\>rv. ^•'-r >^ /clS. 'Y': XIY LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOKS. 62a. Section of the Tuea&uhy of Atreus at Mycexje 53. Greek Doric Capital from Selinus 53a. Greek Doric Capital from the Theseum . 53b. Gueek Doric Capital from Samothrace 54. The Ruins of the Parthenon at Athens . 55. Plan of the Parthenon 5d. The Koof of a Greek Doric Temple, showing the Marble Tiles 56a. Section of the Greek Doric Temple at P^estum. A restored by liuTTICHER 57. The Greek Doric Order from the Theseum 58. Plan of a Greek Doric Column .... 59. The Fillets undj;r a Greek Doric Capital 60. Capital of a Gricek Doric Column from JiciNA, with Coloured Dj-coration 61. Section of the Entablature of the Greek Doric Order 62. Plan, looking up, of part of a Gi^eek Doric Peristyle 63. Details of the Tiliglyph 6i. Details of the Mutules 65. Elevation and Seciton of the Capital of a greek Anta AviTu Coloured Decoration .... 66. Palmette and Honeysuckle 67. Shaft of an Ionic Column, showing the Flutes 68. Ionic Capital. Front Elevation .... 69. Ionic Capital. Side Elevation .... 70. The Ionic Order. From Priene, Asia Minor 71. The Ionic Order. From the Erechtheium, Athens 72. North-west View of the Erechtheium, in the time of Pericles 73. Plan of the ErechtheiUm 74. Ionic Base from the Temple of the Wingless Victory (NiKi; Apteros) 75. Ionic Base Mouldings from Priene ... 76. The Corinthian Order. From the Monument of Lysi crates at Athens 77. Corinthian Capital from the Monument of Lysiceates 78. Monument of Lysicrates, as in the time of Pericles 79. Capital of an Anta from Miletus. Side View . 80. Restoration of the Greek Theatre of Segesta . 81. Capital of an Anta from Miletus .... PACE 86 87 87 87 89 t)0 91 92 Ui 95 96 96 97 97 99 102 103 103 103 105 106 107 108 108 108 111 112 113 114 115 117 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOxNS. XV PAGE 82. Greek Doorway, showing Cornice .... 123 83. Greek. Doorway. Front View. (From THEEREcnxHEiuii) 123 84:. The Acanthus Leaf and Stalk 128 85. The Acanthus Leaf 129 86. Metope froii the Parthenon, Conflict between a Centaur and one of the Lapith^e .... 130 87. Mosaic from the Temple of Zeus, Olympia . . .131 88. Section of the Portico of the Erechtheium . . 132 89. Plan of the Portico of the Erechtheium, looking up 132 90. Capital of Ant^ from the Erechtheium . . .133 91-96. Greek Ornaments in Pelief 134 97-104. Greek Ornaments in Relief 135 105-110. Greek Ornaments in Colour 136 111-113. Examples of Honeysuckle Ornament . . . 137 114. Combination of the Fret, the Egg and Dart, the Bead AND Fillet, and the Honeysuckle .... 137 115. Guilloche 137 116-120. Examples of the Fret 137 121. Elevation of an Etruscan Temple (restored from Descriptions only) 138 122. Sepulchre at Corneto 140 123. The Cloaca Maxima 142 124. " Incantada " IN Salonica 147 125. The Ionic Order from the Temple of Foetuna Virilis, Rome 148 126. Roman-Corinthian Temple at NImes (Maison Carrie). Probably of the time of Hadrian . . . .150 127. Ground-plan of the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli . . 151 128. The Corinthian Order from the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli 152 129. The Temple of Vesta at Tivoli. Plan, looking up, AND Section of Part of the Peristyle . . . 153 130. Ground-plan of THE Basilica Ulpia, Rome . . .155 131. Plan of the Colosseum, Rome 157 132. The Colosseum. Section and Elevation . . . 158 133. Plan of the principal Building, Baths of Caracalla, Rome 163 134. Interior of Santa Maria degli Angeli, Rome . . 165 135. The Pantheon, Rome. Ground-plan .... 166 136. The Pantheon. Exterior 167 Xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE 137. The PANxnEON. Interior ...... 168 138. The Corinthian Order from the Pantheon . . 169 139. The Arch of Constantine, Rome 172 140. Ground-plan of the House of Pansa, Pompeii . . 176 141. Ground-plan OF the House of THE Tragic Poet, Pompeii 177 142. The Atrium of a Pompeian House . . . .178 143. Wall Decoration from Pompeii 180 144. Carving from the Forum of Nerva, Rome . . . 182 145. Koman-Corinthian Capital and Base. From the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli 183 145a. a Roman Composite Capital 188 146. Part of the Theatre of Marcellus, Rome. Showing THE Combination of Columns and Arched Openings 190 147. From the Ruins of the Forum of Nerva, Rome. Showing the Use of an Attic Story . . . 191 143. From thk Baths of Diocletian, Rome. Showing a fragmentary Entablature at the starting of part of a Vault . . . . . . .192 149. From the Palace of Diocletian, Sp.vlatro. Showing AN Arch springing from a Column .... 192 150. Mouldings AND Ornaments from various Roman Build- ings 193 151. Roman Carving. An Acanthus Leaf .... 194 152. The Egg and Dart Enrichment— Roman . . . 194 153. Wall-Decoration of (so-called) Arabesque Character FROM Pompeii 195 154. Decoration in Relief and Colour of the Vault of a Tomb in the Via Latina, near Rome . . . 197 155. Basilica-Church of San Miniato, Florence . . 193 156. Interior of a Basilica at Pompeii. Restored, from Descriptions by various Authors .... 200 156a. Basilica, or Early Christian Church, of Sant'Agnese at Rome 202 157. Sant' Apollinare, Ravenna. Part of the Arcade AND Apse 205 153. Apse of the Basilica of San Paolo Fuori le Mura, Rome 207 15Sa. Frieze from the Monastery at Fulda . . . 210 159. Church of Santa Sophia at Constantinople. Longi- tudinal Section 212 100. Plan of San Vitale at Ravenna .... 216 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XVll • PAGE 161. San Vitale at Ravenna. Longitudinal Section . 216 162. Plan of St. Mark's at Venice 217 163. Sculptured Ornament from the Golden Door of Jerusalem 219 164. Church at Turmanin in Syria 220 165. Tower of a Russian Church 221 166. Tower of Earl's Barton Church .... 223 167. Cathedral at Piacenza 225 168. Vaults of the excavated Roman Baths in the Musee de Cluny, Paris 227 169. Church of St. Sernin, Toulouse , . . . 228 170. Nave Arcade at St. Sernin, Toulouse . . . 229 171. Arches in receding Planes at St. Sernin, Toulouse 230 172. Norman Arches in St. Peter's Church, Northampton 234 173. Nave Arcade, Peterborough Cathedral . . . 236 174. Decorative Arcade from Canterbury Cathedral . 237 175. Hedingham Castle 238 176. Interior of Hedingham Castle 239 177. Rounded Arch of Church at Gelnhausen . . 240 178. Plan of the Church of the Apostles at Cologne . 241 179. Spire of Spires Cathedral 242 180. Church at Rosheim. Upper Portion of Facade . 244 181. Cubic Capital 246 182. Doorway at Tind, Norway 247 183. Mouldings of Portal of St. James's Church at Koesfeld 248 184. Byzantine Basket-work Capital from San Michele IN Affricisco at Ravenna 251 185. Arabian Capital. From the Alhamera . . . 252 186. Horse-shoe Arch 254 187. Exterior of Santa Sophia, Constantinople. Showing the Minarets added after its Conversion into a Mosque 255 138. Alhambra. Hall of the Abencerrages . . . 257 189. Mosque "El Moved" at Cairo 259 190. Arabian Wall Decoration 260 191. Plan of the Sakhra Mosque at Jerusalem . . 261 192. Section of the Sakhra Mosque at Jerusalem . . 262 193. Doorway in the Alhambra 264 194. Grand Mosque at Delhi, built by Shah Jehan . 267 195. Entrance to a Moorish Bazaar 269 h Rock-cut To>!b at Mvra, l^ Lvcia. Imitation of Timber CoiistructioH iii, Stone, GLOSSARY. Abacus, a square tablet whicli crowns tlie capital of the column. Acanthus, a plant the foliage of which was imitated in the ornament of the Corinthian capittil. Agora, the place of general assembly in a Greek city, Al^ {Lat. wiugs), recesses opening out of the atrium of a Eoman house, Alhambra, the palatial fortress of Granada (from al hamra — the red), Amuo, a fitting of early Christian churches, very similar to a pulpit. Ami'UITheatre, a Roman place of public entertainment in which combats of gladiators, &c. were exhibited. ANT.E, narrow piers used in connection with columns in Greek archi- tecture, for the same purpose as pilasters in Eoraan. Arabesque, a style of very light ornamental decoration. Archaic, primitive ; so ancient as to be rude, or at least extremely simple. Archivolt, the series of mouldings which is carried round an arch. Arena, the space in the centre of an amphitheatre where the combats, &c. took place. Arris, a sharp edge. Astragal, a small round moulding. Atrium, the main quadrangle in a Eoman dwelling-house ; also the enclosed court in front of an early Christian basilican church. Baptistery, a building, or addition to a building, erected for the purposes of celebrating the rite of Christian baptism. Basement, the lowest stoiy of a building, applied also to the lowest part of an architectural design. Bas-relief, a piece of sculpture in low relief. Bird's-eeak, a moulding in Greek architecture, used in the capitals of Antaj. XX GLOSSARY. Byzantine, the style of Christian architecture which had its origm at Byzantium (Constantinople). Carceres, in the ancient racecourses, goals and starting-points. Cartouche, in Egyptian buildings, a liieroglyphic signifying the name of a king or otlier important person. Caryatids, human figures made to carry an entablature, in lieu of columns in some Classic buildings. CaV/KDIAM, another name for the atrium of a Roman house. Cavea, the part of an ancient theatre occupied by tlie audience. Cavetto, in Classic architecture, a hollow moulding. Cella, the principal, often the only, apartment of a Greek or Roman temple. Chaitya, an Indian temple, or hall of assembly. Circus, a Roman racecourse. Cloaca, a sewer or drain. Columbarium, literally a pigeon-house — a Roman sepulchre built in many compartments. Columnar, made with columns. CoMPLUViUM, the open space or the middle of the roof of a Roman atrium. Corona, in the cornices of Greek and Roman architecture, the plain unmoulded feature which is supported by the lower part of tlie cornice, and on which the crowning mouldings rest. Cornice, the horizontal series of mouldings crowning the top of a building or the walls of a room. Cuneiform, of letters in Assyrian inscriptions, wedge-shaped. Cyclopean, applied to masonry constructed of vast stones, usually not hewn or squared. Cyma (recta, or reversa), a moulding, in Classic architecture, of an out- line partly convex and partly concave. Dagoba, an Indian tomb of conical shape. Dentil-band, in Classic architecture, a series of small blocks re- sembling square-shaped teetli. Domus (Lat.), a house, applied usually to a detached residence. Dwarf-wall, a very low wall. Echinus, in Greek Doric architecture, the principal moulding of the capital placed immediately under the abacus. Entablature, tlie superstructure— comprising architrave, frieze and cornice — above the columns in Classic architecture. GLOSSARY. XXI Entasis, in the shaft of a column, a curved outline. Epheceum, the large hall in Roman baths in which youths practiseJ gymnastic exercises. Facia, in Classic architecture, a narrow flat band or face. Fauces, the passage from the atrium to the peristyle in a Homan house. Flutes, the small channels which run from top to bottom of the shaft of most columns in Classic architecture. Forum, the place of general assembly in a Eoman city, as the Agora was in a Greek. Fresco, painting executed upon a plastered wall while the plaster is still wet. Fret, an ornament made up of squares and L-shaped lines, in use in Greek architecture. Garth, the central space round which a cloister is carried. Girder, a beam. GuouTED, said of masonry or brickwork, treated with liquid mortar to fill up all crevices and interstices. GuTT^, small pendent features in Greek and Eoman Doric cornices, resembling rows of wooden pegs. Hexasttle, of six colunms. Honeysuckle Ornament, a decoration constantly introduced into Assyrian and Greek architecture, founded upon the liower of the honeysuckle. Horseshoe Arch, an arch more than a semicircle, and so wider above than at its springing. Hyposttle, literally "under columns," but used to mean filled by columns. Impluvium, the space into which the rain fell in the centre of the atrium of a Roman house. Insula, a block of building surrounded on all sides by streets, literally an island. Intercolumniation, the space between two columns. Keyed, secured closely by interlocking. KiBLA, the most sacred part of a Mohammedan mosque. Lats, in Indian architecture, Buddhist inscribed pillars. XXll GLOSSARY. Mammisi, small Egyptian temples. JIastaba, the most usual form of Egyptian tomb. Mausoleum, a magnificent sepulclual monument or tomb. From the tomb erected to JVlausolus, by his wife Artemisia, at Halicarnassus, 379 B.C. Metopes, literally faces, the square spaces between triglyidis in Doric architecture ; occasionally applied to the sculptures fitted into these spaces. Minaret, a slender lofty tower, a usual appendage of a Mohammedan mosque. Monolith, of one stone. Mortise, a hollow in a stone or timber to receive a corresi)onding projection. JTosQUE, a Mohammedan place of worship. MuTULE, a feature in a Classic Doric cornice, somewhat resembling the end of a timber beam. Narthex, in an early Christian church, the space next the entrance. Odelisk, a tapering stone pillar, a feature of Egyptian architecture. Opus Alexanduinum, the mosaic work used for floors in Byziuitine and Romanesque clmrches. OvoLO, a moulding, the profile of which resembles the outline of an egg, used in Classic architecture. Pendentive, a feature in Byzantine and other domed buildings, employed to enable a circular dome to stand over a square space. Peristylar, or Peripteral, with columns all round. Peristylium, or Peristyle, in a Roman house, the inner courtyard ; also any space or enclosure with columns all round it. Piscina, a small basin usually executed in stone and placed within a sculptured niche, fixed at the side of an altar in a church, with a cliannel to convey away the water poured into it. PoLYCHROMi', the use of decorative colours. Precincts, the space round a church or religious house, usually enclosed with a wall. Presbytery, the eastern part of a church, the chancel. Profile (of a moulding), the outline which it would present if cut across at right angles to its length. Pronaos, the front portion or vestibule to a temple. Propvl^a, in Greek architecture, a grand portal or state entrance. GLOSSARY. .XXIU Pkotiiyuum, in a Koman house, the porch or eiitvancc. PsEUDO-rERiPTERAL, resembling, hut not really being peristylar. Pylon, or Pko-Pylon, the portal or front of au Egyptian tcniplo. Quadriga, a four-horse chariot. PiOMANESQUE, the style of Christian architecture which was founded on Roman work. PiOTUNDA, a building circular in plan. Sacristy, the part of a church where the treasures belonging to the church are preserved. Shinto Temples, temples (in Japan) devoted to tlie Shinto religion. Span, the space over which an arch or a roof extends. Spina, the central wall of a Roman racecourse. Stilted, raised, usually applied to an arch when its centre is above the top of the jambs from which it springs. Struts, props. Stupa, in Indian architecture, a mound or tope. Stylobate, a series of steps, usually tiiose leading up to a Classic temple. Taas, a pagoda. Tablinum, in a Roman house, the room between the atrium and the peristyle. Talar, in Assyrian architecture, an open upper story. Tenoned, fastened with a projection or tenon. Tesselated, made of small squares of material, applied to coarse mosaic work. Tetrastyle, with four columns. TiiEi'.MiE, the great bathing establishments of the Romans. Topes, in Indian architecture, artificial mounds. Trabeated, constructed with a beam or beams, a term usually employed in contrast to arches. Triclinium, in a Roman house, the dining-room. Triglyph, the channelled feature in the frieze of the Doric order. Tumuli, mounds, usually se[mlcliral. Typiionia, small Egyptian teniides. Velarium, a great nwning. ■ -♦ Vestibule, the outer hall or ante-room. XXIV GLOSS \RY. Volutes, in Classic architecture, the curled ornaments of the Ionic capital. Voussoms, the wedge-shaped stones of which arches are made. N.B. For the explanation of other technical words found in this volume, consult the Glossary given witli the companion volume ou Gothic and lieuaissauce Architecture. The Temple of Vesta at Tivou. ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. AECHITECTURE may be described as building at its best, and when we talk of the architecture of any- city or country we mean its best, noblest, or most beautiful buildings ; and we imply by the use of the word that these buildings possess merits w^hich entitle them to rank as Avorks of art. The architecture of the civilised world can be best understood by considering the great buildings of each im- portant nation separately. The features, ornaments, and even forms of ancient buildings differed just as the speech, or at any rate the literature, differed. Each nation wrote in a different language, though the books may have been D. H. HILL LIBRARY North Carolina State College L' ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. devoted to tlie same aims ; and precisely in the same way cacli nation built in a style of its own, even if the build- ings may have been similar in the purposes they had to serve. The division of the subject into the architecture of Egypt, Greece, Eome, &c., is therefore the most natural one to follow. But certain broad group.", rising out of peculiarities of a physical nature, eitlier in the buildings themselves or in the conditions under which they Avere erected, can hardly fail to be suggested by a general view of the subject. Sucli, for example, is the fourfold division to which the reader's attention will now be directed. All buildings, it will be found, can be classed under one or other of four great divisions, each distinguished by a di.-itinct mode of building, and each also occupying a distinct place in history. The first series embraces the buildings of the Egyptians, the Persiiins, and the Greeks, and was brought to a pitch of the highest per- iection in Greece during tlie age of Pericles. All the buildings erected in these countries during the many centuries which elapsed from tlie earliest Egyptian to the latest Greek Avorks, however they may have dilf<-red in other respects, agree in this — that the openings, be they doors, or be they spaces between columns, were spanned by beams of wood or lintels of stone (Fig. 1). Hence this architecture is called architecture of the beam, or, in more formal language, trabeated architecture. This mode of covering spaces required that in buildings of solid masonry, where stone or marble lintels were employed, the supports should not be very far apart, and this circumstance led to the frec^uent use of rows of columns. The architecture of this period is accordingly sometimes called columnar, but it has uo exclusive claim to the INTRODUCTION. epithet; the column survived long after the exclusive use of the beam had been superseded, and the tei-in Hsn w uniraiimliniiBHi^iminitnnMMnniTinnti Hiwiaii nn TCKTjr MAXTHJB-pnTESTXiriMI'SICcJJ^iniMTJUriTBIAr-ET ^ ^^^^^u:^.M;^^iIlDJ^^^\^■J.■lm'^al^.fty^^un^l^Tr^vlKLV^^p^fiofo^T^u•Lt^>ClmJ!^^ u^L^^.tt\;>l^T^u_^T^^T^^\JTR0PT^^^^J£\ATl^^:l7■lTnL^rrTrM^olEJM^\^^ELLft^tl^^wm^:ul::Iil ..$.'' P.vtrilICi ^ >LI\'[M1 DRITlAMi-j ^T MAXUKI <" ft" \R(;ryT,VRI ET NCrmrLWrJE^ DOARI irVIVJiViiSil, DEVOTI-NVWINJEnBl-M m ^^SM f fiG. 1.— Opening spanned by a Lintel. Arcu of the GoLusiiiiHa, lluim. columnar must accordingly be shared with buildings forming part of the succeeding series. The second great group of buildings is that in which the semicircular arch is introduced into construction, and B 2 4 ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. used either together Avith the beam, or, as mostlj'' happened, instead of the beam, to span the openmgs (Fig. 2). This use of the arch began Avith the Assyrians, and it reap- peared in the Avorks of the early Etruscans. The round- arched series of styles embraces the buildings of the Romans from their earliest beginnings to their decay ; it also includes the two ereat schools of Christian architec- FlG. 2.— OrliSlNQ SPAKNED BY A Se.MICI IICULAB ArCH. Ko.MAN TfilUlIPUAL ARCU AX POLA. ture which were founded by the Western and the Eastern Church respectively, — namely, the Eomanesque, which, originating in Eome, extended itself through Western Europe, and lasted till the time of the Crusades, and the Byzantine, Avhich spread from Constantinople over all the countries in Avhich the Eastern (or Greek) Church flourished, and Avhich continues to our OAvn day. INTRODUCTION. The third groiip of buillings is that in which the pointed arch is employed instead of the semicircular arch to span the openings (Fig. 3). It began with the rise of '.^/y'S Fig. 3.— Opzsisgs spasned bt Poikted Akches. Ixteeiob of Si. Feost, Peeigueux, Fba^'ce. Mohammedan architecture in the East, and embraces all the buildings of Western Europe, from the time of tlie First Crusade to the revival of art in the fifteenth century. 6 ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. This great series of iDuildings constitutes what is lcno-\vn as Pointed, or, more commonly, as Gothic architecture. The fourth group consists of the buildings erected during or since the Eenaissance {i. e. revival) period, and is marked by a return to the styles of past ages or distant countries for the architectural features and ornaments of buildings; and by that luxury, complexity, and ostenta- tion which, with other qualities, are well comprehended under the epithet Modern. This group of buildings forms what is known as Eenaissance architecture, and extends from the epoch of the revival of letters in the fifteenth century, to the present day. The first two of these styles — namely, the architecture of the beam, and that of the round arch — are treated of in this little volume. They occupy those remote times of pagan civilisation which may be conveniently included under the broad term Ancient; and the better known work of the Greeks and Eomans — the classic nations — and they extend over the time of the establishment of Christianity down to the close of that dreary period not incorrectly termed the Dark ages. Ancient, Classic, and early Christian architecture is accordingly an appro- priate title for the main subjects of this volume, though, for the s;ihe of convenience, some notices of Oriental architecture have been added. Gothic and Eenaissance architecture form the subjects of the companion volume. It may excite surprise that what appears to be so small a difference as that which exists between a beam, a round arch, or a pointed arch, should be employed in order to distinguish three of the four great divisions. But in reality this is no pedantic or arbitrary grouping. The mode in which spaces or openings are covered lies at the root of most of the essential ditlerences between styles of archi- INTRODUCTIOX. 7 tccturo, nnJ tlio distinction thus dra\vn is one of a real, not of a fanciful nature. Every building Avlicn reduced to its elements, as will "be done in both these volumes, may be considered as maile np of its (1) floor or plan, (2) walls, (3) roof, (4) open- ings, (5) columns, and (6) ornaments, and as marked by its distinctive (7) character, aud the student must be prepared to find that the openings are by no means the least important of these elements. In fact, the moment the method of covering openings was changed, it would be easy to show, did space permit, that all the other elements, except the ornaments, were directly affected by the change, and the ornaments indirectly ; and we thus find such a correspondence between this index feature and the entire structure as renders this primary division a scientific though a very broad one. The contrast between the trabeated style and the arched style may be well nnderstood by comparing the illustiation of the Partha- non which forms our frontisinece, or that of the "Teat temple of Zeus at Olynipia (Fig. 4), Avith the exterior of the Colosseum at Rome (Fig. 5), iutr(xluced here for the l^urposes of this comparison. A division of buildings into snch great series as these cannot, however, supeisede the more obvious historio;d and geographical divisions. The architecture of every ancient country Avas partly the growth of the soil, i.e. adapted to the clim;ite of the country, and the materials found there, aud partly the outcome of the ,* national character of its inhabitants, and of such influ- ences as race, colonisation, commei'ce, or conquest broi;ght to bear upon them. These influences produced strong distinctii-ns between the work of different peoples, espe- cially before the era of the Roman Empire. Since that o « IXTRODUCTIOX. 9 perioel of v.niversal dominion all buildings and styles have been influenced more or less by Eoman art. We accord- ingly find tlie buildings of the most ancient nations separated from each other by strongly marked lines of demarcation, but those since the era of the Empire showing a considerable resemblance to one another. The circum- stance that the remains of those buildings only which received the greatest possible attention from their builders have come down to us from any remote antiquity, has perhaps served to accentuate the differences between different styles, for these foremost buildings were not intended to serve the same purpose in all countries. Nothing but tombs and temples have survived in Egypt. Palaces only have been rescued from the decay of Assyrian and Persian cities ; and temples, theatres, and places of public assembly are the chief, almost the only remains of architecture in Greece. A strong contrast between the buildings of different ancient nations rises also from the differing point of view for Avhich they were designed. Thus, in the tombs and, to a large extent, the temples of the Egyptians, we find .structures chiefly planned for internal effect ; that is to say, intended to be seen by those admitted to the sacred precincts, but only to a limited extent appealing to the admiration of those outside. The buildings of the Greeks, on the other hand, were chiefly designed to please those who examined them from without ; and though no doubt some of them, the theatres especially, were from their very nature planned for interior effect, by far the greatest works which Greek art produced were the exteriors of the temples. The works of the Eomans, and, following them, those of almost all AVestern Christian nations, were designed Fl" 5.— rAUT OF THE EXTEaiOR OF THE COLOSSEU-V, Uo.ME. (NOW IN KUI.VS.) IXTRODUCTION. 11 to unite external and internal effect; tut in many ca?e3 external was evidently most sought after, and, in the Korth of Europe, many expedients — such, for example, as towers, high-pitched roofs, and steeples — were intro- duced into architecture with the express intention of increasing external effect. Oa the other hand, the Eastern styles, both Mohammedan and Chiistian, especially when practised in sunny climates, show in many cases a com- parative disregard of external effect, and that their archi- tects lavished most of their resources ou the interiors of their buildings. Passinor allusions have been made to the influence of climate on arcliitecture ; and the student whose attention has been once called to this subject will find many interesting traces of this influence in the designs of buildings erected ia various countries. Where the power of the sun is great, flat terraced roofs, which help to keep buildings cool, and thick walls are desirable. Suflicient light is admitted by small Avindows far apart. Over- hanging eaves, or horizontal cornices, are in such a climate the most effective mode of obtaiuing architectural effect, and accordingly in the styles of all Southern peoples these peculiarities appear. The architecture of Egypt, for example, exhibited them markedly. Where the sun is still powerful, but not so extreme, the terraced roof is generally replaced by a sloping roof, steep enough to throw off" water, and larger openings are made for light and air; but the horizontal cornice still remains the most appropriate means of gaining effects of light and shade. This description will apply to the architecture of Italy and Greece. When, however, we pass to ^"orthern coun- tries, where snow has to be encountered, where light is lirecious, and where the sun is low in the heavens for the 12 ANCIENT ARCniTECrUKE. greater part of the day, a complete change takes place. Eoofs become much steeper, so as to throw off snow. The horizontal cornice is to a large extent disused, but the buttress, the turret, and other vertical features, from which a level sun will cast shadows, begin to appear ; Tio. 0.— Timber Architecture. CuuKcn at Borgund. and windows are made numerous and spacious. This description applies to Gothic arcliitecture generally — in other words, to the style which rose in Northern Europe. The influence of materials on architecture is also worth notice. Where granite, which is worked wiih difficulty, INTRODUCTION. 13 is tlie material obtainable, architecture lias invariably been severe and simple; wliere soft stone is obtainable, exuberance of ornament makes its appearance, in conse- quence of the material lendhig itself readily to the carver's chisel. Where, on the other hand, marble is abundant and good, refinement is to be met Avith, for no other building material exists in which very delicate mouldings or very slight or slender projections may be employed Avith the certainty that they will be effective. Where stone is scarce, brick buildin-s, with many arches, roughly constructed cornices and pilasters, and other peculiarities both of structure and ornamentation, make their appear- ance, as, for example, in Lombardy and Xorth Germany. Where materials of many colours abound, as is the case, for example, in the volcanic districts of France, polychromy is sought as a means of ornamentation. Lastly, where timber^ is available, and stone and brick are both scarce, the result is an architecture of which both the forms and the ornamentation are entirely dissimilar to those proper to buildings of stone, marble, or brick, as may be seen by a glance at our illustration of an early Scandinavian church built of timber (Fig. 6), which presents forms appropriate to a timber buildiug as being easily con- structed of wood, but which would hardly be suitable to any other material whatever. Fig. 7.— Egypiia:! Cornice. CHAPTER 11. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. THE origin of Egyptian architecture, like tliat of Egyptian history, is lost in the mists of antiquity. The remains of all, or almost all, other styles of architecture enable us to trace t])eir rude beginnings, their development, their gradual progress np to a culminating point, and thence their slow but certain decline ; but the earliest remains of the constructions of the Egyptians show their skill as builders at the height of its perfection, their archi- tecture liighly developed, and their sculpture afc its very best, if not indeed at the commencement of its decadence ; for some of the statuaiy of the age of the Pyramids was never surpassed in artistic effect by the "work of a later era. It is impossible for us to conceive of such scientific skill as is evidenced in the construction of the great pyra- mids, or such artistic power as is displayed on the walls of tombs of the same date, or in the statues found in them, as other than the outcome of a vast accumulation of ex- perience, the attainment of which must imply the lapse c.f very long periods of time since the nation which produced EGYPTIAX DYNASTIES. J-^ sucli works emerged from barbarism. It is natural, wliere so remote aii antiquity is in question, that "\ve should feel a great dilHculty, if not an impossibility, in fixing exact dates, but the Avhole tendency of modern explora- tion and research is rather to push back than to advance the dates of Egyptian chronology, and it is by no means impossible that the dynasties of Manetho, after being derided as apocryphal for centuries, may in the end be accepted as substantially correct. ^Manetho was au Egyptian priest living in the third century B.C., who wrote a history of his country, Avhich he compiled from the archives of the temples. His work itself is lost, but Josephus C[Uotes extracts from it, and Eusebius and Julius Africanus reproduced his lists, in Avliich the monarchs of Egypt are grouped into thirty-four dynasties. These, however, do not agree with one another, and in many cases it is difficult to reconcile them with the records displayed in the monuments themselves. The remains with which we are acquainted indicate four distinct periods of great architectural activity in Egyptian history, viz. : (I) the period of the fourth dynasty, when the Great Pyramids were erected (pro- bably 3500 to 3000 B.C.); (2) the period of the twelftli dynasty, to which belung the remains at Beni-Hassau ; (3) the period of the eighteenth anl nineteenth dynas- ties, when Tliebes was in its glory, which is attested by the ruins of Luxor and Ivarnak ; and (4) the Ptolemaic period, of which there are the remains at Denderah, Edfou, and Philre. The monuments that remain are almost exclusively tombs and temples. The tombs are, generally speaking, all met Avith on the e;ist or right bank of the Xile : among them must be classed those grandest and oldest monuments of Egyptian skill, the IG ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. Pyramids, which appear to have been all designed as royal burying-places. A large number of pyramids have been discovered, but those of Gizeh, near Cairo, are the lai-gest and the best known, and also probably the oldest which can be authenticated.* The three largest pyramids are those of Cheops, Cephren, and Mycerinus at Gizeh (or, as the names are more correctly written, Suphis, Sen- suphis, and Moscheris or Mencheris). These monarchs all belonged to the fourth dynasty, and the most probable date to be assigned to them is about 3000 B.C. The pyra- mid of Suphis is the largest, and is the one familiarly known as the Great Pyramid ; it has a square base, the side of Avhich is 7G0 feet long,t a height of 484 feet, and an area of 577,600 square feet. In this pyramid the angle of inclination of the sloping sides to the base is 51° 51', but in no two pyramids is this angle the same. There can be no doul)t that these huge monuments were erected each as the tomb of an individual king, whose efforts were directed towards making it everlasting, and the greatest pains were taken to render the access to the burial chamber extreme'y hard to discover. This accounts for the vast disproportion between the lavish amount of material used for the pyramid and the smalluess of the cavity enclosed in it (Fig. 8). The material employed was limestone ca?ed with syenite (granite from Syene), and the internal passages were lined with granite. The granite of the casing has entirely * Some Egyptologists iucline to the opinion that the pyramid of Saq- q;'ira is the most aucieur, while others think it much more recent than those of Gizeh. t Strictly speaking, the base is not an exact square, the four sides measuring, according to the Royal Engineers, north, 760 ft. 7'5 in. ; south, 761 ft. 8-5 in. ; east, 760 ft. 9-5 in. ; aLd west, 764 ft. 1 in. EGYPTIAN PYRAMIDS. 17 disappeared, but that employed as linings is still in its place, and so skilfully Avoiked that it would not he possible to introduce even a sheet of paper between the joints. Tlie entrance D to this pyramid of Supliis was at a height of 47 ft. 6 in. above the base, and, as was almost invarialily // *^ ../ / / /A M /y: _ . ^ :^ _ ^•^- _ii-,^ii>i;ii^i'i\'iiiViV-\ \^, fiG 8.