peninsula, where the country does not present the chaiacter of the Russian steppes, which in summer are scorched by a burning heat, and in winter form a track- less expanse of snow. The southern limits of the bobac do not appear to be yet definitely known. When, however. Me reach the mountains of Yarkand and other parts of Turkestan, and thence proceed southwards to the northern districts of Ladak in Western Til:)et, we meet with a very similar, although somewhat larger, shoit-tailed species known as the Himalayan marmot {A. himaJniiaims), tlie range of which appears to extend eastward into Tibet proper, where this species has been described under other names. The Ilimalayan marmot is another species whicli, at all events in the southern portion of its range , can only find a suitable climate at great elevations, the height at which it is usually found in Ladak and Turkestan varying between 12,000 feet and something over 17,000 feet. Another species is also met with in the neighbourhood of Yarkand and the Pamir, at elevations of about 13,000 feet, known as the golden marmot (A. aureuti), and is distinguished from the last by its more golden colour, and shorter and thicker tail. Examples of this species were also obtained in Turkestan during Przewalskis expeditions. To the south-west the writer, when crossing the elevated plateau of Deosai, or " Devil's Plains," situated between the town of Skardo on the Indus in Western Tibet and the mountains nortl: of Kashmir, the elevation of which is between 12,500 feet and 13,000 feet, found marmots exceedingly abundant, although he was unable to determine to which of the two preceding species they belonged, or whether they were more neaily 94 MAMMALIA— ORDER V.—RODENTIA. allied to the Cabul species to be immediately mentioned. The Deosai plateau, it may be mentioned, is one of the most desolate and dreary regions that can well be imagined, consisting of rolling hills and dunes of sand and gravel, with a sparse coating of vegetation, where ahnost the only living things to be seen are marmots and mosquitoes. The climate is most rigorous ; the sun's rays beating down wich terrific power througii the dry and rarified atmosphere during the day in the summer months, but the tem- perature rapidly falling, and often sinking below the freezing point after sunset. In winter this region is absolutely impassable ; so that its climate may be regarded as an intensification of that of the steppes. The Cabul marmot (X. dicliwits), which is also met with in Turkestan, is a smaller species than the golden marmot, from which it is further distinguished by its duller coloration, and the absence of any black on the back. The regions whence it is obtained have a climate of the general character men- tioned above. The last species to be mentioned is known as the red or long- tailed marmot (A. candatus). This appears to be the largest of all tliose found in the Old World, attaining a length of nearly two feet, exclusive of the tail, which measures about one foot. It is readily recognised, not only by its size and long, bushy tail, but also by the full rufous tinge of the hair, and the large extent of black f(jund on the back of many individuals, the skins being handsomer than those of any of the other kinds. The distribution of this Himalayan marmot is extremely interesting as showing that these animals can only exist in an arid climate more or less nearly approaching tliat of the steppes or of Tibet. To understand this, it must be mentioned that the immense mountain-barrier lying to the north- ward of the valley of Kashmir, the lowest gap in which has an elevation of 11,500 feet, cuts off almost completely the clouds coming up from the plains of India from the more or less arid regions to the northward. Now, whereas marmots are totally unknown on the great range of mountains south of the Kashmir valley, where the rainfall is excessive, directly the traveller reaches the summits of the passes of the northern range, and thence far down on the .northern side, the shrill cry of the red marmot strikes his ear. This is very noticeable in travelling on the Central Asian high road up the Sind Valley, when he crosses the Zogi Pass into the Tibetan area. This marmot \\\^y like- wise be met with on crossing the i)asses leading to our distant frontier station of Gilgit ; and it also appears to range into many parts of Ladak, although its exact limits are not yet accurately defined. It is thus evident that marmots now exist only at such elevations or in such regions as possess an extreme continental climate — that is to say, one wliere the summers are hot and the winters excessively cold. It has been shown that in Europe the Alpine marmot inhaliits three distinct and isolated ranges, separated from one another by low-lying areas possessing a climate entirely dift'erent from the tj'pe above referred to ; and it is thus clear that it could not have crossed these unsuitable low areas while the climate of Europe was the same as at the present day. 'J'hat there must have been at some time or other a direct communication between these isolated marmot areas is, therefore, self- evident. The next section of the Sclurida'. is formed by the true, or northern flying squirrels, of which there are three well-marked generic groups. In all these animals the pai-achute is supported by a rod of cartilage j^rojecting like a yard-arm from the outer side of the wrist, and there is another expansion of skin connecting the fore-limbs with the neck, while tliere may be a third MAMMALS THAT GNAJV. 95 between the hind-legs and the root of the tail. The whole of these flying- squirrels are characterised by the complex structure of their molar teeth ; and as their skulls differ considerably from those of other members of the family, they must be regarded as constituting a sub- family group by them- selves. Flying-squirrels of this group have existed since a comparatively early epoch in the Tertiary period, and it is consequently impossible to affiliate tliem with any of the genera oi ordinary squirrels ; so that it is quite likely that they have originated from a totally extinct genus or genera. Hence, it is impossible to say whether the three genera into which they are divided have all taken origin from one non-volant form, or whether the power of flight has been separately evolved in each of the three generic groups. Of the three genera, the one known as ScUtroptems inchides the lesser flying-squir- rels, all of which have the crowns of their molar teetli comparatively low, and the parachute of moderate widtli, and not including any portion of the tail. Having one representative in North America, and a second in North- Eastern Europe and Siberia, the lesser flying-squirrels are mainly characteristic of India and the Malayan countries. While some of the larger kinds measure as much as 12 inches from the nose to the root of the tail, in the pigmy flying-squirrel of Cochin-China and Arakan the length of the head and body scarcely exceeds five iuches. These squirrels collect in numbers in hollow trees, where they remain in slumber during the daytime, to issue forth at night for the purpose of feeding. Climbing to a coign of vantage on some tree, they take their flying leaps to the bough or trunk of another at a lower level, not unfrequently covering a distance of some 30 or 40 yards. The length of the leap is, however, still greater among the members of the next genus, reaching from 60 to nearly 80 yards. The larger flying- squirrels (Pteromys) form an exclusively Asiatic grouj), represented by some ten species, and extending from the Malayan countries as far north as Eastern Tibet. In addition to their superior dimensions, these flying-squirrels are distinguished from the pi-eceding group by the greater width of the pai-achute along the sides of the body, and the enclosure of tlie base of the tail in the portion connecting the two hind-legs. The tail itself is, moreover, ccnnpletely cylindrical, instead of slightly compressed ; and the molar teeth have rather taller and more complex crowns than in the lesser flying-squirrels. In some of the larger species the head and body may measure as much as 18 inches in length, while the tail may reach to 24 or 25 inches. The last member of the sub-family is the woolly flying-squirrel {Eiipetannis) — a large species from the neighbourhood of Gilgit, distinguished by the very tall molar teeth, which have flat, instead of ridged, masticating surfaces. Finally, the five species of pigmy squirrels (Nannoschinis), of Avhich one is West African, a second from the Philippines, while the otiier three are Bornean, constitute another sub-family, characterised by cer- tain peculiarities in the skull and the complex structure of the molar teeth. An unimportant family is constituted by two North American Rodents known as sewellels (Hajjlodon}, which differ from the Scinridie by the absence of postorbital processes in the The Sewellels. skull and the rootless molars. According to Dr. Merriam, u 7^^^ ^- , they are aquatic in their habits. ' The last family of the squirrel-like group of the order is represented only 96 MAMMALIA— ORDER V.—RODEXTIA. by the be.-ivers {Castor), easily distinguished by tlic broad, flattened, and scaly tail. The skull is massively made and devoid of postorbital processes, with the angle of the lower jaw rijunded ; the cheek teeth do not develop roots, and have their crowns marked with re-entering folds of enamel ; the premolars are limited to a single pair in each jaw ; and the hind-feet are webbed. Beavers, which are the largest Rodents in the Northern Hemisphere, and are thoroughly aquatic in their habits, ai'e confined to cer- tain parts of that hemisphere, being found only in Europe, Northern Asia, and North America. Tlie actual extent of their range in the Old World is not so clearly defined as could be wished. Thtro is, however, ample evidence that this range oi-iginally The Beavers. — Family Castorida'. Fin. 57.— Be.vvkr (CaMorfilicr). 'xtended from the British Islands in the west, to France, and jjerhaps Italy, Spain, and Greece, ni the south, thence eastward to Asia Minor, and possibly Persia, and to the north-eastward as far as the Yenesei and Lena in Siberia, and thence to Amur, Scandinavia, and Russia ; but there does not appear to be any good evidence as to the eastern limits of beavers in the direction of Northern China, al- though it may not be improbable that in this region these animals only inhabited the rivers flowing northwards into the Caspian Sea and the Arctic Ocean. On the Continent, beavers were finally exterminated in Holland in 1825. In France a number of names, such as Bievre, Beuvron, and Beu- vray, or Beuvry, as well as the ancient Bibrax and Bibracte, point to the originally wide distribution of beavers. Fossil remains of these animals occur in many places, such as Abbeville, in the valley of the Somme, the neigh- bourhoods of Paris and Clermont, and the cavern of Lunel-Viel, in Herault. The Rhone and its tributaries, especially the Gardon and the Cese, appear to have been the great stronghold of these creatures within the historic period. Even, however, in the last century they had become exceedingly rare, owing to the incessant persecution to which they had been subjected. Still, they have been met with at intervals even up to the present day. Thus Gervais records tlie capture of a specimen in 1846, close to the port of Avignon, and mentions having seen two others near Aries. The floods of 1840 doubtless led to the destruction of a considerable number, so that after this date they were much more rare than formerly. The circumstance that the monks of a monastery on the right bank of the Rhone at Yilleneuve-les-Avignon in- cluded beavers among their plats vudgres, indicates that in earlier days they were probably abundant. M. St. Hilaire, in the Bidldin cle la Societe d'AccIimatation, for 1888, records the capture of three specimens during that year in the Rhone, and a recent writer concludes that from 25 to 30 beavers are still annually killed in tliat river and its tributaries. Thei-e does not appear to be evidence that these animals linger in any other of the French rivers. It is mentioned in some of the old writers that beavers occur rarely in Italy, Spain, and Greece, but it is difficult to find on what evidence these MAMMALS THAT GNAW. 97 statements rest ; but since remains of the existing species are found in the superticial beds in the neighbourhood of Rome, there is a considerable Hkelihood that its alleged occurrence in Italy within the historic period may be based on fact. The lake-cities or " phalbauten " of Switzerland afford evidence of the abundance of beavers in that country during the pre-historic period, and in the last century a few were still to be found in the Aar, Linnnat, Reuss, and other tributaries of the Rhine. That some lingered on into the present century is proved by a specimen from the Rlxine exhibited in the Jardin des Plantes in 1829 ; and tliere is evidence of their presence in the early part of this century both in the Rhine and the Rhone basins. In Germany fossil remains of beavers are found in several of the great caves, more especially in that of Gailenreuth in Franconia. As late as the closing decades of the last and the early ones of the present century, colonies of these animals were abundant on many of the Geiman rivers, remnants of which still exist here and there up to the present time. In North-Western Germany the Moselle and the Maas were formerly noted habitats of these animals, although we have no record of the date of their disappearance, even if this has yet taken place. The Lippe, which, like the Moselle, is a tribu- tary of the Rhine, was likewise a well-known haunt. Thus at Ketlingliausen, and still higher up the river at Padderbun, beavei'S were abundant, and formed regular colonies, like their Canadian cousins, at the beginning of the present century, and it is probable that some few still exist. Proceeding northward to the basin of the Elbe, the account by Meyernick, published in 1829, of a colony on one of the tributaries of this river near Magdeburg, is too well known to need repetition. Lower down the river at Wittenberg, and also at Kiihnert, they were also comparatively abundant in 1801 ; and at the former locality there is evidence of their occurrence in 1848, and again as late as 1878, when no less than eight individuals were observed in an old river channel. Again in Bohemia, the valley of the Moldau, with its numer- ous affluents, which forms the upper reaches of the extensive basin drained by the Elbe, abounded in beavers up to the year 1848, since which date, in spite of strict jirecaution, they have probably been greatly reduced in num- bers. The basin of the Danube, in South-Eastern Germany, is, however, probably the greatest stronghold of German beavers at the present time. In 1837 the small river Amper, a tributary of the Isar, situated some distance to the north of Munich, was occupied by several colonies, which were pre- served as a valuable commercial property. There is also good evidence of the existence of the last-named colonies, as well as of others on the Isar, Iller, and Salzach — tributaries of the Danube — up to 1840, since which date I have been unable to come across any records of them. There is a dearth of information with regard to the presence of beavers lower down the Danube valley in Austria-Hungary and Turkey ; but it is certain that they did, or do still, exist in the former regions ; and they have also been recorded from the Lower Danube on well-authenticated evidence. That beavers may have existed, or still exist, in other parts of European Turkey, is suggested by the fact of their appearance in Asia Minor. They have been recorded in the upper Euphrates valley by Heifer in a jDook published in 1879 ; while Eichwald long since mentioned their occurrence in the rivers of the Caucasus j and Smarda included them in his list of the Mammals of Mesojjotamia. Messrs. Danford and Alston observe that trust- worthy authorities at Kaisariyeh (a town in Rumelia, on the Kizil river, flowing into the Black Sea) stated " that in the marshes between that place G 98 MAMMALIA— ORDER V.-RODENTIA and Sudjesu there existed an animal like an otter, but which had a broad, liairless tail." And there can be no reasonable doubt that these authors are right in identifying this creature with the beaver. The possible eastward extension of the beaver into Persia is suggested by Mr. Blanford. From the Caucasus the range of the beaver may be traced through Russia, Poland, and Livonia, to Lapland, and thence to the Scandinavian Peninsula. Immediately to the north of the Caucasus, Oken recorded their abundance in the valley of the Tereck in 1842. In Central Russia there is no definite evidence of their occurrence, but in the Baltic provinces of Livonia the record is again ample. Many places in this district take, indeed, their name from beavers, and about the middle of the last century these animals aj)pear to have had populous colonies on most of the streams of the country. In 1724, so common were they, that their dams were a serious inconvenience to the district, owing to the lloods caused by them. It appears, however, from the researches of Loewis, that beavers are now completely exterminated from Livonia, the last specimen liaving been sliot in 1841. In 1889 the exist- ence of a few beavers in the river Svislotch, Government of Mink, and also in the Dnieper, was recorded. In North Russia the rivers Dwina and Petchora, flowing respectively into the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean, were the resorts of beavers as late as 1842, but it is probable that they are now completely extinct. Passing eastward into Silesia, there is evidence of the former wide distribution of tliese animals, it being stated that they extended as far as Amur. In the basin of the Obi, in Western Siberin, tliey appear to be extinct in the valley of the Irtsh, where they were formerlj abundant ; but at least up to 1870 they continued to be found in the small affluent of the Obi known as the Pelyin. Beavers have long since completely disappeared from the Yenesei, in Eastern Siberia, but information is still required with regard to the more eastei'ly valley of the Lena. In Poland and Lithuania beavers may still linger on ; but, as already observed, there is a want of evidence as to the limits of their original range in the region lying eastward of a line connecting the Baltic with the Black Sea. Reverting to the neighbourhood of the White Sea, and pursuing a course towards the north-east, it appears that Lapland lost its beavers early in the present century. The skull of the last specimen known to have been killed in these regions was obtained about 1830. In Scandinavia, although beavers were widely distributed in the last and early part of the present century, it appears that they have now total]}' dis- appeared from Sweden but still exist in at least three remote spots in Norway. The number of specimens living in the latter country in 1880 was estimated at not more than GO ; but Collett placed their number at about 100, and, as they were strictly i)reserved, he did nut consider that they were decreasing. Completing this survey of the range of the European beaver with Denmark, evidence of its former existence is found in the shape of skulls and bones from the mosses and turbaries, Avhile it is also known to have lived there within the historic period. As to the precise date of its extermination, there ajjpears no definite record. With regard to the range of the American beaver, few words will suffice. It may be observed, in the first place, that, altliough some writers are indis- posed to regard this beaver as specifically distinct from the European one ; yet, from the constant difierence in the form of tlie bones of the nasal region of the skull, it seems to be a valid species, the proper name of which is Castor caruide7isis. The earliest epoch of its occurrence is in the Pleistocene MAMMALS THAT GNAIV. 99 deposits of South Carolina, New Jersey, Tennessee, and other localities, as well as in the cavern-deposits of Virginia and Pennsylvania. Witliin the historic period its range extended from Alaska and the Hudson Bay terri- tories in tlie north, along the Atlantic seaboard as far south as Georgia and Nortliern Florida, and thence along tlie Gulf of Mexico as far as the Rio Grande in Texas, and for some distance into Mexico itself, while on the Pacitic Coast it is known to have extended as far south as California and Arizona. In the interior of the continent beavers were naturally confined to the neighbourhood of the great lakes and river valleys. Writing in 1877 of the American beaver, Dr. Allen observes that '"' its present range, however, is much less extended, verj'^ few being found east of the Mississippi River south of the great lakes, and it is everywhere less numerous than formerly. Some still remain in Northern Maine and in the Adirondack region of New York, and probably some still survive thence southward in the spai'sely settled districts to Alabama and Mississippi. A recent article states that they are still abundant in portions of Virginia. Their existence in great abundance throughout the Atlantic States, and thence westward to the Pacific, is thoroughly attested. They having been less persistently hunted during recent years than formerly, they are rep(jrted to be slowly on the increase in most localities where they still remain." The dormice are tlie first representatives of the second section of the Rodents, or Myomorpha, which presents the following characteristics. In the skull the zygomatic arch is slender, and usually has the jugal bone extending but little forwards, being supported by The Dormouse a long back ward ly directed pr(jcess of the upper jaw-bone. Tribe. — Family or maxilla. There are im postorbital processes defining the Myoxiike. hinder border of the socket of the eye ; and, except in one sub-family of the Sjudacida', the angle of the lower jaw takes origin from the inferior surface of the sheath of the lower incisor. All the members of the section difier from the Sciuromorpha in that the tibia and fibula, or bones of the lower leg, are welded together. Resembling the true scpiirrels in shape and habits, the dormice form an Old World family of small arboreal Rodents characterised by their long hairy tail, the large size of the ears and eyes, and the shortness of the fore-limbs. There is but one pair of premolars in each jaw, and the molars are rooted with transverse re-entering foldings of enamel on their crowns. The dormice may be divided into two main groups, according to the structure of the stomach. In Mijoxus, as typified by M. glis of continental Europe, the stomach is simple, but the difierent species, Avhich have been arranged under several generic heads, difier considerably in other respects. In the typical species the bushy tail has the hairs arranged in a row on each side, while the molars ju'e large, with flat crowns and complex enamel-foldings. In a second group (Eliomijs), typified by the European M. iiitella, and extending over Europe, Asia, and Africa, the tail has the hairs arranged in two I'ows, but is tufted at the end, while the molars are small, with concave crowns, and the folds of enamel indistinct. The third group of the genus (Graphiuriis) is solely African, and is distinguished by the tail being short, cylindrical, and tufted, while the enamel-foldings on the small molars are almost wanting. A West African form (CUivigUs) diff"ers by the shorter and more distinctly tufted tail. On the other hand, the common dormouse of England and the rest of Europe (Muscanlinns avdlanarius) difi"ers from all the foregoing in the thickened glandular walls of the anterior portion of the stomach ; the loo MAMMALIA—ORDER V.—RODENTIA. molars having flat crowns, with complicated foldings of enamel, and the somewhat bushy tail being cylindrical. The more northern repre- sentatives of the family take their name from the lung winter torpor they undergo. From the Myoxidce the very extensive and cosmopolitan family of the Muridce, which includes rats, mice, and voles, may be distinguished by the total absence of premolar teeth in both jaws. The group is. The Mouse Tribe, however, better characterised by the structure of the skull, — Family Muri- in which the frontal bones are markedly constricted, while (■he. in the zygomatic arch the short and slender jugal bone is in most cases reduced to a small splint connecting a back- wardly-directed process from the upper jaw-bone, or maxilla, with a forv/ard projection from the squamosal bone at the hinder end of the skull. Still more characteristic is the expansion of the lower part of the first-named pro- cess into a large, flattened descending plate ; and in most cases the large aperture in the skull for the passage of nerves situated beneath the anterior root of the zygomatic arch is elevated, and much wider above than below. The first toe of the fore-foot is rudimental, and in most cases naked and scaly. This family, which includes more than a third of the members of the entire order, is the only one among the Rodents represented either in Madagascar or in Australia. Although a few species are aquatic, and some arboreal, the great majority of the Muridce are terrestrial, a considerable number of them living in burrows. Some fifty genera have been described. The first sub-family is confined to Australia, New Guinea, and the island of Luzon, in the Philippines, where it is represented by three genera. In this group the molars, which are frequently reduced to two The Australasian pairs in each jaw, develop roots, and have their crowns Group. — divided into alternating oblique lobes, partially splitting up Sub-Family into tubercles. In the typical genus Hydromys, of Australia Hydronujime. and New Guinea, the molars are two in number, and the external form is modified for the needs of an aquatic exist- ence, the feet being webbed, the tip of the muzzle thickly clothed with hairs, by means of which the nostrils can be clothed ; while the skull differs from tliat of other members of the family in- that the aperture beneath the socket of the eye is nearly circular, instead of pear-shaped, and tlie descending vertical plate at the front of the zygomatic arch is absent. In habits the two species of this genus resemble watei'- voles. The genus Clirotomys, oi which there is one species from Luzon, dilfers from the other two in having three pairs of molars ; its skull being intermediate betM'een that of the first and third genus, and its external form mouse-like, the toes being devoid of webs. In Xewmys, which occurs typically in Australia, but is taken to include a rat from Luzon, the molars resemble those of Hydromys in structure and number, but the skull and external form are nearly similar to those of an ordinary mouse. In size this species is not larger than the common mouse, whereas the other members of the group are much bigger. The second sub-family is represented only by the beautiful little Malabar spiny mouse {PlatacantJiomys lasinrus) of Southern India, Malabar Spiny which is an arboreal ft)rm easily distinguished by the long Mouse (Plata- bushy tail, which exceeds the head and body in length, and canthomyince). also by the presence of flattened spines mingled with the hairs. The rooted molars liave their crowns divided into complete transverse laminte. MAMMALS THAT GJVAJK '.riie beautiful little large-eyed murines, known as gerbils, typify a third Rub-faniily, characterised by the narrowness of the incisors, the sub-division of the crowns of the molars into transverse lamin;e, the generally large size of the auditory bulla of the skull, and The Gerbil the elongation of the hind-limbs. From the other genei'a, Group the gerbils ((Tcrbilhi.s), which range over Southern Europe, (Gerbillince). Asia, and Africa, are distinguished by the deeply grooved upper incisors, and the circumstance that the first molar has one, the second two, and the third three transverse laminio ; the long tail being tutted at the tip Gerbils are inhabitants of desert districts, where they burrow in the sandy soil. Some writers separate certain species as Mcrioiics. The short and club-like form of the flesliy tail, as well as the very large size of the auditory bulla of the skull, cerve to distinguish the African genus Pachy- uromys, in which the narrow incisors are faintly grooved. Three other small genera from Africa, namely, Mystromys, Otomys, and Dasymys, dift'er from the gerbils and from one another in the structure of the molars ; they are all typically South African, but the second has also been recorded from East Africa and the Congo. A fifth genus (Malacomys), represented by a single species from the Gabun, connects the gerbils with the rats, having the teeth and limbs of the former, but the long scaly tail of the latter. Two genera of very large long-haired rats from the Philippine islands represent a sub-family in which the incisors are very broad, the molars divided into transverse lamina?, and the claws large. In Phlceomys, of which there is but a single well-defined species, the ears The Philippine are small and hairy, the tail moderate and sparsely haired. Rats (Phheo- and the auditory Ijulla very small ; the first molar having myina'J. three, and the others two laminre. The second genus (Cratcromys) includes one very large greyish species from Luzon, which may be compared in size to a small marmot, and has a totally difterent typo of molars. This group, which is confined to Africa south of the Sahara, is typified by the two species of Dendwinyf, and is characterised by the convexity of the incisors, the rooted and tuberculated molars, hairy ears, and long claws. The members of the typical genus have the The Tree-Mice habits of dormice, a slender build, grooved incisors, and a (Dendromyino') long, scaly, thinly-haired tail. Stcatomys also has grooved incisors, but of stouter form, and a rather short, thickly-haired tail ; while Lophuromys differs by its smooth incisors, and the fine flattened bristles which replace the hair. The fourth genus is Limacomys. The large, generalised, and almost cosmopolitan group of the cricetine Muridce is charactei-ised by the rooted upper molars carrying two longitudinal rows of tubercles. It is typified by the hamsters {Cricctns) of the Old World, which are confined to Europe and Asia, Cricetine Group and are characterised by having six tubercles on the first (CricethuK). upper molar, large cheek pouches, and a very short tail. The true hamster {C. fninientayius) is a burrowing species, well known on the Continent from the large amount of food, it accumulates in its subterranean dwelling. The white-footed mice (Sitomys) of the New World form a very large, closely allied group, in which cheek pouches may be present or absent. They are divided into a number of sub-genera, according to habits, bodily form, dentition, etc., which have been named Rhipldomys, Oryzomys, Calomys, Vesperimus, Onychomys, Bcapteromys^ Phyllotis, Acodon, and Oxymydcrus. S. hydrobates is peculiar on account of its fringed feet and aquatic habits ; MAMMALIA— ORDER V.—RODENTIA. vliile another species has spines mingled witli tlie fui". The Brazilian genus Holochilns, which includes the largest American rats, differs by the relatively larger last upper molar and the stouter skull. Another allied type are the fish- eating rats {Ir]ttli)iom]is) of South America, characterised by the webbed and fringed hind-feet, and their aquatic and probably fish-eating habits, while Ncdumiis is another allied Peruvian form. The rice-rat (Si(jnu>ilnii liispuJus), ranging from the United States to Ecuador, differs markedly ivoni Sifomns in the pattern of the tubercles on the molar teeth. Writing of these rats, Mr. G. Lincecum, in the Amrricdii Natvralht for 1872, states that they dwell togetlier ou the prairies of Texas in families in much the same maimer as the prairie-marmot. " They prefer light sandy soil on the prairie, where the shivered limy sandstone crops out ; but where the prairie is enclosed and cultivated they take possession of the fencing, and burrowing under the bottom rail, excavate sufficient cells, and construct their copious giassy beds there. Out on the prairie, in the wild state, they make one principal burrow, in front of which they pile up the earth that comes from all their subter- ranean galleries. They rarely extend tlieir main burrow more than eight or nine inches in dej^th, while their underground passages are sehhmi more than four or five inches below the surface. They also construct seA'eral secret outlets, opening 10 or 12 inches from the main hole, Avhich opening they very ingeniously conceal by strewing a few grass blades over it ; and so, when the rat-hunter attacks the citadel, the inmates escaiie through some of the concealed passages. Eight or nine inches deep, and turned a little to one side in the main hole, is a cavity, seven or eight inches in diameter, filled with fine, soft grass blades, which must be quite warm and jileasant, serving the family for winter-quarters. During the hot months they construct nice grass beds in a basin-like cavity, which they dig out under the sides of tufts of grass, or heaps of bush." From all the above the South American genus Rhithrodon, Avith five rat-like species, and the North American lihithrodont- omii.% containing three species of the size of large mice, differ in their grooved upper incisors. Another well-marked type of the group is pre- sented by the North American wood-rats (Neotomci), in which the molars simulate the prismatic pattern characteristic of the voles. Certain species in which the tail is very bushy have been sejiarnted generically as Tconoma ; while JV. allcni has been referred to a distinct genus under the name of Hodomiis. The next five genera of cricetines are confined to the island of Madagascar, where they are the sole representatives of the Rodent order*. Of these, Hypoyeomys is a large fawn-coloured rat, with large ears and feet and a long tail ; Nesomys include i two long-haired rufous species ; Br((chiitarsomiis contains a single rat Avith velvety fawn-coloured fur, short feet, and a long tail ; the single species of Hallom]is differs from Nesomys by the much longer hind feet ; while the two dormouse-like representatives of Miiinis arc easily recog- nised by the short and nearly naked ears, and by the long tail being bushy, except on its basal third, Avhere it is scaly. The last representative of the sub- family is the crested rat {Trilophomns imhavsi) of North-Fastern Africa, so named on account of the crest of long hair running along the back. This very large rat, which is arboreal in its habits, differs from all other members of the family in the first toe of the fore-foot being opposable, the rudimental collar- bones, and by the bony roof covering the muscles of the hinder part of the skull. All the hair is long, the long tail bushy, and the colour black and white. The animal has quite unnecessarily been made the type of a distinct family. MAMMALS THAT GNAW. 103 Closely allied to the ciicctines, of which they may be regarded as a specialised branch, the large group of voles are distinguished by their gener- ally rootless, or imperfectly rooted molars being composed of t\vo longitudinal rows of alternating triangular prisms. The Vole Group Externally they differ in most cases from the typical rats {^Microtinm). and mice by their heavier and less elegant form, less active movements, smaller ej^es, blunter muzzle, smaller ears, and shorter limbs and tail. They are restricted to Europe, Asia north of the Himalaya, and North America. An annectant form between the cricetines and typical voles is the North American genus Fhcnacomys, in which the molars develop roots. The typical genus 3Iicn>tus^ which includes nearly half a hundred species ranging over Europe, Northern Asia, and North America, is sufficiently characterised by its rootless molars and the naked soles of the feet ; the British forms being the water-vole {M. amphibit's.), the field-vole (M. agrcstis), and the red, or bank-vole (il/, (ik(rcob(s). Each of these is the representative of a distinct sub-generic group, severally characterised by the number of prisms in the molar teeth, and to which the names Faludicola, Agrlcola, and Evotomys have respectively been applied. The extraordinary hordes in which some species of land voles make their appearance at certain seasons, and the damage they then inflict on agricultural produce, are matters of common knowledge. The round-tailed musk-rat of Florida, which has been regarded as constituting a genus (Xcujiber) by itself, is considered by Dr. Merriam to be not more than a sub-genus of 3Iicrotns, Nearly allied is the true musk-rat, or musquash {Fiber zibethicus), of North America, which is the largest member of the group, and measures nearly a foot in length to the root of the tail. Heavily built, it is characterised by its broad head — which joins the body without any well-defined neck, — short limbs, small ej-es, ears nearly concealed in the thick, beaver like fur, and the ruJimental first toe of the fore-foot ; the long tail being laterally compressed, scaly, and sparsely haired, The general colour is dark brown, tending to black on the back, and grey on the under-parts. Both sexes have a gland secreting the musky substance from which the animal derives its name. Although its toes are not webbed, the musk-rat is an aquatic creature, feeding on a mixed vegetable and animal diet, Its fur is of considerable value ; and the skull is very similar to that of JMicrotvs. Another distinct generic tj'pe is presented by the gi'oove toothed vole (Synaptomys) of the United States, in which the upper incisors are grooved, while the external form resembles that of the true voles, and the molars are like those of the lemmings. The latter Rodents (Myodcs), of which there is one Old World and one North American species, differ from the voles by their heavier build, the blunt convex head, very short tail and ears, the hairy soles of the small feet, the bevelled upper incisors, and the pattern of the molar teeth. The common lemming (M. lemmus), which measures about five inches in length, and has yellowish-brown fur with darker spots, is remarkable for the periodical migrEvtions undertaken by its countless swarms ; these hordes pass- ing over every obstacle in their course till they finally reach the sea, in which they perish. Nearly allied to the last genus, the circumpolar banded lemming (Cunicrdus torqnah(s) may be easily distinguished by the absence of external ears, the shortness of the feet, which are thickly haired beneath, the rudimental first toe of the fore-foot, and the great length of the claws of the third and fourth toes of the same. The molars approximate to those of the voles, but the first in the upper jaw differa 104 MAMMALIA— ORDER V.—RODENTIA. from that <,>£ all the other members of the subfamily in having seven prism s= Although frequently regarded as representing a sub-family by themselves, the mole-voles, of which there are two genera, may be considered merely as voles specially adaj^ted for a subterranean existence ; the limbs and tail being very short, and the body somewhat mole-like, while the eyes are small. In the genus Ellohius, with one species from Russia, and a second from Afghan- istan, the claws are short, whereas in Sijihnens, of which there are several representatives from Central and Northern Asia, those of the fore-feet are enormously powerful. In the typical rats and mice and their allies, forming the murine group of the family, the molars are rooted and tuberculated, with three rows of tubercles on at least the anterior ridge of the first one in the Typical Group uj^per jaw. Indeed, with one exception, there are three longi- (Murina). tudinal rows of tubercles on all the upper molars ; while, save in one genus, there are two such rows in the corresponding lower teeth. The whole group is restricted to the Old World, being re- presented in Australia and New Guinea, but unknown in Madagascar. The great majority of forms are very similar in external appearance, their build being light, their eyes large and bright, their tails long and scaly, their movements active, their coloration sombre, and their habits generally burrowing and nocturnal. The least specialised member of the family is a small mouse from the Congo Valley, known as Deomys, which differs from all the others in that only the first ridge of the anterior upper molar has three rows of tubercles, the other two ridges of this tooth and all those of the other molars having but two such rows, as in the cricetines. On the other hand, Berdmore's rat (HapaJomys berdmorei), from Burma, appears to be the most specialised of all, the lower as well as the upper molars having three longitudinal rows of tubercles. Another peculiar genus (Vanddenria) is represented by a species extending from India to Yunnan, and characterised by liaving flat nails on the first and fifth digits of both feet, as well as by the great length of the tail. North-Eastern India and some of the countries to the east of the Bay of Bengal are the home of the pencil-tailed tree-mouse (Cliiropodomys)^ dis- tinguished by having flat nails on the first digit of both feet, whereas all other members of tlie family, except one species of 3Ivs, have a flat nail only on the first toe of the fore-foot. The next for notice are three genera re- stricted to the mountains of Luzon, in the Philippine group, two being represented only Ijy a single species. By far the most remarkable of these is the shrew-rat (/i/(;/Hc/io»ii/.s), distinguished by the shrew-like prolongation of the muzzle^ the short and feeble incisors, and the reduction of tlie molars, which are very small, to two pairs in each jaw. Not improbably this species, which is of the size of the black rat, and of a uniform olive-grey coloration, subsists on insects or larvae, as the incisors appear too weak for gnawing. The second genus, Carpomys, is represented by two somewhat dormouse-like rats, with thick, woolly fur, and the long tail well haired ; while the single species of Batomys difi'ers by the hind-feet being wider and shorter, and the fore-feet more elongated. The true rats and mice constitute a genus (M\(s) having a distribution co- extensive with that of the sub-family, and including nearly 150 species. In these Rodents the incisors are narrow and smooth, the molars of the typical murine structure, the foramina at the anterior end of the bony palate MAMMALS THAT GNAW. \o$ elongated, both the eyes and ears large, the extremity of tlie niujszle naked, the fur soft, occasionally mixed with spines, a flat nail on the first toe of the fore-foot, the long and nearly naked tail covered with overlajji^ing rings of scales, and cheek pouches absent. The species found in Britain are the common rat (3/. dconnfvnts), which appears to have been originally a native of Western China, but has now been introduced into all parts of the habitable globe ; the smaller and sharper-nosed black rat {M. ratfns), Avhich is likewise an Eastern form ; the common house-mouse (31. mvscidns), also hailing from the East ; the wood-mouse (M. t>iilvaticns), together with a larger variety known as 31. flcdncollis ; and the tiny harvest-mouse {M. mittutns). The latter, it is well known, builds small globular nests between several corn- stalks, and is itself able to ascend a single one of such stalks, aided in climbing by its partially prehensile tail. It will be unnecessary here to refer to the habits of mice in general, but some reference may be made to the so- called "singing" and "waltzing mice." Singing mice are ordinary house- mice, wliich, owing to some disease of the vocal organs, are enabled to pro- duce musical notes. Waltzing jnice are a Japanese product, of which the following account is given by Mr. E. R. Waite : — "At first," he writes, "a visitor probably regards the mice as mere colour varieties of the common white race. A moment's observation reveals the peculiarities of the breed, and attention is riveted by their strange performances. Early in life they exhibit the tendency which has earned for them the name above employed. When a nursling leaves the nest its gait consists of an evident attempt to proceed in a straight line ; this is frustrated by a tremulous movement of the head, which is nervously shaken from side to side. Shortly, a tendency is exhibited to turn ; this develops into a rotatory motion, performed with extraordinary rapidity, which constitutes the peculiarity of the waltzing mouse. The ordinary routine of daily life is constantly interrupted by this mad disjiosition to whirl, frequently indulged in for several minutes, and, with an occasional stoppage of a few seconds, continued for hours. The floor of one cage being somewhat rough, the mice actually reduced their feet to stumps before it was noticed. Like ordinary mice, they sleej) during the day, but apparently waltz the whole night long. If, however, they are dis- turbed during daylight, they leave their bed and work off some superflucnis energy. The rotation is so rapid that all individuality of head and tail is l(5st to tlie eye, only a confused ball of black and white being recognised. Very often they spin in couples, revolving head to tail at such a speed that an un- broken ring only is perceived. . . . An individual generally spins in one direction only, and the majority turn to the left." Although probably due in the first instance to brain-disease, the peculiarity, like the " tumbling " of tumbler-pigeons, is now hereditary in the breed. The longitudinally-striped Barbary mouse (31. barbarus), together with certain other more or less variegated African species, are frequently separated from il/»s as a distinct genus, under the name of Ari-icanthis. Nearly allied are the numerous species of bandicoot-rats (Nesoeia), ranging in Southern Asia from Palestine to Formosa, and from Ceylon to Kashmir, but also extending into Turkestan and the Lob-nor district of Central Asia. They differ from the typical genus by the wider incisors and molars ; the tubercles on the latter being partially connected by transverse ridges so as to produce a semi- laminated type of structure. The two species of groove-toothed mice (Golnnrla), one of which is Indian and the other African, are easily dis- tinguished by having a groove down each of the front incisors. In addition to6 MAMMALIA— ORDER V.—R0DEN77A. to having a species of Mns^ Australasia is the home of four peculiar genera of the sub-family. Of these, the mosaic-tailed mice {Jjvom\\s\ ranging from the Aru Islands to Queensland, may bo distinguished from Mns by tlie scales on the tail being united by their edges so as to form a mosaic-like pavement, instead of overlapping. The preliensile-tailed mouse (Chirwomys), of which there is but a single species inhabiting the mountains of New Guinea, is characterised by the naked tip of the tail being endowed with preliensile power ; the scales of the rest of the tail being arranged in diagonal rows. The upper mcilars have their tubercles vevy numerous, and arranged in a complex manner ; wliile there are several peculiarities connected with the structure of the skull. Tlie numerous Australian species of jerboa-rats (Conilnnis) are easily recognised by their elongated hind-limbs, and long ears and taih Tliey are inhabitants of desert districts, where they hop after the manner of jerboas. The fiftli genus (Mastdcomijii) is known only by a single Tasmanian species, and differs from 2Ivs by the great width of the molars, and the reduction of the number of teats to four ; tlie fur being noticeable for its length and sf)f tness. Differing remarkably as regards the latter feature, the spiny-mice (Acomys), of which there are about seven small-sized species, take their name from the fur being almost entirely replaced by flattened spines. The skull and dentition are very similar to those of the type genus, but the ascending process of each branch of the lower jaw is much smaller. These mice range from Syria through East Africa as far south as Mosambique, generally frequenting deserts, where some, at least, feed on bulbs. The long- nosed rat (Echi)wthrix) of Celebes takes its name from the elongation of the face, and is further characterised by the faint grooving of the incisors, and the thick admixture of spines among the fur. Tlie small blind-mouse (Typh- lom\is)oi China is sufficiently characterised by the minute size of the eyes, which are almost concealed by the long lashes. Except that it has smaller ears, it is otherwise very similar in appearance to a house-mouse. The African pouched rats {Cricetnmys and Saccostonvts) differ from all the other members of tlie sub-family in being provided with cheek pouches, the single West African species of the former having gi'ooved upper incisors, while in the two representatives of the latter these teeth are plain. The last member of the family is a mouse from Sumatra and Java, described as Pithechirus, and presenting a considerable external resemblance to Chiropodomys. The mole-rats constitute a small family confined to the Old "World and characterised by their generally mole-like build, cylindrical bodies, short limbs, furnished with large claws, small or rudimental eyes The Mole-Rats. and ears, usually short or rudimentary tail, large incisors, — Family and rooted molars with re-entering enamel-folds on their Spaladdiv. crowns. Premolars, varying in number, are present in some forms but wanting in others ; the palate is narrow; and the anterior part of the zygomatic arch of the skull lacks the descending vertical plate so characteristic of the Muridce. The great mole-rat (■ , INIyomorpha, and thereby resemljle the under- J^'^^j'^ ^^^^^''H^ mentionetl Hystricomorpha, in that the angle *^^^^i^4w'ic|v;8i'&t«^-''^^^^^^^^ of the lower jaw arises from the side of the ' ^i^ ^^tai^ ^^^^^^^^^ sheath of the incisor. Of these, the great "^^ ■ -^^i^^§r^]>^ snnd-mole (BntlujiTipis maritinnts) of the "^ ' "^ Cape, which attains a length of 10 inches, has ;? -o -r. t> 1 ' . . = . , . . ' i"irj. dS.— Bamboo-Rat grooved upper nicisors, a snigle pair of pre- {Rhizomys badhis). molar teeth in each jaw, no external ears, and extremely powerful cla-\vs. In the allied Gcorychvs and Mijoscalnps the incisors are smooth; the members of the former genus usually have a single pair of jiremi liars, and the single species of the latter three pairs of these teeth in both jaws, while the second toe of the hind-foot is the longest. In both, the first pair of premolars may be absent. The curious little naked sand-rats (Hctewcephalvs), oi which the two species ai'e confined to Somali- land, aro degraded forms, Avith no jiremolars, either two or three pairs of molars, an almost completely bare skin, small eyes, no external ears, a tail of moderate proportions, and a pair of large pads on the powerful fore- feet. These tiny little animals make shallow tunnels in the hot sand of the desert, throwing up at intervals small heaps resembling miniature vol- canic craters. This comjiaratively small family is exclusively confined to North and Central America, where it ranges from the plains of the Saskatchewan, in Canada, southwards to Costa Rica, although attaining its maximum development in the Western United States and The Pocket- Mexico, and being unknown in the region east of the Gophers. — Mississippi, save the Gulf States. The essential characteris- Family tic of these Rodents is the possession of large pouches open- Geomyidci'. ing externally on the cheeks at the sides of the mouth. In addition to three pairs of molars, they have a single pair of 2:)remolar teeth in each jaw ; all the cheek teeth in the more typical forms being rootless, and con- sisting of simple prisms, without any unfolding of the enamel. The pre- molars consist of a double prism, but all the molars, with the exce^jtion of the last pair in the upper jaw of some species, comprise but a single prism, whose summit presents an oval disc of ivory bordeied by a ring of enan)el. "All the members of the family," writes Dr. Merriam, "spend their entire lives underground, and their whole organisation is modified in accordance with the needs of a subterranean existence. The species, though numerous, are very much alike externally They are short-legged, thick-set animals, without any apjireciable neck, without noticeable external ears, and with very small eyes. The feet are largely developed for digging. The fore-paws in particular are very strong, and armed with long curved claws, and the sides of the toes are lined with rows of bristles that evidently serve in pre- venting the dirt from passing between the fingers, thus completing a more fffective arrangement for keeping the tunnels clean, and for pushing the earth out of the openings of the burrows. The tail, which is of moderate length, is thick, fleshy, and usually devoid of hair, and is endowed with tactile sensibility. lo8 MAMMALIA— ORDER V.—RODENTiA, " The pocket-cfophers in working their way through the earth in the construction of their tunnels, use the jiowcrful upper incisors as a piclc to loosen the ground. At the same time the fore-feet are kept in active opera- tion, both in digging and in i)ressing the earth back under the body, and the hind-feet are also used in moving it still further backivards. "When a suffi- cient quantity has accumulated behind the animal, he immediately turns in the burrow, and by bringing the Avrists together under the chin with the palms of the hands held vertically, forces himself along by the hind-feet, pushing the eartli out in front. When an opening in the tunnel is reached, the earth is discliarged through it, forming a little hillock that resembles in a general way the hills thrown up by moles. In many species there is a naked callosity over the front half of the nose, which must be of great assistance in the construction of the tunnels. When this callosity is largely developed, the nasal bones underneath are highly arched or inflated.'^ The same writer then goes on to o'boeive that he Avag much surprised to see a captive example of one of the species run as rapidly backwards as for- wards. " This method of progression was particularly noticeable when the animal was in his own quarters, where he could follow a runway or an accus- tomed route. Wlien carrying food to one of his store-houses he rarely turned round, but usually ran backwards to the place of deposit, returning for more, and repeating the operation again and again, the to-and-fro movement suggesting a shuttle on its track." The cheek pouches, which are clothed internally with fur, according to the same author, " are used exclusively in carrying food, and not in carting dirt, as often erroneously supposed. They reach back as far as the shoulder, and are so attached that they cannot be completely averted witliout rupture of their connections." Writing of a tame specimen, Dr. IMerriam observes that " the manner of eating was peculiar and interesting, and showed an ability to use the huge fore-feet and claws in a way previously unsuspected. After satisfying the immediate demands of hunger, it was his practice to till one or both cheek pouches. His motions were so SM'ift that it was exceedingly diffi- cult to follow them with sufficient exactness to see just how the operation was pei-formed. If a potato was given him, or a piece too large to go into the pouch, he invariably grasped it between the fore-paws, and proceeded to pry oft' a small piece with the large lower incisors. He would then raise himself slightly on his hind-legs and hold the fragment between his fore- paws while eating, for he usually ate a certain quantity before putting any into the pouches. If small pieces were given him he took them promptly, and passed them quickly into the pouclies. Some pieces were thus disposed of at once ; others were just trimmed by biting off projecting angles. As a rule, one pouch was filled at a time, though not always, and the hand of the same side was used to push the food m. The usual course is as follows : — A piece of potato, root, or other food is seized between the incisor teeth, and immediately transferred to the fore-paws, which are lield in a horizontal position, the tips of the claws curving toward one another. If the food requires reduction in size, the trimming is done while held in this position. The piece is then passed rapidly across the side of the face with a sort of wiping motion Avhich forces it into the open mouth of the pouch. Some- times a single rapid stroke with one hand is sufficient ; at other times both liands are used, particularly if the piece is large. In such cases the long claws of one hand are used to draw down the lower side of tlie opening, MAMMALS THAT GNAPV. log while the food is poked in with tho other. It is obviously impossible for the animal to pass food from the nioutli to the pouches without tho aid of its fore-claws. The most remarkable thintj connected with the use of the pouches is the way they are emptied. The fore-feet are brought back simul- taneously along the sides of the liead until they reach a point opposite the hinder end of the i)ouches ; they are then pressed firmly against the head and carried rapidly forward. In this way the contents of the pouches are promptly dept)situd in front of the animal. Sometimes several strokes are necessary. I am not prepared to say that the animal cannot empty the pouches by means of the delicate investing muscles ; but I have never seen them cm])tied in any other way than that here described." According to American writers, the typical members of the family may be divided into no less than nine genera ; but by English zoologists they have hitherto been included in only two. Of these, Gcuinijs, as ty pitied by the common pocket-gopher {G. burmd-ius), is charac- terised by having either one or two grooves on the upper incisors. In the typical species there are two of these grooves, and the same is the case with another form which has been separated as ZygcHicomiis ; the latter being peculiar in that the jugal, or cheekbone, does not enter into the formation of the iipper j-.v. 59.-Pocket-Gopheb border of the zygomatic arch, in all the (Geomysbursarius). other forms, which have received the names of Pappogeomiis, Ovthotjeomys, Cratogeomys, Platygeomys, Seterogeomys, and iV/((cTo;/eom|/6', there is but a single groove on each incisor; the groups being distinguished by the conformation of the skull, and the extent to which the cheek teeth are covered with enamel. From the above the species of Tliuinomys are distinguished by the upper incisors being either perfectly smooth, or marked only by a single fine streak on the inner side. The kangaroo-rats {Dipodomys), together with the two following genera, ar6 referred by American writers to a different family, and are distinguished by their narrow incisors, moderate or large ears and eyes, and the elongated hind-limbs and tail. In the kangaroo-rats the molar teeth are rootless ; the typical forms having four toes, whereas others, which it has been proposed to separate as Pewdijius, possess five. These small Rodents iidiabit open sandy districts, and have habits very similar to those of jerboas. From the foi-egoing, the genera Pewgnathns and Heteronnis differ by their rooted molars ; the latter being distinguished by the admixture of flattened spines in the fur, and having species ranging into South America. All the forms are small and mouse-like ; the common D. plullipsi being from South Mexico. The jerboas and their allies form a small, widely-distributed family, by no means easy of definitiun. Usually there is a pair of upper premolars, the incisors are narrow, the molars are divided by transverse folds of enamel into lamina?, the vacuity in the skull below Jerboa Tribe, the anterior root of the zygomatic arch is large and rounded, — Family and the hinder part of the auditory bulla is very large. The Dipodidce. rat-like Rodents of the genus Sminthiis, which range over Eastern and Northern Europe, Central Asia, Kashmir, and Kansu, differ no MA MM A LI A— ORDER V.—R ODENTIA . Fig, CO. — A Jerboa (,Di2)us). from the other members of the family in the equality of the length of the fore and hind-limbs ; the upper jaw having a single pair of premolars, while there are none in the lower. The North American jumping-mice (Zajms) are distinguished by the elongation of the hind-limbs, and the presence of a pair of premolars in both jaws ; the hind-feet being furnished with five toes, and the metatarsal bones separate from one another. The common species ranges from Hudson Bay to Colorado. Agreeing with the last in their elongated hind-limbs, the next four genera differ in having only three functional hind-toes, and by the union of the metatarsal bones of the hind-foot. Of these four genera Diptis has only three hind-toes, while Encho- retes, Alactdga, and PUdycercomys have five, of which the first and fifth do not touch the ground. The first three of these have a long, cylindrical and tufted tail ; Dipus being distinguished from the other two by its grooved incisors, and the frequent absence of premolars. Euchoretes is represented only by the Yarkand jerboa, characterised by its elongated muzzle and large ears ; while Platyce)xomys, of which there are several species, ranging from Siberia to Nubia, difiers by its flattened and lancet-shaiicd tail; and the invariable absence of premolars, the incisors being smooth. The true jerb(ms (Dipus), of which there are several species, extend from Algeria through Egypt and North Arabia to Eastern Persia and Central Asia. Ahtctnga is best known by the Kirghiz jerboa {A. dccumana) of the Kirghiz steppes. All the jerboas are essentially desert-haunting animals, living in the open, and progressing by long leaps. The last and largest member of the family is the so-called Cape jum^nng-hare (Pedetes caffer), ranging from the Cape to Angola and Mozaui- bique, and differing from all the other genera in having rootless molars. The hind-limbs are elongated, the metatarsal bones separate, and the hind-feet furnished with four toes ; while the ears are long and narrow, and the very long tail is clothed with elongated hair. With the exception of the liares and picas, Avhich form a group by themselves, the whole of the remaining members of the order are in- cluded in a section known as the Hystrico- morpha, which embraces six families. As a whole, this section is charac- terised by the stoutness of the zygomatic arch of the skull, in which the jugal bone forms the whole of the central portion without any support from a prt)cess of the maxilla, while the anglj of the l(jwer jaw arises from the outer side of the bony sheath of the socket of the incisor. The collar-bones may be either complete or imperfect ; in the lower part of the hind-leg the fibula is distinct from the tibia ; and there is almost always a single pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. The members of this section are particularly characteristic of Centi-al and South ATuerica 2^ Fio- 01. — Cape Jumping- Hare (Pcdetcs eager). Octodont Tribe. — Family Odo- dontidiv. MAMMALS THAT CNA IV, iil (including the West Indies), the wh^le of the six families being represented there, while four are conhned to these countries, and one is met with else- where only in Africa. By far the largest of these families is that of the Ododontidce, which has some representatives in Africa, although the majority of the forms are con- fined to South and Central America and the West Indies. All have complete collar-bones ; the vacuities in the front of the bony palate of the skull are greatly elongated ; tlie crowns of the molar teeth are marked by infoldings of enamel on both sides ; there are generally five toes to each foot ; and the teats are placed liigh up on the sides of the body. In form, these Rodents are usually more or less rat-like, and most are terrestrial in their habits. The first group of the family is African, and is represented by two genera, both easily distinguished by having tlie two iinier toes of the hind-foot fur- nished witli a horny comb and bristles for the purpose of cleansing the fur. Each genus has but a single species. The gundi, (Jtoiodadylns, is an inhabi- tant of North Africa, near Tripoli, and is peculiar among the family in having no premolars, the tail being reduced to a stump ; whereas in Pectiiiatur, of Somaliland, premolars are present, and the tail is moderately long and busliy. Both are about the size of a water-vole. The seccmd group comjirises six genera, five of which are South American, and the other African. They have partially rooted or rootless molars, with simple enamel-folds and soft fur. The typical form is the degu (Ociodon) of Chili and Peru, which is a rat-like animal, with a ratlier lung brush-tipped tail, medium-sized ears, and the upper and lower molars alike. Other species of the same genus inhabit Bolivia, which is also the home of the two species of Hahrocuma, characterised by the lower molars being more complex than the upper, the large ears, and the extreme softness of the fur. Nearly related are the burrowing tuco-tucos {Ctcnomys) of South America, deriving their popular name from the bell-like cry uttered underground. They have broad incisors, kidney-shaped crowns to the rootless molars, small eyes, moderate ears, long claws, and bristles on the hind-feet. The one species of the genus Acoiuemys, from the Southern Andes, differs from the last by its larger ears and shorter claws, and is further characterised by the enamel- folds of the upper molars meeting in the middle. From Ctenumys, the two Chilian species of Spalacopus differ by their rudi- mental ears ; they are noticeable on account of their laying up a winter store of food. The very similar African genus Petromys'^ niay be distinguished from the last by its harsher fur, the shortness of the first toe of the fore- foot, and more thickly-haired tail. The coypu, or nutria {M ijopotamus), of South America, which is the only member of its genus, is the typical representative of the last sub-family, which has one African and ten American genera. In this group the molars, which may be rootless or partially rooted, have deep and curved folds of enamel, more or less harsh fur, which may be mingled with spines, and the tail generally long. As a genus, the coypu, which attains a length of about two feet, has very large red incisors, two inner and two outer enamel-folds in the upper molars, and three inner and one outer in the lower ones, moderate-sized ears, a rather long, scaly, and sparsely haired tail, and webbed hind-feet. Mr. Aplin writes that in Uruguay " it inhabits the larger permanent lagunas. I have heard it stated that if a laguna is inhabited by 1 Some writers place this jjenus in the first sub-famil.v. 112 MAMMALIA— ORDER V.—RODENTIA. Fig. Q2.—C0YPTJ (Myopotanivs coypu). nutrias it is a sign that it never dries up in a drought. But during the drought which prevailed duiing the time I was in the country, some places inhabited by nutrias did dry up, but it was probably many years since they had done so previously. In the steep banks of the lagunas the nutrias make drives, the mouths of the tunnels being half in and half out of the water when it is at its normal height. The nutria is not a very shy animal. Some of them inhabited a little water-course by the side of which the sheep-dipping place was situated ; they were probably attracted by the head of water kejpt up by a small dam. The nutria swims with hardly a i-ipple, and disappears noiselessly in the dive at the water-line. Tlie body is dull brown, muzzle greyish, and there is a little warm brown on the side of the head. It swims with the nose, the top of the head, and a narrow line of the back out of water, all on a dead level, or almost so ; the nostrils being very high up in the line of the skull, they are kept out of the water without the nose being poked up towards the sky. A half-grown one brought to me alive ate green maize readily." In the West Indies the family is represented by the large arboreal Rodents known as hutias, most of which are included in the genus Capromys, although, on account of the more complex structure of its molars, one species from Hayti and Jamaica is separated as Flaglodon. They may be compared to gigantic I'ats, one of them measuring 22 inches to the root of the tail. Their incisors are narrower than those of the coypu, the first genus having one inner and two outer folds of enamel in the upper molars. From both the above the two species of cane-rat (Trlaulacodus)''- from Southern Africa are at once distinguished by the presence of three deep grooves in each of the upper incisors. The small American forms consti- tuting the genera Echinomys and Loncheres are sufficiently characterised by generally having flat, lance-shaped spines intermingled with the fur ; most of the species being inhabitants of Brazil and Guiana, although one of the second genus is found in Central America. The South American Mesomys diff"er3 from Lvnchcres in having a short, curved claw on the first toe of the fore-foot, as well as in the absence of spines. The single and rare species of the Brazilian genus Dactylumys is characterised by its short ears, long scaly tail, the rudimental first toe of the fore-foot, the very long third and fourth toes of the same, which are furnished with short, convex nails, the flat incisors, and the division of the molars into two complete lobes, each of which has a single enamel-fold, forming a fork-shaped grinding surface ; as well as by the two series of upper cheek teeth converging so much as to meet in front. A smaller Brazilian form known as Canna- bateomys diff"ers by the union of the two lobes of the molars by means of a bridge of enamel, and the slight convergence of the teeth. Another South J To replace the preoccupied name Aidacodns. Fiest to the farmer, not only on account of the large area covered by their burrows, but likewise by the enormous quantity of fodder consumed MA MMALS THA T GNA IV. 1 1 5 by tho animals themselves, wliich in former days absolutely swarmed on the pampas. Conseiiuently for years tho estancieros have waged incessant war against these Kcxlents, with tho result tiiat in the parts of Argentina which have been longest under cultivation one may ride for miles without coming across a warren. The two genera of this South and Central American and West Indian family include a small number of relatively large, terrestrial Rodents, characterised by tho fore and hind-limbs being of nearly equal length, and having their toes furnislied with hoof-like claws, by the Agutis and short or rudimental tail, the very imperfect collar-bones, the Pacas. — Family broad palate, long incisors, and the partially rooted molars, Dcmjproctida-. in which the foldings of enamel form notches on tho two sides of the crcjwns. The agutis {Dcmjproda) are rather delicately built animals, with h)ng limbs and three hind-toes, ranging from the confines of Mexico to Paraguay, and represented by a single outlying species in tho West Indies. On the other hand, the pacas (Gidogeniis), which are found from Ecua- dor to Brazil and Paraguay, are larger and more heavily-built animals, with iive toes to the hind-feet, and further char- acterised by the longitudinal rows of light-coloured si)ots on the fui', and the enormous hollow, bony capsules formed by the expanded bones of the cheeks. Branick's paca (Dinumyg), of which only Fig. a.—Aovii (Dasijproda). a single specimen from Peru has hitherto been obtained, is distinguished from the Da sy prod idee by the cleft upper-lip, somewhat long and bushy tail, the presence of four toes to each foot, and tho complete collar-bones ; and is accordingly regarded as the representative of a sejiarate family. The next of these South American families is that of the cavies, and includes large or small heavily-built Rodents, with four front and three hind-toes, rudimental or short tails, and the cheek teeth divided by transverse folds of enamel into a number of thin jilates The Cavies. — lying parallel to one another. The typical representatives Family Caviidce. of the family are the true cavies (Vavia), of which the guinea-pig is a domesticated descendant, having assumed a coloration quite different from the uniform olive-brown tintchaiacteristic of its wild ancestors. Quizos, as these animals are called in the Argentine, may be found not only among aquatic plants in marsliy districts, and skulking in the tufts of coarse grass on the pampas, but also in the neighbourhood of human habitations, where they will not unfrequently take up their residence under the floors of outbuildings, Avhence they issue forth to feed at night. All the true cavies are small and short-legged creatures, Avith no tail, and short eais; but the Patagcmiau cavy, representing the genus Dolichutis, is a much larger and taller animal, measuring nearly a yard in length, and standing over a foot at the shoulder, with tall ears and a short tail. An inhabitant of the open dis- tricts of Patagonia and Argentina, the mara, as it is called by the natives, much resembles a hare in its movements. Unfortunately, the spread of cultivation has well-nigh exterminated this handsome Rodent from most parts of the Argentine. Largest, not only among South American Rodents, but ii6 MAMMALIA—ORDER V.—RODENTIA, in the order, is the aquatic carpincho or capivara (Hydrochoerus), figured on p. 89, and attaining a length of four feet. Tlie most remarkable peculiarity of this animal is the large size and complex structure of the last mdlar tooth, •which in the upper jaw may have as many as twelve plates, and is comparable in structure to the corresponding tooth of the Indian elephant. The carpincho is an inliabitant of tlie more tropical districts, not extending southwards of Uruguay. Writing of the habits of the carpincho, Mr. Aplin observes that " a favourite locality is a broad laguna in the river, furnished with open water, and also beds of 'camelotes,' — a sloping, open, grassy bank on one side, where the carpinchos can lie in the daytime in the cooler weather, sleeping and basking in the sunshine ; on the other a low, shelving bank, clothed with 'sarandi' scrub growing out into the black, reeking mud and shallow water beyond. The stems of the sarandi in the festering mud have a gloomy appearance, sometimes brightened in spring by the large, pink flower of a convolvulus climbing up the stems. In one or two places of this description, I could almost always make sure of seeing some carpinchos — sometimes a herd of a dozen or fifteen together, for they are sociable. You might meet with them at any part of the rivers where there Avas jilenty of water, or in the munte on the banks, and I have put one up in thick di-y grass fifty yards or more from a river. At niglit they are said to wander for some distance to visit maize- fields. "When alarmed, they snort violently, and rush impetuously into the river with a great splash and noise. It is said that a frightened carjiincho making for the river will not turn out of its way for anything, and that if you are between them and the river they will knock you over. The paces of the carpincho are a walk and a hurried gallop, reminding one of that of a pig, but most likely differing little in character from that of a guinea-pig, which ilie carpincho resembles in shape and make. Probably their habit of rushing impetuously into the rivers is the reason why some horses are so frightened at these animals ; the horses may have been scared when they went down to drink, or j^erhaps even charged by two or three lumbering brutes. Some- times carpinchos are much more tame than at others. If they are on the opposite side of a small river, they often take no notice at all ; and I have watched them in the autumn sitting up on their haunches like dogs, sunning themselves, or lying asleep on their bellies, with their fore-paws stretched (.)ut in front of them, and their heads in some cases laid on their paws, a little on one side. I have also on more than one occasion walked up within half a dozen yards of them. Sometimes when j^ou approacli a little herd of them, they sound their alarm and merely watch you, walking slowly down to the water as you get nearer. At other times they rush impetuously into the water at the first sign of danger. Tliey are said to be nnich wilder on the larger rivers, the Rio Negro for instance, probably because they are less accustomed to seeing any jieople except tluise who hunt them. No doubt the ])rotection they were afforded in the Santa Elena camp contributed largely to their tameness there, but I always noticed they were less taine on the Arroyo Grande than on its tributary the Saiice. When disturbed and rising to their feet, carpinchos get upon tlieir fore-legs first. The hair of the carpincho is scanty, not much more pleiitiful than some pigs' bristles, which it greatly resembles. Their colour varies from dull brown to bright chestnut, and this irresjiective of age, or size, or season either, for I have noticed all colours from spring to late autumn ; smaller animals are, however, generally of the dull brown colour, and vice versa. Their skins tan into splendidly thick, soft leather, which is used for belts, slippers, saddle-covers, etc. Like other MAMMALS THAT GNA IV. - 117 thick-skinned animals, they like to wallow in mud. They work out hollows in the grounti, in which they wallow ; tliese arc known as carpincho- baths. The carpincho does not go to ground, but lives on the banks of the rivers in such cover as it can tind. It is capable of remaining under water and of proceeding for some distance under the surface ; but when a herd lias been disturbed at a laguna, the members probably lie low by putting just their noses above water under the shelter of a bed of camelotes or other water-plants. I am puzzled to say how many young they have at a birth. On the 8th May I saw two females, each with a young one, about 18 inches long, at her side. I have never seen more than one young one with a female, but this I have often seen ; the young one keeps close to its mother's side, and they plunge into the water together. I am aware that the supposition that tlie carpincho has only one young one at a birth is contraiy to what has been written about this animal ; but I merely give my own observations for what they are worth." The two last families of the order, constituting the grouji Lagomorpha, dift'er from the rest in having a small second pair of upper incisors behind the large ones of the upper jaw ; the latter being also peculiar in that the coating of enamel, instead of being con- Picas. — Family tined to the front surface, extends round to the back. La\\ each foot, wo learn that this essential peculiarity of the existing forms is a feature of com- paratively late acquisition. Indeed, evidence of this descent from a three- toed ancestor is afforded by the so-called sjjlint-bones Avhich are foinid in tlie horse, lying on each side of the upper half of each cannon-bone, and corre- spond to tlie metacarpals and inetatarsals of the second and fourth digits of the tyi^ical five-toed foot, the cannon-bone representing the third or middle one. In the case of such well-known animals as the horses, it would bo quite sujiertluous in a work of the ]n-escnt nature to describe them in any detail, and it will accordingly suffice to point out a few of the features which indicate that they form a family by themselves. More important tlian the single digit of the feet is the peculiar structure of the molar and j^remolar teeth, which form tall quadrangular prisms, in which the enamel is thrown into a number of deep foldings and plications, the intervening depressions and flutings being completely tilled with cement. Although the resemblance is at first not very easy to make out, a careful study of the ])attern on the crowns of the upper molar teeth of a horse will show that it is i-eally essen- tially the same as in the rhinoceroses, of which it may be regarded as a specialised moditication. The u])per premolar teeth, Avhich are generally three in number, although occasionally a small anterior one is present, are as complex as the molars, and are peculiar in being larger than the latter ; similar features occurring in the lower jaw. There are thus normally six pairs of cheek teeth in each jaw ; the total number of teeth in the adult male being 40, althougli in the female it may be reduced to 36, as the canines, or tusks, which are always rudimental in that sex, are in some cases altogether wanting. The canines occupy the centre of a long gap between the pre- molars and the incisors ; the three pairs of the latter forming a semi-circle at the extremities of the jaws. The incisors of the horses are peculiar in having the summits of their crowns deeply infolded, like the finger of a glove with the tip pushed in ; and it is according as to how much of this infold, or "mark," remains in the teeth of a horse that its age is approxi- mately determined. The skull of a horse, which is of an exceedingly elon- gated form, differs from that of either a tapir or a rhinoceros in having the socket of the eye completely surrounded by a ring of bone ; and in the limbs the bones known as the ulna in the front pair, and the fibula in the hind, arc incomplete, and respectively united Avith the radius and the tibia. A special feature of the horses is the great elongation of the cannon-bone (metacarpal and metatarsal) in each foot, which gives them their characteristic length and slenderness of limb, and enables the upper parts of both the fore and hind- legs to be enclosed in the skin of the body. It is almost superfluous to observe that the so-called knee of a horse represents the human wrist, and the hock the ankle ; the Avhole of the limbs situated below these joints corre- sponding to the middle iinger or toe of the human hand or foot, with the sup- porting metacarpal or metatarsal bone. The toe of each foot is enveloped in a solid hoof, which is broader in the front than in the hind-limb ; and the inner sides of the fore-limb always has a naked Avart-like callosity above the .