— Section across the Great Pvrasiid (of Cheops oh Srrnis). the case, on the north face ; from the entrance a passage slopes downward at an angle of 26° 27' to a chamber cut in the rock at a depth of about 90 feet below the base of the pyramid. This chamber seems to have been in- tended as a blind, as it was not the place for the deposition 18 ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. of the corpse. From the point in the ahove Jescrihed passage — marked A on our illustration of this jiyramid ■ — another gallery starts upwards, till it reaches the point C, from which a horizontal passage leads to another small chamber. This is called the Queen's Chamber, but 110 reason lias been discovered for the name. From this point C the gallery continues upwards till, in the heart of the pyramid, the Royal Chamber, B, is reached. The walls of these chambers and passages are lined with masonry executed in the hardest stone (granite), and with an accuracy of fitting and a truth of surface that can hardly be surpassed. Extreme care seems to have been taken to prevent tlie great weight overhead I'rom crush- ing in the galleries and the chamber. The gallery from C upwards is of the form shown in Fig. 9, Avhere each layer of stones projects slightly beyond the one underneath it. Fig. 11 is a section of the chamber itself, and the succession of small chambers shown one above the other was evi- dently formed for the purpose of distributing the weight of the superincumbent mass. From the point C a narrow well leads almost perpendicularlj' downwards to a point nearly at the bottom of the first-mentioned gallery ; and the purpose to be served by thic- well was long a subject of debate. The probability is that, after the corpse had been placed in its chamber, the workmen completely blocked up the passage from A to C by allowing large blocks of granite to slide down it, these blocks having been previously prepared and deposited in the larger gallery; the men then let themselves down the well, and by means of the lower gallery made their exit from the pyramid. The entrances to the chamber and to the pyra- mid itself were formed by huge blocks of stone which exactly litted into grooves prepircd for them with the »^w^m»;.^^ I^^-^^^^' v> ^ Fig. 9. — AscF.Nniro Gallert is thk GkEAX PVUA.MI1I. -jy L.xs.LX l"iG. 10. — The ^^.rl■l.cHl^Al. Chamiser in the Pyramid OF CEPHBES AT GlZEH. 20 ANCIENT Ai;C:ilTECTUI!E. most beautiful mathematical accuracy. The chief interest attacliiug to the pyramids lies iu their extreme antiquity, and the scientific method of their construction ; for their effect upon the spectator is by no means proportionate to their immense mass and the labour bestowed upon them. In the neighbourhood of the pyramids are found a large number of tombs which are supposed to be those of private persons. Their form is generally that of a madaha or truncated pyramid with sloping walls, and their construc- tion is evidently copied from a fashion of wooden archi- tecture previously existing. The same idea of making an everlasting habitation for the body prevailed as in the case of the pyramids, and stone was tlierefore the material employed ; but the builders seem to have desired to indulge in a decorative style, and as they Avere totally unable to originate a legitimate stone architecture, we find carved in stone, rounded beams as lintels, grooved posts, and — most curious of all — roofs that are an almost exact copy of the early timber huts when unsquared baulks of timber were laid across side by side to ibrm a covering. Figs. 12 and 13 sliow this kind of stone-work, which is peculiar to the old dynasties, and seems to have had little influence upon succeeding styles. A remarkable feature of these early private tombs con- sists in the paintings with wliich tlie walls are decorated, and Avhicli vividly portray the ordinary every-day occu- l)ations carried on during his lifetime by the person who was destined to be the inmate of the tomb. These paintings are of immense value in enabling us to form an accurate idea of the life of the people at this early age. It may possibly be open to doubt whether the dignified appellation of architecture should be applied to buildings Fic. 12. — Tmitatios of Timber Con'struction in SroNIi. fllO.M A To.MU AT .MtjirHis. ^"^;''i^":i'!';i;iiii!li^«^:;i'i!i:^i;^:.;: nlluJiJ i'lG. 13.— l^^^ATIo^^ op Timber CoxsTRUcnoN i:f Sru.NE, FR03I A Tomb at Mexpuis. 22 ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. of the land we have just been describing ; but when we come to the series of remains of the twelfth dynasty at Beni-Hassan, in middle Egypt, we meet with the earliest known examples of th:it most interesting feature of all subsequent styles — the column. Whether the idea of columnar architecture originated with the necessilies of quarrying — square piers being left at intervals to support the superincumbent mass of rock as the quarry was gradu- ally driven in — or whetlier the earliest stone piers were imitations of biickwork or of timber posts, we shall pro- bably never be able to determine accurately, though the former suj)position seems the more likely. We have here monuments of a date 1400 years anterior to the earliest known Greek examples, with splendid columns, both exterior and interior, which no reasonable person can doubt are the prototypes of the Greek Doric order. Fig. 14 is a plan with a section, and Fig. 15 an exterior view, of one of these tombs, which, it will bo seen, con- sisted of a portico, a chamber with its roof supported by columns, and a small space at the firther end in which is formed the opening of a sloping passage or well, at the lottom of which the vault for the reception of the body was constructed. The walls of the large chamber are lavishly decorated wdth scenes of every-day life, and it has even been suggested that these places were not erected originally as tombs, but as dwelling-places, which after death were appropriated as sepulchres. The columns are surmounted by a small square slab, technically called an abacus, and heavy square beams or architiaves span the spaces between the columns, Avhile the roof between the architraves has a slightly segmental form. The tombs of the later period, viz. of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, are very diti'ereat from those of EGYPTIAN TEMPLES. 23 SEcriox. the twelfth dynasty, and present few features of archi- tectural interest, though they are remarkable for their vast extent and the variety of form of their various chambers and galleries. They con- sist of a series of cliambers excavated in the rock, and it ap- pears certain that the tomb Avas commenced on the accession of each monarch, and was driven farther and farther into the rock durincc the continuance of his reign till his death, Avhen all work abruptly ceased. All the chambers are pro- fusely decorated "with paintings, but of a kind very different from those of the earlier dynasties. Instead of depicting scenes of ordi- nary life, all the paint- ings refer to the sup- posed life after death, and are thus of very creat value as a means Fig. 14. of determiniug the re- ligious opinions of tlie -Pl.\>- ANn Section of the To.mb AT Uk.M lUsSAK. 24 ANCIENT ArvCIIITECTURE. Egyptians at this time. One of the most remarlcaljle of those tomb^ is that of Manephtliah or Sethi 1., at Eab-el-Molouk, and known as Belzoni's tomh, as it was discovered by him ; from it was taken the alabaster sarco- phagus now in the Soane Museum in Lincohi's Inn Fields. To this relic a new interest is given by the announcement, Avliile these pages are passing through the press, of the discovery of the mummy of this very Manephthah, with tliirty-eight other royal mummies, in the neighbourhood of Thebes. Fio. 1.").— RocK-cur F.u ade of Tumb at Beni-IIasban ■J Of the Ptolemaic period no tombs, except perhaps a few at Alexandria, are known to exist. TEMPLES. It is very doubtful whether any remains of temples of the time of the fourth dynasty — i.e. contemporaneous Avith the pyramids — exist. One, constructed on a most extra- ordinary plan, was supposed to have been discovered about a quarter of a century ago, and it was described by Pro- EGYPTIAN TEMPLES. 25 fe.'sor Donaldson at the Eoyal Institute of Biitisli Archi- tects in ISGl, but later E;,'yptologists rather incline to the belief that this was a tomb and not a temple, as in one of the chambers of the interior a number of compartments were discovered one above the other which were a[)parcntly intended for the reception of bodies. This singular build- ing is close to the Great Sphinx ; its plan is cruciform, and there are in the interior a numher of rectangular piers of granite supporting very simple architraves, but there are no means of determining what kind of roof covered it in. The walls seem to have been faced on the interior with polished slabs of granite or alabaster, hut no sculpture or hieroglyphic inscriptions were found on them to explain the purpose of the building. Leaving this huilding — which is of a type quite unique — out of the question, Egyptian temples can be generally classed under two heads: (1) the large principal temples, and (2) the small subsidiary ones called Typhonia or Mammisi. Both kinds of temple vary little, if at all, in plan from the time of the tAvelfth dynasty down to the Eoman dominion. The large temples consist almost invariably of an entrance gate flanked on either side by a large mass of masonry, called a pylon, in the shape of a truncated pyramid (Fig. 18). The axis of the ground-plan of these pylons is frec[uently obliquely inclined to the axis of the plan of the temple itself ; and indeed one of the most striking features of Egyptian temples is the lack of regularity and sym- metry in their construction. The entrance gives access to a large courtyard, generally ornamented with columns : heyond this, and occasionally approached by steps, is another court, smaller than the first, hut much more splendidly adorned with cohimns and colossi ; heyond this •2G AXCIEXT ARCHITECTURE. ngain, in the finest examples, occurs what is called the ITypostyle Hall, i.e. a hall with two rows of lofty columns tlown the centre, and at the sides other rows, more or le.>s in number, of lo\ver columns ; the object of this arrange- ment being that the central portion might be lighted by a kind of clerestory above the roof of the side portions. Fig. 17 shows this arrangement. This hypostyle hall stood with its greatest length transverse to the general axis of the temple, so that it was entered from the side. Beyond it Avere other chambers, all of small size, the innermost being generally tlie sanc- tuary, while the others were pro- bably used as residences by the priest^. Homer's hundred-gated Tiiebes, which was for so long the capital of Egypt, offers at Karnak and Luxor the finest remains of temples ; what is left of the former evidently showing that it must lave been one of the most niagni- ficent buildings ever erected in any country. Fig. 16 is a plan of the temple of Karnak, which wns about 1200 feet long and 348 feet wide. A is the entrance between the two enormous pylons giving access to a large courtyard, in which is a small detached temple, and another larger one breaking into the courtyard obliquely. A gateway between a second pair of i^ylons admits to B, the grand Hypostyle Hall, 331: feet by 167 feet. Beyond this are additional gateways with pylons, separated by a sort Fig. 16.— Ground-Plan of the Palace at Kaknak. -/ vy///' mai!imiss;mwi!^sssms\ ^ ih^m M =' 'Ate Fig. 17— Tiik Htpostyle Hall at Kauxak. siiowixg ths Clerestoiit. yy I'lU. 15.— li.NTKANtE TO A.N EgYPIIAX Te 11'LE, SUUWIKG TUE PvLO.No. 28 ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. of gallery, C, in which were two gigantic obelislcs ; D, an- other grand hall, is called the Hall of the Caryatides, and beyond is the Hall of the eighteen columns, throiigh which access is gained to a number of smaller halls grouped round the central chamber E. Eeyond this is a large courtyard, in the centre of which stood the original sanctuary, which has disappeared down to its foundations, nothing but some broken shafts of columns remaining. At the extreme east is another hall supported partly by columns and partly by square piers, and a second series of pillared courts and chambers. The pylons and buildings generally decrease in height as Ave proceed from the entrance eastwards^ This is due to the fact that the building grew by succes- sive additions, each one more magnificent than the last, all being added on the side from which the temple was entered, leaving the original sanctuary unchanged and undisturbed. Besides the buildings shown on the plan there were many other temples to the north, south, and east, entered by pylons and some of them connected together by avenues of sphinxes, obelisks, and colossi, which altogether made up the most wonderful agglomeration of buildings that c;ui be conceived. It must not be imagined that this temple of Karnak, together with the series of connected temples is the result, of one clearly conceived plan ; on the contrary, just as has been frequently the case with our own cathedrals and baronial halls, alterations were made here and additions there by successive kings one after the other withoiit much regard to connection or congruity, the only feeling that probably influenced them being that of emulation to excel in size and grandeur the erections of their predecessors, as tlie largest buildings are almost always of latest date. The original sanctuary, EGYI'TIAN TEMl'LES. 29 or nucleus of tlic temple, Avas built by Usertesen L , tlio second or third king of the twelfth dynasty. Onieuophis, the first king of the Shepherd dynasties, built a temple round the sanctuary, wiiich has disajipeared. Thothmes I. built the Hall of the Caryatides and commenced the next Hall of the eighteen columns, Avhich Avas finished by Thothmes II. Thothmes III. built that jiortion sur- rounding the sanctuary, and he also built tlie courts on the extreme east. The pylon at C was built by Omenophis III., and formed the facade of the temple before the erection of the grand hall. Sethi I. built the Hyiiostyle Hall, Avhich had probably been originated by Ehamses I., Avho commenced the pylon Avest of it. Sethi II. built the small detached temple, and Ehamses III. the intersecting temple. The Bubastites constructed the large front court by building AA^alls round it, and the Ptolemies commenced the huge Avestern pylon. Tlie colonnade in the centre of the court AA'as erected by Tahraka. Extensive remains of temples exist at Luxor, Edfou (Fig. 19), and Philte, but it Avill net be necessary to give a detailed description of them, as, if smaller in size, they are very similar in arrangement to those already described. It should be noticed that all these large temples have the mastaba form, i.e. the outer Avails are not perpendicular on the outside, but slope iuAvards as they rise, thus giving the buildings an air of great solidity. The Mammisi exhibit quite a diiferent form of temple from those previously described, and are generally found in close proximity to the large temples. They are generally erected on a raised terrace, rectangular on plan and nearly tAvice as long as it Avas Avide, approached by a flight of steps opposite the entrance ; they consist of oblong buildings, usually divided by a Avail into tAvo 80 ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. cliambers, and surrounded on all sides by a colonnade composed of circular columns or square piers placed at intervals, and tlie whole is roofed in. A dwarf wall is fre- |S W ^r- \V s i ? Fig. 20.— Plan op one of the Mamjiisi at Ecfou. Fig. 19.— PiAN OF THB Temple at Edfou. quently found between tlie piers and columns, about half the height of the shaft. These temjiles differ from the larger ones in having their outer Avails perpendicular. Fig. 20 EGYPTIAN TEMPLES. 31 is a plan of one of these small temples, and no one can fail to remark the striking likeness lo sunie of the Greek temples ; there can indeed be little doubt that this nation borrowed the peri- stylar form of its temples from the Ancient Egyp- tians. Although no rock-cnt temples have been dis- covered in Egypt proper, !Nubia is very rich in such remains. The arrangeuient of these temples hewn out of the rock is closely analo- gous to that of the detached ones. Fir's. 21 and 22 show F"=- ^i.-grouxdplax of the kcce-cut ° Tk.mi'le at IPoAUEuUL. a plan and section of the r.'G 22 — .-rc-KiS OF TUF. Kl CK-CIT TK.Mn.E AT IrSAMnuUL. 32 anc;ext arciiiteciure. largest of the rock-cut temples at Ipsamboul, Avhicli consists of two extensive courts, with smaller chamLcrs beyond, all connected by galleries. The roof of the large court is supported by eight huge piers, the faces of which are sculptured into the form of standing colossi, and the entrance is adorned by four splendid seated colossi, C8 ft. G in. high. As was the case with the detached temples, it will be noticed that the height of the various chambers decreases towards the extremity of the excavation. The constructional system pursued by the Egyptians, which consisted in roofing over spaces with large horizontal blocks of stone, led of necessity to a columnar arrangement in the interiors, as it was impossible to cover large areas without frequent upright supports. Hence the column became the chief means of obtaining effect, and the varieties of form Avhich it exhibits are very numerous. The earliest form is that at Beni-PIassan, which has ah-eady been noticed as the prototype of the Doric order. Figs. 23 and 24 are views of two columns of a type more commonly employed. In these the sculptors appear to have intended as closely as possible the forms of the plant-world around them, as is shown in Fig. 23, which represents a bundle of reeds or lotus stalks, and is the earliest type known of the lotus column, which Avas afterwards developed into a number of forms, one of which will be observed on turning to our section of the Ilypostyle Hall at Karnak (Fig. 17), as employed for the lateral columns. The stalks are bound round with several belts, and the capital is formed by the slightly bulging unopened bud of the flower, above which is a small abacus with the architrave resting upon it : the base is nothing but a low circular plinth. The square piers also have frequently a lotus bud carved on them. At the bottom of the shaft is frequently found EGYPTIAN TEMPLES. 33 a decoration imitated from the sheath of leaves from •which the plant springs. As a furtlier development of this capital we have the opened lotus flower of a very graceful bell-like shape, ornamented with a similar sheath- like decoration to that at the ba.se of the shaft (Fig. 24). This decoration was originally painted only, not sculptured, JJ-."', ■ ■,■ "^ '^■- ■w . — \ J ^xvv ~J^ S s 1 M PLA.V. Fro. 23.— Egtptian Coittmn WiiH Loius Bud Capital. Fig. 24.— Egyptian Colcm.v ■WITH Lotus Flower Capital. but at a later period we find these sheaths and buds Avorked in stone. Even more graceful is the palm cajjital, which also had its leading lines of decoration painted on it at fir-st (Fig. 25), and afterwards sculptured (Fig. 26). At a later period of the style we find the plant foims abandoned, and capitals were formed of a fantastic combination of the head D 34 ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. of Isis with a pylon resting upon it (Fig. 27). Consider- able ingenuity was exercised in adapting the capitals of the columns to the positions in which they were placed : thus in the hypostyle halls, the lofty central row of columns generally had capitals of the form shown in Fig. 24, as the light here was sufficient to illuminate thoroughly the underside of the overhanging bell ; but those columns which were farther removed from the light Lad their Fig. 25.— Palm Capital. Fig. 26.— Scclptueed Capital. capitals of the unopened bud form, which was narrower at the top than at bottom. In one part of the temple at Kainak is found a very curious capital resembling the open lotus flower inverted. The proportion which the height of Egyptian columns bears to their diameter differs so much in various cases that there was evidently no regular standard adhered to, but as a general rule they have a heavy and massive character. The wall-paintings of the Egyptian buildings show many curious forms of EGYPTIAN TE.AIPLES. 35 columns (Fig. 28), but we have no reason for thinking that these fantastic shapes were really executed in stone. Almost the only sculptured ornaments worked on the exteriors of buildings were tlie curious astragal or bead at all the angles, and the cornice, which consisted of a very large cavetto, or hollow moulding, surmounted by a fillet. HBlHl Fig. 27.— Isis Capital fno.M Desdeb.au. Fig. 28.— Fanciful Colu.mn pkom Painted Decohaiiom at Thebes. These features are almost invariable from the earliest to the latest period of the style. This cavetto was generally enriched, over the doorways, Avith an ornament repre- senting a circular boss with a wing at each side of it (Fig. 29). One other feature of Egyptian architecture which was peculiar to it must be mentioned; namely, the obelisk. D 2 36 ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. Obelisks were nearly always erected in pairs in front of the pylons of the temples, and added to the dignity of the entrance. They were invariably monoliths, slightly tapering in outline, carved with the most perfect accuracy ; they must have existed originally in very large numbers. Xot a few of these have been transported to Europe, and At least twelve are standing in Eome, one is in Paris, and one in London. IlliliW Ii!l!!!!!i!l!:iillllli!!llill!lll!!lli^il!i!i^ FlO. 29. — CaOWKING COKNICB AND BEAD. The most striking features, and the most artistic, in the decoration of Egyptian buildings, are the mural paintings and sculptured pictures, which are found in the most lavish profusion, and which exhibit the highest skill in conven- tionalising the human figure and other objects.* Tombs and temples, columns and obelisks are conipletelj'' covered with graphic representations of peaceful home pursuits, Avarlike expeditions and battle scenes, and — though not till a late period — descriptions of ritual and mythological delineations of the supposed spirit-world which the soul lias entered after death. These pictures, together with the * Conventionalising may be described as representing apart only of the visible qualities or features of an object, omitting the remainder or very slightly indicating them. A biaclc siihouette portrait is an extreme instance of convention, as it displays absolutely nothing but the outliue of a profile. For decorative purposes it is almost always necessary to conventionalise to a greater or less extent whatever is represented. EGYPTIAX DECORATIONS. 37 hieroglyphic inscriptions — which are in themselves a series of pictures — not only relieve the bare wall surface, but, what is far more important, enable ns to realise the kind of existence which was led by this ancient people ; and as in nearly every case the cartouche (or sj'mbol represent- ing the name) of the monarch under whose reign the building was erected was added, we should be able to fix the dates of the buildings with exactness, were the chro- nology of the kings made out beyond doubt. The following description of the manner in which the Egyptian paintings and scidptures were executed — from the pen of Owen Jones — will be read with interest : — " The wall was first chiselled as smooth as possible, the imperfections of the stone were filled up with cement or plaster, and the whole was rubbed smooth and covered with a coloured wash ; lines were then ruled perpendi- cularly and horizontally with red colour, forming squares all over the wall corresponding with the proportions of the figure to be drawn upon it. The subjects of the painting and of the hieroglyphics were then drawn on the wall with a red line, most probably by the priest or chief scribe, or by some inferior artist, from a document divided into similar squares ; then came the chief artist, who went over every figure and hieroglyphic with a black line, and a firm and steady hand, giving expression to each curve, deviating here and confirming there the red line. The line thus traced was then followed by the sculptor. The next process was to paint the figure in the prescribed colours." Although Egyptian architecture was essentially a tra- beated style, — that is to say, a style in which beams or lintels were usually employed to cover openings, — there is strong ground for the belief that the builders of that time 38 ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. were acquainted with the nature of the arch. Dr. Birch mentions a rudimentary arch of the time of the fifth dynasty : at Abydos there are also remains of vaulted tombs of the sixth dynasty; and in a tomb in the neigh- bourhood of the Pyramids there is an elementary arch of three stones surmounted by a true arch constructed in four courses. The probability is that true brick arches were built at a very early period, but in the construction of their tombs, where heavy masses of superincumbent masonry or rock had to be supported, the Egyptians seem to have been afraid to risk even the remote possi- Tnlity of their arches decaying ; and hence, even when they preserved the form of the arch in masonry, they constructed it with horizontal courses of stone projecting one over the other, and then cut away the lower angles. One dominating idea seems to have influenced them in the whole of their work — esto perpetua was their motto ; and though they have been excelled by later peoples in grace and beauty, it is a question whether they have ever been surpassed in the skill with which they adapted their means to the end which they always kept in view. ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS. Plan. Floor (technically Plan). — The early rock-cut tombs were, of course, only capable of producing internal effects ; their floor presents a series of halls and galleries, vary- ing in size and shape, leading one out of the other, and intended by their contrast or combination to produce architectural effect. To this was added in the later rock- cut tombs a fa9ade to be seen directly in front. Much the same account can be given of the disposition of the EGYPTIAN. — ANALYSIS. 39 "built temples. They possess one front, ■wliicli the spectator approaches, and they are disposed so as to produce varied and impressive interiors, but not to give rise to external display. The supports, such as walls, columns, piers, are all very massive and very close together, so that the only wide open spaces are courtyards. The circle, or octagon, or other polygonal forms do not appear in the plans of Egyptian buildings ; but though all tlie lines are straight, there is a good deal of irregularity in spacing, walls which face one another are not always parallel, and angles which appear to be right angles very often are not so. The later buildings extend over much, space. The adjuncts to these buildings, especially the avenues of sphinxes, are plmned so as to produce an air of stately grandeur, and in them some degree of external effect is aimed at. Walls. The walls are uniformly thick, and often of granite or of stone, though brick is also met Avith ; e.g. some of the smaller pyramids are built entirely of brick. In all pro- bability the walls of domestic buildings were to a great extent of biick, and less thick than those of the temples; hence they have all disappeared. The surface of walls, even when of granite, was usually plastered with a thin fine plaster, which was covered by the profuse decoration in colour already alluded to. The walls of the propylons tapered from the base towards the top, and the same thing sometimes occurred in other walls. In almost all cases the stone walls are built of very large blocks, and they show an unrivalled skill in masonry. 40 ANCIENT ARCHITECTUUE. Roofs. The roofing which remains is executed entirely in stone, but not arched or vaulted. The rock-cut tombs, however, as has been stated, cjntain ceilings of an arched shape, and in some cases forms which seem to be an imitation of timber roofing. The roofing of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak provides an arrangement for admitting light very similar to the clerestory of Gothic cathedrals. Openings. The openings were all covered by a stone lintel, and consequently were uniformly square-headed. The inter- spaces between columns were similarly covered, and hence Egyptian architecture has been, and correctly, classed as the first among the styles of trabeated architecture. "VViudow-openings seldom occur. Columns. Tlie columns have been already described to some extent. They are almost always circular in plan, but the shaft is sometimes channelled. They are for the most part of sturdy proportions, but great grace and elegance are sliown in the profile given to shafts and capitals. The design of the capitals especially is full of variety, and admirably adapts forms obtained from the vegetable king- dom. The general effect of the Egyptian column, wher- ever it is used, is that it appears to have, as it really has, a great deal more strength than is required. The fact that the abacus (the square block of stone introduced between the mouLled part of the capital and what it carries) is often smaller in width than the diameter of jlie column aids very much to produce this efi'ect. EGYPTIAN. ANALYSIS. 41 Ornaments. Mouldings are very rarely employed ; in fact, tlie large bead running up the angles of the pylons, &c,, and a heavy hollow moulding doing duty as a cornice, are all that are usually met with. Sculpture and carving occur occa- sionally, and are freely introduced in later works, where w'e sometimes find statues incorporated into the design of the fronts of temples. Decoration in colour, in the shape of hieroglyphic inscriptions and paintings of all sorts, was prolusely employed (Figs. 27-30), and is executed with a truth of drawing and a beauty of colouring that have never been surpassed. As has been pointed out, almost every object drawn is partly conventionalised, in the most skilful manner, so as to mar^e it fit its place as a piece of a decorative system. Arcliitedural Character. This is gloomy, and to a certain extent forbidding, owing to the heavy walls and piers and columns, and the great masses supported by them ; but Avhen in its fresh- ness and quite uninjured by decay or violence, the exquisite colouring of the walls and ceilings and columns must have added a great deal of beauty : this must have very much diminished the oppressive effect inseparable from such massive construction anil from the gloomy darkness of many portions of the buildings. It is also noteworthy that the expenditure of materials and labour is greater in proportion to the effect attained than in any other style. The pyramids are the most conspicuous example of this prodigality. Eefore condemning this as a defect in the style, it must be remembered that a stability which should defy enemies, earthquakes, and the tooth of time, was far 42 AXCIENT ARCHITECTURE. more aimed at than architectural character; and that, had any mode of construction less lavish of material, and less perfect in workmanship, been adopted, the buildings of Egypt might have all disappeared ere this. IT T ^mfnT-^rr r^iliiiii'' ^ iT"' 1J f 10. 30.— PaISIED DliCORATloN FEOM TflliBlid. Fig. 31.— Sculptured Orsamest at NiNEVEn. CHAPTER III. WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. THE arclutecturnl styles of the ancient nations which ruled over the countries of Western Asia watered by the Tigris and the Euphrates, from a period about 2200 B.C. down to 330 B.C., are so intimately connected one with another, and so dependent one upon the other, that it is almost impossible to attempt an accurate discrimination between the Babylonian or ancient Chakltean, the Assyrian and the Persian. A more intelligible idea of the archi- tecture of this long period will be gained by regarding the three styles as modifications and developments of one original style, than by endeavouring to separate them.* Their sequence can, however, be accurately determined. First comes the old Chaldsean period, next the Assyrian, during which the great city of Kineveh was built, and * In any such endeavour vre should be met by the further difficulty, that the writers of antiquity differ widely in the precise limits which they give to the Assyrian Kingdom. Some make it include Babylon, other writers say that it was bounded on the south by Babylon, and altogether the greatest confusion exists in the accounts that have come down to us. 44 ANCIENT ARCHITECTUUB. filially the Persian, after Cyrus had subdued the older monarchies ; and remains exist of all these periods. As to the origin of the Chaldfean Kingdom, however, all is obscure ; and the earliest date -which can be fixed with the slightest approach to probability is 2234 B.C., when Nimrod is supposed to have founded the old ChaldBean dynasty. This seems to have lasted about 700 years, and was then overthrown by a conquering nation of which no record or even tradition remains, the next two and a half centuries being a complete blank till the rise of the great Assyrian Monarchy about 1290 B.C., which lasted till its destruction by Cyrus about 538 B.C. The Persian Monarchy then endured till the death of Alexander the Great, in 333 b.c., after which great confusion arose, the empire being broken up among his generals and rapidly falling to pieces. It is only within a comparatively recent period that we have had any knowledge of the architecture of these countries ; but the explorations of 'M. Botta, commenced in 1843 and continued by M. Place, and those of Mr. (now Sir A. H.) Layard in 1845, combined with the successful attempts of Prof. Grotefend, Prof. Lassen, and Col. Piaw- linson at deciphering the cuneiform inscriptions, have dis- closed a new world to the architectural student, without which some of the developments of Greek architecture must have remained obscure. The authentic remains of buildings of the early Chaldsean period are too few and in too ruinous a condition to allow of a reproduction of their architectural features with any certainty. The buildings, whether palaces or temples, appear to have been con- structed on terraces, and to have been several storeys in height ; and in one instance, at Mugheyr, the walls sloped inwards in a similar manner to those of Egyptian build- BABYLONIAN'. 45 ings, a peculiarity whicli is not met with in other examples of West Asiatic architecture. The materials employed were bricks, Loth sun-dried and Iciln-burrit, which seem to have been coated with a vitreous enamel for purposes of interior decoration. Fragments of carved limestone were discovered by Sir A. H. Layard, but the fact that the fragments found have been so few ought not to lead us too hastily to the conclusion that stone was not used as facing for architectural purposes, as after the buildings became ruined the stone would eagerly be sought for and carried away before the brickwoik was touched, liitumen seems to have been employed as a cement. Al- though original buildings of tliis era cannot be found, it has been shown that in all probability we have, in a building of a later date — the Birs-i-Nimrud — a type of the old Babylonian temple. This in its general disposition must have resembled that of the Tomb of Cyrus, described and figured later on, though on a vastly larger scale. The lowest stoiey appears to have been an exact s(][uare of 272 ft. ; each of the higher storeys was 42 ft. less horizon- tally than the one below it, and was placed 30 It. back from the front of the stoiey below it, but equidistant from the two sides, where the platforms were 21 fc. wide. The three upper storeys were 45 ft. in heightal together, the two below these were 26 ft. each, and the heiglit of the lowest is uncertain. The topmost storey probably had a tower on it which enclosed the shrine of the temple. This edifice Avas for a long time a bone of contention among savants, but Colonel Eawlinson's investigations have brought to light the fact that it was a temple dedi- cated to the seven heavenly spheres, viz. Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon, in the order given, .starling from the bottom. Access to the 46 ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. various platforms was obtained by stairs, and the whole building was surrounded by a Availed enclosure. From remains found at Wurkha we may gather that the walls of the buildings of this period were covered with elaborate plaster ornaments, and that a lavish use was made of colour in their decoration. Of the later Assyrian jDeriod several ruins of buildings believed to be palaces have been excavated, of which the large palace at Khorsabad, the old name of which was Hisir-Sargon, now a small village between 10 and 11 miles north-east of JS^ineveh, has been the most completely explored, and tliis consequently is the best adapted to ex- plain the general jjlan of an Assyrian edifice. M. Botta, when French Consul at Mosul, and M Victor Place con- ducted these explorations, and the following details are taken from their works. Like all other Assyrian palaces, this was reared on a huge artificial mound, the labour of forming which must have been enormous. The reason for the construction of these mounds is not far to seek. Just as the chiefs of a mountainous country choose the loftiest peaks for their castles, so in Assyria, which was a very flat country, the extra defensive strength of elevated buildings was clearly appreciated; and as these absolute monarchs ruled over a teeming popula- tion and had a very large number of slaves, and only had to direct their taskmasters to impress labour whenever they wanted it, no difficulty existed in forming elevated platforms for their palaces. These were frequently close to a river, and it is by no means improbable that this was turned into the excavation from which the earth for the mound was taken, and thus formed a lake or moat as an additional defence. A further reason for these terraces may be found in the fact that in a hot climate buildings ASSYRIAN. 47 erected some 20 or 30 ft. above the level of the plain catch the breezes much more quickly than lower edifices. In the case of Khorsabad the terrace was made of sun- dried bricks, about 15*7 in. square and 2 in. thick. These bricks were made of the most carefully prepared clay. The terrace was faced by a retaining wall of coursed masonry, nearly 10 ft. in thickness. On this terrace the palace was built, and it consisted of a series of open courts arranged unsymmetrically, surrounded by state or private apartments, storehouses, stables, &c. Great care seems to have been exercised in the accurate orientation of the building, but in rather a peculiar manner. Instead of any one facade of the building facing due north, the corners face exactly towards the four points of the compass. The courts were all entered by magnificent portals flanked by gigantic figures, and were approached by flights of steps. Fig. 32 is a plan of the palace of Khorsabad, which was placed close to the boundary of the city; in fact it was partly outside the city wall proper, though surrounded by a wall of its own. The grand south-east portals or propylsea were adorned with huge human-headed bulls and gigantic figures, and gave access to a large court, 315 ft. by 280 ft., on the east side of whicli are the stables and out-houses, and on the west side the metal stores. On the north of this court, though not approached directly from it, was the Seraglio (not to be confounded with the Harem), the grand entrance to which was from a second large court, access to which was obtained from a roadway sloping up from the city. The portals to this portion of the palace were also adorned with human-headed bulls. From the second court a vaulted passage gave access to the state apartments, Avhich appear to have had a direct view across the open country, and ikliiiiii liii I Ji Fig. 32.— Palace op Khorsabad. Bcilt by King Saegon about 710 B.C. A, Steps. B, Chief portal. C, Chief entiance-couit. D—H, Women's apartments (Harem). J, Centre court of building. K, Chief court of royal residence. L, Portal witli carved bulls as guards. M, Centre court of royal residence. N, Temple (?). 0, Pynuiiid of steps.- S, Entrance to chief court, T, Plan of terraces witU wall and towers. ASSVRIAN. 49 were quite oulsiJe the city -walls. The Harem lias been excavated ; it stood just outside the palace proper, behind the metal stores. The remains of an observatory exist, and the outlines of what is supposed to have been a temple have also been unearthed, so that we have here a complete plan of the palace. Altogether 31 courts and 198 chambers have been discovered. It will be noticed that great disproportion exists between the length of the various apartments and their breadth, none buing more than 40 ft. wide ; and it is probable that this was owing to structural necessities, the Assyrian builders fiuiling it impossible, with the materials at their disposal, to cover wider spaces than this. The Avails of this palace vary from 5 to 15 ft. in thickness, and are composed of sun-dried bricks, faced in the principal courts and state apartments with slabs of alabaster or !Mosal gypsum to a height of from 9 to 12 ft., above which kiln-burnt bricks Avere used. The alabaster slabs were held together by iron, copper, or wooden cramps or plugs, and Avere coveri-'d with sculptured pictures representing scenes of peace and war, from which, as was the case with the Egyptian r^'Uiains, we are able to reconstruct for ourselves the daily life of the monarchs of those early times. Above the alabaster slabs plastered decorations Avere used ; in some cases painted frescoes have been found, or mosaics formed Avith enamelled bricks of various colours. In the out- buildings and the more retired rooms of the palace, the alabaster slabs Avere omitted, and plaster decorations used, from the ground upwards. The researches of MM. Eotta and Place have shown that colour Avas used Avith a lavish- ness quite foreign to our notions, as the alabaster statues as Avell as the plaster enrichments Avere coloured. M. Place says that in no case Avere the plain bricks allowed to face 50 AXCIEXT AaCHITECTL'UE. the walls of an apartment, the joint being always con- cealed either by colour or plaster : in fact, he remarks that after a time, if he found walls standing showing the brick- work joints, he invariably searched with success among the debris of tlie chamber for remains of the sculptured decorations which had been used to face the walls. Kot the least interesting of these discoveries was that of the drains under the palace, portions of which were in very good preservation ; and all were vaulted, so that there can be no doubt whatever that the Assyiians were acquainted with the use of the arch. This was furtlier proved by the discovery by M. Place of the great arched gates of the city itself, with an archivolt of coloured enamelled bricks forming various patterns, with a semi- circular arch springing ironi plain jambs. Extreme Ciire was taken by the Assyrian builders in laying the pave- ments to ensure their being perfectly level : first a layei of kiln-burnt bricks was laid on the ordinary sun-dried bricks forming the terrace ; then came a layer of fine sand, upon which the bricks or slal'S of the pavement proper Avere laid, forming in many cases an elegant pattern (see Fig. 33). Great difference of opinion exists as to the manner in which the various apartments of the palace were lighted. M. Place suggests that the rooms were all vaulted on the inside, and the spandrels filled in with earth afterwards to form perfectly flat roofs, and he gives a restoration of the building on such an arrangement ; but if he is correct, it is impossible to see how any light at all can have pene- trated into the interior of many of the apartments, and as these apartments are decorated Avith a profusion of paintings it is very difficult to believe that artificial light alone was used in them. M. Place thinks, however, that ASSYRIAN. Ul ill some cylindrical terra-cotta vessels which he found ho has hit upou a species of skylight which passed completely through the vault over the rooms, and thus admitted the light from above. This, however, can hardly be considered as settled yet. Mr. Fergusson, on the other hand, suggests that the thick main walls v»'ere carried to a height of about IS or 19 ft., and that above this Averc two rows of dwarf columns, one on the inner and the other on the ouicr ed' e ilO. 3o.— PaVEMEST FttOM K.HOVfSJIS. of the wnll, these columns supporting a flat terrace roof, and the walls thus forming galleries all round the apartments. Then to cover the space occupied by the apartments them- selves it is necessary to assume the existence of rows of columns, the capitals of which were at the same level as those of the dwarf columns on the walls. "Where one apartment is surrounded on all sides by other's, the roof over it may have been carried up to a higher level, forming 52 AXCIEXT AKCHITECTCKE. a sort of clerestory. This thecny no doubt accounts for many things Avhich are very hard to explain otherwise, and derives very strong support from the analogy of Per- sepolis, where slender stone columns exist. Such columns of cedar wood would add enormously to the magnificence and grandeur of the building ; and if, as seems likely, most of these Assyrian palaces Avere destroyed by fire, the absence of the remains of columns otters no difficulty. On the other hand, in many parts of the palace of Ivhorsa- bnd no trace of fire remains, and yet here no suggestion of detached columns can be found, and, moreover, it is extremely difficidt to arrange columns symmetrically in the \arious apartments so that doorways are not interfered with. There is also another difficulty, viz. that if the building called the Harem at Khorsabud was built in this way, the apartments would have been open to the view of any one ascending the lofty building called the observatory. It is quite possible that iurther explorations may tend to elucidate this difficult question of roofing, but at present all that can be said is that none of these theories that have been put forward is wholly satisfactory. As no columns at all exist, avc cannot say what capitals were employed, but it is probable that those of Persei)olis, which will be shortly described, were copied from an earlier wooden form, which may have been that used by the Assyrian builders. There is, however, capping the terrace on which the temple was erected at Khorsabad, a good example of an Assyrian cornice, wdiich is very similar indeed to the forms found in Egypt, and some of the sculptured bas-reliefs which have been discovered depict rude copies of Assyrian buildings drawn by the people themselves ; and it is most interesting to notice that just as we found in the Egyptian style the proto-Doric column, PERSIAN. 53 SO in the Assyrian we find the proto-Ionic (Figs. 34, 34a), and possibly also the proto-Covinthian (Fig. 34b), The third branch of West Asiatic architecture is the Persian, which was developed after Cyrus had conquered the older monarchies, and which attained its greatest mag- nificence under Darius and Xerxes. The Persians were ori"-inallv a brave and hardy race inhabiting the moun- tainous region south of Media, which slopes down to the Persian Gulf. Until the time of Cyrus, who was the founder -n rz- u-^ Fig. 3-U.— Proto-Ionic CAPITAL FROM Assyria.^ Sculpture. GTv/c) Fig. 34d.— Pkoto- CuRiNTHiAN Capital FROM Assyrian Sculpture. Fig. 34.— Prdto- lO.XIC COLC.MS. of the great kingdom of Persia, they inhabited small towns, had no architecture, and were simple barbarians. Eut after Cyrus had vanquished the wealthy and luxurious Assyrian monarchs, and his warriors hiul seen and wondered at the opulence and splendour of the Assyrian palaces, it was natural that his successors should strive to emulate fur themselves the display of tlieir vassals. Therefore, having no indigenous style to fall back upon, the artisans who were summoned to build the tomb of the founder of tlie monarchy and the palaces of his successors, simply copied 54 ANCIENT ARCniTECTURE. tlie forms witli which they were acquainted. Tortunately, the sites for the new pahices were in a locality where build- ing stone Avas good and abundant, and the presence of this material had a modifying effect upon the architecture. The best known of the remains which date as far back as the earlier Persian dynasties is the so-called tomb of Cyrus at Pasargadie, near Murghab (Fig. 35). TJiis may Tig. 35— Tcmb of Ctrus. be looked upon as a model in Avhite marble of an old Chaldsean temple, such as the Birs-i-Nimrud. There are the same platforms diminishing in area as the top is approached, and on the topmost platform is a small cella or temple with a gabled stone roof, wliich probably originally contained the sarcophagus. It is, however, at Persepolis, the real capital of the later Persian kings, whose grandeur and wealth were such that Alexander is PERSIAX. 55 said to have found there treasure to the amount of thirty millions of pounds sterling, that we find the most magnifi- cent series of ruins. These were carefully measured and drawn by Baron Texier in 1835, and his work and that of :M:\[. Flandrin and Coste are those from which the best information on this subject can be obtained. Persepolis is about 35 miles northeast of Shiraz, close to the main highway to Ispahan, at the foot of the mountain range which bounds the extensive plain of ISTurdusht. The modern inhabitants of the district call the ruins Takht-i- Jamshid (or the building of Jamshid), but the inscriptions that have been deciphered prove that Darius and Xerxes were the chief builders. Just as was the case wiui the Assyrian ruins, these stand on an i:r.mense platform Avhich rises perpendicularly from the plain and abuts in the rear against the mountain range. Instead, however, of this platform being raised artificially, it was cut out of the rock, and levelled into a series of terraces, on which the buildings were erected. The platform, whose length fiom north to south is about 1582 ft., and breadth from east to west about 938 ft., is approached from the plain by a magnificent double staircase of black marble, of very easy rise, not more than 4 in. each step. Its general hei'^at above the level of the plain was originally 34 ft. 9 in. The retaining wall of the platform is not straight, but has in it 40 breaks or set-olfs of unequal dimensions. At the top of the staircase are the remains of a building with four columns in the centre and with large portals both back and front, each of which is adorned with gigantic bulls, strikingly resembling those found at Khorsa- bad. Those in the front have no wnngs, but those in the rear Ijave wings and human heads. It has been suggested that these are the ruins of one of those large covered gates 50 ANCIE.VT ARCHITECTURE. frequently mentioned in the Bible, under the shelter of Avhich business was transacted, and which probably formed the entrance to the whole range of courts and buildings. After passing through this gateway and turning south- Gird Fig. 35a— General Plan op the Buildings at rrnsEPOLis. wards, at a distance of 177 feet from it, another terrace is reached, 9 ft. 2 in. higlier than the first one. This ter- race also is approached by four flights of steps profusely decorated with sculptured bas-reliefs, and on it are the remains of the Cheliil Minar, tlie grand hexastyle Hull of PKRSIAX. 57 Xerxes, wliicli must have iDcen one of the most magnificent huildincrs of ancient times. Tliis building is marked A on the general plan. It consisted of a central court, contain- ing thirty-six columns, the distance from centre to centre of the outside columns being 142 ft. Sin. This court was surrounded by walls, of which nothing now remains but the jambs of three of the doorways. On three sides of this court, to the north, east and west, Avere porticoes of twelve columns each, precisely in a line with those of the central court, the distance from centre to centre of tlio columns being 28 ft. 6 in. These columns, both in their proportions and shape, suggest an imitation of timber con- struction. On the south the court was probably termi- nated by a Avail, and ^Nlr. Fergnsson suggests that tlie corners between the porticoes were filled up with small chambers. The most striking feature of this hall or palace must have been its loftiness, the height of the columns varying from 63 ft. 8 in. to 64 feet from bottom of base to top of capital. The shafts were slightly tapering and had 48 flutings, and Avere 4 ft. 6 in. in diameter in the upper part. The bases of the columns shoAV hardly any A-ariations, and consist of a series of mouldings such as is shown in Fig. 36 ; the loAvest part of this moulded base is enriched Avith leaves, and rests on a low circular plinth at the bottom : the total height of the base averages 5 feet. The capitals show considerable variations. Those of the east and Avest porticoes represent the heads and fore part of the bodies of two bulls* placed directly on the shaft back to back, Avith their forelegs doubled under them. * As a matter of fact there is a marked flistinetion between the heads of the animals of the east and \' est porticoes : those of the west are un- doubtedly bulls, bit tho-e of the east are grotesque mythological creatur>. s somewhat resembliug the fabled uuicora. ','TF?= ^lllliiill m ^ l\(i. 3'J. — Dauuba FRoji Ceylox. These are of two kinds, — the topes or stujias proper, which were erected to commemorate some striking event or to mark a sacred spot ; and the dagobas, which were built to cover the relics of Buddha himself or some Buddhist saint. These topes consist of a slightly stilted hemi- spherical dome surmounting a substructure, circular in plan, which forms a sort of terrace, access to which is obtained by steps. The domical shape was, however, ex- INDIAN. 67 ternal only, as on tlic inside the masonry was almost colid, a few small cavities only being left for the protection of various jewels, &c. The dome was probably surmounted by a pinnacle, as shown in Fig. 39. In the neighbourhood of Bhilsa, in Central India, there are a large number of these topes, of which the largest, that of Sauchi, measures 121 ft. in diameter and 55 ft. in height; it was erected by King Asoka. Two kinds of edifices which are not tombs remain, the chaityas (temples or halls of assembly) and viharas or monasteries, which were generally attached to the chaityas. These erections were either detached or cut in the rock, and it is only the rock-cut ones of Avhich remains exist of an earlier date than the commencement of the Christian era. The earliest specimen of a rock-cut chaitya is in the Nigope cave, near Behar, constructed about 200 B.C. This consists of two compartments, an outer rectangular one 32 ft. 9 in. by 19 ft, 1 in., and an inner circular one 19 ft. in diameter. The Lomas Eishi cave is of a slightly later date : both of these rock-cut temples exhibit in every detail a reproduction of wooden forms. In the doorway the stone piers slope inwards, just like raking wooden struts, and the upper part represents the ends of longitudinal rafters support- ing a roof. Later on the builders emancipated them- selves to a certain extent from this servile adhesion to older forms, and Fig. 40 gives a plan and section of a later chaitya at Karli, near Poona. This bears a striking resemblance to a Christian basilica : * there is first the fore- court ; then a rectangular space divided by columns into nave and aisles, and terminated by a semicircular apse. * Sse Cliap. X. for an illustration of a Christian Basilica. F 2 G8 ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURK. The nave is 25 ft. 7 in. wide, and the aisles 10 ft. each; the total length is 126 ft. Fifteen columns separate the nave from the aisles, and these have bases, octagonal shafts, and rich capitals. Eound the apse the columns are replaced by piers. The side aisles have fiat roofs, and the central nave a stilted semicircular one, practically a vault, which Fig. 40.— Chaitta near Poona. at the apse becomes a semicircular dome, under which is the dagoba, the symbol of Buddhism. The screen separating the forecourt from the temple itself is richly ornamented with sculpture. The older viharas or monasteries were also cut in the rock (Figs. 41, 42), and were divided into cells or chambers j INDIAN'. 69 they were several storoys in height, and it is prohahle that the cells were used by devout Buddhists as habitations for the purposes of meditation. Anionf^ the most remarkable, and in fact almost unique -^ -^ ^ — - — y^'^^-t^ Pig. 41.— Thb Kylas at Elloha. A Rock-cdt Moscjiest. features of Hindu Architecture are the so-called rails which form enclosures sometimes round the topes and sometimes round sacred trees. Occasionally they are found standing alone, though when this is the case it is 70 ORIENTAL ARCniTECTURE. jirobably on account of the object wbicli uas the cause of their erection liaving perished. They are built of stone, carved so as to represent a succession of perpendicular and horizontal bands or rails, separated by a soit of pierced panels. The carving is of the most elaborate description, both human and animal forms being de^ncted wiih. gieat Fio. 42 —Plan of the K.ylas at Ellora. A Rock-ctt Mondmem. fidelity, and representations occur of various forms of tree •worship "which have been of the greatest use in elucidating the history of this phase of religious belief. Occasionally the junctions of the rails are carved into a series of discs, separated by elaborate scroll-work. These rails are fre- IX DI AN. 1 qucatly of very large dimensions, tliat at Bliarhiit — whicli is one of tlie most recently discovered — measuring 275 ft. in circumierence, with a height uf 22 ft. 6 in. The date of these erections is frequently viry difficult to determine, but the chief authorities geiuTally concur in the opinion ^^)^ Tig. -ij'.— Vimana from Manasara. that none are found dating earlier than about 250 B.C., nor later than 500 A.D., so that it is pretty certain they must have been appropriated to some form of Buddliist worship. All the buildings that we have mentioned were devoted 72 ORIENTAL ARCHIT.'ECTURE. to the worship of Buddha, ))ut the Jain schism, Brahmanism, and other cults had their representative temples and build- ings, a full description of which would require a volume many times larger than the present one. Many of the late detached buildings display rich ornamentation and elaborate workmanship. They are generally of a pyriimidal shape, several storeys in height, covered Avitli intricately cut mouldings and other fantastic embellishments. Columns are of all shapes and sizes, brackets frequently take the place of capitals, and where capitals exist almost every variety of fantastic form is found. It has been stated that no fixed laws govern the plan or details of Indian buildings, but there exists an essay on Indian Architecture by Bam Eaz — himself a Hindoo — which tends to show that such a statement is erroneous, as he quotes original works of considerable antiquity which lay down stringent rules as to the planning of buildings, their height, and the details of the columns. It is probable that a more extended acquaintance with Hindu literature will throw further light on these rules. Of the various invasions which have occurred some have left traces in the architecture of India. None of these are more interestinc; than certain semi-Greek forms Avhich are met with in the Northern Provinces, and which without doubt are referable to tlie influence of the invasion under Alexander the Great. A far more conspicuous and wide- spread series of changes followed in the wake of the ^Mohammedan invasions. "We shall have an opportunity later on of recurring to tliis subject,* but it is one to which attention should be called at tliis early stage, lest it should be thought that a large and splendid part of Indian archi- tecture had been overlooked. * Se3 chapter on Saracenic Architecture. '"::i;||:'!l'iiii'iv^'"^^iH^ — "-i f """"■' ^=^v_^^ =4m "~^ ^^?i\^r- 1^ ^=r -—,- /-= ^^ -. - \ , . 1 —Tt^ "* ■^^\^V W^ i^l;^-^ iilllilllll»'|'ni|lliir'ini| Miii^'iSilliflfSii'li ';(';!i.;!|ii!!|ll[|;i!l;iiiil!.:!!,il:;- i'lG. 4C.— COLUMH FKOM EltOBA. 74 ORIENTAL ARCIIlTECTUnE. Chinese and Japanese Architecture. Although the Chinese have existed as a nation con- tinuously for between two and three thousand years, if ]iot longer, and at a very early period had arrived at a hi"-h state of artistic and scientitic cultivation, yet none O of their buildings with which we are acquainted has any claim on our attention because of its antiquity. Several reasons may be assigned for this, the principal being that the Chinese seem to be as a race singularly unsusceptible to all emotions. Although they reverence their dead ancestors, yet this reverence never led them, as did that of the Egyptians, Etruscans, and other nations, to a lavish expenditure of labour or materials, to render their tombs almost as enduring as the everlasting hills. Though waves of religious zeal must have flowed over the country when Confucius inculcated his simple and practical morality and gained an influential following, and again when Buddhism was introduced and speedily became the religion of the greater portion of the people, their religious emotion never led them, as it did the Greeks and the Mediajval builders, to erect grand and lasting monuments of sacred art. When most of the Western nations were still barbarians, the Chinese had attained a settled system of government, and were acquainted with numerous scientific truths which we have prided ourselves on rediscovering within the last two centuries; but no thought ever seems to have occurred to them, as it did to the liomans, of commemorating any event connected with their life as a nation, or of handing down to posterity a record of their great achievements. Peaceful and pros- perous, they have pursued the even tenor of their way at a high level of civilisation certainly, but at a most mono- tonous one. CHIXESE AND JAPANESE. 75 The EuJJhist tumples of China have a strong affinity to tliose of India. The largest is that at Honan, the southern suburb of Canton. Tin's is 306 ft. long bv 174 ft. Avide, and consists of a series of courts surrounded by co- lonnades and cells for the bonzes or priests. In tlie centre of the courtyard is a series of pavilions or temples con- iKcted by passages, and devoted to the worship of the idols contained in them. On each side of the main court, against the outer wall, is another court, with buildings round it, consisting of kitchen and refectories on the one side, and hospital wards on the other. It is almost certain that this is a reproduction of the earlier forms of chaityas and viharas Avhich existed in India, and have been already referred to. The temple of Honan is two storeys in height, the building itself being of stone, but the colonnade surrounding it is of wood on marble bases. On tlie second storey the columns are placed on two sides only, and not all round. The columns have no capitals, but have projecting brackets. The roof of each storey projects over the columns, and has a curved section, Avhich is, in fact, peculiar to Chinese roofs, and :t is enriched at the corners with carved beasts and foliage. Tliis is a very common form of temple throughout China. The Taas or Pagodas are the buildings of China best known tu Europeans. These are nearly always octagonal in plan, and consist generally of nine storeys, diminish- ing both in height and breadth as they approach the tojx Each storey has a cornice composed of a fillet and large hollow moulding, supporting a luof which is turned up at every corner and ornamented with leaves and bells. On the top of all is a long pole^ forming a sort of spire, surrounded by iron hoops, and supported by eight cliains attached to tlie summit and to each ande of the roof of the topmost storey. The best known pagoda is that of •G ORIENTAL AUCniTECTUnE. ilankin, which is 40 ft. in diameter at its base, and is facnd inside and outside witli wliite glazed porcelain slabs keyed into the brick core. The roof tiles are also of porcelain, in bands of green and yellow, and at each angle is a mould- ing of larger tiles, red and green alternately. The effect of the whole is wonderfully brilliant and dazzling. Apart from the coloured porcelain, nearly every portion of a Chinese temple or pagoda is painted, colour forming the Jb'iG. 48.— A Sjiall Pacoda. chief means of producing effect ; but as nearly everything is constructed of Avood, there was and is no durability in these edifices. In public works of utilit}'', such as roads, canals — one of which is nearly 700 miles in length — and boldly designed bridges, the Chinese seem to have shown a more enlightened mind ; and the Groat "Wall, which wag CniKESE AND JAPANESE. 77 built to protect the northern boundary of the kingdom, about 200 B.C., is a wonderful example of engineering skill. This wall, which varies from 15 to 30 ft. in height, is about 25 ft. thick at the base, and slopes off to 20 ft. at the top. It is defended by bastions placed at stated intervals, which are 40 ft. square at the base, and about the same in height ; the wall is carried altogether through a course of about 1400 miles, following all the sinuosities of the ground over Avhich it passes. It is a most remarkable fact that a nation should have existed 2000 years ago capable of originating and completing so great a work ; but it is stiU more remarkable that such a nation, possessing moreover, as it docs, a great faculty in decorative art applied to small articles of use and fancy, should be still leading a populous and prosperous existence, and yet should have so little to show in the way of architecture, properly so termed, at the present time. Japan, like China, possesses an architecture, but one exclusively of Avood ; for although the use of stone for bridges, walls, &c., had been general, all houses and temples were invariably built of wood until the recent employment of foreigners led to the erection of brick and stone buildings. The consequence has been that nearly all the old temples have been burnt down and rebuilt several times ; and though it is probable that the older forms were adhered to when the buildings were re-erected, it is only by inference that •we can form an idea of the ancient architecture of the country. The heavy curved roofs which are so character- istic of Chinese buildings are found also in Japan, but only in the Buddhist temples, and this makes it probable that this form of roof is not of native origin, but was introduced with the P.uddhist cult. The earlier Shinto temples have a different form of roof, which is without the upward curve, but which has nearly as much projection at the 78 ORIEXTAL ARCmTECTURB. eaves as the curved roofs. Where the buildings are more than one storey in height tiie upper is always set some- Avhat back, as we saw was the case in the Chinese pagodas, and considerable and pleasing variety is obtained by treat- ing the two storeys differently. Very great skill in carving is shown, all the posts, brackets, beams, and projecting rafters being formed into elaborate representations of ani- mals and plants, or quaintly conceived grotesques ; and the flat surfaces have frequently a shallow incised arabesque pattern intertwined with foliage. The roofs are always covered with tiles, and a curious effect is produced by enriching the liips and ridges with several courses of tiles in cement, thus making them rise considerably above the other portions of the roof. A peculiar feature of Japanese houses is that the walls, whether external or internal, are not filled in with plaster, but are constructed of movable screens which slide in grooves formed in the framing of the partitions. Thus all the rooms can easily be thrown together or laid open to the outer air in hot weather. All travellers in Japan remark upon the im- possibility of obtaining privacy in the hotels in conse- quence of this. The Shinto temples are approached through what might be termed an archway, only that the arch does not enter into its composition. This erection is called a Torii^ and is thus described by Professor Conder :* — " It is composed of two upright posts of great tliickness, each consisting of the whole trunk of a tree rounded, about 15 ft. high, and placed 12 ft. apart. Across the top of these is placed a Avooden lintel, projecting considerably and curving upwards at the ends. Some few feet below this another horizontal piece is tenoned into the uprights, having a * Paper communicated to the Roj'al Institute of Architects. CnrSESE AND JAPANESE. 79 little post iu the centre helping to support the upper lintel." These erections occasionally occur in front of a Buddhist temple, when they are built of stone, exactly iraitatinrf, however, the wooden oriiiinals. This is interest- ing, as offering another proof, were one needed, that the curious forms of masoniy exhibited in much of the Avoik of the early nations, some of which has been described, is the result of an imitation of earlier wooden forms. The chief effect in the buildings of the Japanese is intended to be produced by colour, Avhich is profusely used ; and they have attained to a height of perfection in the preparation of A^arnishes and lacquers that has never been equalled. Their lacquer is used all over their buildings, besides forming their chief means of decoratinrr small objects. It is, however, beginning to be questioned whether the old art of lacquering is not becoming lost by the Japanese themselves, as the modern work appears by no means equal to the old. One curious form of decora- tion, of which the Japanese are much enamoured, consists in forming miniature representations of country scenes and landscapes ; Avaterfalls, bridges, &c., being reproduced on the most diminutive scale. It is much to be feared that our small stock of knowledge of ancient Japanese art will never be greatly increased, as the whole country and the people are becoming modernised and Europeanised to such an extent that it appears probable there will soon be little indigenous art left in the country. It has not been thought necessary to append to this chapter analyses of the Eastern styles simiLir to those which are given in the case of the great divisions of Western Architecture. The notice of these styles must unavoidably be condensed into very bmall space. ifiG. 49.— Geeek Honeysuckle Orhameht. CHAPTEE V. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. Buildings of the Doric Order. THE architecture of Greece lias a value far higher than that attaching to any of the styles -which preceded it, on account of the beauty of the buildings and the astonishing refinement which the best of them display. This architecture has a further claim on our attention, as being virtually the paient of that of all the nations of AVesteru Europe. "We cannot put a finger upon any features of Egyptian, Assyrian, or Persian architecture, the influence of which has survived to the present day, except such as were adopted by the Greeks. On the other hand, there is no feature, no ornament, nor even any principle of design which the Greek architects employed, that can be said to hav3 now become obsolete. JS'ot only do we find direct reproductions of Greek architecture forming part of the practice of every European country, but we are able to trace to Greek art the parentage of many of the forms and features of Eoman, Byzantine, and Gothic arcliitecture, GREEK DORIC. 81 especially those connected Avitli the colurnn and which grew out of its artistic use. Greek architecture did not include the arch and aU the forms allied to it, such as tlie vault and the dome; r.nd, so far as vre know, the Greeks ab- stained from the use of the tower. Examples of both these features were, it is almost certain, as fully within the knowledge of the Greeks as were those features of Egyptian, Assy;ian, and Persian buildings Avhich they employed; consequently it is to deliberate selection that we must attribute this exclusion. "Within the limits by which they confined themselves, the Greeks worked with such power, learning, taste, and skill that we may fairly claim for their highest achievement — the Parthenon — ■ that it advanced as near to absolute perfection as any work of art ever has been or ever can be carried. Greek architecture seems to have begun to emerge from the stage of archaic simplicity about the beginning of the sixth century before the Christian era (GOO B.C. is tho reputed date of the old Doric Temple at Corinth). All the finest examples were erected between that date and the death of Alexander the Great (333 B.C.), after which period it declined and ultimately gave place to E,oman. The domestic and palatial buildings of the Greeks have decayed or been destroyed, leaving but few vestiges. "We know their architecture exclusively from ruins of public buildings, and to a limited extent of sepulchral monuments remaining in Greece and in Greek colonies. By far the most numerous and excellent among these buildinny Asiatic character, and seems to show that whatever influences had been brought to bear on their design were Oiicntal. GREEK DORIC. 