■\vrist- joint, whihi there may be a similar pair of callosities on the hind-limb. 128 MAMMALIA— ORDER VI,—UNGULATA, The ears are elongated ; the long and tapering tail may be either long-haired througliout its length, or only at the tip ; and the neck is ornamented with an upright or flowing mane. Horses are now restricted to the Old World, although they formerly existed both in the northern and southern halves of the New World. The common or true horse {Equus cahallus) is now best known in a domes* ticated or half-wild condition, although it is probable that the wild horses, or tarpans, of the Russian steppes, are the direct descendants of the original primitive stock, and have never been domesticated. From the other species of the genus the horse is distinguished by the tail being covered with abun- dant long hair from root to tip, by the presence of a warty callosity on each hind-leg, just below the inner side of the ankle-joint, the longer and pendant mane, shorter ears, more elongated limbs, smaller head, and wider hoofs. Some doubt exists whether the horse from Central Asia described as E. prezevalskii is a valid species ; but if it be, it appears to be intermediate between tlie horse and the asses, having callosities on both limbs, an erect mane, no forelock, small ears, and the upper part of the tail short-haired. The zebras of Africa south of the Sahara form a group closely allied to the asses, but distinguished by their more or less completely striped colora- tion. Of these the true, or moun- tain zebra {^E. zebra) formerly in- habited the mountains of the Cape Colony in large herds, but is now greatly reduced in numbers. It is a rather small species, standing about four feet at the withers, with rather long ears, the lower part of the tail somewhat thinly clothed with long hairs, and a short mane ; the ground colour being white, with broad, black, transverse stripes, ex- tending over the whole skin, except that of the under-parts and the inner surface of the thighs, and the lower f;;/. 70.-Bi;kchells Zebra r&iiii(s!>i(rc;i.v?ij. part of the face chestnut brown. On the hind-quarters short trans- verse stripes extend from the longitudinal one running down the spine towards or to the oblique ones of the haunches. Grevy's zebra {E. grevyi), of the Galla country, differs by the much narrower and more numerous stripes, especially those of the head, the spine-stripe being disconnected from the others. More distinct is the larger Burchell's zebra {E. hurchelU), from the open plains to the north of the Orange River, characterised by the pale yellowish-brown ground-colour of the haii", and the broad brown or black stripes ; a dark stripe, to which the lateral stripes may be united, traversing the middle line of the under-surface of the body, and the spinal stripe being isolated from the uppermost liaunch-stripe parallel to it. Very generally faint stripes occupy the middle of the broad intervals between the dark stripes of the haunches ; and the limbs and tail may be either fully or partially striped, or uniform. Upon such variations several nominal species have been established, but it appears preferable to look upon all these in the light of mere varieties of a single variable species. Many attempts have been made, with more or less marked success, to break this zebra to harjaess. THE HOOFED .^fAMMALS. 129 According to a newspaper report, recent experiments in the Transvaal have been "successful, in so far as the training is concerned, but the trials with these animals have wofully disappointed those who fancied they might be advan- tageously utilised for draught purposes. Most peoi:il0 in South Africa, in districts where zebras abound, lia\ e hitherto regarded these animals as im- pervious to that human control that would be necessary to render them reliable between the shafts or in traces, and it is only lately that efforts have been directed towards their domestication. Teams of them, compris- ing ten or more, have been broken in and 'inspanned ' to coaches and other vehicles, by way of testing their amenability to the bit and the whip, and their behaviour in harness has been in some respects most satisfactory and promising, though their peculiarities sometimes rather out-mule the mule, their shyness being particularly pronounced, and their disinclination to start gently another characteristic, resulting often in jumps out of harness, or other antics, such as those practised by a jibbing or highly-nervous horse. These faults, howevei", cure themselves in time, simply by the punitive lessons they teach the zebras ; but the stamina of the animals is not of a nature to stand the strain of either the lessons so acquired, or the burden of the draught for any length of time, and looking at the conformation of the zebra one is hardly surprised. Resembling the mule in many points, he yet lacks that essential inhei'ited by the latter from both his progenitors — tough- ness of bone and muscle, prescribed by generations of usage as a beast of burden. It is admitted by all who have seen zebras in harness that, from a spectacular point of view, tliey ai'e worth the trouble spent upoii their train- ing, and as mounts fcjr children they are certainly more respectable-looking and dignified than the donkey, and in chaises, too, they would probably be found equal to very light work. As draught animals, in the ordinary sense of the term, however, they are not successes. Whether a breed could be manufactured from the zebra, in the same way as the mule has been, an^l whether with similar success, are questions that an intermingling of blood at the present time might satisfactorily answer in the future." The fourtli species is the quagga \E. qnaggn) of South Africa, which forms a connecting link between the others and the asses, having the head, neck, shoulders, and the middle of the body striped, but the hind-quarters, tail, and limbs uniformly coloured. This animal always had a very restricted dis- tribution, and is now nearly, if not quite, exterminated. The leading characters by which the uniformly-coloured asses differ from the horse have been already pointed out. The Asiatic wild ass {E. Jicmioiuis) is a variable species, of an isabelline rufous tint, with a dark, longitudinal stripe down the spine, but none across the withers, and comparatively small ears. Its three leading varieties are the Syrian wild ass, the onager of Persia, Baluchistan, the Punjab, Sind, and Kach, and tlie kiang of Mongolia and the Tibetan highlands, which is the largest and most horselike of the throe. All these wild asses inhabit more or less completely desert districts, and are exceedingly fleet of foot, passing over the roughest ground at a gallop. The African wild ass (E. aiinvts), from Abyssinia, Nubia, and Somalibind, differs from the preceding by its greyer coloration, much longer ears, and the general presence of a dark stripe across the withers. It is evidently the ancestor of the domestic breed, but its speed and endurance must not be judged by those of the latter. The late Sir Samuel Baker wrote that "those who have seen donkeys only in their civilised state can have no conception of the beauty of the wild or original animal. It is the perfection of activity and courage. It I MAMMALIA— ORDER VI. — UNGULA TA. has a high-breu tone in his deportment, a high-actioned step Avhen it trots freely over the rocks and sand, with the speed of a horse when it gallops over the boundless desert. The specimens now in the Zoological Gardens will enable any one to perceive the character of the animal as it was before being altered by generations of captivity.'' The bray of the Abyssinian is identical with that of our common ass, and Darwin notes the marked aversion to walking across a brof)k, Avhich characterises the domestic donkey, as indicating its derivation from a desert-haunting animal ; as also does its pleasure in rolling in the dust. The Somali ass ditfers from the ordinary African form ia its more greyish colour, the absence of the cross-stripe over tlie shoulders, the very slight indication of the spinal stripe, and more especially in the numerous black markings on both front and hind-legs. It lias, like- wise, smaller ears and a longer mane. It may be a matter of doubt whether tliese differences are of specific value, but they probably only indicate a variety. Of this form Mr. Lort Phillips writes that "on March 22, 1884, Avhen about 20 miles to the west of Berbera, we fell in with a small herd of Avild asses. After a long and tedious stalk I succeeded in bagging one, which turned out to be of quite a new species to me, having no mark whatever on the body, which was of a beautiful French grey colour. On its legs, however, it had black stripes running diagonally. I liave, unfortunately, lost the book in which I put its measurements, but it was a su^ierb creature, and stotxl quite 14 hands at the shoulder ; our Berbera hoi'ses looked quite small in comparison." The two species of hippopotamus, both of which are now confined to Africa, and may be referred to the genus Hipjmjyotamits, bring us to the fourth and last sub-ordinal division of the Hoofed Mammals, which far The Hippopot- outnumbers the whole of the other three put together, both ami. — Family as regards families, genera, and species. From the fact that Hippopotamidoi the two toes corresponding to the third and fourth digits of the human hand and foot are of equal size, and synnuetrical to a vertical line drawn between them, this group has been a])pro[)riately named the Artiodactyla, or Even-toed Ungulates. Whereas, however, in some species, such as the girafte, only these two digits are present ; in others, like the hippopotami, there are four functional digits ; while in yet others, as the oxen, the middle pair alone are functional, and the lateral ones much reduced in size, and of no functional importance. In the peccaries the hind- foot is unique among the sub-oi'der in having only three toes. Although the structure of the feet forms the prime distinction between the Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla, there are many other points of difference between the two groups, a few of which may be mentioned. As regards the teeth, the premolars of the Artiodactyla are almost invariablj' of simpler structure than the molars ; while the last lower molar is nearly always composed of three transverse lobes, whereas in all tlie living representatives of the Perissodactyla it is two-lobed. Tlie femur or thigh-bone of the latter grouj) is always ])rovided with a large pi'ojecting process in the upper half of the shaft known as the third trochanter, which is invariably absent in th«^ one under consideration. Again, in the ankle-joint the huckle-bone, or astralagus, of the Artiodactyla has its lower articular surface divided into two nearly equal facets, wliereas in the Perissodactyla such surface is single. There are many other minor points of difference, but those given are amply sufficient to distinguish between the two sub-orders. The hippopotami are the most primitive and least specialised of the existing THE HOOFED MAMMALS. I">I /"(■y.Tl.— Common Hi ppopota.ucs iJi\pi)Oi^iAa irt-its iimx)h ibi us). lueuibers uf the Artiodactyhi, and are characterised as a family by the follow- ing features. Having a very bulky, clumsily-built body, and short limbs, these animals possess a very broad and obtuse muzzle ; the feet are short and broad, each having four toes of nearly equal size, invested in rounded hoofs, and all applied to the gr(;und in walking ; the incisor teeth, which grow throughout life, are curved downwards in the upper jaw, and project straight forwards in the lower ; and the canines, which also gi'ow con- tinuously, are very large and curved, those of the upper jaw being directed downwards. The moliir teeth are tubeiculated, and have four columns, the summits of which show trefoil - shaped surfaces of ivory, bordered by a broad rim of enamel, when worn by use. In the head, the great elongation of the face causes the small eyes and still more minute ears to be situated very far back- wards; the legs are so short that the lower surface of the body is scarcely raised above the ground in the standing posture ; and the round tail is likewise extremely short. The thick skin is almost entirely naked. The common hippopotamus (if. «;h^;/i(6/i«.s) is an animal too well-known, both as regards form and habits, to rerpiire any detailed description ; its most distinctive feature being the possession of two pairs of incisor teeth in each jaw. On the West Coast of Africa there exists, however, in Liberia, a second species of the genus, known as the pigmy hippopotamus (//. Uberu'itsis), differing not only in size, but likewise in habits, from the one Avith which all are familiar. In place of attaining a total length of about 11 feet, mea- sured in a straight line, and weighing probably some three or four tons, the pigmy hippopotamus is not larger than a good-sized wild boar, although it has the short and stout limbs of its gigantic cousin, with which it also agrees to a certain extent in the relatively large size of its head. As regards its mode of life, this species ditiers, how- ever, ill, toto from the common one. Instead of jiassing at least as much of its time in the water as on the land, and never living away from livers or lakes, the pigmy hippopotamus is an inhabitant of the dense tropical forests of that ])art of Western Africa which is its home, where it ajiparently leads a life very similar tf) that of wild pigs, wallowing in swamps after the manner of those animals, but apparently not habitually frequenting rivers, though it is doubt- less, like almost all Mannnals, able to swim well when the necessity arises. Moreover, in place of associating in large herds after the manner of the common species, and never moving far from one particular locality, the Liberian hippopotamus is a comparatively solitary creature, going about at most only in pairs, and wandering long distances through the woods. It differs essentially from the common species in usually having only a single I)air of lower incisors, on which account it has been generically separated by some under the name of C/tttro^'wis. Specimens are, however, occasionally 132 MAMMALIA— ORDER VI.—UNGULATA. met with having two pairs of these teeth on one side of the jaw. If fossil species be taken into consideration, other variations will be found in the number of these teeth ; but before proceeding farther, it is necessary to remark that, since in ordinary Mammals the typical or full complement of incisor teetli consists of three pairs, it is natural to suppose that one pair has been lost in the common species. That such is the case is demonstrated by the extinct Siwalik hippopotamus (//. simlmsis) of the Himalaya, in which, between the two large tusks, there are three pairs of incisors, differing from those of the common species in being all of nearly equal size ; and if we were to examine the upper jaw, we should find the same number of teeth. In the presence of these three pairs of incisors the Siwalik hippopotamus resembles the pig, from which it departs less widely than does the common species, in that these teeth are relatively smaller, and also of nearly e([ual size. The Siwalik hippopotamus must accordingly be regarded as a less specialised species than either of its living cousins ; and since, together v/ith an allied species from Burma (H. iravatieus), it is the oldest representative of the genus, its generalised features are precisely what evolutionary considerations would have led us to expect. There is, however, yet another ]X)int in con- nection with these teeth demanding notice. From the evidence of the common species, it is impossible to determine which of the three pairs of lower incisors found in the Siwalik hippopotamus have dissappeared in the former ; but in the gravels of the Narbada Valley in Central India, tliere are found two extinct members of the genus, II. n<(nuidici(s and H. pitla indlcvs, in the former of which the lower incisors are similar in size and number to those of the Siwalik species ; but in the latter, Avhile the inner and outer pairs are very large, there occurs on each side between them a minute and rudimentary tooth, sciueezed out from the general line to tlie upper margin of the jaw, and evidently about to disappear altogether. There is thus evi- dence that the missing pair of lower incisor teeth in the conuiion hippopota- mus is the second ; and a complete transition can be traced, as regards the number of these teeth, from the Siwalik species through tlie conniion one to the Liberian hippopotamus. While it is quite possible that the African hip- popotamus may have been derived from the Siwalik species, it is clear that the pigmy hipijopotamus is not the descendant of its giant existing cousin. Witli regard to the geographical distribution of tlie genus, while there is no evidence that the pigmy species ever ranged beyond its ]n-esent habitat of Liberia, the case is very different with regard to the range of the common species. At the present day this animal is found from the Cape Colony northwards to the cataracts of the Nile, and it extends westwards to Senegal; but while for several centuries it lias been very seldom met with on the Nile below the entrance of the Atbara and Blue Nile, there is abundant evi- dence that in tlie time of the Pharaohs it was common in Egypt, where in the temple of Edfu, as well as several other buildings, there are frescoes re- presenting the mode in which it was hunted and speared. That the hippo- potamus is the animal indicated in the book of Job under the name of behemoth is undoubted, but there is no evidence that the Jews v/ere acquainted with it otherwise than during their sojourn in Egypt. It is true it has been suggested that its range may have extended eastwards as far as Palestine, but this is conjecture, and, had the creature ever lived there, some of its remains should have been found. In the superficial deposits of Southern and Centi-al Europe there occur, however, numerous remains of a hippo- potamus which cannot be specifically distinguished from the existing African THE HOOFED MAMMALS. ijj form, although it was generally of rather larger size. Tliis difference in size was once thouglit to indicate that tlie fossil form was a distinct species, but the discovery of a half-fossilised jaw in the alluvimn of tlie Nile near Kalabshi, in Nubia, showed that in fcn-mer times the African hijjpopotamus attained dimensions as largo as the European form. In England the hippo- l>otamus ranged afc least as far north as Leeds, and it is a remarkable circumstance that in many places its remains have been found in ass(jciation with those of the reindeer. In Algeria, where the genus is now unrepre- .sented, a small species (//. ]iippoiie)is'n<) flourished during the Pleistocene ]>eriod ; this being distinguished by having three pairs of lower incisor teeth, wliich diti'ered from those of other members of the genus in having their enamel smooth and their extremities somewhat expanded, thus approximat- ing to the corresponding teeth of the pigs. Equally noteworthy is the occurrence of another species (H. lemcdei) in Madagascai', Avhere its remains are common in the great marsh of Ambulisatra. Somewhat intermediate between the common and the Siwalik species, this rather small hippopotamus had sometimes three and sometimes two pairs of incisors in the lower jaw. One or two small species, which may have been partially terrestrial in tlieir habits, dwelt in Italy, Malta, and some of the other Mediterranean islands in past times. From the hippopotami the members of the great pig tribe, all of which are contined to the Old World, are at once distinguished, not only by their lighter build and longer limbs, but likewise by the peculiar form (^f the snout, which always terminates in an oval, fleshy The Pig Tribe. disc, in which are perforated the nostrils. The feet, al- ■ — Family Siti(/- rha'rns. The bush-pigs have long, pencilled ears, and tend to lose the anterior premolar teeth in both jaws, while their molars arc of simpler structure than those of the other members of the genus. Of the two African species, /Sf. africanus, ranging from South to Central Africa, has grey hair, whereas in the West African ^\ poirxs the colour is red, and the l)encilled ears are of great length. The other two genera of swine dillerfrom the foregoing in having uniformly coloured young, bcith being remarkable for the extraordinary develojunent of the tusks of the males. This feature attains its maximum in the babirusa (I'>i(J)ivu!per edge of tlie extremity of the .snout overhanging the lower. Ijv far the most hideous and repulsive-looking members of the family are the two African species of wart-hogs {Fliacochar- tis), characterised l5y large conical warty growths projecting from the sides of the face. The whole head is much flattened and expanded, and the muzzle very broad. The huge tusks, which are nearly as large in the sows as in the bo.ars, curve upwards, outwards, and forwards ; tl;e upper ones, which are tipped with enamel only at the apex, being of great thick- nes.s, and abraded on their convex surfaces by the more slender lower jiair. Ill the adult there is but a single pair of U]>iier incisor teeth, Fig. 73. — WaktHoo (Pluicwlaifiu^ iv(ltiopu-ii.'i). THE HOOFED ^fA^LMALS. 135 J — ^ . — — , . although, as in all the pigs, the normal three pairs of these teeth are retained in the lower jaw. The premolars are reduced to three pairs in the upper, and two iu the lower jaw ; bub in aged animals not only- all these teeth, bub likewise the lir.sb two pairs of molars, are generally shed, so that there is only the last pair of molars left in each jaw behind tlie tusks. Tliese last molars are of great size and very peculiar structure, being composed of a number of narrow cylindrical cme, Major Cumberland writes as follows : — "The habitat of the Avild camel is the Gobi steppe from Except when snow lies on the ground, these animals may be met with her'e and there along the old bed of the Yarkand and Tarim Rivers, whicli they frequent for the pools of brackish water that are to be found here and there. But as soon as the snow falls they move otf into the desert, as if then independent of the water-supply. They pre- fer the snow, I imagine, as being less salt than the water, although it also is impregnated to a certain extent soon after it falls. The camel is very shy in its habits, and, so far as I could ascertain, has never been caught or domesticated. The natives told me that no horse in the country could catch the camels in the deep sand of the region they frequent. They appear to me to be distinct from the Bactiian camel ; they are less stunqiy in build, the hair is finer, closer, and shorter. They vary in colour, like the domestic species, from dark brown to lightish dun. Their origin has yet to be traced, I take it that they have sprung Khotan to Lob-Nor. Fig. 75.— The Bactrian- Ca^mei.. 1^ MAMMALIA— ORDER VL—UNGULATA. from camels -when the district known as Takla Makan was buried in a great sandstorm some centuries a^M. Tradition relates tliat no human beings survived, but it ia likely enough that some of the camels and horses did so, and that this was tlie origin of the wild camels and ponies that are found in this district." Camels have been successfully introduced into North America ; and for some years, according to a vrriter in T]\& Asian newsjiaper, have been largely employed as a means of transport in South Australia and Queensland, while recently the Swan River colonists have followed the example thero set them; a large number of superior Rajputana camels, which had been marched down from Bikanir to Calcutta, having been shipped to Western Australia to be used in carrying su])plies from Perth to the newly discovered gold fields at Coolgardie. The utility of the camel being thorougldy recognised in the Antipodes, the fact that an agitation against the animal is being raised in Queensland is rather a surprise. " Such, however, is the case, as a petition was recently presented by the residents of the Charleville district to the Governor of Queensland, praying that something should be done to prevent the inti'oduction of camels into the colony. In it the petitioners pointed out the urgent need that some constitutional means should be adopted to prevent an imminent and dangerous invasion of Western Queensland by camels, as their employment would tend to deprive tlie present carriers of their means of livelihood. It was stated that the rates of carriage were low, the teams plentiful, and that the carriers were willing to travel on all roads, Avhile the low standard of living among the camel-drivers must result in loss of trade to the district. It was further said that many of the Western carriei's were settlers on the land, and the colony would suffer if such a class of men were forced to emigrate; that the value of the Western lands would be depreciated, and the welfare of the community injuriously affected. In reply the Premier, to whom the petition was forwarded by the Governor, expressed the opinion that the agitation against the camels was rather hasty, Tlic cause of their presence in the colony was the drought in the South- western districts. It was impossible for teams to travel at all times, and as the Warrego Rabbit Board could not get tlieir netting brought by the ordi- nary methods, an officer was sent to South Australia, ami the required quantity of netting carried to its destination by camels. Then a squatter in the district, whose wool could not be taken away by the carriers in con- sequence of the want of water on the route to be travelled, had had it for- warded by the camels to Charleville. The forty camels carried altogether eiglity bales of wool— two bales to each animal — or just about the quantity that is sometimes taken by one team of bullocks." Although the name llama properly belongs only to the domesticated forms, it is commonly applied to all the South American representatives of the family, which differ from the camels by their greatly inferior size and lighter build, the want of any hump, the longer and more pointed ears, the short and bushy tail, the narrower feet, with more distinctly separated toes, and the long and woolly hair. They have two teeth less than the camels, owing to the upper premolars in the adult being reduced from three to two pairs. Of the two wild species, the vicuna (Lama vicuna) is the smaller and more lightly-buiit animal of the two, and is restricted to the high Andes of Peru, Ecuador, and part of Bolovia, where it associates in large herds in th3 coldest and most inhospitable districts. On the other hand, the guanaco (L. (j\(anaciis) ranges from the Peruvian Andes through the o\)Qn pampas of Argentina to Pata- THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 13'J GuANACO (Lama guanacn ). gonia and Tierra del Fuego ; although it has now been exterminated from most parts of the i'iamj)as. In size it may bo compared to a red-duor ; and its fur is of beautiful, liglit fawn-brown colour. The llama and alpaca are domesticated varieties of the guanaco, kept by the inhabitants of the Peruvian highlands; the former and larger of the two being employed as a beast of burden, while the latter is bred for the suke of its valuable wool. All tliese animals have a peculiar cry, with some resemblance to the neigh of a horse ; and in the domesticated state they are disagreeable associates, on ac- count of their unijleasant habit of spitting, apparently as a means of defence. Extinct members of the family are common in the Tertiary rocks of Xorth America, while fossil camels occur in Northern India ; and it is by these lost types that we are enabled to accouut for the present anomalous gccgrapliical dis- tribution of the grouji, which is evidently of northern origin. Among the smallest of all Ungulates are th^ graceful little Oriental animals commonly known as chevrotains, or mouse-deer, which in coloration, form, and habits, more nearly resemble the Rodent agutis than ordinary Hoofed Mammals. Together with a nearly allied African genus, these animals constitute a third section of the selenodonb Artiodactylcs, known as the Tragulina. From the camel tribe they differ in the total absence of incisor teeth in tlie upper jaw, and also by the circumstance tliatin the lower jaw the canines are approximated to the incisors, which they resemble ia form, as well as in the structure of the feet. From the true Ruminants they n;ay be distinguished by the stomach having only three in place of four dis- tinct compartments, an well as by the fibula, or outer and smaller bone of the lower half of the hind-leg, being coniplete and cjuite distinct from the larger bone, or tibia. Another point C'f distinction is to be found in the form of the so-called odontoid process jn-ojecting from the lower part of the front surfaces of the second vertebra of the neck, which in the present group is conical, whereas it is spout-like in the true Ruminants. A resemblance to the latter grouj^, and at the same time a distinction from the camel tribe, is to be found in that the two bones of the ankle-joint, respectively known as the cuboid and the navicular, are welded together to form a single bone. As in the truo Ruminants, the toes are enclosed in solid hoofs ; four complete toes being developed in each foot. The smallest representatives of the family are the truo or Oriental chevrotains {Trarjulus), of v.-hich there are four or five species, ranging from India and Ceylon through the Malayan countries, as far east as the island of Palawan in the Philippine group. They havo a total of 34 teeth, and aro mostly uniform in coloration. Tho somewhat larger West African clievro- tain (Darcatherivin) differs by the shorter and stouter feet, and the separation Tie Ciiovrotaina. — Family Trarjulidoi.. 140 MAMMALIA— ORDER VI. — UNGULATA. of tlie third .iiicl fourth metacarpal bones ; the latter feature distinguisliing it from all other selenodont Artiodactyles, In colour, it is deep brown, with longitudinal white stripes on the tlanks, spots of tlie same on the back, and a white chest and throat. Botli in this animal and the true chevrotains the upper canines of the males fin-m tusks projecting below tlie lip. In appearance they are very like minute deer, liaving moderate-sized ears and a short tail, but the head has no bony or horny ap- pendages. A^ The deer tribe is tlie first of four fiunilies r'lij. 77.— A CuEVROTAiN- (Tmijuh(s). constituting the true lluminants, or Pecoi'a. and including the whole of theremaining mem- bers of the order. They derive their name of Ruminants from their power of chewing the cud — a feature which they possess in common ^\ ith the camel tribe and chevrotains ; and they agree with the latter group in The Deer Tribe, lacking upper incisors, and in having the lower canine aj)- ■ — Family proximated to and resembling the lower incisors as well as Ctrikla: in the union of the cuboid and navicular bones in the ankle- joint, and in the covering of the toes taking the form of hoi'ny hoofs. From the clievrotains they may be distinguished by the stomach being divided into four distinct compartments, by the anterior, or odontoid jn'ocess of the second vertebra of the neck assuming the form of a spout, or half-cylhider, and by the fibula of the hind-leg being reduced to a mere nodule representing the lower extremity of the complete bone, and articu- lated to the tibia. Another point of distinction is that the lateral metacarpnl and metatarsal bones of tlie feet are never complete, but are represented only by tlieir upper or lower ends. Very generally the skull is provided with a pair of laterally placed ai)pendages, whicli may be either unbranched, covered witli horn, and ijermanent, or branched, bony, and deciducHis. When sucli appendages are present, the u]ii)er canines are generally small or wanting ; but when the former are absent, the latter are frequentlj^ large. As a source of food, the true Ruminants are by far the most iinj^ortant of all animals to the human race. Unknown in Australia and New Guinea, thev attain their maximum development in the continents of the Old World pi-oper; iuNorthAmericn, except the (,'(;rri(/(e, they are poorly represented, while in the southern half of the New World the only members of the gr^)up are deer. As a family, the deer tribe are generally distinguished by the heads of the males being ornamented with the branching deciduous appendages properly known as antlers, although often wrongly termed horns ; these when fully developed consisting simply of lifeless bone, and being nearly always shed annually, to be reproduced in a somewhat more comjilex form the following season. Botli sexes usually have well-developed upper canines, which may attain very large dimensions in the males, especially in the few instances where antlers are wanting. The face is ahvnys provided with the so-called larmiers, or tear-pits, below the eyes ; and the underlying region of the skull always has a very large unossified vacuity. As a general rule, both fore and hind-feet carry four toes ; and very often the lower ends of the lateral metacarpal and )uetatarsal bones persist. With the single exception of the musk-deer, the liver is provided with a gall-bladder. It would require too much space to describe the mode in which antlers are THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 141 formed and subsequently shed, but it may be mentioned that the annual formation of such an enormous amount of bone as is contained in the antlers of the wajnti, for instance, is one of the most extraordinary plieuomeua to be met with in the whole animal kini,alom. As regards their distribution, it is remarkable that deer are totally absent from Africa south of the Sahara, as they are from Madagascar. Although the more nortliern deer inhabiting the New World are either generically or specitically identical with Old \^'orld forms, the majority of the American forms, and all those inhabiting South America, are perfectly distinct fi'om those of other regions. The most aberrant members of the family are the well-known musk-deer (JJo»r/(!(6) of Asia, which constitute a sub-family by themselves, and are represented by one sjiecies ( Ji. mosclii- ferus) ranging from the Himalaya and Cochin-China to Siberia, and by a second (M. aifanicna) froni Kansu, in North-Westeru China. (3ne of the peculiar features of these deer — the j)resence of a gall-bladder in the liver — lias been already referred to ; a second, although less peculiar character, is the absence of antlers in both sexes. To compensate for this deficiency, the upper jaw of the male is i)rovided with a pair of long scimitar-like tusks, which may project as much as three inches F!g.7S.—'SlvHK-T)EF.niMosrhusmoschifrnis). below the margin of the lips. The musk-deer has moderately long and somewhat pointed ears, a short tail, very large lateral hoofs to the feet, and the fur of a peculiarly coarse and brittle nature, its general colour being a speckled brownish-grey. The most peculiar feature about the animal is, however, the presence on the abdomen of the male of a large gland, discharging by a small orifice, and secreting the highly odoriferous substance known as musk, which is much used in j^erfumery, and commands a high price in the market. For the sake of obtaining this pre- cious product, musk-deer are regularly hunted by the natives of the countries they inhabit ; one plan being to drive them against nets. In the Himalaya they are met with either singly or in pairs ; and during the early spring may be seen traversing the snow-clad birch and pine forests. Of the more typical deer, the first group is that of the Oriental muntjacs {Ccrvulus), all of which are comparatively small species characterised by the short antlers arising from long bony pedicles on the skull, which rapidly converge as they descend the face. From this peculiarity these animals are often called rib-faced deer. The males have large tusks ; and the antlers consist of a beam, or shaft, with a small tine at the base. In the lateral toes all traces of the bones have disappeared. There appear to be three well-marked species of muntjacs, the range of the genus extending from India to Eastern Tibet and China. In common with most of the deer of the Old World, the muntjacs ai'e characterised by the retention of the upper ex- tremities of the lateral metacarpal and metatarsal bones of the feet. Nearly allied to the muntjacs are two small deer from China and Eastern Tibet, constituting the genus Elu.phodns, and commonly known, from the presence of a tuft of hair between the antlers, as tufted deer. They differ from the muntiacs in that the pedicles of the antlers converge, instead of diverging, a? 142 MAMMA LJA—OK DEK VI.-th\CULA TA. Firj. 79.— Ml'NTJAc (Cerndui launijni). they ascend on the face ; while the veiy small and simple antlers have no basal knubs representing a brow-tine. Tlie males have largo upper canines, and the hairs are coarse and almost quill-like. By far the greater number of the deer of the Eastern Hemisphere belong to the typical genus C'cfcns, of which the most familiar examples are the red- deer and the fallow-deer. From the muntjacs and their allies all these deer are easily distinguished by the absence of the bony ridges which form the bases of the long pedicles of the antlers of the former. As a rule, the antlers, which, as in most members of the family, are confined to the male sex, are of large size, considerably exceeding the whole skull in length, and they do not branch in the re- gular fcjrked manner characteristic of the American deer. While, in the majority of the species, the antlers are rounded, or slightly flattened, in a few they are flattened, or palmated. Unlike those of the muntjacs, the upper canine teeth are of comparatively small size, and in the lateral digits of the feet the bones are present. Although the genus is mainly conflned to the Old World, it is represented in North America by the magniticent wapiti. In the main, deer are forest-haunting animals, the old bucks going about witlt several does during the breeding season, which they have obtained by driving away younger competitors, or by vanquishing rivals of their own age. Generally but a single offspring is produced by the hinds at a birth, and these, as is tlie case with almost all Ungulates, are able to run by tlie side of their dam in the course of a few days. Whereas the adults may be either uniformly coloured, or spotted with white for a portion or the whole of the year, the young are very generally spotted, although those of tlie Indian sambar are usually an exception in this respect. Many of the uniformly coloured species of the genus display a conspicuous white blaze on the buttocks, and in all the muzzle is naked and narrow, while tlie antlers of the males arise at a sharp angle to the middle line of the face. The European species are very regular in their times of feeding and repose ; and, like other men^bers of the family, the males during the breeding season utter a peculiar " belling " cry, which is both a challenge to rivals of their own sex, and likewise a call to the female. The genus may be divided into several more or less well defined groups according to the form of the antlers, and other structural features. Of tliese the first for consideratitm is the Ilusine group, which is ex- clusively confined to the Oriental countries, ranging as far eastwards as the Philippine Islands. In tliis group the antlers are rounded and frequently marked by strong vertical grooves, while they lack the so-called bez-tine (the one arising immediately above the first, or brow-tine), and the upright and .slightly curved beam terminates in a simple fork, so that the number of points to each antler is only three. The brow, or basal-tine, rises close to the thickened rugose ring forming the base, and known as the burr, and makes an acute angle with the beam, or main shaft. In the more tj'pical forms, the colour is uniformly brown, the tail is of medium length in all, and the neck 13 generally mancd. The largest and best known representative of this THE HOOFED MAMMALS. M3 group is the sambar (0. i(nicc»?or), which stands nearly five feet in height, and, with its numerous varieties, ranges from India and Uiuma, through the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Samatra to China, Asa rule, the young arc not spotted. Jn Formosa there is the nearly allied ^'. .siriiilioci, while ( '. plulippinus and C. ulfrcdi are smaller foims inhabiting the Philippine Islands, the last being distinguished by its spotted coat. tStUl smaller is the Indian hog-deer (0. jwirhms), easily distinguished by the absence of a distinct niano on the neck, and the comi)aratively simple antlers, the young being spotted till they attain an age of about six UKMrths. A second Oriental assemblage is the llucervine group, typically rejiresented by the Indian swamp-deer (C. dnraiicrli), and the ch)Sely allied C'. tii:li<»iihiiri)liical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, the gigantic extinct deer of the Irish peat- btHgs had been known to science; while the magniticent proportions attained by its antlers have given it a notoriety not shared by most other animals of a past epoch. Altliough found more abundantly, and generally in a better state of preservation, in the bogs of Ireland than elsewhere, the Irish deer is by no means confined to the island from which it takes its nauie. On tiie contrary, its remains have been obtained h\nn many of the caverns and superticial deposits of both England and tho Ctmtinent, and its continental range extended from Italy in the south to Russia in the north. In pt)pular language, this deer is generally spoken of as the Irish elk ; but, as is the case with a number of popular terms, this is a misnomer, the animal really being a true deer, referable to the genus (\ rvim. It is true, indeeil, that its broad, palinated antlers present a superticial reseuiblanco to those of tho elk; but this no more indicates any close athnity with that animal than do the somewhat similarlj- jialmated antlers of the fallow-deer. Like many other animals, both living and extinct, the Irish deer rejoices in a number of scien- titic names ; but its proper tiile is Cervus (s. It is almost superfluous to mention that the antlers of this magniticent deer are larger than those of any other known species, having a sjian in some cases of over 11 feet from tip to tip. In form, the antlers have a short and nearly cylindrical beam, given off in a nearly horizcnital plane at right angles to the axis of the skull. Near their origin from the skull, there arises a descending brow-tine, which is flat- tened, and generally forked. As soon as the beam expands, it gives oti'from the fi'ont, or lower edge, a trez-tine, nearly opposite to which is a third, or posterior tine on the hinder or ujiper margin, both these tines being seen fully from the front. Beyond these tines, the antlers expand to their fullest width, and usually terminate in five or six snags, of which the topmost are directed nearly upwards. The second of the extinct species is Rufl''s deer (C. rufli^, hitlierto only found in Germany. In place of the outward hori- zontal extension characteristic of the Irish deer, the antlers of RutPs deer are directed upwards and outwards, nearly after the fasliion of a f lUow-deer, so that their innermost tei-minal snags are separated only by a comparatively small interval-. That this deer is closely allied to the Irish deer, and has no such close kinshi]> with the fallow-deer, is, however, proved by the flattened and expanded fi>rm of the brow-tine. A further ditlerence from the ordinary Irisli deer is exhibited by the ditierent position of the plane of the expanded portion of the antlers. Thus, whereas in the former the whole of their inner surface and the entire trez and posterior tines are visible from the front, in Rutrs deer we see, instead of the inn»^r surface, the front edge and a part ot THE HOOFED MAMMM^S. MS V'f]. so.— Eeindker {UaiMjifa- UnandwC). the outer siu-facc, wlule only the ti])S of the posteviov tines are visible, and tlie trez-tine (wliicli is mucli longer tli.in in the normal form) is foreshortened. The position of tlio plane of tlie expanded portion of tlie antlers is another point in which Rtdf s deer approximates to tlie fallow-deer. The reindeer {JiaiKiifcr), together witli p11 the remaining members of the family, differ from the foregoing in that the lateral metacarpal bones of tho fore-feet and the corresponding me- tatarsals in the hind-lindjs are re- presented by their lower, instead of their upper, extremities. From all other deer, the reindeer are at once distinguished by haviig antlers in both sexes ; these being very large, with the cylindrical beam suddenly bent forwards near the middle of its length, and having a brow-tine which is generally branched and l)almated on one side, and simple on the other. Above the brow-tine comes a large bez-tine. In form, reindeer are heavily-built animals, with short limbs, in which the main hoofs are widely separable, and the lateral pair unusually large, the muzzle being broad and hairy. The young, like their parents, are uniformly coloured. The ordinary reindeer (R. taraiubis) ranges from Norway and Sweden over the northern regitnis of the Old World ; and it is probable that the North American variety known as the caribou is not specifically distinct. The uses to which reindeer are put by the Lapps and the inhabitants of other northern countries are too well known to require mention. The largest of all living deer is the elk or moose (Alecs machlis), which is the only living member of its genus, and has a circumpolar distribution, ranging in the Old Woild as far south as Prussia and the Caucasus. It is a long- legged, ungainly-locjking animal, with the large, overhanging, broad muzzle covered with short hairs, except a small, naked triangular spot below the nostrils. The tail is rudimental, and the hair of the young uniforudy coloured. In the males the enormous antlers arise from a cylindrical beam directed at right angles to the middle line of the skull, and then expand into a huge basin-shaped mass, consisting primarily of an upper and lower moiety, and liaving the free edge bordered by a number of irregidar snags. Elk feed chiefly upon the leaves and twigs of trees ; and during the winter collect in small parties, keeping open a small patch of ground by continually tramjiling down the snow. Frequently the hind gives birth to a pair of fawns. The ant- K fig. si. —T.LK(Alr '.? vinrhlix). 146 MAMMALIA— ORDER VI. — UNGULATA. lers may weigh as much as sixty pounds. The two remaining genera of Old World deer are represented by small forms. Of these, the roe-deer (Capre- olus) have comparatively short cylindrical antlers with three tines each ; the front tine rising from the front of the upper half of the beam and inclining upwards. There are no upper canines, the naked portion of the muzzle is small, and does not extend below the nostrils, the tail is very short, and the fur of the j^oung spotted. In addition to the common roe {€. caprca) of Europe and Western Asia, a second species (C. pyganjMs) inhabits Turkestan and the mountains dividing Russia from China, while a smaller variety it; found in Manchuria. Roe-deer usually inhabit more or less open country, and go about in pairs. From all other members of the family except the musk-deer, which it resembles in the long tusks of the males, the small Chinese water-deer fiii^^ropofcs iHr>'//( Ks')diirers in the absence of antlers from both sexes. The muzzle has a rather large naked portion, and the young are spotted. As in the roes, there are large glands in the hind-feet, and small ones in the front pair. In form, these deer have long bodies and short limbs, and they are remarkable for producing from three to six fawns at a birth. Agreeing with the genera just described in the structure of the metacarpal and metatarsal bones, the American deer, exclusive of the wapiti, reindeer, and elk, are, with two exceptions, included in a genus (Cariacus) charactei'ised by the antlers, when fully developed, dividing in a more or less regularly fork-like manner. Whereas, however, in some species the antlers are large and branching, in certain of the smaller forms they form simple spikes. The muzzle resembles that of Ccrvns, the tail is of variable length, and the fur of tlic adults is vniiformly coloured. The genus ranges over almost the whole of the American Continent, but attains its maximum development in the south. The brockets, of which the red brocket (C rxfus) is a well-known example, are a southern group, easily recognised by their unbranched, sjiike- like antlers. They have a tail of moderate length, and the fawns are spotted. The Costa Rica deer (C. clavatus) of Central America differs from the brockets in having the hair of the face directed upwards, instead of radiat- ing from two points. The Andes is the home of two species (0. chilcnsis and C. ((ntisiensis) known as guemels, and characterised by their simply forked antlers, of which the front prong is tlie longer. There are tusks in the upper jaw, and the young are uniformlj^ coloured. The pamjjas-deer (C campcstr'n:) 13 the typical representative of another South American group of the genus, in which the antlers are regulai-ly forked, Avith the hinder prong, and occa- sionally also the front one, again forking. There are no upper canines, the tail is very short, and the coloration of the fawns is uniform. The last group of the genus is typified by the Virginian deer (C. vb'giniainiH), and comprises not only the largest species, but likewise all those inhabiting North America. In this group the antlers are very large and comj)lex, and distinguished by the presence of a larger or smaller basal snag near the base of tlie front surface. Up])er tusks are absent, and the fawns are spotted. Wherc.is in the Virginian deer the basal snag is very large, and directed up- wards, in the large-eared mu\e-deev(<'.macwfif<) of North America it is much smaller. Of the former Mr. Parker Gilmore writes, that "this sjilendid animal has still a very wide habitat. Its boundaries, however, originally were from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rockies, aiid from the Gulf of Mexico to about 47"^ N. latitude, and although eagerly sought by everj'one deeming himself a hunter, it can be found in greater or less numbers near the oldest settle- ments. As an article of food the meat of this deer is unsurpassed, especi- ■J HE HOOFED MAMMALS. 147 The Giraffe.— Family iiirajjidiv. ally when the anim.-il has fattened upon Indian corn. For grace and contour of outline tliey arc incomparable. Their horns have a most peculiar and graceful outline, receding at lirst backwards from the burr, then coming for- ward with a bold sweej) It is extremely timorous and wary, but if wounded and unable to escape it will fight gallantly for its life. In such encounters its horns are not, in my experience, so much to be dreaded as its fore-feet. '"' Finally, the two pudu-deer {Fi((hta) of the Chilian Andes and Ecuador, al- though nearly related to the brockets, differ sufficiently to form a genus b}- themselves. In size they scarcely exceed a hare ; and they have a pair of veiy minute simple antlers rising from the middle of the forehead, while they exhibit certain peculiarities in the structm-e of the skull and ankle-joint. The African girafle {(TtKiffd camelojmrJalif!), which is the sole e\isting re- presentative of its genus and family, enjoys the proud distinction of being the tallest of all Mammals, and is easily recognised by its extremelj' elongated neck and limbs, as well as by its dappled coloration. In many respects intermediate between the deer and the hoUow-liorned Ruminants, although more nearly allied to the former than to the latter, it is chiefly entitled to form a family by itself on account of the peculiar structure of the apjiend- ages on the skull, which, properly speaking, come under the designation neither of antlers nor horns. Between the large ears are a pair of short horns, as they may be called, which are completely covered with skin, and are formed of bones, which in the young state can be easily detached from the skull. Lower down on the forehead is a single median dome-like bone, which is likewise de- tachable in the young. In general conforma- tion the skull of the girafle is very like that of the deer ; but the cheek teeth have very short crowns, and a peculiarly rugose enamel. There are no upper tusks ; the lateral hoofs are totally wanting in both limbs ; the tail is long and tufted at the end ; and there is generally no gall-bladder to the liver. In colour, the South African girafle differs from the North African variety by the darker tint and larger size of the chestnut blotches, and the narrower buft' lines by which they are divided. The giraflfe, however, has attained its towering stature witliout anj' important de- parture from the general structure characteris- ing its nearest allies, and thus preserves all the essential features of an ordinary quadruped. It owes its height mainly to the enormous elongation of two of the bones of the legs. Coupled with a corresponding lengthening of the vertebrte of the neck. As in all its kin- dred, the lower segment of each leg of this animal forms a cannon-bone, the nature of which has been explained above, and in the fore-limb it is the bone below the wrist (connnonly termed the knee), and the radius abo\-e the latter, which have undergone an elongation so extraordinary as to make The GinAFFE, 14*? .^fAMMALIA— ORDER Vr. — UNGULATA. them quite unlike, as regards proportion, the corresponding elements in the skeleton of an ordinary Ruminant, although retaining precisely the same structure. Similarly, in the hinder-limb, it is the cannon-bone below the ankle-joint, or hock, and the tibia above, which have been thus elongated. To one unacquainted with anatomy, it might appear that a giratie and a hip- popotamus would differ greatly in regard to the number of vertebra3 in the neck ; but, nevertheless, both conform in this respect to the ordinary ]Mammalian type, possessing only seven of such segments. Other noticeable features in the organisation of the girafie are the large size and prominence of the liquid eyes, and the great length of the extensile tongue ; the former being designed to give the creature the greatest possible range of vision, -while the extensibility of the latter enhances the capability of reaching the foliage of tall trees afforded by the lengthened liuibs and neck. In com2:)arisou with the slenderness of the neck, the head of the giraffe appears of relatively large size ; but this bulk, which is probably necessary to the proper working of the long tongue, is conqiensated by the extreme lightness and porous structuro of the bones of the skull. Somewhat stiff and ungainly in its motions — the small number of vertebrae not admitting of the graceful arching of the neck — the giraffe in all its organisation is admirably adapted to a life on open plains dotted over with tall trees, upon which it can browse without fear of competition by any other living creature. Its wide range of vision affords it timely Avarning of the approach f>f foes ; from the effect of sand-storms it is protected by the power of automatically closing its nostrils ; while its capacity of existing for months at a time without drinking renders it suited to inhabit Avaterless districts like the northern part of the great Kalahari desert. Althougli capable of withstanding the want of water for a long period during the summer, the giraffe, when opportunity offers, will drink long and fre(juently ; but it is certain that for more than half the year, in manj^ parts of Southern Africa at least, it never takes water at all. In certain districts, as in the Isorthern Kalahari, this abstinence is, from the nature of the country, involuntary ; but according to Mr. Bryden, the giraffes living in the neighbourhood of the Botletli River — their only source of water — never drink therefrom throughout the spring and winter months. When a giraffe does dnnk, unless it wades into the stream, it is compelled to straddle its fore-legs far apart in order to bring down its lips to the required level, and the same ungainlj' attitude is perforce assumed on the rare occasions when it grazes. Absent from the countries to the north of the Sahara, as well as in the great forest regions of the Avest, which are unsuitable to its habits, the giraffe at the i)resent day ranges from the North Kalaliari and Northern Becluianaland in the south, through such ])nrtioiis of Eastern and Central Africa as are suited to its mode of life, to the Southern Sudan in the north. Unhappily, however, it is almost daily diminishing in numbers throughout a large area of Southern and Eastern Africa, and its distributional area as steadily shrinking. Whether it was ever found to the south of the Orange River and in the Cape Colony may be doubtful, although tlieie are traditions that it once occurred there. Apart from this, it is definitely known that about the year 1813 these animals were met with only a little to the north of the last- named river ; while as late as 183G they were still common tliroughout the Transvaal, and more especially near the junction of the INIarico with the Limpopo River. Now their last refuge in these districts is the extreme eastern border of the Transvaal (where only a few remain), and the district 'JHE HOOFED MAMMA/S. 14^ lying to the north of Bechuanalancl and known as Khanias country, cr Bawangwato, together witli the Northern Kahihari. Even here, however, their existence is threatened, as there is a proposal to put down tube-wells in the Kalahari, which, if successfully acct)niplisl)ed, will open u-p the one great stronghold of the animal to the hunter. Unless, therefore, efKcient and prompt measures are taken iov its protection, there is much reason to fear that the giratl'e -will ere long be practically exterminated from this part of Africa, although it will doubtless long survive in the remote districts of the Sudan and Kordofan. Although closely allied to the typical hollow-horned Ruminants, the prong- buck, or prong-horned antelope {Antilvcapra avicricana) is regarded as repre- senting a distinct family, on account of the circumstance that not only are the sheaths of the horns branched, but The Prongbuck. that they are annually shed, and their place taken by new — Family sheaths, which have been growing up beneath the old ones. Antilocapridiv. In size, the prongbuck may be comj^ared to a fallow-deer, although its form is lighter and more elegant. It has no lateral hoofs ; the horns are present usually only in the males; the ears are rather long and pointed ; and the tail is short. There is a thick mane of long hair on the neck, and the general colour is chestnut; but tliere is a white patch on the rump, and white bars on the throat, Avhile tlie lower portion of the flanks, to- gether with the under-parts, are likewise white ; the compressed and scimitar-like horns being black. Prongbucks are inhabitants of the open plains of Eastern-Central North America, where they associate in herds, which may freijuently be of large size. The last, and at the same time by far the largest family group cf the Ungulates, is that of the hollow-horned Ruminants, or Boridit.; under which title are comprised antelopes, goats, sheep, oxen, etc. Almost the whole of the members of this great assemblage Hollow-liorned are inhabitants of the Old World, the only American forms Ruminants. — being the Rocky Mountain goat, the bighorn sheep, musk- Family Bovidiv. ox, and American butlalo, and all these confined to the northern half of that continent. Indeed, there is little doubt tJiat the ancestoi's of at least three of these were immigrants from the Eastern Hemi- sphere ; and there is no evidence that South America was ever the home of any member of the group. The essential feature of the hollow-horned Ruminants is the presence, in one sex at least of all the existing forms, of a pair of unbranched horns on the upper part of the head, com- posed of an underlying core of bone, covered with a hollow, horny sheath, which is never shed. None of these animals ever have upper canine teeth ; and the lateral metacarpal and metatarsal bones C'f the feet are invariably absent, although lateral hoofs are not unfrequently present. In many cases the tear-pits, or larmiers, so cJiaracteristic of the deer, are Fig, 83, — PiioNOBUCK {Antilocapra amerlcana). J so MAMMALIA— ORDER I 'I.—UNGULA I A. Fij. 84 — BuiiVLiNE Ayr ELOPE (Bubulis) absent from tlie face ; and in sucli cases the underlying region of the skull is fully ossified, while, when those glands are developed, the unossitied space in the skull below each eye is generally of less extent tlian in the Cerv'uhe. The tirst and least specialised group of the family includes the animals commonly known as antelopes, which are arranged, under a very large number of genei-a, and pass imperceptibly into tlie goats. Although no definition can be given of an antelope, as a rule these animals have comparatively long necks, and are of more or less light and graceful build, while their bony horn-cores are generally solid throughout. By far the great majority of antelopes in- habit the open plains of Africa south of the Sahara, but there are none in Madagascar, while Burma and the Malayan countries only possess a few forms, which may be regarded as intermediate between the true antelopes and the goats. The well-known hartebeests (Bubalis), so remarkable on account of their long, solemn-looking faces, are the typical representatives of a section comprising two genera, all of which, with the exception of one species of hartebeest, which is Syrian, are confined to Africa, and mostly to the regions lying south of the Sahara desert. All are of comparatively large dimensions, and generally have the withers considerably taller than the rump. Horns of moderate length are present in both sexes, and are either lyre-shaped or recurved, with their bases more or less closely approximated ; the muzzle is naked; there is a small, tufted gland below each eye; and the tail is comparatively long. In the skull there are no large pits in the forehead, nor any unossified spaces below the eye-sockets ; and the upper molar teeth have very tall and narrow crowns. The typical hartebeests, of which there are several species, ranging from Syria and Algeria to the Cape, are characterised by the great height of the withers, the great length of the head, which has the horns placed on a kind of crest at its summit, and the sudden backward flexure of the extremities of the horns. The horns themselves are compressed and ringed at the base; the muzzle is narrow, and the tail hairy. In certain other sj^ecies the above- mentioned features are less strongly developed ; and in the blesbok (B. albifruns) and bijutebok {B. pycjcmjus) the horns are lyrate, the crest on the top of the head much less strongly marked, and tlie withers lower. In consequence of these differences many writers separate the latter animals under the name of DamaUscns. The strange-looking wildebeests, or gnus {Connoch(i'les\ differ from the hartebeests by their shorter liead and broad and bristly muzzle, as well as by the heavily-maned neck, and in the conforma- tion of the horns. The latter, which are situated on the vertex of the skull and approximated at their bases, are nearly smooth and cylindrical, and curve outwards, or outwards and downwards, with their tips bent upwards. The hoofs are remarkable for their extreme narrowness, and tlie elongated sweeping tail is clothed with a mass of long hairs. Whereas the females of THE HOOFED MAMMALS. the hartebeests veseinblc sheep in luiving but two teats, those of the wilde- beests aj^ree witli cows in possessing four. Tlie two species of wildebeests are chiefly remarkable for the strange gambles and antics in which they indulge, especially when the herd is approached by travellers. They are frequently found in company with zebras. The African duikerboks (Cc}>}i(do})huti), most of which are exceedingly diminutive and graceful little creatures, although two species from the west coast are of much larger dimensions, form the typical representatives of the second section. In all these the horns ars short and simple, without ridges, and are developed only in the males. There is a more or less elongated gland beneath each eye ; the muzzle is large and naked ; the tail is short; and the teats of the females are alwaj-s four in number. The upper rnolar teeth have broad, S(piare crowns; and in the skull there are no pits on the fore- head, and no Assure beneath the socket of the eye, although there is a deep depression in the bones of this region. The duikerboks are characterised by having a tuft of long hairs between the small horns, which are situated far back on the forehead, the gland below the eye taking the form of a narrow slit or a row of pores, and the tail being very short. The nearly allied four- horned antelope (Tetraceros qiiadrirornis) of Peninsular India is sufficiently distinguished by the males generally carrying two pairs of horns, of which the front ones are very minute. More numerously represented is the Ccrclcajirine group of antelopes, which comprises several genera, with species of large or medium size, confined to Africa south of the Sahara. In these the horns are confined to the males ; the gland below the eye may be either large, rudimental, or wanting ; the muzzle is either hairy or naked ; the tail is short ; and the upper molars are narrow. There is usually a large uriossified space in the skull below the eye, and also distinct pits on the forehead. According to the recent classification of Messrs. Sclater and Thomas, a number of small African antelopes generally included in the Ccrcicajirirue arc entitled to form a section by themsehes (Na)ujtmyi)ia). Of these the six sjjecies of the genus Maduqva — among which the Abyssinian Salt's antelope {M. saltiana) has been longest known — are very small antelopes characterised by the production of the hairy muzzle into a more or less marked proboscis, and the presence of a tuft of hair on the crown of the head. In three of the species, among which is the one named, the last lower molar has no third lobe at its hinder end, and the proboscis is relatively short. Nearly allied is the royal antelope (2\a.n(ifra(n(s 2^l!ringer {Oi-cotragus saltator), which ranges along the east coast from the Cape to Abyssinia, and hns the habits of a chamois, differs in the form of the skull, the thick, brittle hair, resembling that of the musk- deer, and the clumsy hoofs. In the skull of both genera there is a deep pit below the eye. Among the typical Cervicaprines, tlie rehbok {Pclca capreda) 152 MAMMALIA— ORDER Vl.—UXGULATA of South Africji is ;i hir^fei" uniformly-colouivJ animal, with small, compressed, upright, and scarcely diverging horns ]ilaced over the eyes, a large bare part to the muzzle, and no depression in the skull below the latter. It is an in- habitant of open, sandy districts, and may be compared in size to a fallow- deer. Still larger is the handsome water-buck and its allies, constituting the genus Qohns^ characterised by the long sub-lyrate horns of the males, ■which are ringed nearly throughout their length, the large portion of the muzzle that is devoid of hair, the deep hollow in the forehead of the skull and the absence of a depression below the eye, the gland being rudimental. The tail is long, ridged with hair above, and tufted at the end ; and the colour of the fur uniform. In most species the hair is long and coarse ; and all frequent the neighbourhood of water. The three representa- tives of the allied genus Ccrvirapra may be distinguished by the short and bushy tail ; and also by the circumstance that the premaxillary bones, which from the extremity of the nuizzle, do not extend upwards to join the nasals. The best known of these is the South African reitbok (C. ((runilineum), which stands nearly a yard at the withers, and is of grizzled ochre colour. The typical, or Antilopiiie, section is also a large one, and includes the gazelles and certain allied forms which are mostly inhabitants of sandy or desert districts. The horns, Avhich are usually restricted to the males, are generally either comi)ressed and lyrate or recurved, or cylindrical and spiral, with well-marked rings on their lower portion. The muzzle is covered with short hairs ; the short or moderate tail is compressed and hairy on its upper surface ; and the upper molars are narrow, and resemble those of the sheep. In the skull there are generally large pits in the forehead, and a depression below the eye. Perhaps the handsomest member of the group is the Indian black- buck (A)dilopc cervicaprit). which is the sole representative of its genus, and easily recognised by the deep blackish hue of the back and head of the atlult males, and the beautiful spirallj'-twisted and ringed horns ; the gland bi-luw the eye being very large. The pala (^1^pm\'rot<) and its otlier African allies have the horns compressed, widely divergent, and ringed only tit the base ; and ditt'er from the black buck by the absence of a gland on the face, and of lateral hoofs to the feet. A clumsily-built and somewhat sheep-like antelope from the Asiatic steppes, known as the saiga {Sidgd fatatica), is one ()f two genera characterised by the large and pufly muzzle, this feature being most developed in the present form, in which the nostrils open downwards. There is a small gland on the face, lateral hoofs are present, and the female has four teats. In the males the horns are short, lyrate, ringed, .and yellow in colour. The Tibetan chiru (Pantholops hodijsoni) ditiers from the last in the nostrils opening anteriorly, and in the form of the horns ; the latter being very long, erect, compressed, sublyrate, and ringed in front for two- thirds in length, while their colour is deep black. There is no gland on the face, and the female has only two teats. These beautiful antelopes are found in herds on some of the most elevated regions in the world. The largest genus of the group {Gazella) is represented by the beautiful gazelles, which are mainly confined to the desert regions of Africa and Asia, ahhough the aberrant springbok is found on the plains of the Cape Colony and adjacent districts. All the gazelles are noticeable for their elegant build, and their more or less sandy coloration, while the majority differ from the foregoing members of the section in that horns are developed by both sexes. Nearly all the species are characterised by having a white streak, bordered by a dark line, running down the face from each horn to the nostril, so as to isolate a JHE nOOFEJ) MAM.VALS. t53 dark central patch on tho muzzle. TIio gland below the eye is small and concealed by hair, and the knees generally carry tufts of long hair. The sprinj^'bok (^'. encliorc), remarkable on acc(junb of its habit of taking leaps in the air, and also from the enormous herds in which it was formerly found, differs from all tho rest of the gazelles in having an erectile crest of long, still", white hair running down the back. Clarke's gazelle {Aymnodorcaa cUtrkei), from Nortliern Somaliland, is distinguished by the regular upwards and forwards curvature of the horns of the males, which are ringed in part at the base ; the females being hornless. The skull is intermediate between that of the preceding and following genus. Waller's gazelle {LUItocrdnius indleri), which is an East African form ranging from the Kilimanjaro district to Somaliland, represents another genus by itself. The females are hornless, but in the males the horns are ei-ecb and curved forwards in a hook-like manner ; while both are characterised by the extraordinary neck, which gives to the animal almost the appearance of a small giratt'e. The genus is, however, best characterised by the solid structure of the skull. The small Somali Dorcatragus seems to be another aberrant gazelle. The next group of antelopes, which are common to Africa and Arabia, are best characterised by the upper molar teeth being structurally similar to those of the oxen. In these teeth the crowns are very tall and broad, so as to form an almost S(iuare section, while, on their inner side, they have a narrow additional column superadded to the four large normal cres- centic ones. All these antelopes are of very large size, and both sexes are provided with long horns, which are placed immediately over or behind the eyes, and are recurved, straight, or subspiral in form. The muzzle is hairy, there is ho gland below the eye, and the long, cylindrical tail is tufted at the extremity. In the skull there are no distinct pits on the forehead, there is no depression below the eye, and only a very small unossitied slit in the same region. The handsome recurved horns, rising vertically from a crest above the eyes and sweeping backwards in a scimitar- like sweep at an obtuse angle to the profile of the face, serve aba glance to distinguish the sable-antelope (llippotragus niger) of South Africa and its near ally the roan antelope (//. eqxituis). In both these large and splendid animals, as well as in a kindred species from the Sudan, the horns are ringed nearly to their tips, the sable-antelope being one of the few members of the tribe which have the whole upper-parts, swe some white streaks on the face, a deep, full black. In all these antelopes the neck is furnished with an erect or curving mane, and the tip of the tail is strongly tufted. The gemsbok of South Africa is the type of an allied genus ((Jrijx), ranging not only over the whole of Africa south of the Sahara, but also found in Syria and on the shores of the Persian Gulf. Here the horns are long, slender, and ringed at the base, but may be either straight or somewhat curved backwards, although in all the species they arise behind the eyes with their direction at first in the plane of Fi(j. 85. — Sabi,k-Antklope {llippotragus nijcr). 154 jVAMMALIA—ORDER M.^UXaVLATA. the face. The m.xno on the nock is shorter and the tail longer and more hairy than lu thu last genus. The general hue of the hair in the oryx is grey or tawny, with black markings on the face and legs ; and, although somewhat ungainly in build, they are all decidedly handsome aniaials, the typical species standing about 4 ft. at the withers, and its horns often exceeding a yard in length. Oryxes are inhabitants of open sandy plains, where they associate in small herds. The third genus of the group is the addax (Addax ii'jsumacnlatii'i) of the deserts of North Africa and Arabia, which ditfers from the last by the horns being subspiral and lyrate, and also by the heavy inane of long hair on the neck and throat, and the presence of a tuft of hair on the throat, the general colour of the hair being whitish. The last, or Tragdajihine, section of the true antelopes comprises several genera of large-sized forms, all of which, save one, are iidiabitants of Afiica south of the Sahara. The horns, which are usually contined to the male sex, are not ringed, but have a ridge at least on the basal portion of the front surface, and are generally twisted in a spiral, with the front ridge curving outwards from the base. The muzzle is naked, and there is a small gland below each eye. The skull has a small unossitied fissure, but no depression below the eye, and there is very generally a p^ir of pits on the forehead. The upper molar teeth are broad, but may have either tall or short crowns. A very characteristic, although by no means universal, feature of the group is the marking of the body by vertical white stripes. In India the group is represented solely by the well-known m'lgai {Boselaphtis tra(j»camclns), characterised by having the hind limbs much shorter thin the front pair, the short horns — which are placed behind the eyes — ridged and triangular at the base, and nearly straight, the naked portion of the muzzle large, the ears small, and the upper molars tall, with an additional column on their inner sides; the body being uniformly coloured. Nilgai, which may be found either in jungle or open country, generally associate in small herds, although the bulls are often found singly. In all the other members of the group the fore and hind limbs are of approximately equal length ; the horns are long, ridged throughout, and twisted into a spiral; while the naked portion of the muzzle is of small extent, and the size of the ears large. The molar teeth are short-crowned, and the body is generally striped. Perhaps the handsomest of all are the two African species of kudu, constituting the genus Slrepsiceros, in which the horns of the males are situated behind the line of the eyes, rising in the form of an open spiral, with their front ridge very strongly marked, at an obtuse angle to the plane of the face. The neck is fringed with a mane, the tail relatively short, the body marked with vertical white streaks descending from a spinal stripe of the same colour, and the hoofs short. In the skull there is a deep hollow, with pits, on the forehead, and a large unossified space below each eye. O: the two species, the true kudu {S. kndv) ranges from South Africa to Abyssinia, while the much smaller, lesser kudu {S. imhcrhis) is confined to Sumaliland and the Kilimanjaro district. Of the former splendid animal, Mr. Bryddon, in the Asian newspaper of November, 1894, writes as follows :— " The kudu bull stands 5 ft. or a little more at the withers. Its genei-al colour varies from rufous grey to almost blue, and especially in the older animals this bluish colouring will be found predominat- ing. Along the spine runs a white streak, and from this thin white stripes extend transversely across the body towards the belly. Just under the eye on either side is a clear white band which meets on the front of the face ; •while upon the cheeks two or three circular white spots are to be found. The THE HOOFED A/A.UMAf.S. 1 55 head is neab, game-like, and altogether be:\utiful, and ia sunnounted by tall spreading spiral hums of great weight and size, wliich diminish ia ^erkscrew- like furniatiun to sliarp jiuiuts. Tho greatest recorded length of p, kudu'3 horns appear to bo 3 ft. Di; in. in a straight line ; over the curve 5 ft. |in. The greatest length of tho horns of a lessor kudu in a straighi; line is 2ft. 1| in. ; over tho curve 2ft. 7^in. Thero are often gre;*i and striking diiJ'erences iu the spread of kudu horns. Fine speciniena will sometiniej spread between the tips as much as nearly 3 ft. 9 in. Other and equally fin.'j horns will only spread a little over 2 ft. But whether widespread or closer in growth, the effect of these magnificent spiral horns ia e(iually grand. Tho eyes are large and very beautiful. The ears are of a light brown colour, and very large and spreading. The hearing of this antelope is marvellously acute, and the great, yet delicate, e irs are manifestly exactly fitted for tho arrest of (he slightest vibration of sound. The senses of smell and sight are also exces.'iivcly fine, and, united to its preternatu rally sharp hearing and general suspiciousness, render the kudu usually a very ditiicult animal to approach or surprise. The neck of th-e male is strong, shapely, and well fitted to support the weight of tho immense horns. The chin is white. From tho throat to the dewlap extends a long and handsome fringe of white and blackish-brown hair, which adds not a little to tho handsome appearance of tho antelo-pe. The neck also is slightly maned. Tho legs are strong yet slender, clean, and beautifully formed, terminating in shapely feet, which give a dainty spoor, shaped like the ace of hearts. The kudu spoor is, indeed, one of tho most perfect imprints of all African beasts of cha^'o. In length this animal extends some 9 ft. The withers, as in so many other examples of African fjamo, are high ; the body is stoutly formed, and in general contour not unlike that of a Highland stag. Tho hair is, however, much closer and finer than the red deer's. The tail is about 2 ft. long, terminating in a point. The general port and demeanour of this antelope is exceedingly noble ; and the magnificent carriage of the head, surmounted as it is by the great spiral horns, is one of tho finest things in nature. The female, lacking as she is iu horns, cuts a much poorer C'gure than her lord ; and her ears, unrelieved by the fine spiral horns, appear far nioro prominent and remarkable. Tho calves are beautiful little creatures, of a bright rufous colour, strongly lined with white. Tho cows have only one calf at a time, usually between September and November — the favourite calving period with most South African antelopes. Tho kudu feeds more upon tho young leafage and sprouting greenery of bushes, shrubs, and trees, than upon grass. Its favourite browsing-ground is bush and woodland, the stony slopes of hills, and well-bushed mountain-sides. In these haunts this antelope is diflicult of approach, and oflVra very excellent stalking. In countries not much shot over, however, the kudu may bo occasionally surprised at quito close quarters. In woodland and bushy country the pace of the kudu, considering the weight and size of its horns, and tha dilHculties and obstacles of covert, is surprising. In hill country it is wonderfully active and will jump magnifi- cently ; upon open ground, however, where it occasionally strays, it may be ridden down without much trouble, and upon the flat its gait is laboured and somewhat slow. This antelope is gregarious, and runs usually in parties of from five to eight ; occasionally, however, larger troops, numbering as many as twenty individuals, are encountered. In the denso forest south of tho Botletli river, while hunting girafte, I startled a troop of fifteen apon one occasion. The hide of the kudu ia one of the most valuable of all South 156 MAMMALIA—OKDER I'l. — VNGVLATA. African antelopes ; it commands a Iilgli price and is much sought after. From it are manufactured velschoens (shoes), leather thongs, whip-lashes, and even harness. The hide is thinnish, but excessively tough. I have seen a complete set of Cape cart harness made of kudu hide, which was smart-looking, serviceable, and of everlasting wear. The tle.sh is excellent and well-tasted, and the marrow bones are esteemed a very great d;iinty by hunters and natives in the interior. The kudu is widely distributed. Its range extends be5'ond the Zambesi into Central Africa, and it is found as far north as Somaliland and even Abyssinia. It has a variety of native names even in South Africa. The Bechuanas call it tolo ; the Matabele, e-bala- bala ; the Makalakas, e-zilarwa ; the Makobag, unzwa ; the Masarwa bush- men, dwar ; the Mashunas, noro. In North-east Africa the Somali name is godir ; while upon the Lower Zambesi it is goma. " Nearly allied to the kudus are the numerous African species of harnessed antelopes ( Tragelapli us), most of which are distinguished by the smaller number of spiral turns in the horns, although one species comes so close in this respect to tl;ie kudus, that it may be a question whether all should not be included in a single genus. The harnessed-antelopes take their name from the white stripes or rows of s])ots with which the bodies of nearly all are adorned, some of them being remarkable for the extreme brilliancy of their coloration. Wheieas the splendid T. enryrerus of West Africa, conspicuous for the brilliant chestnut ground colour of its coat, is only i^'tj;. 86. —Harnessed- AsTELOPB second in size to the kudu, the guib (Trajelaphus (uhjasi). {T. scrlptus) does not exceed a goat in height. Two of the species, one of which is the well-known sitatunga or nakong (T. sj^ekci) of South Central Africa, have their hoofs remarkably elongated, and spend their time in marshy situations, where they will conceal themselves by submerging the whole body except the tip of the muzzle. The largest of all antelopes are the two African species of eland (Orias), which differ from the other members of the present section by having horns in both sexes, while they are further distinguished by the close, corkscrew-like spiral of these appendages. Although in one variety of the common species they are fairly well marked, as a rule the white stripes on the body are indistinct or absent. There are few handsomer antelopes than a large eland bull, with its fine dewlap, full tuft of dark brown hair on the forehead, slight mane, and generally pale tawny hair. The well-known chamois, gemze, or izard (Rupicapra tracius), which in- habits all the higher mountain ranges of Europe, and is locally known by the above-mentioned names, is the typical representative of a section of the hollow-horned ruminants, in many respects intermediate between the true antelopes and the goats. Accordingly, they are often spoken of as the caprine, or goat-like antelopes. As a rule, the horns, which are nearly equally developed in both sexes, and rise behind the line of the eyes, are short and wrinkled at their bases, and conical or somewhat compressed in form, with a THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 157 more or less divided backward curvature. Although it may be much reduced in size, there is generally a gland beneath each of the eyes; the short and tapering tail is well-haired above, the hoofs are relatively large, and the whole build is heavy and cliniisy. In form the molar teeth resemble those of the goats; and the skull generally has a depression, but no iissure, below each eye. From its allies, the chamois is readily distinguished by the l)eculiar hooked form of the horns, which rise close together almost vertically from the forehead, and then curve suddenly back in the well-known hook. The muzzle is hairy, and the gland beneath the eye small. In height, a chamois does not stand more than a couple of feet at the withers. Chamois are inhabitants of the high Alpine regions immediately below the snow-line; and although they were formerly met with in large herds, in most of their habitats their numbers have been greatly reduced by Cimstant persecution, while from some districts they have completely disappeared. Their mar- vellous ]K)wers of leaping are familiar to all. In the Himalaya, Malay countries, parts of China, and Japan, the place of the chamois is taken by the allied but larger and more clumsily-built animals known as serows {Nemor]iehring Straits in the Kamschatkan Peninsula, these wrinkles are much less developed, and the depression below the eye in the skull is less deep. Another group, in which the horns, although well wrinkled, are smaller than in the argalis, is represented by the sha (0. vignei) of the inner Himalaya, Persia, and certain ranges of the Punjab (where it is known as the urial), as well as by the Armenian sheep (0. gmelini) of Asia Minor and Persia, the smaller but closely allied 0. ophion of the island of Cyprus, and the mouflon (0. musimoii) of Sardinia and Corsica, easily distinguished by the saddle- shaped mark on the back ; the three last-named kinds being further characterised by the absence of horns in the ewes. The two remaining species, as already said, dift'er from all the foregoing in their comparatively smooth and olive-coloured horns, and the absence of a gland below the eye and a depression in the skull for its reception. Of these the bharal {(J. nahura) is a Tibetan form, with short, bluish-grey fur ornamented with black markings ; while the arui (0. tragdaphus) of the mountains of Northern Africa difiers from all the others in possessing a fringe of long hair on the fore-quarters, and likewise by the greater length of the tail. It is a remarkable fact that nearly all the wild sheep are short-tailed animals, and have fur instead of wool ; but, although it is difficult to explain the origin of the long tail of the domesticated breeds, it is noteworthy that certain African races have the fleece partaking more of the nature of fur than of wool. In habits sheep much resemble goats, the young males and females associating in large flocks, from which the old males often disassociate themselves, except during the breeding-season. Both groups are exceedingly wary animals, and both are inhabitants of mountain regions ; but whereas goats always restrict themselves to rocky and more or less precipitous districts, wild sheep may be often found on open, undulating, grassy ground like the Pamirs. Nearly allied to the sheep is the somewhat larger ruminant commonlv known as the musk-ox {Ovibjs moschatus), which may be compared roughly THE HOOFED MAMMALS. i6i in point of size to Highland cattle, although its coat ia still more shaggy. The musk-ox is now restricted to Arctic America and the north of Green- land, although in a past epoch it ranged over northern Asia and Europe as far south as Britain. With the sheep this ruminant agrees in its hairy muzzle and the general struc- ture of the molar teeth ; but the horns are quite peculiar, those of the adult males being greatly flattened and expanded at their bases, where they almost meet in the middle line of the forehead, after which they bend downwards by the sides of the face, and then curve sharply upwards. "While they are whitish and fibrous at Fio- 90-Misk-Ox (Ovibos moschatm). the base, at the tips they are smooth and black, with a nearly circular section. The small and pointed ears are ahnost buried in the long hair ; the general colour is brown, and the short and sheep- like tail is completely lost among the hair. In winter a woolly under-fur ia mingled with the long hair to form an efficient protection against the intense cold of the regions inhabited by this animal. A peculiar feature of the feet of the musk-ox is that the two hoofs of each are not symmetrical ; these being partially covered with hair on the lower surface. In general habits musk- oxen much resemble sheep, collecting in flocks of considerable size, among which the proportion of old rams is comparatively small. The musky odour from which the animal derives its name does not appear to be due to the secretion of any special scent-gland. The last, or bovine section of the family, is represented by the buffaloes, bison, and oxen, all of which may be included in the single genus Bos. All are animals of very massive build, with a short neck, and the head carried nearly in the line of the back, the largest members of the whole family being included among them. From the sheep, the oxen, as the group may be collectively termed, are markedly distinguished by the conformation of the tall crowns of the molar teeth. In the upper jaw these have a nearly square cross section, with a well-defined additional fifth column on the inner side, and the whole of the valleys and clefts completely filled up with cement. The horns, which are massive, and nearly as large in the females as in the males, are placed on the summit of the skull with their bases far apart, and may be cylindrical or triangular in section, their direction being at first more or less outwards, after which they turn upwards at and near the tips. They always lack the transverse knobs of the goats and the wrinkles of those of the sheep, so that the surface is comparatively smooth, the colour being dark. Internally the bony cores of the horns, like those of the goats and sheep, are much honeycombed. In all cases the broad muzzle, in which the nostrils are placed wide apart, is more or less completely naked and moist ; there is no gland beneath the eye, and consequently no depression in this region of the skull ; the bulls usually have an ample dewlap beneath the throat, the long and tapering tail is generally tipped with a large bunch of long hair, and there are no glands between the hoofs of either foot. The udders of the cows are provided with four teats. As in the sheep and g-oats, small lateral hoofs are retained. The majority of the oxen are confined to the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, but one species of bison L l62 MJ MM A LI A - ORDER VI. — UNG ULA TA. inhabits North America, and a small aberrant form is found in the Island of Celebes. The latter species, which is known as the anoa (B. depressicornis), is the smallest and most antelope-like member of the whole group, having the short angulated horns directed nearly upwards from the forehead, and the colour black, with a few white spots on the hind quarters. Another sm ill but more buffalo-like form (JS. mindorcnsis) inhabits the Philippine Islands, where it is locally known as the tamarao, but it is not certain whether this may not prove to be a hybrid between the anoa and the Indian buficilo. The true buffaloes are characterised by their more or less angulated horns and convex forehead. Of these, the Indian bufl'ilo {B. bnbalns) has its home in the Oriental countries, but has been introduced as a domesticated animal into Egypt and the South of Europe. It is a huge, ungainly brute, with the long horns flattened and angulated throughout their length ; those of the bulls being very thick and curving upwards in a crescentic form, while those of the cows are slender and directed more immediately outwards. In their habits these buffaloes are essentially marsh-haunting animals, loving to wallow in the soft, warm mud of such situations. The skin of old animals is almost devoid of hair. The Cape buffalo {B. caffer) is a very different- looking animal, with a shorter skull and horns than the Indian species ; the bases of the horns growing together in a kind of helmet-like mass on the fore- head, where they nearly meet in the middle line ; these append- ages curving downwards at their origin from the skull, and then taking an inward direction, while their tips are almost cylindrical. The black skin is nearly naked, but the ears are margined with a fringe of elongated hairs. In certain forms from Central Fig. 91.— Cape Biffalo {Bos caffer). Africa the hairs on the skin are reddish in colour, and the horns smaller and less expanded and approximative on the forehead. This form grades almost imperceptibly into a smaller variety or species known as B. pnmilus, in which the small horns are very widely separated from one another at their bases. The bisons differ from the buffaloes by their cylindrical horns, which are placed rather low down on the forehead; the latter being very wide and convex, and the whole skull comparatively short and wide. In the skeleton the number of pairs of ribs may be either fourteen or fifteen. In place of the nearly-naked or sparsely-haired hide of the buffaloes, the bisons have an abundant coat of short, thick, crisp, curly brcjwn hair over the greater part of the body, while the head, neck, shoulders, and fore limbs are clothed with a massive mane of longer and darker hair, almost hiding the ears, and concealing the bases of the horns, as well as shading the eyes. The great elevation of the withers, as compared with the hind quarters, gives the appearance of a large hump behind the neck. Of the two species, the European bison {B. bison) is now confined to the Caucasus, Lithuania, and THE HOOFED MAMMALS. 163 Bome of the adjacent districts, running completely wild in the former area, but artificially protected in the latter. It appears to be essentially a forest- haunting animal. Tiie American bison (L\ amerlcanus), locally known as the buti'alo, is very closely allied, but is of rather smaller dimensions, with lower and weaker hind-quarters, but a stronger and more massive shoulder, a greater abundance of long hair on the fore-quarters, and a rather shorter tail. The range of this splendid animal extended from a short distance north of the Gulf of Mexico to beyond the Saskatchewan in Canada, and probably reached almost from the Atlantic to the Pacific sea-board. For Beven^ years, at least, the Mississippi may, however, be regarded as its extreme eastern boundary. The countless millions in which bison formerly roamed over the open prairies are known to all ; but incessant pursuit and the opening up of the country by railroads, slowly, but too surely, tended to its complete extermination from the open country. According, however, to Mr. Theodore Rooseveldt, there are still, and always have been, small numbers of bison inhabiting the Rocky Mountains northwards from Colorado, and the depths of the great forests in the sub-Arctic regions beyond the Saskatchewan River, and these, though locally called mountain-buffalo or wood-bison, are only a variety of the bison of the plains. For some years there have been reports of a small herd of bison inhabiting the remote corner of Val Verde county, Texas, near the Rio Grande border ; and some time ago a shepherd came upon the herd and counted it to comprise fifty individuals. Commenting on this, a writer in the Asian newspaper of June 15th, 1895, observes that, "when we consider the enormous area of the country and the sparse population in the more mountainous and wooded districts, we find no difficulty in believing that the animal survives in small numbers, as a denizen of the forest, varying, in accordance with his new con- ditions of life, from the bison which roamed the prairies in tens of thousands a quarter of a century ago. And when we consider the physical peculiarities of the animal, there is reason to think that in the woods the species may hold its own against m^n and other enemies with better success tlian it did on the plains. His eyesight is not keen — adefect gravely against him in the open, but for obvious reasons of much less consequence in the forest. His acute hearing, of little service on the plains, is invaluable in the woods; and his excellent nose is equally serviceable in either cise. It would seem as though the bison had been primarily designed for a sylvan existence. Mr. Rocseveldt observes that the so-called mountain-butlalo or wood-bison is rather heavier in body and shorter of limb than his brother of the prairie ; but in regard to this we have to remember what a recent writer has said of the prairie-bison in his latter days. Living in a state of perpetuil flight from mounted hunters he became specialised with wonderful rapidity. His heavy body became lightei', his legs developed in length, and his whole appearance acquired a certain 'ranginess,' indicative of the effort of nature to adapt her- self to changed conditions ; flight was the refuge of the bison in the last days of his existence as a beast of the plains, and his formation in a few genera- tions underwent the change compelled by the struggle for life. It is possible that Mr. Rooseveldt, when comparing the bison of the Rockies with that of the plains, may have had in mind this latterly specialised animal ; but, nevertheless, we can well believe that forest existence, more sedentary than prairie life even in its past peaceful days, is calculated to develop greater weight of body and brevity of limb. There is no good reason for believing that the bison now dwelling in the Rockies, sub- Arctic regions, Texas, and, l64 MAMMALIA-ORDER VI.—UNGULATA, we venture to hope, elsewhere, in inaccessible corners of the continent, varies very markedly from the prairie form. There always have been wood- land-dwelling members of the species. Bison were indigenous to the tract of country known as the Yellowstone Park, when it was proclaimed a national reserve. The park is admirably adapted for a sanctuary. Embracing an area of some 3300 square miles, and forming, roughly speaking, an oblong of about 70 miles by 50, not less than 84 per cent, of the whole is forest-clad mountain, valley, and plateau. The central portion forms a plateau varying from 7000 to 8500 feet in elevation, and averaging 8000 feet. Here the indigenous bison finds comparative security, and is steadily increasing in numbers. In 1884 the bison population of the Yellowstone Park was estimated at 200 ; in the winter of 1891-92 a snow-shoe party, exploring for the purpose, found various small herds, which by actual count gave nearly 300 animals, each herd containing a proportion of well-grown calves." Somewhat intermediate between the bison and the true oxen is the Tibetan yak (B. gntnnieiis), so invaluable to the inhabitants of the highlands of the inner Himalaya as a means of transport across those arid and inhos- pitable regions. While the horns are not unlike those of the bison in form and position, and the general conformation of the skull is also similar in the two groups, the yak has the long hair disposed as a fringe from the fore legs along the flanks to the hind limbs, the tail being also invested with similar elongated hairs from root to tip. The ribs are fourteen in number ; and the colour of the wild race is uniformly blackish-brown, although many of the hybrid domestic breeds are more or less variegated with white. The male lacks the distinct dewlap characteristic of almost all the other oxen. Another peculiarity of the yak is to be found in the strange grunting cry from which its scientific name is taken. Three species of oxen confined to the Oriental countries constitute what is termed the Bibovine group. These are characterised, like the true oxen, by possessing only thirteen pairs of ribs, but are peculiar in having'a more or less well-marked ridge running down the anterior half of the back, produced by the unusual height of the spines of the vertebrae in that region. The horns, which occupy the highest portion of the skull, are somewhat flattened, more especially at the base, and after inclining outwards for some distance are then directed upwards. The tail is relatively short, not reaching below the hocks ; the lower portions of the legs are white, and the general colour of the males is blackish, and those of the females either amber or blackish- brown. The largest and handsomest of the three species is the well-known gaur {B. (janrns) — the bison of Indian sportsmen — which inhabits hilly forests throughout India, and is also found in the Malay peninsula. The most characteristic feature of this splendid animal, which attains a height of fully six feet at the withers, is the large, convex, and forwai'dly-curving crest between the bases of the horns, communicating a concave profile to the forehead. The ridge on the back is very etrongly developed, and stops very sharply with a sudden step-like descent ; and the colour of the female is nearly similar to that of the male. As in the other members of the group, the thick coat of hair is short, fine, and remarkably sleek. From this species the gayal, or mithan (B. frontali!<), differs by the straight line formed by the ridge of the skull between the widely- sundered horns, and the conse- quently straight profile of the foi-ehead. The horns diff'er from those of the gaur in being shorter, rounder, and less curved, their tips having no distinct inward curvature, while their colour is uniformly black, instead of being THE MANATIS AND DUGQNGS. 165 of a greenish tinge at the b^se. In the males also the dewlap is more developed, while in both sexes the limbs are relatively shorter and the colour is blacker. Gayals are kept in a semi-domesticated state in Assam, Chittagong, and other parts of north-eastern India, but occur wild in the interior of the Tcnasserim provinces of Burma. From both the above, the smaller ani'mal from Burma, Java, Balli, and Lombok known as the banteng (B. bantiny), differs by the more rounded horns, the slight develop- ment of the ridge on the back, the white patch on the rump of both sexes, and the reddish-brown colour of the body of the cows. Lastly, the true, or Taurine oxen are represented by the common ox (B. tanrus) and the Indian humped cattle (B. iii'Ucits), both of which are now known only in the domesticated state, although it is possible that the half- wild cattle of certain British parks may be the more or less modified direct descendants of the old English aurochs, as the wild ox was originally called. In this group the spinal ridge characterising the gaur and its allies is absent; the horns are cylindrical, with their tips inclined backwards, and are placed at the very extremity of the highest ridge of the skull ; while the forehead is Hat, and the whole skull much elongated. The tail also is larger, reaching below the hocks ; and the hoofs are large and rounded, instead of being narrow and pointed. Probably the original colour of the aurochs was reddish. ORDER YII.— SIRENIA. The Manatis and Dugongs. Tins and the »following order of mammaU differ from all those hitherto described in that all their members are adapted for a permanently aquatic life — that is to say, they never voluntarily leave the water, as do the seals during the breeding-season. Accordingly, their bodies have assumed a more or less completely fish-like form, with little or no traces of a distinct neck ; while the fore-limbs are modified into paddle-like flippers, the hind-limbs are completely wanting externally, and the tail forms a flattened paddle lying horizontally in the water. Structural evidences clearly show that both groups are descended from terrestrial mammals ; and as these creatures have to come to the surface periodically for the purpose of breathing, the horizontally- expanded form of the tail-fin is sufticiently obvious ; such an organ being admirably adapted, by means of a few powerful strokes, to bring its owner rapidly to the surface. In fishes, on the other hand, which breathe the atmospheric air contained in water by means of their gills, there is no necessity for such periodical visits to the surface, and the tail-fin is accord- ingly expanded in the vertical direction, thus forming a most efficient propeller for progression in a horizontal plane. The manatis and dugongs, forming the present order, constitute a very small group of mammals, all of which may be included in the single family Manatidce. Having the general fish-like bodily conformation alluded to above, the sirenians, as members of the present group are collectively termed, differ in many important respects from the whales and porpoises. One marked point of distinction is to be found in the circumstance that the body, i66 MAMMALIA -ORDER VII.—SIRENIA. instead of being laterally compressed, is flattened from above downwards. The head, again, is of an ordinary type, being relatively small in comparison to the body, with the nostrils placed at the extremity of the muzzle, and the summit rounded. To meet the exigencies of an aquatic life, external ears are, however, wanting, and the nostrils are cap'ible of being closed at will by means of tightly-titting valves, so as to prevent the ingress of water. In no case is the back furnished with a fin; and the fore flippers may retain traces of nails, although the whole of their toes are enveloped in a common skin, while the skeleton of these parts contains no more than the normal complement of bones to the toes — that is to say, each toe, except the first (where there are but two), has three joints. The backbone, or spinal column, differs from that of land mammals, in that none of the vertebra3 in the region of the haunches are welded together to form a sacrum, such a struc- ture being unnecessary in an animal devoid of hind limbs, while its presence would hinder the supple movements of the body so essential in purely aijuatic creatures. From those of whales and porpoises, the vertebrae of existing sirenians differ by the absence of thin bony plates at the extremity of each end of the body, or lower portion of the same ; although these were well developed in certain extinct members of the order. The manati is remark- able for the circumstance that the seven vertebrre of the neck, which are so remarkably constant in the class, are reduced to six. Neither of the genera have collar-bones, or clavicles, but in all the members of the group the bonea of the skeleton are remarkable for the extreme solidity and densenesa of their structure. Great variability is displayed in regard to the dentition ; the recently extinct species from Behring Strait having no teeth at all ; whereas in the manatis there is a very full series of masticating organs, which present a certain resemblance to the molars of the hippopotamus. In no case do the teeth resemble those of the toothed cetaceans ; and although in the recent forms milk-teeth are not developed, rudiments of these have been detected, and in certain extinct kinds such teeth were functional. Similarly, nasal bones, or those roofing the cavity of the nose in ordinary mammals, have disappeared in the existing representatives of the group, although they were well developed in the earlier forms. From these peculiarities it is evident that the existing sirenians are specialised creatures evidently derived from land mammals of a more ordinary type. To fit them for long periods of sub- mergence, both manatis and dugonga have the lungs much elongated, and extending almost the whole length of the back ; while the blood-vessels are expanded in certain parts of the body into net-like structures, known as retia mirabilia, in which pure blood can be held back for a considerable time, instead of immediately passing onwards to the heart. As regards their mode of life, the sirenians are inhabitants of large rivers, estuaries, sheltered bays, and shallow seas generally ; never ploughing through the water of the open ocean in the manner so characteristic of the whales and porpoises ; and seldom, indeed, wandering out of sight of shore. Moreover, instead of having the carnivorous habits so characteristic of the cetaceans, all the sirenians are exclusively vegetable feeders ; fearing up the sea-weed and tangle when in the ocean, and other aquatic plants when they frequent fresh- waters, and masticating them after the manner of a pig either by means of their powerful molar teeth, or, when these are wanting, with the aid of horny plates which then invest the surface of the mouth. Both manatis and dugongs produce but a single offspring at a birth, which is tended with great care and affection by the mother. When suckling, the THE MANATIS AND DUGONGS. 167 youn<;j is held between tlie flippers of Lho female parent and pressed close to her breast, upon wliich are situated the single pair of teats ; and as both parent and oll'spring Imld their rounded and somewhat human-shaped heads above water, there is no reasonable doubt that it is these animals that have given rise to the old legends of mermaids and mermen. The representatives of both the existing genera are usually found associating in small herds, their range including the coasts of the warmer portions of the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, parts of the Bay of Bengal, and the seas of Australia. The northern sea- cow was, however, an inhabitant of colder regions, being only found in Behring Strait. The nianatis {Manning), of which there appear to bo three well-defined species from the tropical coasts of tlie Atlantic, are chiefly fluviatile creatures, seldom venturing into the ocean, but ascending long distances up the larger rivers, and being especially abundant in the Manatis. Amazon. They grow to a length of about twelve feet, and are heavy, ungainly-looking creatures, with the thick and almost bark-like skin traversed by a number of fine wrinkles. Although in old age the skin may be nearly naked, in early life it is sparsely covered with soft hairs. Externally these animals are specially distinguished by the position of the nostrils at the extremity of the muzzle, the rounded form of the rudder-like tail, and the usual retention of three rudimental nails on each of the flippers. In the front of the jaws no incisor teeth are visible, although in the young state rudiments exist beneath the horny plates investing this region ; bub the cheek-teeth, of which eleven pairs are developed in each jaw, are fully developed and approximate in structure to those of the hippopotamus. As a rule, however, only six pairs of the latter teeth are in use at any one time, the anterior ones falling out before those at the hinder end of the series have cut the gums. In the skeleton the extremity of the skull and lower jaw are comparatively short and but slightly bent downwards, while, as already mentioned, there are only six vertebrre in the neck. The triangular muzzle of the manati is remarkable for the circumstance that the extremities of the upper lip are developed into a pair of large fleshy flaps, which can be either brought into apposition with one another or widely separated, so that the animal can, when they are in the former position, seize and retain a leaf between them. Commercially, manatis are valued for their thick hides and the abundant supply of oil yielded by their fat ; and they have in consequence of late years been greatly reduced in numbers. The dugong (Ualicore dxigoncj), which ranges from the Red Sea along the Indian and Malayan coasts to Australia, may be distinguished externally from the manatis by the nostrils being situated on the superior aspect of the muzzle, the concave hinder border Dugong. of the tail, and the total disappearance of all traces of nails from the flippers. In the skull the front extremity of both of the upper and lower jaws are extremely massive and deep, with a very marked and sudden downward flexure, while the dentition is of a totally different type from that of the manatis. None of the teeth develop roots, and consequently grow throughout the life of their owner ; the number in the adult condition including a pair of upper incisors and five pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw. In the males the upper incisors take the form of large downwardly-directed tusks, partially invested with enamel ; but in the female these teeth never pierce the gums. The cheek-teeth, which are quite devoid of enamel, and i68 MAMMALIA - ORDER VII.- SI REN I A. Fvj. 02.— DuooNu {Uadcijre dufjuiuj). equally developed in both sexes, form simple cylinders, increasing in size from the first to the last, the latter being more complex than those in advance, and consisting of two cylinders united by a narrow bridge. Although usually measuring from 5 to 7 feet in length, dugong grow to as much as from 8 to 9 feet. In colour they are generally bluish -grey throughout, but in some examples the under-parts are more or less decidedly lighter. The essential difference between the dugong and manatis in the matter of habits is that the former is essen- tially a marine animal which never attempts to ascend rivers, and its food consequently con- sists entirely of seaweed of various kinds. In former days dugong were met with in herds comprising hundreds of individuals, which were remarkable for their extra- ordinary tameness and fearlessness of man. Human greed has, however, done the usual work, and now their haunts are tenanted only by solitary individuals or pairs, which are shy and difficult of approach. Dugong oil is valued for its extremely limpid character ; and in Timor-Laut these animals are hunted by the natives for the sake of their tusks, from which ear-rings and other ornaments are manufactured. To their comparatively wide geographical distribution may be attributed the escajje of the manatis and dugong from complete extermination ; but the rhytina, or northern sea-cow {Rliytina gigns), which, at the time of its discovery in 1741, existed in numbers on the shores of the Commander group of islands in Behring Strait, soon fell a victim to the persecution of man. In- deed, it appears that within less than thirty years from the date when its haunts were first invaded by Behring's pxrty, the rhytina had ceased to exist ; and it is now known to us only by certain descriptions and a number of more or less well-preserved skeletons which have been disinterred from its former haunts. In size the northern sea-cow vastly exceeded all its allies, being stated to attain a length of between 20 and 30 feet, with a weight in some cases of upwards of eight thousand pounds. It was evidently the most specialised member of the group, teeth being entirely wanting, and their function discharged by horny plates on the surfaces of the mouth, while the extremities of the flippers were blunted, and the bones of the digits apparently wanting. The head was small in proportion to the size of the body, and the tail was more deeply forked than in the dugong. So rough and ragged was the thick epidermis of the naked skin, that it has been compared to the bark of an oak tree, and could only be cut by an axe. While one account states that the colour of the skin was generally uniform brown, although occasionally flecked with white, a drawing taken from life shows alternate dark and light transverse bandings. Northern Sea-Cow. WHALES, PORPOISES, AND DOLPHINS. 169 ORDER VIII.— CETACEA.. Whales, I'orpoises, and DoLrniNS, Before the doctrine of the adaptation of animals to their natural surround- ing had become understood, no creatures were a ,e;reater puzzle to naturalists than the cetaceans, under which title are included whales, sperm-whales, porpoises, and dolphins. Their lish-like form and marine habits seemed indicative of their fish-like affinities ; whereas their internal structure, breathing, and mode of reproduction proclaimed their mammalian kinship. The latter features ought to have shown at once what their real position in the zoological scale really was ; but, nevertheless, they long occupied a place among the fishes. We read, for instance, in an abridged English edition of Buffon's "Natui'al History," published in the year 1821, that all these creatures "resemble quadrupeds in their internal structure, and in some of their appetites and afi'ections. Like quadrupeds, they have lungs, a midriff, a stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, bladder, and parts of generation ; their heart also resembles that of quadrupeds, with its partitions closed up as in them, and driving red and warm blood in circulation through the body ; and to keep these parts warm, the whole kind are also covered between tiie skin and muscles with a thick coat of fat or blubber. As these animals breathe the air, it is obvious that they cannot bear to be any long time under water. They are constrained, therefore, every two or three minutes, to come up to the sui'face to take breath, as well as to spout out through their nostril — for they have but one — that water which they sucked in while gaping for their prey. But it is in the circumstances in which they continue their kind that these animals show an eminent superiority. Other fish deposit their spawn, and leave the success to accident ; these never produce above one young, or two at the most, and this the female suckles entirely in the manner of quadrupeds, her breasts being placed, as in the human kind, above the navel. Their tails also are different from those of all other fish ; they are placed so as to lie flat on the surface of the water ; while the other kinds have them, as we every day see, upright or edgeways. This flat position of the tail enables them to force themselves suddenly to the surface of the water to breathe, which they are continually constrained to do." With such a generally admirable account of the leading features of their organisation, it is marvellous how naturalists could have failed to recognise the true atlinities of the cetaceans, and continued to class them among fishes, instead of transferring them to mammals. Indeed, almost the only error in the foregoing account is the portion relating to the " spouting " of cetaceans ; this error being by no means extinct among non-zoological per- sons even at the present day. Instead of the water thrown up in the air when a whale "spouts" having been taken in at the mouth and expelled through the nostrils, it is mainly the condensed vapour from the creature's breath, although when a whale commences to spout or blow before it has quite reached the surface, a certain quantity of the superincumbent water is thrown up with the breath. Cetaceans, then, are neither more nor less than highly specialised mammals which have assumed a fish-like form in correlation with the needs of a purely aquatic mode of existence. Although a few are found in large rivers, the 170 MAMMALIA— ORDER VIIT.—CETACEA. majority are thoroughly pelagic in their habits, never coming to shore even for the purpose of breeding, and, in consequence, their fish-like characters are even more pronounced than is the case with the sirenians. The tail, or "flukes," which is always more or less distinctly forked, is, how- ever, as we have seen, expanded in a horizontal, instead of in a vertical, plane, and in place of the two paired fins of most fishes, cetaceans have only a single pair of flippers, corresponding to the fore limbs of ordinary mammals. Although these flippers are conii^letely invested in a continuous skin without any nails or external traces of digits, internally they contain the same skeletal elements — albeit, highly modified — as their terrestrial kindred. There is, however, the important exception that the bones of the digits are greatly more numerous than in other mammals, although the number of digits themselves never exceeds the normal five ; this peculiarity off'ering an important distinction between cetaceans and sirenians. Like fishes, many members of the present order have a back-fin ; although this differs from that of the former group in lacking an internal skeleton. Unlike most fishes, cetaceans have, however, a perfectly naked skin ; although the general presence of a few scattered bristles, especially in the young state, around the m(juth, proclaims their origin from fully haired mammals. And here may be mentioned the very remarkable circumstance that certain extinct members of the order were furnished with a bony armour, somewhat comparable to that of crocodiles ; although this does not permit of our saying that all cetaceans are descended from aimoured ancestors. In coloration, whales and porpoises resemble most fishes inhabiting the surface of the sea, such as mackerel and herrings, in that the upper surface of the body is dark, and the lower light — this being obviously a protective resemblance, as the dark upper surface, when viewed by reflected light, harmonises -with the dark waves ; while the light under surface, when viewed from below by transmitted light, must be scarcely distinguishable from the bright sky above. As in the sirenians, the external conchs of the ears are totally wanting, and the aperture of the ear itself is extremely minute. The eyes also are relatively small, and placed far back on the sides of the head, which is always large in proportion to the size of the body. An important difl"erence from the sirenians is to be found in the position of the nostrils, which may open externally by either a double or a single aperture ; these being invariably situated on the very summit of the head, and thus enabling the creatures to commence breathing the very moment they reach the surface, without altering their rrormal horizontal position. To prevent the ingress of water while beneath the surface, the nostrils can be completely closed by a valve or valves. Reference has already been made to the essential difference between the skeleton of the flipper of a cetacean and a sirenian ; and it may be added that the vertebrte of the former have the terminal plates, or epiphyses, which are practically or entirely wanting in the existing members of the latter group, very strongly developed. The coat of fat, or blubber, lying beneath the skin, so charac- teristic of all cetaceans, has been already alluded to ; but it must be also mentioned that these animals have net-works — rd'ia mirnbilia — of blood- vessels for the retention of oxygenated blood during their descent, which can be used gradually, and thus enable them to stay below for a longer period than would otherwise be the case. The two teats of the female differ from those of the sirenians in being placed far back on the abdomen. Although none of the porpoises and dolphins attain very large dimensions. WHALES, PORPOISES, AND DOLPHINS. 171 and some of them are comparatively small creatures, the cetacean order includes not only the largest of all mammals, but likewise of all living animals. That they trace their origin back to terrestrial mammals may be considered beyond all doubt, although from what jmrticular group they are descended cannot at present be determined. As a rule, the various i)elagic representatives of the order enjoy a very wide geographical range, although certain species, such as the Greenland-whale of the Arctic Ocean, and the pigmy-whale of the Southern Seas, are confined to a relatively small area. Almost all cetaceans are carnivorous. Cetaceans are divisible into two great divisions, or sub-orders, known as the whalebone-whales (Miistarocdi), and the toothed whales {(>Jo>do<:etl) ; the former group comprising only the single family {Bahinid" ), whereas the latter is divided into three families. As their Whalebone- names imply, the most obvious distinction between these two Whales, groups relates to the absence or presence of functional teeth ; the absence of teeth in the first group being compensated by the develop- ment of the peculiar substance known as whalebone, or baleen. In the young of the whalebone-whales, rudiments of true teeth are, however, developed beneath the roots of the incipient whalebone, although these sub- sec^uently wither without having ever cut the gum. Aa the nature and struc- ture of whalebone is a matter of some interest and importance, a small space must be devoted to its consideration before entering upon the leading charac- teristics of the Mystacoceti. Whalebone, then, is a horny substance attached to the roof of the mouth, from which it hangs by a broad, transversely-arched base, in the form of a series of parallel, narrow^ elongated triangular plates, placed transversely to the long axis of the mouth, with their external edges firm and straight, but the inner ones frayed out into a kind of fringe. The longest plates of whalebone are situated near the middle of the jaw, from which point the length gra-^luc-Jly diminishes towards the two extremities, where they become very short. Whereas, however, in the Greenland-whale the length of the longest plates varies from some 10 to 12 ft., and the total number of plates in the series is about 330, in the great rorquals or fin-whales, the length is only a few inches, while the number of plates is considerably less. To accommodate the enormous whalebone-plates of the Greenland- whale, the bones of the upper jaw are greatly arched upwards, and the slender lower jaw is bowed outwards, thus leaving a large space— both in the vertical and horizontal directions— the transverse diameter of which is much wider below than above. When the mouth is closed, the plates of whalebone are folded obliquely backwards, with the front ones lying beneath those be- hind them ; but directly the jaws are opened, the elastic nature of this substance causes it to spring at once into a vertical position, and thus form a sieve-like wall on both sides of the mouth, the thin ends of the plates being prevented from pushing outwards by the stiff lower lip which overlaps them. By elevating its enormous fleshy tongue within the cavity th\i3 formed, the whale causes the enclosed water to rush out between the plates, leaving such small creatures as it contained lying dry on the surface of the tongue ready for swallowing. In structure, whalebone, which, although black in the Greenland-whale, is white in some of the other species, is of a horny nature, and grows from transverse ridges on the mucous membrane of the roof of the mouth; being, in fact, nothing more than an extreme development of the ridges on the palate of a cow, hardened and lengthened by an excessive growth of a horny superficial or epithelial layer. The whole of this vast 172 MAMMALIA— ORDER VJII.—CETACEA. horny growth takes place, however, after birth, young whales having smooth palates, with no trace of the horny plates. Apart from the presence of the distinctive and characteristic whalebone, the members of the present group have the following characteristic features in common. In the first place, the nostrils open externally by two distinct longitudinal slits, or "blow-holes;" while the internal region of the nose retains traces of an organ of smell — this, by the way, being another proof that cetaceans are descended from terrestrial mammals. Distinct, altliough small, nasal bones partially roof over the nose-cavity of the skull; and the whole region of this part of the skull retains the normal symmetry. In order to accommodate the whalebone, the two branches of the lower jaw aro curved outwards in a bow-like form; while at their front extremities they are only loosely connected together by ligament. The breast-bone, or sternum, consists of only a single piece, to which but one pair of ribs articulate; and all the ribs have but a slight connection with the vertebrpe, articulating only with the horizontal transverse processes, and not touching the bodies of the vertebrre. Although the whalebone-whales are represented by a comparatively small number of species, all these are of large bodily dimensions, the smallest of them — the pigmy-whale — attaining a length of some 20 ft. The most specialised representatives of the sub-order and family are the true, or right-whales, constituting the genus Bidtf^na, of which there appear to be two well-defined species. Externally, the right-whales are easily recog- nised by the enormous relative size of the head, the perfectly smooth throat, the absence of a back-fin, and the moderate length of the flippers. Their whalebone, which is black in colour, is proportionately longer and more elastic than that of any other species, with the exception of the pigniy-wliale; and for its accommodation the palate of the skull is much narrower and more highly arched than in other whales, while the branches of the lower jaw are more bowed outwards. The skeleton of the flippers contains five fully- formed digits; the vertebrre of the neck, which are reduced to the condi- tion of thin plates, are completely welded together into a solid, immovable mass, and the tympanic bone of the internal ear is squared. In conformity with the arched form of the skull, the margin of the lower lip runs high up on the sides of the head and is highly convex ; while the size of the opened mouth is enormous. In spite, huwever, of the huge dimensions of this cavity, the calibre of the throat is so small that it is a common saying among sailors that a herring is sufficient to choke a whale. Of the two existing species, the Greenland-whale (B. mysticKtus) of the Arctic seas is the more specialised, the head being largrer and the whalebone longer than in its southern cousin. The latter (i>. an-tralis) is commonly known as the southern right-whale, and although formerly abundant in the Atlantic, is nowadays a rare creature. From the right-whales the single species of pigmy-whale {Ncobakfua), from the South American and Australasian seas, differs in having a small, hooked back-fin, as it does in its white whalebone. Whereas the Greenland species grows to a length of from 45 to 50 ft., the pigmy- whale does not appear to exceed 20. A connecting link between tho right-whales and the under-mentioned rorquals is afforded by the great Pacific grey-whale (Tlliachianectcs), in which the throat has a single fokl, and the back is devoid of a fin, while the whalebone is even shorter and more coarse than in the rorquals, the palate showing but a slight degree of vaulting, and the head being relatively small, and the body elongated. The vertebrte of WHALES, PORPOISES, AND DOLPHINS. 173 the neck are thiclccr than in the right-whales, and mostly free from one another. In length the female varies from 40 to 4:4 ft., but the male is rather smaller. The other members of tlic family are the humpback (Megaptcra) and the rorquals or finncrs {Lkdo^Hoiitero), in both of which the skin of the throat is marked by a number of longitudinal flutings or grooves, while the back carries a fin ; the whalebone being short and ct):ir.se, and usually of a yellowish colour. The vertebriu of the neck are of considerable thickness, and totally separate Fi(/. 1)3.- A Fi.v Whale {Bmlcenoptera)- from one another ; and the tympanic bone of the internal ear is much more rounded and globular than in the right- whales, its shape somewhat recalling that of a large cowri shell. In the skeleton of the flippers the number of digits is reduced to four ; and the head is comparatively small in proportion to the body, with the jJalate bub slightly arched, and the branches of the lower jaw little bowed outwards. Another character of the group, as compared with the right-whales, is the smaller degree of expansion of the tail-fin or flukes. From the finners, the single species of humpback {Megnpttra hoops) is dis- tinguished by the relative shortness and depth of the body, which rises above the level of the back-fin behind the shoulders, and likewise by the extra- ordinary length of the flippers, which is nearly one-fourth that of the entire animal. In length the female is about the same as the Greenland-whale. As a rule humpbacks have the flippers of a pure glistening white ; and when one of these animals is gambolling, as they often do, it will frequently lie on its side just below the surface of the water, so that the whole body is concealed. In this position one white flipper will be seen sticking straight up some 9 or 10 ft. above the water, and when first viewed from the deck of a passing vessel appears a most extraordinary object, which may well puzzle the beholder. The rorquals, or finners, on the other hand, are characterised by the elongation and slenderness of the body and the comparative shortness of the flippers, which are pointed at their extremities. The largest member of the group, as indeed it is of all whales, is the blue, or Sibbald's rorqual {Balcciwptera sibbaldi), commonly known to the American whalers by the 174 MAMMALIA— ORDER VIIL—CETACEA, name of " sulphur-bottom," which reaches the enormous length of from 80 to 84 ft. The common rorqual {B. mnsculus), frequently stranded on the British coasts, is also a huge animal, frequently measuring from Go to 70 ft. ; but the other two species are of inferior dimensions, the smallest being the lesser fin- whale {B. rostratn), of which the length does not exceed frum 30 to 35 ft. While some of the species feed largely on cod, others subsist chiefly on cuttle- fish. On account of the length and elasticity of the whalebone, and the abundance of oil yielded by their blubber, from a commercial point of view, the right- whales are of far greater value than the humpback and tinners ; while their inferior speed, as compared with the latter, renders them far more easy to overtake and capture. The southern right-whale was, however, long ago practically exterminated from the Atlantic by the old Basque whalers ; and incessant persecution has so diminished the numbers of the Greenland-whale that comparatively few are now to be met with on the old whaling-grounds. Consequently, whalers have been compelled to turn their attention to the less valuable finners and humpback ; and the use of steam vessels and explosive harpoons fired from guns has rendered their capture far less difficult than in the days of rowing-boats and harpoons and lances thrown by hand. Till recently the "fishing" has been mainly carried on in the northern and sub-tropical seas, but a few years ago four ships were fitted out for whaling in the Antarctic ; and the following account of what was observed is condensed from a newspaper report. It is there stated that the right- whales always come north to the grounds eastward of New Zealand early in October, and remain till near the end of December. Then they collect in "schools," and st irt on a south-east course with a speed of about five knots an hour night and day. Several ships have followed them in this course until they met with the ice-drift in lat. 50 deg. south and long. IGO deg. west, where the chase was abandoned. The whales always arrive on the ground in schools of ten or fifteen, and then separate and pair oS" — or at most one bull and two cows. It is not thought that the whales, with the exception of the humpbacks, come north to calve, as they are never seen with any young. Of late years right- whales have been seen north of 35 deg. 30 min. south lat. Tinners and humpbacks are always to be found on the "ground," apparently travelling in a south-easterly direction. The humpbacks come up from the southward along both the east and west sides of Australia and New Zealand about the end of May, and continue their course northerly to about lat. 18 dog. south, when they disperse. About the first week of Oct jber they begin to work their way back south until lost amidst the ice. Experienced whaling- masters are of the opinion that there must be some place to the southward, as yet unknown, where the whales assemble in large numbers. A vessel fitted with an auxiliary screw, it is stated, could follow the whales to their destina- tion without danger of being blocked by the ice. The right-whale, according to men who are engaged in the trade at the present time, must be very numerous in the Antarctic Ocean, as the fishery has never been carried on there with any constancy and vigour ; whereas in the Arctic Ocean the whales are looked upon as almost extinct. The southern- whale is not so large as the Greenland, only yielding from 800 lbs. to 1200 lbs. of bone — the length of which varies from 8 ft. to 15 ft. — valued at £1G00 to £1800 a ton, while the oil, averaging from 8 to 14 tons, brings £28 per ton. The humpbacks are very numerous off Norfolk Island of late. These whales measure from GO to 70 ft. in length and yield from 50 to 70 barrels of oil. WHALES, PORPOISES, AND DOLPHIAS. 11% The Australians interested in the success of the trade are confident that a large industry in whale and seal-tishing could be developed in the Antarctic seas by auxiliary screw- whalers, Avhich could be fitted out at the comparatively small cost of £0000 each. The essential characteristic of the toothed-whales, or Odontoceti, is a negative one, and consists in the entire absence of whalebone. Very generally, indeed, teeth are developed, at least in the lower jaw, bub these may be reduced to a single pair, or even in tlie male Toothed-Whales, narwhal to a solitary tooth, while in the female of the latter species thero^are none of any functional importance. Another very well- marked point of distinctiuu is the single external aperture of the nostrils, which very frequently takes the form of a transverse crescentic slit, closed by a Hap-like valve. Then, again, the skull is always more or less unsymmetrical in the region of the nostrils, and in the existing members of the sub-order the nasal bones ar-e reduced to mere rounded nodules, taking no share in roofing the nasal cavity. In certain extinct forms, however, these bones are of more normal character, and partially cover the chamber of the i-iose. No trace of an organ of smell is retained by any of the toothed-whales. In the skeleton the breast-bone, or sternum, is usually composed of several distinct portions, to which the extremities of several of the ribs are articulated by the interven- tion of cartilages ; and a certain number of the anterior ribs are articulated at their upper ends to the bodies of the vertebra?, as well as to the transverse processes of the same. The lower jaw of a toothed-whale may always be distinguished from that of a whalebone-whale by the two branches being nearly straight, of great depth at the hinder extremity, and in front uniting with one another by a bony union of larger or smaller extent. In all the members of the group the skeleton of the flippers exhibits five complete digits. Throughout the sub-order the teeth are always of a simple structure, having conical or compressed crowns and undivided roots ; and only a single series is ever developed, the replacement of the anterior teeth, so common among mammals, being wanting. In number the teeth of many species greatly exceed the ordinary mammalian series. Observations on foetal cetaceans have indeed shown that rudiments of a second series of teeth are developed in the gums, which servo to show that the functional teeth correspond in the main to the milk-series of ordinary mammals. Although in the development of Avhalebone and the loose articulation of the ribs to the backbone the whalebone-whales are clearly more specialised than the toothed-whales, yet as regards the single nostril and the structure of the nasal bones the latter group is decidedly more aberrant than the former. Hence it may be inferred that neither of the two sub-orders is derived from the other, but that both have grown up side by side quite independently. It has generally been considered that they are divergent branches from a common ancestral stock ; but it is possible that they have no sort of genetic affinity with each other, and have respectively originated from two totally distinct mammalian groups. More decisive evidence than any yet adduced is, however, required before the latter view can be definitely accepted. The largest of all the toothed- whales is the gigantic sperm-whale {Physeter macroccplidhis), the sole member of its genus, and the typical representative of a family {Fhyseterida') characterised by the absence of teeth in the upper jaw of the adult, and the variability, both as regards size and number, of those of the lower jaw. In all the members of the family the hinder portion of the skull is much elevated, so as to form either a semi-circular wall, or a pair of 176 MAMMALIA- ORDER VIII.— CE TA CEA. crests behind the nasal aperture. All these cetaceans are entirely pelagic in their habits, and feed exclusively or chietly on cuttles and squids. In the sperm-whale the number of teeth in the lower jaw varies from twenty to twenty-five pairs ; the teeth themselves being of large size, with pointed and somewhat curved crowns, upon which there is no trace of enamel. The head is of enormous dimensions, measuring about one-fourth the total length Fig. 94.— Thb Sperm-Whale {Physiter macrocexihalu^). of the animal, and characterised by the abrupt truncation of the enormous muzzle, the S-liko form of the blow-hole, which is situated somewhat to the left of the middle line, and the long mouth opening below, and somewhat behind, the extremity of the muzzle. The skull behind the nostrils has an enormous cavity, bounded behind by a semi-circular wall of bone of several feet in height, and containing during life the oily substance which yields, when refined, the valuable spermaceti. An even more precious product of this cetacean is ambergris, which, although generally found floating on tho surface of the ocean, is really a concretion formed in the intestines of the sperm-whale. It is an amber-coloured substance, generally containing a number of the horny beaks of the squids on which sperm-whales feed. Although the female is a much smaller animal, the male cachalot, as the sperm-whale is often called, grows to a length of between 50 and 60 ft. In the sperm-whale the two branches of the lower jaw are united in front for about half their length, but in the much smaller and somewhat porpoise-like animal known as the lesser sperm-whale {Cogia hreiiceps) the union between the two branches of the lower jaw is less than half the total length of tho jaw, and the number of lower teeth is reduced to from nine to twelve pairs. This whale attains a length of about 10 ft., and differs from the cachalot in carrying a large back-fin. The flippers, moreover, which in the sperm- whale are remarkably small in proportion to the size of the body, are here relatively longer. It is interesting to notice that foss.il sperm-whales (Physodun) have been discovered possessing a full series of enamel-capped teeth in both the upper and lower jaw. Nearly allied to the preceding are the bottled-nosed and beaked-whales, belonging to a group distinguished by the reduction of the lower functional teeth to a single pair, the others being rudimentary a'nd con-cealod in the gum. None attain a large size, and all are pelagic, subsisting almost; WHALES, PORPOISES, AND DOLPHINS. 177 exclusively on squids and cuttle-fish. The bottle-noses, as typified by the common IlhjycroiJdoit, rostratus, so frequently stranded on the British coasts, take their name from the extreme convexity of the crown of the head in the adult male, which rises abruptly above the base of the short beak. They have but a single pair of teeth in front of the lower jaw, bub even these are in- visible in the living state ; and the back, like that of the beaked-whales, bears a fin. Although the common bottle-nose, which has a very wide geographical distribution, does not exceed about 30 ft. in length, it ia valued not only on account of its oil, but likewise for the spermaceti con- tained in the head. In addition to the large overhanging and unsymmetrical crests above the nostrils, the skulls of old males have another pair of longi- tudinal crests on the sides of the base of the beak, which come almost into contact, and have their front surfaces broad, flat, and rugose. Cuvier's whale (Choncziphius* cuvicri) difl'ers from the bottle-nose in possessing a pair of large forwardly and upwardly directed teeth at the extremity of the lower jaw. From both the preceding the beaked-whales (Mesoplodon) are readily dis- tinguished by the production of the anterior portion of the skull into a long cylindrical beak, composed of massive, ivory-like bone ; while they are further characterised by the pair of lower teeth being generally situated near the middle of the jaw. These teeth are generally of large size, and more or less compressed latterly. In one species (M. laij((nli) they are enormously developed, and of a strap-like form, curving over the beak to such an ex- tent as in some cases actually to prevent the mouth from being fully opened. The beaked-whales appear to be solitary creatures, avoiding the neighbour- hood of the coasts, and thus but seldom stranded. During the Pliocene epoch they must, however, have been abundant in the English seas, as their solid fossilised beaks are of common occurrence in the so-called crag deposits of the East Coast. Arnux's whale {Bcrardins arnnxi), from the seas of New Zealand, which is the last member of the family, difl'ers from the true beaked-whales in possessing two pairs of lower teeth. Whereas the beaked whales usually measure about 15 or 16 ft. in length, this species reaches as much as 30 ft. A small family of the Odontoceti known as the Plafruiislidic is represented solely by three small species, two of which are exclusively freshwater, while the third is an estuarine form. While resembling the members of the next family in the possession of a numerous Freshwater- series of teeth in both the upper and lower jaw, they are Dolphins, distinguished by the length of the bony union between the two branches of the latter, and likewise by the mode of articulation of the ribs with the backbone. None of the vertebrpe of the neck are welded together. The typical member of the group is the well-known susu, or Gangetic dolphin {Platanii,t(i gongctica), which may often be seen sporting in the Ganges, Indus, or Bramaputra. This species usually attains a length of 7 or 8 ft., and is characterised by the long and compressed beak, in which are crowded a very numerous series of sharply-pointed teeth, the rudimental back-fin, the fan-shaped flippers, the slit-like form of the blow- hole, and the minute size of the eye, which is perfectly useless as an organ of vision. The skull may be recognised by the enormous curving longitudinal crests arising from the base of the beak, and almost meeting above it. The food of the susu appears to consist almost exclusively of prawns and bottom- * This name— originally applied to au allied fossil form— is \ised Ly Cope to replace Zii^ltuis, on account of the 2)re- occupation of the latter. ai 178 MAMMALIA— ORDER VIII.—CETACEA. haunting fish, which are raked up from the mud by the long beak. The other two existing members of the family are South American. One of these is the inia or Amazonian dolphin (Inm geoffroyemis), inhabiting the upper portions of the river-system from which it derives its name, and being more porpoise-like in form than the last. The long cylindrical beak has a number of sparse bristly hairs ; and its numerous teeth have a tubercle at the base. Unlike the susu, the eye is fairly large, and the flippers are not fan-shaped. Seven feet is the maximum length of the Fij. 95.-GANQETIC DoLPHis "^^^^ i"^^, ; Rud the general colour is (.Platanisia gaiujetica). blackish above and reddish beneath. From both the preceding the small La Plata dolphin {Stenodelphis hlainvillei), from the estuary of the Rio de La Plata, may be at once distinguished by its uniformly buff coloration, which is admirably suited to harmonize with the colour of the stained water of the Plate river, and at once proclaims that the species is not of pelagic habits. In size, this dolphin seldom, if ever, exceeds 5 ft., and is often considerably less. Unlike both the other species, it has a well-developed back- fin, and the beak is of great length, and furnished on each side with from fifty to sixty teeth ; the number in the other genera being about thirty. Another distinctive feature is to be found in the form of the blow -hole, which forms a transverse crescent, instead of a longitudinal slit. At certain seasons of the year enormous numbers of these elegant little cetaceans are captured in the Bay of Monte Video by the fishermen, who detest them on account of the large quantities of fish they consume. The whole of tlie remaining members of the order are included in the single family Delplnnidce. The majority of the species are of comparatively small size ; and wliile most are found in the neighbourhood Porpoises, of coasts where they frequently ascend tidal rivers, a few are Dolphins, etc. of exclusively fluviatile habits. Many of the genera are very closely allied, and distinguished mainly by the structure of the skull, so that in a popular work it is by no means easy to indicate their distiaictive peculiarities. While the majority resemble the Plntanisthhe in possessing a numerous series of teeth in each jaw, in two species this is not the case. From that family they maybe distinguished by the shorter union between the two branches of the lower jaw, and also by a diflerence in the mode of articulation of the ribs to the backbone. In all cases the blow hole is in the form of a transverse crescent, with the two horns ponuing forwards ; and very generally from two to four of the anterior vertebra} of the neck are welded together into a solid mass. One of the most aberrant, and at tlie £ame time one of the most beautiful, members of the family is the spotted- narwhal, or sea-unicorn (Monuduii. ononoceros), the males of which carry tlie well-known spirally-twisted "horn," or tusk, from wliich several of the names of the species are derived. Exclusively confined to tlie Arctic seas, where it associates in small "schools," the narwhal belongs to a group of dol])hins characterised by the blunt and rounded form of the head and the total absence of a beak. There is no back-fin ; the wide and rounded nippers are short ; and the colour is dusky, with dark-grey mottlings. The WHALES, PORPOISES, AND DOLPHINS. 179 single tusk of the males is always the left one, the right remainintr, as a rule, undevelojitHl in the gum ; but occasionally specimens are found with two tusks. Besides these tusks there are no other functional teeth in the males, and the females are toothless. The length of the head and body vaiies from 12 to 16 ft. and that of the tusk bet ween 7 and 8 ft. Allied to the narwhal is the beautiful white-whale or \m\\\'^i\.{Ddphuinpterus lertcus), which is likewise a northern form, and also the sole representative of its genus. It may be recognised by its pure glistening white skin, the absence of a tusk, and the pi-esence of numerous teeth in the front of the jaws. The beluga, which congregates in troops of considerable s'ze, is regularly hunted for the sake of its hide, blubber, and flesh ; the latter being dried and eaten by the Gx'een- landers and Eskimos, as well as by the sledge-dogs of the latter. In ordinary language the term porpoise is applied to many of the members of the present family, but in a scientific sense it is confined to the members of the small genus Phoca-na, all of which are comparatively small-sized ceta- ceans, characterised by possessing from sixteen to twenty-six pairs of small, short, somewhat spade-shaped teeth. In the common porpoise {P. communis) of the European seas the back is furnished with a well-developed fin ; but in the Indian species (P. pJiocmioidcs) this appendage is wanting. Porpoises are the most common and familiar of all cetaceans, their rolling gambols being well known not only to all those who have made a voyage, but likewise to visitors to the sea-side. The allied genus CcpJialorltiincInis is typified by Heaviside's dol[)hin(C licdvisidei), and includes four species from the Southern seas. They have a conical head, without any distinct beak, and from twenty- five to thirty-one pairs of small and sharp teeth. The back-fin is triangular or ovate ; and in three out of the four species the flippers have a characteristic elliptical shape. Externally their most distinctive feature is the coloration, the upper-parts being black, and the under surface of the body white, with the white area terminating on the under side of the tail in a trident, the lateral prongs of which run obliquely upwards on the flanks a little behind the back-fin. The Irawadi dolphin (Orcdla Jluminalis), of which a variety, or perhaps an allied species, occurs in the Bay of Bengal and some of the neighbouring seas, represents a genus distinguished by the globose, beakless head, and the small size and number of the teeth, the latter occupying nearly the entire length of the jaws, and including from thirteen to seventeen pairs in the upper, and from twelve to fifteen in the lower jaw. They are set close together, and are conical and pointed in shape, those in the front of the jaws of the adult males being inclined outwards. The moderate-sized flippers are broad at the base, and of a subovate contour ; while the back-fin is small and hooked. From 7 to 7i ft. is the usual length of these dolphins, which are either blackish or slaty in colour. From all the preceding the large and strikingly-coloured cetaceans known as killers, or grampuses (0/T((), difler by the large size of their powerful conical teeth, which are crowded together, and usually form twelve pairs in each jaw. And they are further characterised by the great vertical height of the back-fin. As regards colour, the upper-parts and flippers are black and the lower surface whitish ; the white area ending on the under side of the tail in a trident, very nearly the same as in the above-mentioned genus Ccjjhalorliinichus. Above and behind the eye is a white streak, and there is a purplish band across the back behind the fin. Killers, of which there is but a single well-defined species, grow to a length of at least 20 ft., and enjoy an almost cosmopolitan distribution, They derive their popular I So MAMMALIA—ORDER VIIL~ CE TA CEA, Fij- 93.— KiLLEfi (Orcx r/ladtalor). name from their rapacious habits, and are the only cetaceans which prey on other members of their own order. One killer has been known to swallow aeveral entire seals one after the other ; and nob unfrequently several individuals combine forces to attack and kill one of the larger whales, hunting with the per- severance of a pack of hounds, \^ hen swimming near the sur- face of the water, killers may be easily recognised by the great •size of the nearly vertical back- fin. The lesser killer ( Pseudorca crassidois), which is also cosmo- politan, and attains a length of about 14 ft., ditt'ers from its larger relative by the smaller size of the back-fin, the pointed flippers, and the cylindrical (instead of angulated) roots of the teeth, as well as by the uniformly black colour of the skin. There are generally eight pairs of upper and ten of lower teeth. Although the name of black-fish would apply equally well to the foregoing, it is given to the cetacean known scientifically as Giobioceiyhalns melas. The black-fish is characterised by the extremely short and rounded head, the almost uniformly black colour of the skin, and the presence of from eight to twelve pairs of small conical teeth in the front portion of the jaws. The back -fin is long, low, and thick, and the flippers are relatively long and narrow. Generally there is a lance-shaped white patch on the throat. In length, the black-fish, or, as it is often called, pilot-whale, grows to a length of 20 ft. Whether there is more than one species is somewhat uncertain ; but, at anyrate, a form inhabiting the Bay of Bengal is distinguishable by the leduc'.iou in the number of the teeth. As regards habits, this cetacean is the must sociable of its order, and since all the members of a herd always blindly follow their leader, enormous numbers are frequently slaughtered at a time. The last of the beakless group of the family is the rare Risso's dolphin (Gnoupiisgrisaia), which difl'ers from all the other Ddjjhiiiidiv, save the female of the narwhal, by the absence of upper teeth, while the lower jaw carries only from three to seven small teeth towards its anterior end. In general appearance this species is very similar to the black-fish, although the head is less decidedly globular, and the flip])ers are rather shorter. It is easily recognised by the peculiar grey striping and mottling of the skin ; scarcely any two individuals being quite alike in this respect. This species is almost cosmopolitan, specimens being stranded from time to time on the British coasts. Intermediate, between the beakless and beaked members of the family, is a genus known as Lus) are characterised by having three toes to each foot, and all the teeth short and cupped, whereas in the two-toed sloths {Clioki'ims), there are only two toes on the fore feet, and the front pair of teeth in each jaw are taller than the others and obliquely bevelled at the summits. Very exceptional among mammals are the sloths in regard to the number of vertebr;e in the neck. Thus, whereas in one of the two-toed kinds there are the normal seven, in a second the number is reduced to six ; while in the three-toed group there are invariably nine of these segments. SLOTHS, a.vj'-IlAT-£Rs and armadillos. iSj By the natives of the tropical forest-regions of South and Central America, ■where sloths are alone found, the three-toed kinds are spoken of as ai, while the name of unau is a]>plied to the mem- bers of the two-toed group. Mainly nocturnal iu their habits, sloths api^ear to bo sluggish creatures, passing the daylight hours curled up witli the head safely tucked between the fore-limbs, and at night wandering about slowly in search of food, which consists solely of leaves and other vegetable sub- stances. Caution is a great character- istic of their movements, a fresh branch being firmly seized before hold is vic' relaxed of the one they are about to Fij. <. 7 — Three-Toed Sloth leave. They are usually found either (.Draiiuims tridactylu);). singly or iu small family parties ; and the females produce but a single ofTsprlug at a birth, which is fully developed, except in the matter of size, when it makes its appearance in the world. The second family of the edentates is formed by the South American or true ant-eaters {MijrmccophKjidce), of which there are three species, referable to as many genera ; one of these being strictly terrestrial, while the other two are more or less arboreal in their habits. Ant-Eaters, So unlike are these creatures, both as regards external character and the structure of their skeleton, to the sloths, that it is at first sight difficult to believe that there is any very intimate relationship between the two groups. And, indeed, were it not that in the superficial deposits of South America there occur remains of certain extinct edentates known as ground-sloths (of which the gigmtic Megalotherium is a familiar example in our museums), forming to a greit extent a group intermediate between the sloths and the ant-eaters, it would be difficult even for zoologists to fully realise how intimate this relationship really is. Taking the existence of these extinct connecting links for granted, it may be noticed that in place of the short and rounded head of the sloths, the ant-eaters have the head and skull more or less elongated and narrow, while the slender jaws are entirely toothless, and the tongue is long, cylindrical, and capable of being protruded far in advance of the lips. The degree of elongation of the skull is, however, by no means the same in all the members of the group, the maximum development in this respect being exhibited in the case of the great ant- eater. Still more striking is the difference in the structure of the feet in the two groups. In the great ant-eater, for instance, the fore-foot is furnished with five complete toes, the middle one of which is much larger and more powerful than the rest ; and all bub the fifth, or outermost, are furnished with strong claws. In this genus there are also five toes to the hind-feet ; but; in the third representative of the family there are only four claws to each foot. When the great ant-eater is walking, only the extreme outer side and part of the upper surface of the fore-foot is applied to tho ground ; but in the hind-foot, which has the fourth toe the largest, and claws to all five, the whole of the short and wide sole touches the ground in the ordinary manner. An important point of distinction from the sloths is that the bones of the terminal joints of the fore-feet have a longi- 1 84 MAMMALIA -ORDER J'X.—EDENTA TA. tudlnal slit in the middle of the upper surface ; and in all cases the limbs are relatively short and stout. Unlike the sloths, the ant-eaters have a very long and powerful tail, which in two of the species is endowed ■with the power of prehension, as indeed is the case with so many of the animals inhabiting the dense forest - regions of tropical America, lu correlation with their insectivorous habits, the stomach of the ant-eaters is perfectly simple in structure, and the brain is more convoluted than in the sloths. Two out of the three species have the fur of the body marked by dark and light longitudinal bands or patches, and it is noteworthy that this type of coloration approximates to that obtaining in the under-fur of the sloths. In order to procure their insect-food, which mostly comprises anls and termites, the long worm like tongue, which can be protruded with great rapidity from the tubular mouth, is provided with a viscid secretion. The largest and most specialised member of the family is the great ant- eater, or tamahoa {MijrmecupJio.fja jubata), which is terrestrial in its habits, and is easily recognised by the exceedingly long and slender head, passing almost imper- cejotibly into the neck, the minute ears, the fringe of long hair clothing the fore-limbs and flvnks, and the huge mass of still more elongated hairs cover- ing the tail. This ant-eater, which attains a length of about 4 ft. to the root of the tail, is distributed over the whole of the tropical districts of South and Central America, fre- quenting either damp swampy forests or the margins of rivers. Like the other species, it is strictly nocturnal in its habits, and but a single offspring, which is carried for some time on the back of its parent, is produced at a birth. Next in point of size is the lesser ant-eater, or tamandua {Tatnandua tetradadyla), which scarcely attains half the dimen- sions of its larger cousin, and is distinguished by the uniformly short fur, shorter head, the much longer ears, and the cylindrical prehensile tail, which is naked both at the tip and along the whole of the lower aspect. In the fore-feet the claw of the fifth digit is rudimental and concealed beneath the skin, while that of the third is much larger than either of the others, the hind-foot being generally similar to that of the larger species. The tamandua has approximately the same geographi- cal distribution as the latter, from which it diflers in being mainly arboreal in its habits. The most sloth-like, and at the same time the most diminutive member of the group is the two-clawed ant-eater {Cijclotiirus didadylus), which does not exceed a rat in size, and has the sloth-like habit of hanging back downwards from the boughs of trees, to which it clings by its long, hook-like claws. In the shortness of the head this species likewise presents a decided approximation to the sloths. While the front paws have four toes, only the first and second of these — that is to say, those correspond- ing to the index and middle fingers of the human hand — -are furnished with claws ; but the four toes of the hind-foot are all clawed, and as they are Fij. 93. —Great Ant-Eater (Myrmecophaja jubata). SLOTHS, ANT-EATERS, AND ARMADILLOS. 