87 A -wide interval of time and a great contrast in taste separate the early works of Pelasgic masonry and even the chamher at MyceUc^ from even the rudest and most pichaic nf tlie remaining Hellenic woiks of Greece. The Fig. 53.— Orkf.k T>inic Catit.vl Fig. S.Ia.— Grkf.k Doric C.'.riTAL FROM lua TU£S£Ua. Fig. 53b.— Greek Doric Capital fro.m Samothracb. Doric temple at Corinth is attributed, as has been stated, to the seventh century B.C. This was a massive masoniy structure with extremely short, stumpy columns, and strong mouldings, but presenting the main features of the Doric style, as we know it, in its earliest and rudest form. 88 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. Successive examples (Figs. 53 to 53b) show increasing slenderuess of proportions and refinement of treatment, and are accompanied by sculpture wliicli approaches nearer and nearer to perfection ; but in the later and best build- ings, as in the earliest and rudest, certain forms are retained for which it seems impossible to account, except on the supposition that they are reproductions in stone or marble of a timber construction. These occur in the en- tablature, Avhile the column is of a type Avhich it is hard to believe is not copied from originals in use in Egypt many centuries earlier, and already described (chap. ii.). We will now proceed to examine a fully-developed Greek Doric temple of the best period, and in doing so we shall be able to recognise the forms referred to in the preceding paragraph as we come to them. The most com- plete Greek Doric temple Avas the Parthenon, the work of the architect Ictinus, the temple of the Virgin Goddess Athene (Minerva) at Athens, and on many accounts this building AviU be the best to select for our purpose.* The Parthenon at Athens stood on the summit of a lofty rock, and within an ii'regularly shaped enclosure, something like a cathedral close ; entered through a noble gateway.t The temple itself was of perfectly regular plan, and stood quite free from dependencies of any sort. It consisted of a cella, or sacred cell, in which stood the stati;e of the goddess, with one chamber (the treasury) behind. In the cella, and also in the chamber behind, there were colunnis. A series of columns surrounded this building, and at either end was a portico, eight columns wide, and two deep. There were two ])ediments, or gables, of flat pitch, one at each end. The whole stood on a basement * See Froutispiecc and Figs. D4 aud 53. t The Piopyhta. 90 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. of steps ; tho building, exclusive of the steps, being 228 ft. lung by 101 ft. AviJe, ;uul G4 ft. liigli. Tlie columns fM fe r^az a' w w © w w % fiG. 55.— Plan op the Parthenon at Athens. ■were each 34 ft. 3 in. high, and more than G ft. in diameter at the base; a portion of the shaft and of tlie capital of GREEK DORIC. 91 one is in the British Museum, and a magnificent repro- duction, full size, of the column and its entablature may be seen at the Ecole des Eeaux Arts, Paris. The orna- ments consisted almost exclusively of sculpture of the very finest qualitj^, executed by or under the supeiin- tendence of Pheidias. Of this sculpture many specimens are now in the Ihitish jNIuseum. hmmii hffliiiii hmiTi Fro. 5G.— The Roof of a Greek l)oaic Temple, showing the Ma.rble Tiles. The construction of this temple was of the most solid and durable kind, marble being the material used ; and the workmanship was most careful in every part of wliich remains have come down to us. The roof was, no doubt, made of timber and covered with marble tiles (Fig. 56), carried on a timber framework, all traces of which have en- tirely perished ; and the mode in which it was constructed is a subject upon which authorities differ, esjDecially as D2 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. to wliat provision was made for the admission of light. The internal columns, found in other teoiples as well as in the Parthenon, were no doubt employed to support this roof, as is shown in Botticher's restoration of the Temple at PcEstum which Ave reproduce (Fig. 5Ga), though without pledging ourselves to its accuracy ; for, indeed, it fjG. 5CA.— Section op the Greek Poric Temple at T^stuit. As eegtoked by liOTIlCIIER. seems prohable that something more or less like the clere- story of a Gothic church must have been employed to admit light to these buildings, as we know was the case in the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak, But this structure, if it existed, has entirely disappeared.* The order of the Parthenon was Doric, and the lead- inrf proportions were as follows : — The column was 5*56 * Mr. Fergusson's investigations, soon, it is unclerstood, to be published in a complete form, clearly show that the clerestory and roof can be restored with the greatest probability. 'CoT- fOvoln. nice l Corona Pediment . . , Corona . ^ I Mutulcs . Fripze with tri- slyphs & me- topes. . . . I'iMet with ii^^^_L Architrave '^^Htt:i:i ^M^)un shaft or Calumn btjflobate . Fig. 57.— The Gbeek Dokic Okdeb feom the Thesecsl 94 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. diameters liigli ; tlie whole height, including the stylohate or steps, might be divided into nine parts, of which two go to the stylobate, six to the column, and one to the entablature. The Greek Doric order is without a base ; the shaft of the column springs from the top step and tapers towards the top, the outline being not, however, straight, but of a subtle curve, known technically as the entasis of the column. This shaft is channcdled with twenty shallow channels,* the ridges separating one from another being Tig. 59.— The Fillets ViNIjER a Gkeek HouiO Capital. Fig. 5S.— Plan or a Gkeek Doric Column. very fine lines. A little below the moulding of the capital, fine sinkings, forming lines round the shaft, exist, and above these the channels of the flutes are stopped by or near the commencement of the projecting moulding of the capital. This moulding, which is of a section calculated to convey the idea of powerful support, is called the echinus, and its lower portion is encircled by a series of fillets (Fig. 59), which are cut into it. Above the echinus, which is circular, like the shaft, comes the highest member — the abacus, a square stout slab of marble, which completes the capital of the column. The * la a few instances a smaller number is found. GREEK DOUIC. 95 ^vllole is most sldlfully designed to convej'' the idea of sturdy support, and yet to clothe the support Avith grace. The strong proportions of the shaft, tlie slight curve of its outline, the lines traced upon its surface by the channels, and even the vigorous uncompromising planting of it on the square step from which it springs, all contri- bute to made the column look strong. The check given to the vigorous upward lines of the channels on the shaft by the first sinkings, and their arrest at the point where the capital spreads out, intensified as it is by the series of FiG^ 60.— Cafitat. op a Oreek Doric Colfmn from JEgina, WITU CULUUIIED ilLCOKAXlu:). horizontal lines drawn round the echinus by the fillets cut into it, all seem to convey the idea of spreading the supporting energy of the column outwards ; and the abacus appears naturally fitted, itself inert, to receive a burden placed npon it and to transmit its pressure to the cajiital and shaft below. The entablature which formed the superstructure con- sisted first of a square marble beam — the architrave, ■which, it may be assumed, represents a square timber 9G CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. beam that occupied the same position in the primitivo ii^ w* / ^N frf ; S2. %f^: M ^-UP 1 1 1 LJ. 1 ry 1 n I 1 1 i Fig. 01.— 3eciiijx of the E.ntaelature of the Greek Doric Oi:der. Fig. (i2.— Plas, lookiko up, of pari of a Greek Doric PEaisiru;. structures. On tins rests a second member called the frieze, the prominent feature of which is a series of GREEK DOltlC. 97 slightly projecting features, known as triglyphs (three channels) (Fig; 63), from the channels running down their face. These closely resemble, and no doubt actually represent, the ends of massive timber beams, which must have connected the colonnade to the wall of the cell in earlier buildings. At the bottom of each is a row of small pendants, known as guttte, which closely resemble wooden pins, such as would bo used to keep a timber beam in place. The panels between the triglyphs are in I'SJ*...., .,..v^..^ -y- V Fig. G3.— Details o? thb Thigltph. Fig. 64.— Details op thb MUTULES. usually as wide as they are high. They are termed metopes, and sculpture commonly occupies them. The third division of the entablature, the cornice, represents the overhanging eaves of the roof. The cornices employed in classic architecture may be almost invariably subdivided into three parts : the support- ing part, which is the lowest, — the projecting part, which is the middle, — and the crowning part, which is the highest division of the cornice. The supporting part in a Greek Doric cornice is extremely small There are no mouldings, H 98 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. such as we shall find iii almost every other cornice, calculated to convey the idea of contributing to sustain the projection of the cornice, but there are slabs of marble, called mutules (Fig, 64), dropping towards the outer end, of which one is i:)laced over each trigly^ih and one between every two. These seem to recall, by their shape, their jiosition, and their slope alike, the ends of the rafters of a timber roof; and their surface is covered with small pro- jections which resemble the heads of Avooden pins, similar to those already alluded to. The projecting part, in this as in almost all cornices, is a plain upright face of some height, called " the corona," and recalling probahly a "facia" or flat narrow board such as a carpenter of the present day would use in a similar position, secured in the original structure to the ends of the rafters and support- ing the eaves. Lastly, the crowning part is, in the Greek Doric, a single convex moulding, not very dissimilar in profile to the ovolo of the capital, and forming what Ave commonly call an eaves-gutter. At the ends of the building the two upper divisions of Ihe cornice — namely, the projecting corona and the croAvn- ing ovolo — are made to follow the sloping line of the gable, a second corona being also carried across horizontally in a manner which can be best understood by inspecting a diagram of the corner of a Greek Doric building (Fig. 57); and the triangular space thus formed was termed a jjedi- ment, and Avas the position in Avhich the finest of the sculp- ture Avith Avhich the building Avas enriched Avas placed. In the Parthenon a continuous band of scul]3ture ran round the exterior of the cell, near the top of the AvalL One other feature Avas employed in Greek temple-archi- tecture. The anta was a square pillar or pier of masonry attached to the Avail, and corresponded A'ery closely to our GREEK DORIC. 99 pilaster; Taut its capital always differed from tliat of the columns in the neighbourliood of Avliich it was employed. The antse of the Greek Doric order, as employed in the Parthenon, have a moulded base, which it will be re- membered is not the case with the column, and their capital has for its principal feature an under-cut mould- ing, known as the bird's beak, quite dissimilar from the ovolo of the capital of the column (Fig. 65). Sometimes the portico of a temple consisted of the side walls pro- longed, and ending in two antse, with two or more columns standing between them. Such a portico is said to be in autis. Fig. Co.— Elevation a>d Sectios of the Capital of a Greek Anta, with coloured decokaiioss. The Parthenon presents examples of the most extra- ordinary refinements in order to correct optical illusious. The delicacy and subtlety of these are extreme, but there can be no manner of doubt that they existed. The best known correction is the diminution in diameter or taper, and the entasis or convex curve of the tapered outline of the shaft of the column. Without the taper, which is per- ceptible enough in the order of this building, and much more marked in the order of earlier buildings, the columns Avould look top-heavy ; but the entasis is an additional optical correction to prevent their outline from appearing holloAved, Avhich it would have done had there been no curve. The columns of the Parthenon have shafts that are over 34: ft. high, and diminish from a diameter of 6-15 ft. at H 2 100 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. the bottom to 4-81 ffc. at the top. The outline "between these points is convex, but so slightly so that the curve departs at the point of greatest curvature not more than I in. from the straight line joining the top and bottom. This is, however, just sufficient to correct the tendency to look hollow in the middle. A second correction is intended to overcome the appa- rent tendency of a building to spread outwards towards the top. This is met by inclining the columns slightly inwards. So slight, however, is the inclination, that wero the axes of two columns on opposite sides of the Par- thenon continued upwards till they met, the meeting- point would be 1952 yards, or, in other words, more than one ndle from the ground. Another optical correction is applied to the horizontal lines. In order to overcome a tendency which exists in all long lines to seem as though they droop in the middle, the lines of the architrave, of the top stop, and of other horizontal features of the buildings, are all slightly curved. The difference between the outline of the top step of the Parthenon and a straight line joining its two ends is at the greatest only just over 2 inches. The last correction which it is necessary to name here was applied to the vertical proportions of the building. The principles upon which this correction rests have been demonstrated by Mr. John Pennethorne ; * and it would hardly come within the scope of this volume to attempt to state them here : suffice it to say, that small addi- tions, amounting in the entire height of the order to less than 5 inches, Avere made to the heights of the various members of the order, with a view to secure that from one definite point of view the eff'ect of foreshortening * ' Geometry and Optics of Ancient Architecture,' GREEK Dome. 101 slioulJ be exactly compensated, and so the liuilding should appear to the spectator to be perfectly proportioned. The Parthenon, like many, if not all Greek buildings, ■was profusely decorated with coloured ornaments, of which nearly every trace has now disappeared, but which must liave contributed largely to the splendid beauty of the building as a whole, and must have emphasised and set off its parts. The ornaments known as Doric frets were largely employed. They consist of patterns made entirely of straight lines interlacing, and, while preserving the severity which is characteristic of the style, they permit of the introduction of considerable richness. The principal remaining examples or fragments of Greek Doric may be enumerated as follows: — Ix Greece. Temple of (?) Athena, at Corinth, ab. 650 B.C. Tem le of (?) Zeus, in the island of ^jiua, ah. 550 B.C. Temple of Theseus (Theseium), at Athen.s, 465 B.C. Temple of Athena (Parthenon), on the Acropolis at Athens, fin. 438 e.o. The Propylrea, on the Acropohs at Athens, 436-431 B.C. Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Temple of Apollo Epieurius, at Bassae,* in Arcadia (designed hy Ictinus). Temple of Apollo Epieurius, at Phigaleja, in Arcadia (built by Ictinus). Temple of Athena, on the rock of Suuium, in Attica. Temple of Xemesi.s, at Rhamnus, in Attica. Temple of Demet€r (Ceres), at Eleusis, in Attica. In Sicixt AM) SoTTTH Italy. Temple of (?) Zeus, at Agrigentum, in Sicily (begun e.g. 4S0). Temple of ^gesta (or Segesta), in Sicily. Temple of (?) Zeus, at Selinus, in Sicily (? ab. 410 B.C.). Temple of C?) Athena, at Syracuse, in Sicily. Temple of Poseidon, at Paestum, in South of Italy (? ab. 550 B.C.). * ? Exterior Doric— Interior Ionic. Tig. 6G.— Palmetie and HoiNeysuckle. CHAPTER VI. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. Buildings of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders. THE Doric was the order in Avhicli tlie full strength ami the complete refinement of the artistic character of the Greeks were most completely shown. There was a great deal of the spirit of severe dignity proper to Egyptian art in its aspect ; hut other nationalities contributed to the formation of the many-sided Greek nature, and we must look to some other country than Egypt for the spirit Avhich inspired tlie Ionic order. This seems to have been hrought into Greece by a distinct race, and shows marks of an Asiatic origin. Tlie feature Avhich is most dis- tinctive is the one most distinctly Eastern — the capital of the column, ornamented always by volutes, i.e. scrolls, which bear a close resemblance to features similarly cmployod in the columns found at Persepolis. The same resiunblance can be also detected in the moulded bases, and even the shafts of the columns, and in many of the oruaments employed throughout the buildings. GREEK IONIC. 103 In form and disposition an ordinary Ionic temple was similar to one of the Doric order, but the general propor- tions are more slender, and the mouldings of the order are more numerous and more profusely enriched. The column in the Ionic order had a base, often elaborately A^^/^ Fio. C7.— Shaft of Ionic COLVZiS SnOWISG THE FI.CIZ3 ma, 09.— Ionic Capital. Sinn £letatio». f~\ -^ ■ ■ ^^' ' ■ '~~' ^^ ^ L 1 1 1 1 ] Tig. 68.— io2(ic Capital. ITsoni Klevatio:?. and sometimes singularly moulded (Figs. 74, 75), The shaft (Figs. 67, 70) is of more slender proportions than the Doric shaft. It was fluted, but its channels are more numerous, and are separated from one another by broader 104 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. fillets tLan in the Doric. The distmctive feature, as in all the orders, is the capital (Figs. G8, G9), Avhich is recognised at a glance by the two remarkable ornaments already alluded to as like scrolls, and known as volutes. These generally formed the faces of a pair of cushion- shaped features, Avhich could be seen in a side view of the capital ; but sometimes volutes stand in a diagonal position, and in almost every building they differ slightly. The abacus is less deep than in the Greek Doric, and it is always moulded at the edge, which was never the case with the Doric abacus. The entablature (Fig. 70) is, generally speaking, richer than that of the Doric order. The architrave, for example, has three facias instead of being plain. On the other hand, the frieze has no triglyphs, and but rarely sculpture. There are more members in the cornice, several mouldings being combined to fortify the supporting portion, v These have sometimes been termed " the bed mouldings ; " and among them occurs one Avhich is almost typical of the order, and is termed a dentil band. This moulding presents the appearance of a plain square band of stone, in which a series of cuts had been made dividing it into blocks somewhat resembling teeth, whence the name. Such an ornament is more naturally constructed in wood than in stone or marble, but if the real derivation of the Ionic order, as of the Doric, be in fact from timber structures, the dentil band is apparently the only feature in which that origin can now be traced. The crowning member of the cornice is a partly hollow moulding, technically called a " cyma recta," less vigorous than the convex ovolo, of the Doric : this moulding, and some of the bed mouldings, Avere com- monly enriched with carving. Altogether more slender- ness and less vigour, more carved enrichment and less l)ainted decoration, more reliance on architectural orna- Tig. ro.— The Iosjc Oedek. From Pbiese, Asia JIi.noe. I'la 71. —Ionic UKDEtt. l;Kui> xue EKi.LHTiiEiu.v, Athlns, GREEK IONIC. 107 nicnt ami less on the work of the sculptor, appear to distinguish those examples of Greek Ionic which have come do\ni to us, as compared Avith Doric buildings. The most numerous examples of the Ionic order of which remains exist are found in Asia j\Iinor, but the most refined and complete is the Erechtheium at Athens Fig. 72.— XottTH-WEST View op the Erechtheium, is the Ti.me of Pericles. (Fig.s. 72, 73), a composite structure containing three temples built in juxtaposition, but differing from one another in scale, levels, dimensions, and treatment. The principal order from the Erechtheium (Fig. 71) shows a large amount of enrichment introduced Avith the most refined and severe taste. Specially remarkable are the ornaments (borrowed from the Assyrian honeysuckle) 108 CLASSIC ARCniTECTURE. which encircle the upper part of the sliaft at the point Avhere it passes into the capital, and the splendid spirals of the volutes (Fiys. G8, G9). The basis of the columns Fig. 73.— riAN of the Erechtheium. -^ ^ > Fig. 7-).— Iosic Ease from thb TEilPLE OF THE WiNGLESS VlC- lofii (Nike Apteros). Fig. "5.— Ionic Hase Mouldisgs FRO.V Priene. in the Erechtlieium example are models of elegance and beauty. Those of some of the examples from Asia ]\Iinor GREEK IONIC. lOO are overloaded with a vast number of mould ings, by no means always producing a pleasing effect (Figs. 74, 75). Some of them bear a close resemblance to the bases of the columns at Perscpolis. The most famous Greek buildincr which was erected in the Ionic style was tlie Temple of Diana at Ephesus. This temple has been all but totally destroyed, and the very site of it had been for centuries lost and unknown till the energy and sagacity of an English architect (^Ir. "Wood) enabled him to discover and dig out the vestiges of the building. Fortunately sufficient traces of the foundation have remained to render it possible to recover the plan of the temple completely ; and the discovery of fragments of the order, together with representations on ancient coins and a description by Pliny, have rendered it possible to make a restoration on paper of the general appearance of this famous temple, which must be very nearly, if not absolutely, correct. The walls of this temple enclosed, as usual, a cella (in which was the statue of the goddess), with apparently a treasury behind it : they were entiiely surrounded by a double series of columns, with a pediment at each end. The exterior of the building, including these columns, was about twice the width of the cella. The whole structure, which was of marble, was planted on a spacious platform ^vith steps. The account of Pliny refers to thirty-six columns, which he describes as " columnce celafce " (sculp- tured columns), adding that one was by Scopas, a very celebrated artist. The fortunate discovery by Mr. Wood of a few fragments of these columns shows that the lower part of the shaft immediately above the base was enriched by a group of figures — about life-size — carved in the boldest relief and encircling the column. One of theso groups has been brought to the British Museum, and its 110 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. beauty and vigour enable the imagination partly to restore this splendid feature, wliicli certainly was one of the most sumptuous modes of decorating a building by the aid of sculpture which has ever been attempted ; and the effect must have been rich beyond description. It is worth remark that the Erechtheium, which has been already referred to, contains'an example of a difierent, and perhaps a not less remarkable, mode of combining sculpture with architecture. In one of its three ^jorticoes (F.g. 72) 'the columns are replaced by standing fenaale figures, known as caryatidte, and the entablature rests on their heads. This device has frequently been repeated in ancient and in modern architecture, but, except in some comparatively obscure examples, the sculptured columns of Ephesus do not appear to liave been imitated. Another famous Greek work of art, the remains of which have been, like the Temple of Diana, disinterred by the energy and skill of a learned Englishman, belonged to the Ionic order. To Mr. Xewton we owe the recovery of the site, and considerable fragments of the architectural features, of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, one of the ancient wonders of the Avorld, The general outline of this monument must have resembled other Greek tombs which have been preserved, such, for example, as the Lion Tomb at Cnidus ; that is to say, the plan was square : there was a basement, above this an order, and above that a steep pyramidal roof rising in steps, not carried to a point, but stopping short to form a platform, on which was placed a quadriga (or four-horsed chariot). This building is known to have been richly sculptured, and many fragments of great beauty have been recovered. Indeed it Avas probably its elaboration, as well as its- very unusual height (for the Greek buildings were seldom lofty), which led to its being so celebrated. ^Yfl^CPATH< AYilGEl&OY KIKYNEY^ EXOPHPEI ] AKAMANTIt nAl^nUENlKAO En^lHY^;l J Fig. 70— The Cokknthian Order. Trom the JIoxc.ment of Lv5icr.\t£s at Athens. 112 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. The Corintliian order, the last to make its appearance, was almost as much Eoman as Greek, and is hardly found in any of the great temples of the best period of which remains exist in Greece, though we hear of its use. Eor example, Pausanias states that the Corinthian order Avas employed in the interior of the Temple of Athena Alea at Tegea, built by Scopas, to which a date shortly after the year 394 b.c. is assigned. The examples which we possess Fia. 77.— Corinthian Capital fuom the Monumeki of Ltsicbates at Athens. are comparatively small works, and in them the order resembles the Ionic, but with the important exceptions that the capital of the column is quite different, that the proportions are altogether a little slenderer, and that the enrichments are somewhat more florid. The capital of the Greek Corinthian order, as seen in the Choragic ]\Ionument of Lysicrates at Athens (Fig. 78) — a comparatively miniature example, but the most perfect we have — is a work of art of marvellous beauty (Fig. 77). .j^mm^m^ Fig 78 — Mu.NUiiENi TO Ltsicbates at Athekb, as is ihb Time of Pekicles. I 114 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. It retains a fcatiire resembling the Ionic volute, but 1 educed to a very small size, set obliquely and appear- ing to spring from the sides of a kind of long bell-shaped termination to the column. This bell is clothed with foliage, symmetrically arranged and much of it studied, but in a conventional manner, from the graceful foliage of the acanthus ; between the two small volutes appears an Assyrian honeysuckle, and tendrils of honeysuckle, conventionally treated, occujiy part of the upper portion of the capital. The abacus is moulded, and is curved on plan, and the base of the capital is marked by a very nnusual turning-down of the flutes of the columns. The entire structure to which this belonged is a model of elegance, and the large sculptured mass of leaves and tendrils with which it is crowned is especially noteworthy. Fjc. 70.— Capital of Ant^ from Miletus. Side Yie\7. A somewhat simpler Corinthian capital, and another of very rich design, are found in the Temple of Apollo Didy- mceus at Miletus, where also a very elegant capital for the antse — or pilasters — is employed (Figs. 79, 81). A more ornamental design for a capital could hardly be adopted than that of the Lysicrates example, but there was room for more elaboration in the entablature, and accordingly large o s P^ J:V^^\ 1 2 116 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. riclily-sculptured brackets seem to have been introiTuceil, and a profusion of ornament was employed. The examples of this treatment which remain are, however, of Koman origin rather than Greek. The Greek cities must have included structures of great beauty and adapted to many purposes, of Avhich in most cases few traces, if any, have been preserved. We have no remains of a Greek palace, or of Greek dwelling- houses, although those at Pompeii were probably erected and decorated by Greek artificers, for Roman occupation. The agora of a Greek city, which was a place of public assembly something like the Roman Forum, is known to Tis only by descriptions in ancient writers, hut we possess some remains of Greek tlieatres ; and from these, aided by Roman examples and written descriptions, can understand what these buildings were. Tlie auditory was curved in plan, occupying rather more than a semicircle ; the seats rose in tiers one behind another; a circular space was reserved for the chorus in the centre of the seats. and behind it was a raiseil stage, bounded by a wall forming its back and sides : a rough notion of the arrange- ment can be obtained from the lecture theatre of many modern colleges, and our illustration (Fig. 80) gives a general idea of what must have been the appearance of one of these structures. Much of the detail of these buildings is, however, a matter of pure speculation, and consequently does not enter into the scheme of this manual. niriB'T)rnTiy\-iJrm:iTr^ T i':G. 81.— Capital of Ant^ from Miletus. CHAPTER YII. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. Anabjsis. THE Plan or floor-disposition of a Greek building was always simple however great its extent, was well judged for effect, and capable of being understood at once. The grandest results were obtained by simple means, and all confusion, uncertainty, or complication were scrupulously avoided. Refined precision, order, sym- metry, and exactness mark the plan as well as every part of the work. The plan of a Greek temple may be said to present many of the same elements as that of an Egyptian temple, but, so to speak, turned inside out. Columns are relied on by the Greek artist, as they Avere by the Egyptian artist, as a means of giving effect ; but they are jilaced by him outside the building instead of within its courts and halls. The Greek, starting with a comparatively small nucleus formed by the cell and the treasury, encircles them by 118 CLASSIC ARCHITECTUnE. a magnificent girdle of pillars, and so makes a grand structure, the first liint or suggestion being in all proba- bility to be found in certain small Egyptian buildings to which, reference has already been made. The disposition of these columns and of the great range of steps, or stylobate, is the most maiked feature in Greek temple plans. Columns also existed, it is true, in the interior of the building, but these were of smaller size, and seem to have been introduced to aid in carrying the roof and the clerestory, if there was one. They have in several in- stances disappeared, and there is certainly no ground for supposing that in any Greek interior the grand but oppressive effect of a hypostyle hall was attempted to be reproduced. That was abandoned, together with the complication, seclusion, and gloom of the long series of chambers, cells, &c., placed one behind another, just as the contrasts and surprises of the series of courts and halls following in succession were abandoned for the one simple but grand maps built to be seen from witliout rather than from within. In the greater number of Greek buildings a degree of precision is exhibited, to which the Egyptians did not attain. All right angles are absolutely true ; the setting-out (or spacing) of the different columns, piers, openings, &c., is perfectly exact ; and, in the Par- thenon, the patient investigations of Mr. Penrose and other skilled observers have disclosed a degree of accuracy as well as refinement which resembles the precision with which astronomical instruments are adjusted in Europe at the present day, rather than the rough-and-ready measurements of a modern mason or bricklayer. What the plans of Greek palaces miglit have exhibited, did any remains exist, is merely matter for inference and conjecture, and it is not proposed in this volume to ANALYSIS — GREEK. 119 pnss far beyond ai5ccrtained and observed facts. Tbero can be, however, little doubt that the palaces of the West Asiatic style must have at least contributed suggestions as to internal disposition of the later and more magni- ficent Greek mansions. The ordinary dwelling-houses of citizens, as described by ancient writers, resembled those now visible in the disinterred cities of Pompeii and Herculanc'um, which will be referred to under Eoman Architecture.* The chief characteristic of the plan of these is that they retain the disposition which in the temples was discarded; that is to say, all the doors and windows looked into an inner court, and the house was as far as possible secluded within an encircling wall. The contrast between the openness of the public life led by the men in Greek cities, and the seclusion of the women and the families when at home, is remarkably illustrated by this diiierence between the public and private buildings. The plan of the triple building called the Erechtheium (Fig. 72) deserves special mention, as an example of an exceptional arrangement which appears to set the ordinary laws of symmetry at defiance, and which is calculated to produce a result into which the jicturesque enters at least as much as the beautiful. Though the central temple is symnietiical, the two attached porticoes are not so, and do not, in position, dimensions, or treatment, balance one another. The result is a charming group^ and we cannot doubt that other examples of freedom of planning would have been found, had more remains of the architecture of the great cities of Greece come down to our own day. In public buildings other than temples — such as the * See Chap. IX. 120 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. theatre, the agora, and the basilica — the Greek architects seem to have had great scope for their genius; the plan- ning of tlie theatres shows skilful and thoroughly com- plete provisions to meet the requirements of the case. A circular disposition Avas here introduced — not, it is true, for the first time, since it is rendered probable by the re- i:)resentations on sculptured slabs that some circular build- ings existed in Assyria, and circular buildings remain in the archaic works at IMycente ; but it was now elaboiated Avith remarkable completeness, beauty, and mastery over all the difficu'.ties involved. Could Ave see the great theatre of Athens as it Avas Avhen perfect, Ave should probably find that as an interior it Avas almost unrivalled, alike for convenience and for beauty j and for these ex- cellences it Avas mainly indebted to the elegance of its planning. The actual Hoor of many of the Greek temples appears to have been of marble of different colours. TI.e Walls. The construction of the Avails of the Greek temples rivalled that of the Egyptians in accuracy and beauty of Avorkmanshiii, and resembled them in the use of solid materials. The Greeks had Avithin reach quarries of marble, the most beautiful material Avhich nature has provided for the use of the builder ; and great fineness of surface and high finish Avere attained. Some interesting examples of hullo w Availing occur in the construction of the Parthenon. The Avail Avas not an element of the building on Avhich the Greek architect seemed to dwell Avith pleasure; much of it is almost invariably over- shadowed by the lines of columns Avhich form the main features of the buiLling. ANALYSIS — GREEK. 