1S5 placed close together and the claws are of nearly ecjual length, they collectively form a hook-like organ not unlike the foot of a sloth. From the other ant-eaters this species dillers in the uniformly foxy-red hue of the short silky fur. In its skeleton it dillers from the other two members of the group in possessing collar-bones, in which respect this species once again approximates to the sloths. In other ant-eaters the ribs are unusually broad, but in the present species this character is so exaggerated that they almost come into contact with one another, and thus nearly enclose the body in a solid bony casijue. Thoroughly arboreal in its mode of life, and furnished with a highly prehensile tail, the two-clawed ant-eater is restricted to the hottest regions of America, ranging from Northern Brazil through Peru and the Guianas to Central America. The development of a bony shield composed of isolated plates welded together by their edges, or overlapj)ing like tiles on a roof over more or less of the upper surface of the body, serves to diiferentiate the armadillos and their tiny relative the pichiago not only Armadillcs. from all other existing edentates, but likewise from other mammals. All these animals collectively constitute the family Dasypodidce, which is sufficiently distinguished by the aforesaid bony armour. In ordinary armadillos the armour is divided into two solid shields, one of which pro- tects the shoulders, and the other the haunches, while between these are a variable number of movable transverse bands, permitting the animal to bend its back to a smaller or greater extent, and in one case even allowing the as3um[)tion of a completely ball-like form. Both in the front and hind shield the constituent plates are polygonal in form, and articulate with one another immovably by their edges; but in the movable bands they are tile- like and overlapping. The fixed shields and movable bands collectively constitute the carapace. The component plates are marked by a characteristic sculpture, which varies much in the different genera, and may consist either of raised pustules or minute punctures ; and each plate is overlaid by a thin horny shield. More or less abundant hairs grow from the skin at the junction of the plates of the carapace ; and occasionally these are so abundant and luxuriant as practically to conceal the latter from view. A small shield of polygonal bony plates, with their edges in apposition, serves to protect the upper surface of the head ; while the tail is usually defended by a similar type of armour, which may either take the form of oblique rows of plates or tubercles, or of a series of rings of gradually decreasing diameter, severally composed of the same plates. Irregular bony plates likewise protect the short and powerful limbs, of which the front pair are provided with strong claws adapted for digging. In the fore-limbs the claws may vary in number from three to five, whereas the much smaller and weaker ones of the hind-foot are always the latter number. Armadillos have moderately long and more or less depressed heads, sharply pointed in front, and armed with a rather small number of simple peg-like teeth. They have long tails, fully developed collar-bones ; and the bones of the arm and fore-arm arc specially expanded and modified for the purpose of digging. Their tongues, although relatively long, have not the extreme elongation characterising the ant-eaters. Armadillos have a much more extensive geographical range than either of the preceding families of edentates, ranging from Patagonia to Central America, and one species at least reaching as far northwards as Texas. Although different species or genera are confined to different localities and situations, members of the group are to- be met with l86 MAMMAL/A -ORDER IX. —EDEXTA TA. alike on the grassy pampas of Buenos Aires, the sandy plains of IMendozi, and the tropical forests of Brazil. While a few are diurnal, the majority are nocturnal in their habits, and all are burrowers. In many districts the Argen- tine pampas is perfectly honeycombed with the long burrows of various kinds of armadillos. Armadillus live chiefly upon insects, worms, and molluscs, but one species at least feeds largely upon carrion, although this is probably an acquired habib, due to the large number of carcases of horses and cattle which nowadays strew the pampas. In their movements they are extremely swift, starting off with a tremendous rush when disturbed while feeding at night, and requiring a good dog to keep pace with them. Whereas some species run on ttie tips of their claws, with the body raised high above the ground, others carry the carapace lower. The rapidity with which an armadillo will bury itself in the soft ground of the Argentine pampas must be witnessed to be credited. Most of the true armadillos have medium-sized or rather large ears, placed far apart from one another ; the first and second claws of the fore-foot are, if present at all, slender ; and the breast of the female bears a single pair of teats. The first genus (Dasijpus) includes the typical armadillos, of which the si.'C- banded species (D. sexcindus) of Brazil, and the Argentine peludo, or hairy armadillo {D. viUosus), are well-known examples. These animals have from six to eight movable bands in the carapace, which is more or less depressed with strongly serrated margins. The ears are small or moderate, and the head is very broad and much depressed, with the muzzle comparatively blunt. The tail, which J'ii?. 99.-iiAiRvARMAmLL.(5a.:,^tu !^ ^l^'^'^f'^ f'y^'^,.the head and body, viltosu:^). IS plated with distinct rings near the root. In the fore-foot the first toe is the slenderest of all, and the second the longest. The teeth, which are relatively large, are generally nine above and ten below, the first upper pair being usually implanted in the premaxillary or anterior jaw- bones. Some of the species are of considerable size, the head and body in the typical one measuring as much as IG inches. In the Argentine the peludo is now mainly nocturnal, and feeds largely upon the carcases of cattle, beneath which its burrows are fre([uently formed. The much smaller pichi {D. mi)mtus) of the same districts is, however, chiefly a diurnal animal. In spite of having but two teat>5, the female produces from two to four young, which are born blind, with the armour already developed, but in a soft and flexible condition. The second genu?, of which the broad armadillo or tatouay {Lysiurns jinicindus) of Brazil, Paraguay, and Surinam is the typical representative, difi'ers from the last by the greater number of movable bands in the carapace, which are either twelve or thirteen. The teeth, of which there are either eight or nine pairs in each jaw, are relatively smaller than in the first genus, and in the upj)er jaw do not extend so far backwards on the sides of the palate. The tail, also, is almost devoid of bony plates, of which it has only a few on the under side and near the tip. The chief characteristic of the fore-foot is the great size of the curved cla\y borne by the third toe ; the fourth and fifth toes having similar but smaller claws, while those of the first and second are long and slender. In the hind-foot SLOTHS, ANT-EATERS, AXD ARMADILLOS. 1S7 the claws take the form of short and bhint nails. The plateg of the carapace are ornamented by au indistinct granular sculpture. \.\\ size the tatouay is intermediate between the six-banded armadillo and the next species. The groat number of the teeth — of which there are from twenty to twenty-five pairs— at once serves to distinguish the giant armadillo {Priodoii (ji[nts) of Brazil and Surinam from all its relatives. It is also the largest living member of the family, the head and body measuring about 3 ft. in length. The number of movable bands in the carapace is thirteen ; and in the anterior and posterior shields of the carapace the plates are arranged in rows very similar to those of the movable bands which they resemble in sculpture. Structurally the feet are very similar to those of Lijsiitn'K, but the claw of the third toe in the front foot is relatively larger, wliile that of the fifth is very small. The tail, which is nearly equal in length to the carapace, is, however, of a totally different type, being completely invested with large plates arranged in spiral rows. Very different are the three sm:^ll species of three-banded arnndillos (Tolypeiifes), in which the fore and aft shields of the carapace are very greatly developed and the movable bands reduced to three. The plates on the carapace are small and tuberculated, the shield on the head is very large and flat, and the extremely short tail is covered with prominent tubercles. As the borders of the carapace, which are smooth, are much produced on either side of the fore and hind limbs, these animals are enabled to roll themselves up into a complete although somewhat flattened ball ; the shield of the head, by one side of which lies the tail, almost completely filling up the front and hinder notches in the carapace. The head is long and narrow, Avith the rather large ovate ears placed somewhat low down ; while the jaws carry eight or nine pairs of upper and nine of lower teeth, which are of relatively small size and reach backwards to the hinder end of the palate. In the fore-foot the third claw is more developed than in any other species, the claws of the first and fifth toes being either rudimental or absent. The common species grows to a length of about fifteen inches, and is found in the pampas of Argentina, where, however, it now seems extremely rare. Trusting to their impassive power of defence, all the armadillos of this genus are diurnal and non- burrowing animals, generally lurking in the large tussocks of pampas-grass. When running they go on the extreme tips of their claws, and scuttle along at a great pace. The last genus of the true armadillos is represented on the Argentine pampas by the mulita (Tatimia hybiida), and there are other species in different parts of the continent, one of which ranges into Texas, while another from Peru is remarkable for the thick coat of fur which entirely conceals the carapace. These pretty little armadillos differ from the whole of the foregoing by the close approximation of the long mule-like ears (whence the name of mulita for the Argentine species), as well as by the presence of an additional pair of teats on the abdomen of the females, and aho by the development of a set of milk-teeth. The seven or eight pairs of permanent teeth are very minute, and do not make their appearance till comparatively late in life. The long and narrow head is produced into a cylindrical and obliquely-truncated, somewhat pig-like snout. Extreme elongation and compression is the leading characteristic of the carapace, which has from seven to nine movable bands ; the plates of the latter being marked by a V-shaped line of punctures, while the smaller ones of the solid shields have an elevated oval central area surrounded by an incomplete ring of small tubercles. The tail is surrounded by a series of bony rings, l88 MAMMALIA— ORDER X.—EFFODIENTIA. decreasing in size from root to tip, and thus recills a partially opened telescope. In the fore-feet there are four long claws, of •which the innermost are the largest ; while in the five-clawed hind-feet the third is the longest and the fourth and fifth the shortest. About 11 in is the average length of the head and body of the mulita, but another species is somewhat larger. The mulita may be often found skulking among the tussocks of pampas-grass during the daytime, when, with the aid of a dog, it can generally be captured before it has time to make good its escape into its burrow. Not unfrequently when a Gaucho captures a mulita ho crops its ears and turns it loose, such crojj-eared specimens being at first rather a puzzle to the naturalist. In spite of the circumstance that carrion forms a considerable portion of the diet of these animals, roasted mulita is a favourite dish in the Argentine. Quite different from the true armadillos are the beautiful little pichiciagos, or fairy pink armadillos, of which one species (Cldamyduphorus truncatus) is locally distributed over the sandy districts of Western Argentina, while the second {G. retusa) is from the Bolivian highlands. From the armadillos these tiny little creatures differ by having the upper surface of the head and body covered by a continuous mantle, formed of quadrangular horny shields underlain by thin bony plates, and gradually widening from the front of the head to the hinder end of the body, where it is abruptly truncated. In the Argentine species this mantle is attached to the body only along the line of the backbone, its under surface being hairy; but in the Bolivian form (which is referred by some writers to a separate genus, under th& name of Biir- meisteria) it is joined to the skin throughout its whole extent. The truncated hinder end of the body is protected by a solid bony shield with overlying horny scales ; the short tail protruding through a notch in its lower border. The whole of the rest of the body is covered with long silky hair, which in the Argentine species is pure glistening white, while the mantle is pinkish. The minute ears are completely concealed Isy this fur ; and both fore and hind feet have five claws, the front toes being connected to the base of the latter, while those of the hinder pair are free. In length the Argentine species measures only about 5 in., but the Bolivian form is somewhat larger. Pichiciagos inhabit sandy districts, where they excavate burrows with marvellous rapidity ; and it is believed that the hinder shield is used as a rammer to close the burrow when tenanted, the creatures apparently making their exit by digging a fresh passage. ORDER X.—EFFODIENTIA. Aard-Varics and Pangolixs. Althouoh, as stated above, the animals known as aard-varks and pangolins are generally included among the Edentata, they have little in common with the typical representatives of that order. Hence they are assic;ned to a distinct ordinal group termed the Effodientia. That group is typified by the aard- varks, and is only provisionally regarded as comprising the pangolins, which are perhaps entitled to constitute an order by themselves. The Effodientia resemble the Edentata in never having front teeth ; but differ AARD-VARKS AND PANGOLINS. iSg from all the latter in the absence of additional articular facets to the hinder trunk-vertebrre. More detinitcly they may be distinguished from the edentates as follows. When teeth are present these are of a totally dilFerent type to those of the latter, and when teeth are absent the hinder trunk- vertebrre lack the aforesaid additional articulations which are present in the toothless edentates. Theaard-varks, or ant-bears (OriidewpocUda), forming the typical members of the order, are now represented by two closely allied species of the genus 0>ii tcropus, bjth of which are confined to the Ethiopian region. There is, however, evidence that during the Aarcl-Varks. Tertiary period aard-varks existed in the south of Europe. The existing forms are uncouth and strange-looking animals of large size, with the skin nearly naked, or sparsely covered with bristly hairs. The long and narrow head is fur- nished with greatly elongated, slender, and pointed ears, and t3rminates in a somewhat pig-liko snout, in which are perforated the circular nostrils, while the mouth is tubular. The neck is short, the fore-quarters are comparatively short, the back is much arched, and the tail, which is nearly as long as the body, is thick, cylin- drical, and tapering. In the sbort but powerful fore-limbs, £he four toes are furnished with medium-sized strong nails ; while the hind-feet have five nearly equal toes, each bearing a nail. When walking, the entire soles are applied to the ground. Adult aard-varks usually have five pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw, although from eight to ten pairs of upper teeth, and eiirht of lower ones are developed. Of these all but the last three have milk- predecessors, which never cut the gum. These teeth have no enamel, and are composed of a number of adherent polygonal denticules, traversed by a series of radiating tubes ; such a structure being quite unparalleled in the mammalian class. The tongue is cylindrical and extensile. In total length these animals may measure as much as 5 ft. In habits, aard-varks are nocturnal, burrowing, and insectivorous, feeding chiefly on ants and termites. Their powers of digging are very great, and in South Africa their burrows are generally constructed in the neighbourhood of termite hills. Very different both in external appearance and internal structure are the pangolins, or scalyant-eaters, of the warmerparts of the Old World, constituting the family Manidte, and all included in the single genus Manis. The most peculiar and striking feature of the animals is the Pangolins, investiture of the head, body, tail, and limbs in a complete coat of overlapping horny scales, so that the general appearance is much like the cone of a spruce-fir. Teeth are wanting ; and the skull is long, conical, and devoid of a zygomatic or cheek- arch, with a very slender lower jaw. The eyes are minute, and the external concha of the ears rudnnental. A few bristly hairs often occur between the scales, and the latter do not extend on to the under surface of the body, or the inner sides of the limbs. The long and worm-like tongue can be protruded a great distance in front Flj. 100— A\nii-\ \u\\.{Ori/cteropus capensis). IQO MAMMALIA -ORDER XL-MARS UPIALIA, of the tubular mouth. Each of the limbs is furnished with five toes, terminating in long powerful claws, of which the supporting bunes are longitudinally s]>lit at their extremities ; the front claws being much larger than the hinder ones, and tlie third toe in each foot superior in size to the rest. In walking, the front claws are bent beneath the soles, so that the weight of the body is mainly borne on the upper and outer sides of the third and fourth digits ; but in the hind-limbs the whole sole of the foot is applied to the ground in the ordinary manner. The tail may be either long or medium. Collar-bones are wanting in the skeleton. Pangolins are confined to south-eastern Asia, and Africa south of the Sahara ; the largest species, which measures up- wards of 6 ft. in total length, being an inhabitant of West Africa. They resemble the aird-varks in feeding on ants and termites, which are licked up by the extensile tongue, after their hillocks have been laid open by the powerful claws of these animals. They are likewise nocturnal, and have the power of rolling themselves up into a ball, when they are completely secure from most enemies. Some of the African forms are more or less arboreal, but all the rest are purely terrestrial. Apparently only a single young is produced at a birth, for the nourish- ment of which the breast of the female carries a pair of teats. FiO- 101.— A. Paxqolix {Mania). ORDER XI.— MARSUPIALIA. PoucHEU Mammals. TsE whole of the ten mammalian orders treated of above are collectively characterised by the circumstance that, during intra-uterine life, the blood- vessels of the fwtus are connected with th(jse of the parent by means ui a vascular organ known as the placenta. And it is due to this communication between the fcetal and maternal circulations that the young are born in the more or less highly- developed state characteristic of the whole assemblage. Collectively, the whole ten orders form a sub-class, known indifferently as the Eutheria or Placentalia. On the other hand, in the mammals forming the subject of the present section, a placenta is never developed, and there is consequently no direct connection between the circulatory systems of the parent and ofTspring, so that the young are produced in an exceedingly imperfect state of development. To this group, which forms a second sub- class, the name of Metatheria, or Implacentalia, is applied, while it is sometimes known as the Didelphia, on account of the completely double uterus or womb, and thereby contrasts with the Eutheria, in which the uterus is either single, or its two branches are united at their outlet. Hence the name Monodelphia is not unfrequently given to the first of the two sub-classes. Whereas the Placentals, as already indicated, are split up into the ten POUCHED MAMMALS, 191 orders described above, no such division seems practicable in the case of the lmi)lacentals. Conse(juently the whole of tlieni may bo included in the single order Marsupialia, which may bo po])ularly known either as IMarsupiala or Pouched Mannnals. Both the teclmical and popular names of the group are derived from the very general i)resenco of a more or less fully-developed pouch on the abdominal surface of the body of the female, into which the imperfectly- developed young are transferred at birth, and where they remain until sufficiently advanced to take care of themselves. This pouch is, however, by no means universally present in the order, and cannot, therefore, bo taken a^ its distinctive character. The imperfect state of development of the young at birth is, howevt-.r, absolutely distinctive of all Marsupials ; and when born the fce'uses resemble helpless and nearly motionless sacs of flesh, which are extremely small in proportion to the size of the parent, those of the large kangaroos being no larger than a man's thumb. These helpless little abortions are transferred by their parent immediately after birth to her teats, which are always situated within the pouch whenever that ai)pendage is developed. Of course such ill-developed creatures can do nothing in the way of sucking by themselves, and Nature has accordingly provided a special arrangement by means of which their wants can be supplied. This arrangement takes the form of special muscles surrounding the milk glands of the female, which by a spontaneous contraction compress the glands, and thus force the nourishing fluid down the throats of the immovable, naked young. In order to prevent the helpless young from being choked as they hang to the teats of the motherj, the upper part of the larynx, or superior extremity of the windpipe, is so elon- gated as to project through the fauces, or hinder apertures of the mouth, and thus reach the internal nostrils. In consequence of this arrangement a closed passage is formed from the nostrils to the lungs, so that the footus can breathe while the milk flows down its throat. The young Marsu^jials thus nourished hang on to the nipples of the mother until their bodies and limbs are sufficiently developed to enable them to move about by themselves ; but, as in the case of the kangaroos, they frequently resort to the pouch as a haven of refuge from danger for a long time after they have made their appearance in the outer world, and it is by no means uncommon for the pouch to be tenanted by helpless foetuses and half-grown young. Except in the thylacine, where they are reduced to a rudimental condition, the pouch is supported by a pair of marsupial or epipubic bones attached to the front edge of the lower part of the pelvis ; these bones being also present in the male. In all the Pouched Mammals the brain is characterised by its propor- tionately small size, and the slight development of the convolutions on its surface. As already mentioned, the womb or uterus is double throughout its entire length ; and in most cases the lower border of the angle, or hinder extremity of the inferior margin of each branch of the lower jaw is more or less strongly bent inwards. Although there is great variation, both numeri- cally and structurally, in the dentition, yet there is one feature in regard to the teeth characteristic of the order generally. This relates to the mode of succession and replacement of the teeth. Whereas in the great majoi*ity of terrestrial Placentals the whole or the greater number of the teeth in advance of the true molars (which in that group are typically three in number on each side of each jaw) are preceded by milk or baby-teeth, in the Pouched ]\Iammals only one tooth on each side of the jaws has such deciduous predecessor, and even this is not invariably developed. Regarding the 192 MAMMALIA— ORDER XL~I\rARSUPIALIA. dental succession in the order, the writer may quote the following passage from a work he has devoted to the group : — "The tooth thus replaced has been hitherto generally regarded as corrtsponding to the last or fourth milk- molar of the higher mammals, while the apparently replacing tooth has con- sequently been identified with the last or fourth pre-molar of the s^me. Recent researches have, however, tended to show that this is not a case of true replacement at all, and that the tooth, which makes its appearance late in life, is really a retarded pre-molar, which will consequently be the fourth of the full series, while the apparently replaced tooth is really the fifth. Be this as it maj', the mode of succession is peculiar and unique ; and it may be still convenient to speak of the replacing tooth as the fourth premolar, and the one it replaces as the fourth milk-molar." It should be added that some authorities consider the whole of the teeth of a Marsu{)ial in advance of the molars as corresponding to the milk-series of the I'lacentals ; and also that, when the full series is developed, there are four pairs of molars iu each jaw in the present order. That the Pouched Mammals are inferior in their organisation to the Placentals, is admitted by all; and they are also, as shown by their history in past times, among the oldest, if not actually the oldest, representatives of the entire class. Tnere is, however, some difference of opinion auiong zoologists as to whether this group includes the ancestors from which the higher mammals have originated. In regard to their geographical distribution, the Marsupials present some very curious features. At this present day their head-quarters are the Notogc'uic realm, comprising Australia, Papua, Celebes, and the other islands lying to the eastward of Wallace's line. And it is here that they attain their maximum development. Whereas, however, they form the great bulk of the mammalian population of Australia and Papua, in Celebes and the adjacent islands they constitute only a small minority of the fauna. Elsewhere, Pouched Mammals are found only in America, where they are represented by the opossums and selvas ; and here they are chiefly restricted to South and Central America, constituting the Neog;eic realm, only a single species, which is evidently an immigrant from the south, inhabiting the northern half of the continent. During the Secondary epoch of geological history. Marsupials of extinct generic types were abundant in the northern hemisphere, while in the succeeding Tertiary epoch opossums flourished in Europe and North America. It is thus evident that the ancestral Marsupials were driven from the northern hemisphere by the incoming of the higher forms of mammalian life to find a secure refuge in southern islands. And it further appears that while in South America they have had to compete with numerous types of Eutherians, in Australasia they have had the land pretty much to them- selves, and have there been enabled to attain the wonderful development so especially characteristic of that region. The kangaroos and their innnediate allies form a large family (Macropodida) belonging to the first of the two great subordinal divisions of the Pouched Mammals, technically known as the Kangaroo Dij^rotodontia. This division, which is mainly confined Tribe. to the Notogreic realm, is specially characterised by the number of the front or incisor teeth, of which there are never more tlian three pairs ; the usual complement being three pairs in the upper jaw and one in the lower. The innermost, Avhich are in some cases the only pair of incisors in both jaws, are always large, with sharp, cutting rOUCHED J/AJ/J/.ILS. 193 edges, while generally the upper canines, if present at all, are small, and the lower ones are absent. Among the cheek-teeth, the four pairs of molar-teeth have broad, quadrangular crowns, generally surmounted either by a pair of transverse ridges or by four blunt and rounded tubercles. Such a type of dentition is adapted for a vegetable diet, which ia charac- teristic of the diprotodonts generally. From the allied families the kangaroo tribe are specially distinguished by possessing rooted teeth, among which are three pairs of upper and one of lower incisors, the upper incisors being nearly vertical, while the large lower pair project nearly horizontally forwards, and in some cases are capable of working against one another like the blades of a pair of scissors. A small upper canine may or may not be present. The five-toed fore-limbs are in general much shorter and weaker than the hinder pair, while the latter are generally four-toed, and have the digit corresponding to the fourth of the typical series of five greatly developed at the expense of tlie other three, and forming the sole axis of support for the limb. Of the smaller toes, the second and third, or those on the inner side of the enlarged digit, are enclosed in a common skin, from which feature the hind-foot of this family is termed syndactylous. The great relative size and strength of the hind- limbs of the more typical members of the family is correlated with the upright position of the body, and the mode of progression ia by enormous leaps. In repose the body is swung on a kind of pivot supported by the thigh-bones, the feet resting on the ground, and the large and thick tail serving to form the third leg of a tripod. Among the smaller forms the tail may be preliensile ; and there are a few arboreal types in which the disproportion between the fore and hind limbs is very much less strongly marked than is the case with the typical kangaroos. All feed entirely on grass or leaves ; and the stomach, as is so frequently the case with vegetable feeders, is of a somewhat complex type. In the females the opening of the pouch is forwards, so that when it contains young, these are in an upright position. The members of the family are confined to Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, with some of the neighbouring islands, such as the Aru group ; the true kangaroos, which generally associate in large herd, or "mobs," and frequent either open grassy plains or timbered districts, being the largest existing members of the order. The true kangaroos and wallabies, constituting the genus Macropus, are the typical representatives of a sub-family {Macropodince) characterised by the sub-equality of the claws of the fore-feet, which are never very large, and the generally elongated and pointed ears. In the dentition the last upper pre-molar is placed either immediately in the line of the molars, or is at most but slightly everted ; and the molars, which increase regularly in size from the first to the fourth, are transversely ridged. As a rule, the upper canine is either very small or wanting, and the central pair of upper incisors are but slightly larger than the other two. From the other members of the sub-family the numerous species contained in the genus Macropxis have the nose naked, the ears large, and the fur on the nape of the neck nearly always directed downwards. The disproportion between the length of the fore and hind limbs is very strongly marked ; and the large claw of the hind-foot is always larger than the naked terminal pad on the sole of the same. The tail is thick, tapering, and evenly haired throughout; and there are four teats in the pouch of the females. There are upwards of twenty-three species included in the genus, which may be arranged under 194 MAMMALIA— ORDER XL—MARSUPIAIJA. the heading of kangaroos proper, and larger and lesser wallabies. Whilo the great gey kangaruo (.If. (jicjKuteus) has the stature of a man, some of the snialler wallabies are no bigger than a rabbit. The great majority of the species are confined to Australia and Tas- mania, but the agile wallaby {M. agilis) ia common to Australia and New Guinea, while the Aru Island wallaby (M. brimii) is restricted to the Aru and Kei Islands, and the sombre wallaby (M. broicni) is common to New Guinea and the New Britain group. From the true kangaroos the larger wal- labies differ by their more brilliant coloration, and the presence of a longitudinal external bridge connecting the anterior ledge of the moiara with the first of the two transverse ridges, coupled with the absence of a median longitudinal bridge between the same ledge and ridge. The habits of kangaroos and wallabies have been so often described as to render a repetition unnecessary. From the preceding genus the six species of rock -wallabies {Pctrogale) are distin- guished by the shortness of the large claw of the hind-foot, which only slightly exceeds the naked pads on the sole in length, and by the long cylindrical tail being thinner, more thickly haired, and tufted a,t the tip. These wallabies are restricted to the Australian mainland, and ditfer from the true wallabies by inhabiting rocky districts instead of open plains. Their climbing and Icajjing powers are highly developed ; but the tail is employed solely as a balancing organ, and never as a support to the body. The presence of a horny spur or nail of unknown function at the tip of the long, tapering, and short-haired tail is a sufficiently distinctive feature of the three nail-tailed wallabies constituting the genus Onychogale. In addition to this, these animals have the nose hairy (with the exception in some cases of the base of the partition between the two nostrils) ; while the large claw of the hind-foot is long, narrow, compressed, and sharply pointed. There is also a difierence in the form of the upper incisor teeth. Like the rock- wallabies, the members of this genus are restricted to continental Australia. The same is the case with the three species of hare-wallabies (Lagorchestes), in which the nose is entirely or partially covered with hair, the large claw of the hind-foot is long, stout, and not concealed by haii\ while the rather short tail is evenly haired throughout its length. In some respects forming a con- necting link between the genus Macroptis and the under-mentioned tree- kangiiroos, the three species of dorca kangaroos (Dorcopsis) are confined to New Guinea, and present the following distinctive features. The excess in the length of the hind over the fore-limbs is much less strongly marked than in the true kangaroo and wallabies ; there is a large and broad portion of the nose couiijletely naked ; the head is long and narrow, with small ears ; the fur on the nape of the neck is entirely or partially reversed, so as to be directed forwards towards the head. In both jaws the fourth pre-molar is a compressed cutting tooth, greatly elongated, from before backwards, and Fig. 102. — Bennets Wallaby (Macropus ualabalus). roue HE D MAMMALS. 195 having its surfaces marked by upright grooves, and a distinct ledge on the base of the inner side. The direction of the two series of cheek-teeth is nearly parallel. Although it is known that they are not arbore il, nothing definite has been ascertained in regard to the habits of these rather small kangaroos. More remarkable than all are the tree-kangaroos (Dendrolagus), of which three species are known from New Guinea, and two from Queensland. In general build these animals are of fairly normal proportions, and quite unlike ordinary kangaroos, the fure-limbs being strong, stout, and nearly equil in length to the hinder pair. The naked portion of the nose is broad and covered with sparse hairs ; and the fur on the nape of the neck is reversed, as is sometimes also that of the back. In the broad hind-foot the two united inner toes are not very markedly smaller than the other two ; while the stout and strong claws of the latter are nearly as curved as those of the forefoot. The elon- gated tail is thickly and evenly haired. One of the species measures 2G in. to the root of the tail. Regarding the habits of one of the Queensland species, Mr. E. R. Waite, ■writing in the "Proceedings of the Linnjean Society of New South Wales," observes that "the native name is mapi, and the animals are difficult to procure, as the blacks esteem them as a delicacy, and only surrender their captures when compelled. When a mapi is discovered, a fence 5 or 6 ft. in height and several feet in diameter is built of rattan and bushes round the tree. Some of the blacks enter the enclosure, ascend the tree, and drive the animal down. It usually jumps to the ground, often from a height of 20 ft. Should it elect to descend ths trunk, it does so tail-foremost. On reaching the ground the animal is eventually caught by the men surrounding the enclosure, generally by the tail, which member is dragged through the fence, the unfortunate mapi being despatched with blows from a nuUa-nulla. The blacks will not venture within the fence on account of the dread in which they held the powerful claws of the animal. The natives who hunted for Dr. Lumholtz [the discoverer of the first example of this species made known to science] called the animal bungary, and adopted a somewhat different method of capture." Regarding the second Queensland species of the genua (I>. bennettianus), a correspondent wrote to Mr. Waite as follows : — "The native name of the climbing kangaroo is charibeena. The blacks hunt them with dogs and are very fond of the flesh. I had often heard the blacks talking about them, but though I have been here nearly ten years it was only about three years ago that I succeeded in obtaining one. In the daytime they are found among the top branches of the trees and come down in the evening to feed upon creepers, ferns, and fruit. I have found several down on the flat land, but as a rule they seem to be most numerous on or near the top of the hill ridges here, which are about 1500 to 2500 ft. high. When found in the daytime, the animals generally sleep with the heads Fij. 103. — Trke Kangaroo {J)i'iidr(il.igus). 196 MAMMALIA— ORDER X/.—MARSCP/ALlA. hanging on the breasts between the fore-limbs, and the tail is used as a balancing pole. At first I could not induce the blacks to catch any of the charibeenas, as they said that a full-grown one would show fight, but when I went with them and caught the first one myself with a lasso they saw how easy it was, and have since always caught tht m in this manner, except when out of reach ; in this case they make the animal jump; as soon as it reaches the ground one boy holds its head down with a forked stick while another passes a bag over its hind-quarters and slips it over its head. The best time to hunt them is early in the morning while the scent is fresh. A dingo, or mongrel — the former preferred — is used, and follows the scent to the foot of the tree which the kangaroo has climbed to camp for the day. If the tree be a low one, it is tolerably easy to find the animal, but it often happens that they go from one tree to another before they find a suitable 'camp,' and then it becomes necessary for a native to ascend a high tree in the vicinity so as to be able to look down on the surrounding trees, as the kangaroo sits right out in the sun and is more easily seen from above than from below. If one approaches quietly, it is quite easy to catch the animal by the tail and slip it into a bag while up the tree ; but the least noise rouses them, and it is surprising how quickly they can travel, jumping sometimes 20 to 30 ft. from one tree to another, and I have seen one jump fully 60 ft, from a high tree to the ground and not hurt itself at all. When jumping it seems always to land on its fore-feet, and though I have repeatedly shaken them down from great heights, I have never seen one injured, as they always, like a cat, fall on their feet. The tail is never used to hang by, only to balance with, though I have often seen one bend its tail over a branch while it reached down below the branch upon which it was sitting to secure some berries. These kangaroos can stiffen the tail so that it stands straight out like a rod. When caught and kejit in captivity they soon become quiet and take readily to eating bread, sweet potatoes, apples, oranges, mangoes, and the rinds of sweet potatoes and yams ; also the leaves of several of the eucalypti, white cedar, and many other trees, the names of which I do not know. In the scrub they seem to have a partiality for the bird's-nest fern, the moustera, and a small climber like the pepper-plant, and eat almost any of the wild fruits which are so plentiful here. The males are very pugnacious, and if two of them be put into an enclosure together will often fight until one is killed. They spar with the fore-pawa in quite a scientific manner, uttering grunts all the time, till one sees an opportunity of closing with the other, when he makes straight for the back of the neck, and if he succeeds in getting a grip with his teeth, he shakes the other like a dog does a rat. Some of the old males have quite a harem, and keep their wives from straying apart, and do not let any other males go near them. I have found several of these families numbering from three to five females and one male. The young males, and also the very old ones, are generally found by themselves, or two or three of them together without any females. I think they breed twice a year, and have only one young one at birth. The kangaroos are most plentiful among rocky hills, where the scrub is thick and stunted, and though they feed both on the ground and in the trees and among rocks, I fancy that they feed mostly in the two latter places." With the single species of banded-wallaby {LagodropMis fasciatus) from Western Australia, we again come to a genus in which the general build is the same as in Macropus; the nose being naked, the hind-feet covered with long bristly hairs by which the claws are completely hidden, and the back marked POUCHED ALAJf.VJLS. 197 by dark cross-bands. The banded-wallaby is a comparatively small species, measuring only about 18 in. to the root of the tail. Still smaller are the rat-kangaroos, of Australia and Tasmania, of which there are several distinct generic types, collectively constituting the sub- family Potoroime. Of this group the distinctive characteristics are as follows :— In size all the forms are small, and may be compared to hares or rabbits, the ears being usiiully small and rounded. In the fore-feet the claws are greatly elongated, those of the three middle toes being dispro- portionately larger than those of the other two ; as in the Mdcropodiiur, there are only four toes to the hind-foot ; and the long tail is hairy. In the dentition the upper canines are invariably present and generally well- developed ; the central pair of upper incisors have taller crowns than either of the other two ; the fourth pre-molar, which is a compressed and trenchant tooth of great antero-posterior length, may either be set in the same line as the molars, or somewhat bent outwards in front • and the molars, which decrease in size from the first to the fourth, have tuberculated crowns. The three species of typical rat-kangaroos forming the genus Fotorons vary somewhat in size, and have the nose naked, the ears very short and rounded, the front claws long and somewhat slender, the hind-limbs not very much larger than the front ones, the hind-feet very short, with naked and coarsely- granulated soles, and the tapering hairy tail devoid of a crest. In the dentition the fourth pre-molar has from two to four vertical grooves. These rat-kangaroos, which generally inhabit scrub-jungle, have their leaping powers much less strongly developed than in the allied genera. In running, both fore and hind limbs are brought into action. Nearly allied in external character is the South Australian plain rat-kangaroo (Caloprymmis campestris), which is an animal of comparatively large size, with the nose and ears as in the typical genus, the front claws long and strong, the hind-feet relatively long, with coarsely-granular soles, and the tail thin, cylindrical, and covered evenly with short hair. While the last pre-molar is similar to that of the preceding genus, the skull is generally like that of the next. The four species of prehensile-tailed rat-kangaroos (Bettongia) are sufficiently distinguished by the feature from which they take their popular name. The hair on the tail is long, and forms a more or less distinct crest ; the last pre-molar is much elongated, with from seven to fifteen distinctly-marked, oblique grooves on the sides ; and the squared molars, of which the fourth is much the smallest, carry four tubercles. These little animals are completely terrestrial and nocturnal, using their prehensile tails solely for the purpose of carrying bundles of grass and twigs to their nest ; such bundles being held by the tail being bent down over and round them. Three of the species are Australian, and the fourth Tasmanian. The last member of the sub-family is the rufous rat-kangaroo {^-Epypryviwis riifesctns) of New South Wales, in which the nose is partially hairy, the ears are somewhat elongated, the hind- feet long, with narrow, granulated soles, and the tail evenly-haired. The long and narrow last pre-molar has from seven to eight vertical grooves, but no inner ledge ; and the molars are oblong, with the tubercles less distinct and tending more to form ridges than in the other genera, while the decrease in size from the first to the last is less marked. Like the other members of the group, this animal is nocturnal, but it is remarkable for its speed and the great length of its leaps when disturbed. Of especial interest is the tiny musk-kangaroo {Hypsiprymnodon moschatvs) of Northern Queensland, since it forms a connecting link between the igS MAMMALIA— ORDER XI.— MARS UP! ALIA. kangaroo tribe on the one hand, and the phalangers on the other. Indeed, it ia chiefly owing to the presence of a pocket like pit on the outer side of the hinder part of the bone of the lower jaw that it ia referred to the present rather than to the following family. It is regarded as representing a distinct sub-family (fiypA/pij/imioc/oH^i/tfe) of the Mdcropodidce, characterised by the small, weak, and nearly equal-sized claws, the presence of five toea in the hind foot (the first of which can be opposed to the rest), the nuked and scaly tail, and the oblique position of the short last pre-molar tooth. In size this creature ia very small, with a rat-like bodily form, a completely bare nose, large, thin, and naked ears, the hind and fore limbs of nearly equal length, and adapted for walking, the first toe of the hind-foot elongated and without a claw, the fourth toe of the same not abnormally large, and the tail cylin- drical and tapering, with some hair at the root. The niusk-kangaroo is a partially arboreal animal, which is mainly diurnal, and frequents scrubs on the banks of rivera and in the coast-range. Either one or two young are produced at a birth ; and the characteristic musky odour is more pronounced in the female than in her partner. Owing to the intermediate characters presented by the musk-kangaroo, the differentiation of the phalanger tribe {Phalangeridir) from the Macropodidce is by no means so easy as would be the case were that Phalanger creature non-existent. There are, however, two leading Tribe. features which may be regarded as absolutely distinctive of the former group. In the first place, each branch of the lower jaw-bone lacks the deep pocket-like pit on the outer side of its hinder extremity so characteristic of the kangaroo tribe ; and, secondly, the aperture of the pouch of the female is directed backwards instead of forwards. Among other more or less distinctive features, the following may be enumerated : — Five toes are present in both the hind and fore feet, those of the latter being usually of nearly equal size ; while in those of the former the second and third are syndactylous, the fourth is the largest, the fifth but little smaller, and the first large, opposable to the rest, and terminating in a broad, clawless pad. With the exception of the koala, the tail is long and generally prehensile ; and the stomach is simple. The dentition is extremely variable, owing to the frequent presence of a number of small functionlesa teeth in the front portion of the jaws. It may be said, however, that, as a general rule, there are three pairs of upper, and one of functional lower incisors, and that the latter never have the scissor-like action characteristic of the kangaroos. The last of the two or three pre-molars usually present is generally furnished with a rather sharp-cutting edge, and is placed obliquely to the line of the molars, with its front edge everted ; and the molars, of which there are usually four pairs, have either blunt tubercles, or sharp- cutting crests. The family includes not only the animals properly known as cuscuses and phalangers (the nns-called opossums of the Australian colonists), but likewise the flying-phalangers, the koala or native bear, and the long- snouted pouched mouse. The geographical range of this extensive family includes not only Australia, Tasmania, and Papua, but likewise Celebes, and some of the other Austro-Malayan islands. The koala and long-snouted pouched mouse are, however, exclusively Australian. All are essentially arboreal and nocturnal in their mode of life, most using their prehensile tails to assist in climbing, while a few are enabled to take (like the flying squirrels) long flying leaps by the aid of parachute-like expansions of skin from the sides of the body. The great majority of the phalanger tribe are vegetable POUCHED MAMMALS. 199 Fhj. 104.— Koala (,Fhascolarctus cinereics). feeders, subsisting mainly on fruits and leaves ; but a few consume insects, which form either the whole or a portion of their diet, and some are carnivorous. The peculiar animal known as the koala (Phascolarrfus cineroifi), which presents somo external resemblance to a small bear, is the solo representative of' a sub-family (Fluiscolarctum') characterised by the following distinctive features: — The tail is absent, the muzzle J-hort and broad, the tongue non-extensile, the cheeks furnished with pouches for the storage of food, the intestine provided with a coscum, or blind appendage, the teeth relatively large, and only a single pair of pre-molars in the upper jaw. In size the koala is a rather large animal, measuring about 32 in. in length. Its build is stout and clumsy, and the thick woolly fur is generally greyish above and whitish below. The large ears are thickly haired and ragged at the edges ; the front toes are sub-equal in length, the fourth being the longest and the first the shortest, while both the first and second can bo opposed to the other two. The strong claws are thick and sharp, and in both the f^re and hind limbs the soles of the feet are simply granulated, and have no striated pads. The female has a single pair of teats. In the skeleton there are eleven pairs of ribs, and the upper molar teeth have short, broad, and squared crowns, bearing curved longitudinal crests, of which the convexity is directed outwards. The koala, which is confined to Eastern Australia, is a dull, sluggish creature, addicted to crawling on the stems and branches of gum-trees in a deliberate lazy manner, and feeding mainly on leaves and flowers. During the day- time it generally lies asleep in the hollow of some forest giant, bub at night prowls among the topmost branches in search of food, the females carrying their off^spring securely perched ou their backs, where the woolly fur affords them a secure foothold. Only a single young one is product d at a birth, and the adults seem to be more or less completely solitary animals. The second sub-family (Phalangerince), which includes all the other members of the family save one, may be defined as follows: — The tail, which is always well-developed, is generally prehensile, the muzzle is short and broad, the tongue is incapable of extension, there are no cheek-pouches, the intestine has a cfecum, the stomach is simple, and the teeth are cumpara- tively large. The first and typical genus (Phalauger) is represented by the cus- cuses, of which there are five species, ranging from Celebes and the Moluccas to Australia and New Guinea. They are rather large, or meJiumsized, somewhat cat-like animals, of stout build, wirh thick and wool'y fur, which may be either coarse and wiry, or fine and silky, and moderate-sized or small ears. In the fore-feet the toes are nearly equal in length, their relative lengths being in the order 4, 3, 5, 2, 1. The long claws of all the feet are stout and curved, and the naked soles are striated, with largo and ill-defined cushion-like pads. The prehensile tail is stout and strong, with its ter- minal portion naked, and either smooth or granulated. Two pairs of MAMMALIA— ORDER XL —MARSUrL4LL4. Fi(j. 105,— Spotted Cuscrs [Phalanijer maculalus). teats are borne by the female. Cuscuses are slow and sleepy animals, completely arboreal and mainly herbivorous in their habits, passing the day curled up asleep among the densest foliage of forest trees, and only be- coming active as the shades of evening approach, A great amount of varia- tion obtains in the coloration of the different sexes and individuals of the game species, while there is frequently some difference in the teeth. ^^ hereas in the black cuscus of Celebes (P. ursiim$) both sexes are of a uniformly dark blackish brown colour ; in the widely distributed spotted cuscus (P. maculatus) the sexes are generally different, and the coloration takes the form of various combinations of white, rufous, and black, the females being generally grey and black, while the smaller males are usually spotted, although occasionally they resemble an ordinary grey female, save for a few indistinct whitish spots on the flanks and back. Nearly allied to the cuscuses are the true phalangers (Trichosurus) — the opossums of the colonists — of which the two species are restricted to the Australian mainland and Tasmania. These also are large, stoutly-built cat- like animals, with thick, woolly fur, and short or medium ears. The front toes may be distinguished from those of the cuscuses in that relative lengths follow the order 4, 3, 2, 5, 1 ; the claws being large and strong, and the soles of the hind-feet densely haired beneath the heel, but elsewhere naked, and furnished with low, rounded, ill-defined pads. In the powerful pre- hensile tail the terminal third or half is bare inferiorly, and the extreme tip devoid of hair all round. A peculiar gland is situated in the centre of the chest. Among the teeth, the molars have four cusps, tending to unite into a pair of transverse ridges ; and the last pre-molar, which closely ai)proximate3 to the corresponding tooth of Jiypsiprymnodon, is large, placed obliquely, and marked by vertical groov- ings. The common phalanger (T. vulpmus) takes up its habitation in the branches of the tallest red and blue gum-trees of the Australian and Tas- nianian forests, passing the day in slumber, and wandering forth at night to brouse on their leaves, bulbs, and seeds. In climbing, they are much aided by their highly prehensile tails ; and on the rare occasions when they descend to the ground, it is probably for the purpose of drinking. In the breeding season, and less commonly at other times, phalangers utter a loud cry ; and, as a rule, but one offspring is produced at a birth, although there may occasionally be a pair. More numerous, and at the same time more widely distributed than the preceding, are the ring-tailed-phalangers {Fueuduchirus), of which there are eleven specific representatives, whose Fin. IOC,— Common PriALANOiR (Trichosunn rulpimin). POUCHED MAMMALS. geographical range includes New CJuinea, as well as Australia and Tasmania. While some are as large as the true phalangers, others are considerably smaller ; but all possess short and rather woolly fur, and stout and medium sized ears, which are well haired on the hind aspect. The relative lengths of the toes of the fore-foot hold the same order as in the cuscuses ; but the first and second toes resemble those of the koala in being markedly opposable to the other three. In both feet the claws are of moderate length, and the bare soles are provided with large striated pads. The long and tapering tail has the lower surface of the extremity devoid of hair for a variable distance, and is highly prehensile. Four teats are present in the female. The upper molars are large and oblong, with the tubercles modified into sharp cusps, from which proceed crescentic ridges ; the corresponding lower teeth having a nearly similar structure. In habits the common ring-tailed-phalanger differs from the true phalangers in that it prefers the so-called tea-scrub to the gum-trees ; and also in that it generally associates in small colonies. These animals construct small nests, not unlike the drey of a squirrel ; and whereas usually but a single young one is produced at a birth, occasionally as many as three may be found in the pouch. Nearly allied in the structure of its skull and teeth to the preceding genus is the taguan flying-phalanger (Petauroides volans), which is the first of three genera provided with a para- chute for the purpose of taking flying leaps from tree to tree. This species is of comparatively large size, measuring about 17 in. to the root of the tail, while the latter is about 20 in. in length. The fur of the body is remarkable for its long, soft, and silky character ; the unusually large ears are oval in form, and bare internally, but hairy on the outside ; and the skin of the flanks is expanded to form a parachute. The long claws are much curved and sharply pointed ; and the tail is long, cylindrical, and evenly covered with bushy hair, its extreme tip being prehensile and destitute of hair on the lower surface. The habits of this and the other flying-phalangers are very similar to those of the flying-squirrels ; and in Australia these animals are commonly known by the latter name. The present species is confined to Eastern Australia. Two species of rather small phalangers, ranging from Northern Australia to New Guinea and the Aru Islands, constituteagenu3(j[)rtc^j/^02wi7rt)distinguished by the great elongation of the fourth digit of the front paws, and the conspicuous black and white longitudinal striping of the fur of the body. In these striped- phalangers, which are devoid of a parachute, the oval ears have nearly naked tips. In the front paws the length of the digits follows the order 4, 3, 5, 2, 1, the inequality in their lengths, as in the hind-feet — where the fourth and fifth are much elongated — being very marked. A prominent soft pad is situated on the wrist ; and the claws are long. The long and cylindrical tail is evenly bushy throughout, except the under surface of the tip, which is bare. The oblong molars bear four simple tubercles. Some degree of doubt exists as to the reason for the elongation of the fourth digit of the fore-paws. The suggestion has, indeed, been made that the elongation is for the purpose of extracting insects and grubs from beneath the bark and from crevices in trees, and consequently that these phalangers are largely, if not exclusively insectivorous ; but other writers consider that they subsist on leaves. From the striped-phalangers the little Leadbeater's-phalanger {Gymnohelidei(s lead- beateri) of Victoria, which measures only 5^ in. to the root of the long tail, differs by the normal proportions of the toes ; the length of those of the fore-feet following the order 4, 3, 5, 2, 1. The claws are rather short ; the MAMMALIA— ORDER XL —MARSUPLALLA. large ears entirely naked and untufted ; and the tail, which exceeds the head and body in length by about an inch, is cylindrical and bushy. With the exception of the last, which is triangular, the upper molars are square, with rounded corners, and carry four tubercles. Several peculiarities cnaracterise the skull. From their similarity in cranial and dental characters to the last, it is believed that the three species of flying - phalangers form- ing the genus Petaurus have been evolved either from an ancestral form of Gymnobelidens, or some nearly allied type. These animals, which are of small or medium size, have a soft and silky fur, rather large, oval, and almost naked ears, and a broad parachute-like expansion of the skin of the flanks. In the fore-foot the toes gradually increase in length from the first, the fifth attaining the maximum elongation in the largest species, and the fourth in the two smaller ones. The claws, which are longer than Fig. i(,7.-FLYiNa-PHALASGBR in the preceding genus, are strong, sharp, and (Petaurus breoiceps). highly curved; and the long tail is evenly bushy throughout. Both the chest and the crown of the head bear a gland. The range of the genus includes New Guinea and part of Australia, extending from Victoria to the islands of the Halmahera group. All the three species are inhabitants of Australia ; a variety of one {P. breviceps) being peculiar to New Guinea, New Britain, the Halmahera group, and certain other islands. Writing of one of the species, Bennett observes that " it retires either between the forked branches or in the hollow cavities of the trees during the day to sleep, and at night passes from one to another by flying leaps, aided by its parachute-like membrane, descending to the ground only from unavoidable necessity, such as when the trees are so far apart as to render it impossible to traverse the space by leaping." With the pretty little dormouse-phalangers {Dromicia), of which there are four species, ranging over New Guinea, AVestern Australia, and Australia, we revert to a genus unprovided with a parachute. In addition to this feature and their small dimensions, the dormouse-phalangers are characterised by their large, thin, and almost naked ears ; the normal proportions of the toes, which in the fore-limb follow the order 3, 4, 2, 5, 1, as regards relative length ; and the short and rudimental fore-claws. The cylindrical tail is well furred only near the root, being elsewhere scaly and sparsely covered with short hairs, except at the extremity, where it is roughened and completely naked bene ith, and endowed with the power of prehension. With the ex- ception of the last, which may be wanting, the molars have regularly rounded crowns, carrying four tubercles each. These little animals, one of which is rather smaller than the British dormouse, are purely nocturnal creatures, living on fruits, honey, and insects, and hiding during the daytime in the hollows, or beneath the dead strips of bark which hang down from the stems of gum-trees. One species undergoes a partial hibernation during the colder months of the year. A curious resemblance is presented by the pretty little pen-tailed-phalanger of New Guinea {Distcechwus pennahis) to the pen- tailed tree-shrew (Ptilocercus) among the Insectivora described on page 44, in that POUCHED MAMMALS. 203 both have the long hairs of the elongated tail arranged in two opposite lateral rows like the vanos of a feather. Whereas, however, in the shrew these vanes occupy only the terminal portion of the tail, in the phalanger they extend uninterruptedly throughout its length. In addition to tins very important feature and the absence of a parachute, the peu-tailed-phalanger is characterised by its rather short and thinly-haired ears, which have several tufts near the base, the normal length of the toes, and the shnrp and curved claws. The molais, of which there are invariably but three p.iirs, are small and rounded, with smooth, unridged cusps, and the last pre-molar is very small in the upper jaw, and wanting in the lower. Only a single pair of teats is present in the female. The third genus in which a parachute is developed is Af:rohaiiSy comprising the two species of pigmy-flying-phalangers, one of which is Australian and the other Papuan, And since these beautiful little animals, although considerably smaller, resemble the pen-tailed-phalanger, not only in the structure of their skulls and teeth, but likewise in their vaned tails, it is pretty evident that they are derived from the same ancestral stock. The pigmy-phalangers have moderate-sized ears, a narrow para- chute-like exjiansion of skin along the flanks, and the toes — which are of normal proportions — terminating in a broad striated pad. In the fore-foot the length of the digits follows the general order of 4, 3, 5, 2, 1, and the claws, although not very prominent, are sharp and well developed. Additional differences from Dista'cJiurns are to be found in the larger size of the upper pre-molar, and the presence of the corresponding tooih in the lower jaw, and likewise in the existence of two pairs of teats in the pouch of the female. The Australian species, which measures 3 in. to the root of the tail, is a far less brilliantly-coloured animal than its Papuan ally. It is commonly known as the flying-mouse, and was formerly abundant about Port- Jackson, but nothing very definite has been ascertained in regard to its mode of life. The last sub-family (Tarsipedino;) of the tribe under consideration is repre- sented only by the elegant little long-snouted-phalanger (Tars^'pes rostratns) of Western Australia. The sub-family is characterised by the elongation of the tail, the long and slender muzzle, the extensile tongue, the absence of a ctycum, or blind appendage to the intestine, and the minute size and rudimental character of the cheek-teeth. As a genus, the animal, which measures about 3 in. to the root of the tail, may be characterised as follows : — The size ia small and the form light and graceful ; while the long and narrow head is furnished with ears of moderate size, which are but thinly covered with hair ; and the soles of the feet are nnked and granulated. With the exception of those of the unittd second and third toes of the hind-foot, the claws are rudimental ; and the tail, which exceeds the head and body in length by about an inch, is thinly haired and prehensile. Four teats are present in the pouch of the female. /lihi)Ugh the upper canine and the lower incisor teeth are fairly wtll devt loped, theie are at most but three pairs of molars, and the pre-molars are reduced to a single pair in the upper jaw. A remarkable feature is the absence of any inflection of the angle of the very slender lower jaw. The long-snouted-phalanger appears to be an exceedingly rare animal, inhabiting flowering shrubs, from the blossoms of which it extracta honey by the insertion of its highly extensile tongue. The three species of wombat, all of which are confined to Tasmania and Australia south of the tropics, and are included in the single genus Fhascolomyif, are the sole representatives of the third and last family of 2C4 MAMMALIA— ORDER XL—MARSUPIALIA. Australian diprotodont marsupials (Phascolomi/icke). They are clumsily-built animals, differing from all the members of the group hitherto mentioned by their burrowing habits ; and they may be regarded as "Wombats. occupying among the Australian fauna the position held in other regions by the burrowing rodents. Curiously enough, they also approximate to the latter order in the nature of their dentition, the incisors being reduced to a single cutting pair in each jaw, behind which comes a long gap, ■without any canines, till the cheek-teeth are reached. Stout and clumsy in form, the wombats have a short and broad muzzle ; thick, short, and strong limbs of nearly equal length in front and behind ; the fore-feet with five nearly sub-equal and powerfully-clawed toes ; the first hind-toe short and clawless, the remaining toes of the same foot having strong and curved claws, and the second and third imperfectly united by a common skin ; and the tail rudimental. Internally, the stomach is simple, and the intestine is furnished with a ctecum. The teeth are rootless throughout life ; the large, curved, and chisel-like incisors having enamel only on the front and sides ; and the five pairs of cheek-teeth are strongly curved, the molars consisting of two lobes, but the pre-molars with only one. As regards their habits, ic will suffice to say that wombats are harmless, inoflfensive animals, burrowing deeply in the ground, and subsisting on the roots which they thus disinter. They are entirely nocturnal, never issuing from their holes till evening, and returning to them with the first rays of morning. A distinct family {Epanortliido;) is now represented solely by two small rat- like South American animals, which, from the estate where the second example was obtained, may be known as the selvas. One was Selvas. originally described and referred to the present order under the name of Hyracodon fidiginosus, in the year 1863, upon the evidence of a specimen obtained in Ecuador ; but the description was so insufficient that naturalists had no clue to its affinities. In the autumn of 189.5 a second example was obtained from Colombia, which showed that it indicated a type of marsupial hitherto known only from fossil forms occurring in the Tertiary rocks of Patagonia, which have been described under the names of EpcDiorthus, Abderites, etc. As the name Hyracodon had been previously employed for an extinct genus of mammals, the selvas were at the same time re-christened Ccenolcstes. The selvas have an elongated skull somewhat like that of the Australian- bandicoots, with four pairs of upper incisor teeth and a large pair of canines, and thus resemble the Polyprotodont type. In the lower jaw there is, however, a single pair of horizontally- projecting lower incisors, not unlike those of the kangaroo, behind which are several pairs of small functionless teeth representing the other incisors, canine, and earlier pre-molars. In both jaws the four pairs of molars are oblong teeth, with four blunt cusps, and thus totally unlike the corresponding teeth of the opossums and other members of the Polyprotodont sub-order. The feet are of normal type, with five toes each, of which the first appears to be opposable in a limited degree to the others ; and the rat-like tail is partially prehensile towards the extremity. Externally, the selvas look very like small, blackish rats, with a shar2> nose. In all probability, these animals and their extinct allies are descendants from a group of Polyprotodont Marsupials whose remains are found in the Tertiary deposits of Patagonia, and whose ancestors reached South America by means of a land connection — perhaps by way of the Antarctic continent — with POUCHED MAMMALS. 205 Australia. Unlike the opossums, which are comparatively recent immigrants from the North, the selvas, like the edentates, belong to the original primitive fauna of South America, which was first developed when that country was completely cut off from North America by a sea occupying the site of the Isthmus of Panama and Mexico. The bandicoots {Perameliihe) are the first representatives of the second great subordinal division of the pouched mammals, technically known as the Polyprotodontia. This name is assigned from the circum- stance that these animals differ from the preceding group Bandicoot by the larger number of incisor teeth, of which there are Tribe, never less than three pairs in each jaw, while more generally there are four or five pairs of these teeth in the upper, and three or four in the lower jaw. These incisors are always relatively small and of subequal size, and they are flanked by large, tusk-like canines, close behind which are the anterior cheek-teeth. Nearly always the cusps of the molars are numerous and sharp ; and the whole dentition is of a markedly carnivorous type. In all their characters, the Polyprotodonts are a less specialised group than the Diprotodonts ; and they have at the present day a wide geographical distribution, being represented not only in the Notogteic realm, but likewise in South America, and, more sparingly, in North America. They were also living in various jjarts of the world during the Tertiary and Secondary epochs. In Australasia, and to a certain extent in South America, the members of the present group — all of which are either flesh or insect eaters — take the place of the Carnivora and Insectivora of other parts of the world. From the other three families included in the sub-order the bandicoots are broadly distinguished by the circimistance that the second and third toes of the hind-foot are reduced in size, and enclosed in a common skin in the same manner as among the Diprotodonts. In addition to this very striking and characteristic feature, the members of the present family have the hind-limbs markedly longer than the front pair ; in the fore-limbs the three middle toes, or occasionally only two, are long and furnished with claws, the others being rudimental or wanting ; and the hind-foot has either four or five toes of very unequal lengths, the first toe being rudimental or absent, the second and third small and united, and the fourth the stoutest. As in the phalangers, the opening of the pouch of the female is directed backwards. Internally, there is a ci^cum to the intestine ; and in the skeleton collar- bones are lacking. In the upper jaw there may be either four or five pairs of incisor teeth, whereas in the lower jaw there are invariably three. The tail, which is always relatively long, is never prehensile. Bandicoots are restricted to Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and certain of the adjacent islands, such as the Aru, Kei, and Duke of York group. In habits they are mainly fossorial and insectivorous, although a few are more or less completely omnivorous. Among the more aberrant forms are the rabbit-bandicoots (Peragale), of which there appear to be two species, both restricted to the Australian mainland. Their most distinctive feature, and the one from which they derive their name, is the great length of the ears. In form these animals are light and delicate, with a long and narrow muzzle. The three middle toes of the fore-foot are long and furnished with stout, curved claws, and in the hind-foot all trace of the first toe is wanting externally. The hind-limbs greatly exceed the front ones in length ; the soles of the hind-feet are hairy ; and there is a distinct crest of hair on the upper surface of the terminal half of the tail. The upper jaw carries five pairs of incisor teeth j and the 2o6 MAMMALIA-ORDER XI.—MARSVPIALIA. inolara have a quadrangular or rounded section. In pize and habits, these bandicoots, which are omnivorous, may be compared to a rabbit, which they resemble in their habit of constructing burrows in places where the soil is suitable. The true bandicoots (Ferameles), of which there are about a dozen different species, are com- paratively small animals, ranging over Australia, Tasmania, Papua, and some of the neighbouring islands. While some are heavy and ungainly, and others light and elegant in bodily form, all have long and pig-like snouts, but the length of the ears is variable. The three middle toes of the fore-foot are nearly equal in length, and furnished with strong, curved claws ; while in the hind-foot there is a clawless first toe, the second and third digits having flat twisted nails, the fourth exceeding all the rest in length, and carrying a stout pointed claw, and the fifth being similar but smaller. The tapering tail may be either clothed with short hair or almost bare ; and there are three pairs of teata in the pouch of the I'ij. lOS.-A Bandicoot female. In the dentition there are usually five pairs (Perameles). of upper incisors ; and the upper molars, which may le either squared or triangular in form, carry sharp cusps. They are exclusively terrestrial and nocturnal in their habits ; and apparently feed chiefly on earth-worms, although they also consume insects, grubs, bulbs, roots, and fallen berries and fruit. Bandicoots make sleeping-nests of dried grass, leaves, and sticks ; and, in spite of ridding them of worms and insects, do much harm to gardens and corn-fields. The third and last genus of the family is represented only by the pig-footed bandicoot {Choeropvs casfnnotii) of Australia, which, although allied to Gunn's bandicoot {Ferameles gn^itd), is clearly distinguished by the very peculiar structure of the feet. In the forefoot, the first and fifth toes are absent, the fourth is rudimental, while the second and third are alone fully developed and furnished with long, slender claws. Considerably difi'erent is the structure of the hind-foot, in which the first toe is wanting, and the fifth rudimental, the fourth being very large. Of a grizzled grey colour, and measuring about ten inches to the root of the tail, the pig-footed bandicoot is an animal of light and slender build, with a short and narrow muzzle, long and slender ears, and a short, cylindrical tail, slightly crested on its upper surface. There are five pairs of upper incisors ; and the pouch of the females contains eight teats. In its habits this animal closely resembles the other members of the family, burrowing holes in the ground, and being omnivorous in diet, although feeding chiefly upon insec's. In spite of the number of its teats, the female only produces two young ones at a birth. The second of the four families of the Polyprotodonts is characterised by having a simpler type of foot-structure than obtains in the Feramelidce, the second and third digits of the hind-foot being completely Tasyure Tribe, separate. Hence, it is probable that the Dasyuricke (as the present family is termed) constitute the original stock frcm which the Peramelidee have branched off. In addition to this primary feature in the structure of the limbs, it may be noticed that there are five toes to the fore-foot, and that in the hind-foot the first toe is either small cr wanting, while the other four are pretty equally developed. The long and POUCHED MAM.\fAIS. 207 Fig. 100. -Tasmani AN-\VoLF (JJhylacinus cynocephalus). hairy tail is never prehensile ; and the pouch, when developed, opens forwards and downwards. Internally, the stomach is simple, and the intestine devoid of a blind appendage. There are four pairs of incisor teeth in the upper jaw, and three in the lower ; the entire dentition being of an essentially carnivorous type, the upper molars having more or less distinctly triangular crowns bear- ing a number of sharp cusps. Indeed, although a few of the smaller kinds are more or less com- pletely insectivorous, the present family includes all the truly Hesh- eating Australian Marsupials, as it does the largest members of the entire sub-order. Geographically, the range of the group embraces Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, together with many of the adjacent islands, exclusive of the Austro-Malayan group. Its large size, generally wolf-like form, and striped body are sufficient to distinguish at a glance the thylacina or Tasmanian-wolf (Thylachius cynocephalus) from all its kindred. This animal, which measures about 44 in. to the root of the tail, has a large wolf-like head, with moderate-sized ears, a long and slender muzzle, and the elongated jaws armed with very powerful teeth. The long tail is covered with close, short hair. All the feet are markedly digitigrade, the five toes of the front pair being armed with short, thick, conical claws, while the hind-feet have but four toes each. The back is marked with transverse black bands on a tawny ground. Only four teats are present in the pouch of the female, and the marsupial bones are rudimental. The full marsupial number of three pairs of pre-molar teeth are present. Although this ferocious animal appears to be now restricted to Tasmania, the genus was represented at a comparatively recent epoch on the Australian mainland. It is a nocturnal creature, inhabiting caves and hollows among rocky fast- nesses ; and, if seen abroad by day- light, is dull and sluggish. It never hunts in pack, and its sole cry appears to be a dull guttural growl. At the present day sheep are the chief prey of the thylacine, as these are both more numerous and easier to capture than the dijirotodont marsupials upon which it formerly lived. Four is the number of young produced in a litter. Although but little more than half its size, the Tasmanian devil (SarcojMlus iirsinus) is an even more sanguinary and destructive creature, killing sheep and fowls, apparently for the mere pleasure of slaughter, long after its appetite is satiated. In form this animal is very stout and powerful, having Fi^. 110.— Taemanian-Devil (Sarcopldhis ursinits). 2oS MAMMALIA-ORDER XT.—MARSUriALTA. a short and broad muzzle, wide and rounded ears, an evenly-haired tail of medium length, and plantigrade feet, in the front pair of which the toes are armed with strong, curved claws ; while in the hind pair the first digit is absent, and the naked soles lack well-defined pads. In colour the body is blackish, flecked with white. As regards the dentition, this difiers from that of the thylacine in that there are only two pairs of premolars in each jaw ; while the upper molars, with the exception of the fourth pair, aro strong, triangular, and much shorter and wider. The distribution of the Tasnianian devil, both now and in the past, is precisely similar to that of its cousin the thylacine. Under the common title of native cats are included, in Australia, a number of considerably smaller predaceous marsupials, usually showing a slender, weasel-like form of body, although a '^*'"' are plantigrade, with sharp, curved ■ FUj. Ill— Spotted-Dasturb claws, the first toe in the hinder pair (Dasyurus viverrinus). being either rudi mental or absent, and the partially or wholly naked soles of the hind-feet are granulated. In all cases the body is marked with spots. The pouch, which opens vertically downwards, contains either six or eight teats. The teeth are numerically the same as in Sarcophilus, but much less strongly developed. Dasyures are found alike in Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and some of the neighbouring islands. They differ from the two preceding genera, in that the majority are more or less completely arboreal in their habits ; and they feed not only on flesh, but likewise on insects, being especially destructive to birds and their eggs. The largest among the six species is the spotted-tailed dasyure (D. macvlatus), from east and south-easa Australia, and Tasmania, which may be compared roughly in size to a cat, and differs from the rest by having the tail, as well as the body, spotted. It is further characterised by having well-defined, transversely striated pads on the soles of the feet, from which it may be inferred that its habits are largely arboreal. The pouched-mice (Phascologah), of which no less than thirteen species are recognised, are smaller animals, differing from the dasyures in the absence of spots on the fur, and the practical want of the pouch in the female. In all, the form is slender and graceful ; the ears are rounded ; the tail is long, but may be either bushy, crested, or nearly bare, and the broad and short feet terminate in sub-equal toes furnished with sharp, curved claws. In the hind-foot the first toe is, however, short and clawless, and the soles of the feet are naked and smooth, with five transversely striated pads, the first toe frequently having its pad divided. Except in one species, where the first lower pair are wanting, there are three pairs of pre-molars in each jaw. The pouched- mice, which range over Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, the Aru Islands, etc., are thoroughly arboreal animals, feeding exclusively on insects, and pouciiKn -i/'./-'/j/.-/z^pp-p"T->j- OF 209 thus taking the placo cf the tree-shre^^ef We^OKentaT region. Whereas the largest is nob bigger than an ordinary rat, the otliers are considerably smaller. In all the Australian species the fur of the back is uniformly coloured, and the same is the case with a few of the forms inhabiting Papua, although the majority from that area are longitudinally striped. Four nearly allied animals, which may be known as the narrow-footed pouched- mice, and constitute the genus SmuMwpsis, are easily distinguished from the foregoing by the narrow feet which are either partially haired or naked, with tlie bare j^ortion granulated, and with or without pads, the latter, when present, benig either smooth or but faintly striated. These pouched-mice are restricted to Australia and Tasmania, and differ from the members of the preceding genus in being strictly terrestrial, so that in this respect they are comparable to ordinary shrews. More markedly distinct is the long-legged pouched-mouse {Antechinomys lanvjcr), from the interior of New South Wales and southern Queensland, which is a mouse- like, leaping animal specially characterised by the great elongation of the liind-limbs and the loss of the first toe in the hind-foot. The fur is uniformly coloured, the tail is long and tufted, and the ears are of large size. These little creatures, which subsist exclusively on insects, inhabit open sandy districts. As the members of the two preceding genera respectively represent the tree-shrews and ordinary shrews, so the present form may be likened to the African jumping-shrews. One of the most remarkable of all the pouched mammals is the banded ».nt-e?iiQV {Mijrmecohius fasciatus) oi south and west Australia, which presents a curious approximation in the Humber and structure of its teeth to some of the extinctSecondarymarsupials of Europe. By many writers it is regarded as the representative of a distinct family by itself, and it certainly constitutes a snh- iixmWy {My rmecohiince) oi\jh.Q DaayuridtH, which may be distinguished from the whole of the foregoing genera (Dasy- urince) by the following features : — In placeof being of normal proportions, the n- ,., t, i . 1 *= r 1 ■ 1 J J- -1 F/r/. 11 2. -Ban DSD Ant-Eater tongue IS long, cyhndrical, and extensile ; (Mynnecobius fasciatus). the nose is naked and grooved below ; the pointed lower lip projects in advance of the teeth; and there is a gland on the chest opening on the exterior by means of several apertures. The cheek-teeth are small and delicate, the molars forming more than four pairs, and being separated from one another by intervals, while those of the lower jaw have their inner cusps larger than the outer ones. In general appear- ance the banded ant-eater is a graceful squirrel-like animal, with the hinder part of the back marked by a series of narrow white stripes on a bright rufous ground. The ears are rather long and narrow, and the tail is elon- gated and bushy. All external trace of the first toe of the hind-foot is wanting, and all the functional toes are armed with claws adapted for digging; the soles of the fore-feet being partially naked, while those of the hinder pair are completely so, their pads being small and granulated. The pouch is obsolete, and the number of teats appears to be four. The cheek-teeth usually comprise three pairs of pre-molars and five of molars in each jaw, but occasionally there is a sixth pair of lower molars. As a rare abnormality, O MAMMALIA— ORDER XI.—MARSUPIAIJA. four pairs of lower incisors may be developed. The binded ant-eater feeds mainly oa an;s, wlii^h are licked up by the tongue, but it will also consume insects of other kinds. It proceeds in a series of \\o\t%, with the tail uplifted ; and when pursued, or fur sleeping, retires to a hollow lug or tree. It is stated to produce from seven to nine j'oung at a birth, although it is difficult to reconcile this with the alleged presence of only four teats. After birth, the young are protected solely by the long hair on the abdomen of the mother. A separate family (Notoryctidce) of polyprotodont marsupials is repre- sented solely by the curious marsupial mole {S'otoryctes typhlops), from the sandy deserts of central South Australia. Among the Marsupial essential characteristics of the family the following are the Mole. most important : — There are only three pairs of incisor teeth in each jaw, and there are neither earconchs or eyes visible externally. The limbs, which are sub-equal in length, are stout, strong, and each furnished with five toes; the hind-foot having a clawed first toe, not opposable to the other digits which are of unequal size. Collar-bones are present ; and the under surface of the skeleton of the tail carries the so-called chevron-bones so commonly present in reptiles. The upper molar teeth have triangular crowns bearing three cusps only. Externally, the marsupial mole is a some- what peculiar-looking animal, of a pale golden -red colour, and measuring about 6 in. to the root of the stumpy tail. A hard, horny shield, divided into two Fiij. 113. -Marsui'ial Mole parts by a transverse ridge, serves to protect (Xotoryctes typhloijs). the Upper surface of the blunt muzzle ; and the apertures of the ears are well-nigh hidden by the fur. In both feet the four inner toes are clawed, but the fifth carries a short, broad nail ; the claws of the third and fourth front toes are very large and powerful, while those of the corresponding hind toes curve outwards and backwards, the toes of these feet decreasing in size from the second to the fifth. In both pairs of limbs the soles of the feet are naked and covered with a tough leathery skin. The short, stumpy tail is also hard and leathery, decreasing rapidly in diameter from the base, and terminating in a blunt, knob-like extremity. The pouch opens backwards, and contains only two teats. The creature spends most of its time burrowing in the sand of the Australian deserts in search of its insect-food, occasionally making its appearance on the surface. Its enormously-powerful front claws enable it to bury itself in the sand with extraordinary rapidity. The last family of the marsupials is an American one, and is represented solely by the opossums (Didelphyidce). In spite of the remoteness of their habitat, these animals are very closely allied to the Opossums. Dasynridce, from which they may be distinguished by having four (instead of three) pairs of lower incisors, and by the first hind toe being opposible to the other digits. There is no claw to the first hind toe ; and the number of pairs of upper incisor teeth is five, or the same as in the Daayurldce. As a rule, the tail is long, scaly, naked, and prehensile, although rarely it may be short, and more or less covered with hair. Internally, the stomach is simple, and the intestine has a blind appendage. PO UCHED MA MMA LS. In most species the pouch is wanting, although it may be represented by two lateral folds of skin, while more rarely it is complete. There are three pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw. The females have from five to twenty-tive teats. Opossums, which vary in size from that of a cat to that of a mouse, include more than a score of species, all but two of which are restricted to the Neoga3ic realm, whence the northern forms are probably comparatively recent wanderers. With the exception of the water-opossum, the members of the family are mainly arboreal animals, although some of the smaller kinds are more or less terrestrial. Arboreal species have, however, extended their range to the open Argentine pampas. Whereas the larger kinds are very destructive to poultry, the smaller species subsist exclusively on insects. In those opossums in which the female has no pouch, the young are borne on the back of their parent, generally curling their own tails round that of the latter, which is purposely bent forwards over the back and head. Nearly all the species may be included in the typical genus DidtlpJiys, which may, however, be split up into several sub-generic groups. The first of these is represented solely by the common opossum (Z>. marsupialis), with its numerous varieties, which is four to five times the dimensions of any other kind, and may be compared, in this respect, to a cat. Its range extends from the United States to Chili, South Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, and it is the only species entering North America above Mexico. As the representative of a subgenus, F(>. 114. -Common- OrossiM it may be characterised as follows :^ {Dide!pli'g Majimals. The third and last sub-class of mammals — variously known as the Proto- theria, or Ornithodelphia, and containing only the single order Monotreniata — differs much more widely from the other two than do the latter from one another, and thereby approximates to the lower vertebrates. These strange mammals, which are confined to the Notogteic realm, are especially characterised by laying eggs, after the manner of birds and reptiles ; although the young subsequently developed from such eggs are nourished by milk from the mammary glands of the female parent. Instead, however, of opening into teats, these milk-glands discharge their secretion upon the porous skin of the inside of a more or less developed temporary pouch by means of numerous small apertures. After hatching, the head of the young, which develops a special suctorial mouth, is thrust into the pouch, and the milk forced into its mouth by the contraction of special muscles. Structurally, the milk-glands of the Monotremes correspond to the ordinary sweat-glands of other mannnals, and not to their milk-glands. From the other two sub- classes of mammals, Monotremes differ in that the hinder extremity of the body possesses but a single orifice, from which are discharged both the waste-products and the reproductive elements ; the two egg-passages, or oviducts, opening into the extremity of this cloaca, as the single excretory passage is termed. In these respects the egg-laying manmials resemble birds and reptiles. Similar resemblances are presented by the portion of EGG-LA YING MAMMALS, 215 the skeleton known a3 the shoulder-girdle, or that serving for the support and articulation of the bones of the fore-limb. In all the higher mammals, with the exception of some of the Edentates (where the coracoids may be distinct), the shoulder-girdle comprises, at most, only a pair of collar-bones (clavkles) and two shoulder-blades (scaptdce), of which the latter bear a so-called coracoid process at the lower extremity. On the other hand, in the egg-laying mammals, as in lizards, an unpaired additional T-shaped bone known as the inter- clavicle overlies the collar-bones and breast-bone (sier/mm); while the caracoid processes are represented by a pair of separate coracoid bones situated on the lower surface of the chest, and connected with the blade-bones to form the articular cavity for the head of the upper arm- bone, or humerus. Behind these, on the same aspect of the body, are a second pair of bones known as the meta-coracoids, and representing the bones commonly called coracoids in birds, which are articulated inferiorly to the breast-bone. The brain is also of a lower and simpler type than in the higher mammals ; the same being also the case with the small bones of the internal ear. Another feature (which at present appears to have been verified only in the first of the two families) indicative of inferior organisation is the low temperature of the blood as compared with that of other mammals. In both the families of Monotremes the males are furnished on the inner surface of the heel with a perforated horny spur, connected with a gland behind the thigh ; and it is not improbable that during the breeding season this gland may secrete a poisonous fluid which flows into any wound inflicted by the spur. As in the Pouched Mammals, the Monotremes have a pair of marsupial bones aflixed to the front edge of the lower part of the pelvis. Both families have the skull produced into a beak, which may be either cylindrical or flattened; and in the adult state at least, teeth are wanting. There are no traces of external ear-conchs ; the two pairs of limbs, which are of nearly equal length, are modified for burrowing or digging ; and the tail is either rudimental or short and wide. As in the case of the Edentates, there is no clue to the origin of the Monotremes, but there can be no doubt that the existing forms are highly modified and specialised descendants from some extremely ancient stock. The strange Australian creature, known as the duck-bill or duck-mole (OrHi^/io)7()/Hc/insrt}iai()H(6), is the sole representative of the first family (On«7/i-o- rhynchida') of the Monotremes. As distinctive of the family, the following features appear the most important : — In the Duck-bill, head the muzzle is produced and expanded to form a broad, depressed beak, covered with a delicate sensitive skin, which, in the dried state, assumes the appearance of horn. The tongue is of normal proportions, and non-extensile. In the fur there is no mixture of spines ; the tail, although short, is broad and flattened ; and the feet are large and wide, with tlie toes webbed, and the soles bare and without pad^. In the young and adolescent condition, each jaw bears three pairs of niany-cusped molars, of which the first is the smallest in the upper jaw, and the last in the lower ; but in the adult these teeth are shed, and their functions discharged by horny plates growing up around and beneath them. In the male the horny spur on the hind-foot is very large ; while in the female the pnuch is rudimental. The brain has smooth hemispheres. The duck-lnll has a somewhat elongated and depressed body, covered with dark-coloured fur of two kinds. In both limbs the five-toed feet have long claws to all the digits, although those on the fore-feet are broad and blunt, while those behind are compressed and 2l6 MAMMALIA -ORDER Xlf.—MONOTREMA TA. Fig. llo.— Di'CK-BiLii {Orn ithorhynchus anatinuit). pointed. The beak is smooth, short, and evenly-rounded in front, with a flap of skin marking its junction with the head ; and the cheeks have pouches for the storage of food. In length the adult male measures about 18 in. to the root of the tail, which is one- third the length of the head and body ; but the female is considerably smaller. The duck-bill is confined to the fresh-waters of Tasmania and Australia, where it especially frequents still and deep pools in rivers with banks suitable for the construction of its long and tortuous burrows ; these burrows generally having two entrances, the one situated above, and the other below the level of the surface of the water. In length a burrow may be as much as 20 ft. , and at its extremity it expands into a capacious chamber, which is lined at the breeding season for the reception of the white eggs — usually two in number. Here in due course they are hatched, the female sitting upon them in the same manner as a bird, since the pouch is not sufficiently large for their reception. When first hatched, the young are completely naked and helpless, and are fed with milk in the manner indicated above. As soon as they are able to feed, they are supplied with fresh-water snails and insects such as form the chief nutriment of their parents. Duck-bills are mainly nocturnal animals, passing the day rolled up asleep in their burrows. Very different, both in appearance and their mode of life, to duck-bills are the echidnas, or spiny ant-eaters, constituting the family JEchidnida:. in place of being aquatic, these Monotremes are terrestrial and Echidnas. nocturnal in their habits, while the sexes lack that discrep- ancy in size which forms such a marked feature in the preceding group. In place of the duck-like beak of the Ornithorhynchus, the muzzle of the echidnas forms a long, slender beak, which is completely devoid of teeth at all ages, and is suited to the long, extensile, worm-like tongue characteristic of all ant-eating mammals. The fur is so thickly inter- mingled with short and stout spines, not unlike those of the hedgehogs, that sometimes little more than the latter are visible. The tail is quite rudi- mental ; the short, sub-equal limbs have unwebbed toes, furnished with broad, powerful, nail-like claws, and, although the soles of the feet are provided with soft, fleshy cushions, thei-e are no pads. A peculiar feature connected with the mouth is the presence of spines on both the palate and the tongue. During the breeding season the pouch of the female is much more de- veloped than in the duck-bill ; and the hemispheres of the brain differ from those of the latter in being well convoluted . The smooth surface and bird-like form of the skull is very characteristic of the family, and the lower jaw is remarkable for its extreme slenderness. These animals subsist exclusively on ants, which are dug out by the powerful claws and licked up by the extensile tongue. The large size of the pouch enables the female to carry about with her the two eggs, which in due course are hatched by the heat of her body. The echidnas have a wider geogi-aphical distribution than the duck-bill, and are represented by two genera, one of which ranges from EGG- LA Y/iVG MA MMA / .9. 217 south-eastern New Guinea to Australia and Tasmania, while the second is exclusively Papuan. All the echidnas have stout and depressed bodies, which when the creatures are in repose rest flat on the ground, although in walking the legs raise the body some distance above the surface. In the typical genus, of which there appears to be only one very variable specific representative {Erhiibut aculeatu), the whole of the five digits of each foot are furnished with claws, which in the fore-feet are broad, slightly curved, and directed forwards, while in the hinder pair they are more slender, and curved outwards, the second, or the second and third, considerably exceed- Fij. H7.— Five-Toed Echidna ing the fourth and fifth in length, {Echuina acnleaia). and that of the first toe being short, blunt, and rounded. The beak, which is of about the same length as the rest of the head, may be either straight or slightly curved upwards ; and the tongue tapers at the tip, and has the spines confined to its basal portion. Of this species there are three well-marked local races or varieties. The ordinary or typical form, which is confined to the Australian mainland, is of medium size, measuring about 17 in. to the root of the tail. Next comes the variety from south-eastern New Guinea, measuring only about 14 in. in length, and with the spines of tKe back shorter. The largest and most distinct of all is the Tasmanian form, which grows to 20 in., and has the fur so long as almost to conceal the spines, while the claw of the third toe of the hind-foot is almost as much elongated as that of the second. In Australia the common echidna is generally met with in sandy or rocky districts and is especially abundant in the mountains. When on level ground, it proceeds with an unsteady, shuffling gait, the short and broad front feet being turned outwards, and the claws of the hind-feet bent outwards and backwards in such a manner as to cause the inner border of the sole to rest on the ground. These animals do not venture abroad till evening, but during the night they are very active, burrowing with great -■activity in search of their favourite ants. When suddenly attacked or surprised, echidnas roll themselves up into a ball-like form, but if time be allowed, they invariably endeavour to make their escape by burrowing. The second genus of the family {Proi'ohidiia'^) is distinguished by the feet usually carrying only three claws each, although the first and fifth toes are represented by two or more joints, and may occasionally be clawed. The length of the claws of the hind-foot diminishes regularly from the second to the fourth toe ; and the beak, which is markedly curved downwards, is much longer than in the typical echidna, being nearly as long as twice the length of the remainder of the head. In the Arfak momitaina of north- western New Guinea the genus is represented by Bruijn's echidna {P. bruijni), which measures about 19 to 20 in. in length, and has dense woolly fur, with but few spines. In western New Guinea it is replaced by a larger form with stouter limbs, shorter claws, and longer, more sparsely distributed, and more hairy fur, but whether it is anything more than a local variety may be doubtful. ^ It has recently been proposed to substituts the name /aglossus, which is stated to be earlier. SUB-KINGDOM I.— VERTEBRATA. CLASS II.~AVES. By R. Bowdler Shakpe, LL.D., F.L.S., &c. Structurally the skeleton of a bird differs very remarkably froiii that of an ordinary mammal, although it is considerably less unlike that of the egg-laying mammals. In all the features in which tlie bird's bony framework departs from the mammalian type, it approximates to tlie reptilian conformation in general features. Still, it must not be supposed that in this respect birds are exactly like any living reptiles. Although in their general structural plan tlieir skeletons are similar, that of the bird has become modified and specialised from the original type, which renders it markedly different from that of either a crocodile or a lizard. One of the chief points in which the skeleton of a bird resembles that of a lizard, and thereby departs from the mammalian type, is the mode in which the skull is articulated to the first joint of the backbone. Whereas in a mammal the articulation takes place by means of a pair of knobs on the hinder part of the skull, which are received into corresponding cups in the first joint of the backbone, in the bird and reptile there is but a single knob, or condyle, fitting into a cup in the first vertebra. Then, again, while in the mammal the lower jaw articulates directly with the solid wall of the true skull, or cranium, in the bird and reptile there is on each side an intervening separate bone, known as the quadrate. A third feature in which the skulls of birds and reptiles re- semble one another, and differ from those of mammals, is the complex structure of each branch of the lower jaw — each branch consisting in the two former groups of several distinct bones, whereas in the latter it is formed of a single bone. In order to give strength to the back in flying, the vertebrte of the hinder part of the backbone are fused together into a solid mass, forming the so- called sacrum, which is much more extensive than in mammals. To either side of this sacrum are firmly attached the bones of the pelvis, all of which are very unlike the corresponding bones of mammals, and of which the upper elements, or ilia, are by far the largest. In all living birds the bones of the tail are aborted, and terminate in a triangular piece known as the "plough- share bone." In all birds the ribs are few in number, and in most cases these differ from the mammalian type by the presence of an oblique process on the hinder border. These uncinate processes, as they are called, are met with in some reptiles. Perhaps the most extraordinary feature in the skeleton of an ordinary flying bird is the excessive development of the bones of the breast, which in some cases cover almost the whole of the under surface of the body. By far the largest of these elements is the breast-bone, or sternum, correspond- ing with the element similarly named in mannnals. Whereas in flying birds this sternum is strongly keeled, in order to afford a firm basis of origin for the pectoral muscles, in the ostrich and its kindred it is flattened. At the sides the sternum is attached to the true ribs by the intervention of so-called sternal ribs. Superiorly it bears a pair of bones commonly known as cora- 218 BIRD-STKUCrURE AMD DEVELOPMENT. 219 coids, but more properly termed metacoracoids. Superiorly these metacora- coids join the scimitar-like scapuke, or shoulder-bones, and at their junction form the cavity for the reception of the head of the upper wing-bone, or humerus. Joining the upper ends of the metacoracoids, and extending downwards towards the sternum, is the well-known merry-thought, or furcula ; although in this moditication peculiar to birds, the furcula really represents the united collar-bones, or clavicles, of man. In ordinary mannnals there are no separate representatives of the metacoracoids ; but such occur in the egg-laying mammals, although differing widely from those of birds. Before leaving this region of a bird's skeleton, it is important to mention that in the backbone — at least in the neck — the individual joints, or vertebrae, are articulated together by saddle-shaped surfaces, such a mode of articulation being unknown in any other class of vertebrate animals. As regards the structure of the bones of the Aving, very few words will suffice. The two upper segments of this part of the skeleton are essentially similar to the same part in mammals. The bones of the wrist, or carpus, are, however, reduced to two in number; while those of the metacarpus and fingers are flattened and otherwise modified, the number of digits never ex- ceeding three. The three digits respectively represent the thumb, index, and middle fingers of the human hand. Of these, the thumb has either one or two joints, the index two, and the third digit one. The metacai'pals of the index and third fingers are united together by a thin plate of bone, Avhich may be perforated. In a bird's leg the general plan of structure is a specialised modification of that obtaining in reptiles. The grand distinction between the leg of a reptile and that of a mammal, lies in the fact that, whereas in the latter the ankle-^oint occurs at the top of the two rows forming the ankle, or tarsus, in the former the joint is situated between the two rows. A bird's leg is formed on the latter plan, but has undergone the further modification that the two rows of tarsal bones are respectively welded to the bones above and below them. We have first of all the thigh-bone, or femur ; next comes the tibia (with the aborted fibula at its upper end), to the lower extremity of which are attached the upper row of tarsal bones, thus forming a tibio-tarsus. Below this comes a compound bone, formed by the lower row of tarsal bones and the three middle metatarsal bones of the typical five-toed foot, this compound bone being termed the tarso-metatarsus. Usually this bone terminates below in three pulley -like surfaces, to which are attached the bones of the toes ; but in the ostrich there are only two of these pulleys, and likewise only two toes. When the first toe, or halhex, is present, it is attached to the hinder surface of the lower end of the tarso-metatarsus. No trace of the fifth toe ever re- mains. Whereas in mammals each of the toes, save the thumb, has three joints, in a bird (as also in a reptile) the number of these joints increase from the second to the fourth toe. The chief character which distinguishes the class Aves from the other classes of vertebrate animals is the. j^ossession of feathers. The production of the young from an egg is not confined to the birds, but is shared by some mammals and reptiles ; nor is the power of flight a sole preroi:ative of the birds, but their feathery covering is a really distinctive characteristic. That birds existed on the earth in very remote times is undoubted, and that they were very different in form and structure from those which we have around us now, is equally certain. As the special character of the class AVES. Aves is the possession of feathers, the earliest creature ■\vhicli can be determined to have possessed this special prerogative of the birds is the Archczopteryx. The remains of this curious animal were first discovered in the sand-stone formation of Soleiihofen in Bavaria, whence comes the bulk of the stone used for lithographic purposes in the present day. The original slab containing these priceless remains is now in the British Museum, and witli it we commence the study of the class Aves. The head is, unfortunately, missing in this specimen, but the imprint of the tail is clear enough, and shows a structure quite difl'erent from that which is to be seen in any bird of modern times. It is longer than the body of the bird itself, and, instead of the feathers being placed side by side, and capable of being spread like a fan, we find in the Archcmpteryx the tail consisting of a series of vertebrie, upon which the feathers were disposed laterally, while there must evidently have been quills upon the wings. The digits of the latter terminated in little claws or hooks, a condition which exists in some of our present-day birds, though the exact structure is modified. A second specimen of an JrcVeo/^^erj/.v; was afterwards discovered in the same forma- tion at Solenhofen, and has passed into the possession of the Berlin Museum. In this individual the head has been preserved, and shows us a reptilian- looking skull with actual teeth. Thus we know that ArclKnopteryx possessed teeth and feathers, but of a kind unlike those of any bird of modern times. It introduces the first sub-class of birds, viz., the Scmrura. Among the numerous other members of the class Aves, which we shall have to pass in review, will also occur several birds with teeth ; but these will all be found to belong to a much earlier age than our own, so that we may safely say that at the present day no really toothed bird exists. At the same time, there are found on the earth to-day many types of birds which must be considered to be the survivors of very ancient bird-life ; and if these do not belong exclusively to one type, or to any single order or family of existing birds, we shall yet have little difficulty in assigning to most of them their proper position in the natural system. The idea that all toothed birds must belong to one group is now held to be erroneous, and the notion that the diving Hesperornis of the New World was allied to the Arclmopter\jx of the Old World, simply because they both possessed teeth, is not admitted at the present day. Granting, however, that our Passerine birds are the highest development of the Avian form at present existing, it naturally follows that we must look to a totally diff'ei'ent type if we desire to connect the bird-life of the present day with tliat of the past ; and the flightless birds, the ostriches, and their kin, are admitted by all ornithologists to be the modern survivors of ancient forms. Like the huge mammals and reptiles, which were the fore-runners of the modern representatives of these classes, the birds of the Struthioue order of Madagascar {JEpyornis) and the Moas of New Zealand were enormous. A singular interest attaches to the ancient Struthiones, which wei-e immensely larger than their descendants of our own epoch. Thus the moas of New Zealand attained a huge size, and, as far as recent researches carry us, they must have been alive on the earth not so very long ago. The moas live in the traditional history of the Maories ; specimens have been unearthed with the skin still attached to the bones ; moa-feathers have been found in some number ; and much controversy has been excited as to whether they have become extinct within the last hundred, or five hundred, years. That they were living within historic times is certain. Of the ^pyornis of Madagascar SUB- CLASS RATIT^.—ORDER RHEr/'ORMES. we know less, but though its bones are not so often cliscoveretl as those of the moa, its eggs, unearthed from the tombs of buried chiefs, are not un- frequently found Tlie Ilatite Birds, as tliese great fliglitlcss creatures of the ostrich tribe are usually called, derive tlieir name from the fact that they have a " ratite" or " raft "-like breast-bone. On the latter there is no keel, to which a pectoral muscle may be attached for the purposes of flight, and they have now no mechanisui by which they can propel tlieir huge bodies througli the air like ordinary birds. That ostriches and their allies will ever fly is siuiply im- possible, as their numbers are being annually decreased, and the necessaiy ages requisite for them to develop the means of flight as an escape from their enemies will never be allowed to them, as man, with his spi-eading civilisation and his deadly rifle, gradually encircles the poor birds in their last havens of rest. The probability is, judging from the Avell-developed wings of tlie early Arcliifoptcfiix, that ancient birds coukl fly, and that the ostriches and moas are the descendants of birds perfectly cajiable of flight, but which from the lack of natural enemies in ancient times, have gradually lost their power of flying, and ultimately developed into the flightless birds of the present day, wherein safety is secured by their excellent power of running, or by their nocturnal habits, where concealment and swiftness of foot play the most important part in their preservation. The Struthious or Ratite Birds (Sub-class Batita') may, therefore, be divided into six Orders, vh. the Rheas (Bhei formes), the Ostriches {Struthioniformes), the Emus and Cas- sowaries (Casv.arii- Sub-class formes), the extinct liaiiia. Moas (Dinornithi- formcs and ^pyorrdtliiformcs), and the Apteryges {Aptery the sub-order Ahctoropodes, and have the hind-toe elevated, and raised above the level of the other toes. Mr. Ogilvie-Grant recognises two large families, the Tetraunida' or grouse, and the Flumandcf; or pheasants and partridges. In the grouse the nostrils are hidden by feathers. ihe toes are mostly feathered, and there are never any spurs on the legs. Eleven genera are recognised as constituting the family Tdraonidce, and among them are the genera Laijoims, Lyrurus, and Teirao, which are represented in Great Britain by our red grouse and ptarmigan, the black grouse, and the caper- cailzie. The willow-grouse or " Ripa " of Scandinavia {Lagopus lagopus) is the most wide-spread of all the group, for it inhabits the northern regions of both hemispheres, varying slightly in different localities, so that many races are recognised by modern ornithologists. These forms, however, all belong to one type, and they are characterised by a common character, the as- Fiij 6.— The Crested Curas- sow (Crox atcdor). The Grouse. — Family. Tetraonuke. 230 AVES— ORDER GALLiFORMES. sumption of three different styles of plumages, in summer, autumn, and winter respectively, their plumage thus varying in accord with the colour of the country which they inhabit. Thus, in summer, wlien The True their surroundings are darkest, the plumage is of a daik Grouse. colour ; in autumn, when tlie tint of the country is grey, they become grey ; and, lastly, when the land becomes white from its covering of snow, the willow-grouse again changes its j)lumage into snowy white. In our red grouse (Lagojjns scotiais), whicli is an insular foi'm of the^ "Ripa," the changes of plumage are quite different, and the bird always remains dark-coloured throughout the year, the necessity for change on the ground of protective resemblance to its surroundings having become removedin our island climate. It is to be noticed as a curious fact that the willow-grouse, through- out its changes, never loses its white wings. The nest of the red grouse is always upon the ground, and the birds are subject to the attacks of many enemies, of whicli the carrion and hooded crows are perhaps the most active. Unlike some of the other grouse, our British species has but one mate, and is monogamous, the nesting season being in April and May, though sometimes lasting into the early days of J une, as grouse are much affected by the mildness or inclemency of the season, and when the latter is wet, the number of eggs laid is much smaller than in favourable summers. The red grouse is essentially a bird of the moors, and its place on the higher moun- tains is taken by the ptarmigan {Larjopits mvtus), which also inhabits the higher moun- tains of Scotland and Europe generally as far east as the Urals. Tlie black grouse (Lyrffrvs) are represented by two species only, one of Avhich, L. tetrix, is our British species, and extends in suitable localities across Europe and Northern Asia to Eastern Siberia, being repre- sented in the Caucasus by a second species, the Georgian black grouse {Lyrnrns inloknsieiciczi). These woodland grouse are the largest representatives of the family, and rank, indeed, among the largest of Game-Birds. They are peculiar to the Old World, Avhere they inhabit the pine-forests of Europe The and Asia. Four species are known, our British capercailzie CaiDcrcailzies. {Tetrao iircHjallns) inhabiting certain parts of Scotland and extending its range through the pine-covered mountains of Europe and Asia as far as Lake Baikal. In the Ural Mountains it is replaced by T. lo'alcrtsis, and again in Eastern Siberia by T. purvirastris, which is represented in Kamtchatka by T. lamtchaticvs. They are woodland birds, and our own species feeds on tlie tender shoots of larch and sjiruce, as well as on various ground-fruits, in pursuit of which it sometimes quits its favourite fir-woods for the more open country. Like the black grouse, the capercailzie has several wives, and desperate fights take place amongst the males, who, at the commencement of the nesting season, are often shot by the hunter, as they are engaged in " laking," as it is called. The male resorts to some particular spot to utter his love-song, and becomes so Fir/. 7. — The Clack Grouse (Lyrunis tetrix). THE FARTRIDGES. 231 absorbed in his "spull'' as to be utterly oblivious to anything going on around him. In America several peculiar forms of grouse are found, the dusky caper- cailzies {Dcndragapiis) having a naked air-sac on the sides of the neck, which they are able to inflate at will. Mr. Gale describes tlie nesting habits of D. ohscnrns in Cok)rado, and says that the male, during the nesting season, performs some curious evolutions. "If," he says, "you are .anywhere near the haunts of a pair, you will surely hear the male, and most likely see him. He may interview you on foot, strutting along before you, in short, hurried tacks, alternating froni right to left, with wide-spread tail tipped forward, head drawn in and back, and wings dragging along the ground, much in the style of a turkey -gobbler. At other times you may hear his mimic thunder overhead again and again in his flight from tree to ti-ee. As you walk along, he leads, and this reconnoitring on his part, if you are not familiar with it, may cause you to suppose that the trees are alive with grouse. He then takes his stand upon a rock, stump, or log, and distends the lower part of his neck, opens his frill of white, edged with the darker feather tijis, showing in the centre a pink narrow line, describing somewhat the centre of a circle ; then with very little apparent motion he performs his growling or groaning, I don't know which to call it, which has the strange peculiarity of seeming quite distant when quite near, and near when distant ; in fact, ai:)pearing to come from every direction but the ti'ue one." The pinnated grouse {Tym- panuchus) have an elongated tuft of feathers on each side of the neck, as well as an air-sac. These and the ruft'ed grouse {Bonasa) are also North American, being replaced in Europe and Northern Asia by the hazel-hens (Tetrastes), which inhabit hilly and wooded districts. In the family FJiasiunida', which includes all the partridges, quails, and pheasants, we meet with the most typical of the Game-Birds. Mr. Ogilvie- Grant proposes to divide them into three sub-families — partridges {Pcrdicina')^ pheasants (Phasianinct), and Odonto- The 2)horina', or American tooth-billed partridges. The latter Partridges, may be at once distinguished by having the cutting edge of the lower mandible serrated or toothed. The partridges may be recognised by their short and stumpy tails, which never exceed the length of the wing, and there are other minor difterences, which the above-mentioned author has pointed out. Unfortunately for the classification of the Game-Birds, many forms are intermediate, while the characters assigned to the partridges hold good only to a certain extent, the character which should separa'to par- tridges from pheasants, vh. the proportion of the primaries and the secondaries, breaks down, as Mr. Ogilvie-Grant has pointed out, in the important genus FhasicDius, which has the wing of a partridge, but the long tail of a pheacant. Q'hus the two groups, the partridges and the pheasants, to outward appearance so different, appear to be inseparably connected, and it is difiicult to find any line of demarcation between them. Pheasant-like partridges and partridge-like pheasants fill the gap between the true partridges and the true pheasants. The snow-partridges of the Himalayas are represented by the genus Lenm, which has the upper half of the tarsus covered with feathers, indicating an inhabitant of high elevations. Thus we find the genus Lerwa only in the upper ranges of the Himalayan system, partridges — from Koteghur to Sikkim, and again in Moupin and the Qg^^g j^^r'„,„^ mountains of Szechuen in Western China. It is found near A VES— ORDER GALL/FORMES. the snow-line in summer, and is somewhat local in its distributicm, inhabiting rocky situations, where its plumage blends with its surroundings, and makes the bird difticult to identify. It nests in the Himalayas at an elevation of from 12,000 to 15,000 feet, and is very tame, probably on account of its habitat being only reached by a most adventurous sportsman, whose visits are few and far between. These large and handsome birds are readily distinguished by their larg-^ size and by the number of their tail-feathers, whicli are 20 or 22 in number. The snow-cocks, or snow-pheasants as tliey are R r t called {Tctraogallus), are tlie largest of the partridge-group, ^ Gen° ^ ^"^ ^^^ "'^^y found in high ranges, from the mountains of Tetraonalhis ^^^^ Minor, the Caucasus, and Persia, to the Himalayas, Turkestan, the Altai, and the higher hills of Moupin and North- Western China. In the Himalayas, the snow-pheasant {T. liimalayensis) is an inhabitant of the snowy ranges, from which it only migrates to some- ■whaMower altitudes on the approach of the winter snow. These birds are generally found in packs of from fave to ten, but sometimes twenty or thirty are in a single flock ; and even during the nesting-season a good many are found in company. Snow-pheasants are birds of the open, rocky hill-country, frequenting grass-lands, and never entering the forest or perching on trees. They are, therefore, evidently gigantic partridges in their ways, and it is a mistake to call them snow-" pheasants," as is so often done. The red-legged partridges differ from the true partridges in having only 14 feathers in the tail. They are also easily recognisable by the beautiful barring of red, grey, and black of the sides of the body. The most familiar of all the group is the red- legged partridge of England (Caccabis rnfa), which is confined to South-Western and Western Europe. In North-West Africa, Sardinia, and Southern Spain it has a near ally in the Barbary red-legged partridge (0, 2)etros((), while the rock red-legged partridge (C. saxatilix) takes its place in the mountains of Southern Europe, from the Pyrenees to the Balkans. A paler form, known as the Chukar or Greek j^artridge (C. chnkar), extends from G'reece through Central Asia to China, and is a Avell-known bird in the Himalayas. In Tibet and Kokonoor a lai'ge species, Prjevalski's red-legged partridge {Caccabis magna), is met with ; but the largest of all is the black-headed red-legged LjscfGED~PARTrnxi"E partridge (C'. melanocephala), which lives in Southern {Caccabis ni/a). Arabia, and is a very fine bird, approaching even some members of the genus Tetraogallns in size. The disti'ibution of these species of Caccabis is most interesting, and there is no doubt that climate exercises considerable influence on their plumage, those which inhabit dry and sandy localities being paler than those of the more cultivated country. This is especially true of the chukars ; but considerable variation in tint is also seen in the common red-leg from different areas. The chukars inhabit dry and stony situations, and never go into the forests, pre- ferring in the Lower Himalayas the grassy hill-sides to the cultivated fields. In summer they are met with in pairs, or in small parties ; but in winter they assemble in loose, scattered flock.«, sometimes to the number of forty or fifty, or even a hundred. THE FRANCOLlNS. ^33 In the bare portion of the countries between Nortli- Western India, Persia, and North-Eastern Africa, is the home of the see-see partridges (.■l»i»io/7*)v//.r), of which two species, ,1. honh(tuil and A. Iifiji, are known ; and then we leave the true partridges for the francolins, which are a very large group, princi- pally African, They may be divided into two genera, Fnoicolinus and Fterniiifcs. Both these genera have 14 tail-feathers ; but the former has a feathered throat, while in Ftcrnistcs the throat is bare. More than forty species of francolin are known, of which all but four are peculiar to Africa. They inhabit all kinds of country : some the open grass-lands, some bare and desert situations, while others are found in forest-lands. This interesting species {F. fnoicoliinis) has now been practically exter- minated in its former haunts in Sicily and other parts of Southern Europe, but is still found in Cyprus, Palestine, and Asia Minor, whence it extends eastwards to the Indian Peninsula, as far Tiie Common as Assam and Manipur. It is familiarly known as the black Francolin. partridge, by Indian sportsmen, and is a favourite Game-Bird F, francolifius. in the north-west provinces of India, though it is much less common in many places than it was formerly. This is partly owing to the per- secution it receives, while from the accounts published by Mr. Allan Hume and his friends, the francolin is not a prolific breeder, and the young birds sutler from the depredations of stoats, jackals, etc. It is, like most of its kind, a ground bird, but Mr. Greig says that the cock will at times get on to a stumj) or ant-hill, when calling, and he has even seen them high up in fir-trees. The natives are very fond of keeping the francolin as a pet, and numbers are netted by them. Some of the African species are quite small, scarcely larger than a quail, whilst others are of large size and heavy build, and they aro sometimes so disinclined to fly, that after being flushed a second time, they will allow themselves to be taken with the hand rather than rise again. These birds have all the appearance of francolins, but differ from them in having the throat naked. Nine species are known, and they are all peculiar to the Ethiopian region. Ftcrnistes svainso'xi is one of the best-known species, and is the "pheasant" of Matabeleland. The Bare- Mr. T. E. Buckley says that the coveys are extremely throated difficult to flush, and they prefer to escape by running. In Francolins.— the day-time they come out into the open, and frequent the GemisPte^iii'stes. neighbourhood of small streams ; they pass the night in the brushwood, and roost on trees. They feed on bulbs, seeds, berries, and insects. The eggs of Swainson's bare-throated francolin are six or more in number ; they are rounded in shape, of a pinkish cream-colour, finely speckled with chalky-white. In the Malayan Archipelago the francolins of Africa and India are re- presented by the genus E}ii:.ot]iem, distinguished by its long bill. The typical species, the long-billed francolin (R. lonis. They are found from India and the Indo- Carpophai/Dic. Chinese countries throughout the entire Malayan Archipelago to Australia. One of these great fruit-pigeons, Vnrpophaga a-nca, is a very well-known-bird in certain parts of India and Burma. In the last- named province Mr. Eugene Gates says that the imperial green fruit-pigeon, as he calls C (caea, is generally distributed throughout the forests and well- wooded parts of the country, wherever, in fact, there are trees which yield edible fruits. It is entirely arboreal, going about in parties, and occasionally in couples, and feeding on fruits. It makes its nest in thickets and bamboo bushes, and lays but one egg, though in India two young birds have been found in a nest. Ill the true pigeons, of which our wood-pigeon and rock-pigeon may be 244 AVES— ORDER COLUMBIFORMES, consriderod the types, the tail is always composed of twelve feathers. The soles of the feet are not so broad as in the fruit pigeons, and, according to Count Salvadori, only the hind-toe has any expansion on the Tlie True sides. Only four genera of CulHmhului are admitted by the Pigeons. — above-named autlujr, rh:. G]imnopliaps, re])resented by a, Family single species from South-Eastern New Guinea, (t. albertlsiy Columhhhv. named after the famous Italian naturalist, D'Albertis, who discovered it ; Vohnnha, with tifty-eight species and a cosmo- politan range ; Nescenus, from JVIauritius, with its single species, JS'. mayeri ; and Turtnrcena, peculiar to Africa, with five species. It is not necessary to dilate on the characteristics of the ordinary pigeons, In the woods, the wood-pigeon or ring-dove is, in many parts of its range, the mildest and shyest of birds, but in confinement it makes the tamest of pets, and can be fed by children in the gardens of Paris, and is now so civilised that it is one of the features of St. James' Park in London. The stock- dove (C*. (enaa) is a more retiring bird, and nests in holes of trees or of old buildings, while the rock-dove (C. Uri(() frequents caves on the sea-coast. From the latter are believed to have sprung all our numerous forms of do- mestic pigeon. All the species of the African genus Tiirturana are some- what rare, and little is kni)wn of their habits. All these are f^astern birds, with a very long tail, exceeding the wing iu length. Only four genera are known : Turacaiui, of Celebes and Timor ; Mucr(>j)ijijia, the dominant form, with about thirty species, The Long--Tailed mostly of a rufous coloration, with }nany bands ; Kelii- Pigeons. — ■ ino-iJta-nas, with its three species, inhabiting the Moluccas Sub-family from Celebes, south to the Bismarck Archipelago ; and 2Iarropyi-sfris, was, a short time ago, threatened with the same extinc- tion as that which has overtaken its larger relative. The dodo, not having wings capable of flight, Avas unable to save itself when danger threatened ; but the DidiDtcnhis, though a ground-bird, and formerly nesting on the ground, so that it was fast diminishing in numbers, owing to the attacks of wild cats, appears suddenly to have resumed its arb(,)real habits, and nt)W both roosts and nests in trees, so that of late years its numbers have greatly increased. The sub-order, J>idi, consists of two genera, Pczophups and DIdiis, both now extinct, but living on the earth less than three hundred years ago. The solitaire (Pi':.up}t cavity in the upper half of the pectoral muscles. It occupies the upper part of the chest, and is so enormous as to distort the furcula and sternum. The nest- ling is hatched naked, and has a well-developed claw on the pollex and index fingers of the wings, so that it is able to crawl about by tlieir means. Mr. J. J. Quelch, the Director of the Museum at Georgetown in British Guiana, has written a jnost interesting account of the hoatzin, from which we have extracted the following notes : — "Soon after the hatching of the eggs, the nest- lings begin to crawl about by means of their wings and legs, the well-developed claws on the pollex and index being constantly in use for hold- ing and hooking on to the surrounding objects. If the birds are drawn from their nest by means of their legs, they hold on firmly to the twigs both with bill and wings ; and if the nest be upset by means of a rod pushed up from below, they hold on to all objects with which they come in contact by means of bill, feet, and wings, mak- ing considerable use of the bill, not only to reach objects above them, but also with the help of the clawed wings to raise themselves to a higher level. One curious feature noticed with a nestling which had been upset in the river, was its power of rapid swimming and diving when pursued. As soon as the hand was placed close to it, it rapidly dived into the dark water, in which it was impossible to see it, and would rise at distances of more than a yard away. Owing to this power, the little creature managed to evade all my attempts to seize it, taking refuge eventually under the bushy growth, where it was impossible to pursue it. The prolonged immersion which a nestling will thus instinctively and voluntarily undergo, or which an adult bird will bear in an attempt to drown it, seems to me to be quite remarkable, "The nestlings, when resting on the bare sticks of the nest, are observed to rest the weight of the body, as in the adult birds, on the bare and thickened integument of the carina sterni, the toes being spread out and the wings generally drawn up to the side." The food of the adult hoatzin consists of leaves or fruit, and the birds after death have a very unpleasant odoui', which prevents them being eaten as food. They are incapable of sustained flight, and in this fact we see another rail-like characteristic. Mr. Quelch observes : — "Whether from the fact of their occupying situations where they are but seldom disturbed, or but little likely to be pursued, or from a natural weakness of wing, the birds are but seldom seen in flight ; and when they take to the wing during dis- turbance, they do so for but a very short distance — a very exceptional flight Fig. Ih.—TnE Hoatzin ( Opisthocomus cristatim). 248 AJ'ES—OIWEKS OnsrHOCOMIFORMES AXD EALLIFORMES. being once observed of a length of about 40 j-ards, -with the wind, across i creek, from a liigh growth on one bank to a lower level on the other. Usually they rise almost Avith a jump from the brancli, seldom in a straight line, but with a marked convex curve to the point where they alight. The flight of the birds, in spite of their great expanse of wings, in relation to the weight of the body, is thus extremely awkward, and the body presents a peculiarly humped appearance. During their longer courses, the wings are rapidly and violently tlapped. The apparent awkwardness in placing them- selves when they alight, is chiefly due, I believe, to the smallness of the branches on which tliey usually settle, and which they are unable firmly to grasp with their long toes, balancing themselves meanwhile by the expanded wings and tail ; but it is also attributable, I think, though to a much less degree, to a certain weakness in their legs — even though they are thick and apparently strong-looking — since when they alight on a thick limb, a certain amount of instability is still manifest. " This weakness of limbs seems to be still more evidenced by the method of perching characteristic of the birds. At any time during the heat of the day they will be found resting on the branches, two or more together, the body directly applied to the wood, and supported on the bare, thickened, and hardened patch of skin which covers the flattened and broadened surface of the posterior detemnination of the carhia doiii." From the game-like rail, or rail-like Game-Bird OpidJtocomus, we now pass to the true rails. Only one family can be admitted, which bears the name of Eallido'. At flrst sight it would seem more natural to The Rails. — divide the rails into three families — true rails (Eallidoj), Order water-hens (GaUhmUda), and coots (FuUcida) ; but after a Uallifonnes. prolonged study of the family, we have come to the conclusion that there is no separation to be drawn between these appar- ently natural groups, and the most that can be done is to recognise two sub- families, rails and water-hens {FudUna\ and coots {Fidkina), the latter having lobate webs on the toes like the grebes. That the rails are birds of an ancient origin is undoubted. Their feeble powers of flight are compensated for by their swiftness of foot and power of concealment, and at the present day there are many flightless rails, de- scendants of an ancient stock. At the same time there are species, like our corn-crake {Crex crex), which are capable of long migrations, as are also others of the crakes ; but, as a rule, the rails are stay-at-home birds, and do not care for long journeys across the seas. With the exception of the blue water- hens {Peculiar to Lord Howe Island. These are birds of the bush and forest, though showing considerable likeness to the water-hens. They are found in both hemispheres, and one genus at least, 3Ie(iacn\r, from Southern New Guinea, is incaj^able of flight. The black wood-rail (Uabroptila irallacil) was dis- The Wood-Rails, covered by Dr. A. R. Wallace in the island of Halmahera in the Moluccas, and when sent home by him, the species was described and figured in the "Proceedings of the Zoological Society,'' as an ordinary rail standing in the w^ater. Consecjuently, when the Dutch travellers received instructions from Professor Schlegel to be sure and find JJahrupfiki, they searched for the bird in the marshes, but ultimately discovered it in the bush. It is altogether a curious form, black like a water-hen, and having a small frontal shield. Perhaps one of the most interesting genera of this group of rails are the wood-rails of the neo-tropical region (Anoniden), which have a somewhat ornamental i)lumage of rufous and grey, Avith a bright yellow bill and red letrs. Of late yiars they have been seen in the aviaries and zoological Fig. 16 — Water-Eail {Rallus aqualicus). gardens of Europe, and have even been known to nest in captivity. 21^0 AVES— ORDER RALLIFORMES. Of ilie ypccaha Avood-rail of Argentina {Aravaifhs viwAiha) Mr. Hudson, the biographer of Argentine birds, has given many amusnjg details, and he credits the species with considerable intelligence, repudiating the idea that this wood -rail is to be considered an ideal member of what has been called a "stupid family" of birds. He writes : — "On spying an intruder, it immediately utters a powerful cry, in strength and intonation not unlike that of the pea-fowl. 'J'his note of alarm is answered by other birds at a distance as they hastily advance to the spot whence the warning was sounded. The cry is repeated at irregular intervals, first on one side, then on the other, as the birds change their position to dog the intruder's steps and inspect him from the reeds. I have surprised parties of them in an open space, and shot one or more ; but no sooner had the survivors gained their refuge, than they turned aboTit to watch and follow me, sounding their power- ful alarm the whole time. I have frequently been followed half a mile through the rushes by them, and by lying close and mimicking their cries, have always succeeded in drawing them about me. But the ypecaha's loudest notes of alarm are weak compared with the cries he utters at other times, when, untroubled with a strange presence, he pours out his soul in screams and shrieks that amaze the listener with their unparalleled power. These screams, in all their changes and modulations, have a resemblance to the human voice, but of the human voice exerted to its utmost pitch, ar.d ex- pressive of agony, frenzy, and despair. A long piercing shriek, astonishing for its strength and vehemence, is succeeded by a lower note, as if in the first one the creature had well-nigh exhausted itself. The double scream ia repeated several times ; then follow other sounds, resembling, as they rise and fall, half-suppressed cries of pain and moans of ar.guish. Suddenly the unearthly shrieks are renewed in all their power. This is kept up for some time, several birds screaming in concert ; it is renewed at intervals through- out the day, and again at set of sun, when the Avoods and marslies resound with the extravagant uproar. I have said that several birds unite in scream- ing ; this is invariably the case. I have enjoyed the rare plt^asure of witnessing the birds at such times, and the screams then seem a lit accom- paniment to their disordered gestures and motions, A dozen or twenty birds have their place of reunion on a small area of smooth, clean ground Eiu-ounded by reeds ; and by lying well concealed and exercising some patience, one is enabled to watch their proceedings. First one bird is heard to utter a loud metallic-sounding note, three times repeated, and somewhat like the call of the guinea-fowl. It issues from the reeds, and is a note of invitation quickly responded to by other birds on every hand as they all hurriedly repair to the customary spot. In a few moments, and almost simultaneously, the birds .appear, emerging from the reeds and running into the open space, where they all immediately whirl about and begin the exhibi- tion. Whilst screaming, they rush from side to side as if possessed with frenzy, the wings spread and agitated, the beak wide open and raised vertically. I never observed them fight or manifest anger towards each other during these performances ; and, knowing the pugnacious spirit of the ypecahas, and how ready they are to seek a quarrel with birds of other species, this at iirst surprised me, for I was then under the mistaken im- pression that these gatherings were in some way related to the sexual instinct. Whilst watching them I also remarked another circumstance. When con- caaling myself amongst the rushes 1 have been compelled to place myself so diaadvantageously, owing to the wet ground, that any single bird straying cnAA'Ss. 251 accidentally into the dpen space would have discovered my presence im- mediately ; yet the birds have entered and linished their performance Avith- oiit seeing me, so carried away are they by the emotion that ])ossesse3 them during these moments. But no sooner has the wild chorus ended than, aware of my presence, they have fled precipitately into the reeds." Tiiose are rails with a stout bill, the culmen being shorter than the middle toe and claw. They may be tlivided into two sections, distinguished by the jiresence or absence of n bare frontal shield. Those which possess the latter characters are the moor-hens. The Crakes. Among the largest of the crakes are the weka rails of New Sub-Family Zealand (Ociiilrotnns), of which there are three species. These Crecina;. birds are remarkable for their pugnacious disj)osition, and also for the fHmeness with wliicli they "will Avander from tlieir homes in the bush, even entering camps find houses. They are heavy-bodied birds, with feeble Avings, Avhich are insutlicicnt to carry them through the air, and they are consequently incapable of flight. Like their distant relative, the Aptcryx, they serve themselves by running only, and ai'e also protected by their crepuscular habits, being more lively at night than in the day, and calling throughout the dark hours. These birds evince a curious antipathy to any- thing of a red colour, and this is the more interesting as remains of extinct forms of Aveka rails have been found in the Mascarene Islands, one of Avhich is knoAvn as Enjtliromachns, "the fighter of red." The f(jrmcr distribution of forms of flightless rails jn Ncav Zealand and the Chatham Islands, almost, if not absolutely, identical with each other, has given rise to some very in- teresting speculations ns to whether there Avas an ancient continuation of land area betAveen these two portions of the globe. Certainly the discovery of the remains of an extinct genus, Aphanapteryx, in Mauritius and in the Chatham Islands, is A-ery remarkable. Of these, the most typical form is our corn-crake or land- rail {Crex crex)^ whose harsh voice is heard in the hay-fields during the summer, often far into the night. Like all of its kind, the corn-crake loves secltx- sion, and is seldom seen on the Aving, except during the The Smaller shooting season, Avhen the birds are driven up by the dogs. Crakes. Even then they only take short fliirhts, and drop into cover again. Everything points to the wing-power of the corn-crake being of the feeblest description, and yet Ave knoAV that it must be a bird capable of cover- ing considerable distances, as it reaches South Africa on its Avinter migration. The little crake (Za/;or/jmponv7), the spotted crake (Porzana poyuma), and Baillon's crake (Forzana intermedia), are all species Avhich visit England, and the genus ror.ana may bo said to be cosmopolitan in its range. In the SandAvich Islands Avere found two curious flightless crakes of small size, Fennnla ccandata and P. saiuhvichcnsis, and in the island of Kushai also lived till recently a small black crake {AphaHoUmnas monasa). All tliese interest- ing little birds are now believed to be extinct, and as they could not fly, they were doubtless exterminated by cats and rats. In the island of Laysan in the Pacific, hoAvever, there still exists one of these curious little crakes, Porzaunla palmeri. Numerous genera of small crakes are known, of which space docs not per- mit us to give a detailed description ; but the distribution of the Avhite- Avingod crakes {Ortvrtiou of tlie globe which grebes do not inhabit. The feet are lobed, and there is never any visible tail, the broad rectrices of other birds being represented in the grebes by a tuft of downy jdumes. The Sclavonian Grebe is one of the most beautiful of the order, and is an in- habitant of the northern portions of both hemispheres. It is not an unf reciuent visitor to Great Britain in winter. The great-crested grebe ( Pudicipcs crit>t(tt)is) is almost cosmopolitan iu its range, and is The Sclf-vonian the largest of the British species. It is still to be found nesting Grebe {I'odiciptm, on some of the Norfolk broads and inland lakes of England, uurdus). building, like all grebes, a nest of the dampest description, composed of weeds and rushes. The eggs are at tirst white, but bec. In the summer the dabchick frequents rivers, lakes, and even ponds and small sheets of water, where it builds a nest of weeds, which are .•dways in a moist conditi(jn, and the nest always resembles a small heap of refuse more than anything else. A dabchick is a ])retty object to watch, but it is so shy a bird that a near approach is impossible, and it is only at a dis- tance that they can be seen swinnning about on the water. On the tirst sign of danger, it disappears like magic, and comes to the surface again for a second, only to dive again out of sight on the instant. If one of them be sur- prised in the open, it will dive immediatelj', and if there be a bed of reeds or lither shelter, it makes for them under the water, and one never knows at what distance its head will reappear. Twenty and thirty yards is by no means an uncommon dive for a dabchick to make, and it uses its lobed feet as propellers and steerers, not making much use of its wings, which are held close to the body, the stumpy and soft tail Vicing (jf no sort of use to it as a steering apparj\tu!-:. Fi(j. IS. — The Sclavoniav Grebe {Podicipcs auritus). 254 AVES— ORDER COLVMBIFORMES, Tho Great Northern Diver (Cvlymhm (jlaciaUn) . The Little Gkebe ok DABtUlCK. {Tachylaptes Jiuvialiiis). The downy nestlings are striped, and in the first plumage the dabchicks are brown above. In the autumn they are to a certain extent migratory, and are sliot in our tidal liarbours ; but in mild winters tliey do not desert their native homes. In summer, both sexes don a nuptial plumage, with a yellow patch on the bill and a black breast, against which the rufous colour of the face and neck forms a striking contrast. In all the grebes, the brighter colours and the ornamental tippets and crests are dropped during the winter season. The divers are birds of the Northern Hemi- sphere, few in number and arctic in habitat. Four species are known, all of The Divers. which are found in Great Bri- Order tain, two of them nesting within Colymbiformts. our limits. The red-throated diver {Colymbiis septentrionalis) is one of them, and the black-throated diver (C. ardiciis) is the second. The great northern diver (C. (jlacialis) is a more or less frequent visitor in winter, and the white-billed diver (C adamsi) has occurred a few times. This is chiefly known as an inhabitant of North America and Iceland, as the great north- ern diver which breeds in the Old World will probably be found to be C. adamsi. The habits of all the divers are much the same. On the water they are at home, swimming about and diving with the great- est of ease ; but on land they are very awkward, and tlie backward position of their legs seems to make it impossible for the birds ever to stand upright. In fact, they seem to shuffle along tlie ground with a snake-like motion, and never walk. They excel all tlie grebes in tlieir power of flight, though, as a rule, they trust to their swimming and diving powers to escape from danger, and are often to be seen swimming in the sea far away from land ; and they are also able to sul)merge their bodies, so tliat only the head and neck is exjxised, and tliey can remain under water for an astonisliing time, the groat northern diver liaving been known to remain below the surface for eight minutes. The nesting-place is on some iidand locli or secluded lake, and tlie nest is a j)oorly constructed aflair. Tlie eggs are two in number, of a russet-brown or olive-brown colour, with black spots and fainter block underlying markings. The divers differ from the grebes in having webbed feet and a wcll-devek)i)ed tail. The young birds are covered with down, and are able to dive and shift for themselves shortly after they are hatched. The sexes are alike in plum- age, and they have a distinct sunmier and winter dress, as witla the grebes. Fig. 20.— The Great Northern Diver (Colymbus ijlaciali.t). PENGUWS. 255 Tlie penguins are birds of the Soutliern Hemisphere, the most northerly ranging species occurring in tlie Gahipagos Islands, off the coast of South America. They are chiefly remarkable for their close-set plumage, unlike that of any other birds, and the flipper-like The Penguins. — character of their wings. The feathers, which arc harsh and Order scaly, and generally devoid of barbs, are distributed over Sphniisciformcs. the whole body, so that there are no bare spaces between the feather-tracts, as in most birds. Penguins are found in tastonishing numbers in the Southern Seas, especially at their breeding- places, which are selected on rocky islands, such as Kerguelen, Tristan d'Acunha, the islets round New Zealand, and tlie Falklands. As they cannot fly, great havoc is worked among them on their island homes during the nesting season, when thousands are killed for the sake of their oil. The penguins vary very much in size, from the diminutive Endypiila minor to the gigantic emperor and king penguins (Apteno- dijtcs patadiunica) of the Antarctic Seas. They always walk or hop in an erect position, and they are assisted in the support of their heavy bodies by the unusual strength of their tarsi, the metatarsal bone being very short and wide. The scapular bone is also of unusual width for a bird. The nestlings are covered with dense down, which is retained for a considerable period, until, in fact, the birds are nearly full-grown. The habits of all the penguiits are very similar, and the following account of the "Johnnie" {Pyijusctlis taniata), by the Rev. A. E. Eaton, who observed the species on Kerguelen Island, during the "Transit of Venus Expedition," is very characteristic of the order, and we therefore give the following extracts : — • "It builds in communities, some of only a dozen, others from 70 to 150 families. A more populous colony was visited by six ofldcers from the ships, who estimated the number of nests in it to amount to 2,000 or more. These larger communities are approached from the sea by regular paths, conspicuous at a distance, like well-worn sheep tracks, which lead straight up the hill from the water. Their formation is due to the penguins being very particular about where they land and enter the sea. A small party of the birds occupied a position uj^on the neck of a low promontory within an hour's walk of Observatory Bay. Their nests were nearest to the farther side of the isthmus ; but when they were ajiproached, the male birds used to run to the water, not by the shcntest route where it was deep close to the rocks, but by the longest to a place where the shore was shelving. It was amusing to see them start off in a troop as fast as their legs could carry them, holding out their wings and tumbling headlong over stones in their way, because as they ran they would keep looking ])ack instead of before them, and to hear their outcries. Panic and consternation seemed to possess them all ; but the females (possibly because they could not keep up with their mates) seldom went far from their nests, and, if the intruder stood still, sooi:j Fig. 21.— The King Penguin {AjitenochjUs lowjiroslris). 2?6 AVES— ORDER SPHENISCIFORMES. returned and settled down again upon their eggs. Not many weeks had passed before a change was eflected in tlieir conduct. The young were hatched, and now the mothers anxiously endeavoured to persuade them to follow the example of their fathers, and run away to sea. But the nestlings preferred to stay in their nests ; they did not mind if the stranger did stroke them, although their anxious mothers ran at him with open mouths whenever he dared to do so. Only a few of the older chicks could be prevailed upon to stir, and they after waddling a few yards, became satisfied with their performance, and turned to go home again. The mothers, who had straggled to a greater distance, began to return too. It was now that the more tardy youngsters began to experience the ills of life. Every penguin that had readied its place before them aimed blows at them as they passed by towards their own abodes. One of tlie little birds certainly did seem to deserve correction. It saw its neighbour's nest empty, and sat down in it. The old female Johnnie, the rightful occupier, presently returned in company with her own chick, to whom, having ])ut her head well into his mouth, she began to aduiinister refreshment after his run. Seeing them so pleasantly engaged, the small vagrant, thoughtlessly presuming upon her generosity, went nearer and presented himself to be fed also, as if he had a right to her attention and care. She looked at him while he stood gaping before her with drooping wings, unable for tlie moment to credit what she saw. But suddenly the truth flashed upon her, and, provoked by his consummate audacity, she gave vent to her indignation, pecked his tongue as hard as she could, chased him out of the nest, darting blows at his back, and croaked ominously after him as he fled precipitately beyond the range of her beak, leaving trophies of down upon the scene of his unfortunate adventure. The whole of this community of penguins was subsequently boiled down into 'hare soup' for the officers of H.M.S. Volai. Parrots, but rare in every other order of birds, and it is decidedly interesting that it should reappear in a family of gulls, especially as it is combined with a decidedly rapacious disposition in the skuas. The family Larida' is divided by Mr. Howard Saunders into three sub- families : the terns, or sea-swallows {Sternime) ; the skimners {Bhynchopimi') ; and the gulls (Larimi'). The sea-swallows are found all over the world, from the high north to the extreme south. They are mostly marine, but many of them arc birds of the marshes, especially during the nest- ing seastm, Avhile others frequent rivers and inland lakes. It is, however, on the sea that these graceful birds are generally seen to the greatest advantage, as they hover over the^vafcer, or glide along- above its surface, occasionally dro^j- ping down to capture some small fish or other prey. They often follow shoals of small fry, and we remember seeing a flock of large terns in the Red Sea, evidently engaged in decimating a shoal of fish on the surface of the water, and keeping up such a cackling all the time that they could be heard at least a mile off. In the British Islands we have thirteen different kinds of terns, five of which breed with us, the best known being the common tern (StenrnfiuviriHIis), the arctic tern {S. macrnra), and the lesser tern (♦S'. minuta). The sandwicn tern (S. cantiaca) now only nests in a few localities ; and a few pairs of the beautiful roseate tern {S. douijalU) are believed to still breed in one or two places off our coasts. Among the visitors to the British Islands are the three species of marsh tern, belonging to the genus HydrocJieUdon, which have only moderately forked tails, the outer feather or "streamer" not being prolonged, as in most of the terns. The black tern (H. nigra) is the commonest of the three si)ecies Mliich visit England, the white-winged black tern and the whiskered tern beinof of very rare occurrence. These marsh terns nest in swamps and marshes throughout tenij^erate Europe, Asia, and North America, and they are plentiful in the marismas of Southern Spain and the Danube. The nests are made of weeds, and are placed on tussocks, or on floating vegetation. The largest of the terns is the Caspian tern {Hydroprocpie caspia), a largo red-billed species, which measures nearly two feet in length, and is found over the greater part of the globe. The common and Arctic terns are species which breed in colonies on many parts (;f the British coasts, laying their eggs on the shingle, and making scarcely any attempt at a nest. The eggs have a great resemblance to those of some of the plovers, and, like the latter Fig. 20.— Arctic Teen (Sterna macnlra), 262 A VES— ORDE A' LA Kl FORMES, are difBcult to distinguish on the ground. This is especially the case with the eggs of the lesser tern (Sterna minuta). One of the rarest visitora to Britain is the sooty tern (Sterna fidiginosa). This is the species which breeds in such enormous numbers on certain islands, such as Laysan in the Pacific, and Ascension Island in the Atlantic. In the latter the assemblage of these birds is known as "Wideawake Fair." On Ascension, according to Mr. Howard Sauaders, the sooty terns lay but one egg, and this was also found to be the case by Mr. Palmer on Laysan, the birds being perfectly fearless, and not moving off their nest, but pecking and biting at anyone that approached them. As many as two hundred dozens of eggs have been collected on Ascension Island in the course of a morning, and this will give some idea of the numbers frequenting that spot. h\ the tropical islands of the southern oceans is found a curious form of tern, snowy-white in plumage, with a pointed black bill. This is the snowy tern ((ryyis alba), which possesses a very wide range over the islands of the Pacific and South Atlantic. It lays but a single egg, which is placed carelessly among the rocks or scrub, but is also often found in a cavity of a branch or on tlie fork of a tree. Tliese curious river terns are called scissor-bills, on account of the remark- able disparity in the length of the two mandibles of the bill and their extreme sharpness of the ridges, which is compressed like the The Skimmers. — blade of a pair of scissors. The name given to tlie American Sub-family species by one of the old writers in 1731 is "cut-water," Rhynchopina. a very good title for the bird, as these scissor-bills fly along the top of the water, cutting the latter with their blade-like under mandible, which is considerably longer than the upper one. The skimmers frequent rivers in the tropical countries of the Old and New Worlds, being found nesting as far north as Virginia in North America, and Egypt in the Old World. The eggs, whicli resemble those of the true terns, are laid on sand-banks in the rivers frequented by the birds. Five species are known, each with a separate range, Mhyachops -niijra being found in the Southern United States to Central America, R. intercedens in Brazil, and B. melanura in the northern part of South America. B. Jiavirostris is an in- habitant of Africa, and B. albicolUs of India. Their heavy build and square tails, as a rule, distinguish gulls from terns, but it must be remembered tliat some of the gulls are small, and many are not so big as the Caspian tern, for instance. The forked tail The Gulls.— of the terns is seen in one genus of gulls, Xema, which con- Suh-family tains two species, Sabine's gull (A'. Sif.hiaii), and the large Lco'iua'. fork-tailed gull (X. furcata). The foi*mcr is an inhabitant of the Arctic Seas, but sometimes straggles as far as the coasts of Britain, while X furcata is only known from the Galapagos and the coasts of Western America. Ross's gull (Bhodostethia rosea) is another Arctic species, which on rare occasions visits Europe, but is one of the rarest of all the gulls, and is remarkable for its wedge-shaped tail and the beautiful rosy blush on its white breast, which is like that seen in the roseate tern. Of the true gulls (Larus), of which the common gull (L. canns) may be considered the type, there are more than forty species known, and these are distributed, like the terns, throughout the greater part of the globe, from the Arctic regions in the north to the extreme south. The gulls may be divided into two groups, those with a hood and those without. The hooded gulls comprise such species as our bhick-headcd gull (Larus ridibundun) and its GULLS— SKL7AF. 263 Fig. Ti — The Common Gull {Larus canus). Tlie Skuas. — Family Stercorariida. allies, another Brititih species being the little gull {L. viinvtu-i). The other gulls with which we are familiar in this country, sucli as the greater black- backed gull (L. vmrin\i»), the lesser black-backed gull {L. fuscva), the her- ring gull (L. ayiicnfatim), have white heads and white tails. The habits of gulls are much the same all the world over. They feed mostly on fish ; but some of the larger kinds arc not only greab robbers, but will eat almost anything, and Avill devour young birds and even sickly mannnals. The little black-headed gull, on the other hand, is a niDst useful bird, as it frequents and breeds in inland districts, where it often follows the plough, and devours large numbers of grubs and insects. The other gulls breed on the rocky coasts, mostly in the north, sometimes in vast numbers together. This is especially the case with the kittiwake (Risaa triddvfiila), which is separated from the true gulls on account of the absence of a hind toe. The skuas are often called the parasitic gulls, from their habit of robbing the smaller gulls of their food, instead of catching it for tliemselves. They differ from the true gulls in having a cere, or bare wax-like base, to the bill. The latter is very strongly hooked at the tip, and in the posterior portion of the sternum, or breast- bone, there is only a single notch, instead of two, as in the gulls. Four species of the great skuas are known, of which one, M. (•atun-liadcs, is an inhabitant of the North Atlantic, where it breeds in a few scattered localities, such as Iceland, the The Great Skuas. Faeroes, and — Genus Norway, and a Megcdestris. few pairs still nest in the Shetland Isles, where great pains are now taken to preserve them, as they had be- come neai'ly extinct there. They not only feed on fish and car- rion, bub rob other gulls of their prey, and even kill and eat some of the smaller species. The eggs are two in number, and the birds become very bold in defence of their nests. A second species of great skua {M. cliiJoisis) inhabits both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of South America, from Peru on the west, to Southern Brazil on the east. From the New Zealand seas to Kerguelen, and thence to the Falkland Islands, occurs M. antardica, while in Victoria Land and the frozen countries of the Antarctic Continent is found a peculiar pale form of great skua, M. mac- Fig. SS.—BrrroN' ; Srlta (S'crcorarius varasiticu?) 