121 The pediment (or gable) of a temple is a grand develop- ment of the walls, and perhaps the most striking of the additions wliich the Greeks made to the resources of the architect. It offers a fine field for sculpture, and adds real and apparent height beyond anything that the Egyptians ever attempted since the days of the Pyramid-builders ; and it has remained in constant use to the present hour. We do not hear of towers being attached to buildings, and, although such monumental structures as the Mauso- leum of Halicarnassus approached the proportions of a tower, height does not seem to have commended itself to the mind of the Greek architect as necessary to the build- ings which he designed. It was reserved for Eoman and Christian art to introduce this element of architectural effect in all its power. On the other hand, the Greek, like the Persian architect, emphasised the base of his building in a remarkable manner, not only by base mould- ings, but by planting the whole structure on a great range of steps which formed an essential part of the composition. The Roof. The construction of the roofs of Greek temples has been the subject of much debate. It is almost certain that they were in some way so made as to admit light. They were framed of timber and covered by tiles, often, if not always, of marble. Although all traces of the timber framing have disappeared, we can at least know that the pitch was not steep, by the slope of the outline of the pediments, Avhieli formed, as has already been said, perhaps the chief glory of a Greek temple. The flat stone roo!'s sometimes used by the Egyptians, and necessitating the placing of cohunns or other supports close together, •122 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. seem to have become disused, -with the exception that ■where a temple was surrounded by a range of columns the space between the main Avail and the columns was so covered. The vaulted stone roofs of the archaic buildings, of Avhich the treasury of Atreus (Figs. 52, 52a) was the type, do not seem to have prevailed in a later period, o)', so far as we know, to have been succeeded by any similar covering or vault of a more scientific construction. It is hardly necessary to add that the Greek theatres were not roofed. The Eomans shaded the spectators in their theatres and amphitheatres by means of a velarium or awning, but it is extremely doubtful whether even this expedient was in use in Greek theatres. T/ie Openbigs. The most important characteristic of the openings in Greek buildings is that they were flat-topped, — covered by a lintel of stone or marble, — and never arched. AA'e have already * shown that this circumstance is really of the first importance as determining the architectural character of buildings. Doors and window openings were o ten a little narrower at the top than the bottom, and were marked by a band of mouldings, known as the archi- trave, on the face of the wall, and, so to speak, framing in the opening. There was often also a small cornice over each (Figs. 82, 83). OiDenings Avere seldom advanced into prominence or employed as features in the exterior of a building; in fact, the same effects Avhich windows produce in other styles Avere in Greek buildings created by the inters2)accs between the columns. * Chap. I. ANALYSIS — GREEK. I'z: The Columns. These features, togethei- ^vitl^ the superstructure or entablature, which they customarily carried, were the prominent parts of Greek architecture, occupying as they did the entire height of the building. The development of the orders (which we have explained to be really deco- rative systems, each of which involved the use of one soit of column, though the term is constantly understood as meaning merely the column and entablature) is a very interesting subject, and ilhistrates the acuteness witli which the Greeks selected from those models Avhich were accessible to them, exactly what Avas suited to their Fig. a-^ — UKhiiiv Doorway, show- ing CoasiCE. Pig. 83.— Gkkkk Liuukway, Front Vij-w. (Fbom the Ehechth£iu.m.) purpose, and the skill with which they altered and refined, and almost redesigned, everything which they so selected. During the Avhole period when Greek art was being developed, the ancient and polished civilisation of Egypt 121 CLASSIC AKCIIITECTURE. constituted a most powerful and most stable influence, always present, — always, comparatively speaking, within reach, — and always the same. Of all the forms of column and capital existing in Egypt, the Greeks, however, only selected that straight-sided fluted type of which the Eeni-Hassan example is the l)est kno'.vn, but by no means the only instance. "We first meet with those fluted columns at Corinth, of very stur.ly proportions, and liaving a wide, swelling, clumsy moulding under the abacus by way of a capital. By degrees the proportions of the shaft grew more slender, and the profile of the capital more elegant and less bold, till the perfected per- fections of the Greek Doric column were attained. This column is the original to which all columns with moulded capitals tliat have been used in architecture, from the age of Pericles to our own, may be directly or indirectly referred; while the Egyptian types wliich the Greeks did not select — such, for example, as the lotus-columns at Karnak — have never been peipetuated. A different temper or taste, an 1 partly a different history, led to the selection of the "West Asiatic types of column by a section of the Greek people; but great alterations in projDortion, in the treatment of the capital, and in the mana"ement of the moulded base from which the columns sprang, were made, even in the orders which occur in the Ionic buildings of Asia Minor. This Avas carried further when the Ionic order was made use of in Athens herself, and as a result the Attic base and the perfected Ionic capital are to be found at their best in the Erechtheium example. The Ionic order and the Corin- thian, wliich soon followed it, are the parents, — not, it is true, of all, but of the greater part of the columns with foliated capitals that have been used in all styles and ANALYSIS — GREEK. 125 periods of arcliitccture since. It will not be forgotten that rude types of "both orders are found represented on Assyrian bas-reliefs, but still the Corinthian capital and order must be considered as the natural and, so to speak, inevitable development of the Ionic. From the Corinthian capital an unbroken series of foliated capitals can be triced down to our own day ; almost the only new ornamented type ever devised since being that which takes its origin in the Eomanesque block capital, known to us in England as the early Norman cushion capital : this was certainly the parent of a distinct scries, though even these owe not a little to Greek originals. "We have alluded to the Ionic ba?e. It was derived from a very tall one in use at Persepolis, and we meet with it first in the rich but clumsy forms of the bases in the Ada Minor examples. In them we find the height of the feature as used in Persia compressed, while great, and to our eyes eccentric, elaloration marked the mouldings : these the refinement of Attic taste afterwards simplified, till the profile of the well-known Attic base was produced — a base Avhich has had as wide and lasting an influence as either of the original forms of capital. The Corinthian order, as has been above remarked, is the natural sequel of the Ionic. Had Greek architecture continued till it fell into decadence, this order would have been the badge of it. As it was, the decadence of Greek art was Eoman art, and the Corinthian order was the favourite order of the Eomans; in fact all the important examples of it which remain are Eoman work. If we remember how invariably use was made of one or other of the two great types of the Greek order in all the buildings of the best Greek time, with the addition towards its close of the Corinthian order, and that these 126 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. orders, a little more subdivided and a good deal modified, liave formed the substratum of lioman architecture and of that in use during tlie last three centuries ; and if we also bear in mind that nearly all the columnar architecture of Early Christian, Byzantine, Saracenic, and Gothic times, owes its forms to the same great source, "\ve may well admit that the invention and perfecting of the orders of Greek architecture has been — with one exception — the most important event in the architectural history of the world. That exception is, of course, the introduction of the Arch. The Ornaments. Greek ornaments have exerted the same wide influence over the whole course of "Western art as Greek columns; and in their origin they are ecpially interesting as spe- cimens of Greek skill in adapting existing types, and of Greek invention where no existing types would serve. Few of the mouldings of Greek architecture are to be traced to anterior styles. There is nothing like them in Egyptian work, and little or nothing in Assyrian ; and though a suggestion of some of them may no doubt be found in Persian examples, we must take them as having been substantial. y originated by Greek genius, which felt that they were wanted, designed them, and brought them far towards absolute perfection. They were of the most refined form, au'l when enriched were carved with con- summate skill. They were executed, it must be remem- bered, in white marble, — a material having the finest surface, and capable of responding to the most delicate variations in contour by corresponding changes in shade or licrht in a manner and to a de;:;ree which no other ]naterial can equal. Iji the Doric, mouldings were few, ANALYSIS — GREEK. 127 and almost always convex ; they became much more nume- rous in the later styles, and then included many of concave profile. The chief are the ovoLO, Avhich formed the curved part of the Doric capital, and the crowning moulding of the Doric cornice ; the cyjia ; the bird's beak, employed in the capitals of the antaj ; the fillets under the Doric capital ; the hollows and torus mouldings of the Ionic and Corinthian bases. The profiles of these mouldings were very rarely seg- ments of circles, but lines of varying curvature, capable of producing the most delicate changes of light and shade, and contours of the most subtle grace. Many of them correspond to conic sections, but it seems probable that the outlines were drawn by hand, and not obtained by any mechanical or mathematical method. The mouldings were some of them enriched, to rise the technical Avord, by having such ornaments cut into them or carved on them as, though simple in form, lent them- selves well to repetition.* "Wliere more room for ornament existed, and especially in the capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian orders, ornaments Avere freely and most grace- fully carved, and very symmetrically arranged. Thougli these were very various, yet most of thfui can be classed under three heads. (1.) Frets (Figs. IIG to 120). These Avere patterns made np of squares or L-shaped lines inter- laced and made to seem intricate, tliough originally simple. Frequently these patterns are called Doric frets, from their having been most used in buildini:rs of the Doric order. (2.) Honeysuckle (Figs. 94 and 111 to 114). This ornament, admirably conventionalised, had been used freely by the Assyrians, and the Greeks only adopted * Fnr a statement of the general ru'e governing cucb enrichments, See page 133. 128 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. wliat they found ready to their hand when they "begnn to use it ; but they refined it, at the same time losing no •whit of its vigour or effectiveness, and the honeysuckle has come to be known as a typical Greek decorative motif. (3.) Acanthus (Figs. 84 and 85). This is a broad- leaved plant, the foliage and stems of wliicli, treated in a conventional manner, tliough with but little departure from nature, were found admirably adapted for floral decorative work, and accordingly were made use of in the foliage of the Corinthian capital, and in such ornaments as, for example, the great finial which forms the summit of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. Fig. 84.— The Acaktbus Lla* ami bfALK. Tlib beauty of the carving Avas, however, eclipsed by that highest of all ornaments — sculpture. In the Doric temples, as, for example, in the Parthenon, the architect contented himself with providing suitable spaces for the sculptor to occupy ; and thus the great y ediments, the metopes (Fig. 86) or square panels, and the frieze of the Parthenon were occupied by sculpture, in which there V as no necessity for more conventionalism than the amount of artificial arrangement needed in order fitly GREEK. 129 to occupy sp:ice3 that Averc respectively triangular, square, or continuous. In the later and more vohiptuous style of the Ionic temples we find sculpture made into an architectural feature, as in the famous statues, known as the Caryatides, wliich support the smallest portico of the Erechthoium, and in tlie enriched columns of the 'Jcmple of Diana at Ephesus. Sculpture had already been so employed in Egypt, and was often so used in later times; but the best opportunity for the displny of tlie finest qualities of the sculptor's art is such an one as the pediments, &c., of the great Doric temples afforded. There is little room for doubting that all the Greek temples were richly decorated in colours, but traces and indications are all that remain : these, however, are sufficient to prove that a very large amount of colour Avas em- ployed, and that probably ornaments (Ei^s. 105 to 120) were painted upon many of those surfaces which were left plain by the mason, especially on the cornices, and that mosaics (Fig. 87) and coloured marbles, and even gilding, were freely used. There is also ground for believing that as the use of carved enrichments increased with the increasing ado]i- tion of the Ionic and Corinthian styles, less u.'^o wi« m"i]e of painted decorations. Fig. -The Ac'ANTui's Leap. K 130 CLASSIC ARCHITECTUIiE. Architectural Character. Observations wliicli have been made during the course of tills and the previous chapters will have gone far to point out the characteristics of Greek art. An archaic and almost forbidding severity, with heavy proportions and Fig. 8G.— Metope from the Partuenon. Confiici beiwbem A CE.N'IAUli A.ND OSE OF THE LAPITH^ more strength than grace, marks the earliest Greek build- ings of which we have any fragments remaining. Dignity, sobriety, refinement, and beauty are the qualities of the works of the best period. The latest buildings were more rich, more ornate, and more slender iu tlieir pro- portions, and to a certain extent less severe. GREEa. 131 !Most carefully studied proportions prevailed, and weic wrought out to a pitch of conipleleuet^s and refinement which i:3 truly astouudiug. Symmetry Avas the all hub rio. S7.— Mosaic fbom the Tejiple or Zeus, Oltmpia. invariable law of composition. Yet in certain respects— as, for example, the spacing and position of the columns — a degree of freedom was enjoyed which Eoman archi- E 2 I'iG. 8S.— Sf.cti JN OF Tnn P iriTico of the Ekcchtheiujt. Fig. 83— Plan of the Portico— Looking up. examplt:s of r.RF.EK ornament Is TEE NOETHEKS PUKTiCO OF THE EkECMTHEIC.M- SUOWIHG THE OKSAMEXIATIOS OF Tiii; Ce;u;n'g. GRCEK. 1A O tcctnrc Jid not possess, ra'pelition ruleil to the almost entire suppression of variety. Disclosure of the arran;^'e- nient and construction of the building Avas ahnost com- plete, and hardly a trace of concealment can be detected. ..Simplicity leigus in the earliest examples; the elaljo- ration of even the most ornamental is very cliaste an I graceful ; and the whole cfl'ect of Greek architecture is one of harmony, unity, and relined power. A geneial principle seldom pointed out ■which governs the application of enrichments to mouldings in Greek architecture may be cited as a good instance of the subUe yet admirable concord which existed between the different features ; it is as follows. The oictluie of each cvrichment in relief was ordiiiarihj described l>u the same line as the profile of the moidding to ichich it teas applied. The egg cnricli- niont (Fig. 91) on th^ ovolo, the wntcr-Ieaf on the cyma reveisa (Figs. 92 and 97), the honej'suckle on the cyma recta (Fig. 94), and the guilloche (Fig. 100) on the torus, ave exn,mples cf the application of this rule, — one which obvioij^y tends to produce harmony. <■J;./v;l;'^JlA-K;^r^^^^\i^l'^.^7rjlvv/a^^r'Vf^-'>^.^-','qo: ijxZPOxuKjS^ i'la. 'ju.— CAl'ilAL UF ANT.E FRO.M THE ErECHTHEIC.'I. 134 CLASSIC AHCHITECTURE, F;g. 81.— Egg and Uart. i''iG. u:i.— Leap and Uakt. j ^^^.'^'.iiJ::ii!ii: !i!:;,..M ^:;:..; ji.ii.iii'^Tuiiriir Fig. 93.— Honetsuckle. Fig. 94.— Hosetscckle. Fig. 95.- AcANTiiis. F:g. %.— ArAXTCus. EZCAMPLES OF GREEK OliNAMENT I.V RELIEF. GREEK ORNAMENT. 135 KiG. u?.— Leaf anu ToNtiii;. l-Ki. 'j>.— Leap axd Tongle. I'rG. u. .-Gahla.nd Fig. 100.— Gu:ll()Ci:e, Fig. 103.— Torus JIuuluixg. i'm. 104.— Torus Mouldi.ng. EXAMPLES CF GREEK OIlXAiME>'T IN RELIEF. 13G CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. l"i(i. iuo. Fig. lOi.— Hukeyslckle. llU. 1U7.— llO.NEYilXKLli. Tics. lOfi, lOS.— Facias wiin Bands of Foliage. ■^1 FlU. 1^6. ^^s?**^ ^ Ei ,>„»ij> IIMUnDU „lll |i|inlniJI li 1 Ss Fig. 109— Leaf and Daht. F.G. 110.— Egg and Dart. EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IN COLOUR. " 31 Hjiiiiiiiiiiiii I'liiiriiiiiitij lljiitiiiiitilll llliiiriiiiiim ||IIIII1IIInI1 l|jiiiiuriii|| \ ttllllUlluIl GREEK ORXAMEXT. 13 n L^ ^aUfjiEl^jal^^l^Tal^ ^i^ ■ I'lG. 113. Tie. ::4. EiGs. Ill TO ii3.— Examples of the IIosETsrcKiE. FiG. 11.').— GU[L- LOCHE. Fig. 114. — CojiBixATiox op the Fket, the Egg .^>'d D.\rt. the Bead , • • AND Fillet. aki> the IIoxeyscckle. iiG. lij. Fio. ll'j. Fig. 1-JO. F.Gs. Ho TO r2j.—Z.- W.VLZ . 07 THE FrET. EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IX COLOUR. Fic. 121.— Elevation of an Eiki'scak Tji.urLB (uiiSXoiiJiD FKOii ujiscKU'TiONS only). CHAPTER VIII. ETKUSCAX AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE, Historical and General Sketch. THE few grains of truth tliat avo are able to sift from the mass of legend Avhicli has accumulated round the early history of Home seem to indicate that at a very early period — which the generally received date of 753 B.C. may be taken to iix as nearly as is now possible — a small band of outcasts and marauders settled themselves on the Palatine Hill and commenced to carry on depreda- tions against the various cities of the tribes whose ter- ritories Avere in the immediate neighbourhood, such as the Unibrians, Sabines, Samnites, Latins, and Etruscans, A Availed city Avas built, Avhich from its admirable situ- tilion succeeded in attracting inhabitants in considerable ETRUSCAN. 139 iiumljcrs, and speedily began to exercise supremacy over its nciglibours. The most iiiipoitant of tlie neighbour- ing nations were tlie Etruscans, wlio called tliemselves Itasena, and who must have settled on the west coast of Italy, between the rivers Arno and Tiber, at a very early period. Their origin is, however, very obscure, some authorities believing, upon aj^parently good grounds, that they came from Asia ]\Iinor, while others assert that they descended from the north over the Eha^tiau Alps. Eut whatever that origin may have been, they had at the time of the founding of liome as a city attained a liigh degree of civilisation, and showed a considerable amount of architectural skill; and their arts exercised a very great influence ujion Roman art. Considerable remains of the city walls of several Etrus- can towns still exist. These show that the masonry was of Avhat has been termed a Cyclopean character, — that is to say, the separate stones were of an enormous size ; in the majority of examples these stones were of a polygonal shape, though in a few instances they were rectangular, while in all cases they were fitted together with the most consummate accuracy of M-orkmanshij), which, together with their great massiveness, has enabled much of this masonry to endure to the present day. Cortona, Volterra, Fiesole, and other towns exhibit instances of this Avallincr. The temples, palaces, or dwelling-houses which went to make up the cities so fortified have all disappeared, and the only existing structural remains of Etruscan build- ings are tombs. These are found in large numbers, and consist — as in the earlier instances which have already been described — both of rook-cut and detached erections. Of the former, the best known group is at Castel d'Asso, where Ave find not only chambers cut into the rock, each 140 CLASSIC ARCIIITECTURS. rc-cml)ling an ordinary room Avilh an entrance in the face of tlie rock, but also motniments cut completely out and standing clear all round ; and we cannot fail to detect in the forms into which the rock has been cut, Fig. 122 — Sepulchre at Coa.N'UTO. especially those of the roof, imitations of wooden build iu'js, heavy square piers being left at intervals sn[)- porting longitudinal beams which hold up the roof, rig. 122 is an illustration of the interior of a chamber in the rock. Occasionally there were a cornice and pedi- ment over the entrance. ETRUSCAN. ' 141 Tlic other class of tnmbs are circular tumuli, similar to the Pelasgic tombs of Asia Minor; of tlie.^e large numbers exist, but not sufficiently uninjured to enable us to restore them completely. They generally consisted of a substructure of stone, upon Avhich Avas raised a conical elevation. In tlie case of the Eegulini Galeassi tomb tliere were an inner and an outer tumulus, the latter of which covered several small tombs, while the inner enclosed one only, which had fortunately never heen opened till it was lately discovered. This tomb was vaulted on the horizontal system — that is to say, its vault was not a true arch, but was formed of courses of masonry, each overhanging the one below, as in the Treasury of Atreus, and it had a curious recess in the roiif, in which were found numerous interesting examples of Etruscan pottery. It is, however, clear from the city gates, sewers, aqueducts, &c., that the Etruscans Aveie acquainted with and extensively used the true radiating arch composed of wedge-shaped stones (voussoiis), and that they constructed it Avith great care and scientific skill. The gate at Perugia, and the Cloacae or Sewers at Eome, constructed during the reign of the Tarquins,* at the beginning of the sixth century B.C., are examples of the true arch, and this makes it certain that it Avas from the Etruscans that the liomans learned the arched cou- stiuction Avhich, Avhen combined Avith the trabeated or lintel mode of construction Avhicli they copied from the Greeks, formed the chief characteristic of Eon)an archi- tecture. The Cloaca Maxima (Eig. 123), Avhich is roofed over Avith three concentric semicircular rings of large * The story of the Tarquias probably points to a period wheu the chief supremacy at Eome was in the bauds of au E^truscaii family, aud is iuterestiug for this reasou. 142 CLASSIC AllCIIITECTURE. stones, still exists in many pl.tcos witli not a stone dis- ]»laoe(l, as a proof of the skill of these early Luildei's. There are remains of an aqueduct at Tuscuhun which are interesting from the fact of the liorizontal being combined with the true arch in its construction. !N"o Etruscan temples remain now, but we Icnow from Vitruvius that they consisted of three cells with one or more rows of columns in front, tiie intcrcolumniatioa or interval between the columns being excessive. The Fig. 123.— Cloaca Maxi.ma. largest Etruscan temple of Avhich any record remains was that of Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome, Avhich, under the Empire, became one of the most splendid temples of antiquity. It was commenced by Tarquinius Superbus, and is said to have derived its name from the fact of the builders, when excavating the foundations, coming upon a freshly bleeding head {caput), indicating that the place Avould eventually become the chief city of the world. Another form of Etruscan temple is describt;d by Vitru- ETRUSCAX. It 3 vius, consisting of one circular cell only, •with a porch. This form was prohably the origin of the series of circular Ixoman buildings -which includes such forms of temples as that at Tivoli, and many of the famous mausolea, e.g. that of Hadrian, and the culmination of which style is seen in the Pantheon. It is interesting to notice that the Komans never entirely gave up the circular form, one instance of its use in Britain at a late period of the Eoman occupation having been discovered in the ruins of Sil- chester near Basingstoke; and. we shall find that it was perpetuated in Christian baptisteries, tombs, and occa- sionally churches. "SVe know from the traces of such buildings which exist, that the Etruscans must have constructed theatres and amphitheatres, and it is recorded that the first Tarquin laid out the Circus JNIaxinuis and instituted the great frames held there. At Sutri there are ruins of an aniphi- theatre which is nearly a perfect circle, measuring 2G5 ft. in its greatest breadth and 295 ft. in length. There are no remains of other buildings Avhich Avould enable us to form an opinion as to the civic architecture of the Etruscans : they must, however, have attained to a considerable skill in sculpture, as in some of the tombs figures aie represented in high relief Avhich show no small power of expression. They, too, like the Egyp- tians, embellished their tombs with mural paintings. These are generally in outline, and represent human figures and animals in scenes of every-day life, with con- ventionalised foliage, or mythological scenes such as the passage of the soul after death to the judgment-seat where its actions in life are to be adjudicated upon. In the plastic arts the Etruscans made great progress, many of their vases showing a delicacy and grace which have 144 CLASSIC ARCUITECTURE. nciver been surpassed,, and exliibiting in llieir decorations truces of both Greek and . Egyptian influence. "VVe now reach tlie last, of the classical styles of anti- quity, tlie Hoinan, — a style "which, however, is rather an adaptation or amalgamation of other styles than an original and independent creation or development. The contrast is very great between the " lively Grecian," imaginative and idealistic in the highest degree — who seemed to have an innate genius for art and beauty, and who was always eager to perpetuate in marble his ideal conception of the " hero from whose loins he sprung," or to immortalise ■with some splendid work of art the name of his inotlier- city — and the stern, practical Eoman, realistic in his every pore, eager for conquest, and whose one dominant idea was to bring under his sway all tlie nations who were bronglit into contact witli him, and to make his city — as had lecn foretold — the capital of the whole world. With this idea always before him, it is no wonder that sucli a typical Eoman as M. Porcius Cato should look Avith disdain upon the fine arts in all their forins, and should regard a love for the beautiful, whether in literature or art, as synony- mous with effeminacy. Mummius, also, who destroyed Corinth, is said to have been so little aware of the value of the artistic treasures which he carried away, as to stipulate Avith the carriers who undertook to transpoit them to Eome, that if any of the works of art were lost they should be rei:)laGed by others of equal value. When the most prominent statesmen displayed such indifl'erence, it is not surprising that for nearly 500 years no single trace of any architectural building of any merit at all in Eome can now be discovered, and that history is silent as to the existence of any monuments worthy of ROMAN. 145 being mentioned. Works of public utility of a very exten- sive nature were indeed carried out during this period; such, for example, as the Appian Way from Eome to Capua, which was the first paved road in Eome, and was constructed by the Censor Appius Claudius in B.C. 309. This was lift, wide and 3ft. thick, in three layers: 1st, of rough stones grouted together ; 2nd, of gravel ; and 3rd, of squared stones of various dimensions. The same Censor also brought water from Prseneste to Eome by a subterranean channel 1 1 miles long. Several bridges were also erected, and Cato the Censor is said to have built a basilica. Until about 150 B.C. all the buildings of Eome were constructed either of brick or the local stone ; and though we hear notliing of architecture as a fine art, we cannot hesitate to admit that during this period the Eomans carried the art of construction, and especially that of employing materials of small dimensions and readily obtainable, in buildings of great size, to a remark- able pitch of perfection. It was not till after the fall of Carriage and the destruction of Corinth, when Greece became a Eoman province under the name of Achaia — both which events occurred in the year 146 B.C. — that Eome became desirous of emulating, to a certain extent, the older civilisation which she had destroyed ; and about this time she became so enormously wealthy that vast sums of money were expended, both publicly and privately, in the erection of monuments, many of which remain to the present day, more or less altered. The first marble temple in Eome was built by the Consul Q. Metellus Macedonicus, who died B.C. 115. Eoman architecture from this period began to show a wonderful diversity in the objects to Avhich it was directed, — a circumstance perhaps L 1-JG CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. as interesting as its great scientific and structural advance upon all preceding styles. In tlie earlier styles temples, tombs, and palaces wore the only buildings deemed Avortliy of architectural treatment ; but under the Eomans baths, theatres, amphitheatres, basilicas, aqueducts, triumphal arches, &c., were carried out just as elaborately as the temples of the gods. It was under the Emperors that the full magnificence of Eoman architectural display was reached. The famous boast of Au"ustus, that he found Ptome of brick and left her of marble, gives expression in a few words to what Avas the great feature of his reign. Succeeding emperors lavished vast sums on buildings and public works of all kinds ; and thus it comes to pass that though the most destructive of all agencies, hostile invasions, conflagrations, and long periods of neglect, have each in turn done their utmost to destroy the vestiges of Imperial Rome, there still remain fragments, and in one or two instances whole monuments, enough to make Rome, after Athens, the richest store of classic architectural antiquities in the world. But it was not in Rome only that great buildings were erected. The whole known civilised world was under Roman dominion, and wherever a centre of government or even a flourishing town existed there sprang up the residence of the dominant race, and their places of business, public worship, and public amusement. Con- sequently, we find in our own country, and in France, Spain, Germany, Italy, North Africa, and Egypt — in short, in all the countries where Roman rule was established — examples of temples, amphitheatres, theatres, triumphal arches, and dwelling-houses, some of them of great interest and occasionally in admirable preservation. i ITlU. l:;i.— "ISCASTADA" IH Salosica. CHAPTER IX. TUE BUILDINGS OF TUE UOJIANG. THE temples in Eome were not, as in Greece and Egyptj the struclures nj on "which the architect lavished all the resources of his art and his science. The general form of them was copied from tliat made ute of by the Greeks, bu^ the spirit in which llie original idea was carried out was entirely dilferent. In a word, the temples of liome were by no means worthy of her size and position as the metropolis of the world, and very few remains of them exist. Ten columns are still standing of the Temple of Anto- ninus and Faustina (now the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda) : it occupied the site of a previous temple and was dedicated by Antoninus Pius to his Avife Faus- tina. The Temple (supposed) of Eortuna Viiilis, in the Ionic style (Fig. 125), still exists as the church of Santa Maria Egiziaca : this was tetrastyle, with half-columns aU round it, and this was of the kind called by Vitru- vius "pseudo-peripteral." A few fragmentary remains of L 2 Fig. 125 — Iosic Ordeb fbom the Tempi.e of Foetcna Vibilis, Roaib. ROMAX, 149 other temples exist in Rome, but in some of the Roman provinces far finer specimens of temples remain, of which perhaps the best is the Maison Carrce at Ninies (Fig. 126). Here we find the Roman plan of a single cell and a deep portico in front, while the sides and rear have the columns attached. The intercolumnia- tions and the details of the capitals and entablature are, however, almost pure Greek. The date of this temple is uncertain, but it is most probable that it was erected during the reign of Hadrian. The same emperor is said to have completed the magnificent Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, which was 354 ft. long by 171 ft. wide. It consisted of a cell flanked on each side by a double row of detached columns; in front was one row of columns in antis, and three other rows in front of these, while there were also three rows in the rear : as the columns were of the Corinth'an order, and nearly 60 ft. in height, it may be imagined that it was a splendid edifice. The ruins of another magnificent provincial Roman temple exist at Baalbek — the ancient Heliopolis — in Syria, not far from Damascus. This building was erected durini^ the time of the Antonines, probably by Antoninus Pius himself, and originally it must have been of very ex- tensive dimensions, the poitico alone being 180 ft. long and about 37 ft. deep. This gives access to a small hexagonal court, on the western side of which a triple gateway opens into the Great Court, which is a vast quadrangle about 450 ft. long by 400 ft. broad, with ranges of small chambers or niches on three sides, some of which evidently had at one time beautifully groined roofs. At the western end of this court, on an artificial elevation, stand the remains of what is called the Great Temple. This was originally 290 ft. long by 160 It, c4 7a ei o O I b ROMAN; 151 wide, and had 54 columns supporting its roof, six only of which now remain erect. The height of these cohunns, including base and capital, is 75 ft., and their diameter is 7 ft. at base and about 6 ft. 6 in. at top; they are of the Corintliian order, and above them rises an ela- borately moulded entablature, 14 ft. in height. Each of the columns is composed of three stones only, secured by strong iron cramps ; and indeed one of the most striking features of this group of buildings is the colossal size of the stones used in their construction. The quarries from Avhich these stones were hewn are close at hand, and in them is one stone surpassing all the others in magnitude, its dimensions being 68 ft. by 14 ft. 2 in. by 13 ft. 11 in. It is difficult to imagine what means can have existed for transporting so huge a mass, the weight of which has been calculated at 1100 tons. ^ ^ oX_ Tig. 127.— Grocsd-plan of the Te.mple of Vesta at Tivoii. Other smaller temples exist in the vicinity, all of which are lavishly decorated, but on llie whole the FlO. 128.— COBIKIHIAK OnOEa FEOM THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TiTOU. ROMAX. 153 ornamentation sliows an exuberance of detail which somewhat offends a critical artistic taste. Circular temples were an elegant variety, which seems \V\^^\^^\A^^v^^^^^ Fig. 120.