264 AVES—ORDER CHARADRIIFORMES, cormicki. The long-tailed skuas (Stercorarii(s) differ from tlie members of the preceding genus in having more or less elongated central tail feathers, these being developed in some of tlie species to a great lengtli. The members of the genus Stercorarins are three in number, all of them breeding in the high north, and visiting more southern localities in winter. With the exception of tlie Pacific coast of South America, where only the pomatorhine skua (S. x>oinator}iinus) has been known to occur, the whole of the other Southern oceans appear to be visited by these skuas. They all nest on the tundra of the Arctic regions, and the pomatorhine skua and Buffon's skua are only winter visitors to the British Islands, but Richardson's skua {S. crepidatiis) nests in the Orkneys and Shetland Isles, as well as in some of the Hebrides and on the north-west of Scotland. Like their larger relatives, tliese smaller skuas live principally l)y robbing the terns and smaller gulls of the fish they capture. They Avill also devour young birds and eggs, as well as lemmings and small rodents, Crustacea, etc., while the young of Buffon's skuas are said to be fed on crowbei'ries in the summer. As has already been mentioned, there are many characters which the Charadriiformes, or Limicoline birds, as they are often called, share with the gulls, the principal one being the cleft, or schizognathous The Plovers palate, The nostrils are almost entirely schizorhinal, or in and Bustards. — the form of a slit, though there are exceptions to this in the Order Chara- seed-snipes, the bustards, and the thick-knees. The eggs of driiformes. most of the Charadriiformes are peculiar to the group, being generally pear-shaped, four in number, and double spotted, having the overlying markings black, arranged in lines, blotches, or spots, and the underlying spots grey. The young are covered with down, and can take care of themselves very shortly after their birth, running with great swiftness, and being able to escape capture by their protective colora- tion, which effectually conceals them in the midst of their natural sur- roundings. There is but a single S{X!cies to represent this sub-order, and it is one of the most peculiar of birds. While possessing anatomical characters which show tliat it is an aberrant kind of plover (though many observers have The Crab- considered it to be rather an aberrant kind of tern), it Plovers. — differs from all gulls and plovers in laying a pure white egg. Sub-order Its nesting habits are in fact altogether peculiar. Not only Dromades. does it lay a Avhite egg, but only one, and that is placed in a tunnel hollowed out in the sand, as described below. The crab-plover is a handsome black and white bird, the mantle being black, and having the plumes elongated, so as to form a swallow-tailed patch when the bird is flying. It is long-legged, like a thick-knee or stone-plover, and inhabits the coast-land of Eastern Africa and Arabia, the Persian Gulf, and the eastern shores of tine Indian Ocean, as far as Ceylon, reappearing in the Andamans and the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. It probably breeds in most of the above localities, but the headcjuarters of the species seem to be in the Persian Gulf, and the coasts of Arabia and Mekran. Mr. Nash, who visited one of the islands off Bushire, found that the birds bur- rowed into the sand-hills to the distance of about four feet, and in the shape of a bow, the passage being about a foot below the surface of the ground, and the entrance usually near or under tussocks of grass or low shrubs, the single egg being laid on the bare soil at the end of the hole, without any sign of a nest. The birds nest in colonies, and the young, which are covered with StlEATHRJLLS. 265 greyisli down, remain in the lioles during the day, like young petrels and they are appai-ently night-feeders. Like Dnmux.% the sheathbills are very aben\int members of the Limicoline group, and are only found on the islands of the Atlantic, such as the Crozettes, Kerguelen, Marion Island, and the Falklands. The species of the latter islands is (Jhionis alha, the yellow- The Sheathbills. billed sheathbill, which is also found in Southern Patagonia, —Sub-order and extends to the island of South Cieorgia and the land of Chionides. the Antarctic Continent. The species inhabiting Kerguelen and Marion Islands is Chionarchiis minor, which has a black bill, and does? not exliibit the wattles on the face found in Chionis alba. The form of the sheath is also somewhat different, though both show a tube-like opening on the base of the bill, something like that of a petrel. In the bird from the Crozettes {Ghionarchus crozdfcnsis) this petrel-like opening to the sheath is absent, and the bird is smaller than G. minor, and has darker legs. The Rev. A. E. Eaton gives an amusing account of the habits of the sheathbills in Kerguelen Island during the visit of the "Transit of Venus Expedition" to that j.;^. 99. -The Yellow-billed Sheath- place. They Avere common where the t.ill (Chionis alba). coast was rocky and sheltered, and were seen in flocks of as many as thirty, but during the breeding season they were met Avith only in pairs. They were very tame and inquisitive, and suffered considerably in consequence daring the stay of the expedition, as they could often be knocked on the head with a stick. Mr. Eaton writes . — "They were also very assiduous in their attendance on the colonies of shags and crested penguins, whose eggs they greedily devoured. The sitting birds stretched out their necks and croaked at the sheathbills sauntering past their nests ; but the marauders, keeping just out of reach of iheir bills, paid nttle regard to them, and proceeded in a business-like manner to eat up the first eggs they chanced to find unguarded. It occasionally happened that while an old shag was gesticulating violently at a Chionis in front of her, his friend pecked from behind at the eggs, which, in the excitement of the moment, Avere not completely covered by her. When she found out what was taking place she drove him away with a croak, and, true to her sex, affected to have won her point in the affray. Reseating herself upon the nest with great dignity of deportment, and gently replacing with her bill the broken eggs under her feathers, she resigned herself to the task of trying to hatch them. Some time after the sheathbills have gone away the broken eggs are in- spected, and if there is only a small hole pecked in each of them they are kept in the nest. Their appearance and manner of caressing one another led the blue-jackets to call sheathbills ' white pigeons.' In their gait and flight they closely resemble ptarmigan; and like these they utter i heir cry when starting on the wing, as well as during flight. After they have attained a fair rate of speed, they sail along from time to time Avith outstretched Avings. On alighting at their destination they often greet one another with a gentle chuckle, nodding their heads the while." The eggs of the sheathbills are i)lentifully marked, and resemble those (»f 26o AVES— ORDER CHARADRIIEORMES. oyster-catchers among the plovers. The nest is a rough affair, placed in a hole behind or between rocks, sometimes an old burrow of a petrel being used and enlarged by the sheathbill. Enough has been said to show that the sheatnoiJl is a very remarkable foinn of bird. Its inquisitiveness and tamc- ness reminds us of the weka rails, while its habit of devouring eggs is also one of the bad propensities of the larger rails. In some other lespects, as Mr. Eaton remarks, it resembles a ptarmigan, and that it is a bird of con- siderable power of flight is proved by a specimen in the British Museum, which was shot whilst Hying round a ship 200 miles from land. These birds are only found on the Andes and in the southern portion of South America, from Argentina to Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands on the east, and from Chili to Ecuador on the west. There Tlie Seed Snipes, are but two genera, Attofjts and Thinocorus, the former birds — Sub-order being as large as grouse, the latter of the size of a quail. Attar/ides. Despite their game-like plumage, they are allied to the plovers, though they differ from these in having a palate much like that of a passerine bird, while the nostrils are holorhinal, not schizorhinal. The nest is a mere depression in the ground, sometimes lined with a few blades of grass, and the eggs are pale stone-colour, very thickly speckled Avith light and dark brown. This is a very large group, and contains all the plovers, snipes, and sandpipers. The palate throughout is cleft or schizognathous, the nostrils split or schizorhinal, basipterygoid processes are present, The Plovers. — and the spinal feather tract is forked on the upper back. Sub-order The eggs are nearly always pear-shaped, four in number, Charadrii. and are deposited point to point. The plovers and snipes form one large family, Charadriidce, but there are no less than ten sub-families. These are small Arctic birds, which exhibit certain grebe-like characters, for they have the toes lobed, swim well, and have also a serrated edge to the hinder margin of the planti tarsi, the hind portion of the The exposed leg being exactly as in the grebes. The phalaropes are Phalaropes.^ likewise remarkable for their bright coloration, in which the Sub-family female excels the male, and is the handsomer bird of the Phalaropincv. two ; she is also larger than the male, and does all the court- ing. There are three genera of phalaropes, each containing a single species — Crymojihilus, with the grey phalarope (C. fidicarivs) ; VJialarojjns, with the red-necked phalarope (P. hyperboreus) ; and Stecjaiiopui^, with Wilson's phalarope {S. tricolor), as the representatives of the three respective genera. The two former breed in the Arctic regions of both hemispheres, but Wilson's phalarope inhabits temperate North America. All of them migrate far south in winter, and are found off the coasts of South America as well as in the Indian and Australian seas. Some of the details of the nesting habits of phalaropes, as observed by Mr. E, W. Nelson in Alaska, are very amusing. Speaking of the red-necked phalarope (P. huperboreua), he remarks : — " As the season comes on, when the llames of love mount high, the dull-coloured males move about the pool, apparently heedless of the surrounding fair ones. Such stoical indifference usually appears too much for the feelings of some of the latter to bear. A female coyly glides close to him and bows her head in pretty submissive- ness, but he turns away, picks at a bit of food, and moves oft' ; she follows, and he quickens his speed, but in vain ; he is her choice, and she proudly SNIPES— PAINTED SNIPES. 267 arches her neck, and, in mazy circles, passes and repasses close before the harassed bachelor. He turns his breast first to one side, tlien to the other, but there is his gentle wooer ever pressing her suit before Imn, Fre({uently he takes flight to another part of the pool, all to no ])urpose. If, Avitli affected indifference, he tries to feed, slie swims along side by side, almost touching him, and at intervals rises on wing above him, and, poised a toot or two above his body, makes a lialf-dozcn quick, short wing-strokes, produc- ing a series of sharp whistling noises in rajnd succession. \.\\ the course of time, it is said, water will wear away the hardest rock, but it is certain that time and importunity have their full efTecb upon the male phalarope, and soon all are comfortably married, Avhile vutterfomilias no longer needs to use her seductive ways and charming blandishments to draw iiis notice. About the tirst of June the dry rounded side of a little knoll, near some small pond, has four dark heavily-marked eggs, laid in a slight hollow or whatever lining the spot affords, or, more rarely, upon a few dry straws and grass-blades, brouglit and loosely laid together by the birds. Here the captive male is introduced to new duties, and spends half his time on the eggs, while the female keeps about the pool close by. " Snipes and sandpipers differ from plovers in having a long bill, with no "dertrum." The latter name is applied to the swelling of the end of the bill, which makes this portion higher than the middle or the basal part. Similar swellings are seen in pigeons. The bill The Snipes.— in many of the snipes is widened at the tip and is pitted, but Sub-family it is not deeper at the end than at any other part of its Scolopaeincv. length. Tiie nasal groove or depression in which the nostrils are placed is continued through nearly the whole line of the bill. The snijies and sandpipers, moreover, difler from the Totcmime or Tatlers in having their long toes cleft to the bases, without any connecting web between the basal joints. The sub-family Scolopachue may be divided into two main groups, the snipes and woodcocks, which have the eye placed far back in the head, almost on the ear-opening, while the sandpipers have the eye placed as in other ordinary wading birds. One of the The Painted most curious genera belonging to this sub-family is that of the Snipes.— painted snipes (liosfratuJa), which contains three species, one. Genus It. scmicoUaris, being confined to South America, while B. Rostratula, cnpoisis is found in Africa and India as far north as Japan, E. anstralis taking its place on the Australian continent. In these painted snipes, which resemble ordinary snipes in their habits, we meet with the same peculiarity as in the phalaropes, viz. that the female is handsomer in plumage than the male. The latter is a grey bird, with rounded spots of golden buff on the wing-coverts and quills, while the female is not only larger, but has chestnut on the hind neck, and in the hen of It. c.a2)eiisis on the throat also. The South American R. semiroUaris, however, does not differ in the plumage of the sexes. In Chili and Peru occurs the curious Phegornis mitchclll, Avhich has a chestnut neck like Rliyiichcea, but has no hind toe. The true woodcocks (Scolopax) are only two in number, our own well-known species, and a dark form resident in the mountains of Java and New Guinea, called S. satnnita. In North America, however, there is a small form called Fhilohela minor, which is distinguished by its attenuated outer primaries ; and in the island of Bourou, in the Malay Archipelago, occurs a peculiar woodcock 268 J VES— ORDER CHARADRIIFORMES. The Woodcocks. — Genus Scolopax. Neoscolopax rochusstid. AH the woodcocks differ from the snipes in having successive broad bars of bhack and buff on the hinder head and neck, whereas the snipes always have a buff band down the centre of the crowni. They are likewise birds of the woods and forests rather than the open marshes, which the snipes love to frequent. The jack snipe {Limnocrypics gallhiula) differs from the true snipes in having four notches in the hinder margin of the sternum instead of two. The true snipes (Gallinago), of which our common snipe (G. gallinago) is the type, differ from the woodcocks in having much more j^ointed wings, the long inner secondaries equalling the pi'imaries in length, while the markings on the head are longitudinal, not crosswise. They are lovers or the marshes, as a rule, but some of them occur only on tlie high lands, and appear to have the habits of woodcocks. Such are the wood-snipe {G. nemoricola) of the Himalayas, and the imperial snipe (G. imperialis) of the Andes of Colombia, and Jameson's snipe (G. jamesoni) from the Andes of Ecuador in South America. In the Auckland and Chatham Islands are found peculiar tawny -coloured species (G. avcklandica and G. pMsilla), Avhich run like rails, and do not take to fliglit, unless very hard pressed. AVith the exception of these few resident species, snipes are migratory birds, nesting in the temperate and sub-Arctic regions of tlie north, and going to the far south in winter. Tlius Latham's snipe {G. aus- tralis) nests in Japan and winters in Australia, and tlie North American Wilson's snipe wanders south to British Guiana and Brazil, and the great snipe {G. major), which breeds in the north of Europe, winters in South Africa. Snipes vary very much in the number of the tail-feathers, our own snipe hav- ing only 14, though sometimes it is found with 16, but in the wire-tailed snipes, G. stennra and G. megala, as many as 26 and 20 are found. These two species nest in Eastern Siberia, and visit India and China in great numbers on migration. The oviter tail- feathers in G, stenura are reduced to wire-like plumes, the eight feathers on the outside measuring less than 0'2 inch in width. The largest of the snipes are G. gigantea from Southern Brazil, and G. Mudulata of British Guiana, which are from 15 to 20 inches in length. A curious habit of the common snipe during the nesting season is known a"> ' ' drumming. " ' ' The male may then be seen," says Mr. Seebohm, " in l)ror.d daylight, high in the air, wheeling round and round in enormous circles, and flying diagonally upwards with rapid beats of the wings, then swooping down an imaginary inclined plane with half-expanded and visibly-vibrating wings, but wnth outspread tail-feathers, uttering a sound which is technically called 'drumming.'" The sound is heard only when the bird is descending, but some observers assert that they have heard it proceeding from a snipe on the ground or perched on a dead branch. It has been likened to the bleating of a goat, and bears some resemblance to the suppressed gobble sometimes heard from a turkey. Many naturalists believe that the sound is produced by the vi- bration of the wings or the action of the air on the outspread tail ; but others, Fig. 30.— The Common Snipe {Gallinago gallinago). SANPFIPEKS- K UfFS. 269 The Tatlers. —Sub- family Totaiiinic, Mr. Seebohm among the number, believe that it is effected by the vocal oi'gans. The sanclj)ipers differ from tlie snipes in having tlie position of tlie eye normal, and not reacliing to tlie ear-opening, as in the snipes and woodcocks. In this group of the sub-family Scolojxttime we find some of the most in- teresting of the waders, the purple sandpipers (Arquatella), the dunlins (PcJidna), the knots {Tri)i(j(i), the curlew sandpipers (Ancijluchihts), the stints {Limo)iifc8), and the sandcrlings {Calidris). They are mostly birds which breed in the Arctic regions, and go to the southern continents of the globe to pass the winter. Of the curlew saudpii)er no egg has yet been found; of the knot no really authentic egg is known; and of the sanderling but very few. In this group of sandpipers occurs the spoon-billed sandpiper Eur]itwr]njncli>is j^lig'iKCHs), a little stint with a spoou-shaped bill, which nests in the arctic regions of Eastern Siberia, where Nordenskjold met with it during the voyage (;f the Vc Fi'j. 33.— The Common Turn-Stone {Arenaria inttrpres). very distinct one. There is no dertral swelling to the end of the bill, and the metatarsus is transversely sealed in front, but reticulated behind, while there is no connecting web between the toes, as in the oyster-catchers. Two species of turn-stone are known. The common turn-stone (A. interpres) is one of tlie most cosmopolitan of birds, nesting in the Arctic regions of both hemispheres, and ranging south almost as far as land extends. The male is a very handsome bird in the nesting plumage, though the females and young birds are not so brightly coloured. It gains its name of "turn-stone'' from its habit of turning over stones, often of considerable size, in order to reach the insects underneath. A second species is found in Western North America, the black turn-stone {A. melanocephala). These are curious birds, peculiar to the Old World, where they are found from South- ern Europe and Central Asia to China, south to India and Aus- tralia. They have all long wings and a swallow-like flight, and they nest In companies, laying eggs which are unlike those of plovers or snipes, being so thickly scribbled over that the ground-colour is almost invisible. One of them, the common pratincole {Glareola j)ratincola\ has occurred in England on a few occasions. The pratincoles have the claw of the middle toe pectinated, as in the coursers, from which they are distinguished by their long wings. Although allied to the plovers and pratincoles, and, like these birds, pos- sessing slit or schizorhinal nostrils, the coursers differ from them in having no basipterygoid pro- The Coursers. — cesses, and tJiey may — Sub-order be differentiated from Ciirsoril. the former by their pec- tinated middle claw. They have both aspects of the meta- tarsus transversely scaled. Of true cour- sers (Cuj-sorius) Ihere are five species, the best-known of which is the cream- coloured courser {C. (((dlicus), which has occasionally wandered to England, though its natural habitat is the desert country to the south of the Mediterranean, where it is found from the Azores and the Canary Islands eastwards to North- Western India. On the island of Fuerteventura it breeds in large numbers, and the eggs, till lately very rare, are now in the collection of every oologist. Two eggs only are laid, on the bare ground, without any attempt at a nest ; tliey are stone- coloured, M'ith numerous dots and scribblings of brown, and are scarcely distinguishable from the surrounding soil. Three species are found iu Fig. 34.— The Cream-coloured Coukser (fiursorius gallicus). SrOh'E CURLEWS - Bl'STANDS ^11 The Stone - Plovers. — Sub- order Uuliaiemi. Africa, and one, the coromandel courser (C coromandelicus), is plentiful ?n the Indian Peninsula. Of the allied genus Ehinojitilus, eight species are known, all Ethiopian, excepting one, K. biturquatus, which is a busli- frequenting species in a restricted area oi Central India. These birds, with their great yellow eyes and stout legs, form the connect- ing group between the plovers and tlie bustards. They have holorhinal nostrils like the latter, and in many anatomical characters are more like tlie latter sub-order than the Charudrii. They are found tliroughout the temperate and tropical portions of the Old World, and re-occur in Central aiid South America. The coiinnon stone-curlew, thick-knee, or Norfolk plover, is found on barren wolds and shingly portions of tlie coast in many parts of England. It occurs in similar situations throughout Central and Southern Europe, as far east as India. It is a particularly shy bird, and on the approach of danger, it sinks its body on the ground, and lies quite flat, with its neck stretched out. The little nestlings, which are clothed with greyish- butf down, also endeavour to conceal themselves in like manner. The eggs, two in number, are laid on the bare ground, without any attempt at a nest, and are stone-coloured, with brown and grey markings, and so closely resemble stones that they are very difficult to find. Of the seven other species of stone-curlew known, four are African and three American. In Australia the long-legged thick-knee {Biirhinus (jrallniiHa), and in India and the Malay Archi- pelago two gigantic species, Esncus recurinrostris, and Oiihoi-hamplws magiarudris, occur. Like the stone-curlew, the bustards have holorhinal nostrils, as well as a split or schizognathous palate. Tlie breast-bone has two notches on its posterior margin, there is no oil-gland, and the feathers have a distinct after-shaft. In the males of some of the The Bustards. — • sfjecies there ia a gular pouch, and the throat is capable of Sub-order Otides. being inflated to an enormous extent. Tlie bustards difi"er very much in size, some of them being scarcely larger than stone-curlews, though they are always heavier in build. The male of the great bustard measures more than three feet and a half in length, and the great kori bustard of Africa is over four feet in length, while some of the small forms, such as the crested bustards of Africa {Loplwtis), only measure a foot and a half in length. They are all birds of the deserts and open wolds, and are strictly confined to the Old World, the larger number being found in Africa, which is the home of six genera out of the twelve which are known. India has two genera of florikins, Houharopsis and Sypheotis, while the genus Otis, of which the great bustard is the type, and Tetrax, containing the lesser bustai'd {T. tetrax), are found only in Europe and Northern Asia. The great bustard {Otis tarda) is now extinct as a British species, but was one of our indigenous birds in the early part of the present century, inhabiting Salisbury Plain and other open wolds in England from the borders of Scotland to Dorset. It now occurs only as a rare visitor, and it is not known Fiij. 35.— The Stone-Curlew {(Edicnenms cedicnemus). 274 -■/ ' '£S - ORDER UR I '/FORMES whether the native British bustards occurred in former times as migrants or were resident in this country. The former supposition is probably correct, as the species is Icnown to be migratory to most of the European countries in which it still breeds. In the nesting season it retires to the fields of tall grass and corn, where it is able to conceal its great bulk, and it is said that at this season of the year the birds moult their quills, and are unable to fly. The male of the great bustard is much larger than the female, and has, besides his brighter coloration, more conspicuous Avhiskers. His method of showing oft", when courting the female, is one of the must curious sights in the whole of nature. He connnences by shivering his wings and lowering his quills, and his next action is to turn up his tail and lay it flat on his back, so that the snow-white under tail-coverts form a sort of frill. Across the flattened tail he disposes his primary quills so that the ends of these cross each other, and keep the tail out of sight, the whole proceeding being hidden by ruffling up the scapular feathers till nothing can be seen of the tail or the primary (juills. The act of crossing the latter across the back naturally brings the fore-part of the wing into an extended jjusition, and tlie inner secondaries, which are pure white, are thrown \\\) as a frill on each side of the back, Avhile all the wing-coverts are more or less inverted, as if the bird were trying to turn himself inside out, the long parapteral wing-coverts being thrown back, so as to secure an uninterrupted view of the Mhite frill caused by the elevation of the inner secondaries and the halo of the under tail-coverts. The bird then laj's its head deep down between the shoulders, so that the whiskers stand up on each side, and then proceeds to inH.ate his throat and chest, which become distended to an enormous degree. He then shows himself to his lady-love, and paces slowly in front of her, now and then springing round to exhibit the white under tail-coverts. This curious per- formance was witnessed in the Zoological Gardens by Mr. Pickhardt, who has mounted the group of bustards for the gallery in the Natural History Museum. The eggs of the bustards are two or three in number, of an olive-brown colour, spotted or blotched with brown, the underlying spots being grey, the eggs being never very strongly marked. No nest is made. In this assemblage Ave have birds of very varied form and the Cranes Avere considered in former times to be allied to the herons. The differ- ence in the structure of the palate, however, shoAVs that Tlie Cranes. — they are not really related, as the herons have a bridged Order or desmognathous palate, whereas in the cranes and their Gruifor7nes. allies the maxillo-palatine bones do not coalesce Avith each other or Avitli the A'omer. The young, likcAvise, are hatched covered Avith doAvn, and can take care of themselves soon after leaving the egg, while the nestlings of herons have to remain for a long time helpless, and are fed by the parent birds in the nest. There are also many other anatomical and osteological characters which separate tlie cranes. They are stately birds, Avith long legs and generally some bright orna- mental colour on the head, Avhile the inner secondaries are developed into handsome drooping plumes. With the exception of South The True Cranes. America, cranes are found in eveiy jjart of the Avorld, and — Sub-order Africa possesses three out of the nine knoAvn genera. The Oruts. sarus cranes (Anticjone) are found in India and Burma, and one species, the Avell-known "native coaij)anion " (A, cmstralastana), in Australia. This is a peculiar and interesting distribution, CRANES-IJMPk'/NS. 275 Fi in (locks of considerable size. In as>nciatiiig the tSeririinas with the Cranes, we are following the most recent conclusions of anatomists; but it must be conceded that they are very aberrant members of the Gr^iifoDur^. In some respects they resemble the bustards, and, like them, have holorhinal nostrils, but in the possession of four toes, and in other characters, they differ so much from those birds that in our opinion there is really no real affinity between them. Like the Cranes and allied forms we have just been considering, the Seriamas have schizognathous palate, and their mode of life presents some features in common with the Secretary-Bird (Scrpoitavins secretarii(i^) of Africa. Recognising this fact, some ornitho- logists, myself among the number, have considered the Seriama to be an aberrant accipitrino bird. The common Seriama is an inhabitant of South-Eastern Brazil ; and in Argentina another species occurs, Burmeister'n Seriama {Chunfja hurmcisteri). These two represent the only known species of the sub- order. The resemblance in appearance to the secretary-bird is remarkable, and in its mod • of walk, its crested head, and its long legs, there is much that reminds us of the lattei' bird, which has a curious method of pounding its food. If the latter be a rat, it springs into the air, and brings down both feet with all its force, till it has reduced its prey to a pulp. This is also done by the Seriama. Mr. Hudson says that these birds live on the umuud among the high grasses of the Campos, where the traveller frequently liears their loud screaming cry as he rides along the tracks. Their ford consista principally of insecta and caterpillara, but they also devour berries The Seriamas. — Sub-order Ltrholophi. the other a cleft f>r Fig. 39.— Tim Skriama {Cariama cristata). 578 J } 'ES—ORDER JRDEIFOR.VES. The Extinct Birds of Patagonia {Sfe>ro>-»it/)cs). The Heron- Order Ardoformcs. and reptiles. They nest in low bushes, the eggs being two in number, rounded and spotted, resembling those of Cranes and Rails. Somewhere in the neighbourhood of the Seriamas and the Cranes and Rails must apparently be placed some extraordinary forms of bird-life which have been discovered in the Miocene d,pposits of Patagonia, and described by Dr. Ameghino under the order Stereornithes. These peculiar creatures are only known from their fossil remains, and they were at first supposed to be trtruthious Birds, and akin to the R,hea8. Further information is required concerning them, but at the present time, my colleague, Mr. Andrews, considers that they are totally different from any ostrich-like birds, and were probably gigantic fore-runners of the Seriama and the Crane-like birds of modern times. All the members of this order have a bridged or deamognathous palate, and the nestlings are hatched helpless, and are /ed in the nest by the parent birds for a considerable period. Thu« they differ from the Cranes, with which they were associated in the older classifications. The Heron-like birds may be divided into three great groups, viz., the Storks (Ciconiidce), the Spoonbills and Ibises, and the Herons. Although in outward appearance Storks and Herons look very much alike, there are several characters which render them easily 8ei)arable. For instance, no Stork has the claw of the third or middlo The Storks.— toe pectinated; that is, furnished with a comb-like; Family Cicmhdcr. process, as is the case with all Herons. Again, the hind toe is not on a level with the other toes, but is elevated above it; and the f^jrcula, or "merry-thought," bone sliows no median projection in the angle, as is seen in the true Herons. There are other anatomical and osteological characters which can be adduced for the separation of the Storks from the Herons which it is not necessary to enumerate in detail. In this Order are included the true Storks (Ciconiichc), the Marabous, or Adjutants (Lfiptoptihi^), the Open -bills (Aiiastomus), and the Wood-Storks or Wood-Ibises {Tan- talus), the latter iDeing generally admitted as a distinct sub-family, Tan- to.lince. All these birds have no "powder-down" patches on the sides of the rump, thus differ- ing from the true Herons and the Hammer- heads {Scopi) and the Shoe-billed Storks [Bakenicipitida;). The best-known representative of the Ciconii is the Wliite Stork iCiconia ciconia) of Europe, a bird which occasionally visits England, but is to be more easily studied on the opposite shores of the Continent. It is always interesting to take a country walk in Holland in the spring and see the Stoiks' i.cs;s, which are plentifully distributed in the Dutch gardens, where the birds are encouraged The Storks.— Sub-order Ciconii. Fig. 40.— Thr WniTE Stork {Ciconia ciconia). sroRA's?. 279 to nest by the erection of cradles or other accounnodation (often an old cart wheel) erected for their benefit. In most places frequented by the btorka it is considered lucky to have a nest on the premises, and the latter increases in bulk year by year as the birds return to their nesting-places, which are often on the tops of houses. They have a curious habit of sitting motionless for hours together, often on one leg, as if absorbed 111 contempla- tion utterinc occasionally their single exclamation, which is produced by the snappin.^ of the mandibles, for they apparently have no true note or call. Before mi-^ratincr to spend the winter months in Africa the Storks often assemble in large flocks, returning to Europe in .Tanuary and February, and their first haltinc^-place to nest seems to be in the INTcditerranean countries, especially in Morocco, where they are strictly protected. Colonel Irby states that he was told by a Frenchman that "in the City of Morocco, as well as at Itz and some other large towns in the Moorish Empire, there are regular Storks hospitals, and that should one be injured, or fall from the nest, it is sent to this institution, or rather enclosure, which is kept up by subscription from wealthy Moors, who consider the Stork a sacred bird.' The late M. J^ avier, who lived for some years in Morocco, writes the following note, which gives a very c^ood idea of the migrations of the Stork and its habits in this favoured countl-y He says :— "The Stork is seen on migration in vast numbers around Tangier passing to Europe during January and February, some of the birds terminating their journey by remaining to breed in Morocco. These are the first to depart south, returning again year after year to the same places, and apparently by the same route as that taken in their gradual departure. "Some large flights pass on without stopping; those Avhich migrate in August rest awhile on their way south ; so during the autumnal migration (which lasts, like the spring, for about a month-the latter half of August and the first part of September) this species is extremely numerous, and is seen round the environs of Tangier in all directions ; they are very tame, and often follow close behind the plough. ,. , ,u ^- - "The superstition which shelters this bird from molestation by the natives is the belief that the Storks were inspired by Allah to P^t^ct the harvest and the country from noxious insects and reptiles, and that the birds themselves (knowing the benefits they confer on man) ask m return protection for their offspring by building their nests on the walls of towns and houses, and that, therefore, anyone who kills them must be a Kathr i.e not a true believer of the Prophet, especially as the birds would only be killed for mischief, and not for food. It may be added that some of the Arabs believe that the Storks originate from a wicked Kadi and his family, who, as a punishment for their great cruelty, were all changed into these birds and that these miserahles humble themselves to appease Allah, and in the hope of some day regaining their human form, pray without ceasing day and night, and, whenever they rest, prostrate themselves and clean their bills The White Stork cf Europe has a red bill, and is represented in Eastern Siberia and Japan by the Black-billed White Stork (C/coma feoj/cimm), and in America by the Maguari Stork (Evxennra magnar,), which has a greenish bill The Black Stork {Ciconia nigra) is another European bird which has occasionally visited England. It winters in_ Africa and .i" the Indian Peninsula, and, like its white relative, only visits Europe in the summer, when it is also found over Northern Asia. It difTers from the White Stork in being a forest bird, but in habits and food it resembles that Bpecies. Indeed, in these respects all Storks are very similar. 28o AVES— ORDER ARDEIFORMES. ill India and Africa a curious species occurs, viz., the V» hite necked Stork {Dlssura episcopns), which, on examination, would seem to have a double tail, whence its Latin name. The white under tail-coverts are longer than the black tail-feathers, and are stiffened so as to appear like rectrices rather than coverts. The same curious formation occurs in one of the American Storks (Eaxenura magnm-i). The Jabirus are the largest of the Storks, standing higher on their legs than even the Adjutants. There are two species of Jabiru besides the American one mentioned above, viz., Mycteria scnecjalcnns of Africa and M. anstmlis of Australia. They have a very peculiar bill, which is slightly upturned at the end, and of a black and red colour. Of a more ungainly form, and with a bare and scabious head, are the Adjutants (Lepfopfilvs). They are very large birds, and as fossil remains have been found in the Miocene deposits in France, we may conclude that they were at one time much more widely distributed than they are now. At present one species of Loptoplihis is African, another Indian, and a third Javan. They all possess the beautiful soft under tail-coverts known as " Marabou " feathers, and on the neck they have a bare pendulous pouch which they are able to inflate ; and from the way in which this is done by the birds in confinement, it would appear as if it was considered an ornamental appendage, though fr im its livid colour the protrusion of this naked bag is anything but ornamental. In India the Adjutants are projected on account of their usefulness as scavengers, as they will devour almost anything, and they may often be seen in the streets of the towns. In aviaries they often stind on one leg for hours motionless, or, with their legs stretched forward under them, they will go to sleep with their heavy heads resting on their crops. Mr. Eugene Oates says that he noticed enormous numbers of Adjutants in Pegu. " Along with the Pelicans," he says, "breeding in the same trees, were innumerable Adjutants. One can hardly realise the number of these birds that visit Pegu in October, unless, as I have done, one has seen the vast armies which settle on the plains on their first arrival. I have stood on a bund where I could see for about two miles around me, and the whole area was literally covered with them. Some fifty birds stand huddled together, then there is a bare spare of about 100 ft., and then another group of birds. Their numbers are incredible. They all arrive suddenly in the Pegu plain on the same day, and after resting for about two days, they betake themselves to the forest, where I had the pleasure of visiting them. Certainly almost all the Indian Adjutants must come to Pegu to breed. These birds utter only one sound, and it resembles the lowing of a cow when separated from her calf. It was the only sound heard in these gloomy forests." Colonel Bingham found the nests of the Indian Adjutant on the Nedong Hills in Tenasserim, and only succeeded in reaching the rocks on which they were built after a stiff and difficult climb. These birds are generally known as the "Shell-Ibises,"' though they have no connection with the true Ibises, but are Storks of a peculiar type ; Mr. Leydecker calls them "Shell-Storks," which is a much She Open-billed more appropriate name for them, as their food consists Storks.— Genus principally of molluscs, for the breaking of which the 'i-H'c^tuinttn. bird's " nut-cracker "-like bill is distinctly well adapted. The peculiar gap in the bill is not seen in the young birds, but seems to develop as the birds get older. These birds have also generally been called "Wood Ibises," and they seem WOOD-STORKS— HAMMER-HEAP. 281 The Wood- Storks.— Family TuntaUiUc. to be a ki;id of connecting link between the Storks and the Ibises, though in structure they resemble the former. Three species are known — the American Wood-lStork {TaiUahts ioculator), the African Pseudotantalns ibis, and the Indian species, P. lencocephalns. Of the nesting of the latter bird Lieut. Burgess has given the folhnving account : — "In a village about ten miles from the Godavery river, where there are a great number of large banian trees both outside and inside the walls, I found a community of these birds, which had built their nests on them, probably to the number of fifty. The trees inside the walls were as thickly covered with nests as those outside, and the birds, which appeared docile and tame, did not mind the noise of the peoi)le passing bene ith them. When I visited the village, the young birds were all well fledged and most of them able to fly. The villagers informed me that the old birds move off" to the river in the very early dawn, and having caught a sufficient supply for their young, return at about eight or nine o'clock ; a second expedition is made in the afternoon. Some idea of the quantity of fi.sh caught by these birds may be gathei-ed from what the people told me, that numbers of fine fish were dropped by the old birds when feeding their young and were eaten by them. A young bird of this sjtecies, which T shot in Sind, disgorged a large quantity of small eels. The nest is composed of small sticks, and is placed at the top of the trees, and if there are many on the same tree, they are placed pretty close together." In many of its characters the African genus Sropvs, which represenfs this sub-order, is intermediate between the Storks and the Herons.. In the form of the furcula, without any median projection, it resembles the former, and it also wants the pectinated claw of the Herons, while the absence of powder-down patches likewise allies it to the Storks. In some points of its anatomy *S'co/)i(s is Heron-like, but in external appearance it is unlike any member of the above-mentioned sub-orders, colour of the plumage is a sombre brown, but the bird has a fine crest and a curiously-compressed bill, with a strong dertral hook at the end. Both the inner and the outer toe are connected together by a distinct basal web. But it is in its nesting habits that the Hammer- head is so i:)eculiar. The nest is the work of a pair of birds, and is placed either on rocks or trees, sometimes six or eight being found within a short distance of each other. Sir John Kirk found one on the Zambesi, G ft. in diameter, with small openings on one side. The nest is a mass of sticks, and the bird has been said to make three distinct chambers; but in South Africa the nests are described as being for the most part a solid mass of sticks, sometimes to the extent of a cart load, the nest being often decorated with bones, bits of crockery, or other rubbish, or any bright thing which the bird can collect, after the manner of a Bower Bird {Pfilonorhynchus). These extraordinary birds are represented, as in the preceding instance, by a single genus Balo'niceps, which, like Scopus, is confined to the Ethiojiiau The Hammer- headed Storks.— Sub-order Scopi. The Fin. 41.— Tfik IIammrr-iie\d {Scopun ii,mbntta). 282 ^/ VES— ORDER ARDErFOR.'\rES. The Shoe-billed Storks.- Sub order .l)iils rex). region, but instead of being widely distributed like the Hammer head, the !Shoe-bill is confined to the districts of the Upper Nile, The shape of the bill, with its dertral hook, is sufficient to distinguish Bnkenicsps at a glance. The genus further possesses two powder-down patches like the Herons, but differs from the latter birds in the absence of any pectination on the middle claw, and in its Stork-like furcula. Taking all points of its anatomy into consideration, the balance of evidence seems to be in favour of the alliance of Bnlceiiiceps with the Storks. Von Heuglin considered the " Abu-maskup " or Shoe-bill to be a kind of Marabou, and an inhabitant of the Upper Nile regions, such as the Saraf River, the Lower Kir district, and the Gazelle River, and the countries lying between. It is everywhere a shy bird and its habits being Stork-like, leg and feeding on fish. Its to be a snapping of the bill like that of a Stork. One of the chief differences between the Herons and the Storks is the pectinated claw on the third or middle toe, and another dift'erence is the posi- tion of the hind toe, which, in the Storks, is elevated above the level of the other toes, and in the Herons is on the same level as the latter. The median process on the furcula has been already alluded to. The Heradionri^ may be divided roughly into the Herons and the Bitterns. The former have twelve tail-feathers, and the latter ten. The true Herons comprise a large number of genera, all more of less closely connected together, but differing in certain constant peculiarities, which warrant their being separated as genera, or, at least, as stib-genera. Thus the Purple Heron of Europe is remarkable for its long middle toe, which is as long as the tarsus, and hence it is known as Phoyx 'purivvrea. The genus Ardea, on the other hand, has the proportions of the toes different, the middle toe being shorter, and the tarsus longer than the middle toe and claw. Besides the pectinate or comb-like claw on the middle toe, our Common Heron (.4. cinerea) has the tip of the bill serrated or furnished with saw-like notches along the cutting edge at the end of the upper mandible. The Common Heron is now to be found nesting in England only in certain heronries where the bird is protected. The havoc which the bird Fig. 43. — TriB Common Heron {Ardea cinerea). KIGHT- HF.KOXS—BOA T- BILLS. 283 plays among the fish in preserved waters is sufticient excuse for its slaughter, and many are killed on account of the damage they do. Never- theless, the Heron is an extremely handsome ornament to our waters, and it is always a beautiful sight to see one of these birds standing motionless by a pool of water, or Hying with its heavy wings and outstretched legs high above us in the air. The nests of the Common Heron are bulky structures, and, as a rule, are built on trees, though occasionally, where trees are absent, they will be built on bushes or even on the ground. The eggs are of a beautiful greenish-blue colour. When in full nesting plumage, our own Ardcd cinerf.a dons some long crest feathers and some elongated feathers on the back, but in these features it is entirely eclipsed by some of the Egrets, such as the species of Herodins and Gar:.iit((, which have beautiful ornamental plumes on the breast and lower back during the breeding season. The long dorsal train of the Little Egrets {G(U-:.ttta yar'.t'tta) forms the material with which the English ladies of the present day decorate their bonnets and hats. Every one of these plumes, sold as " osprey " feathers by the dealers, has been taken from the body of a bird killed while bringing food to its nestlings, which are in con- seciuence left to starve. It is scarcely possible that, in the present day, when so much publicity has been given to the fact that the wearers of these plumes are responsible for the slaughter of numberless beautiful Egrets, :uid the death of the young ones by starvation, any Englishwoman can plead immunity from complicity in the crime of consenting to the murder of these pretty birds; and one is forced reluctantly, seeing that the plumes are iibtained solely for the English market, to believe that our people love to have it so, and that they would rather that thousands of Egrets were killed than that their bonnets should be without an "osprey " plume. Passing from the true Herons and the Egrets to the Night-Herons, wc find several intermediate forms, such as the lovely Agami Heron of (juiana (Aijdvun agami), and the Reef-Herons (Demiegrefta). In the latter birds -we meet with a curious fact, viz., that The Night-Herons, they have two forms, a white and a grey one, and, as far GenuaXi/rtworax as one can say at present, the white form goes through all tlie changes of the grey one, assuming the ornamental plumes of the breed- ing season ; and yet, when the two forms cross, as they often seem to do, the result is seen in any amount of pied birds. The same phenomenon is exhibited in an American Heron {Dirhromanassa rnfa), where one form of the species is white and the other rufous. The two forms breed together, and some of the nestlings Avill be white and others rufous. The Night-Herons are found nearly everywhere on the globe, and the European species, Nydieorax iiyctieorax, occurs in the temperate and tropical portions of the Old and the New Worlds. These birds breed in colonies, and build a nest of a framework of sticks, in which the eggs lie in a sort of cradle. One may travel for miles through a marsh without suspecting the presence of the Night-Herons, and suddenly come upon the breeding place, when the air becomes full of the noisy cries of the birds, as they hover over their nests, and evince the greatest concern at the invasion of their retreat. One of the most curious of the Night-Herons is the American Boat-bill (Cnnchroma). At first sight the remarkably wide and shoe-shaped bill would suggest an affinity with the Shoe-billed Stork (Balrpniceps rex), but the characters of the bird are absolutely Heron-like, and there ia no doubt that 284 A VES - ORDER ARDEIEORMES. Fig. i\ - TriK Boat hillf,i Hrkon (Canchr^ma cochlearia). the bird is an exaggerated form of Night-Iierdii, its plumage also suggesting the propriety of this alliance. The genus stands, in fact, between the true Night -Herons (Nydieorax) and the Mottled Night-Herons {Gorsachius) of the Indian Region. Two species of Boat-billed Herons are known — the South American species C. cochlearia, which is found from Brazil to Guiana, Colombia, and Ecuador, and the Central American species, C. rxledoni, which takes its place from Panama to Mexico, and has ii tawny-coloured breast instead of a white one. They are nocturnal birds, and Mr. Richmond says tluit in Costa Rica he found C. zelcd(»ii in colonies, and the note of the species was a "squawk," something like that of the Night-Heron. The Bitterns have ten tail-feathers and the end of the bill serrated. In this group are contained the Little Bitterns {Ardctta), the Dwarf Tiger Bitterns of South America {Zehrilus), and the Asiatic Bitterns {Ardeirallns and Dnpetor), as well as the True Bitterns {BotaMrns). Of the Little Bitterns ten P])ecies are known, and the distribution of the genus is almost cosmojjolitan. The most tyoical species is the Little Bittern of Eurone {Ardctta minnta), a bird which still occasionally finds its way to England, and doubtless formerly bred in the British Islands. One of the most remarkable of the Little Bitterns is, however, the Argentine species {Ardetta involi(cris) , concerning which Mr. W. H. Hudson tells a remarkable story, one of the most interesting of all histories of bird-life. Most of the Bitterns have the curious faculty of concealing themselves from observation by their faculty of "reed- simulating," and many of our readers must have noticed some of these birds in the Zoological Gardens standing stock- still, and evidently imagining that by so doing they were invisible to the intruder. The Common Bittern {Botaur^fs stellaris) will not only do this, but will gradually and slowly turn his breast to any observer if the latter only walks slowly away from him, under the evident impression that by so doing he renders himself invisible, as, indeed, the bird would be if he were in his native reed- bed ; Fij. 45 — TlIP. LiTTLR BlTTKRN (Ardetta mimtia) LITTLE BITTERNS. 285 but, as he has a backgrouud of gieeu bushes or wood-work, his efforts at conceahiient are vain. The notion of conceahnent in relation to natural surroundings is, however, thoroughly exj)lained by Mr. Hudson's experiences. He write.s : — " One day in November, 1870, when out shooting, 1 noticed a Variegated Bittern stealing off quickly through a bed of rushes thirty or forty yards from me. He was a foot or so above the ground, and went so rapidly that he ai)peared to glide through the rushes without touching them. I tired, but afterwards ascer- tained that in my hurry I missed my aim. The bird, however, disappeared at the report, and, thinking I had killed him, I went to the spot. "It was a small isolated bed of rushes I had seen him in ; the mud below, and for some distance round, was quite bare and hard, so that it would have been impossible for the bird to escape without being perceived ; and yet, dead or alive, he was not to be found. After vainly searching and re-searching through the rushes for a quarter of an hour, I gave over the quest in great disgust and bewilderment, and, after reloading, was just turning to go, when, behold ! there stood my Heron on a reed, no more than eight inches from, and on a level with, my knees. He was perched, the body erect, and the point of the tail touching the reed grasped by its feet, the long, slender, tapering neck was held stiff, straight, and vertically; and the head and beak, instead of being carried obliquely, were also pointing up. There was not, from his feet to the tip of his beak, a perceptible curve or inequality, but the whole was the figure (the exact counterpart) of a straight, tapering rush ; the loose plumage arranged to till inequalities, and the wings pressed into the hollow sides, made it impossible to see where the body ended and the neck began, or to distinguish head from neck or beak from head. This was, of course, a front view ; and the entire under- surface of the bird was thus displayed all of a uniform dull yellow, like that of a faded rush. I regarded the bird wonderingly for some time, but not the least motion did it make. I thought it was wounded or paralysed with fear, and, placing my hand on the point of its beak, forced the head down till it touched the back ; when I withdrew my hand, up Hew the head, like a steel spring, to its first position. I repeated the experiment many times with the same lesult, the very eyes ti the bird appearing all the time rigid and unwinking, like those of a creatuie in a fit. What wonder that it is so difficult — almost impossible — to discover the bird in such an attitude. But how happened it that, while repeatedly walking round the bird through the rushes, I had not caught sight of the striped back and the broad, dark-coloured siaes? I asked myself this question, and stepped round to get a side view, when, ynirahile dictu, I could still see nothing but the rush-like front of the bird. His motions on the perch as he turned slowly or quickly round, still keeping; the edge of the blade-like body before me, corresponded so exactly witn my own that I almost doubted that I had moved at all. No sooner had I seen the finishing part of this marvellous instinct of self-preservation (this last act making the whole complete), than such a degree of delight and admiration possessed me as I have never before experienced during my researches, much as I have conversed with wild animals in the wilderness, and many and perfect as are the instances of adaptation I have witnessed. I could not finish admiring, and thought that never had anything so beautiful fallen in my way before, for even the sublime cloud-seeking instinct of the White Egret and the typical Herons seemed less admirable than this, and for some time T continued experimenting, pressing down the bird's head and trying to bend him by mam force into 286 .IJ-ES— ORDER A RDE /FORMES. some other pusition ; but the strange rigidity remained unrelaxed, th-e fixed attitude unchanged. I also found, as I walked round him, that as soon as 1 got to the opposite side, and he could no lunger twist himself on his perch, he whirled his body with great rapidity the olher way, instantly presenting the same front as before, " Finally I plucked him forcibly from the rush and perched him on my hand, upon which he Hew away ; but he liew only fifty or sixty yards off, and dropped into the dry grass. Here he again put in practice the same instinct so ably, that I groped about for ten or twelve minutes before refinding him, and was astonished that a creature, to all appearance so weak and frail, should have strength and endurance sufficient to keep its body rigid and in one attitude for so long a time." This habit of concealing themselves among surroundings to which their plumage assimilates in colour seems to be a characteristic of all the Bitterns, as I have seen our Common Bittern ( llutaiirMs deUoris) attempting to perform tliis feat in an aviary, and the Tiger Bitterns (Tifjrisoma) also remain in a rigid position for hours together. It should be mentioned that nearly all the Herons lay eggs of a beautiful greenish-blue colour, while those of many of the Bitterns are white, and that of the Common Bittern is yellowish brown. Although agreeing with the Storks in the form of the furcula, the members of this sub-order differ from them and from the Herons in several important osteological characters, the principal one being the The Spoon-'bills schizorhinal or "split" nostril. The Spoon-bills are such and l*dises.— Sub- extraordinary looking birds, that there is no possibility of order J'hitdlcfc, their being mistaken for any of the other long-legged Herons or Storks, from all of which they are distinguished by their flattened and spoon-shaped bill. They are found in nearly every part of the globe, but do not extend very far north, and six species are known, viz. , four species of Phdahn', one of Platihis, confined to Australia, and one of Ajaja, viz., the Rosy Spoon-bill of the New AVorld (Aj((ja ajajd). The Common Spoon-bill used to breed in the marshes of our eastern counties, but has not been known to do so for the last three hundred years. Now the species is onl}' an accidental visitor, but it still nests on the Horster Meer in Holland, where its breeding places are strictly protected. The nests are made of dead retds lined with dry grass, and are placed on the tussocks of grass with a few sticks as a founda- tion ; a few nests being built low down in the alder trees. On the Danube the Spoon-bills iiest in company with Egrets and other Herons, Fiff. 46. -Tub Common S*>oon-bili, ^"^ ^^'^ following interesting account of a visit (Platakai leucerodea), to one of these breeding-places is given in Mr. Barkley'a work, "Bulgaria Before the War." He found a colony on an island a few miles below Rustchuk, and he describes the scene as follows: — " Pushing our small boat into a narrow creek, we took oti' our shoes and stockings, and. turning up our trousers, picked our way through the tangled boughs in the direction of the sound, which evidently srOif.Y- IS 11. i.s- inisEs. 287 proceeded from the centre of the island, and I shall not easily forget the bight we beheld wlien we reached it. " There, on the pressed-down boughs of the willows, only a few feet above the water, were hundreds of great Hat nests of the various kinds of Herons, Spoon-bills, Egruts, Bitterns, etc., all huddled to^'ethor in one confused mass, and the entire colony reeking with the most indescribably tiithy smell. "It was rather late for eggs, as most of them were hatched off; but was just the time to observe the doings of the children of these sedite, quiet, peaceful-looking birds, and I must say that I never yet beheld such a collec- tion of little liends, nor a mure hideous set. "Their bodies were of the smallest proportions, while every other part of them— their wings, legs, necks, and beaks — were of the longest. Most of them had no feathsrs, and all seemed possessed with one idea, and that was cither to limb a small brother or swallow him whole, and all kept up either a shriek of fear or pain or a yell of rage. Floating on the top of the putrid water were masses of dead birds, some with legs torn off, others without heads or wings. Most of them were dead, but others were dragging their maimed carcases about in a ghastly manner. So intent were they on their liendish pastime that they took little notice of us, and dragged and clawed themselves about after their weaker brethi-en at our very feet, whilst the o!d parent bird sat looking on from the topmost twigs as if fratricide were the l)roper moral pastime of the young. A big Spoon-bill would chase a small Egret from bough to bough till at last he tired it out, and then seizing it with one claw, would take hold of its leg or wing and tear it from the poor victim, or else, getting its head in its mouth, would try to swallow it whole, :ind gulp and gulp till so much of the little one was down its throat that it was itself choked, and would turn over on its back, kicking and struggling, to be in turn seized by a brother and torn limb from limb. *' All uttered up some hideous scream, and all kept clambering and dragging themselves about frnm bough to bough, either hunting or being hunted, and from what we saw I am sure that nine-tenths of all hatched in that colony came to an untimely end before they could fly. We did not stay long to wavtch them, but quickly securing some eggs from the few nests that were not hatched off we beat a retreat, with our opinions of the beautiful, gentle-looking birds greatly changed." The Ibises are easily distinguished from the Spoon-bills by the shape of their bills, which are long and curved, and have the nasal groove extending nearly the whole length of the bill, which is soft, except- ing at the extreme tip. The bill in some of the Ibises The Ibises. — is indeed very like that of a Curlew (Numcnins), and one Family Ibididce, yenus of the Charadriiformes, Uiidorltyiichiin, is so like an Ibis, that externally irs characters would ally it to the latter group of birds rather than to the Waders, to which, as its internal structure shows, it actually belongs. The most interesting of all the Ibises is undoubtedly the Sacred Ibia of the Egyptians. As the ancient paintings show, the bird was a great feature in Egyptian life, and fhe mummies of these birds which are found in the temples show that it was regarded with great veneration by the ancient Egyptians. The species still inhabits the Upi:)er Nile regions, and many writers state that it i=< never found in Egypt at the present dav. This, however, is not the case, as the British Museum has several specimens 2S8 ../ VES— ORDER PirCT.XICOPTERl FORMES. Fi'j. 47.— Thr Sacked Ilms {Ibii ii'tliiopica). procured in Egypt, one of them having been shot near Damietta about twelve yeais ago. We know also that the species extends to the Peisi*ii Gulf, ita winter home being in Eastern and Southern Africa. There are no leas than twenty different genera of Ibises, and many of them are remarkable for highly developed cresta and ornamental plumes, while in the Sacred Ibis and its allies the head and neck are bare. The Glossy Ibises {FlegtuUs) are among the commonest and best known of the whole family, aa one of them, P. falcinellus, ha visited England on many occasions. Thi? species breeds in numbers on the marshes of the lower Danube, aa well as in similar places in Africa and India, and the egg ia one of the most beautiful of any of the Heron-like birds, being of a deep greenish-blue, darker and richer in tint than the eggs of any species of Herons. We now approach the great group of swimming birds, such as the Ducks, the Pelicans, and their allies ; but, before arriving at the consideration of these well- marked orders, there intervenes a remarkable form of bird, the Flamingo. In i's long legs and long neck it might well be taken for a kind of Heron or Stork ; and, indeed, until recent years, the position of the Flamingoes was considered to be in close proximity to the last-named birds. They are, however, more nearly allied to the Ducks and Geese, having a desmognathous or "bridged" palate ; while the young are hatched covered with down, and are able tu run about in a few hours and obtain food for them- selves. These features they possess in comnnai with the Ducks and Geese and the Screamers, and these three groups were united by Huxley into one natural order, Chenomorphw. The Flamingoes resemble the Ducks and Geese in having the sides of the bill laminated, an arrangement which enables them to sift their food in the way which every one of our readers must have seen tame Ducks do in a farmyard or on a lake. Besides many osteological characters, the Flamingoes present an external appearance unique among birds. The legs are abnormally long, the metatarsus being three times as long aa the femur, and the anterior toes fully webbed. The neck is also extremely long, the cervical vertebrae being eighteen or nineteen in number. The bill is decurved in a remarkable manner ; but in the nestling, which is covered with greyish-white down, the bill is straight, aa in any other Duck-like bird. The most curious feature in the economy of the Flamingo is its nest, which is built of mud. For a lung time it was supposed that the birds sat upon The Flamingoes. Order Fhwiiinipfcr'i- Fij. 4S.— Thb Common Flajiinoo {^I'hixnico^tenu rcteun). riAMI-XGORS, 2S9 their single egg, with the legs straddled on each side of them. This idea was, however, dissipated by Mr. Abel Chapman in 1883, when he visited the Marismas of the Guadalquivir, in Spain, and found out the nesting habits of the Flamingo. He writes : — ^"Ono cannot go far into the Marisma without seeing that extraordinary fowl the Fhimingo, certainly the most characteristic bird of the wilderness. In herds of 300 to 500, several of which are often in sight at once, they stand feeding in the open water, all their heads under, greedily tearing up the grasses and water-plants from the bottom. On approaching them, which can only be done by extreme caution, their silence is tirst broken by the sentries, who commence walking away with low croaks, then the whole five hundred necks rise at once to the full extent, every bird gaggling his loudest as they walk obliquely away, looking back over their shoulders as though to take stock of the extent of the danger. Pushing a few yards forward, up they all rise, and a more beautiful sight cannot be imagined than the simultaneous spreading of their thousand crimson wings, flashing against the sky like a gleam of rosy light. Then one descends to the practical, and a volley of slugs cuts a lane through their phalanx. " In many respects these birds bear a strong resemblance to Geese. Like them Flamingoes feed by day, and great quantities of grass, etc., are always floating about the muddy water where a herd has been feeding. Their cry is almost indistinguishable from the gaggling of <3eese, and they tly in the same catenanan formations. In size Flamingoes vary greatly. The largest I have measured was fully G ft. 5 in., whilst others (old red birds j barely reached 5 ft." He thus describes the finding of the nests: — "On reaching the spot we found a perfect mass of nests ; the low mud plateau was crowded with them as thickly as the space permitted. These nests had little or no height ; some were raised 2 or 3 in. , a few might be 5 or 6 in. ; but tho majority were merely circular bulwarks of mud, with the impression of the bird's legs distinctly marked on it. The general aspect of the plateau was not unlike a large table covered with plates. In the centre was a deep hole full of muddy water, which, from the 'gouged' appearance of its sides, appeared to be used as a reservoir for nest-making materials. Scattered all round this main colony were numerous single nests rising out of the water, and evidently built up from the bottom. Here and there two or three or more of these were joined together — 'semi-detached,' so to speak. These separate nests rose 6 or 8 in. above the water level, and were about 15 in. across. The water was about 12 or 15 in. deep. None of these nests as yet contained eggs, and though I returned to the ' pajarera ' on the latest day I was in its neighbourhood (llth May), they still remained empty. On 1)oth occasions many hundreds of Flamingoes were sitting on the nests, and on the llth we had a good view of them at close quarters. Linked arm in arm with Felipe, and crouching low in the water, to look as little human as possible, we approached within some 70 yds. before their senti'ies showed signs of alarm, and, at that distance, we observed the sitting birds as distinctly as one need wish. Their long red legs doubled under their bodies, the knees projecting as far as, or beyond, the tail, and their graceful necks neatly curled away among their back feathers, like a sitting swan, with their heads resting on their breasts — all these points were unmistakable. Indeed, it is hardly necessary to point out that in the great majority of cases (the nest being hardly raised above the level of the flat mud) no other position was possible." Of Flamingoes six species are known, and they are found in the temperate ^oo .-/ VES— ORDER JNSER/fORMES. The Screamers, — Sub-order J'dhuitrdfd. and tropical portions of both the Old and New Worlds. Three species belong to the genus Fhcenicopterus — Diietticonaias has one species, P. minor, found in Africa and North- Western India ; and Phctiticopurrus inhabits the Andes of Chili and Peru and has two species, P. atidhius and P. jcunesi. In Miocene times several forms of birds allied to the Flamingoes existed in Europe, and have been classed by Mr. Lydekker under the extinct genus Paheolodns. He states that they were smaller than the Flamingoes of the present day, and had shorter and stouter legs, while it is probable also that their bill was not deflected. Although agreeing in many characters with the Ducks and the Geese, the Screamers have one peculiarity which separates them from all chenomorphine birds, in that they have no uncinate processes to the ribs, and no larainte on the sides of the bill. The toes are long and almost devoid of web, and the general appearance of the birds is gallinaceous. Two genera are known, Palamedea and Clianna. The genus Pnlamedea is recog- nised by the long horn which it carries on its forehead. Beyond this it has no crest on the head, and has fourteen tail-feathers. Only one species, P. cornvta, is known, and this is an inhabitant of Guiana, Amazonia, Vene- zuela, Ecuador, and Bolivia. The general plumage is black, with a white belly, and the wing carries two spurs, the anterior one of which is much the longer. Very little has been recorded of the habits of the Horned Screamer, but Mr. Edward Bartlett noticed the species about the lakes in the Upper Amazons, and the habits are probably very similar to those of the next species. The genus Clicmna differs from Pala- medea in having a crested head, naked lores, no horn on the forehead, and in possessing twelve tail-feathers instead of fourteen. Two species of Channa are known — the Crested Screamer (C. cristata) and the Derbian Screamer [C. diavaria). The latter is found in Venezuela and Colombia, while the Crested Screamer inhabits Argentina and the neigh- bouring provinces of Southern Brazil. In Mr. Hudson's well-known work on Argentine ornithology we find the following notes on the species : — "The Crested Screamer, like most of the larger Birds and Mammals in every part of the globe to which European emigration is attracted, is probably doomed to rapid extermination. My observations of the bird in that portion of the Pampas where it is most abundant date back some years, to a time when the inhabitants were few and mainly of Spanish race — never the destroyers of bird-life. The conditions had become extremely favourable to this species. It is partially aquatic in its habits, and in desert places is usually found in marshes, wading in the shallow water, and occasionally swimming to feed on the seeds and succulent leaves of water-loving plants. After the old giant grasses of the Pampas had been eaten up by the cattle, and the sweet grasses of Europe had taken their ])lace, the Screamprs took Fi(j. 49.— Tub Hobntd Screamer {Palamedea ro, nutu). The Crested Screamer {Chaniia cristata). kindly to that new food, preferring the clovers, and seemed as terrestrial in SCA'E.-I.U/iA-S. 291 their feeding habits as Upland (leese. Their food was abundant, and they were never persecuted by the natives. Their flesh is very dark, coarse- grained, but good to eat, with a flavour resembling that of the Wild Duck ; and there is a great deal of meat on a bird with a body larger than that of a Swan. Yet no person ever thought of killing or eating the Chaja, and the birds were permitted to increase to a marvellous extent. It was a common thing a few years ago in the dry season to see them congregated in thousands, and so little afraid of man wex'e they, that I have often ridden through large scattered flocks without making the birds take wing. A curious thing about the Screamer is that it pairs for life, and yet is one of the most social of birds. But if a large flock is closely looked at, the birds are invariably seen methodically ranged in pairs. Another curious thing is that, notwithstanding the formidable weapons they possess — each wing armed with two large spurs — they are extremely pacific in temper. I have never been able to detect even the sliglitest approach to a quarrel among them ; yet it is hard to believe that they do not fight sometimes, since weapons of offence are usually found correlated with the disposition to use them. Captive birds, however, can be made to fight ; and I have known Guachos take them for the pleasure of witnessing their battles. They are very easily tamed, and in that state seem to show greater docility and intelligence than any of our domestic birds, and become so attached to their home that it is quite safe to allow them to fly about at will. They associate, but do not quarrel, with the poultry. They are quick to distinguish strangers from the people of the house, showing considerable suspicion of them, and sometimes raising a loud alarm at a stranger's approach. Towards dogs and cats they are often unfriendly ; and when breeding it is dangerous for a strange person to approach the nest, as they will sometimes attack him with the greatest fury. " The Screamer is a very heavy bird, and rises from the ground laboriously, the wings, as in the case of the Swan, making a loud noise. Nevertheless, it loves soaring, and will rise in an immense spiral circle until it wholly disappears from sight in the zenith, even in the brightest weather ; and considering its great bulk and dark colour, the height it ultimately attains must be very great. ( )n sunny windless days, especially in winter and spring, they often spend hours at a time in these sublime aerial exercises, slowly floating round and round in vast cii'cles, and singing at intervals. How so heavy and comparatively short-winged a bird can sustain itself for such long periods in the thin upper air to which it rises has not yet been explained. The voice is very powerful. When disturbed, or when the nest is approached, both birds utter at intervals a loud alarm-cry, resembling in sound the anger-cry of the Peacock, but twice as loud. At other times its voice is exercised in a kind of singing performance, in which male and female join, and which produces the eflect of harmony. The male begins, the female takes up her part, and then with marvellous strength and spirit they pour forth a torrent of strangely-contrasted sounds — some bassoon-like in their depth and volume, some like drum-beats, and others long, clear, and ringing. It is the loudest animal sound of the Pampas, and its jubilant martial character strongly aftects the mind in that silent, melancholy wilderness. The Screamer sings all the year round at all hours, both on the ground and when soaring; when in pairs, the two birds invariably sing together, and when in flocks they sing in concert. At night they are heard about nine o'clock in the evening, and again just before dawn. It is not unusual, however, to hear them singing at other hours. The nest is a large 1()Z AVES—OA'DEI'; .INSERIFOAW/ES. The Geese and Ducks.— Sub- order ^liiM-rcs. The Swans,— Su.b-faniily ('>n/niiiu'. fabric placed among the low rushes and water-lilies, and is sometimes seen floating on the water, away from its moorings. The egga are five, pointed at one end, pure white, and in size like the eggs of the domestic Goose. The young are clothed in yellow down like Goslings, and follow the parents about from the date of hatching." Mr. Lydekker, when in Argentina, found the Screamer nesting on a lagoon, and saw the parent birds swimming about amongst the Ducks. On his approach they fied to the banks, but soon returned to the water. They had evidently young birds on the lagoon. This aquatic feature in the Screamers is of the highest interest, as confirming the anserine aflinitiea which their anatomy demonstrates. These well-known birds are easily recognised by their external characters, their semi-flattened bills, shortish legs, and fully-webbed feet distinguishing them from the Screamers and Flamingoes, while, like the latter birds, they have uncinated processes to the ribs. Count Salvadori, who hag recently monographed the sub-order Aa^eres in the "Catalogue" of the Birds in the British IMuseum, divides it into no less th;in eleven sub-families belonging to the single family Anatidic. To these we can only refer in passing. The Swans i^ro such well-known birds that very little description of them is necessary. Among the Duck tribe they are easily recognisable by their abnormally developed neck, which equals, or even exceeds, the body of the bird in length. There is no lobe to the hind toe, a feature which allies the Swans to the Geese, but separates them from the majority of the Ducks. There are three genera of Swans, viz., Cyygnus, containing the Swans with which we are most familiar; Chenopii, the Black Swan of Australia, with ornamental scapulars and inner secondari.es ; and Ckiscoroba, the Chilian Swan, which has feathered lobes, and is as much a Goose in appearance as it is a Swan in reality. The Mute Swan is the familiar species which swims about on our rivers and lakes. In most parts of the British Islands the Swan may be regarded as a semi domesticated bird, but in many places on the Continent it is an absolutely wild species. It is to this Swan that the Polish Swan {Cygnus {mmntahilis), with its white cygnets, must be re- ferred, as Count Salvadori, and all the best of recent observers, consider it to be only a domestic variety of the Mute Swan. Othor well- known species of Cijgnns are the Whooper (G. musicu^) and Bewick's Swan (C. heivicki), the latter bird nesting in Arctic Europe, where it makes a large nest composed entirely of moss. It visits us in some numbers during the v/inter months. Tli^'^e British species of Swans are distinguished by the size and the colour of their Fig. 50.— The Muxb Swan (Cygnus olor). sn'ANs-sruK-ir/X(;ED geese. S93 bills. Australia hag ono species, tho Black Swan {Chenopis alrata), and fimlly Ave have the Coscoroba Swan {Co.'icoroba Candida) which is found from Chili and Patagonia to Argentina and Uruguay. Of this species Mr. \V. H. Hudson writes : — "In their habits, language, and flight they differ much from the Black-necked Swan, and the country people call them Ganso (Goose), probably on account of their Goose-like habit of sometimes feeding away from the water, or because their flesh has the flavour of Wild Goose. As a rule, they go in small parties of five or six individuals, but sometimes flocks numbering two or three hundred are seen in the cold season. Their migrations are very irregular, and sometimes they are exceedingly abundant in a certain district one year and absent from it tho next. When disturbed they utter a loud, musical, trumpeting cry in three notes, the last with a falling inflection ; and, their wings being much longer proportionately than in the black-necked species, they rise with greater ease, and have a much freer and an almost soundless flight." The Semipalmated Goose {Anscranas semipahnata) is the sole representative of a distinct sub-family Anseranatitui', with the toes only half-webbed, and the hind toe very long, and on a level with the other toes. It is an inhabitant of Australia and Tasmania, and is still plentiful in some districts, though it has disappeared from many places where it once was numerous. Gould says that, in Northern Australia " it occurs in such countless multitudes that it forms one of tho chief articles of food of the aborigines, and was of the utmost value to Leicliardt and his party during their adventurous journey from Moreton Bay to Port Essington, as shown in numerous parts of his interesting account of the expedition. So dense are the flocks that occur in the northern parts of the country, that the natives are able to procure numbers of them by spearing,'' and, says Leichardt, "it seemed that they only spear them when flying, and always crouch down when they see a flight of them approaching ; the Geese, however, know their enemies so well that they immediately turn when they see a native rise and put his spear into his throwing-stick ; some of my companion3-«as3erted that they had seen them hit their object at the almost incredible distance of 200 yds." — an assertion which Gould says he could readily believe, from what he has himself witnessed. This Goose has a very remarkable trachea, nearly 5 in. in length, and mostly lying outside the pectoral muscle under the skin. The next sub-family of the Geese consists of the Spur-winged Geese (sub- family Pledrojderinn:), and several allied forms. They have fully webbed fiet, a very long hind toe, and long tail-feathers. The true Spur-winged Geese (Phdroptevuii) have the lores naked and caruncles on the forehead and base of the bill, while on the wing they carry a formidable spur, from which feature they derive their popular name. There are four species of Spur- winged Geese, all confined to Africa, admitted by Count Salvadori, the best authority on the Anseres, but even he is obliged to allow that there may really exist but a single species after all. Only one other genus with bare lores and caruncles on the face is known, and this is the genus Cairina, with the single species C. moschata, the Muscovy Duck of Tropical America. Another prominent form of the Plecfropterhue is the Knobbed Goose {Sarcidiornis), of which there are two species, S. melanonota of India and Africa, and /S. carunculctta of Southern Brazil and Argentina. We remember seeing the "Comb Duck," as Indian naturalists call the Indian Sarcidiornis, on one occasion during our journey through the 294 AVES—ORDER AXSER I ROR MRS. North- West Provinces, and that was at Futtehpur Sikri, near Agra, where a male was perched on the lofty entrance gateway. The testimony of Mr.. A. U. Hume and other Indian naturalists is to the effect that the "Camb Duck " breeds principally in trees, and the Iffte Mr. A. Anderson sta.tes that the eggs are generally to be found in holes of old desiduous trees, but he has also found the birds frequenting old ruined forts. He says: — "I was present at the capture of a female Nukta on her nest, which yielded the exti'aordinary number of forty eggs. Of course it is just possible, though highly improbable, that this may have been thfi joint produce of two birds ; but the emaciated condition of the one captured, coupled with the fact that one egg was an abnormally small one, and evidently her last effort, does not favour the supposition. The tree selected was an ancient banyan (FicHs i)idic>i.s), which overlooked a large sheet of water several miles round. The nest-hole was at an elevation of some 20 ft., 3 ft. deep and 2 in circumference." One of the genera of the Pledropteriu'r is a very interesting form, viz., the Pink-headed Duck {BJiodunessn caryophyllacea). The appear- ance of a delicate pink head in such a family as the AnatidcB is one oi the most curious phenomena in the whole class of birds. Its range is confined to Behar and Bengal, to the north of the Ganges and west of the Brahmapootra, whence it ranges north to Nepal, east to Burma, and south to Madras. Some of the most interesting of the present sub-family are the Dwarf Cieeae (Nettopus) or "Cotton-Teal," as they are generally called. They are little Geese of about the size of a Bantam fowl, only found in the tropics of the Old World, in Africa, India, and China, and thence siuth to Australia. The Indian species, N. coromandellanns, nests generally in holes of trees, but sometimes it is said to make "a semi-floating nest on the water, among the rushes or lotus-leaves, of weeds, grass, etc., all together, filled up several inches above the water-line." The late Mr. A. Anderson observes : — "I once had the opportunity of watching a pair in the act of selecting their habitation. They invariably flew into the tree together ; and while the female used to enter the hole, to reconnoitre as it were, the male sat on a bough watching for her exit. No sooner did she make her appearance than they both flew away together, giving utterance to a peculiar cackling sound, which has been pronounced to be like the words 'Fix bayonets.' Their visits used to be repeated at intervals of every fifteen or twenty minutes. The Drake never went into the hole ; and I am therefore inclined to believe that he does not lend his aid in the performance of the duties of incubation." One nest taken by Mr. Spry at Bredaon in August contained twelve eggs. It was in a hole at no great height, but it was oh ft. deep, and only large enough to admit of ingress and egress ; the contents had to be removed by means of an iron spoon, something like a soup-ladle with an extra long handle. The Summer Duck {^E.c sponsd) of North America, and the beautiful Mandarin Duck (^x galericnlata) of China compose the genus j^x, which is the last of the Fledropterince. The genus Cereopsis is the sole representative of this sub-family, and is distinguished by its shorter hind toe and shorter tail-feathers. The bill is high at the base, and there is no metallic wing-speculum. The Coreopsis ^^^e chief peculiarity of the Cereopsis Goose is the posses- Geese. -Sub- sion of a cere at the base of the bill, which character family f'l yropsiiifr, separates it from the true Geese. It is an inhabitant of Australia, and is often seen in captivity ; and it has been known to breed in our Zoological Gardens. As Mr. Gould says, however, it GEES-E. 295 The True Geese.-' Sub-family is bv no means a desirable addition to the farmyard, for it is so pugnacious th'it it not only drives all oUier birds before it, but readily attacks pigs, dogs. or any other animal that may approach it, and often inflicts severe wounds with its hard and sharp bill. . , ., s, i. j- j Remains of an extinct Goose {Cnnnwrn^s cdcdrans) have been discoveied in New Zealand, and Count Salvador! has placed it in the yicniity of Ccreo}ms. It was a larger bird than the latter, and was apparently flightless, as thero is no keel to the sternum. ^, ^1 ^t. The characters of this sub-family are almost exactly the same as those given for the sub-family Cereopsi,ue, excepting that there is no cere. There are at least six well-marked genera, of which the most beautiful are perhaps the Snow Geese {Chen), though some of the 15 rent Geese are also handsome birds, ihe true Geese (An^cr) are found in all the northern parts of the Old and New Worlds, breeding in the high north and / , ^ migrating south in winter, often in vast numbers The Grey (xeese (Anser) are nearty all of them British, the best-known being the Grey Lig-Gocse (i aii.sev), the White-fronted Goose (.-1. albifrons) the Be^n Goose (.4. fabalis), and the Pink-footed Goose (A. hmchyrhynchus) Ml the true (^^ene have the serrations or saw-like edges of the upper mandible visible from ho outside, and the cutting edge of the mandible 13 sinuated, whereas in the Brent Geese {Bmnta) the cutting edge is straight, and the serrations are not visible from the outside. ,,.,,,, . ,.• i- e 4-u„ These are, like the True Geese, also birds of the Arctic portiors of the Old and New Worlds, where they breed in large numbers ; and, as they moult their quills before com- ing south, they are trapped The Brent Geese.— by the natives in numbers. Genua JiranOK Mr. Trevor-Battye describes the capture of more than three thousand Brent Geese on the island of Kolguev, the birds being driven by the Samoyeds in boats towards the shore, where a large circle of net is prepared for them, and the birds are thus trapped and killed. One of the handsomest of the Geese, and, indeed, of all water-fowl, is the Red-breasted Goose (Bmnta rvJiroUls), which breeds inSibejia, winters in great numbers on the Caspian Sea, and has occasionally come over to England. It is remarkable for having been drawn on their monuments by the ancient Egyptians, and even at the present epoch it seems to be met witl' sometimes in Egypt. Count Salvadori's next sub-family is the aenoneUinr,., containing the Magellanic Geese and their allies, the Blue- winded Geese {Cmnochen) and the Maned Goose (Chenomtta). In this group of Geese the hind toe is narrowly lobed and the bill is rather short and Goose-like, as opposed to the somewhat fiat and broad bill of the Ducks which form the neiitsuh-f^imWy Anatinrr. TheUpland GeeaeiCloephaga) ar° all inhabitants of South America, where they range from Peru Bolivia, and Southern Brazil to Chili, Patagon.a, ond the Fauu.u.a Fig SL-TiikU"!) iire'stkcOoosb (Branta rvficoUis). The Upland Geese. — Sub-family SOv. Al'ES-OKDEK .LVSEA'/ZVAWES. islands. Mr. Hudson describes G. inornaia, the Barred Upland Goose, as migrating northwards along the eastern coast of Argentina in April and May. "Their great camping-grounds," he Avrites, "are the valleys of the rivers Negro and Colorado, where they are often so numerous as to denude the low grounds of the tender winter clovers and grasses, and to cause serious loss to the sheep-breeders. They also visit the cultivated fields to devour the young wheat, and are intelligent enough to distinguish between a real human enemy and the ragged men of straw, miscalled scarecrows, set up by the farmers to frighten them. While committing their depredations they are exceedingly wary and difficult to shoot ; but at night, when they congregate by the waterside, they give the sportsman a better chance. They are social birds, always going in large Hocks, and are very loquacious, the female having a deep, hanking note, while the male responds with a clear whistling, like that of the Sanderling etherialised." No less than nineteen genera are admitted by Count Salvador! as belonging to this sub-family. Among them are the Tree-Ducks (DcHdrocijgna), the Sheld-ducks (Tadorna and Casarca), thT Wild Ducks The True Ducks. (Anas), the Wigeons {Mareca), the Tcai (Nettion and Sub-family Qtierqnedida), the Pin-tails {Dafila) and the Shovelers Anatincc. (Spatxda), besides many less-known forms of Duck. The ways of the Ducks are all very similar, and there is not much to say in detail about their habits, beyond the fact that some arc frequenters of inland waters, while others are more maritime in their haunts. The Sheld-ducks are very handsome birds, of varied plumage, and with a metallic patch or speculum in the wings. This is a character which is found in most of the Ducks, and many species are determined by the colour of the wing-speculum. Another curious feature of the Ducks is that, after the young are hatched, the males put ofT their bright plumage and assume a dull-coloured brown dress like that of the hen birds. This plumage is very difficult to determine, as the male birds during the moult are pi'actically helpless, and have no quills to fly with, so that they retire into privacy, and very few specimens are procured at this stage of a Duck's existence. I am unable to say from direct observation whether this hen-like summer plumage, which only lasts a few weeks, is assumed by all Ducks ; but I have reason to sus- pect that there are few species which do not possess such a stage. The beautiful Sheld-duck is a bur- rower, sometimes having its nest as far as 5 ft. from the mouth of the hole, while it has been known to penetrate as far as 12 ft. into the earth. These holes are often burrowed by the birds themselves, but quite as frequently a rabbit-burrow is made use of. The Fig. 52,— The Common Shelddick Sheld-duck often builds upon cliffs at (.Tadorna tadorna). such a height that it is evident the parent bird must carry the young ones down to the water, as must be the case also with the Common Mallard when it builds its nest in a tree, as it often does. Of these Ducks there are four sub - families, all with the hind toe .) CO TERS—DJ J ING-D UCKS. -97 broadly lobed. The Scoter-i {Fulignlind) have the bill more or less depressed and the tail-feathers not stiffened . A large number of genera is represented in this sub-family, which includes such forms as the Pochards (Nywca), the Scaups {Fuligvla), m^,. t,- ,. _t>„„v.„ the Steamer Ducks {Tachycres), the Golden - Eyes -^^le iJivmgiJucKs. {Glavgida), the Long-tailed Ducks (Harelda), the Harle- quins {Cosino)ietta), the Scoters (G^demia), and the Eiders (Somaierin), and their allies. They are mostly sea-ducks, and some of them, like the Harlequin Duck and Steller's Eider (Heniconetta stelleri) are very handsome birds. The stiff-tailed Diving Ducks (sub-family £'//.sTOf(3. -The Redbrbasted Mrroanser (Merganser serrator). 298 A VES -ORDER PELECANIFORME."^. The Pelicans and their Allies. — Order PelecanifuDnes. Fig. 54.— Thk Yellow-billed Tropk-Birv (Phcetonflavirostris), the Tropic-Birds (Fliaethontes), tlie Gannets (^^//(^), the Cormorants and Ddrters (Fhalacrocoraces), the Pelecans {Pdecuni), and the Frigate-Birds {Fregati). As their name implies, the Tropic Birds are inhabitants of the tropics. They are often an interest- ing feature of a sea-voyage, as they fly, high in the air, round and round the steamer, with a beating flight, as if everything depended on the haste they made. The osteological and anatomical characters which distinguish them from the other Pelican-like birds are many, but their external form suffici- ently distinguishes them, their lengthened tail being especially remarkable. The bill is nearly straight, and not hooked as in the allied forms, neither is there any perceptible pouch. One of the best accounts of the habits of the Tropic- Birds is that given by Mr. W. E. D. Scott on P. flavirostris, as observed by him in Jamaica. He writes: — "Of fifteen specimens procured on the 27th of February five were shot, eight were taken in a cave which opened by a small mouth from the cliff, and two were secured in holes in the cliff. The cave where the birds were found had a very small entrance, about large enough for a man to crawl into, in the face of the cliff. This was approachable only in the calmest weather, in a boat. The entrance led at once into a spacious chamber of irregular shape. Going directly back from the mouth the cavern was some 60 ft. deep. It was at its widest point some 70 or 80 ft., and oval in shape as a whole. The bottom was covered with coarse sand and gravel, and boulders of varying size, evidently having fallen from above, were scattered thickly over this floor, except at the extreme back of the cavern furthest from the sea. The height of the roof or ceiling, which was of an uneven, rough surface, was about 25 ft., and many bats were hanging wherever the projections or inequalities afforded them opportunity. Toward the back of thi=i chamber five birds were secured, each one sitting on a single egg. The place chosen for the nesting site — for this is all it can be termed — was in all these cases where two boulders on the gravelly floor lay close together, just leaving room on the ground for the birds to crawl between them. Two birds were obtained in like situations that had not laid, and may have been simply resting. The females were, in every case, the birds that were sitting on the eggs, and it was quite evident, upon dissection, that the single egg forms the complement in these cases. The birds taken from the holes in the cliff, and also those taken in this cave, were very tame, and were captured readily without attempting to escape. Later on the same day a bird was found, with a single egg laid at the bottom of one of the holes in the face of the cliflr. "In breeding the bir«ls seem eminently gregarious, and the colonies at different points often reach an aggregate of at least fifty pairs. At sea, far out of sight of land, the birds are much more solitary in their habits, single birds being frequently met with, and it has been rare in my experience to meet with more than four individuals together in such locations." GAXXE TS— COKMORAXrS. 299 F:g. 55. — TnK Covmon Gannet {Dyxporiis hassanus). 'I he I i.tnnets are distributed over the seas of the greater part of the world, and are easily recognisable both from their internal and external characters. Like the Tropic-Birds, they have a nearly straight bill without any hook in it, and there ia a small and scarcely perceptible pouch, though much of the face and throat is bare. During the breeding season the Gannets leave their fishing grounds to a great extent, and our own species resorts to certain rocky places on our coast, of which Ailsa Craig and the Bass Rock are the best known, and there builds a The Gannets. — rough nest of sticks and Sub-order Sulcr. seaweed, and lays a single chalky-white egg. This chalky egg is a peculiarity of nearly every member of the Pelican-like birds, and in the Gannets and Cormorants it is a distinct feature. On scrubbing the egg, however, with a brush, the chalky surface can be removed, and the egg appears of a delicate blue, like that of a Heron. The flight of a Gannet is very fine, and the birds are capable of covering great distances in a very short space of time, while it is certain that during the nesting season the parent birds have to go far afield to their fishing grounds to procure food for the young. Only one egg is laid, and the young birds are at first naked, and of a slaty- black colour. They then become covered with a thick coating of white down, and afterwards attain their first full plumage, which is greyish-brown with white spots, but it is believed that five moults are required before the birds attain their full white plumage. Although agreeing in osteological characters with the preceding groups, the Cormorants and Darters have certain evident peculi- arities which separate them from the Gannets and Tropic- Birds. The bill is more raptorial, and is furnished with a hook at the end, and the tail-feathers are more stifiFened than in these birds. This is especially the case with the Darters. There is, however, no perceptible pouch externally. In the Briti.sh Islands we have two representatives of the sub-order, the Common Cormorant (P/K-})ivs. the latter, and some ornithologists have even gone so far as to suggest that they are more nearly allied to the Storks, and even to the Hornbills. Although not true Birds of Prey, I think that there can be no doubt that they find their nearest allies in the Vultures of the Old World, which they much resemble in their habits. They have, however, a very peculiar nostril, the septum of which is perforated, so that it can be seen througli. Tlie hind toe is small, but is raised above the level of the other toes, and it is connected with the flexor jperforans digitoruin tendon. The great Condor of the Andes is the largest and most striking of the Turkey Vultures, but the best-known are the smaller kinds such as the Cathartes aura of North America. In Captain Bendire's work on the Life- histories of North American Birds, we find the following notes on the habits of the species from Dr. W. L. Ralph : — "In Florida they are abundant and appear to decrease but little in numbers. When not molested they become very tame, and in many of the Southern cities and villages they can be seen walking around the streets or roosting on the house-tops with as little concern as domestic animals. " Altho'Ugh they eat carrion, these birds prefer fresh meat, and the reason of their eating it when decayed is that they cannot kill game themselves and their bills are not strong enough to tear the tough skin of many animals until it becomes soft from decomposition. I have often had Ducks and other game, which I had hung in trees to keep from carnivorous animals, eaten by them. When they find a dead animal they will not leave it until all but the bones and other hard parts have been consumed, and if it be a large one, or if it have a tough skin, they will often remain near it for days, roosting by night in the trees near by. After they have eaten — and sometimes they will gorge themselves until the food will run off" their mouths when they move- they will, if they are not too full to fly, roost in the nearest trees until their meal is partly digested, and then commence eating again. Many times I have seen these birds in company with the Black Vulture floating down a stream on a dead alligator, cow, or other large animal, crowded so closely together that they could hardly keep their balance, and followed by a number on the wing. I have never seen them fight very much when feeding, but they will scold and peck at one another, and sometimes two birds will get hold of the same piece of meat and pull against each other until it breaks, or until the weaker one has to give it up." In this order are included the Secretary Birds, the The Birds of Vultures, Hawks, and Ospreys. The characters of the Prey.— Order Secretary Birds are detailed below, and their peculiarities Arcipitrifurmes. emphasised, but the Ospreya {Pandiones) form a well- characterised intermediate group between the Vulture i and Hawks {Accipitres), and the Owls (Striges), possessing certain features SECRE/'AKV /y/A'AV AVA'AS- OF Ph'Er. 305 which are characteristic uf the latter, especially in the proportions of the skeleton. That these are Birda of Prey there can be little doubt, but they are decidedly aberrant, and were separated from the rest of the AccipUres by Professor Huxley. They have abnormally long legs, and an equally abnormal tail, with the centre feathers much x^e Secretary elongated, while from behind the head rises the crest of Birds.— Sub-order pointed feathers, from which the bird gets its name of .':icr2JciaanL "Secretary," on account of some fancied resemblance to a secretary, who is supposed to carry quill pens behind his ear. There are other peculiar anatomical and osteological features which separata the Secretary from the other Raptorial birds. Several ornithologists, amongst them myself, have perceived certain characteristics in the Seriama {antea, p. 277) which suggest an affinity with the Secretary ; and, if the Seriama is admitted to be a kind of Crane, it is also certain that it possesses certain Accipitrine characters which are difficult to account for. The external appearance of the two birds is not unlike, and there is one very curious habit which they possess in common, viz., the way in which they attack their prey, by striking it with rapid beats of their long legs, both of which are brought down with terrific force, until the object is beaten to a pulp. Another character which those birds possess in common, is the fact that both the outer and inner toe are connected by a web, which is one of the features of the Caracaras, to which, in my opinion, the Secretary ii distantly related. Serpeiitarius is an African genus, and the single species is therefore strictly Ethiopian, but in ancient times the Secretary lived in Central Europe, as its remains, like those of the African Touracous, have been found in France. The Secretary is a pugnacious bird, so that frequently serious fights take place between two males for the possession of a female, and the bony knob which they carry on the carpal joint of the wing is doubtless an offensive weapon. When attacking a Cobra, the Secretary defends itself by holding its wing in front of it as a shield, and strikes the snake down by vigoroui blows of its feet. On account of its usefulness in destroying venomou.s snakes it is protected in all parts of Africa, and as many as three large snakes have been taken from the stomach of one of these birds, besides lizards and tortoises, and a quantity of grasshoppers and other insects ; while it will frequently kill a large snake by carrying it high in the air and dropping it to the ground. The eggs are two, rarely three, in number, and white. These are the true Raptorial or Accipitrine Birds of authors. They may be divided into two great families, the Vultures (VuUuridce) and the Hawks (Falconidce). The Vultures are mostly carrion-eaters, and are found in the tropical portions of the Old World, the so called "Vultures" of the New World having been already separated off as the U Fig. 60.— The Secretart Bi1!1> (Serpentarius secret rcui',. The Birds of Prey.— Sub-order Accipitrcs. 3o6 A VES- ORDER ACCiriTRIFOKME^ Cathartidiformes {antea, p. 304). Although so different from their American allies, the habits of the Old World Vultures are very similar. They have a bare head and neck, scantily clothed with down or plumes ; but these parts are never fully clothed with feathers as in the true Birds of Prey. The genera of the Vulturklce are six in number, viz., the Black Vultures (Vxiltur), the GriflFons {Gyps and Pseudocjtjps), the Eared Vultures {Otogyps), the White-headed Vultures {Lophogijps), and the Scavenger Vultures (Neopliron). The Black Vulture is the only representative of the genus Vultur. It is found in the Mediterranean countries, whence it ranges through Central Asia to the Himalayas, and even to China. It is a large bird, nearly 4 ft. in length, and is entirely black or dark brown, with a pad of thick, velvety down on the crown and a rufl" of brown down on the neck. It is more solitary in its habits than the Griffons ; and in Spain, according to Colonel Irby, the species breeds in trees, and not in colonies, laying only one egg about the beginning of April. It acts the part of a King Vulture towards the Grifibns, and drives the latter away from any carcase which they may be feeding upon. Four, or perhaps five, species of Griffons are known, the most familiar being the Gyps fulvus of Southern Eurojie. Colonel Irby gives an interesting account of the species in Spain. It is very plentiful near Gibraltar, and nests in colonies, not exceeding thirty-five pairs, in holes, or rather in caves in the perpendicular crags or "lajas" which are found in many of the Sierras. The eggs, according to Captain Willoughby Verner, are white when fresh laid, but soon become stained and often covered with mud and blood. He says: — "Anyone who has seen a party of Griffons on damp soil, churning up the ground with their feet around a carcase, can easily understand the eggs becoming soiled." Colonel Irby observes : — "How the numbers which inhabit Audalucia get sufficient to eat is a puzzle to me. They must be able to fast for some days, or else travel immense distances for their food, as in the winter and spring it is unusual to see dead animals about ; but in the hot parching months vast quantities of cattle die of thirst and want of pasture. A bull fight is a sort of harvest to Vultures, which flock in great numbers to revel on the carcases of the unfortunate horses that have been so cruelly killed." Of the Scavenger Vultures there are four species, the best-known being the Egyptian Vulture (iV"eojt)/tro?!.pe>'cnopie)-i(s). The members of this genus are smaller than the generality of Vultures, and have a long The Scavenger curved bill with a longitudinal nostril. The Egyptian Vultures.— Vulture is an inhabitant of the Mediterranean countries Genus Neophron. and Africa. In India it is replaced by a nearly allied form with a yellow bill, known as N. ginginianus. In Africa two brown species, N, pileatus and N. monachus, occur. The Griffon Vultures.— Genus Oi/ps. Fig. 61. — The Black Vi'lturb ( ViUtur monachus). SCA VENGER VULTURES— CARACARAS. 307 The Egyptian Scavenger Vulture is a more than ordinarily foul feeder, even for one of its kind, and frequents human habitations, where it devours all kinds of offal and excrement, but it will at ether times devour lizards, snakes, and small rodents, as well as worms, insects, and even fruit. According to the late C. J. Andersson, it is said to devour ostrich eggs, by carrying a stone up into the air and dropping it upon them. The nest is generally placed on cliffs, but sometimes on trees. Of the True Hawks there are five sub-families, the Caracaras (Polyhorina'), the Long-legged Hawks (Accipitriiue), the Buzzards {Buteonimc), the Eagles {A(f(ilinn'), and the Falcons {Falcoinnii'). Of the Catacaras there are but two genera, Polyhonis and Ihyder. They are distinguished from the other Hawks by having the outer and inner toe connected to the middle one by a mem- brane or web. In all the other sub- families there is a web only between the base of the outer and middle toes. Fulyhonis has but two species, F. tharus, of South America, which is found from the Straits of Magellan to Amazonia, and P. cJieriway, which occurs from Ecuador and Guiana, through Central America, into the Southern United States. Mr. W. H. Hudson has given a long and interesting account of the habits of the "Carancho," as the Folybonis is called in Argentina. It is too long to be given in its entirety, but we cannot refrain from making a few extracts: — "The Caranchos pair for life, and may there- fore be called social birds. They also often live and hunt in families of the parents and young birds until the following spring, and at all times several individuals will readily combine to attack their prey, but they never live or move about in flocks. Each couple has its own home or resting-place, which they will continue to use for an indefinite time, roosting on the same branch and occupying the same nest year after year; while at all times the two birds are seen constantly togethev, and seem very much attached. Azara relates that he once saw a male pounce down on a frog, and, carrying it to a tree, call his mate to him and make her a present of it. It was not a very magnificent present, but the action seems to show that the bird possesses some commend- able qualities which are seldom seen in the Raptorial family. Without doubt it is a carrion-eater, but only, I believe, when it cannot get fresh provisions ; for, when famished, it will eat anything rather than study its dignity and suffer hunger like the nobler Eagle. I have frequently seen one or two or three of them together on the ground, under a column of winged ants, eagerly feasting on the falling insects. To eat putrid meat it must be very hungry indeed. It is, however, amazingly fond of freshly-killed flesh ; and, when a cow is slaughtered at an estancia-house, the Carancho quickly appears on the scene to claim his share, and, catching up the first thing he can lift, he carries it off before the dogs can deprive him of it. When he has risen to a height of five or six yards in the air he drops the meat from Fitj. 62.— The Brazilian Caracara {Polyborus iharus). 3o8 A 1 'ES - ORDER A CCIFITRIFOKMES. his beak, and dexterously catches it in his claws without pausing or swerving in his flight. It is singular that the bird seems quite incapable of lifting anything from the ground with the claws, the beak being invariably uied, even when the prey is an animal which it might seem dangerous to lift in this way. I once saw one of these birds swoop down u\\ a rat from a distance of about 40 ft., and rise with its struggling and squealing prey to a height of 20 ft., then drop it from its beak and gracefully catch it in its talons. Yet, when it pursues and overtakes a bird in the air, it invariably uses the claws in the same way as other Hawks. This I have frequently observed, and I give the two following anecdotes to show that even birds, which one would imagine to be quite safe from the Carancho, are on some occasions attacked by it. In the first case, the bird attacked was the Spur-winged Lapwing, the irreconcilable enemy of the Carancho and its bold and persistent persecutor. The very sight of this Hawk rouses the Lapwings to a frenzy of excitement, and springing aloft, they hasten to meet it in mid-air, screaming loudly and continuing to harry it until it leaves their ground, after which they return, and, ranged in triplets, perform their triumphal dances, accompanied Avith loud drumming notes. But if their hated foe alights on the ground, or on some elevation near them, they hover about him, and first one, then another, rushes down with the greatest violence, and gliding near him, turns the bend of its wing so that the spur appears almost to graae his head. While one bird is descending, others are rising upwards to renew their charges ; and this persecution continues until they have driven him away, or become exhausted Avith their fruitless effuits. The Carancho, however, takes little notice of his tormentors ; only when the Plover comes very close, evidently bent on j^iercing his skull with its sharp weapon, he quickly dodges his head, after Avhich he resumes his indiffei-ent demeanour until the rush of the succeeding bird takes place. "While out riding one day a Carancho flew past me attended by about thirty Lapwings, combined to hunt him from their ground, for it was near the breeding season, when their jealous irascible temper is most excited. All at once, just as a Lapwing swej)t close by and then passed oji before it, the Hawk quickened its flight in the most wonderful manner and was seen in hot pursuit of its tormentor. The angry hectoring cries of the Lapwings instantly changed to piercing screams of terror, which, in a very short time, brought a crowd numbering between two and three hundred birds to the rescue. Now, I thought, the hunted bird will e3ca2:)e, for it twisted and turned rapidly about, trying to lose itself amongst its fellows, all hovering in a compact cloud about it and screaming their loudest. But the Carancho was not to be shaken off; he was never more than a yard behind his quarry, and I was near enough to distinguish the piteous screams of the chased Lap- wing amidst all the tumult, as of a bird already captive. At the end of about a minute it was seized in the Carancho's talons, and, still violently screaming, borne away. The cloud of Lapwings followed for some distance, but presently they all returned to the fatal spot where the contest had taken place ; and for an hour afterwards they continued soaring about in separate bodies, screaming all the time with an unusual note in The Long-Legeed their voices as of fear or grief, and holding excited con- Hawks.— Sub- claves on the ground, to all appearance as greatly dis- fa.milyAccipit)i)ice. turbed in their minds as an equal number of highly emotional human beings would be in the event of a similar disaster overtaking them." GV.UjV0G£JV£S—//.4J^/i/EJ^S. 309 Only the outer and middle toea are united by a membrane in this sub- family, but the legs are very long, the thigh (tihio-tarsHs) and the leg {tarso-metatari/- backward angle, instead of forwards, as in ordinary Birds horoidcs. of Prey. The Neotropical genus Gcranospizias is also said to possess the same faculty. In the Gyrnnogene this power of twisting ita leg about, as on a pivot, is said by observers to bo of use to the bird in drawing out frogs from the marsh holes. Its food appears to consist chiefly of lizards and froga, and also of insects ; and Mr. Ayres says that in Natal it frequents lands on which the grass has been recently burnt, stalking over the ground like a Bustard. The Harriers are long-legged birds, difl'ering from the Sparrow-Hawks and Gos-Hawks in having the hinder aspect of the tarsus reticulate and in having an oval nostril. They have also a ruff round the face similar to that of the Owls, and on this account they The Harriers. — have often been considered to be a connecting link be- Genus Cnrus. tween the Hawks and the Owls. This character, however, is of secondary importance compared with the development of their long legs, which, in our opinion, allies them to the Sparrow-Hawks. Some sixteen species of the Harriers are known, and they inhabit the temperate and tropical portions of both hemispheres. They do not range into the arctic regions, and those which breed in northern localities migrate south in winter, often in large numbers. The habits of all the Harriers are very much the same in different countries. The nest is built on the ground, and the eggs are white, with occasionally a few brown markings ; they appear bluish inside when held up to the light. They are not birds of bold and rapid flight like the Sparrow-Hawks or Eagles, but are great robbers of other birds' eggs and young, feeding also on small mammrJs, reptiles, fish, and insects. Mr. Seebohm speaks of the Marsh Harrier {Circus fpruginosv.!<) as being "usually seen passing slowly over its swampy haunts a few feet from the earth, quartering the ground much as a well-trained dog searching for game. Its flight is somewhat slow and laboured, performed with measured beats of the wings, varied by gliding motions as it surveys the ground below. It will beat over its hunting-ground, returning backwards and forwards, as if diligently searching every spot likely to contain its prey. Now and then it is seen to drop somewhat slowly to the earth to secure a frog or a mole, which it will either eat at once or convey to some distance." Of Montagu's Harrier {Circus pygargns) Colonel Irby records the finding of a regular colony near Lixus, in Morocco. With his telescope he could see the sitting hen birds dotted about the marsh. The North American Hen- Harrier {Circus hndsonins) has similar habits to those of the European species, but is not such an egg-destroying bird, and is looked upon as a beneficial Hawk, as it devours grent quantities of meadow-mice and ground squirrels, as well as noxious insects, such as locusts and destructive ground- crickets. The flight of this Harrier is described as graceful, and at certain 3 lO A VES— ORDER A CCIPITRIFORMES. times the males perform aerial evolutions. The male never assists the female in the duties of incubation, but diligently supplies his mate with food. Mr. John Clark informed Captain Bendire that he has seen the female rise from the nest to welcome the male with shrill cries when he came in sight, and then take the prey from his talons and fly back with it to the nest. Intermediate between the Harriers and the Go^-Hawks comes the genus Micrastnr, containing the Harrier- Hawks of Tropical America. These are birds which have the stout build of a Gos-Hawk combined with the facial ruflf of the Harriers, and, as in the last-named genus of birds, the tarsus is reticulated behind. Then follow several genera of Gos-Hawks, such as Geranospizias of Tropical America, Urotriorchis of Africa, and Erythrocnema, again a New World form, so closely allied to the Chanting Gos-Hawks of Africa (Melicrax) that the two genera are scarcely distinguishable. Two species of this genus are known, one, E. iinicinda, inhabiting South America from Brazil to Chili, and the other, E. harrisi, being found in Central America, north to the Southern United States. The Red-thighed Little has been recorded of the habits of the Red-thighed Gos-Hawks,— Gos-Hawks, but Captain Bendire says that they appear Genus to be lazy and sluggish birds, with a slow and not graceful Erythrocnema. fiight. They build in low trees, and the nest is a poorly constructed affair, so that on one occasion Captain Bendire declares that he could see the eggs thi'ough the bottom of the nest. These birds are confined to the ^^thiopian Region, and they are called "Chanting" Gos-Hawks on account of their supposed The Chanting utterance of a song. Le Vaillant is the principal Gos-Hawks, — authority for this statement, but like many other records Genus JL/urn.r. of this traveller's, it is open to doubt ; and Mr. Layard says that he never heard anything of the sort in South Africa. The preceding genera possess a bony tubercle in their nostrils, but tlie true Gos-Hawks (Astnr) have not this peculiarity. On the contrary, they have an oval nostril with no tubercle. They are remarkable for their stout and heavy bill, accompanied by stout legs and short toes. They are of all sizes, some of them being as big as a Buzzard, while others are scarcely larger than a Thrush. The Common Gos-Hawk is a bird of the woods and forests, where it builds a nest of great size, which it lines with roots and moss, but does not use green leaves as many birds of prey do. The great size of the The Common nest is probably due to the additions made by the birds Gos-Hawk. — from year to year. The eggs are pale greenish white, and Astur jndumharius. are only very rarely marked with faint brown spots. The Gos-Hawk is a most useful bird to the falconer, as it is an adept at taking rabbits, but it belongs to the group of short- winged Hawks and cannot fly down its prey like an Eagle or a Falcon. Seebohm observes : — "In spite of his comparatively short wings, he is a bird of very powerful flight, and of undaunted courage. He disdains to eat carrion, and will scarcely stoop to catch a sitting bird. He hunts on the wing, and nothing is safe from his attacks, from a sparrow to a grouse, or from a mouse to a young roe. In summer he confines himself principally to the woods and the open places in their immediate neighbourhood ; but late in autumn and winter he extends the range of his hunting-grounds, pursuing partridges and hares, and GOS-HA U-kSSPAKROlV-HA I17CS. 3^1 The Sparrow- Hawks— Genus Accipitcr. makin.^ raids on the pii^eons belonging to the farmers, and sometinus snatching the game from under the very nose of the sportsman. The Go3-IIawks are about forty in number, and many of them, though small, are of beautiful plumage, such as the Fijian Astur torqnatus and its allies which are pale grey birds with a rufous collar round their necks and vinous coloured breasts. This group inhabits the Australian region more especially the Moluccas, and the Papaan Islands. Another group is that of the Indian Shikra {A.tnr hadins), which has allied species in Burma, Africa and South-Eastern Europe. They are all small birds ^^Jhprettily barred breasts. One of the most interesting, however, is the White Gos-Hawk ot Australia, a pure white species, which looks like an albino. Astur novct hollamlia', as it is called, is confined to the Australian continent, with a representative species, A. kucosomns, in New Guinea. This is also a numerously represented genus of Hawks ; the difference between the Sparrow-IIawks and the Gos-Hawks consisting principally in the smaller bills and longer toes of the former birds. Like the Gos-Hawks, the members of the genus Accipiter are found over the greater part of the world, and both small and large species are met with. They are generally of slisht build, but use their short wings with great dexterity, doubling in their flight in the most rapid marner, and snatching their prey with a sudden plunge, seldom attempting to seize it in the open. In our English Sparrow-Hawk the female is a much larger bird than the male, and is much the more powerful bird of the two, though nothing can well exceed the spirit and dash of the little male Sparrow-Hawk. The chief food of the species consists of small birds, but it takes Blackbirds, Partridges, and, according to Mr. Seebohm, even Wood-Pigeons. It is a very determined marauder on the Pheasant coops, and catches a number of young birds of all sorts, feeding its own young on these. The nest is somewhat large, and, unlike that of most of the smaller Birds of Prey, which generally ap- propriate the nest of some other bird, the Sparrow-Hawk builds its own nest. The eggs of the species of icciniter are invariably more handsome than those of the Gos-Hawks, and some of the eggs of our own snecies are beautifully marbled with reddish brown. r a f • ^ThelaJ'estof the Sparrow-Hawks is the Pied Sparrow-Hawk of Africa, ^"^t^^X^nnnence the description of the shorter legged Hawlvs, wherein the tibio-tarsus is always longer than the tarso-metatarsus. The first of the three subfamilies is that of the Bnteonince or Buzzards. And here we fand a character which runs through them all, and is very constant viz., that the hinder aspect of the tarsus is SraAd no't reticulated. This we believe to be the principal character^ fig f3._XnE Female Sparrow-Hawk (Accipiter nieus). The Buzzards.— Sub-family Bnteonince. 312 AVES- ORDE K A CCIPITJilEORMES. istic of the Buzznid^, which on the one hand are allied to the Gos-Hawks, and on the other to the Eagles, the difference between the latter and the Buzzards being by no means strongly marked. At the head of the BuUonvnce. we find the genu^ Erythrotriorchis, or Rufou3 Buzz'ird-Hawks, of which there are two species, (>ne, E. radintus, found in Australia, and the other, E. doricc, inhabiting New Guinea. They are very rare birds, and but little has been recorded concerning their habits. Of the succeeding genera, Buteogalhis and Tachytriorchis, also very little is known. They are Neotropical forms ; but T. ahbreviatns and T. cdbicmidatus occur in the Southern United States, and some good accounts of their nesting have been published by Captain Bendire in his excellent work on the " Life- Histories of North American Birds." The latter species visits Southern Texas during the summer, and migrates south in winter, visiting South America as far as Argentina in companies. In the winter Mr. W. H. Hudson has known them to become so reduced in flesh that, after every cold rain or severe frost, numbers would be found dead vmder the trees where they roosted, and in that way most of them perished before the return of spring. Captain B. F. Goss found the species breeding abundantly near Corpus Christi, in Texas, in the spring of 1882. His note to Captain Bendire is as follows: — "I found the favourite breeding-places of the White-tailed Hawk to be a strip of open bushy land, lying between the thick line of timber and chaparral along the coast and the open prairie. Any bush rising a little above the surrounding level seemed a suitable nesting site, and no attempt was made to conceal the nest. In most places it was very prominent, and could be seen for a long distance, I examined fifteen, and thoy were all placed in low bushes, generally not higher than 6 ft. In a few case? I had to stand upon the waggon to reach them. They were composed of sticks, dry weeds, and grasses, a coarse, dry grass entering largely into the composition of most of them. They were poorly constructed, but moderately hollowed, and usually liaed with a few green twigs or leaves. Taken as a whole, the nests looked ragged in outline and slovenly in finish. About one nest in four contained three eggs ; the rest but two. These Hawks are wary, and difficult of approach at all times. They would leave their nests as soon as we came in sight, sometimes when still half a mile away, and generally they kept entirely out of sight. An occasional pair sailed high over our heads, uttering 'a faint cry while we were at their nest. Only a single one came within reach of our guns." Both of the genera Heterospidas and Tachytriorchis differ from the typical Buzzards in their shorter tails, the wings reaching beyond the tip of the latter. The genus Buteo contains about twenty species, of which our European Common Buzzard (Buteo hnteo) is the type. They are almost identical in their mode of life one with another, and mostly resemble The True Buzzards, small Eagles in their habits. They are, as a rule, useful —Genus JSutco. birds, as they feed upon rats and mice, insects, and small reptiles, which they pounce upon from a sitting position ; hence they do not often capture birds, as they do not take their prey on the wing. The nest of the Common Buzzard is a somewhat large structure, built in a tree, and is fl-vt at the top and lined with fresh green leaves. The egga are three or four in number, white, or bluish white in colour, the markings being blotches or streaks of a rich brown colour, which are often absent. Of the utility of the Buzzards to the farmer and agriculturist very good proof is given in Dr. A. K. Fisher's work on the "Hawks and Owls of the HARPIES— EAGLES. l\% United States in relation to Agricukure," where tables of the food found in the stomachs of the Buzzards are given, from which it appears that large numbers of small mammals and insects, especially locusts, are devoured by these Birds of Prey, and that very few small birds are captured by them, though the larger kinds of Buzz-irds will occasionally take a Duck or a Partridge. In the Bitteonincc are also contained some other forms of Buzzards, such as the genera Astiirina and Uruhitinga, the habits of which call for little special notice here, though some of the latter are very handsome birds of nearly pure white plumage. They are neotropical in habitat, as are also the Harpies, with which the Buzzards conclude. It is generally the fashion to speak of the Harpies as Eagles, instead of Buzzards, but the way in which the hinder aspect of the tarsus is plated, instead of being reticulated, is sufficient to show that these great birds arc really members of the sub-family Bideonince. There are tlirce genera of Harpies — ITarpyhaUaetus, with one species, JT. coronat\fs, a grey bird found in South America ; Morphivts, also with a single species, M. gnianensis, found in Amazonia and Guiana as far west as Panama; and The Harpy Thrasaetrts, with the true Harpy, T. harpyia, as its type, {Tlirascctus a pjiecies found over the greater part of Southern and harptjia'). Central America as far north as Mexico. The Harpy is one of the most splendid, as it is the most powerful, of all the Birds of Prey. Like the other Harpies it possesses a very long crest, which it usually keeps raised, adding to its fierce appearance. It is said to kill calves and animals of far greater bulk than itself, and Dr. Felix Oswald says that " in tlie Oaxaca district in IMexico, the ' Lobo volante,' or ' Winged Wolf,' attacks and kills heavy old turkey-cocks, young fawns, sloths, full-grown foxes and badgers, middle-sized pigs, and even the black Sapajou monkey {Ateles paniscuf.). The nest is built in the highest forest-trees, especially the Adansonia and the PiuKs hctlsnmifera. The more inaccessible rocks of the foot-hills are also commonly chosen for a breeding place, and it is not easy to distinguish the compactly-built cyrio on the highest branches of a wild fig tree from the dark-coloured clusters of the Mexican mistletos ( Fiacum rKhrurn) which are seen in the same tree-tops. The process of incubation is generally finished by the middle of March, if not sooner, and from that time to the end of June the rapacity of the old birds is the terror of the tropical fauna, for their hunting expeditions, which later in the year are restricted to the early morning hours, now occupy them the larger part of the day." In this sub-family the tibio-tarsus is much longer than the tarso- metatarsus, as it was in the Buteonince, but in all the Eagles the hinder aspect of the tarsus is reticulated, not plated. The bill is festooned but not toothed, as it is in the Falcons, which The Eagles.— follow later. There are two genera with wedge-shaped Sub-family tails, Gypaetns and Uroactns. In the former genus is Aquuince. found the species generally called the Bearded " Vulture," on account of the tuft of bristly feathers which is grown on its chin. The Bearded Eigle {Gypaetns barbatns) extends from Southern Europe throughout Central Asia to the Himalayas, but has become very rare, if, indeed, not wholly extinct, in Switzerland, where it was once a well-known bird. The L.iemmergeier, as it is also called, is still found in some of the other mountain ranges of Southern Europe, and in the 3*4 A P'ES— ORDER A CCIPITRIFORMES. Himalayas it is by no means uncommon. I have myself more than once seen one of these magnificent birds flying over within 30 yds. of my head, and turning his head down from side to side, taking stock of everything below him. His pale yellow eye, which is surrounded by a red ring, and his bearded chin were plainly seen. The flight of a Laemmergeier is grand in the extreme. The bird, however, has many of the habits of a Scavenger Vulture, and resembles Neophron in some of its ways, though it does not seem to be such a foul feeder. The species has been known to follow camps, and it is not infrequently to be met with in the neighbourhood of villages in the north-western Himalayas and Tibet. Not only in the Mediterranean countries, but in the Himalayas also, the bird is known as the "bone-breaker," and it undoubtedly has the curious habit of devouring bones. Von Tschudi says that five bullock's ribs 2 in. thick and from 6 to 9 in. long, a lump of hair, and the leg of a young goat, from the knee to the foot, were found in the stomach of one of these Bearded Eagles, while in another the large hip-bone of a cow, the skin and fore-quarters of a chamois, many smaller bones, etc., were discovered. It is also said to drive the chamois and goats over the precipices, and devour the bodies when they have fallen below. The weak feet and claws of the Lcemmergeier are vulturino, and not like those of True Eagles, and it is certain that the bird could not capture any large prey with its talons. Its method of breaking the bones which it delights in, is to take them up in the air to a great height and then let them drop on a rock, and it was doubtless in this way that yEschylus was killed more than 2000 years ago, an "Eagle," i.e., a Lpemmergeier, having dropped a Tortoise on his bald head, mistaking the latter for a rock. " Marrow bones, '' says Mr. Hudleston, ' ' are the dainties the La3mmergeier loves the best ; and when the other Vultures have picked the flesh off any animal, he comes in at the end of the feast and swallows the bones, or breaks them and swallows the pieces, if he cannot get the marrow out otherwise. I once saw a mature bird of this species which had evidently swallowed a bone, or something uncommonly indigestible, close to the abattoir at Athens. He was in a very uncomfortable attitude, and appeared to be leaning on his long tail for support. " A second species of Lfcmmergeier {Gypaetus ossifragus) is found in the mountains of North-Eastern Africa. We now come to the true Eagles (Aqnila) of which our Golden Eagle is the type, while the Bearded Eagles are connected with the typical Eagles by means of the Wedge-tailed Eagle of Australia ( i7roaeiiennat}is) is another well-known member of the genus. Lophotriorclm is another remarkable form, with a well-developed crest. It has one species, L. kieneri, found in India and the Malay Archipelago, while the only other species occurs in the mountains of Colombia in South America, a very interesting fact in geographical distribution. One of the most curious of Eagles is the Birds'-nesting Eagle [Ncopus malaiensis) of India and the Malayan countries and islands. It is a black bird, with powerful talons which are nearly straight. It spends its time hunting for eggs and nestlings, and is continually on the wing, like a Kite. "It subsists," says Colonel Legge, "as far as can be observed, entirely by birds'-nesting, and is not content with the eggs and young birds, which its keen sight espies among the branches of the forest trees, but even seizes the nest in its talons, decamps with it, and often examines the contents as it sails lazily along." Part of a bird's nest has been found in this Eagle's stomach. The Crested Eagles {S2)i~.aetns) of the Indian Region and the Black Eagle of Africa {Lophoaetus occipitalis) complete the list of feathered-legged Eagles. All the rest belong to the bare-legged section which have the tibio-tarsus unfeathered. To this section belong the Sea-Eagles and their allies, the Serpent-Eagles. Of the latter there are many species in Africa and in the Indian Region, the best-known being the members of the genus Circaetits and Spilornis. Of the former we have one species in Southern Europe, Circaetus gcdlicus, but the true Serpent-Eagles (Spilumis) are inhabitants of India. The amount of good which they do may be calculated by the statement of Mr. A. O. Hume, who has shot numbers of these birds, that he found fifty little serpents in the stomach of one individual, and on another occasion he knew of a Cobra, 2|- ft. in length, being taken out of a Serpent-Eagle's stomach. Butasfur is another oriental genus, and the Bateleur-Eaglcs {Hclotarsus) are confined to Africa. The true Sea-Eagles {Ilcdiaetm^} are nearly world-wide in distribution, but they are absent in South America. In Europe and North America we have the White-tailed Eagle {H(diaetus (dbicilla) and the Bald Eagle (H. Icucocephcdus), the latter remarkable for its pure white head. The Ethiopian region contains a beautiful species, H. vocifer, and one of the most widely distributed Birds of Prey in Australia and the East is H. leurogaster, the white-bellied Sea-Eagle. From the Sea-Eagles we pass to the Kites, which are also members of the sub-family Aquilinoi. At first sight they would seem to have no connection 1 1 6 J VES— ORDER A CCIPITRIfORMES. with Eagles, but they are connected with the latter birds through the Brahminy Kites (Ilaliastur). These birds inhabit India and Burma, and extend through the Malay Archipelago to Australia. The Brahminy Kite of India {Haliastur indns) makes a nest in a tree very much like that of a Kite, and lays a white egg, mottled with dots and hieroglyphics of reddish-brown. From the genus Haliadnr is an easy transition through the African Swallow-tailed Kite {Nanclerns riqcouri) and the American Swallow-tailed Kite {Elanoides fnrcatvs) to the typical Kites (Milvus). The Swallow-tailed Kite of America is a lovely and must graceful bird, the back and tail being black, and the head and underparts pure white. It nests in the Southern United States, and winters in Brazil. Florida is one of its breeding ground.", and the following account of its habits is given by Dr. ^Yilliam L. Ralph in Captain Bendire"s "Life-History of North American Birds. He writes : — "Excepting, perhaps, the Turkey Vulture, I think that this bird is the most graceful of any when on the wing. It has the same easy floating motion, but at times it flies very rapidly and turns very quickly, which is eomething I have never seen the former bird do. Their motions are very ' Swallow '- like, and this, with their forked tail, makes them look like gigantic Barn- Swallows; and like the Chimney-Swifts they have a habit of travelling together in small companies, usually consisting of three individuals, especially when they first return from the South. During the breeding season flocks, consisting of from two to three to ten or twelve birds, but oftener of three, may be seen following one another around, frequently uttering their calls and circling in and out among the tree-tops so fast as to make one dizzy to look at them. Except during this season one seldom sees one of these birds unless it is flying, and I have often wondered if they did not at times sleep while on the wing. At least I know that they usually, if not always, eat while flying, for I have many times ?een one sailing leisurely along, occasionally bending its head to tear a piece from a small snake that it held in its talons, and I have never seen one alight to eat its food, like other Birds of Prey." There are many other forms of Kite, such as the Hooked-billed Kites {Bosthrnmvs), the Black-shouldered Kites (Elanns), and other ^small genera, but the best known are, of course, the true Kites of the genus Milws:. In the towns and villages of tropical countries of the Old World these birds are nearly always in evidence, flying about with a continuous squeaking cry. The Common Kite is nearly extinct in England, but there are many places on the Continent where it is still plentiful ; and Mr. Seebohm gives the following account of its habits : — ■" In the manner of taking its prey the Kite very much resembles the Buzzards, and even the Harriers. It is by no means a bold and powerful bird, for a clucking hen has been known to put it to flight, and the fiery little Sparrow-Hawk mobs it with impunity. The Kite takes its food upon the ground, and usually catches young or weakly birds or mammals, and also does not even refuse to make a meal on carrion. Like all rapacious birds, the Kite appears to have some favourite spot which serves as a dining-table or larder, where the food brought to feed its hungry young is also plucked and otherwise prepared for them. The nest in the breeding season is also a well-stocked larder, far more food being con- veyed thither than is really consumed. In these places may be seen the remains of Grouse, Plovers, and young Curlews and Wild Ducks. In addition to this food the Kite also takes young hares and rabbits, mice and rats, frogs, lizards, more rarely snakes, and the larger coleopterous irsects KITES— IIOXE 1 -KITES. ■ — creatures that are taken without much exertion or power. In former days, when the Kite was more abundant in these islands than it is now, it was said to be a great enemy to the poultry, young chickens forming a favourite object of its pursuit. At the present day, however, the Kite need cause the poultry-keeper no alarm. Its haunt now, where but a remnant of its former numbers find a last retreat, is in the wildest districts of Scotland, or Wales, where the Red Grouse is probably its favourite fare. How the Kite manages to take so large and strong a bird as a cock Red Grouse is surprising; and it is most probably only the young and weakly ones that fall victims to its swoop. Mr. Booth also suggests that the Peregrine ofttinies unwittingly finds the Kite a meal, and puts a bird in its way that would never be secured unless weakly or wounded. As is well known, that bold, rapacious Falcon often strikes a bird for mere sport, and will leave it where it lies ; and there, no doubt, it is sometimes found by the less active Kite and conveyed away. The note of the Kite may be compared to a wild plaintive scream or 'mew,' and is but rarely heard, save in the breeding season. Unmusical as its cry may be, still it appears to be full of wild harmony with the rugged scenery of its haunts, imbues them with life, and, when heard as the bird is flying far overhead, lends a charm to districts where other bird life is wanting." The Kites which most approach the Falcons are the Perns or Honey- Kites. These have a peculiarly soft plumage, unmistakable to the touch of a ])ractised ornithologist ; and this is shared by many of the Falcons, showing that it is practically impossible to draw distinctive characters between the sub- families of Accipicrine birds. Thus the Buzzards merge into the Eagles, and thence through the Sea-Eagles and the Brahminy Kites we reach the true Kites, and from them the Perns, which are half Falcons, and thence the transition is easy to the true Falcons. So it may be aflirmed that there is scarcely any order of birds in which the natural connection of the families, sub-families, and genera are better maintained and exemplified than in the Accipitriformes. Some of the most curious of the Perns, and, one may say, of all Birds of Prey, are the Black Perns {Maelioirhamphus). They are nocturnal birds, coming forth in the twilight to feed on bats and small swifts. One species, M. anderssoni, is Ethiopian, being found in Tropical Africa and Madai^ascar ; while the second species, M. alcinus, inhabits Southern Burma, the Malayan Peninsula, Borneo, and extends to New Guinea. These birds are generally called Honey-" Buzzards," but it is certainly wrong to think of them as Buzzards. Their habits, their outward form, and, above all, their curious soft plumage, The Honey- all point to their affinities with the Kites. There are Kites.— Genus three species of Honey-Kite, Pernis apivorus of Europe, Fernis. P. ptilo)i,orhync]ius of Tropical Asia, and P. celebensis of Celebes. The Falcons differ from the Kites, which immediately precede them, and from the other Birds of Prey in having a toothed or notched bill. In some of the genera there is a distinct double tooth, as in the Cuckoo-Falcons (Baza). These are very interesting The True Hawks on account of their geographical distribution. Falcons,— Sub- They are all birds of the forest districts, one species being family lulconi'ice. found in West Africa, another in Natal, a third in Madagascar, and thence eastwards the species are distributed through the ludiaa Region and the Moluccas to the Bismarck Archipelago and North- 3 18 ^J ^ES— ORDER A CCIRITRIFORMES. Eastern Australia. These birds get their name of Cuckoo-Falcons from their large Cuckoo-like yellow eyes and the barred i)lumage of the lower surface of the body, which is like that of a Cuckoo. In Central and South America the Cuckoo-Falcons are represented by the Double-toothed Falcons (Hdrpagus), and in the same parts of the Neotropical region occur the Grey Kite-Falcons (Idinia), one of which, I. missisdpiensis, ranges into the Southern United States. All these genera which we have recently mentioned belong to the borderland between the Kites and the Falcons. They have the characteristics of the latter birds, united to Kite- like plumage and habits, and they further differ from the true Falcons in having an oval nostril, with no central tubercle, whereas the latter birds have a rounded nostril with a central tubercle. The habits of the Mississippi Kite-Falcon have been well described in the works of Captain Bend ire and Dr. A. K. Fisher. The latter writes : — "The food of this species, like that of the Swallow-tailed Kite, consist* of insects, such as the larger beetles, grasshoppers, and locusts, lizards, small snakes, and frogs. It never has been known to molest birds or mammals, except to drive the larger species away from the vicinity of its nest. Three specimens which Wilson examined at Natchez, Miss., contained the remains of beetles ; and he saw them flying about the trees feeding on cicadas. Dr. Coues mentions one shot at Bluff- ton, S.C., whose stomach was crammed with the same insects, together with a few Katydids. It is wonderful at what a distance its keen eyes can detect a comparatively small insect. Mr. E. W, Nelson says : — ' I saw them repeatedly dart with unerring aim upon some luckless grasshoppers from an elevation of at least 100 yards.' (Bull. Essex Inst., Vol. IX., 1877, p. 58.) As regards the economic value of this Kite much the same statement may be made as of the previous species. It does little or no damage, but much good. Soon after arriving in its summer home it begins to remodel its old nest or the deserted nest of some other bird, and more rarely, when these are not avail- able, it builds a new one. The remodelling consists in patching up the sides with a few sticks and adding a sparse lining of Spanish moss or green leaves. The nest is usually situated in the tops of the tallest trees, among the smaller branches, where it is well concealed by the foliage. The full complement of eggs, usually two or three in number, is deposited by the middle of May, though in some cases it must be much earlier, for the writer once secured a young bird in southern Louisiana at the end of May which had already acquired nearly the adult plumage. This Kite is not at all shy, and may be secured easily as it sits on some tall stub ; in fact. Col. N. S. Goss tells of shooting a pair from the same tree, as the second one did not move at the report of the gun, but looked down with surprise on its fallen companion. It is said to be morose and irritable in captivity, and very difficult to tame. A specimen which the writer once wounded was the very picture of rage, as with flashing eyes and erect crest it threw itself on its back and prepared to repel the aggressor with its talons. This species is fully as gregarious as any of the other Kites, and oftentimes may be seen in flocks of twenty or more circling over a favourite hunting ground. It is observed most frequently around the border of woods in the vicinity of water, and is particularly fond of half-cleared ground where dead trees still stand, these being used for perches. Its flight is as varied and graceful as that of the Swallow-tailed Kite, is long protracted, and the birds often ascend to so great a height as to be barely visible. While soaring high in the air its flight simulates that of the turkey-buzzard very FALCONETS— JER-FALCONS. 319 The Falconets. — Genus Micro/ncraz. closely, and as the two birds are often seen together the Kite looks like a miniature of the other." A curious little genus of true Falcons is Microiiievnx, the members of which are little larger than sparrows. They inhabit the Indian region, especially the Indo-Malayan islands. An allied genus, Paliohu-ntx, is found in the Burmese Provinces and in the desert regions of Africa, and the two species known present this unique peculiarity among the true Falcons, that the sexes differ remarkably in colour, the males being grey, while the females have a maroon-coloured beak. One of the chief characteristics of the Falcons i.s that the males and females are alike in colour, but the latter differ markedly in their superior size. The true Falcons (Falco) are typified in our Peregrine Falcon {F. pcref/ri)U(s), and various races of this type are distributed over the Old and New Worlds, whilst the Lanner (F. feldeggii), and the Juggur Falcon are well-known representatives of the same type. These birds are really gigantic Kestrels, the form and habit of the birds being those of the true Falcons, while the formation of the foot is that of a Kestrel, the outer and inner toe being about equal in length, whereas in the genus Falco the outer toe is much The Noble Falcons, longer than the inner one. Hence the latter birds with — Genua l/icrofuh-u. their powerful foot are the Falcons ^xtr excellence. It is the Peregrine and its allies which are the chosen bird of the falconer, while the noble Falcons are not thought much of by them. As I have said before, the members of the genus Hierofalco ought to be considered as gigantic Kestrels. They have the same proportions of the toes, but they are very much larger than any Kestrel. They are principally inhabitants of the Arctic regions, the Greenland Jer-Falcon being, like the Snowy Owl and other inhabitants of the snow-clad regions of the high north, almost entirely white, like their snowy surroundings. Thus the Greenland Jer-Falcon is an inhabitant of Labrador and Greenland, occasional stragglers, mostly young birds, finding their way to Great Britain and various countries of Europe. The Iceland Jer-Falcon {Hierofalco islandus) inhabits Iceland, and also occasionally wanders to parts of the European Continent, while in Southern Greenland its place is taken by Holboell's Jer- Falcon (JET. hulboelli). In Scandinavia, and thence across Siberia to North America, occurs the Norwegian Jer-Falcon (H. gyrfalco). Two other species complete the genus — one the Saker Jer-Falcon (ff. saker) inhabiting South-Eastern Europe and Central Asia to North-Western India, while Henderson's Jer-Falcon {H. hendersoni) is found in Thibet. The plumage of these last two species is rufous, rather than grey or white, and they look like large Kestrels. Besides the Peregrine Falcon, we find in the genus F(dco a large assemblage of smaller Falcons, such as the Hobbv {F. suhbiUeo) and its Fig. 64, Tbb Grhexland Jer- Falcon (Hierofalco candicans). A I 'ES— ORDER A CCIFITRIFORMES. The Ospreys- Sub-order FaiidxoHfs. allies, the Merlin {F. (£salu)i) and kindred species, the Lanntr (F. feldeggii) and several other Falcons pLCuliar to the tropical portions of the Old and New Worlds. The Kestrels differ from the true Falcons in having the outer toe short, and about equal to the inner toe in length. They are birds of small size, and are chiefly insectivorous, many of them catching The Kestrels. — their prey on the wing, and devouring it as they fly. They Genus Cfrchncis. catch a large number of field mice, and are everywhere a real friend to the agriculturist. In Dr. Fisher's report on the American Kestrel and its food, it is interesting to observe that in the stomachs of a large series (320) examined, few remains of birds were found, but a considerable number of mice. The chief food of the species was, however, grasshoppers, locusts, and caterpillars. The Ospreys, or Fishing Hawks, as they are often called, hold an intermediate position between the Hawks and the Owls. The skeleton very closely approaches that of the latter birds, and the Ospreys have another character in common with the Owls, viz., that the outer toe is reversible, and can be turned backwards or forwards at will.' The soles of the feet are likewise furnished with spicules, thus enabling the bird, with its toes distributed nearly at right angles and its spiked soles, to seize and drag from the water the large fiah on which it preys. The Osprey is now a very rare bird in Great Britain, and is only found in certain parts of Scotland, where it is protected, though a few stragglers, mostly young birds, are chot in other parts of the United Kingdom from time to time. The Osprey is a cosmopolitan species, and is found nearly over the whole of the world, the birds from the Australian region being slightly smaller than those from Europe or North America. The nest of the Osprey is an enormous structure, and is placed on a tree, or on a ruined building. The eggs are among the handsomest of those of Birds of Prey. In addition to the reversible toe alluded to above, a character which they share with the Ospreys, the Owls are further The Owls. — distinguished by their soft Sub-order Strt//es. plumage, and by the absence of a cere or waxlike skin at the base of the bill, which is seen in almost all the true Accipjtres. Owls have also a facial disk, which is surrounded by a ring of short, crisp feathers reaching from below the chin, and extending above the eye to the base of the bill. The nostrils are also generally hidden by bristles, and the eyes are directed forwards instead of sideways. The sub-order Striges contains but two families — Biibonidce, comprising the Owls generally, and the Barn- Owls (Stngidce). In these birds the hind margin of the stfirnum or breast-bone has two distinct clefts, and the furcula or "merry- Ftg 65.— Tub Ospreys (Pandion halioelus). The Horned and Wood-Owls.— Family Bubonidce, FISIIIXG- WLS— HORNED- II 'LS. 32 1 thought'' bone is free, and not united to the keel of the sternum. There is) also no serration or pectination of the claw on the middle toe, such aa ia seen in the Barn- Owls. In the Bubomdce there are two sub-families — the Ilorned-Owla (Buhonince) and the Wood-Owls (Symiince). In the former the facial disk is not so dis- tinct, and fails in intensity above the eye, whereas in the Symiince or Wood- Owls this disk is fully developed, and extends as far above the eye as it does below it. In the Horned-Owls, again, the ear-conch, always a striking feature in the sub-order, is smaller than the diameter of the eye itself, an."! is not shut in by an opercular fold. In the Wood-Owls the ear-conch is very large, exceeding the diameter of the eje, and is shut in by a very distinct opercular fold. It is interesting to notice that we find in the Owls a group of fishing species, which remind us of the Ospreys. Like the latter birds, these Owla have spicules on their feet, and they have likewise bare tarsi, which is doubtless a convenience to the birds in The Fishing-Owls, lieu of their plunging their soft downy plumaged legs into —Genus Kctiqja. the water ; though it must not be forgotten that some of the feathered-legged species, such as the Tawny-Owl (Syrmnm aluco), and the Barn-Owl (Strix Jlammea), do not hesitate to catch fish on occasion. The members of the genus Ketupa are found in India, China, and the Malayan Peninsula and Islands. They have feathered tufts or horns on their head, and are represented in Africa by the genus Scotopelia, which has three species very similar to those of Ketnpa, but without the feathered tufts on the head. Mr. Hume says that the Brown Fisli-Owl of India {K. ceylonensis) feeds on birds and small Mammals, and it is also known to eat Crustacea, They build a large nest on the cleft of a rock, or on a broad shelf of a cliff, or in the hole of a tree, while sometimes they repair a nest of Pallaa'a Sea Eagle {Haliaetus leucoryphus), and appropriate it. Pel's Fishing-Owl is a very handsome bird, discovered by Governor Pel on the Dutch Gold Coast in West Africa. He saw it sitting on a bough overhanging the Rio Boutry which he was traversing in his boat. Afterwards it was re-discovered in the Gambia, Pel's FisMng-Owl and an amusing account of this "fetish" bird is given by [Scotopelia jjeli). Colonel O'Connor, who had one alive: — "During seven years' exploration of Western Africa, I only met with one specimen of the Owl 'Nero.' He was brought as a chicken, full of pen-feathers, or rather down, of a delicate straw-colour, and very thick, from a lagoon in the Bawa country. No native would admit 'Nero' as a visitor ; and when the bird was installed in Government House, the servants and the head people came in a body to remonstrate, asserting 'he was a " Gumbi Owl,'' a " Fettish " ! ! I and would destroy and kill whatever object he looked on.' The chief groom (an old soldier, who had charge of the poultry) insisted that every cock and hen would go dead. Strangely enough, an epidemic broke out, and carried ofi" fifty to sixty head of fowls i and each day the groom placed the defunct birds on the steps of Government House to meet the eye of Mrs. O'Connor, seeming to exult in the mortality amongst the feathered tribe. ' You see wid your own eye. Missus, dat debil jumbi bird, he go kill all de fowls : Governor tink he hab long head, but he no takey owl i suppose you put him in de stable, he see Nelly' (Mrs. O'Connor's favourite mare), 'de horse he go tumble down dead.' Death at last ceased to reign amongst the poultry population, and Nero 322 AVES—SUB-ORDER STRIGES. became my principal pet. He ranged over the Piazza, perching on the branch of a tree ; he was fed regularly by the orderly on roasted fish, but he often came to the dinner-table and flew down for scraps of meat or bread- and-butter, which he took gently from myself or Mrs. O'Connor, permitting us to rub his head, crest, neck, and back, seemingly enjoying the caressing. But he would snatch meat or bones from the cat or dog, and when the eagle was introduced into his company, he beat him in a most unmerciful manner away from his peculiar and original portion of the Piazza — the eagle being one of the fiercest and most pugnacious of African birds, brought from the upper parts of the Sabia River near ' Wallie,' and, when in vigour, able to carry away a kid or spiall lamb. Nero luxuriated in a tub of water, frequently washing himself and perching himself on the rim until dry. He was wont to go out to the garden or fields, where instantly an immense commotion arose among all the birds ; the larger ones flew round the owl, keeping a very civil distance — the smaller birds flew away ; but Nero treated both alike with sovereign contempt ; he would return of his own accord to the roosting-place in the Piazza, and when put out and confined for some days, rejected all food, and pined until restored to his perch. With me he was as tame as any canary, and after an absence of two months recognised my voice when I went to his cage, at Oatlands (Devon), appearing much pleased by my taking him out for a walk on the grass. Many natives from the interior told me they had not seen such a bird before ; but they considered him unlucky." These are some of the largest of all the Owls, and they are found in nearly every part of the globe except Australii. The Eigle-Owl of Europe (Bubo bubo) is a magnificent species, with very large ear-tufts, TheEagle-Owls.— and is such a powerful bird that it even kills fawns, as Genus JBubu. well as rabbits and hares, and is very destructive tc game. It is an inhabitant of the forests of Europe, nesting in a tree, though in some places it has been known to nest on the ledge of a cliff. The eggs, like those of all Owls, are pure white. The Eagle-Owl of North America (Bubo virginianus), according to Dr. A. K. Fisher, devours a good quantity of poultry, but feeds chiefly on rats, mica, and other rodents, with an occasional beetle or other insect. These are little birds, seldom exceeding the size of a Thrush, and having the appearnce of diminutive Eagle-Owls. Like the latter they have a strongly mottled plumage and conspicuous ear-tuft.'. The Tufted-Owls. They are found in nearly every part of the world, —Genus Scojis. excepting in the extreme south of America and in Australia and the Pacific Islands. The species of Europe (Scops scops) is distributed over the greater part of the continent below the line of the Baltic, and is a migratory bird : it occasionally visits Great Britain. This large Owl is of the size of the Eagle-Owls, and like them it has ear- tufts, though these are very small, and are often difficult to trace. It is distinguished by its snowy-white plumage, and is an The Snowy-Owl.— inhabitant of the Arctic regions, both in the Old and New Xyctca nijctca. Worlds, keeping above the limit of forest-growth and never nesting in the latter districts. It is a day-flying Owl, and feeds principally on mice and lemmings, but in winter, when this food fails it, the Snowy-Owl will catch grouse, hares, ducks, and it has even been known to capture fiah. It makes its nest on the ground on the tandra HA I VK- O IVLS—B URRO WING- CIVLS, 323 or on a lodge of a bank, and it lays six or eight white eggs. Sometimes as many as t :n are found in a nest, and they are generally laid at intervals, so that young of all sizes are to be met with, and there can be no doubt that the warmth of the downy young, which are first hatched, contributes to the hatching of the eggs laid later on. From it? long tail and short wings, as well as from its barred under- surface, this Owl bears considerable resemblance to a Hawk, whence its popular name. The soft plumage and the noiseless flight, however, distinguish it as an Owl at once. It is a diurnal The Hawk-Owl bird in its habits, like the Snowy-Owl, and is often seen {Surniu ulula). sitting on the top of a tree on the lookout for its prey. It is also a very courageous bird, and will often attack anyone who attempts to rob its nest. The latter is placed in a tree, either in a cavity or in old nests among the branches. The eggs are white, and vary in number from four to eight. As with the Snowy-Owl, they are laid at intervals, and are found in various stages of incubation. In the Old World are found the group of Little Owls {Carine) and the Brown Hawk-Owls (Ninox), and these are replaced in America by the curious Burro wing-Owls. These little birds associate with the prairie-dogs, and their eggs have been found at The Burrowing- a distance of 10 ft. from the mouth of the burrow. Owls.— Genus which is seldom made by the birds themselves. It has Speotyto. often been recounted how the Owls and the prairie-dogs live in harmony together, and, as Professor Elliot Coues says, "the case is further complicated by the introduction of the rattlesnakes." And no little pure bosh is in type respecting the harmonious and confidential relations imagined to subsist between the trio, which, like the "happy family" of Barnum, lead Utopian existences. He disposes of the myth as follows : — " First, as to the reptiles, it may be observed that they are, like other rattle- snakes, dangerous, venomous creatures. They have no business in the burrows, and are after no good when they do enter. They wriggle into the holes partly because there is no other place for them to crawl into on the bare, flat plain, and partly in search of Owl's eggs, owlets, and puppies to eat. Next, the Owls are simply attracted to the villages of the prairie-dogs as the most convenient places for shelter and niditication, where they find eligible, ready-made burrows, and are spared the trouble of digging for themselves. Community of interest makes them gregarious to an extent unusual among rapacious birds, while the exigencies of life in the plains casts their lot with the rodents. That the Owls livo at ease in the settlements and on familiar terms with their four-footed neighbours is an undoubted fact, but that they inhabit the same burrows, or have any intimate domestic relations, is quite another thing. It is no proof that the quadrupeds and the birds live together that they are so often seen to scuttle at each other's heels into the same hole when alarmed, for in such case the two simply seek the nearest shelter independently of each other. The probability is that young prairie-dogs often furnish a meal to the Owls, and that, in return, the latter are often robbed of their eggs ; while certainly the young of both and the Owi's eggs are eaten by the snakes." The principal food of the Burrowing- Owl consists of insects, and they devour large numbers of locusts and grass- hoppers, though the birds also eat a great many rodents ; and at times a great quantity of food has been found stored up in their burrows. These little Owls are scarcely bigger than Sparrows, and none of them 324 AVES— SUB-ORDER STRIGES. exceeds a Thrush in size. They are -widely distributed in both the eastern and western hemispheres, but are absent in Australia and The Owlets.