— The Temple of Vesta at Tivolf. Plan (looking dpi and Section Of PAKT OP THE PeRISTVLB. to have been originated by the Eomans, and of which two well-known exaniplns remain — the Temples of Vesta at Eome and at Tivoli. The columns of the temple 154 CLASSIC ARCIIITECrUUE. at Tivoli (Fig, 128) form a well-known and plensing variety of the Corintliian order, and the circular form of the building as shown on the plan (Fig. 127) gives excellent opportunities for good decorative treatment, as may he judged of by the enlarged diagram of part of the peristyle (Fig. 129). Basilicas. Among the most remarkable of the public buildings of Eoman times, both in the mother-city and in the provinces, were the Basilicas or Halls of Justice, which were also used as commercial exchanLres. It is also believed that Basilicas existed in some Greek cities, but no clue to their structural arrangements exists, and whence originated the idea of the plan of these buildings we are unaltle to state; their striking similarity to some of the rock-cut halls or temples of India has bceu already pointed out. They were generally (though not always) covered halls, oblong in shape, divided into three or live aisles by two or more rows of columns, tlie centre aisle bein" much Avider than those at the sides : over the latter, galleries were frequently erected. At one end was a semicircular recess or apse, the floor of Avhich was raised considerably above the level of the rest of the building, and here the presiding magistrate sat to hear causes tried. Four* of these buildincrs are mentioned by ancient Avriters as having existed in repub- lican times, viz. the Basilica Portia, erected in B.C. 184, by Cato the Censor ; the Basilica Emilia et Fulvia, erected in B.C. 179 by the censors M. Fulvius Nobilior and M. .^milius Lepidus, and afterwards enlarged and called the Basilica * The passage in Vaxro, which is the sole authority fm- the ]3a:,ilica O, iuiia, is generally coasidered to he (.orriiiit. I^OMAN. 155 ranlli ; flie TJasilica Scmpronia, erected in n.c. 1G9 by Tib. Senipronius Gracchus ; and the Basilica Julia, erected by Julius Caesar, B.C. 46. All these buildings had wooden roofs, and Avere of no great firchitectural merit, and they perished at a remote date. Under the Empire, basilicas of much greater size and magniticence were erected ; and remains of that of Trajan, otherwise called the Basilica Ulpia, have been excavated in the Forum of Trajan, This was about 3G0 ft. long by 180 ft. wide, had four rows H BBaBaiiliiSiSIIlilliSBHSSS E Ilil H 51 s s na HE a t3 B [i][r[i:|T](7][7}[?iEH[jiH[i[jj[i]|T![^[rg a E E^BaSBBBiSHBBHaaBaH I HE i B B a S B E ijj Q Fig. 130.— Ground-plan op the Basilica Ulpia, Rome. of columns inside, and is supposed to have been coA'crcd by a semicircular Avooden roof. Apollodovus of Damascus was the architect of this building. Another basilica of Avhich remains exist is that of INIaxentius, which, after his overthrow by Constantine in a.u. 312, was known as the Ba.Siilica Constantiniana. This structure Avas of stone, and had a vaulted roof; it was 195 ft. between the Avails, and was divided into thn;e aisles by piers Avitli enormous columns standing in front of them. One proA'incial basilica, tliat at Treves, still stands ; and although it must liive been considerablv altered, it 156 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. is by far the best existing example of this kind of building. The internal columns do not exist here, and it is simply a rectangular hall about 175 ft. by 85 ft., with the usual semicircular apse. The chief interest attaching to these basilicas lies in the fact that they formed the first places of Christian assembly, and that they served as the model upon which the first Christian churches were built. Theatres and AmjjJntheatres, Although dramas and other plays were performed in Eome as early as 240 B.C., there seems to have been a strong prejudice against permanent buildings for their representation, as it is recorded that a decree was passed in B.C. 154 forbidding the construction of such build- ings. Mummius, the conqueror of Corinth, obtained per- mission to erect a Avooden theatre for the performance of dramas as one of the shows of his triumph, and alter this many buildings of the kind were erected, but all of a temporary nature; and it was not till B.C. 61 that the first permanent theatre was built by Pompey. This, and the theatres of Balbus and Marcellus, appear to have been the only permanent theatres that were erected in Imperial Rome ; and there are no remains of any but the last of these, and this is much altered. So that, were it not for the remains of theatres found at Pompeii, it would be almost impossible to tell how they were arranged ; but from these we can see that the stage was raised and separated from the part appropriated to the spectators by a semicircular area, mucli like tliat which in Greek theatres Avas allotted to the chorus : in the Eoman ones this was assigned for the use of the sena- R05IAN. 157 tors. The portion devoted to the spectators — called the Cavea — was also semicircular on plan, and consisted of tiers of steps rising one above the other, and divided at intervals by wide passages and converging staircases com- municating with the porticoes, which ran round the whole theatre at every story. At Orange, in the South of France, are the remains of a very fine tlieatre, similar in plan to that described. The ta B» g Q^ n = Q ^ Pig. 131.— P las op thb Colosseum, Bomb. great wall which formed the back of the scene in this building is still standing, and is one of the most magnifi- cent pieces of masonry existing. Althougli tlie Eomans were not particularly addicted 158 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. to dramatic representations, yet tlicy wera passionately fond of shows and games of all kinds : hence, not only iu liome itself, but in almost every Eoman settlement, from Silchester to Verona, are found traces of their amphi- theatres, and the mother-city can claim tho possession of Fio. l."2.— TnE Colosseum. Seciiox akd Elevaiios. the mo=t stupendous fabric of the kind that was ever erected — tlie Colosseum or Flavian Amphitheatre, which was commenced by Vespasian and finished by his sou Titus. An amphitheatre is really a double theatre, with- ROMAN. 159 out a stage, and with the space in the centre unoccu[iieil by seats. This space, which was sunk several feet below the first row of seats, was called the arena, and was appropriated to the various exhibitions which took place in the building. The plan was elliptical or oval, and this shape seems to have been universal. The Colosseum, whose ruins still remain to attest its pristine magnificence — " Arches on arches, as it were that Rome, Collecting the chief trophies of her line, Would build up all her triumphs in one dome "*^ was 620 ft. long and 513 wide, and the height was about IG2 ft. It was situated in the hollow between the Esquiline and Cselian hills. The ranges of seals were admirably planned so as to enable all the audience to have a view of what was going on in the arena, and great skill was shown both in the arrangement of the approaches to the different tiers and in the structural means for supporting the seats, and double corridors ran' completely round the building on each floor, affording ready means of exit. Various estimates have been made of the number of spectators that could be accommodated, and these range from 50,000 to 100,000, bat probably 80,000 was the maximum. Recent excavations have brought to light the communications which existed be- tween the arena and the dens where the wild animals and human slaves and prisoners Avere confined, and some of the water channels used when mimic sea-fights were exhibited. The external fagade is composed of four stories, separated by entablatures that run completely round the building without a break. The three lower stories con- sist of a series of semicircular arched openings, eighty * Byron. 160 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. in nurnter, separated by piers Avith attached columns in front of them, the Doric order being used in the lowest story, the Ionic in the second, and the Corinthian in the third; the piers and columns are elevated on stylobates; the entablatures have a comparatively slight projection, and there are no projecting keystones in the arches. In the lowest range these openings are 13 ft. 4 in. wide, except the four Vi^hich are at the ends of the two axes of the ellipse, and these are 14 ft. 6 in. wide. The diameter of the columns is 2 ft. 8f in. The topmost story, which is considerably more h)fty than either of the lower ones, was a nearly solid wall enriched by Corin- thian pilasters. In this story occur two tiers of small square openings in llie alternate spaces between the l^ilasters. These openings are placed accurately over the centres of the arches of the lower stories. Immediately above the higher range of square openings are a series of corbels — tliree between each pair of pilasters — which probably received the ends of the poles carrying the huge awning which protected the spectators from the sun's rays. The whole is surmounted by a heavy cornice, in which, at intervals immediately over each corbel, are worked square mortise holes, forming socket?; through which the poles of the awning passed. The stone of which the fagade of the Colosseum is built is a local stone, called travertine, the blocks of which are secured by iron cramps without cement. Xearly all the internal portion of the building is of brick, and the floors of the corridors, &c., are paved with flat bricks covered with hard stucco. These amphitheatres were occasionally the scene of imi- tations of marine conflicts, when the arena was flooded with water and mimic vessels of Avar engaged each other. Very complete arrangements AVere made, by means of ROMAN. 161 small aqueducts, for leading the water into the arena and for carrying it off. Apart from theatrical representations and gladiatorial combats, the Eomans had an inordinate passion for chariot races. For these the circi were constructed, of which class of buildings the Circus Maximus was the largest. This, originally laid out by Tarquinius Priscus, was recon- structed on a larger scale by Julius Caesar. It was cir- cular at one end and rectangular at the other, at Avhich was the entrance. On both sides of the entrance were a number of small arched chambers, called carceres, from which the chariots started. The course was divided down the centre by a low wall, called the spina, which was adorned with various sculptures. The seats rose in a series of covered porticoes all round the course, except at the entrance. As the length of the Circus Maximus was nearly 700 yards, and the breadth about 135 yards, it is possible that Dionysius may not have formed an exagge- rated notion of its capacity when he says it would accom- modate 150,000 spectators. In the Roman provinces amphitheatres were often erected ; and at Pola in Istria, Verona in Italy, and !Ninies and Aries in Prance, fine examples remain. A rude Roman amphitheatre, with seats cut in the turf of a hili-side, exists to this day at the old town of Dorchester in Dorset, which was anciently a Roman settlement. Baths {Thermce). Nothing can give us a more impressive idea of the grandeur and lavish display of Imperial Rome than the remains of the huge Thermae, or bathing establishments, which still exist. Between the years 10 a.d., when M 1G2 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. Agrippa built tlie first public baths, and 324 a.d., •when those of Constantine were erected, no less than twelve of these vast establishments were erected by various emperors, and bequeathed to the people. Of the whole number, the baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian are the only ones which remain in any state of preservation, and these were probably the most extensive and magnificent of all. All these splendid buildings were really nothing more than bribes to secure the favour of the populace ; for it seems quite clear that the public had practically free entrance to them, the only charge mentioned by writers of the time being a quadrans, about a farthing of our money. Gibbon says, •' The meanest Eoman could purchase with a small copper coin the daily enjoyment of a scene of pomp and luxury which might excite the envy of the kings of Asia." And this language is not exaggerated, Not only were there private bath-rooms, swimming-baths, hot baths, vapour baths, and, in fact, all the appurtenances of the most approved Turkish baths of modern times, but there were also gymnasia, halls for various games, lecture-halls, libraries, and theatres in connection with the baths, all lavishly ornamented with the finest paintings and sculp- ture that could be obtained. Stone seems to have been but sparingly used in the construction of these buildings, which were almost entirely of brick faced with stucco : this served as the ground fur an elaborate series of fresco paintings. The baths of Caracalla, at the foot of the Aventine hill, erected a.d. 217, comprised a quadrangular block of build- ings of about 1150 ft. (about the fifth of a mile) each way. The side facing the street consisted of a portico the whole length of the fagade, behind Avhich were numerous ranges of private bath-rooms. The side aud rear blocks contained ROMAN-. 163 numerous halls and porticoes, the precise object of wliich it is now very difficult to ascertain. As Byron says : " Temples, baths, or lialls ? Pronounce who can." This belt of buildings surrounded an open courtyard or garden, in which was placed the principal bathing estab- lishment (Fig. 133), a building 730 ft. by 380 ft., which i'lG. 133.— Plan of tee Pkixcipal Bcildixg, Baths of Uaracalla, ll(->.i:. contained the large piscina, or swimming-bath, various hot baths, dressing-rooms, gymnasia, and other halls for athletic exercises. In the centre of one of the longer sides Avas a large semicircular projection, roofed Avith a dome, which was hned with brass : this rotnuda was called the solar 31 2 164 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. cell. From the ruins of these baths were taken some of the most splendid specimens of antique sculpture, such as the Farnese Hercules and the Flora in the Museum of ISTaples. The baths of Diocletian, erected just at the commence- ment of the fourth century a.d., were hardly inferior to those of Caracalla, but modern and ancient buildings are now intermingled to such an extent that the general plan of the buildings cannot now be traced with accuracy. There are said to have been over 3000 marble seats in these baths ; the walls were covered with mosaics, and the columns were of Egyptian granite and green I^umidian marble. The Ephebeum, or grand hall, still exists as the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, having been restored by Michelangelo. It is nearly 300 ft. long by 90ffc. Avide, and is roofed by three magnificent cross vaults, supported on eight granite columns 45 ft. in height. (Fig. 134.) There is one ancient building in Eome more impressive than any other, not only becau.^e it is in a better state of preservation, but because of the dignity with which it has been designed, the perfection Avith which it has been constructed, and the effectiveness of the mode in which its interior is lighted. "We allude to the Pantheon. Opinions differ as to whether this was a Hall attached to the thermae of Agrippa, or whether it was a temple. Without attempting to determine this point, we may at any rate claim that the interior of this building admi- rably illustrates the boldness and telling power with which tin; large halls forming part of the thermae were designed ; and, whether it belonged to such a building or not, it is wonderfully well fitted to illustrate this subject. The Pantheon is the finest example of a domed hall 166 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. which we have left. The "building, which forms the church of Santa Maria ad Martyres, has been considerably altered at various times since its erection, and now consists of a rotunda with a rectangular portico in front of it. The Tig. 1J5.— Xu£ Pantheon, Rome. Gaou.Nu-rLAN. rotunda was most probably erected by Agrippa, the son- in-law of Augustus, in B.C. 27, and is a most remarkable instance of clever construction at so early a date. The ROMAN. 1G7 diameter of the interior is 145 ft. 6 in., and the height to the top of the dome is 147 ft. In addition to the en- trance, the walls are broken up by seven large niches, three of which are semicircular on plan, and the others, altera The walls are divided nating Avith them, rectangular. Fig. 130.— The Pastheon, Rome. Extekioe. into two stories by an entablature supported by columns and pilasters; but although this is noAV cut through by the arches of the niches, it is at least probable that originally this was not the case, and that the entablature 168 CJ.ASSIC ARCHITECTURE. ran continuously round the wall, as shown in Fig, 137, which is a restoration of the Pantheon by Adler. Above the attic story rises the huge liemispherical dome, which is pierced at its summit by a circular opening 27 h. in diameter, through which a Hood of light pouL-s duwu and Fig. 137.— The Pantheon, Rome. Interiob. illuminates the whole of the interior. The dome is en- riched by boldly recessed panels, and these were formerly covered with bronze ornaments, which have been removed for the sake of the metal. The marble enrichments of the attic have also disappeared, and their place has been taken by common and tawdry decorations more adapted to the stage of a theatre. But notwithstanding every- thing that has been done to detract from the imposing effect of the building by the alteration of its details, there is still, taking it as a whole, a simple grandeur iu the Fia. 138.— The Corinthian Obdek from the Pantheon, 11o.mb. 170 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. design, a magnificence in the material emjiloycd, and a quiet harmony in the illumination, that impart to the interior a character of sublimity which nothing can impair. The rectangular portico was added at some subsequent period, and consists of sixteen splendid Corinthian columns (Fig. 138), eight in front sui)porting the pediment, and the other eight dividing the portico into three bays, in precisely the same way as if it formed the pronaos to the three cells of an Etruscan temple. Bridges and Aqueducts, The earliest Eoman bridges were of wood, and the Pons Sublicius, though often rebuilt, continued to be of this material until the time of Pliny, but it was impossible for a people who made such use of the arch to avoid seeing the great advantage this form gave them in the construction of bridges, and several of these formed of stone spanned the Tiber even before the time of the Empire. The finest Eoman bridges, however, were built in the provinces. Trajan constructed one over the Danube which was 150 ft. high and GO ft. wide, and the arches of which were of no less than 170 ft. span. This splendid structure was destroyed by his successor, Hadrian, who was probably jealous of it. The bridge over the Tagus at Alcantara, which was constructed by Hadrian, is another very fine example. There were six arches here, of which the two centre ones had a sj^an of 100 ft. The Eoman aqueducts afford striking evidence of the building enterprise and architectural skill of the people. Pliny says of these works : " If any one will carefully con- sider the quantity of water used in the open air, in private baths, swimming-baths, houses, gardens, &c., and thinks ROM AX. 171 of the arches that have been built, the hills that have been tunnelled, and the valleys that have been levelled for the purpose of conducting the Avater to its destination, he must confess that nothing has existed in the world more calcu- lated to excite admiration." The same sentiment strikes an observer of to-day when looking at the ruins of these aqueducts. At the end of the first century a.d. we read of nine aqueducts in Eome, and in the time of Procopius (a.d. 550) there Avere fourteen in use. Of these, the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Xovus were the grandest and most costly. These Avere constructed about the year 48 a.d., and entered the city upon the same arches, though at different levels, the Aqua Claudia being the lower. The arches carrying the streams were over nine miles long, and in some cases 109 ft, high. They were purely works of utility, and had no architectural decorations; but they Avere most admirably adapted for their purpose, and Avere so solidly constructed, that portions of them are still in use. Some of the provincial aqueducts, such as those of Tarragona and Segovia in Spain, Avere more ornamental, and had a double tier of arches. The Pout du Gard, not far from Nimes, in France, is a Avell-known and very picturesque structure of this character. Commemorative Monuments. These comprise triumphal arches, columns, and tombs. Tlie former consisted of a rectangular mass of masonry having sculptured representations of the historical event to be commemorated, enriched Avith attached columns on pedestals, supporting an entablature croAvned Avith a high attic, on Avhich there Avas generally an inscription. In the centre Avas the wide and lofty arched opening. The 172 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. Arch of Titus, recording the capture of Jerusalem, is one of the finest examples. Later on triumphal arches were on a more extended scale, and comprised a small arch on each side of the large one ; examples of which may be r'^^v^-" Fig. 139.— The Arch op C'onstantine, Rome. seen in the arches of Septimius Severus and of Constantine (Fig. 139). The large arched gateways which are met with in various parts of Europe — such as the Porte d'Arroux at Autun, and the Porta Nigra at Treves — ara ROMAN-. 173 monuments very similar to triuniplial arches. There remaia also smaller monuments of the same character, such as the so-called Arch of the Goldsmiths in Eome (Fig. 1). Columns were erected in great numbers during the time of the Emperors as memorials of \ictory. Of these the Column of Trajan and that of Marcus Aurelius are the finest. The former was erected in the centre of Trajan's Porum, in commemoration of the Emperor's victory over the Dacians. It is of the Doric order, 132 ft. 10 in. high, including the statue. Tlie shaft is constructed of thirty- four pieces of marble joined with bronze cramps. The figures on the pedestal are very finely carved, and the entire shaft is encircled by a series of elaborate bas-reliefs winding round it in a spiral from its base to its capital. The beauty of the work on this shaft may be best ap- preciated by a visit to the cast of it set up — in two heights, unfortunately — at the South Kensington Museum. The Column of Marcus Aurelius, generally known as the Antonine Column, is similarly enriched, but is not equal to the Trajan Column, The survival of Etruscan habits is clearly seen in the construction of E-oman tombs, which existed in enormous numbers outside the gates of the city. Merivale says : "The sepulchres of twenty generations lined the sides of the high-roads for several miles beyond the gates, and many had considerable architectural pretensions." That of Cecilia Metella is a typical example. Here we find a square basement surmounted by a circular tower- like structure, with a frieze and cornice. This was erected about B.C. 60, by Crassus. The mausoleum of Augustus was on a much more extensive scale, and consisted of four cylindrical stories, one above the other, decreasing in diameter as they ascended, and the topmost of all was 174 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. crowned with a colossal statue of the Emperor. The tomb of Hadrian, on the banks of the Tiber — now known as the Castle of Sant' Angelo — was even more magnificent. This comprised a square base, 75 ft. high, the side of which measured about 340 ft. ; above this was a cylin- drical building surmounted by a circujar peristyle of thirty- four Corinthian columns. On the top was a quadriga with a statue of the Emperor. These mausolea were oc- casionally octagonal or polygonal in plan, surmounted by a dome, and cannot fail to remind us of the Etruscan tumuli. Another kind of tomb, of less magnificence, was the columbarium, which was nothing more than a subter- ranean chamber, the walls of which had a number of small apertures in them for receiving the cinerary urns containincc the ashes of the bodies which had been cremated. In the eastern portion of the Empire, in rocky districts, the tombs were cut in the rock, and the facade was elaborately decorated with columns and other archi- tectural features. Domestic Architecture. Of all the palaces which the Eoman emperors built for themselves, ani^rr^-0^^ t=^^^i'^^ »\S;>i«\ ^^ ^^Xt.'^AV^ ' ''^ ^'^\VAA'^\m\^\\\^\^^\\\y.^\.\\^\^\V^i..\^.vA^\\\\\\\^^^^^^^^ Av\;>^'^-y.^^^^^s^-V-\W.N'«W'VN\'V--'^\V\N.V <: ~! Tig, 1-17.— Fkom the Rtriss op the Fordm op Nerva, Rome. Showing the use OF AS AlTIC SlOET. WiTH PlAS. Another peculiarity, of -which we give an illustration from the baths of Diocletian (Fig. 148), was the surmounting a column or pilaster with a square pillar of stone, moulded in the same way as an entablature, i.e. with the regular division into architrave, frieze, and cornice. This was a 192 CLASSIC ARCHITECTURE. decided perversion of the use of the order ; it occurs in examjxles of late date. So also do various other arrangements for making an arch spring from the capital of a column ; one of these, from the palace of Diocletian at Spalatro, Ave are ahle to illustrate (Fig. 149). In conclusion, it may be worth while to say that the Roman writers and architects recognised five orders : the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite, the first and last in this list being, however, really only vari- Fic. IIS.— i'liu.M TOis Laths of Diocletian, Rome. Sqowing a fragmentart Entab- lature AT THE starting OF PART OF A Vault. it'io 14;).— I'Ro.M THE Palace of JJiuclktian. Spalatro. Suowikq an Arch sprinoino FRO.M A Column. ROMAN. 193 rmi ^^^g-g^^^ A>AWy the pediments of temples, or of bas-reliefs fitted to special localities in the buildincjs, such as were all but universal in the host Greek works. Arch itedural Character. The nature of this will have been to a large extent gathered from the observations already made. Daring, energy, readiness, structural skill, and a not too fastidious taste were characteristic of the Eoman architect and h.'s works. We find traces of vast spaces covered, bold con- struction successfully and solidly carried out, convenience studied, and a great deal of magnificence attahied in those buildings the remains of which have come down to us ; but Ave do not discover refinement or elegance, a fine feeling for proportion, or a close attention to details, to a degree at all approaching tlie extent to which these qualities are to be met with in Greek buildings. Wo ROMAN. 19: are thus sometimes tempted to regret tliat it was not possible to combine a liiglier 'Jegvee of refinement with Fic. i.")4.— Decoration in Relief and Coi.nrn of the Yaclt of a To.-uu IN' THE Via Latina, near Rome. the great excellence in construction and contrivance ex- hibited by Eoman architecture. Fig. 16j.— ijASILlUA-CULIlCH of SaS Mi.NIATO, fLOllli-NCE. CHAPTEK XI. EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. Basilicas in Rome and Itahj. DURIXG the first three contuv.'cs the Christian religion was discredite'l and persecuted ; and though, many interesting memorials of this time (some of them having an indirect bearing upon architcctuial questions) remain in the Catacombs, it is chiefly for their jiaintings that the touching records of the past which liave been pr\served to us in these secluded excavations should be studied. Early in the fourth century Constan- tine the Great became Emperor, and in the course of his reign (from a.d. 312 to 337) he recognised Christianity, BASILICAS. 199 ami matle it the religion of the State. It tlicn, of course, became requisite to provide places of public worship. Probably the Christians AViuild have been, in many cases, reluctaut to make use of heathen temples, and few temples, if any, Avere adapted to the assembling of a large conGfregation. But the hirge halls of the baths and the basilicas were free from associations of an objec- tionable character, and well fitted for large assemblages of Avorshippers. These and other such places were ac- cordingly, in the first inslauce, employed, as Christian churches. The basilica, however, became the model "which, at least in Italy, was followed, to the exclusion of all others, Avheu new buildings were erected for tlie purpose of Christian worship; and during the fourth century, and several succeeding ones, the churches of the West were all of the basilica type. What occurred, at Constantinople, the seat of the Eastern Empire and the centre of the Eastern Church, Avill be considered 1 resent' y. There is probably no basilica actually standing which was built during the reign of Constantine, or near his time ; but there are several basilica churches in Itome, such as that of San Clemente, which were founded near his time, and \vhich, though they have been partially or wholly rebuilt, exhibit what is believed to be the ancient disposition without modification. Access is obtained to San Clem'ente through a fore- court to which the name of the atrium is given. This is very much like the atrium of a Eonian house, being covered with a shed roof round all four sides and open in the centre, and so resembling a cloister. The side next the church was called the narthex or porch ; and when an atrium did not exist, a nr.rthex at least was usually pro- Fio 15G.— Interior op a Basilica at Pompeii. Kestored, from descriptions by various axUhors. BASILICAS. 201 vi.lccl. Tli3 'basilica has always a central avenue, or nave, and sides or aisles, and was generally entered from the narthex hy three doors, one to each division. The nave of San Clemente is lofty, and covered by a simple wooden roof; it is separated from the side aisles by arcades, the arches of which spring from the capitals of columns ; and high up in its side walls we find windows. The side aisles, like the nave, have wooden roofs. The nave termi- nates in a semicircular recess called " the apse," the floor of which is higher than thit of the general structure, and is approached by steps. A large arch divides this apse from the nave. A portion of the nave floor is occupied by an enclosed space for the choir, surronnded by marble screens, and having a pulpit on either side of it. These pulpits are termed " ambos." Below the Church of San Clemente is a vaulted structure or crypt extending under the greater part, but not the whole, of the floor of the main building. The description given above would apply, with very slight variations, to any one of the many ancient basilica churches in Eome, Milan, Eavenna, and the other older cities of Italy; the principal variations being that in many instances, including the very ancient basilica of St. Peter, now destroyed, the avenues all stopped short of the end wall of the basilica, and a wide and clear trans- verse space or transept ran athwart them in front of the apse. San Clemente indeed shows some faint traces of such a feature. In one or two very large churches five avenues occur, — that is to say, a nave and double aisles ; and in Santa Agnese (Fig. 156a) and at least one other, we find a gallery over the side aisles opening into the nave, or, as Mr. Fergusson puts it, "the side aisles in two stories." In many instances we should find no atrium. BASILICAS. 203 Lut in all cases we meet with the nave and aisles, and the apse at the end of the nave, with its arch and its elevated floor ; and the entrances are always at the end of the Lnilding farthest from the r.pse, witk some sort of porch or portal. The interest of these buildings lies not so much in their venerable antiqnity as in tlie fact that the airangements of all Christian chnrches in Western Europe down to the Heformation, and of very many since, are directly derived from these originals. If the reader will refer to the description of a Gothic cathedral in the companion volume of this series,* it will not be diriicult for hiiu to trace the corresjoondence between its plan and its general structure and those of the primitive basilica. The atrium no long t forms the access to a cathedral, but it still survives in the cloister, though in a changed position. The narthe.x. or porch is still more or less traceable in the great western portals, and in a kind of separation which often, but not always, exists between the Avesternmost bay cf a cathedral, and the rest of the structure. The division into naA'e and aisles remains, and in very large churches and cathedrals there are double aisles, as there were in the largest basilicas. The nave roof is still higher than the aisk'S — the arcade, in two stories, survives in tke usual arcade and ti iforium ; the windows })laced high in the nave are the prosent clerestory. The ajjsidal termination of the central avenue is still retained in almo.-t all Continental architecture, though in Great Biitain, from an early dati>, it was abandoned for a square erst end; but square-ended or apsidal, a recess with a raised floor and a conspicuous arch, marking it off from the nave, always occupies this * 'Gothic aud Renaissance Architecture,' chap. ii. p. 6. 204 EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. end of the cliurcli; and the under cliurch, or crypt, is commonly, though not always, met with. The enclosure for the choir has, generally speaking, been moved farther east than it was in the basilica churches : thousih in Westminster Abbey, and in most Spanish cathedrals, we have examjiles of its occupying a position closely analogous to that of the corresponding enclosure at the Basilica of San Clemente. The cross passage to wliich we have referred as having existed in the old Basilica of St. Peter, and many others, is the original of the transept which in later churches has been made more conspicuous than it was in the basilica by being lengthened so as to project beyond the side Avails of the cliurch, and by being moved more westward. Lastly, the two ambos, or pulpits, survive in two senses. They are represented by the reading desk and the pulpit, and their situation and purpose are continued in the epistle and gospel sides of the choir. The one point in which an essential difference occurs is the position of the altar, or communion table, and that of the Bishop's chair, or throne. In the classic basilica tlie apse was the tribunal, and a raised seat with a tesselated pavement occupied the central position in it, and was the justice-seat of the presiding judge; and in the sweep of the apse, seats right and left, at a lower elevation, were provided for assessors or assistant-judges. In front of the president was placed a small altar. The whole of these arrangements Avere copied in the basilica churches. The seat of the president became the bishop's throne, the seats for assessors were appropriated to the clergy, and the altar retained substantially its old position in front of the apse, generally with a canopy erected over it. This dis- position continues in basilica churches to the present day. BASILICAS. 205 At St. Peter's in Eorae, for example, the Pope occupies a throne in the middle of the apse, aud says mass with his face turned towards tho congregation at the high altar, Fio. 157.