— the Austro-Malayan and Pacific Islands. They have a Genus GIkucuUuih. very rounded wing, and a swollen cere like the Little Owls {Carine) and the other members of the Buhonince we have just been considering. Their food consists mostly of insects, and the flight of Glaucidiam hrodiei of the Himalayas, which is the only species I have seen alive, was very swift, and the bird appeared to be perfectly at home in daylight. The European species is the Pigmy Owlet (Glcmcidinm jiygnueum), and ill North America, where more than one form occurs, we learn that one of the species, G. cjnoma, an inhabitant of the Western States as far south as the highlands of Mexico, is not only an insect-feeder, but also devours small birds and rodents, as well as lizards. It is diurnal in its habits like the little species which I saw in the Himalayas, and, like others of its kind, breeds in old Woodpecker's holes. We have already alluded to the characters of the ear-conch and the operculum which separate the members of the sub-family Syrniimt from those of the Buhoniiut. Three genera are recognised in The Eared- and the Syrniinct, viz., the Horned-Owls (Asio), the Wood- Wood-Owls - Sub- Owls (Synuiim), and the Downy-Owls {Nyctala). ia.milj Si/niiiiui: The Horned, or Eared, Owls, as they are generally called, are found nearly all over the world, and our Short- eared Owl (Asio accipitrinus) is one of the most co3moj)olitan of all birds, nesting in the north and migrating south in winter. It is one of the most useful of all the Owls, and on the occasions when Voles The Horned-Owls, have proved such a plague to agriculturists, the Short- — Genus Asio. eared Owls have appeared in the stricken districts, and have devoured numbers of the mischievous rodents. It also follows the hordes of lemmings and preys upon them. It is a day- flying bird, and nests on the ground, often in small colonies. The Long- eared Owl {Asio otus), on the contrary, is a forest-loving bird, and comes out chiefly in the gloaming and at night, when it catches large numbers of mice and other small rodents. Several pairs are often found in the same neigh- bourhood, and in America the species has been recorded as nesting in company, the nest being generally the deserted one of a hawk or crow of some sort, with a slight lining added. It very rarely nests, like so many of the other Owls, in hollow trees. The Wood-Owls differ from the Horned-Owls in having no ear-tufts of feathers on the head, and in having much less of a cere than the last-named birds. The typical species is the Wood -Owl or Tawny- The Wood-Owls.— Owl of Europe (Syrninm cdueco), which is entirely a wood- Genus Si/r>in(tn. land bird, nesting in holes of trees, in which it also passes the greater part of the day. At night it is more lively, and its hooting note is often heard throughout the night. Although generally nesting in the hollow of a tree, this Owl has been known to annex a Wood- Pigeon's nest or a squirrel's "drey," or the deserted nests of a Crow or Magpie, while a rabbit's burrow has also been known to be occupied by the Tawny-Owl. The eggs are three or four in number and are white. Of the Downy-Owls (Nyctala), the best known species is Tengmalm's Owl (N. tcngmalmi), an inhabitant of Northern Europe and North America, and in the latter country a second species, N. acadica, occurs. WHITE IVLS—PARKOTS. 325 These birda differ from the Buhonidae. in having a pectinated claw to the middle toe. The hinder marj^in of the sternum or breast- The White Owls. bone is without notches, and the furcula or " merry- — Family AV;7yi(/(e. thought" bone is joined to the keel of the sternum. There is but one genus in the family, viz., Strix, of which our own Barn-Owl or White Owl is tlie type. The present species is nearly world-wide in its distribution, but does not occur very far to the north. The Barn-Owl appears to follow man and his civilisa- tion, doubtless from the fact that where farms are settled, rats and mice will follow. The number of mice which a Barn-Owl will consume is really wonderful, shrews and voles being also taken in great numbers ; and VVaterton tells us that a mouse is brought to the nest every twelve or fifteen minutes, while we ourselves have found more than forty field-mice, freshly caught, in the nest of one of these Owls. They will also catch bats in small numbers, and occasionally birds form part of their diet, but the principal food of the Owl consists of small rodents; and it may confidently be said that the Barn-Owl is one of the farmer's best friends. Dr. A. K. Fisher, in his report on the "Hawks and Owls of the United States in relation to Agricul- ture," says that he scarcely found anything but mice in the stomachs of thirty-nine Barn-Owls he examined. Four birds had been captured, as well as locusts and other insects, but the staple food was mice and rats. Besides the Barn-Owls, which have a mottled plumage, there are a couple of brown-backed species, known as Grass-Owls. One inhabits Africa, and bears the name of Strix capensis, while in India and the Malay countries to Australia and the Pacific Islands, a second species {S. Candida) occurs. Both these birds have longer legs than the Barn-Owl, and live in the open grassy country. We are shortly coming to the Picarian birds — the Trogons, the King-fishers, and such-like forms. Between them and the birds which we have hitherto passed in review there would seem to be but little connection, and at first sight none but the Parrots The Parrots. afford a connecting link. They have been placed Order in all sorts of different positions in the schemes which Fsitfaojormes. have been propounded for the classification cf birds, and they have been recently pushed to the end of the series by a well-known anatomist, because he did not know where else to place them. There was reason in making them the head of all the birr'.j, as was done by Blyth and Bonaparte, on acco-mt of their superior in*"viiigence, for the same reason that the monkeys were placed at the head oi' the Mammalia, and there was also sense in associating them with the climbing birds on account of their zygodactyle foot, with two toes directed forwards and two backwards. They have, however, certain characteristics which isolate them from the majority of birds, and it requires a little cc ^-rdevation to determine their position in the natural system. Nowhere does their place appear better in a linear arrangement of birds than after the Accipitres and Striges, leading on to the PicarUe. Like the latter birds they nest in holes, and lay white eggs, but so Fiff. 66.— The Barn-Owl (Strix jlammea). p6 AVES— ORDER PSITTACIFORMES. do most of the Owls. The Panuts have a cere which is distinctly an Accipitrine character, and the Owls have semi-zygodactyle foot, not very different in outward appearance from that of the Parrots. Indeed, it was one of the most curious of my experiences to see a Little Owl {Carine noctua) catch a black beetle and eat it. It held the beetle between its toes, exactly lilie a Parrot takes its food, and munched it up, holding its foot like a hand to take the insect to its mouth. In the Parrots the palate is bridged or " desmognathous," and the upper mandible is movable and loosely articulated to the skull, while the plantar tendons are like those of the Ganie-Birds. The nestlings of Parrots are decidedly curious, and differ from those of Owls, and also of Picarian birds. They are covered with a dense coating of down of a dusky colour, but appear to be completely naked when first hatched. The feathers are encased in sheaths, like those of Picarian birds, and these sheaths last for a considerable time, being thrown off only when the feather itself is nearly perfect, so that \he young bird, from being covered with bristly spines, becomes all at once ially fer.thcied. Count Salvadori, who has monographed the Parrots in the twentieth volume of the British Museum "Catalogue of Birds," divides them into six families, the Kaka Parrots (Ncstoridce), the Lories (Loriidce), the Lorikeets (Cyclopsittacidce), the Cockatoos (Gacatuidce), the true Parrots (Psittacida'), and the Owl- Parrots (Stringo}}idce). In this family the tongue is fringed, and the culmen of the bill is grooved along the middle. The species are now confined to New Zealand ; bub Nestor productus and N. norfolcensis, from Philip Island The Kaka and Norfolk Island respectively, though now extinct, show Parrots. — Family that the genus extended, in former times at least, as far as Nestoridce. the above-mentioned localities. The Nestors are forest- loving birds, and the following are Sir W. Buller's notes on the habits of the Kaka : — "This is one of our highly characteristic forms, and is met with, more or less, in every part of the country. Far away in the depths of the forest, where the trees are clad with rich mosses, cryptograms, and lycopods to their very tops, where, as if to hide the mouldering decay of Nature, huge masses of green vines and creeping plants cover the aged trunks and bind the bush together — where the sunlight, struggling through leafy tops, discloses here and there a feathery tassel of Asplenhan flaccidum hang- ing from the branches or a clump of the sc irlet-flowered mistletoe — there the Kaka is at home, and may be S2en twisting and turning among the sprays, hopping Cockatoo-fashion along a branch, then climbing higher with grace- ful agility ; resting for a moment to whistle for his mate and, when he has joined him, expressing his pleasure in a sharp chuckling note, like the striking together of two quartz pebbles ; then, as if suspecting some treachery below, he suddenly takes wing with loud cries of ''Kaka,' and glides smoothly through the leafy maze, closely followed by his spouse. On a rear view the brilliant plumage under the wings is very conspicuous when the bird is flying ; but when the bird is climbing or hopping, in the manner habitual to it, the wings are kept closed. Then on the outskirts of the forest you meet with him again — more generally in the early morning — hunting diligently for his insect food, or regaling himself on ripe berries of various kinds in the thick underwood ; and towards evening three or more of them may be seen in company, flying high above the forest level; then ab'ghting on the withered, naked top of some lofty A'. IK A PARROTS— LORIES. 32? kahikat;i or kauri tree — always percliing on the highest points — resting a few moments, and taking wing again till they are fairly out of sight. In the early watches of the night, too, especially during the breeding season, and just before the break of dawn, its peculiar cry betrays its wakeful rest- lessness. ' The same author writes of the Kea Parrot {Nestor notabilis) : — "When hunting for food in its wild mountain home, it may be seen perched for a few moments on a jutting rock ; then, descending to the ground to hunt for grubs and insects, or to gather the ripening seeds from certain Alpine plants, it disappears for a time and then mounts to the summit of another rock, just as I have seen the Common Raven doing in the higher parts of the Bernese Alps. On the level ground their mode of locomotion is similar to that of the Kaka, consihting of a hopping rather than a walking movement. Like that bird also, they are semi-nocturnal, exhibiting much activity after dusk and in the early dawn. The cry of the Kea, as generally heard in the early morning, has been aptly compared to the mewing of a cat ; but it likewise utters a whistle, a chuckle, and a suppressed scream, scarcely distinguishable from the notes of it noisy congener. But the most interest- ing feature in the history of this bird is the extraordinary manner in which, under the changed conditions of the country, it has developed a carnivorous habit — manifesting it, in the first instance, by a fondness for fresh sheep-skins and other station oflfal, and then, as its education progressed, attacking the living sheep for the purpose of tearing and devouring the kidney-fat, and inflicting injuries that generally prove fatal. This habit, confined at first to only a few of the more enterprising birds, soon became general, and it is a common thing now for whole parties of them to combine in this novel hunt after live mutton ! So destructive, indeed, have they become on some of the sheep-runs, that the aid of Parliament has been invoked to abate the nuisance by offering a subsidy to Kea-hunters. Before the full development of the i-aptorial habit described above, the penchant for raw flesh exhibited by this Parrot in its wild state was very remarkable. Those that frequented the sheep stations soon manifested a distaste for all other food and lived almost exclusively on flesh. They took possession of sheep's heads that were thrown out from the slaughter-shed, and picked them perfectly clean, leaving nothing but the bones. An eye-witness thus described this operation: — "Perching itself on the sheep's head, or other offal, the bird proceeds to tear oft' the skin and flesh, devouring it piecemeal, after the manner of a Hawk, or at other times holding the object down with one foot, and with the other grasping the portion it was eating, after the ordinary fashion of Parrots." In these Parrots the tongue is furnished with a kind of brush, and the culmen is smooth and not grooved along the middle. The Lories are birda of brilliant plumage, and since Count Salvadori s review of the family in the "Catalogue of Birds," Professor St. The Lories.— George Mivart has published a monograph of the Family Loi-itdcs, Loriidce, beautifully illustrated by Keulemans. Following Salvadori's arrangement, Professor Mivart recognises fourteen genera of Lories, which are strongly represented in the Moluccan sub-region, and extend west to Celebes, and eastwards to the Australian and Pacific sub- regions. Although many of the Lories are well known as cage-birds, and the species are well represented in most museums, it is extraordinary that so little information is forthcoming as to their habits. Of several genera, 328 A FES— ORDER PS ITT A CI TOR MRS. Euch as Cludcopsittacns, Eos, and others, scarcely anything is known, and we have only been able to gather the following scanty notes from Professor Mivart's "Monograph" to give us some idea of the habits of the Lonidce. Of Eos rnhi'iinosa, from the Caroline Islands, Dr. Otto Finsch observes : — " This Parr.tkeet makes itself known by its con':inued noise, uttered both on the wing and when resting in the foliage of high trees. It is not at all a shy bird, approaching fearlessly the neighbourhood of houses and plundering the fruit trees, notwithstanding all the means taken to destroy them. They keep mostly in pairs, or in small companies of from three to five ; and often, when I had shot one of a flock, the remainder would come down to their dying comrade and share the same fate." Of the Green-tailed Lory of the Solomon Islands (Lorius chlorocercus), an account is given, by Mr. James Marler, of a pair of young birds ; — "For a long time we apprehended that they would starve rather than go to the ground for their food ; so I hit on the device of hanging it ito the wire swinging loose in the cage. To this they instantly resorted, holding it steady with one foot, and tearing it with their bills. They hang and feed in any position, holding sometimes by one foot and twisting round in every direction. Often in their play, or battles, they would simultaneously grasp claws and struggle to upset each other." In the Pacific we find the genus Vinia con- fined to the Navigator's Islands and the Friendly and Fanning groups. Dr. Streets gives an account of the way in which Kuhl's Lory (Ffun; kuhli) is taken on Washington Island : — " When the islander wishes to take the Lories alive, he provides himself with two pieces of bamboo, each about a yard long. On the end of one he perches a tame bird, and from the extremity of the other suspends a short ruaning noose made of coc^a-nut fibres. The decoy bird, as it is carried about among the cocoa-nut trees, utters a harsh, rasping sound, and the wild birds fly down from the trees and alight alongside it on the bamboo-stick, when, by means of the other stick, they are skilfully noosed. When caged aboard ship, they exhibited as pretty a picture of love as one can imagine. They sat billing and smoothing each o!;her's feathers for hours, and as night came on, two would get together, and sleep with their heads tutrned towards each other. They lived in confinement but a very short time, and bore it badly. At times, even while we stood watching their lively antics, one would tumble off" its perch and die, apparently in con- vulsions." The most numerously represented genus of the Loriidce is Trichoglossus, which is distributed over the greater part of the Australian Region, and the Papuan sub-region also presents us with a group of small pointed-tailed Lories, such as Hypocharinosyna and Oreopsittacus, some of which are not much larger than a sparrow. Count Silvadori's next family, the QiidopsiUacidce, contains only two genera, Neopisttacns and CydopsiUacus, from Papuasia and the Molucca I lands, as well as Australia, The bill is deeper than in the other two families noticed above, and the size of the birds is small. - In this family the under mandible has a series of ridges producing a file-like surface. . They embrace at once the largest and the smallest of the Parrots, among the former being the Cockatoos, of which the Great The Cockatoos. - Blick Cockatoo (Microglossus aterrimns) is an immensely Tamily Ctira/mdce. powerful bird, while the members of the genus Nasitcrna do not possess the bulk of a sparrow. The White Cockatoos are generally seen in this country in a state of captivity, but they form an interesting feature of wild Australian bird-life, as may be seen from COCKATOOS— PIGMY PARROTS. 329 the following note given by Gould: — "The crops and stomacha of those killed were very muscular, and contained seeds, grain, native bread (a species of fungus), small tuberous and bulbous roots, and in most instances large stones. As may be readily imagined, this bird is not regarded with favour by the agriculturist, in whose fields of newly-sown grain and ripening maize it commits the greatest devastation ; it is consequently hunted and shot down wherever it is found, a circumstance which tends much to lessen its numbers. It evinces a decided preference for the open plains and cleared lands, rather than for the dense brushes near the coast ; and, except when feeding or reposing on the trees after a repast, the presence of a flock, which sometimes amounts to thousands, is certain to be indicated by their screaming notes, the discordance of which may be easily conceived by those who have heard the peculiarly loud, piercing, grating scream of the bird in captivity, always remembering the immense increase of din occasioned by the large number of birds emitting their harsh notes at the same moment ; still, I considered this annoyance amply compensated for by their sprightly actions and the life their snowy forms imparted to the dense and never-varying green of the Australian forest — a feeling participated in by Sir Thomas Mitchell, who says, ' amidst the umbrageous foliage, forming dense masses of shade, the White Cockatoos sported like spirits of light.' The situations chosen for the purpose of nidification vary with the nature of the locality the bird inhabits ; the eggs are usually deposited in the holes of trees, but they are also placed in fissures in rocks wherever they may present a convenient site ; the crevices of the white clift's bordering the Murray in South Australia, are annually resorted to for this purpose by thousands of this bird, and are said to be completely honeycombed by them. The eggs are two in number, of a pure white and rather pointed at the smaller end." This family comprises the majority of the species of the order Psittaci- formes. They differ principally from the Caccduida in having the orbital ring generally incomplete, while the head is not crested as in the Cockatoos and their allies. These are small The True distinctions, and, as Count Salvadori has pointed out, the Parrots.— Family two families above named can scarcely be separated. In Psittacidce. the family Psiitacirffc are comprised all the Macaws {Ara), the Conures {Gonurus), the Amazons {Chrysotis), the Long-tailed Parrakeets (Palceorms, Platijcercus, etc.), as well as the true Parrots (Psittacus). Numerous other genera, including the Love-Birds (P^ittacula, Agajwrnis, etc.), likewise belong to this section, and one of the most curious of all is the genus Nasiterna. It consists of some little birds, less than a sparrow in size, inhabiting New Guinea and the neighbouring groups of islands. Their small size renders them difficult of observation, and little has been recorded of their habits. Baron von Rosenberg found the Pigmy Parrot of Mafoor Island in Geelvink Bay {N. viaforensis) nesting in holes of trees, the eggs being white, and not larger than those of the Bottle-Tit of Europe. Of the Pigmy Parrot of New Guinea {N. pygmcea) Dr. Meyer writes : — "I got this bird only near the foot of the Arfak Mountains, in New Guinea, where, at Andai, I procured specimens in the middle of the day. There this lovely little Parrot was sleeping on the lower branches of the trees, and could be whipped off with a stick. This is also the case with other Parrots which are allied to the Cacatua group. I may mention Gydopsitta lumdata, from the Philippine Islands, the individuals of which species sleep in the middle of the hot tropical day in rows under the shade of the foliage, when one after 3;o ./ VES— ORDER PSITTACIFORMES. another can be shot down without the survivors attempting to fly away. It may be imagined how soundly they sleep when the noise of the shot does not disturb them ; and it is the same with NasUerna. At other times of the day it is difficult to procure, as it lives in the high trees, where its small size and green plumage form a sufficient protection." Space does not permit of a full discussion of the habits and ways of all the Parrots, which are, after all, very similar ; but, as the Grey Parrot is a typical x'epresentative of the family Psittacidcc, I give a few extracts from the account published by Mr. J. G. Keulemans, who studied the habits of the species in Prince's Island, in the Bight of Benin. In this West African island the Grey Parrot is very common, and does a great deal of mischief to the maize fields. The birds resort in great numbers to certain parts of the forest to roost. Although he ultimately discovered the nesting-place of the Parrots, it was not easy to find the actual nests, though the cries of the birds convinced him that hundreds were con- cealed in the dense foliage around him. His servant at last found a nest, but as darkness was coming on fast, the tree was marked for operations on the following morning. "While thus occupied," says Mr. Keulemans, "troops of Parrots approached from different sides and settled among the trees. As for ourselves, we found capital shelter under a clump of bushes, where we concealed ourselves, and thence we observed the doings of the Parrots around us. Some were climbing and hanging on branches, others flying and scampering through the foliage. We saw them perching close to each other, and afterwards five or six settled just above our shelter. Numbers came from all sides, and the chattering which we had previously heard at the distance was by this time close to us. There was a noise of whistling, screaming, quarrelling, and the breaking of dead branches. We saw them pass before us and settle on the trees. At this time we must have been surrounded by hundreds of Parrots. Being now almost dark, and having to pass the , night in the open air, it was time to take steps to make our sojourn in the forest as comfortable as possible. A fire being the first necessity, we left our shelter in order to gather some of the dead palm-leaves that lay about. As we emerged from our covert the Parrots perceived us, and in a moment the whole place was ringing with their deafening screams. The fire was soon made, and, burning up quickly, it cast a cheerful light and warmth around the spot, rendering our bivouac more agreeable ; and the Parrots, attracted by the unusual sight, kept flying over and around the place thus illuminated. An hour afterwards, quiet being restored, we proceeded to get our supper, consisting of roasted bananas. This being finished, we dried some moss to serve for a bed, and retired ; but the night was so cold, and the mosquitos kept stinging my face so pertinaciously, that it was impossible to sleep, so I got up and roasted some more bananas, smoked a pipe, and then felt quite ready to go in pursuit of the birds. As it wanted Fig. 67.— The Grit Pa rrot {Pti.tacus erithactis). €REy PAKKOJ'S-CKOUN'D PAJ^ROTS. 331 some three hours to daylight, I occupied myself in preparing lime sticks and making snares. On the appearance of the first streak of dawn, we proceeded to the tree where a nest was suspected to be. My black man, being a capital climber, went up to the hole, and looking in found two young Parrots, which he carefully tied up in a pocket handkerchief and lowered down to me ; the little things seemed to be about a fortnight old, and readily took some banana I ofTered them. The old birds were absent, probably seeking food ; at least, we did not see them. The two young ones we fastened with string to the trunk of the tree, and placed some lime sticks round about them. In this way we caught one of the parent birds, the securing of which was a matter of some difficulty, owing to the resistance it made. We put the freshly caught old bird in a linen bag, and fastened it beside the young ones. In a few minutes our captive began to turn round and round, at the same time screaming vociferously; this quickly attracted the attention of the Parrots in the neighbourhood, which came near, gazing with astonishment at the bag which contained their mysteriously hidden comrade. One, more bold than the rest, flew down and settled on a limed stick, but its struggles were BO violent that it succeeded in getting away. I then took my gun and shot two individuals, the others immediately taking flight." The last genera of the Fsiftacidic are the Ground Parrots {Pezoporus and Gcopsittacus) of Australia, and these lead us to the remarkable Kakapo or Owl-Parrot of New Zealand. This is a large bird, of The Owl-Parrot.— green, moss-like plumage, which is remarkable for having ,Stri>/(/ops fully developed wings, but which, like other New habroptilus. Zealand birds, is incapable of flight. This is shown by the sternum of the bird, which has become so reduced that a keel no longer exists, and the bird can no longer fly. Of the habits of this curious Parrot, Sir Walter BuUer, the historian of New Zealand birds, writes as follows :— " During the day it remains hid in holes under the roots of trees or rocks, or, very rarely, perched on the boughs of trees with a very dense, thick foliage. At these times it appears stupid from its profound sleep, and if disturbed or taken from its hole, immediately runs and tries to hide itself again, delighting, if practicable, to cover itself in a heap cf soft, dry grass. About sunset it becomes lively and animated, and playfully issues forth from its retreat, and feeds on grass, weeds, vegetables, fruits, seeds, and roots. When eating grass it rather grazes than feeds, nibbling the grass in the manner of a rabbit or wombat. It sometimes climbs trees, but generally remains upon the ground, and only uses its short wings for the purpose of aiding its progress when running, balancing itself when on a tree, or in making a short descent, half jump, half flight, from a higher to a lower bough. When feeding, if pleased with its food, it makes a con- tinued grunting noise. It is a greedy bird, and choice in its food, showing an evident relish for anything of which it is fond. It cries repeatedly during the night, with a noise not very unlike that of the Kaka (Nestor meridional is) , but not so loud. The Kakapo is a very clever and intelligent bird ; in fact, singularly so ; it contracts a strong affection for those who are kind to it, shows its affection by climbing about and rubbing itself against its friend, and is eminently a social and playful bird. Indeed, were it not for its dirty habits it would make a far better pet than other bird with which I am acquainted, for its manner of showing its attachment by playfulness and fondling is more like that of a dog than a bird. It builds in holes under trees and rocks, and lays two or three white eggs, about the size of a pullet's, in the month of 332 A J 'ES— ORDER CORA C //FORMES. The Picarian Birds. — Order Coracii formes. February, and the young birds are found in March. At present (iSS-i) the bird is known only to exist in the Middle Island of New Zealand, on the West Coast, between Chalky Harbour and Jackson's Bay, and in the Northern Island, about the sources of the Waganui, and in part of the Taupo countries. It was, within the recollection of the old people, abundant in every part of New Zealand ; and they say it has been exterminated by the cats introduced by the Europeans, which are now found wild and in great numbers in every part of the country. They say also that the large rat introduced from Europe has done its part in the work of destruction. The natives assert that, when the breeding season is over, the Kakapo lives in societies of five or six in the same hole, that it is a provident bird, and lays up in the fine season a store of fern roots for the bad weather." This large order contains a number of sub-orders, which will be treated of below in detail. They are very different in outward form from each other as well as in habits and in structure, but they have one striking character in common, which separates them from the Perching birds or Passeriformes, and that is the arrangement of the deep plantar tendons of the foot. In the Picarian birds the hallux or hind toe is connected with the Jlexor perforans digitorum and not with the Jlexor lo7igus hallucis. In all other birds an exactly opposite arrangement takes place. These curious birds cannot be reckoned to be Nightjars, although they have the outward appearance of being members of the latter group. Their habits are crepuscular like those of the Caprimulgidce, but there are many characters which show that they are not true Nightjars, but constitute a sub-order apart. They lay white eggs, which no Nightjar ever does, the sternum has two notches on its hinder margin, and there are other osteological features which distinguish the Oil-Bird. The colour of this singular species is reddish brown inclining to chestnut, with small triangular white spots on the head and neck, and cross-barrings of blackish on most of the upper parts, and white spots on the median wing- coverts ; the under surface is pale chestnut, sufi"used with greyish. The Oil-Bird {Steatornis gariepensis), or Guacharo, as it is usually called, i? an inhabitant of South America, from Guiana to Venezuela and Co ombia, and thence south to Ecuador and Peru. The best account of the habits of this curious bird is that given by Mr. Jean Stolzmann, the celebrated explorer of Northern Peru. He states that the Guacharo passes "the whole lay in the caves, hiding itself in the inaccessible ledges, and if startled by a cry or by a shot they make for the roof of the cave, uttering piercing cries. A pro- miscuous discharge among the flying birds is usually attended with no result, as it is impossible to take aim in the darkness, and out of sixty shots which he fired in the Ninabamba grotto, the result was only eleven birds. After they become tired they return to their holes, one by one, and it is afterwards im- possible to make them budge by any noise whatever. Scarcely has twilight The Oil-Birds. — Sub-order Stoatornithes. Fill. 63.— TiiR OlL-Bi?D {Steatornis cariepcnsis). OIL-BIRDS— FR G- MO Ul IIS. set in, and while still the west is lit up by the setting sun, the Guacharos come out of their caves and Hy over the forests at a considerable height, their move- ments being very much like those of Nightjars, but they never utter any note. They feed later on in the darkness on the fruits of Nectandra trees, and those fruits they seize while in full flight." The stones of the fruit are afterwards rejected, and Dr. Bevan Rake found large quantities of such stones on the floor of the caves in Trinidad, which ho visited in order to procure some nests and young birds. The eggs are two in number, as a rule, but three and even four have been found ; as before recorded, they are white. The nest is a round pile, about a foot in height, and a little more in diameter, looking like a mass of grey clay in the form of a cheese, and when the young are about a fortnight old, they become very fat, so much so that the birds appear as if entirely hidden under a thick layer of yellow grease. It is from this peculiar development of its young that the Guacharo gets its name of " Oil-Bird." The Indians are in the habit of visiting the caves at the time when the young are sufticiently grown, and of killing the latter by hundreds, melting down the fat into earthern jars, and this fat is known by the name of guacharo-butter. Stolzmann says that the rote of the Guacharo is very disagreeable, being a loud cri-crl-coori / These th'ck-headed birds, with their soft owl-like plumage, might well pass for relations of the Striges, and, like the latter birds, they are strictly nocturnal in their habits. They are oriental in habitat, being found only in the Indian and Australian regions. The Frog-Mouths. The pilate is desmognathous or bridged, and the absence — Sub-order, of any pectination or comb-like process on the claw of the Fvdaryi. middle 'Me, shows that they are not very closely allied to the Nightjars, notwithstanding their external resemblance. The Podarqi contain but one family, with two sub-families, Podarginve and jpflgothehrm . In the first-named powder-down patches are present, and the nostrils are linear and hidden by bristles, while in the jSJJgothelince there are no powder-downs, and the nostrils are open and exposed. The sub-family Podargimn contains but two genera, Podargns and Bcdrachostomus. The Frog-mouths are birds of mottled plumage, the genus Podargus being confined to Australia and the Papuan Islands. Of the habits of the Tawny- shouldered Frog-mouth {Podargus strigoides), Gould gives the following account : — " Like the rest of the genus, this species is strictly nocturnal, sleeping throughout the day on the dead branch of a tree, in an upright position across, and never parallel to, the branch, which it so nearly resembles as scarcely to be distinguishable from it. I have occasionally seen it beneath the thick foliage of the Camarince, JZj',,-;^"Aj,Tol\. and 1 have been informed that it sometimes shelters {Podargus itriyoxdes). itself in the hollow trunks of the Evcalyptiy but I never could detect one in such a situation. I mostly found them in pairs, perched near each other on the branches of the gums, in situations not at all sheltered from the beams of the mid-day sun. So lethargic are its 334 AVESSUEORDER PODARGL slumbei's that it is almost impossible to arouse it, and I have frequently shot one without disturbing its mate sitting close by ; it may also bo knocked off by sticks or stones, and sometimes is even taken with the hand. When aroused, it flies lazily off with heavy flapping winga to a neighbouring tree, and again resumes its slumbers until the approach of evening, when it becomes as animated and active as it had been previously dull and stupid. The stomach of one I dissected induced me to believe that it does not usually capture its prey while on the wing, or subsist upon nocturnal insects alone, but that it is in the habit of creeping among the branches in search of such as are in a state of repose. The power it possesses of shifting the position of the outer toe backwards, as circumstances require, is a very singular feature, and may also tend to assist it in its progress among the branches. A bird I shot at Yarrundi, in the middle of the night, had the stomach filled witli fresh-captured mantis and locusts (Phasmidce and Cicadct;), which seldom move at night, and the latter of which are generally resting against upright holes of the trees. In other sj^ecimens I found the remains of small coleoptera, intermingled with the fibres of the roots of what appeared to be a parasitic plant, such as would be found in decayed and hollow trees. The whole contour of the bird shows that it is not formed for extensive flight or for performing those rapid evolutions that are necessary for the capture of its prey in the air, the wing being short and concave in comparison with those of the true aerial Night- jars, and particularly with the Australian form to which I have given the name Enrostopodus. Of its mode of nidification I can speak with confidence, having seen many pairs breeding during my rambles in the woods. It makes a slightly-constructed flat nest of sticks carelessly interwoven together, and placed at the fork of a horizontal branch of sufficient size to ensure its safety ; the trees most frequently are the Eucalypti, but I have occasionally seen the nest on an apple-tree {Anguphora) or a swamp-oak (Casuarina). In every instance one of the birds was sitting on the eggs and the other perched on a neighbouring bough, both invariably asleep ; that the male participates in the duty of incubation I ascertained by having shot a bird on the nest, which, on dissection, proved to be a male. The eggs are generally two in number, of a beautiful immaculate white. The night-call of this species is a loud hoarse noise, consisting of two distinct sounds which cannot be correctly described." The Frog-mouths of the genus Batracliostomus are smaller birds, as a rule, than the Fudargi, and inhabit the Indo- Malayan region. Some, like the Eared Frog-mouth of the Malay Peninsula, have long ear-tufts, and many of them have the mouth beset with long bristly hairs. The Owlet-Nightjars (uTlgotheles) are the sole representatives of the sub-family JSgothelince. They inhabit Australia and the Papuan Islands and the Moluccas. Gould describes the Australian species as being somewhat Owl-like in their carriage and in the way in which they turn their head round. They live in the holes of trees, and come out at night in pursuit of insects, flying in a straight line, and not turning and twisting about like Nightjars. They dift'er from the latter birds, also, in their method of sitting across, and not lengthwise, on a branch. These curious birds form a kind of connecting link between the Rollers and the Frog-mouths, but they really constitute one of those peculiar forma in which Madagascar abounds. The bill is something like that of a Roller, but the base is bidden by recurved plumes, while the nostril is linear, and KIRO ( -MHOS—ROrJ. ERS. 335 The Kiroumbos. — Sub-Order Leptosomati. is jjluceil in the middle of the upper mandible, a qiiite peculiar p jsilijii fur that of a Picarian bird. The fourth toe is partly reversible, a character peculiar to the Climbing Birds. The ailinity with the Frog-mouths is remote, but is shown by the I)03session of powder-down patches. The sexes differ in plumage, the male being glossy green above aud grey below, while the female is rufous above, with a black head, and bars on the sides of the head and back of the neck, the under-surface being fawn colour. Like tlie Rollers, the Kiroumbo has a habit of playing in the air, ascending to a great height, and then descending in a curve nearly to the tops of the trees by almost closing its wings, at the same time uttering a whistle so like that of an eagle, that Sir Edward Newton says he was some time before he could satisfy himself that the note was that of the Kiroumbo. In these beautiful birds we find a single family, only known from the Old World, but there almost universally distributed. The palace is " desmog- nathous," or bridged, and the soles of the feet are flit, the toes being united together for nearly their entire The Rollers.— length. In Madagascar three forms of Ground-Rollers Sub-order '"c/^vfrkf. occur, constituting the sub-family B)-acliy2)terac{ina', and remarkable for their long legs. Little is known of their habits ; but the Pitta like Ground-Roller {Atclornis })ltloid€fi) is known to frequent the ground, and only to perch on the lowest branches of the trees. They have a direct and straight flight, and jerk their tails in a curious way whenever they alight on a branch. The true Rollers, of which the Common Roller (Coraclas cjarndva) is the type, consist of two genera, Coracias and Eurystomus, forming the sub- family Coraciiiue. These are birds of bright colours, and are more arboreal in habit than the Mascarene Rollers of the sub-family Bracliiipteraciina'. Not being ground-runners, we find the metatarsus much shorter in Coracias than in the last- mentioned birds. The Rollers build in holes of trees, laying white eggs, but not making much nest, the latter consisting of a few roots, straws, or feathers. Both sexes incubate, and during the breeding- season the male ascends to a considerable height in the air, and then descends to where the nest is situated by a series of somersaults and jerks, uttering a harsh note, which Naumann describes as 'Tah-rahah-rriih-rra," etc., changing to " rock " as the bird throws a somersault. The genus Coracias has a longish bill, not unlike that of a crow, and nearly all the species have bright greenish-blue on the wings and tail, which colour is very conspicuous when the birds are flying. They are found in Europe, thence to Central Asia, throughout Africa, India, and the Burmese provinces, reappearing in Celebes, where one species, C. teynmincki, occurs. The Broad-billed Rollers (Euriistomns) occur in Africa, India, Australia, and one species, E. caloiiyx, actually goes to Eastern Siberia during tHe nesting season. Fig. 70.— The Common-Roller {Coracijs garrulus). 336 AVES—SCB-ORDER HALCYONES. The Kingfishers agree with the Rollers in most of their anatomical characters, having a desmognathous, or "bridged,' palate, and the hallux connected with the Jiexor perforatis digitorum The Kingfishers, — tendon ; but they differ from them in having the spinal Sub-order feather-tract not forked on the back, and in other Malajones. characters. The eggs are white, and are always con- cealed in the hole of a tree or bank, no nest being made. Kingfishers may bo divided into two sub-families, Alcedinince and DacdonincR. The former contain the " fishers," and the latter the omnivorous feeders, whose food consists of Crustacea, insects, reptiles, etc. In these birds the bill is long and slender, much compressed, and with an evident keel along the culmen. There are five genera comprised in this sub- family, of which the genus Alcedo, which contains our The Fish-Eating Common Kingfisher, is the type. There are, however, Kingfishers.— Eub- two long-tailed genera of fish-eating species, the Pied and family Alct'dimnce. Green Kingfishers [Ceryle) and the Stork-billed King- fishers [Pelargopsis), which have the tail longer than the wing. The three other genera, Alcedo, Corythornis, and Alcyone, have short tails, in no case as long as the wings. The Stork-billed Kingfishers (Pelargopsis) are large birds with long red or black bills, and they are inhabitants of the Indian and Indo-Malayan sub- regions. They are mainly piscivorous, but Mr. Stuart Baker records that in Cachar he has known the species of the country (P. hurmanica), to devour lizards and other small reptiles, while he once saw one attack a nest of young Mynas in a hole of a tree, and drag one of them out and swallow it. The genus Ceryle is remarkable among the Kingfishers for the difference in the markings of the sexes, the male in some species having a double pectoral band, whilst in others the contrary is the case, and the The Pied King- males or the females have a band, while the opposite sex fishers— has none at all. The Pied Kingfishers are inhabitants of Genus Ceryle. Africa, India, China, and Japan, and the best-known species is Ceryle rudls of Africa, over the whole of which continent it is distributed, while it ranges east as far as the Persian Gulf. The colour above is black, varied with white, and the under-surface is white, with two black bands across the chest in the male, and a single band in the female. It is a familiar bird to travellers in the Nile Valley, as it hovers above the water like a Kestrel, and falls on its prey with a stoop like that of the latter bird. In India and China it is replaced by the Indian Pied King- fisher (Ceryle varia), which has no black spots on the white base of the tail. In the Himalayas and the mountains of China, as far as those of the southern island of Japan, the Pied Kingfishers are represented by Ceryle lugubris, a large species with the hovering habits of 0. rudis, and equally a fish-eater. In Africa there are also some large species of Ceryle, with grey backs, and in America a similar section of the genus is met with, of which the Ringed Kingfisher (Ceryle torquata), and the Belted Kingfisher (G. alcyon), are well- known representatives. The latter species has a pectoral band of grey in the male, while the female has an additional band of rufous. In the rest of the- South American species of Ceryle the back is green, and in this section occurs one of the smallest of all Kingfishers, C. superciliosa, which is only 5 inches in length. The genus Alcedo is found over the greater part of the Old World, and eleven species are known, of which Africa claims three, Europe and KINGFISHERS. 337 "1 —Tub Common KiNdFlSHER (^Alcedo ispida). Northern Asia one, and the remaining seven are Indian and Malayan. Our Common Kingfisher (A. iap'uhi), is the brightest of our indigenous birds, and forms the most beautiful ornament of our rivers and lakes. It is 7 3, inches in length, with a chest- nut under-surface and a brilliant cobalt-blue back, which shows vividly when the bird flies. It nests in holes, mostly in banks of sandy soil, where the tunnel is hollowed by the birds themselves, or in holes of trees, sometimes at a considerable distance from water. In Africa and Madagascar occur the Crested King- fishers (CurytJioniis), small birds with a hnig drooping crest, and in Australia and the Moluccas, the three-toed Kingfishers (Alc[io)ic), which have the shape and fish- catching habits of our own A. {.■ipida, but are of a dull purple colour, and have only three toes instead of four, the hind-toe being absent. In this sub-f;iniily the bill is shorter and wider, the tail generally long, and the food of the species consists less of fish than of insects, fimall Crustacea, reptiles, and even small rodents. The first genus is Ceyx, a small form of Kingfisher which frequents forests rather than streams. The members of this genus have a wider and less compressed bill than those of Alcijoiic, but like the latter genus they have only three toes. They are found in India and the INIalayan sub- region, being very abundant in the Philippines and exteiidingto the TMoIuccas. They are mostly bright-coloured birds, some being of a beautiful red all over, whilst others have a blue back and resemble species of the genus Akedo. In Africa they are represented by a genus of tiny Kingfishers (Ispidina) which are also insect-eaters, as are also the allied genera Ceycopsis of Celebes and Myioceyx of Western Africa. From these small forms we pass to the Reptili- vorous Kingfishers, the Crested Kingfishers of IMalacca and Borneo {Carcineutes), the Hook- billed Kingfisher {Melklora), and Shoe-billed Kingfisher (Clytoceyx) of New Guiana, and the Laughing Jackasses of Australia (Llacelo). Of the common Laughing Kingfisher, the "Jack- ass " of the Australian colonists, we have the following account of Mr. Gould's: — '"In its disposition it is by no means shy, and when any objects are presented to its notice, such as a party traversing the bush or pitching their tent in the vicinity of its retreat, it becomes very prying and inquisi*^ive, often perching on the dead branch of some neighbouring tree, and watching with curiosity the kindling of the fire and the jireparation of the meal; its presence, however, is seldom detected until it emits its extraordinary gurgling, laughing note, which generally calls forth some exclama- tion according with the temper of the hearer, such as ' There is our old y The InsectivoroQs Kingfi hers. — Sub-family JjiaT/oinnee. Fig. 72. — Til". LAroiiiM FISHER (Dacelo ingas). 338 AVES-SUB-ORDER HALCYONES. friend the Laughing Jackass,' or an epithet of a less friendly char- acter. So remarkable are the sounds emitted by the bird that they have been noted by nearly every writer on New South Wales and its productions. Mr. Caley states that its ' loud noise, somewhat like laughing, may be heard at a considerable distance, from which circumstance, and its uncouth appearance, it probably received the extraordinary appellation given to it by the settlers on their first arrival in the colony.' Captain Sturt says, ' Its cry, which resembles a chorus of wild spirits, is apt to startle the traveller who may be in jeopardy, as if laughing and mocking at his misfortune;' and Mr. Bennett, in his 'Wanderings,' says, 'Its peculiar gurgling laugh, commencing in a low, and gradually rising to a high and loud tone, is often heard in all parts of the colony, the deafening noise being poured forth while the bird remains perched upon a neighbouring tree ; it rises with the dawn, when the woods re-echo with its gurgling laugh ; at sunset it is again heard ; and as that glorious orb sinks in the west, a last "good-night" is given in its peculiar tones to all within hearing.' It frequents every variety of situation — the luxuriant brushes along the coast, the more thinly-timbered forest, the belts of trees studding the parched plains, and the brushes of the higher ranges being alike favoured with its presence ; over all these localities it is rather thinly dispersed, being nowhere very numerous. Its food, which is of a mixed character, consists exclusively of animal substances ; reptiles, insects, and crabs, however, appear to be its favourite diet ; it devours lizards with avidity, and it is not an unfrequent sight to see it bearing off a snake in its bill to be eaten at leisure ; it also preys upon small mammalia. I recollect shooting a Great Brown Kingfisher in South Australia in order to secure a fine rat I saw hanging from its bill, and which proved to be a rare species. The Dacelo gigns breeds during the months of August and September, generally selects a hole in a large gum- tree for the purpose, and deposits its beautiful pearl-white egg^, which are one inch and nine lines long by one inch and five lines broad, on the decomposed wood at the bottom. When the young are hatched, it defends its breeding- place with great courage and daring, darting down upon any intruder who may attempt to ascend the tree." The large genus Halcyon contains more than fifty species, which are found over Africa, India, and China, to .Japan, and thence south to Australia, and over the greater number of the Pacific Islands. They are mostly insect- eaters, and are often found far away from water. The last genus of the Kingfishers is Taiiysiptera, which includes some elegant ])ird3 with only ten tail-feathers, the middle ones being produced beyond the others, and generally ending in a spatula or racket. These are birds of the Moluccas and the Papuan Islands, one species, T. sglvia, being found in the Cape York Peninsula of North-Eastern Australia. On the habits of this species a short notice has been published by the late John Macgiilivray, the original discoverer of the species : — "This pretty Tanysiptera is rather plentiful in the neighbourhood of Cape York, where it frequents the dense brushes, and is especially fond of resorting to the small sunny openings in the woods, attracted probably by the greater abundance of insect food found in such places than elsewhere. I never saw it on the ground, and usually was first made aware of its presence by the glancing of its bright colours as it darted past with a rapid, arrow-like flight, and disappeared in an instant among the dense foliage. Its cry, which may be represented by ichce-icliee-xdiee and A-/.V(;/'7S//EA'S—//0A\V/i/L/,S. 339 The Hornbills. Sub-order Jlxccrufes. icheet-ii'heet-wlieet, is usually uttered while the bird is perchM on a bare, transverse branch or woody, rope-like climber, which it uses as a look-out station, and whence it makes short dashes at any i)a3sing insect or small lizard, generally returning to the same spot. It is a shy, suspicious bird, and one well calculated to try the patience of the shooter, who may follow it in a small brush for an hour without getting a shot, unless he has as keen an eye as the native to whom I was indebted for first pointing it out to me. According to the natives, who know it by the name of 'Quatiiwur,' it lays three white eggs in a hole dug by itself in one of the large ant-hills of red clay which form so remarkable a feature in the neighbourhood, some of them being as much as 10 ft. in height, with numerous buttresses and pinnacles. I believe that the bird also inhabits New Guinea; for at Redscar Bay, on the south-east side of that great island, in Long. 146° 50' E., a head, strung upon a necklace, was procured from the natives." We now know that the New Guinea bird is dis^tinct, and is T. salcddoriaiui. The Hornbills are remarkable birds, not only on account of their form, but from the singular habit which every one of the species affects, so far as we know, of imprisoning the f^jmale while she is engaged in incubating. The Hornbills vary immensely in size, from the great Rhinoceros Hornbill (Bitcerns rhinoceros), which is nearly 4 ft. long, to the tiny Lophocerus hartlanbi which is only just over a foot in length. The Ground-Hornbills (Bucorax) are natives of Africa, where they are generally distributed in the Ethiopian region. They are thoroughly terrestrial birds, of black plumage, with a little red or blue decoration on the bill, or the bare portion of the throat. Walking about on the ground, they have the appearance of black Turkeys, and are considered "omen "-birds among the Kaflirs. They will devour almost any food, and eat numbers of beetles, worms, small rodents, etc., and they also kill large snakes, against which they generally advance in company, holding their wings before them like a shield. The Great Uornhm (Dirhocernshicornis) is a native of the W^estern Ghauts of India and the Himalayas, and thence through the Burmese Provinces to the Malayan Peninsula to the mountains of Sumatra. The Pied Hornbills (Anthracoceras) are found in India and the Burmese Provinces to Cochin China, and south to the Malayan Peninsula to the Sunda Inlands. These birds are generally found in family parties, consisting of five or six individuals. They inhabit well-wooded countries and furests, especially near rivers, where they have been known to feed on fish. Their chief food, however, consists of fruits and berries. The habits of the Hornbills seem to be alike in their method of nidification, but in some species the act of enclosing the female is performed by the male, whereas in some instances the female assists in her own imprisonment. Some explanation for this curious custom may be found in the circumstance that when the female has laid her egg in the hollow tree, she commences to moult, and would therefore be entirely defenceless Fig, 73. —Tub Malabar Pied HORN'niLL {AnthraCi,cerus coronatus). 340 A VES—SUB-ORDER I'Jn'R.E. and at the mercy of her enemies, if she were not fenced in, and in tlie closing of the fortress she herself assists. A narrow opening is Itft, through which the male is able to supply her with food. At first sight there would appear to be little connection between the Hornbills and the Hoopoes, but in our brief account of the Biicerutes we were unable to illustrate all the smaller genera such as The Hoopoe?. — Luphocerus, Ocycerus, etc., which are much more like the Sub-order I'pKpce. Crested Hoopoes than the larger forms of Hurnbills. Like the latter birds, the Hoopoes have the fore- part of the sternum perforated, so as to receive the feet of the metacoracjids. There are two families of Upnpce, the true Hoopoes (l/jjupiche), and the Wood-Hoopoes"" (/r/-i,sori(f«'). The former are sandy-colouied birds, with a large crest and a square tail. The latter are black with a metallic blue or bronze gloss, and a long graduated tail. The Hoopoe is an inhabitant of temperate Europe and Asia, being represented in certain portions of the Indian renmsula and the Burmese provinces by the Indian Hoopoe {U. i)uli(:a). Two other species are found in Africa only, and ^, which has a scjuare tail, is represented by two species, N. atlitrtoni, of the Himalayas, with a blue throat, and JSf. amlda, of the Malayan Peninsula, with a scarlet throat. These bii-ds are of stouter build than the rest of the bee-eaters, and are bslieved to nest in holes of trees. Tlie motmots are exclusively neo-tropical in habitat, and contain but a single family, the Momotido'. They represent to a great extent the Mero- phhc of the Old VVorld. The ])al- ate is desmognathous or "bridged," the sternum has four 2:)osterior notches, and the hind-toe or hal- lux is always present, and is con- nected with the flexor perfordns dUjitoriDii tendon. Seven genera are recognised, UrospatlKt, Prioni- /•/(.»/it(7(i',s, Einiwinota, Momotiis, BarijphtJiengus, As- pidJia, and HijlunKines, the last being dwarf motmots, and akin to the todies (Tudi). One of the chief features f)f the motmots is the long tail, Hylomanes being the only genus with a short tail. In most of the true motmots the central tail-feathers are elongated, and generally end in a racket, which is preceded by a bare shaft. This racket is produced by the bird itself, as it nibbles off the web of the feather with its bill, which has a serrated or saw-like edge to the man- dibles. Instances have been recorded of niotniots, probably young and inexperienced birds, imbued with the instinct that they have to trim certain of their tail-feathers, but, as the latter grow at first all of the same length, not knowing on which rectrices to commence action. Consequently they begin to nibl)le feathers to right and left, until the The Motmots. Sub-order 2fomoti. Flij. 71!. — Lesson': 342 AVES— SUB-ORDER TODL development of the two central tail-feathers beyond the rest teaches the birds that these are the two specially designed by nature to carry the " racket " ! The motmots are green birds, generally with a black patch on the crown, which is surrounded by blue ; the under-side is paler, and generally of a fawn-coloured shade. They nest in holes, often tunnelling to a distance of six feet, and the eggs are laid in a rounded chamber at the end of the tunnel, as is the case with the kingtishers and bee-eaters of tlie Old World. With the kingfishers, however, tliere is no nest beyond the remains of the fish-bones which are cast up by the parent birds, whereas in the nest-hole of the motmots a few dry twigs arc sometimes present. The nesting-place, according to Mr. Zeledon, is a foul-smelling habitation, in which the young remain till they are able to fly pretty well. It should be noted that young birds have the edges of the mandibles (piite smooth, and without any serrations. The todies are also represented by a single neo-tropical family, the Todido', which is peculiar to the West Indian sub-region. Only four species are known, and these are from the islands The Todies.— of Jamaica, Cuba, San Domingo, and Sub-order Porto Rico. The long, flattened bill, Todi. with its evident rictal bristles, suggests that of an exaggerated flycatcher, and in many of its habits a tody resembles a flycatcher, though it will at times search for its food like a warbler. The todies have a desmognathous palate, showing their p^^^ T7.— The .Tamak'v time afhnity to the motmots and kingfishers, and they Todv (Todus viridh). nest in holes in banks excavated by the little birds themselves, though they appear likewise to avail themselves of holes and depressions already made. The eggs, like those of other picarian birds, are glossy white, and are laid on a bed of earth in a chamber at the end of the tunnel. This is a very interesting group of l)irds, of which we have one representa- tive in England, the common nightjar, or "goatsucker," as it is often foolishly called, Ckiprimrdgns eni-opceus. In the Caprhnidgi The Nightjars. we meet with both ajgithognathous forms, such as Gapri- Sub-order mnlcjHs and the allied genera, and schizt)gnathous forms, Gapi-imu/iji. such as Ghordeiles of the New World. The presence of two types of palatine characters in one family raises grave doubts as to the value of this formation of the palate, which has been so much in- sisted upon by osteologists. There are eighteen genera of the sub-family Caprimnhji'mi', and they all have the middle toe furnished with a kind of comb. They possess no powder-down patches. Our common nightjar (Ca2)yimnl(jns eiiropanis) is crepuscular in its habits, a bird of the twilight. During the day it rests, and only flies when suddenly disturbed ; but, as du.sk comes on, it comes forth in pursuit of insects, and is often to be seen flying by the light of the moon, soaring above with a sailing flight, and occasionally producing a "clacking" noise by flapping its wings together above its head. The singular jarring noise which the creature makes seems to be its love-song, and in a heathy country, which is the usual habitat of the goatsucker, this " chnrring " utterance is heard as twilight connnences, and even far into the night. From their mottled and soft plumage, the goatsuckers have been generally NIGHTJARS. 343 associated with the owls, but there is no real affinity between these moth- catching birds and tlie rapacious birds of the night. Their nocturnal habits are really the only chaiacter which they have in common. The young goat- suckers difler from those of other picarian birds in the fact that they are not hatched naked, but arc covered with down, though they are not able to pro- vide for themselves like most of the downy nestlings of other birds. The eggs, also, are not white, but are double-spotted, au unusual feature in picarian birds. No caprimulgine bird makes a nest, the eggs being laid upon the bare ground. Africa possesses two curious genera of nightjars, which, in the breeding- season at least, carry ornamental i>lunies. These are Macrodi^yteryx lowji- jioDiis of West Africa, and Cosinctuiiiis rcrillariut^ of South- eastern x\frica. In the former genus, the ninth primary- xhe Leona quill is enormously elongated, and ends in a " I'acket." In Nightjar C()S)netornis, the seventh and eight primaries are elongated, [Macrodiptcryx the ninth enormously, so as to ])roduce a train when the lonrjipennis), bird is Hying. Round Lake Nyassa and on the Zambesi, this l)ird is a well-known object as it flies over the water in the evening. I have received the following note from Miss Alice Werner, whf) was con- nected with the Blantyre Mission. Having read some notes of mine on (Joamctoniis published elsewhere, she connnents on them as fol- lows : - - " I have frecjuently seen the bird — at Blantyre, in Angoniland (i.e. on the Ntumbi plain, about thirty miles west of the Upper Shire), and in the neighbourhood of Mount Milanje. The Manganja call it 'lumbe,' the Angoni ' gumbe.' I see that Sir John Kirk says that it was only from October to January that the singular pro- longation of the wing feathers was observed. " By a note in my diary, I find that I saw one at Blantyre on September 25th. I had seen antither previously to this — perhaps a fortnight before, but, unluckilj', I did not make a note of it, and cannot remember the date — certainhj it was before the 25th of September, and I distinctly remember the long wing feathers on both occasions. Seeing the bird outlined in black against the sky (just after sunset, when the light was not quite gone) I took it for a huge and grotesquely-shaped bat with an exaggerated, claw -like, \iYO- longation at the end of the wing. I have never seen them in flocks— only singly, or, at most, one rising shortly after the other, so that they might have been a Y>^iv. While I was at Mr. John Moir's plantation of Lauderdale (at Mount Milanje) last November, one of the natives brought up to the house three young ' Lumbi ' which had been found (I think) in a hollow tree. They were about the size of newly-hatched chickens, and nearly fledged — they could not fly, but raised their wings (which were of immense length in pro- portion to their bodies) straight above their heads, and ran along the floor very (piickly. We tried to feed them on chopped egg, soaked bread and flies, but could not keep them alive more than a day or two. FUj. 78.- -Leona Goatsucker {Macrodipteryx loixjipennis). 34+ AVES— SUB-ORDER CAPRIMULGI. " I see you give no description of the feathers, but your figure gives the impression that the long wing-feathers are white, or, at least, distinctly light- coloured. I would not be positive, but am almost sure, that in a specimen shot by Mr. E. Laidlaw Thomson at Lauderdale (which was the only one I ever had the opportunity of examining closely), these feathers were mottled black and brown like the rest of the plumage. I remember seeing two, if not tliree, in the bush near the Chinunka River, along the road to Fort Anderson. " The first time I ever came across them was in Angoniland, passing through the bush in the dark. I could not see them distinctly, and at first from their noiseless flight took them to be bats, and was rather puzzled when assured that they were not bats (melemi) but birds. As faF as I can remember, they ahvnys flew out of trees or bushes, and never from the ground." In these South-American nightjars there is no jDectination of the middle claw, but powder-down patches are present on the sides of the body and on the breast. In tliis character they show an aflinity to the "^N^ ht°*'^^*^ Pof/fOT/'j ^nd like the latter birds they lay their egg on ^^. j^^^-\ an exposed branch or stump of a tree, as is proved by the NvctUi'nrn interesting notes of Dr. Goeldi on Nycfihixs jamaicenfarallel to that of the centre of the colony. In 1891 and 1892 one of our colonists, now dead, had a maize ]ilantation there, liut since that time the ground has beccjine what in Brazil is called 'capocira, ' i.e. a hill covered with shrubs and small trees of about 2 inches in height. Along the declivity of the right side of tlie brook, at a distance of about 30 meti'es fi'om the latter, is a path of communicition be- tween the different colonial lots of the valley and the forest-slopes on liotli sides. The stump in (piestion is about 20 metres distant from the brook, surrounded by shrubs and easily visible from the path on the other side, and was evidently ])ut there three years ago by the former colonist. The nearest human residences are distant from five to six minutes " The stump, still partly covered with its original liaik, has a height of 1"8 metres above the level of the ground. Its diameter at tt)p is 9'5 centimetres. The top has in the centre a small depression, caused by decomposition, and scarcely presents sufficient rotiin for a rather large egg. There was no trace of a softer substratum or nest material. "The egg measures 41"5 millimetres in the longitudinal axis, and 30'5 millimetres in the transverse axis. Its general colour is white. On the blunt pole, however, are some very delicate jmle violet spots, and regulai'ly distributed over the whole surface, are some large ones of brownish-rufous colour resembling drops of dried blood. Neither the former nor the latter markings can be effaced by washing with spirit ; they belong properly to the egg, which is of a very elegant shape." The swifts are some of the most rapid in flight of all the birds in the world. " Gi'eased lightning " is a term often applied by naturalists in the East to the flight of st)me oi the species, notablj' the spine-tailed swifts of the genus Oluetunt. Like some of the goatsuckers The Swifts. — alluded to above, the palate of the swifts is iBgithognathous, Sub-order but here the resemblance between the swifts and the Passeri- Cypx(./i. formes ends. Of course, the most swift-like of the perching birds are the swallows, and until recent years these l:)irds were classified together, because they were long-winged, of swift flight, and had the same habit of hawking insects on the wing. In reality, however, the swallows are highly moditied flycatchers, and have little in common with the (J\ipsd'(, which are more nearly related to the humming-birds of America {Tivchili). Like most ]iicarian birds, the swifts have ten tail-feathers, while the swallows have twelve. The latter have two notches in the jiosterior end of the sternum, while there are no notches in that of the swifts, which further have a very high keel, indicating that they are birds of extremely developed powers of flight. The proportions of the wing-bones are likewise very diflerent in the two groups, being directly opposite to each other, for, whereas in the swifts 346 AVES—SUB-ORDER CYPSELI. the humerus is very short, the forearm longer, and the manus extremely long, in the swallows the relative proportions are exactly the contrary. Mr. Ernst Hartert, the latest exponent of the Cypseli, divides the single family which the sub-order contains, the Cypselidce, into three sub-families, Cypselinm or true swifts, ClHitiirina' or spine-tailed swifts, and crested swifts (Macropterygiiup). Frijm the recent researches of Mr. F. A. Lucas, it seems that the last-named birds are very distinct from the true swifts, and prob- ably constitute a distmct family, their singular mode of nidification, viz. the placing of their egg in a diminutive nest on a brancli or a stump, being very similar to that observed in the frogmouths (Podargi) and the Nyctibiin(e {antea, p. 344). Mr. Hartert characterises the sub-family Cgpsdincr, which contains the true swifts, by the form of their toes, the outer and middle toes having only three phalanges, while the metatarsus is distinctly feathei'ed. In one species, the pied swift of Central America (Aeronaiites mdanoleuciis), the toes are also covered with plumes. The genus Mirropns, of Avhich our common swift {M. ap\is) is the type, has all the toes directed forward, but in the palm swifts (Tachornis and CkvidUi) the toes are arranged in pairs. The conniion swift is migrat(jry, like most of the family, arriving in Europe early in May, and being one of the tirst of our suunner birds to disappear to its winter quarters in Africa. The mode of flight in a swift is more like that of a bat than that of a bird, especially in the gloaming, when the swifts chase each other at an incredible speed, uttering shrill screams. The rapidity of their flight far exceeds that of any swallow. About sixteen sjiecies of the genus Micmpwa are known. The sub-family Chidity'uuv consists of the spine- tailed swifts and the edible swiftlets. In these bird.s the toes are nomnal, and the metatarsus is not feathered. The spine-tailed swifts {Cliatvra) are found in both hemispheres, and have the shafts of the tail-feathers produced into a jioint or spine. Some of them are birds of considerable size, the needle- tailed swift (Ghattira cmtdacnta), which has occasion- ally been seen in England, measuring nearly a foot in length to the end of its long wings, which in this group of swifts always protrude beyond the tail. It nests in Siberia, and migrates to Australia in the winter. The swifts of the genus CollocaUa are tiny lairds, whicli inhabit the Indian and Australian regions. Some fourteen species are known. The birds build in caves, affixing, to the walls of the limestone, cup-shaped nests, which are formed principally of the bird's own saliva, though in some species there is some moss mixed up in the nests, while others are almost entirely made of moss. These "moss" nests, however, are of no commercial value, while the pure wiiite nests are sold for making soup to the Chinese. The tree-swifts are beautiful birds, often ornamented with a large crest or with long white whiskers. They have the metatarsus bare, and it is shorter than the middle toe, whereas in the Cluiiiiyhia: the tarsus is as long as the middle toe, or even longer, and there are two foramina in the hinder margin of the sternum, whereas in the other sub-families of swifts there are no such notches. There is but a single genus, Mncropterij.i\ Avith hve species, FUj. 79. — The Common Swift {Micropus apux). The Edible Swiftlets. — Genus CollocaUa. HUMMING-BIRDS. 347 and the most singular feature about the tree-swifts is their mode of nesting. Nearly twenty years ago, Sir Hugh Low's native collector brought to him in Labuan a tree-swift's nest, wliich he said he liad found lying under the bird's body when he shot it. The nest was of about The Tree Swifts, the size of half-a-crown, and contained one white egg, wliicli — Sub-family had been broken in the fall. From what we know now of Macroptery- the nesting of the genus MKcroptcriix, it is evident that in 'ji»a', the above instance the shot must have carried away the top of the stump on which tlic nest had been placed, as Mr. Hume has presented to the British Museum a similar nest obtained by Mr. K. Thompson, who found one in India. Mr. Hume saj'S : — "The stem to which the nest was attached is about 0'8 incli in diameter ; against the side of this the nest is glued, so that the upper margin of the nest is on a level with the upj^er surface of the branch. The nest itself is half of a rather deep saucer, 1'75 inches in dia- meter, and about U'6 inch in depth internally. The nest is entirely composed of thin flakes of bark, cemented togetlier Ijy the bird's saliva, and is aljout an eighth of an inch in thickness." Only one white egg seems to l^e laid. The humming-birds are exclusively a New World group. The species de- scribed up to the present time are nearly 500 in number, and among them are found some of the tiniest birds in the wt)rld, some of them not being larger than a bumble-bee. The bulk of the The Humming- species are from Bouth and Central America, a few only Birds. — reaching to tlie southern ITnited States, and only a small Sub-order numbei' migrating north in summer to Canada, and even as T'rochili. far as Alaska. The plumage of the humming birds is usually of a brilliantly metallic nature, and tliey are admitted to be some of the most beautiful and interesting of all birds. Their classification is extremely difficult, for the characters blend from one genus into another, until it is almost impossible to say where the series should begin and where it should end. So much so is this the case, that Mr. Osbert Salvin, when he wrote the sixteenth volume of the British Museum " Catalogue of Birds," was forced, for want of more definite characters, to divide the humming-birds into three sections, those with a well- detined saw-like edge near the margin of the tip of the upper mandible, those with this serration faintly marked, and those without any serration at all. It is impossible in the space at our disposal to pass in review all the genera and species of humming-birds, for they are of every size, shape, and variety of metallic plumage. The largest of all is the giant humming-bird (Patagona yigas), from the Andes of Ecuador to Chili. This bird measures about S^ Indies in length, whereas some of the smallest species, such as Calypfe hclence of Cuba, and Cha'tocercus bomhns of Ecuadoi', only measure 21 inches. The tongue in this order of birds is very peculiar, and its structure is only equalled by that of the woodpeckers (Pici) and sun-birds (Nectar iniid(i-). The structure is thus described by Sir William Flower in the "Bird-Gallery" of the British Museum : — " The tongue is slender, and very long and extensile. As in the woodpeckers, the two branches of the hyoid bone which supjjort its base, curve, when the tongue is drawn within the bill, upwards around the back of the skull, and then forward over the top of the head. Instead of the tongue being, as in the woodpeckers, solid and ending in a barbed horny point, it is hollow, and divided at the free end into two slender branches, each of which bears a thin membranous fringe on its outer margin." The wings of the luunming-birds are strong, and the i)rimaries are ten in 348 A VES^SUB-ORDEK CO LI I. Flu. 80.— A HUMMINCi-BlRT. number, while the secondaries are only six. The first primary-quill is some- times attenuated (Aithis, A(jl(eactis, etc.), while in some genera, such as Campijlopterns, the shafts of the primaries are broad and stiffened. The tail is of various shapes, sometimes square, sometimes r(>unded, or, as in the genus Plia'tltomis^ graduated, with the two central rectrices elongated and jiointed. Many genera have forked tails, with the outer tail-feather elongated, especi- ally in the male. The racket-tailed humming-l)irds have a forked tail, with the outer rectrix ending in a spatula or racket. In some genera, like the shear-tails {T]iai(m((iitnr(() or the stars (Cli(itore)rus)^ all the tail-feathers are pointed and spine-like, and in the king humming-birds {Topa:.n), the central feathers are elongated and curved, cn-ssing each other at the same time. The most remarkable, however, of all the hunnning-birds, as regards its tail, is Loildhjcaia mir((hilis from the Upper Amazons. In the female and young male, ten rectrices are present as usual, but in tlie adult male tlure are only four, a very small pair in the middle, and an ehjiigated pair on the outside, which cross each other and end in a "boss "" or "racket." Some of the upper tail-coverts are so lengthened that they appear to be part of the tail. Tlie flight of humming-birds is more like that of a hawk-moth than that of an actual bird, for the little creatures hover in front of a tlower, suspended, as it were, in the air, with their wings vibrating so rapidly as to ajipear simjdy like a film. Their food consists of the tiniest insects, and in the case of the sword-bill hummer [Docinidsfcs cnsifcrKs) the bill is elongated to an enormous proportion, so that the bird is able to jjrobe long tubular tlowers for its food. The nest of the humming-birds is always beautiful, and is generally composed of the down of plants, felted, and cijvered with spiders' webs or soft lichens. It is generally round, but is occasionally purse-shaped, and is })laced (jn a branch or at the end of a leaf. The eggs are white, and two in number. The colies form a sepai*ate sub-order, which contains but a single genus, Colins, with nine S23ecies, all i)eculiar to Africa. 'J here are only ten tail- feathers, and the hind-toe is The Colies.— connected with the flexor per- Sub-order Colii. furausdhjiiuyttm iewdmu The bill is something like that of a finch, and tlic birds have a slight crest. The palate is bridged or desmognathous, and the sternum has four notches on the jiosterior margin. The position of the colies in the class Ares has been much debated, and it seems to us that their place in the natural system nuist always be open to some comment, but they must be jilaced somewhere near the trogons and the touracoes. The colies have curious feet, all the four toes being directed forward, the first one being perhaps reversible ; the birds use their feet for climbing, and they hang in {)eculiar positions. Thej' make an open nest, of grass and twigs, lined internally with soft grass, placed in a fork of a tree, and the eggs are white. Fi.,. 81. -The C'.\pe Coly {Coliuf coHus). ■/'NO a CVS. 349 Tlie trogons are all birds of bright plumage, even the hens having brilliant colours in many of the species. They are often called HvtvroiJactitJl on account of their peculiar feet, which constitute the chief structural feature of the order. The palate is schizognathous The Trogons.— or slit, and the second toe is turned backwards. The front Order Trof/oii£s. plantar tendon {Jitjur pcrfornns (lliiifornni) is split into two, and leads to the two front toes, while the hind plantar (Jicxoylonrjos liullvcia) is again split, and leads to the two hind toes. The plumage of the trogons is of the softest description, and the skin is so thin tliat we have often heard travellers say that it has no more substance than tissue-paper, and every one admits that tn)gons are the most difficult birds in the world to prepare. At the present day the order is distributed over Africa, a great j)art of India and the Malayan sub-region, but they are most numerous in Central and Southern America. In ancient times they occurred in France, as fossil remains have been found there along with those of touracoes and secretary-birds. One of the most splendid of birds is the long-trained trogon or (juezal, which has been adopted by the republic of Guatemala as its national em- blem, and figures on the jiostage stamps of that country. It has a tail of eight inches in length, but the upper tail-coverts are enormously developed, the central ones extending into a train four times as long as the actual tail itself. The quezal is found in Guatemala and Costa Rica, but is not so plentiful as formerly ; it is entirely a bird of the forests, and has a rapid flight. Mr. Stolzmann noticed the Peruvian (^uezal clinging to the trunks of trees like a woodpecker. The American trogons (Trogon) are chiefly fruit-eaters, like the African species of Hapaloderma. They are entirely forest birds, and are said to be rather stupid, not even flying ^away at the report of a gun, so that a whole party may be shot down one after the other. They are gene- rally seen in i^airs, but occasionally assemble in small flocks. The note is variously described as being harsh, or clucking, as well as soft and low. Of the Peruvian species, Trogon caligatus, Mr. Stolzmann gives the note as ^^ co^i-cou-cou- coH-co-co-co-po," the second half being uttered in a lower tone than the first. The Indian tro- gons (Harpades) are more insect-feeders than tlieir American allies. The eggs of trogons are white or pale-buS" (that of the quezal being said to be greenish-blue), three or four in number, and deposited on the dry wood in the hole of a tree. Two sub-orders are represented in this order, viz. the cuckoos {Cucnli) and the touracoes {Musophagi), the former being a cosmopolitan group, and the latter being con- fined to Africa, though there is evidence that in ancient times touracoes inhabited Europe, as fossil remains of these birds have been found in France. The cuckoos and the touracoes have the following characters in common, which difterentiate the Coccyges from all other orders of birds. The first and fourth toe are turned backwards, and the second and third forwards, the hallux being always developed, and served by the flexor Fiij. S2. — The Lauce-taii.ed Trogon (Trogon macrurus). The Cuckoo- like Birds. — Order Coccyges. 350 A VES—SUR-OKDER CUCUI.L longns liaUucis tendon, and not by the flexor perforans digitorum. The palate is " bridged " or desmogiiathous. In the cuckoos the oil-gland is nude, and the feet thoroughly zygodactyle, with two toes directed forwards and two backwards, whereas in the Musophagidiv or touracoes the fourth toe is not so completely turned backwards as in the Cncxdid