— Sast' Apollinare, Ravenna. Part of the Arcade and Apsb. which stands in front of his throne under a vast ba!clac- chino or canopy; but in Western Christendom generally a change has been made,— the altar has been placed in the 206 EARLY CHRISTIAX ARCHITECTURE. apse ■where the hishop's throne formerly stood, and Ihe throne of the bishop and stalls of liis clergy have been displaced, and are to he found at the sides of the choir or presbytery. Many basilica chnrclies were erected out of fragments taken from older buildings, and present a curious mix- ture of columns, capitals, &c. ; others, especially those at liavenua, exhibit more caie, and are noble specimens of ancient and severe architectural ■work. The illustiation ■which Ave give of part of the nave, arcade, and apse of one of these, Sant' Apollinare in Classe, shows the dignified yet crmite aspect of one of the most carefully executed uf these buihhngs (Fig. 157). In some of these churches the decorations are chiefly in mosaic, and are extremely striking. Our illustration of the ap?e of the great basilica of St. Paul ■without the walls (Fig. 158) may be taken as a fair specimen of the general arrangement and treatment of the crowd of sacred figures and subjects which it is customary to represent in these situations ; but it can of course convey no idea of the brilliant effect produced by powerful colouring executed in mosaic, the most luminous of all methods of enrich- ment. The floor of most of them was formed in the style of mosaic known as " opus Ah-xandrinum," and the large sweeping, curved bands of coloured material with ■which the main outlines of the patterns are defined, and the general harmony of colour among the porphyries and other hard stones with which these pavements were exe- cuted, combine to satisfy the eye. A splendid sjiecimen of opus Alexandrinum, the finest north of the Alps, exists in the presbytery of Westminster Abbey. Another description of building is customarily met ■with in connection with early Christian churches, — the i'lG. los.— ArsE Of THE Basilica or St. Tall wiihout the Walls, ItOiiE. 208 EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE, liaptistciy. This is commonly a detached building, and almost always circular or polygonal. la some instances the baptistery adjoins the atrium or forecourt ; but it soon became customary to erect detached baptisteries of considerable size. These generally have a high central portion carried by a ring of columns, and a low aisle run- ning round, the receptacle for water being in the centre. The origin of these buildings is not so clear as that of the basilica churches ; they bear some resemblance to the Eoman circular temples ; but it - is more probable that the form was suggested by buildings similar in general arrangement, and forming part of a Roman bath. The octagonal building known as the baptistery of Constan- tine, and the circular building now used as a church and dedicated to Santa Costanza in Rome, and the celebrated baptistery of Ravenna, are early examples of this class of structure. Somewhat more recent, and very well known, are the great baptisteries of Florence and Pisa. A few ancient circular or polygonal churches remain "which do not appear to have been built as baptisteries. One of these is at Rome, the church of Sau Stefano Rotondo ; but another, more remarkable in every Avay, is at Ravenna, the church of San Vitale. This is an octagonal building, with a large vestibule and a small apsidal choir. The central portion, carried by eight arches springing from as many lofty and solid piers, and surmounted by a hemispherical dome, rises high above the aisle which surrounds it. Much elegance is produced by the arrangement of smaller columns so as to form a kind of apsidal recess in each of the interspaces between the eight main piers. Another feature which has become tborouglily identified with church architecture is the bell-tower, or campanile. BASILICAS. 209 Tills appendage, there can be no doubt, originated -with the basihoas of Italy. The use of bells as a call to prayer is said to have been introduced not later, at any rate, than the sixth century, and to this era is attributed a cir- cular campanile belonging to Sant' ApoUinare in Classe at Eavenna, a basilica already alhided to. The circular plan ■was, however, exceptional ; the ancient campaniles re- maining in Rome are all square ; they are usually built of brick, many stories in height, and with a group of arched openings in each story, and are generally surmounted by a low conical roof. The type of church which we have described influenced church architecture in Italy down to the eleventh century, and such buildings as the beautiful church (Fig. 155) of San Miuiato, near Florence (a.d. 1013), and the renowned group of Cathedral, Baptistery, Campanile, and Campo Santo (a kind of cloistered cemetery) at Pisa, bear a very strong resemblance in many respects to those originals ; though they belong rather to the Eomanesque than to the Basilican division of early Cliristian architecture. Fig. 158a.— Frieze from the Monastery at Fclda. CHAPTER XII. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. COXSTAXTINE THE GREAT, who by establishing the Christian reUgioii had encouraged the erection of basilicas for Christian worship in Rome and Italy, effected a great political change, and one destined to exert a marked influence upon Christian architecture, when he removed the seat of empire from Rome to Byzantium, and called the new capital Constantinople,* after his own name. Byzantium had been an ancient place, but was almost in ruins when Constantino, probably attracted by the unrivalled advantages of its site,t rebuilt it, or at least re-established it as a ciry. The solemn inauguration of Constantinople as the new capital took ]jlace a.d. 330 ; and when, under Theodosius, the empire was divided, this city became the capital of the East. With a new point of departure among a people largely ♦ I.e. the City of Constantine. t " The edge of the world : the knot which links together East and West ; the centre iu which all extremes combine," was the not over- charged description given of Constantinople by one of her own bishops. BYZANTINE. 211 of Greek race, we might expect that a new development of the church from some other type than the basilica might be likely to show itself. This, in fact, is Avhat occurred; for while the most ancient churches of Eome all present, as we have seen, an almost slavish copy of an existing type of building, and do not attempt the use of vaulted roofs, in Byzantium buildings of most original design sprang up, founded, it is true, on Eonian originals, but b}'' no means exact copies of them. In the erection of these churches the most difficult problems of construc- tion were successfully encountered and solved. What may have been the course which architecture ran during the two centuries between the refounding of Byzantium and the building of Santa Sophia under Justinian, we can, however, only infer from its outcome. It is doubtful if any church older than the sixth century now remains in Constantinople ; but it is certain that, to attain the power of designing and erecting so great a work as Santa Sophia, the architects of Constantinople must have continued and largely modified the Eoman practice of building vaults and domes. There is every probability that if some of the early churches in Byzantium were domed structures others may have been vaulted basilicas ; the more so as the very ancient churches in Syria, which owed their origin to Byzantium rather than to Eome, are most of them of the basilica type. A church which had been erected by Constantine, dedi- cated to Santa Sophia (holy wisdom), was burnt early in the reign of Justinian (a.d. 527 to 5G5) ; and in rebuilding it his architects, Anthemios of Thralles, and Isodoros of Miletus, succeeded in erecting one of the most famous buildings of the world, and one which is the typical and central embodiment of a distinct and very strongly marked P 2 BTZAXTIXE. 213 ■^vell-tlefined style. The basis of this style may he said to be the adoption of the dome, in preference to the vault or the timber roof, as the covering of the space enclosed within the -walls ; with the result that the general disposition of the plan is circular or square, rather than oblong, and that the structure recalls the Pantheon more than the great Hall of the Thermce of Diocletian, or the Basilica of tSt. Paul. In Santa Sophia one vast fiattish dome domi- nates the central space. This dome is circular in plan, and the space over which it is placed is a square, the sides of which are occupied by four massive semicircular arches of 100 ft. span each, springing from four vast piers, one at each of the four corners. The four tri- angular spaces between the corners of the square so enclosed and the circle or ring resting upon it are filled by what are termed " pendentives " — features which may, perhaps, be best described as portions of a dome, each just sufficient to fit into one corner of the square, and the four uniting at their upper margin to form a ring. From this ring springs the main dome. It rises to a height of 4G ft., and is 107 ft. in clear diameter. East and west of. the main dome are two half-domes, each springing from a wall apsidal (i.e. semicircular) in plan. Smaller apses again, domed over at a lower level, are introduced, and vaulted aisles two stories in height occupy the sides of the space Avithin the outer walls till the outline of the building is brought to very nearly an exact square. Externally this church is uninteresting;* but its interior is of surpassing beauty, and can be better described in the eloquent lan- guage of Gilbert Scott f than in any other : " Simple as * For an illustration see Fig. 1S7. f ' Lectures on Mediaeval Architecture.' 214 CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. is the primary ideal, the actual effect is one of great in- tricacy, and of continuous gradation of parts, from the small arcades up to the stupendous dome, which hangs with little apparent support like a vast bubble over the centre, or as Procopius, who witnessed its erection, de- scribed it, * as if suspended by a chain from heaven.' "The dome is lighted by forty small windows, which pierce it immediately above the cornice which crowns its pendentives, and which, by subdividing its lower part into narrow piers, increases the feeling of its being sup- ported by its own buoyancy. . " The interior thus generated, covered almost wholly by domes, or portions of them, each rising in succession higher and higher towards the floating hemisphere in the centre, and so arranged that one shall open out the view to others, and that nearly the entire system of vaulting may be viewed at a single glance, appears to me to be in some respects the noblest which has ever been designed, as it was certainly the most daring which, up to that time at least, if not absolutely, had ever been constructed." After pointing out how the smaller arcades and apsidal projections, and the vistas obtained through the various arched openings, introduced intricate eifects of perspective and constant changes of aspect, Scott continues: "This union of the more palpable with the more mysterious, of the vast unbroken expanse with the intricately broken perspective, must, as it appears to me, and as I judge from representations, produce an impression more astound- ing than that of almost any other building : but when we consider the whole as clothed with the richest beauties of surface, — its piers encrusted with inlaid marbles of every hue, its arcades of marble gorgeously carved, its domes and vaultings resplendent with gold mosaic interspersed BYZANTINE. 215 with solemn figures, and its wide-spreading floors rich with marble tesselation, over which the buoyant dome floats self-supported, and seems to sail over you as you move, — I cannot conceive of anything more astonishing, more solemn, and more magnificent." The type of church of which this magnificent cathedral was the great example has continued in Eastern Chris- tendom to the present day, and has undergone surprisingly little variation. A certain distinctive character in the foliage (Fig, 163) employed in capitals and other decorative par\'ing, and mosaics of splendid colour but somewhat gaunt and archaic design, though often solemn and dignified, were typical of the work of Justmian's day, and could long afterwards hi recognized in Eastern Christian churches. Between Eome and Constantinople, and well situated for receiving influence from both those cities, stood Ravenna, and here a series of buildings, all more or less Byzantine, were erected. The most interesting of these is the church of San Vitale (Figs. 160, 161). This building is octagonal in plan, and thus belongs to the series of round and polygonal churches and baptisteries for which the circular buildings of the Eomans furnished a model ; but in its high central dome, lighted by windows placed high up, its many subsidiary arcades and apses, the latter roofed by half-domes, and its vaulted aisles in two stories, it recalls Santa Sophia; and its sculpture, carving, and mosaic decorations are hardly less famous and no less characteristic. One magnificent specimen of Byzantine architecture, more within the reach of ordinary travellers, and con- sequently better known than San Vitale or Santa Sophia, must not be omitted, and can be studied easily by means of numberless photographic illustrations — St. Mark's at Fig. 160.— Plan of San Vitale at Eavenxa. t'la. ICI.— San Vitale at Kavessa. Lokgitudimal Section BTZANTINB. 217 Yen ice. This cathedral "was built between the years 977-1071, and, it is said, according to a design obtained from Constantinople. It has since been altered in ex- ternal appearance by the erection of bulbous domical roofs over its domes, and by additions of florid Gothic character; but, disregarding these, we have alike in plan, structure, and ornament, a Byzantine church of the first class. The ground-plan of St. Mark's (Fig. 162) presents a Greek cross, i.e. one in which all the arms are equal, and l.G. 1C2.— Plan op St. Mark's at Texice. it is roofed by five principal domes, one at the crossing and one over each of the four limbs of the cross. Aisles at a low level, and covered by a series of small flat domes, in lieu of vaulting, fill up the angles between the arms of the cross, so as to make the outline of the plan nearly square. 218 CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. The rich colouring of St. Mark's, due to a profuse employ- ment of mosaics and of the most costly marbles, and the splendid effects produced by the mode of introducing light, which is admitted much as at Santa Sophia, are perhaps its greatest charm; but there is beauty in every aspect of its interior which has furnished a fit theme for the pen of the most eloquent writer on art and architecture of the present or perhaps of any day. I'rom Venice the influence of Byzantine art spread to a small extent in North Italy ; in that city herself as well as in neighbouring towns, such as Padua, buildings and fragments of buildings exhibiting the characteristics of the stjde can be found. Eemarkable traces of the influence of Byzantium as a centre, believed to be due to intercourse with Venice, can also be found in France. Direct communication with Constantinople by way of the Mediterranean has also introduced Byzantine taste into Sicily. One famoxis French church, St. Front in Perigueux, is identical (or nearly so) with St. Mark's in its plan ; but all its constructive arches being pointed (Fig. 3, page 5), its general appearance diff'ers a good deal from that of Eastern churches — a difference which is accentuated by the absence of the mosaics and other coloured ornaments which enrich the walls of St. INIark's. Many very old domed churches and much sculpture of the Byzantine type are moreover to be found in Central and Southern France — Anjou, Aquitaine, and Auvergne. These ore, however, isolated examples of the style having taken root in spite of adverse circumstances ; it is in those parts of Europe Avhere the Greek Church prevails, or did prevail, that Bj'^zantine architecture chiefly flourishes. In Greece and Asia Minor many ancient churches of Byzantine structure remain, while in Russia churches are built to the BYZANTINE. 219 present day coiTespouiUn,c; to the general type of those Avhich have just been described. In ancient buildings of Syria the influence of both the itlL.L'jti!:!}^!''' ■''''wj!'i!c'ii';'i'i';ivi!iii;jii'j^!iiiii)iii' i'Cii!'iji^ Fig. lua.— From the GoLbEN Door op Jbuusaleji. Tuie op Justinian, a.d. Ciiu. Eoman and the Byzantine models can be traced. No more characteristic specimens of Byzantine foliage can be desired than some to be found in Palestine, as for ex- 220 CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. ample the Golden Gate at Jerusalem, whicU we illustrate (Fig. 1G3); but in the deserted cities of Central Hyna, a fis. 1C4.— Oburoh at T[TIlM\^^^x in Stria. 4th a^d 5th century. group of exceptional and most interesting buildings, botli secular and sacred, exists, -which, as described by De Vogiio,* * 'Syrie Ceutrale.' BYZANTINE. 221 seem to display a free and very original treatment b.ised upon Eomau more than Byzantine ideas. We illustrate the exterior of one of tliese, the church at Turmanin (Fig. 1G4). This is a huilding divided into a nave and aisles and with a vestibule. Two low towers flank the central gable, and it will be noticed that openings of depressed proportion, mostly semicircular-headed, and with the arches usually springing from square piers, mark the building ; Avhile the use made of columns strongly resembles the manner in which in later times they were introduced by the Gothic architects. f IG. 1C5.— TOWEE OF A KussiAN Cnuiifn. CHAPTER Xlir. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURIS. THE tonn Eoraanesque is here used to indicate a style of Christian architecture, founded on Koniaii art, which prevailed throughout Western Europe from the close of the period of basilican architecture to the rise of Gotnic; except in those isolated districts where the influ- ence of Eyzantiuui is visible. By some writers the signih- cance of the word is restricted within narrower limits ; but excellent authorities can be adduced fur the employ- ment of it in the wide sense here indicated. Indeed some difficulty exists in deciding what shall and what shall not be termed Romanesque, if any nio:e restricted definition of its meaning is adopted ; while under this general term, if applied broadly, many closely allied local varieties — as, for example, Lombard, Rhenish, Romance, Saxon, and Norman — can be conveniently included. The spectacle which Europe presented after the re- moval of the seat of empire to Byzantium and the in- cursions of the I^orthern tribes was melancholy in the extreme. Nothing but the church retained any semblance of organised existence ; and when at last some kind of order began to emerge from a chaos of universal ruin, and churches and monastic buildings becjan to be built in Western Europe, all of them looked to Rome, and not to Constantinople, as their common ecclesiastical centre. It is not surprising that, as soon as differences between the ritual of the Eastern and the Western Church sprang up, a contrast between Eastern and Western architecture should establish itself, and that the early structures of ROMA>"ESQUB. 223 the many countries where tht Roman Cliurch flourished never wandered iar from the Eoman type, with the ex- ception of localities Avhere circumstances favoured direct intercourse with the East. The architecture of the Eastern Church, on the other hand, adhered quite as closely to the models of Byzantium. The style, so far as is known, was for a long time almost, if not absolutely, the same over a very large jjart of Western Chris- tendom, and it has re- ceived from Mr. Free- man the appropriate designation of Primi- tive Eomanesque. It was not till the tenth century, or later, that distinctive varieties be- gan to make their ap- pearance ; and though that Avhich was bi^ilt earlier than that date has, through rebuild- ings and enlargements as well as natural de- cay, been in many cases swept away, still enough may be met with to show us what the buildings of that remote time were like. The churches are usually small, and have an apsidal east end. The openings are rude, with round-headed arches and small single or two-light windows, and the outer Fig. IOC— Tower op Earl's Baeton Church. 224 cnmsTiAN architecture-. walls are generally marked Ly flat pilasters of very slight projection. Towers are common, and the openings in them are often divided into two or more lights by rude columns. The j^lan of these churches was founded on the basilica type, but they do not exhibit the same internal arrangement; and it is very noteworthy that many of them show marks of having been vaulted, or at least partly vaulted ; and not covered, as the basilicas usually were, by timber roofs. Even a country so remote as Great Britain possessed in the 10th century many build- ings of Primitive Eomanesque character ; and in such Saxon churches as those of "Worth, Brixworth, Dover, or Bradford, and such towers as those of Earl's Barton (Fig. 16C), Trinity Church Colchester, Barnack, or Sompting, we have specimens of the style remaining to the present day. By degrees, as buildings of greater extent and more ornament were erected, the local varieties to which re- ference has been made began to develop themselves. In Lombardy and North Italy, for example, a Lombard liomanesque style can be recognised distinctly ; here a series of churclies were built, many of them vaulted, but not many of the largest size. Most of them were on substantially the same plan as the basilicas, though a con- siderable number of circular or polygonal churches were also buUt. Sant' Ambrogio at Milan, and some of the churches at Brescia, Pavia, and Lucca, may be cited as well-known examples of early date, and a little later the cathedrals of Parma, Modena, and Piacenza (Fig. 167), and San Zenone at Verona. These churches are all dis- tinguished by the free use of small ornamental arches and narrow pilaster-strips externally, and the employment of ])iers with half-shafts attached to them, rather than columns, in the arcades ; they have fine bell-towers ; cir- EOMANESQUE. 225 cular ^vindows often occupy the gables, and very fre- quently the walls have been built of, or ornamented with, coloured materials. The sculpture — grotesque, vigorous, and full of rich variety — which distinguishes many of these buildings, and which is to be found specially enriching the doorways, is of great interest, and began early to develop a character that is quite distinctive. Fig. 1G7.— Cathedrai at Piacenza. Turning to Germany, we find that a very strong re- semblance existed between the Eomanesque churches of that country and those of Xorth Italy. At Aix-la-Chapelle a polygonal church exists, built by Charlemagne, and which tradition asserts was designed on the model of San Vitale at Eavenna. The resemblance is undoubted, but the German church is by no means an exact copy of Justinian's building. Early examples of German Eomanesque exist in the cathedrals of Mayence, Worms, and Spires, and a steady advance was made till a point Q 226 CHRISTIAN' ARCHITECTURE. Avas roaclied (in the twelfth ceutury) at wliich the style may be said to have attained the higliest development which Romanesque architecture received in any country of Europe. The arcaded ornament (the arches being very frequently open so as to form a real arcade) which was noticed as occurring in Lombard churches, belongs also to German ones, though the secondary internal arcade (triforium) is absent from some of the early examples. Piers are used more frequently than columns in the interiors, and are often very plain. From an early date the use of a western as well as an eastern apse seems to have been common in Germany, and high western facades extending between two towers were features specially met with in that countiy. For a notice and some illustrations of the latest and best phase of German liomanesque, which may Avith propriety be termed " round-arched Gothic," the reader is referred to the comjianion volume of this series.* France exhibits more than one variety of Romanesque ; for not only, as remarked in the chapter on Byzantine Art, is the influence of Greek or Venetian artists traceable in the buildings of certain districts, especially Perigueux, but it is clear that in others the existence of fine examples of Ptoman architecture (Fig. 168) affected the design of buildings down to and during the eleventh century. This influence may, for example, be detected in the use, in the churches at Autun, Valence, and Avignon, of capitals, pilasters, and other features closely resembling classic originals, and in the employment through a great part of Central and Northern France of vaulted roofs. A specially French feature is the chevet, a group of * ' Gothic aiid Renaissance Architecture,' chap. vii. ROMAXESQUE. 227 apsidal cliapels which were built round the apse itself, and whicli combined with it to make of the east end of a great cathedral a singularly rich and ornate composition. Fig. ICS.— Taclts of the rxCAVATKn Ho-man Baths, is the MusEE DE Ciusr, Pakis. This feature, originating in Romanesque churches, was retained in France through the whole of the Gothic period, and a good example of it may be seen in the large Romanesque church of St., Sernin at Toulouse, which we illustrate (Fig. 169). The transepts Avere usually well Q 2 FiG. luu -Church of Si. Serkis, TouLousa ROMANESQUE. 229 marked. The nave arcades generally sprang from piers (Fig. 170), more rarely from columns. Arches are con- stantly met with recessed, i.e. in receding planes,'-' tlic first stage of progress to- wards a Gothic treatment, and are occasionally slightly moulded (Fig. 171). Western doorways are often highly enriched with sculpture; and the carving and sculpture generally, though often rude, are full of vitality. Towers occur, usually square, more rarelj'- octagonal. "Window- lights are frequently grouped two or more under one arch. Capitals of a basket-shape, and with a square abacus, often richly sculptured, are employed. In Normandy, and gener- ally in the Isl^orth of France, round-arched architecture was excellently carried out, and churches remarkable both for their extent aid their great dignitj'- and soli- dity were erected. Gener- ally speaking, however, Xorman architecture, especially as met with in Normandy itself, is less ornate than the Fig. iro.— Nave Akcade at St. Sekkis, Todlouse. * 'Gothic and Eenais<^arce Architccfcnre,' clap. v. p. Q2. 230 CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. Romanesque of Southern France ; in fact some of the host examples seem to suffer from a deficiency of ornament. Fig. 171.— Arches in kecedikg piakes at St. Sekkin Toulouse. The large and "well-known churches at Caen, St. Etienne, otherwise the AbLuye aux llommes — interesting to English- rOMANESQUE. 231 men as having been fonnded by "William the Conqueror im- mediately after the Conquest — and the Trinite, or Abbaye aux Dames, are excellent examples of early Norman archi- tecture, but the student must not forget that additions have been made to them, Avhich, if they add to their beauty, at the same time alter their character. For ex- ample, in St. Etienne, the upper part of the Avestern towers and the fine spires with which they are crowned were built subsequent to the original structure, as was also, in all probability, the chevet, or eastern limb. It seems probable also that the vaulting may not be what Avas contemplated in the original plan. St. Etienne is 364 ft. long, and is lofty in its pro- portions. It has a nave and aisles, arcades resting on piers, and strongly-marked transepts, and has two Avestern towers with the gable of the nave between them. The west front is well designed, in three stories, having strongly-marked vertical divisions in the buttresses of the towers, and equally distinct horizontal divisions in the three doorways below, and two ranges of windows, each of five lights, above. There is no circular west window. The nave and aisles are vaulted. Besides other cathedral churches, such for example as those of Bayeux and Evreux, in which considerable parts of the original structures remain, there exist throughout Normandy and Brittany many parochial churches and. monastic buildings, exhibiting, at least in some portions of their structure, the same characteristics as those of St. Etienne ; and it is clear that an immense number of buildings, the beauty and even refinement of Avhich are conspicuous, must have been erected in Northern France during the eleventh and the early years of the twelfth centuries, the period to which Norman architecture in Fiance may be said to belong. 232 CHRISTIAN ARCIIITECTUHE. Ill Great Biitain, as has been already pointed out, enough traces of Saxon — that is to say, Primitive Roman- esque — architecture remain to show that many simple, though comparatively rude, huildings must have been erected previous to the Norman Conquest. Traces exist also of an influence which the rapid advance that had been made by the art of building as practised in Normandy was exerting in our island. The buildings at Westminster Abbey raised by Edward the Confessor, though they have been almost all rebuilt, have left just sufficient traces behind to enable us to recognise that they were of bold design. The plan of the Confessor's church was laid out upon a scale almost as large as that of the present structure. The monastic buildings were extensive. The details of the work were, some of them, relined and deli- cate, and resembled closely those employed in Norman buildings at that time. Thus it appears that, even had the Conquest not taken place, no small influence would have been exerted upon buildings in England by the advance then being made in France ; but instead of a gradual improvement being so produced, a sudden and rapid revolution was ellected by the complete conquest of the country and its occupation by nobles and ecclesiastics from JSTormandy, who, enriched by the plunder of the conquered country, were eager to establish themselves in permanent buildings. Shortly after the Conquest distinctive features began to show themselves. Norman architecture in England soon became essentially diH"erent from what it was in Normandy, and we possess in this country a large series of fine works showing the growth of this imported style, from the early simplicity of the chapel in the Tower of London to such elaboration as that of the later parts of Durham Cathedral. The number of churches founded or rebuilt soon after ROMANESQUE. 233 the Xorinan Conquest must have been enormous, for in examining churches of every date and in every part of Encrland it is common to find some fracfuient of jSTorman Avork remaining from a former church : this is very frequently a doorway left standing or built into walls of later date ; and, in addition to these fragments, no small number of churches, and more than one cathedral, together with numerous castles, remain in whole or in part as they were erected by the original builders. ]S'orman architecture is considered to have prevailed in England for more than a century ; that is to say, from the Conquest (106G) to the accession of Eichard I. (1189). For some details of the marks by Avhich Gorman work can be recognised the reader is referred to the companion volume;* we propose here to give an account of the broader characteristics of the buildinfrs erected durincf the prevalence of the style. The oldest remaining parts of Canterbury Cathedral are specimens of I^orman architecture executed in England immediately after the Conquest. This great church was rebuilt by Archbishop Lanfranc (whose episcopate lasted from 1070 to 1089), and in extent as laid out by him was very nearly identical with the existing structure ; almost every portion has, however, been rebuilt, so that of his work only the towers fornnng transepts to the choir, and some other fragments, now remain. More complete and equally ancient is the chapel in the Tower of London, which consists of a small apsidal church with nave and aisles, vaulted throughout, and in excellent preservation. This building, though very charming, is almost destitute * ' Gothic and RcDaissance Architecture,' chap. ii. p. 23. 234 CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. of ornament. A Jittle more ornate, and still a good example of early Norman, is St. Peter's Church, North- ampton. (Fig, 172), the interior of whicli we illustrate. To these examples cf early Xornian we may add a large part of Piochester Cathedral, and the transepts of "Winchester. Fig. 172.— Norman Akches in St. Peter's Church, Noeihamtpon. The transepts of Exeter present a specimen of rather more advanced Norman work ; and in the cathedrals of Peter- Lorough and Durham the style can be seen at its best. In most Norman buildings we find very excellent masonry and massive construction. The exteriors of west ROMANESQUE. 235 fronts, transepts, and towers sliow great skill and care in their composition, the openings being always well grouped, and contrasted witli plain wall-spaces ; and a keen sense of proportion is perceptible. The Norman arclntects had at connnand a rich, if perhaps a rather rude, ornamenta- tion, which they generally confined to individual features, especially doorways ; on these they lavished mouldings and sculj)ture, the elaboration of which was set off by the plainness of the general structure. In the interior of the churches we usually meet with piers of massive pro- jiortion, sometimes round, sometimes octagonal, sometimes rectangular, and a shaft is sometimes carried up the face of the piers ; as, for example, in Peterborough Cathedral (Fig. 173). The capitals of the columns and piers have a square abacus, and, generally speaking, are of the cushion- shaped sort, commonly known as basket-capitals, and are jirofusely carved. The larger churches have the nave roofed v/ith a timber roof, and at Peterborough there is a wooden ceiling ; in these cases the aisles only are vaulted, but in some small churches the whole building has been so covered. Buttresses are seldom required, owing to the great mass of the walls ; when employed they have a very slight projection, but the same strips or pilasters which are used in German Pomanesque occur here also. Low towers were common, and have been not unfrequently preserved in cases where the rest of the building has been removed. As tha style advanced, the proportions of arcades became more lofty, and shafts became more slender, deco- rative arcades (Fig. 174) became more common, and in these and many other changes the approaching transition to Gothic may be easily detected. "We have already alluded to the many Norman doorways remaining in parish churches of which all other parts have been rebuilt. These doorways are generally very 23G CHRISTIAN ARCIIITECTUUR. rich; tbey possess a series of niouklings sometimes springing from shafts, some- times running not only round the arched head, but also up the jambs of the opening ; and each moulding is richly carved, very often ■with a repetition of the same orna- ment on each voussoir of the arch. Occasion- ally, but not fre- quently, large portions of wall- surface are covered by a diaper ; that is to say, an orna- ment constantly repeated so as to produce a (Tcneral sense of enrichment. Norman cas- tles, as well as churches, "were built in great numbers shortly f 10. 173.— Nave Arcade, Peieeborouuh Cairkdral. ROMANESQUE. 237 after the Conquest, and not a lew rem;nn. The strong- hold which a follower of the Conqueror built in order to establish himself on the lands granted him was always a very sturdy massive square tower, low in proporiiun Fig. 174.— Decoeaiive Akcadb feoji Cakiebburt Caiheurai- to its width, built very strongly, and with every pro- vision for sustaining an attack or even a siege. Such a tower is called " a keep ; " and in many famous castles, as for example the Tower of London, the keep forms the nucleus round which buildings and courtyards of later date have clustered. In some few instances, however, as for example at Colchester, the keep is the only part now 238 CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. Standing, and it is probable that when originally built these Norman castles were not much encumbered with out- buildings. Rochester Castle is a tine example of a Norman keep, though it has suffered much from decay and injury. Fig. 17J.— lltDiKGUAM Castle. The very large Norman keep of the Tower of London, known as the White Tower, and containing the chapel already described, has been much modernised and altered, but retains the fine mass of its original construction. ROMANESQUE. 239 Perhaps the best (and best-preserved) example is Iled- ingliam Castle in Essex, which "\ve ilkistrate (Figs. 175 aud 176). From the remains of this building some idea Fig. 17C.— Interior op Hedinghaji Castle. of the interior of the hall — the chief room witliin a !Rorman keep — may be obtained, as Avell as of the general external appearance of such a structure. i'lG. 177.— IlouNi;ED Aech of Church ai Gelkhacseu. CHAPTER XIV. CnUISTIAN ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE. Analysis. NOTWITHSTANDING very wide differences which undoubtedly exist, there is a sufficient bond of union between the Basilican, the Eyzantine, and the Eomanesque styles, to render it possible for us to include the characteristics of the three in an analysis of Christian round-arched architecture. Tlie Plan or flaor-dispositiun of the basilican churches, as lias been pointed out, was distinctive. The atrium, or forecourt, the porch, the division into nave and aisles; the transept, the great arch, and the apse beyond it with the episcopal seat at the back behind the altar; the ambos ; and the enclosure for the choir, were typical fea- tures. Detached towers sometimes occurred. The plan ¥ J^A ■A AXALYSIS ; THE PLAX. 241 of Eouianesque churclies was based upon that of the basilica ; the atrium was often omitted, so was the transept sometimes ; but, Avhen retained, the transept was generally made more pi'ominent than in the basiUca. The position of tlie altar and of tlie enclosure for the choir were changed. Fig. 17S — PiAK OP iHE Chukch op the Apostles at Colognb, but in other respects the basilica plan was continued. In Germany, however, apsidal transepts (Fig. 178) Avere built. Towers were common, occasionally detached, but more frequently joined to the main building. Circular and polygonal buildings for use as baptisteries, 242 CHRISTIAN ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE. and sometimes as churches, existed both in the basilican and the Romanesque time. Byzantine church plans are all distinguished "by their great central square space, covered by the central dome, flanked usually by four arms, comparatively short, and all of equal length; and the plan of the buildings is generally square, or nearly so, in outline. Circular and polygonal buildings sometimes occur. Pew traces of the arrangement of military, secular, or domestic buildings earlier than the twelfth century re- main, but some examples of a cloister at the side of the nave (generally the south side) of a church, giving or intended to give access to monastic build- ings, still exist. TIte Walls of such buildings as have come down to us are, it may be well understood, strong, since the most recent of this round-arched series of buildings must be about seven hundred years old. Fine masonry was not much employed till the time of the Normans, but the Eoman plan of building "with bricks or rubble and casing the face of the walls with marble or mosaic, or at least plaster, was generally followed. The walls are carried up as gables and towers to a considerable extent (Fig. 179), especially in Western countries. Fig. 17!).— SriRB op Spires Cathedsal. ANALYSIS : THE ROOF— THE OPEXIXGS. 243 Tlie lioof. — In a basilica this was of timber, in a Byzan- tine church it consisted of a series of domes ; in a Eoman- esque church it was sometimes of timber as in the basilica, but not unfrequently vaulted. As a general rule the vault prevailed in the "West and the dome in the East; and such examples of either sort of roof as occur in those provinces where the other was usual, like the domed churches in parts of France, must be looked upon as exceptional. The Openings are almost invariably arched, and seldom, if ever, covered by a lintel. It is hardly necessary to add that the arches are always round. Almost always they are semicircular, but inst:inces of the employment of a segmental arch, or of one the outline of which is a little more than half a circle, may be occasionally met with. Door openings are often made important both by size and decoration. Window openings are usually small; and the grouping of two or more lights under one head, which was so conspicuous a feature in Gothic architecture, first appears in Byzautine buildings, and is met with also in Eomanesque ones. The mode of introducing light is to a certain extent characteristic. The basilican churches always possess a clerestory, and usually side windows in the aisles ; and this arrangement is generally followed in liomanesque buildings, though sometimes, in Germany, the clerestory is omitted. The gable ends of the nave and transepts are not usually pierced by many or large lights (Fig. 180); and when there is a central feature, as a tower, or even a dome, little or no light is introduced through it. On the other hand, the Byzantine churches depend largely for light upon the ring of windows which commonly encircles the base of the central dome, and some- times that of the subsidiary domes; and the gables are B 2 AXALYSIS : THE COLUMNS. 245 pierced so as to supply any additional light required, so that Avindows are infrequent in the lower walls. Broadly speaking, therefore, the Western churches have side- lighting and the Eastern top-lighting. The great arches which carry the main domes form a notable feature in Eastern churches, and are of very bold construction. In the basilican churches one great arch, called " the arch of triumph," occurs, and only one ; this gives access to the apse : and a similar arch, Avhich we now denominate " the chancel arch," usually occupies a corresponding position in all Eomanesque churches. The arches of the arcade separating the nave from the aisles in all Western churches are usually of moderate span. In some ancient basilicas these arches are replaced by a horizontal beam. Tlie Columns. — In basilicas these were of antique type ; very often they had actually been obtained by the demo- lition of older buildings, and when made purposely they were as a rule of the same general character. The same might be said of thuse introduced into Byzantine build- ings, though a divergence from the classic type soon manifested itself, and small columns began to appear as decorative features. In Eomanesque buildings the columns are very varied indeed, and shafts are frequently intro- duced into the decoration of other features. They occur in the jambs of doorways with mouldings or sub-arches springing from them ; long shafts and short ones, fre- quently supporting ornamental arcades, are employed both internally and externally ; and altogether that use of the column as a means of decoration, of which Gothic architecture presents so many examples, first began in the Eomanesque style. The capitals employed in Eomanesque buildings gener- 246 CHRISTIAN ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE. Fig. ISl.— Cubic CAniAt. ally depart considerably from the classic type, being based on the primitive cube capital (Fig. 181), but, as a rule, in Eastern as well as in basi- lican churches, they bear a tolerably close resemblance to classic ones. The Ornaments throuirhout the whole of the Christian round-arched period are a very interesting subject of study, and will repay close attention. In the basilican style mould- ings occur but seldom : where met with, they are all of the profiles common in Eoman architecture, but often rudely and clumsily worked. Carving partakes also of classic character, though it is not difficult to detect the commencement of that meta- morphosis which was eifected in Byzantium, and which can hardly be better described than in the following paragraph from the pen of Sir Digby Wyatt : — "The foliage is founded on ancient Greek rather than on Eoman traditions, and is characterised by a peculiarly sharp outline. All ornamental sculpture is in compara- tively low relief, and the absence of human and other fi^'ures is very marked. Enrichments were almost invari- ably so carved, by sinking portions only of the surfaces and leaving the arrises and principal places untouched, as to preserve the original constructive forms given by the mason (Fig. 184). The employment of the drill instead of the chisel, so common in debased Eoman work, was retained as a very general practice by the Greek carvers, and very often with excellent effect. The foliage of the acanthus, although imitated from the antique, quite AXALYSIS : THE ORXAMEXTS. 247 changed its character, becoming more geometrical and conventional in its form. That which particularly dis- tinguislies Lombard from Dyzautine art is its sculpture abounding with grotesque imagery, with illustrations of every-day life, of a ian- ciful mythology not yet quite extinct, and allu- sions, no longer symbolic but direct, to the Chris- tian creed; tlie latter quality a striking evi- (.ence of the triumph of the Eonian Church over all icouoclastic adver- saries in Greece." Wh.it is here asserted of Lom- bard carving is true i f that in the Eomanesque buildings in Gcrujany, Scandinavia (Fig. 182), France, and to a certain extent in Great Britain, though in our own coun- try a large proportion of the ornamental carviiif^ consists simply of decor- ative patterns, such as the chevron, billet, and zig-zag; and sculpture containing figures and animals is less common. The mouldings of Eomanesque buildings are simple, and at first were few in number, but by degrees they became more conspicuous, and before the transition to Gothic they FiG. 182— DOOKWAT AT TiSD. IfOKWAT. (E^■D OP 1::th cestuey.) 248 CHRTSTIAN' ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE. assumed considerable importance (Fig. 183) and added not a little to the architectural character of the buildings. .^-rt^.'^lr^^^^J-^J Fig. 183.— Mouldings op Portal of St. James's CHuucn at Koesfeld. Coloured decoration, especially in mosaic, was a con- spicuous feature in basilican churches, and still more so in those of the Eyzantino style ; such decoration in ANALYSIS : THE ORXAMEXTS. 249 liomanesqiiG churches Avas not infrequent, but it was more commonly painted in fresco or tempera. The glass mosaic-work to be found on the walls of Early Christian churches, both basilican and Byzantine, but less frequently Romanesque, is most interesting and beautiful : " it Avas," says the high authority already quoted, "employed only to represent and reproduce the forms of existing objects, such as figures, architectural forms and conven- tional foliage, which were generally relieved with some slight indication of shading upon a gold ground — the whole being bedded in the cement covering the walls and vaults of the basilicas and churches." *' The design of both figures and ornaments was, generally speaking, very rude, though not withoiit an occasional rising in some of the figures to a certain sub- limity, derivable principally from the great simplicity of the forms and draperies and the earnest grandiose expression depicted on their countenances. The pieces of glass employed in the formation of this Avork are very irregular in shapes and sizes, of all colours and tones of colour, and the ground tint almost invariably prevailing is gold. The manner of execution is always large and coarse, and rarely approaches in neatness of joint and regularity of bedding to the (ancient Eoman) ' opus majus vermicu- latus ; ' yet, notAvith standing these blemishes, the effect of gorgeous, luxurious, and at the same time solemn decora- tion produced is unattainable by any other means as yet employed as structural embellishment. Hoav noble and truly ecclesiastical in character are the gold-clad interiors of Monreale Cathedral, of the Capclla Palatina at Palermo, of St. Mark at Venice, San Miniato at Florence, or Santi Apollinare and Vitale at Eavenna, the concurrent testi- mony of all traA'ellers attests." 250 CHRISTIAN EOUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE. A fiucr kind of glass mosaic arranged in geometrical patterns \yas made use of to enrich the ambos, screens, episcopal chairs, sepulchral ornaments, and other similar fittings of churches, and was often of great beauty. A third sort of mosaic — the Alexandrine work (opus Alex- andrinum) — used for pavements, has been already alluded to; this was extremely elective, but its usti appears to have been less general than that of the glass mosaics for the walls. The Arcliitectural Character of the basilican churches may be briefly characterised as venerable and dignified, but yet cheerful and bright rather than forbidding; they are, as interiors, impressive but not oppressive, solemn but not gloomy. Comparatively little attention was paid to ex- ternal effect, and there is not often much in them to strike the passer-by. The character of Byzantine interiors is fur moi e rich, and even splendid ; but it is more gloomy, and often is solemn and grand to the last degree. In many cases these churches possess fine exteriors ; and for the level sky-line produced l)y the long straight roofs of the basilica, a more or less pyramidal composition, showing curved outlines rather than straight ones, is substituted. The architectural character of the Eomanesque buildings varies extremely with tlie districts in which they are erected; but, generally speaking, it may be described as picturesque, and even sometimes romantic ; the appearance of towers, prominent transepts, and many smaller decora- tive features serves to render the exteriors telling and varied, though often somewliat rude and primitive. A solid and somewhat heavy character distinguishes the inteiiors of some varieties of Eomanesque buildings — such, for example, as our own Early Norman; but in our fully- developed and late Norman, and still more in the latest analysis: ARCHnECTURAL CHARACTER. 251 German Romanesque churches, this disappears almost entirely, and much beauty aud even liglituess of effect is obtained, without any loss of that richness "vvhich is characteristic of more ancient examples. Fio. 184 — BrzAKTiNE CASKri-woRK Capital prom Sah Michei.e in Afpeicisco AT K.AV£JiNA. Fig. 1S5.— Abadian Capital. Fiiu-m the Alhamdka. CHAPTER XV. jrOHAJIMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. FEW revolutions more sudden, more signal, and more widespread are recorded in history than that which covered not only the East biit part of the West Avilh the Mohammedan religion and dominion. Mohammed was horn either in the year 569 or 570 of the Christian era, and died A.D. 652. The year of the Hegira, the era from Avhich INTohammedans compute their chronology, is a.d. 622, and within little more than p century from this era the Prophet was acknowledged, and the suzerainty of the Caliph recognised eastwards, in Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Persia, and in India as far as to the Ganges ; and westwards along the north coast of Africa, in Sicily, and in Spain. It was only to be expected that such a wonderful tide of conquest and such a widespread change EGYPT. 253 of religion should before long leave its impress on the architecture of the continents thus revolutionised ; and accordingly a Mohammedan style soon rose. This style did not displace or override the indigenous art of the various countries where it prevailed, as Roman archi- tecture did in the age of universal dominion under the Empire; it assimilated the peculiarities of each country, and so transmuted them, that although wherever the religion of Mohammed prevails the architecture Avill at a glance cmifess the fact, still the local or national peculiarities of each country remain prominent. The Arabs, a!* nomadic race who lived in tents, do not seem to have been great builders even in their cities. We have no authentic accounts or existing remains of very early buildings even in Mecca or ^ledina, as the oldest mosques in those cities have been completely rebuilt. It is to Egj'-pt and Syria that we must turn for the most ancient remaining examples cf Saracenic architecture. These consist of mosques and tombs. Egypt. A mosque — or Mohammedan place of worship — has two forms. The earlier mosques are all of them of a -^ype the arrangement of which is simplicity itself. A Jarge-open courtyard, resembling the garth of a cloister, with a fountain in it, is surrounded cloister-wise by arcades supporting timber roots. On the side nearest Mecca the arcades are increased to several rows in depth, so as to cover a considerable space. This is the part in which the congregation chiefly assembles ; here a niche or recess (termed Kibla), more or less enriched, is formed in which the Koran is to be kept, and hard by a pulpit 254 JIOnAMMEDAN ARCniTECTURE. is erected. F<>r many centuries past, though not, it i.s belicived, from the very eailiost times, a minaret or high toAver, from the top of wliicli the call to prayer is given, h;is also been an indispensahle adjunct to a mof^que. The second sort of mosque is a domed, and sometimes vaulted building of a form chiefly suggested by the i>yzantine domed churches, with a central space and four short arms. This sort of mosque became almost universal in Turkey aud Egypt after the capture of Constantinople by tlie Turks, and tlie appropriation to Moslem worship of Santa Sophia itself. The tombs are ornate and monumental buildings, or sanctuaries, of the same general character as the domed mosques, and often attached to them. From very early times Fi^nSS^ the arches, in the arcades which have been described as virtually constituting llie whole structure of the simpler sort of mosque, were pointed, Liibke claims as the earliest known and dated example of the pointed arch in a Saracenic building, the Nilometer, a small stiucture on an island near Cairo, which contains pointed arches that must have been built either at the date of its original con- struction in A.D. 719, or at latest, when it was restored a.d. 821. The Mosque of Amrou, however, Avhicli was founded very soon after the conquest of Egypt in a.d. 643, and is largely made up of Fio. 186.— Horse-shoe Ar.cn. 256 MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. materials obtained from older buildings, exhibits pointed arcbes, not only in tbe arcades, which probably have been rebuilt since they were originally formed, but in the outer walls, which are likely, in part at least, to be original. Whatever uncertainty may rest upon these very remote specimens of pointed architecture, tliere is little if any about the Mosque of Ibn Tulun, also at Cairo, and built A.D. 885, or, according to another authority, a.d. 879. Here arcades of bold pointed arches spring from piers, and the effect of the whole structure is noble and full of character. From that time the pointed arch was constantly used in Saracenic buildings along Avith the semicircular and the horse-shoe arcb (Fig. 18G). From the ninth century, then, the pointed arch was in constant use. It prevailed in Palestine as well as in the adjacent countries for two centuries before it reached the West, and there can be no doubt that it was there seen by the Western Crusaders, and a knowledge of its use and an appreciation of its beauty and convenience were brought back to Western Europe by the returning ecclesiastics and others at the end of the First Crusade.* In the eleventh century the splendid Tombs of- the Caliphs at Cairo were erected, — buildings crowned with domes of a graceful pointed form, and remaikable for the external decoration which usually covers the whole sur- face of those domes. By this time also, if not earlier, the minaret had become universal. This is a lofty toAver of slender proportions, passing from a square base below to a circular form above (Fig. 187). A minaret is often divided into several stages. Each stage is then marked by a balcony, and is, generally speaking, a * The First Crusade lasted from a.d. 1095 to a.d. 1099. Fig. 183— Alhasieea. Hall or the Abencebraues. 258 MOHAMMEDAN AUCHITECTURE. polygon of a greater number of sides than the stage below it. In the interiors of Saracenic buildings what is generally known as honeycomb corbelling is constantly employed to fill up corners and effect a change of plan from a square below to a circle or octagon above. This ornament is formed by the use of a series of small brackets, each course of them overhanging those below, and produces an effect some idea of which may be gathered from our illustration (Fig. 188) of the Hall of the Abencerrages in the Alhambra. The interiors when not domed are often covered by wooden or plaster ceilings, more or less richly decorated, such as are shown in the view of one of the arcades of the Mosque "El Moyed," Cairo (Fig. 189), where the horse-shoe and pointed arches can both be seen. This illustration also shows timber ties, at the feet of the arches, such as were commonly used by the earlier Saracenic builders. The surfaces of the interiors of most Mohammedan buildings in all countries are covered with the most exquisite decorations in colour. Imitations of natural objects being forbidden by the Koran (a prohibiton occa- sionally, but very rarely, infringed), the Saracenic artists, whose instincts as decorators seem to have been un- rivalled, fell back upon geometrical and flowing patterns and inscriptions, and upon the use of tiles (Fig. 190), mosaics, inlays, patterns impressed on plaster, and every possible device for harmoniously enriching the surfaces with which they had to deal. Several of our illustrations give indications of the presence of these unrivalled decora- tions in the buildings which they represent (Fig. 195). "NVindows are commonly filled by tracery executed in stone or in plaster, and glazed with stained glass; and £lG. 189.— MusQUE ' El Moyed ' at Cairo. S 2 2G0 MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. many of tlie open spaces in buildings are occupied by grilles, executed in Avood, and most ellective and rich in design. Fig. 190.— Arabian Wall Decoration. Syria and Palestine. Syria Avas one of the countries earliest overrun by the Arab propaganda, and Jerusalem was taken by the Caliph Omar as early as a.d. 637. He there built a small mosque, though not the one which commonly goes by his name. Two mosques of great antiquity and importance, but the origin of which is a matter of dispute among authorities, stand SYItlA AND PALESTINE. 261 in the Haram enclosure at Jerusalem. One of these is the octagonal building called the Sakhra (Figs. 191-2), known in the Moslem world as the Dome of the Keck, popularly called the INlosque of Omar, and occupying, as is all but univeisally admitted, part of the site of the Fig. 191.— Plas op the Sakhra Mosque at Jerusalem. Temple itself. Whether this is a " nearly unaltered Christian building of the fourth century," or a construc- tion of Abd-el-Malek, the second. Caliph, erected in the year 688, has been debated, keenly; but what is beyond debate is that this structure is very Byzantine, or, to speak with more exactness, very like some of the build- ings of Justinian in plan and section, and that from early times it was in the possession of the Saracens, and was regarded by them as the next most venerable and sacred spot in the world after Mecca. j\Iuch the same difference of opinion prevails as to the origin of the neighbouring mosque, El Aksah, which bears an un- doubted general resemblance to an ancient basilica. wmm Fig. 19:;.— Section of the Saehba Mosque at Jekuisaleu. SICILY AND SPAIN. 263 though having no fewer than seven parallel avenues. This building has with equal confidence been attributed to the fourth and the seventh century. It is fortunately quite unnecessary here to do more than point out that these mosques, whatever their origin, were in use at least as early as the eighth century, and that the beautiful Dome of the Eock must have exercised a great influence on Mohammedan art, and, notwithstanding some differ- ences of plan, may be fairly regarded as the prototype of many of the domed mosques and tombs to which allusion has been made. The decorations shown ia our illustrations of the Sakhra are, it is right to observe, most of them of a date centuries later than the time of the original construction of the building. Sicily and Sjjcdn. The spread of IMohammedan architecture westward next claims our notice; but want of space will only permit us to mention a small though interesting group of Saracenic buildings which still remains in Sicily; the numerous specimens of the style which exist on the north coast of Africa ; and the works erected by the Saracens during their long rule in Spain. Tlie most celebrated Spanish example is the fortress and palace of the Alham- bra, begun in 1248, and finished in 1314. This building (Fig. 188) has been measured, drawn, and fully illustrated in an elaborate monograph by our countryman Owen Jones, and has become popularly known by the beautiful reproduction of portions of it which he executed at the Crystal Palace, and of which he wrote an admirable de- scription in his * Guide-book to the Alhambra Court,' The Mohammedan architecture of Spain is here to be seen at 2G4 MOHAMMEDAN AKCHITECTURB. its best ; most of its features are those of Arab art, "but with a distinguishing character (Fig. 193). Fig. 193.— Doorway in tde AinAJiERA. Two other well-known examples are, the Giralda* at *■ ' Gothic and Eeuaissance Architecture,' p. 141. PERSIA AND INDIA. 2G5 Seville, and the Mosque at Cordova. The Giralda is a square tower, in fact a minaret on a magnificent scale, divided into panels and richly decorated, and shows a masculine though beautiful treatment wholly different from that of the minarets in Cairo. The well-known Mosque at Cordova is of the simplest sort of plan, but of very great extent, and contains no less than nineteen parallel avenues separated from one another by arcades at two heights springing from 850 columns. The Kibla in this mosque is a picturesque domed structure higher than the rest of the building. The columns employed throughout are antique ones from other buildings, but the whole effect of the structure, Avhich abounds with curiously cusped arches and coloured decoration, is de- scribed as most picturesque and fantastic. Persia and India. Turning eastwards, we find in Turkey, as has been said, a close adherence to the forms of Byzantine architecture. In Persia, where the peoj^le are now fire-worshippers, the Mohammedan buildings are mostly ruined, and probably many have disappeared, but enough remains to show that mosques and palaces of great grandeur were built. Lofty doorways are a somewhat distinctive feature of Persian buildings of this style ; and the use of coloured tiles of singular beauty for linings to the walls, in the heads of these great portals, and in other situations to which such decoration is appropriate, is very common : these decora- tions afford opportunity'' for the Persian instinct for colour, probably the truest in the whole world, to make itself seen. In India the wealth of material is such that an almost unlimited series of fine buildings could be brought forward, were space and illustrations available. A largo part of that vast country became j\Iohammedan, and in the 265 MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. builJings erected for mosques and tombs a complete blend- ing of the decorative forms in use among Hindu and Jaina sculptors with the main lines of Mohammedan art is generally to be found. The great open quadrangle, the pointed arch, the dome, the minaret, all appear, but they are all made out of Indian materials. Perhaps not the least noteworthy feature of mosques and tombs iu India is the introduction of perforated slabs of marble in the place of the bar-tracery which filled the heads of openings in Cairo or Damascus. These are Avorks of the greatest and most refined beauty : sometimes panels of thin marble, each pierced Avith a different pattern, are fitted into a framework prepared for their reception ; at others we meet with window-heads where upon a background of twining stems and leaves there grow up palms or banian-trees, their lithe branches and leaves wreathed into lines of admirable grace, and every part standing out, owing to tlie fine piercings of the marble, as distinctly as a tree of Jesse on a painted window iu a Gothic cathedral. The dome at Bijapur, a tomb larger than the Pantheon at Rome, and the Kutub at Delhi, a tower not unfit to be compared with Giotto's campanile at Florence, are con- spicuous among this series of monuments, and at Delhi one of the grandest mos(pies in India (Fig. 194) is also to be found. The series of mosques and tombs at Ahmedabad, however, form the most beautiful group of buildings in India, and are the only ones of which a complete series of illustrations has been published. These mosques are remarkable for the great skill with which they are roofed and lighted. This is done by means of a series of domes raised on columns sufficiently above the general level of the stone ceilings, which cover the intervening spaces, to admit light under the line of their springing. The beauty of the marble tracery a n ^ a C3 I 2C8 MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE, and surface decoration is very great. Pointed arches occur here ahnost invariably, and in most cases the outline of the opening is very slightly turned upwards at the apex so as to give a slight increase of emphasis to the summit of the arch. The buildings are not as a rule lofty ; and though plain walls and piers occur and contrast well with the arched features, pains have been taken to avoid anything like massive or heavy construc- tion. Great extent, skilful distribution, extreme light- ness, and admirably combined groupings of the features and masses, are among the fine qualities which lend to Mohammedan architecture in Ahmedabad a rare charm. The religion and the art of Islam seem destined to live and die together. Nothing (with the one exception of the suggestion of the pointed arch to Western Europe at the very moment when Romanesque art was ripe for a change) has developed itself or appears likely to grow out of Moliammedan architecture in any pait of the wide field to which the attention of the reader has been directed; and in this respect the art of the Mohammedan is as ex- clusive, as intolerant, and as infertile as his religion. The interest which it must possess in the eyes of a "Western student will rise less from its own charms than from the fact that it first employed the pointed arch — that feature from which sjn'ang the glorious series of Western Christian styles to which we give the name of Gothic. This arch, indeed, appears to have been discovered by the very beginners of Mohammedan architecture, at a time when the style Avas still plastic and in course of growth, and the beauty of Saracenic art is due to no small extent to the use of it; but in the employment of this feature the Western architect advanced much fnither than the Saracen even at his best could go. The pointed architecture of the Middle Ages, with its PERSIA AND INDIA. 2G9 daring construction, its compreliensive design, its clabonUe nioulding.s, and its magnificent sculptures, is far more highly developed and more beautiful than that of the countries which we have been describing, though in its Fig. 105.— Entrance to a Moorish Bazaae. treatment of the walls it cannot surpass, and indeed did not often equal, the unrivalled decoration of plane surfaces which forms the chief glory of Mohammedan art. INDEX. M *• Abbate aux Dames, Caen, 231 ,, Hommes, Cauu, 230 Abbey, Westminster, 204 Agora, 114 < Albambra, 258, 263 Ampliitlaatre at Aries, 161 Nimes, 161 Pola, 161 Rome (Coloss.), 158 Sutri, 148 ,, Verona, 161 Anthemios of Thralles, Architect, 211 Appian Way, 145 Apollodorus of Damascus, Architect, 155 Acpeduct at Nimes (Pont du Gard), 171 „ from Prseneste to Rome, 145 at Rome (Aqua Claudia), 171 ,, (Anio Novus), 171 at Segovia, 171 „ at Tarragona, 171 Arch at Autun (Porte d'Arroux), 172 ,, Jerusalem (Golden Gate), 220 ,, Louie (of Constautine), 172 „ ,, (of the Goldsmiths), 173 „ „ (of Sept. Severus), 172 „ „ (of Titus), 172 „ Treves (Porta Nigra), 172 Asoka, 65 Baalbek, ruins at, 149 Basilica at Rome (Constantiniana), 155 ,, „ (Emilia), 154 >> Basilica at Rome (Julia), 155 ,, ,, (Portia), 154 ,, ,, (Sempronia), 155 „ (Ulpia), 155 ,, Treves, 155 Basilica-church at Florence (S. Mini- ato), 209 ,, ,, Ravenna (S. Apol- liuare in Classe). 206, 209 ,, ,, Rome (S. Agnese), 201 ,, ,, Rome(S.Clemente), 199 ,, ,, Rome (S. Paul with- out the walls), 205 ,, ,, Rome (S. Pietro), 201 Baths of Agrippa, 162 ,, Caracalla, 162 ,, Diocletian, 164, 191 Bharhut, 71 Bus-i-Nimrud, 45 Bridge over the Danube (Trajan's), 170 Tagus (Hadrian's), 170 Tiber (Pons Sublicius), 170 Campo Santo, Pisa, 209 Castle of S. Angelo, 174 Cathedral at Canterbury, 233 Durham, 234 INDEX, 271 Oathcdial at Exeter, 234 ,, Monreale, 249 „ Peterborough, 234, 235 ,, Piacenza, 224 „ Pisa, 209 „ Rocbester, 234 „ Rome (S. Peter's), 205 „ Venice (S. Marks), 217 ,, "Winchester, 234 Chaitya, 67 Chapel in Tower of Loudon, 232, 233 Cliehil Minar, 56 Choragic Monument of Lysiciates, 112 Church at Aix-la-Chapelle, 225 ,, Caen (Abb. auxHomnies), 230 ,, ,, (Abb. aux Dames), 231 „ Constantinople (S. Sophia), 211 „ Karl's Barton, 224 „ Milan (S. Ambrogio), 224 , , >■ orthampt on (S. Peter' s), 234 ,, Paris (Madeleine), 185 ,, Piiigueux (S. Front), 218 ,, l;avenna_(S;_VitakX^08, 215 ,, Piome (S. ^laria degli An- geli), 164 „ „ (S. Mai'ia ad Mar- tj-res), 166 „ ,, (S. Stefano Pot.). 20 8 „ Toulouse (S. Semin), 227 " ,, Tm-manin, S\Tia, 221 ,, Verona (S. Zenone), 224 Circus Maxinius, Pome, 143, 161 Cloaca Maxima, Ptome, 141 Cnidus, Lion tomb at, 110 Colosseum, 158 Column of ^Marcus Aurelius 173 „ Trajan, 173 Decoration of Egj'jitian buildings, 37 Erechtheium, 107 Forum of "Nerva 1 91 Gate, Golden, at Jerusalem, 220 Gate at Perugia, 141 Giralda, 265 Hall, S. George's, Liverpool, 1S5 let inns. Architect, 88 Isidores of Miletus, Architect, 211 Xeep at Colchester, 237 ,, Hediugham Castle, 239 ,, Rochester Castle, 238 ,, Tower of London, 237, 239 Kutub, 266 Lats, 65 Lotus Column, 32 Lysicrates, Choragic Monument of, 112 Maison Carree, Nimes, 149 Mammisi, 25 Manephthah, 24 Manetho, 15 Mastaba, 20 Mausoleum of Halicamassus, 110 Mosque at Ahmedabad, 266 ,, Cairo (of Amrou), 254 „ ("El Moyed"), 258 „ „ (of Ibn Tulun), 256 ,, Cordova, 265 „ Delhi, 266 „ Jemsalem (El Aksah), 261 ,, ,, (Sakhra), 261 ,, (the Kilometer), 254 Mugheyr, buildings at, 44 Mycenae, Treasury of Atreus, 85 ,, Gate of the Lions, 86 Obelisks, 36 Pagoda at Nankin, 78 Palace at Khorsabad, 46 ,, Rome (of the Ca;sars), 174 ,, Spalatro (of Dio Jctiau), 174, 192 272 INDEX. rnntheon, in4 Parthenon, SS-91, 99-101 Persepolis, buildings at, 55 Persian columns, 57 Pheidias, Sculjjlor, 91 Pont du Card, Ninies, 171 Porta Nigra, Treves, 172 Pylon, 25 Pyramid of Cephren, 16 ,, Cheops, 16 ,, Myceriuus, 16 Ram Raz, 72 Rome, CLacie at, 141 Scopas, Sculptor and Architect, 109, 112 Siluhester, ruins at, 143 Sutri, ruins of an amphitheatre, 143 Temple at Athens (Erechtheium), 107 „ „ (Parthenon), 88-91, 99-101 „ ,, (of Jupiter Olym.), 149 „ Baalbek, 149 " ,, Corinth, 81, 87 ,, Ephesus (of Diana), 109 „ Honan, 75 „ Ipsauiboul, 31 „ Kaiii (Chaitya), 67 „ Karjiak, 26 ,, Lomas Rishi cave, 67 „ Nigope cave (Chaitya), 67 ,, Kimes (Maison Carree), 149 „ Orange (ruins), 157 „ Pitstum, 92 „ Rome (of Jupiter Capito- linus), 142 „ „ (of Q. Metellus Ma- cedonicus), 145 Temple at Rome (of Antoninus and Faustina), 147 ,, ,, (of Fortuna Vir.), 147 „ „ (of Vesta), 153 ,, ,, (Pantheon), 164 ,, Sanchi (Tope), 67 Tegea(of Athena Alea), 112 ,, Tivoli (of Vesta), 153 Temples, Egyptian, 25 ,, Shinto, 77 Theatre of Balbus, 156 ,, ,, Marcellus, 156 ,, ,, Mumnuus, 156 ,, at Orange, 157 ,, of Pompey, 156 Thermre, see Baths Tomb at Ahmedabad, 266 ,, ,, Bab-el-Molouk (Belzoni's), 24 ,, ,, Bijapur, 266 ,, ,, Castel d'Asso, 139 ,, of Cecilia Metella, 173 „ „ Cyrus, 54 ,, ,, Darius, 59 ,, ,, Hadrian, 174 ,, ,, Regulini Galea^si, 111 Tombs, Egyptian, 20 ,, Lycian, 85 ,, Cnidus (Lion), 110 Tope at Sanchi, 67 Tower at Delhi (Kutub), 266 ,, Seville (Giralda), 265 Treasury of Atreus, 85 Typhouia, 25 Usertesen I., 29 AVall of China, Great, 76 Way, Appian, 145 AVestminster Abbe}'-, 204 Wurkha, ruins at, 46 Richard Clay ^ Sons, Limited, London i^ Bungay. > r m'S^ M'AJj f\y m ^M ^-^^^^h % ^-^ ^t^ 1^ K^r "^ ^^^ :;mS >M- ^ .^ T^^^ P^^^ ©1